ENCYCLOPAEDIA
BRITANNICA
VOL. vai
jft
THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 17681771.
SECOND ten 17771784.
THIRD eighteen 17881797.
FOURTH twenty 1801 1810.
FIFTH twenty 18151817.
SIXTH twenty 18231824.
SEVENTH twenty-one 18301842.
EIGHTH twenty-two 18531860.
NINTH twenty-five 18751889.
TENTH ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes, 1902 1903.
ELEVENTH published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 1911.
COPYRIGHT
in all countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention
by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
All rights reserved
THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME VIM
DEMIJOHN to EDWARD
Cambridge, England:
at the University Press
New York, 35 West 3 2nd Street
1910
AE-5
Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,
by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME VIII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS, 1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
A. Ca. ARTHUR CAYLEY, LL.D., F.R.S. f Determinant.
See the biographical article: CAYLEY, ARTHUR. \
A. E. G.* REV. ALFRED ERNEST GARVIE, M.A., D.D.
Principal of New College, Hampstead. Member of the Board of Theology and
Board of Philosophy, London University. Formerly Professor of Philosophy, -j Devil.
Theism, Comparative Religion, and Christian Ethics in Hackney and New Colleges,
London. Author of Studies in the Inner Life of Jesus; The Christian Certainty; &c. [
A. E. S. ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.Z.S., F.L.S.
Fellow, Tutor and Lecturer of Christ's College, Cambridge. University Reader Desmoscoleeida'
in Zoology. President of the Association of Economic Biologists. Formerly < Z?
University Lecturer on the Advanced Morphology of the Invertebrata. Author of Hcniuroiflea.
Zoology of the Invertebrata. Editor of the Pitt Press Natural Science Manuals; &c. [
A. Fi. PIERRE MARIE AUGUSTE FILON. f n _ , p ,^,j. /
See the biographical article : FILON, P. M. A. \ Drama ' French (m
A. P. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HiST.Soc. [
Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford. Professor of English History in the University I Edward VI
of London. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893-1901.]
Author of England under the Protector Somerset ; Life of Thomas Cranmer ; &c. I
A. G. MAJOR ARTHUR GEORGE FREDERICK GRIFFITHS (d. 1908). f
H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgale;\ Deportation.
Secrets of the Prison House ; &c. [_
A. G. D. ARTHUR GEORGE DOUGHTY, C.M.G., M.A., Lrrr.D., F.R.Hisi.S. f
Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of Canada. I Dorion.
Author of The Cradle of New France; &c. Joint Editor of Documents relating to]
the Constitutional History of Canada. [
A. H. J. G. ABEL HENDY TONES GREENIDGE, M.A., D.LiTT. (d. 1905).
Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Hertford College, Oxford, and of St John's
College, Oxford. Author of Infamia in Roman Law; Handbook of Greek Con- \ Dictator.
stitutwnal History; Roman Public Life; History of Rome. Joint Editor of Sources
of Roman History, 133-70 B.C.
A. H. S. REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, D.LITT., L.L.D., D.D. f Echatana
See the biographical article: SAYCE, A. H. \
A. J. L. ANDREW JACKSON LAMOUREUX. f
Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University. Formerly Editor of the Rio -\ Ecuador (in part).
News, Rio de Janeiro.
A. J. P. ALEXANDER J. PHILIP. f ._. hn i B<!
Borough Librarian of Gravesend. \ Uel
A. L. G. ANDREW LOCKHART GILLESPIE, M.D., F.R.S. (Edin.) (d. 1904). f Digestive Onrans- Pathnlnr
Formerly Lecturer on Modern Gastric Methods, Edinburgh Post-Graduate School \ UIges " ve Organs. Pathology
Author of Manual of Modern Gastric Methods ; &c. |_ (impart).
A. Mw. ALLEN MAWER, M.A.
Professor of English Language and Literature, Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-
Tyne. Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Formerly Lecturer in
English at the University of Sheffield.
Denmark: Ancient History;
Edgar, King;
Edmund , King of East Anglia;
Edmund I.; Edred;
A. M. C. AGNES MARY CLERKE.
Edward (the Elder);
Edward (the Martyr).
>JES MARY CLERKE. f _. . _
See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M. Y Dick ' Tnoma s; Donati.
A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. r Diver; Dodo (in part) ;
See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. ^ Dove; Duck; Eagle.
1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume.
v
1977
vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
A. R. C. ALEXANDER Ross CLARKE, C.B., F.R.S. f
Colonel, R.E. Royal Medal of Royal Society, 1887. In charge of Trigonometrical { Earth, Figure of the (in part).
Operations of the Ordnance Survey, 1854-1881.
A. S. Wo. ARTHUR SMITH WOODWARD, LL.D., F.R.S. f
Keeper of Geology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. Secretary of the ) DiplodOCUS.
Geological Society, London.
A. Wa. ARTHUR WAUGH, M.A.
New College, Oxford. Newdigate Prize, 1888. Managing Director of Chapman & J De Tabley.
Hall, Ltd. Author of Gordon in Africa; Alfred, Lord Tennyson. Editor of I
Johnson's Lives of the Poets; editions of Dickens, Tennyson, Arnold, Lamb; &c. I.
A. W. H.* ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. f Derby, Earls of (in part).
Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. \
A, W. R. ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B. f
Pniinp TnHcrp nf thp ^imrpmp Pniirt nf Opvlnn KHitnr nf F,nrvr.lnbrtj>din. nf Ike J.n.ins <
A. W. W.
Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws \ Easement.
of England.
ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, LL.D., D.Lirr. /Drama.
See the' biographical article: WARD, A. W. \
C. A. G. CHRISTIAN CARL AUGUST GOSCH, M.Sc. J Denmark: Geography and
Commander of the Danebrog. Knight of St Anna. Formerly Attach^ to theH e , .' < ., ,\
Danish Legation, London. Author of Denmark and Germany since 1815. I * W P a1
C. Ch. CHARLES CHREE, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. f
Superintendent, Kew Observatory. Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. J v .. ,
President of Physical Society of London. Watt Medallist, Institute of Civil] *-artH Currents.
Engineers, 1905.
C. C. H. CHARLES CAESAR HAWKINS, M.A., M.I.E.E. f _
Author of The Dynamo. \ Dynamo.
C. E.* CHARLES EVERITT, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. J Density Distillation.
Sometime Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford. \
C. F. A. CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. f
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal { Dutch Wars: Military.
Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. I
C. H. Rd. CHARLES HERCULES READ, LL.D.
Keeper of British and Medieval Antiquities, British Museum. President of the") Drinking Vessels.
Society of Antiquaries of London. Author of Antiquities from Benin ; &c. I
C. H. T.* CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, A.M., LL.D. f Ecelesiastes
See the biographical article: TOY, CRAWFORD HOWELL. \
C. L. K. CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HisT.S., F.S.A. . J Derby, 1st Earl of;
Assistant Secretary, Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor of 1 Edward IV
Chronicles of London and Stow's Survey of London.
C. PL CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D. is L. f
Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of J Ebroin.
Etude sur le rkgne de Robert le Pieux; Le duch6 merovingien d' Alsace el la legende de\
Sainte-Odile. I
C. R. B. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HisT.S. r
Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow Diaz de Novaes*
of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. -< nicuil
Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of
Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c. L
C. S. P.* REV. CHARLES STANLEY PHILLIPS. f Edmund Ironside;
King's College, Cambridge. Gladstone Memorial Prize, 1904. L Edward the Confessor.
C. W. W. SIR CHARLES WILLIAM WILSON, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1907). c
Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary
Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Com- J niarhatr (; A/r.rt
mission. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1836-1894. Director-General] L " arDeiir ^n pan).
of Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of From Korti to Khartoum; Life of
Lord Clive; &c.
D. B. Ma. DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D. r
Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, U.S.A. Author J Dervish;
of Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional Theory;] Divan.
Selection from Ibn Khaldum ; Religious Attitude and Life in Islam ; &c. L
D. C. T. DAVID CROAL THOMSON. r
Formerly Editor of the Art Journal. Author of The Brothers Maris; The Barbizon \ Diaz, N. V.
School of Painters ; Life of " Phiz " ; Life of Bewick ; &c.
D. G. H. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. r
Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Derna;
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naukratis, 1899^ Didymi;
and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Druses (in part)
Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. L
D. H. DAVID HANNAY.
it-icti \7irA.r^rncn1 at- Rarrplnna AiitTirr nf *\ltnvt WVc/rt^^r /i/ Jfsi+tfiJ J
Dutch Wars: Naval.
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of Royal \ Dudle y Sir
Navy, 1217-1688; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c. [ Dutch War
D. Mn. REV. DUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A.
Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Director of the London -\ Duff, Alexander.
Missionary Society,
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
VII
E. A. T.
E. Br.
E. C. B.
E. C. B.*
E. C. K.
E. C. Q.
E. Es.
A*
E.G.
E. Gr.
E. I. C.
E. J. D.
E.K.
Ed. M.
E. Ma.
E. M. T.
E. O'M.
E. Pr.
P. A. B.
F. E. B.
F. G. M. B.
MRS (ETHEL) ALEC TWEEDIE.
Author of Porfirio Diaz ; Mexico as I saw it ; &c.
ERNEST BARKER, M.A.
Fellow of, and Lecturer in Modern History at, St John's College, Oxford. Formerly -
Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. Craven Scholar, 1895.
RIGHT REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., D.LITT. (Dublin).
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath.
EDWARD CRESSWELL BASER, M.A. (d. 1910).
Formerly Senior Surgeon, Brighton and Sussex Throat and Ear Hospital. Prize-,
man and William Brown Scholar, St George's Hospital, London. Author of
numerous papers on Diseases of the Ear, Nose and Throat.
EDWARD CAMERON KIRK, D.Sc.
Dean of the Dental Faculty and Professor of Dental Pathology, Therapeutics and .
Materia Medica, University of Pennsylvania. Editor of The American Text-Book
of Operative Dentistry.
EDMUND CROSBY QUIGGIN, M.A.
Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge; Lecturer in Modern Languages'
and Monro Lecturer in Celtic.
EDMOND ESMONIN.
ERNEST E. AUSTEN.
Assistant in Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. -
EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D.
See the biographical article : GOSSE, EDMUND.
ERNEST A. GARDNER, M.A.
See the biographical article : GARDNER, PERCY.
EDWARD IRVING CARLYLE, M.A., F.R.HiST.S.
Fellow, Lecturer in Modern History, and Tutor of Lincoln College, Oxford. .
Formerly Fellow of Merton College. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National
Biography, 1895-1901.
Diaz, Porfirio.
Diet.
Dominic, Saint;
Dominicans.
Ear: Diseases.
Dentistry.
Druidism.
Desmarets.
Diptera.
Denmark: Literature;
Descriptive Poetry;
Dialogue; Diary;
Didactic Poetry;
Dithyrambic Poetry; Donne;
Drachmann;
Drayton, Michael;
I Dutch Literature; Edda.
! Dodona.
Dost Mahommed Khan.
EDWARD JOSEPH DENT, M.A., MUS.BAC.
Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge.
and Works.
Author of A . Scarlatti: his Life \ Durante, Francesco.
EDMUND KNECHT, PH.D., M.SC.TECH. (Manchester), F.I.C.
Professor of Technological Chemistry, Manchester University. Head of Chemical
Department, Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. Examiner in Dyeing, -| Dyeing.
City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of A Manual of Dyeing; &c. Editor
of Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists.
EDUARD MEYER, D.LITT. (Oxon.), LL.D., PH.D.
Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte I Diodotus.
des Alterthums; Forschungen zur alien Geschichte; Geschichte des alien Agyptens;\
Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme ; &c. I
EDWARD MANSON. r
Barrister-at-Law. Joint Editor of Journal of Comparative Legislation; Author of"! Directors.
Law of Trading Companies ; Practical Guide to Company Law ; &c. {.
SIR EDWARD MAUNDE THOMPSON, G.C.B., I.S.O., D.C.L., Lrrr.D., LL.D.
Director and Principal Librarian, British Museum, 1898-1909. Sandars Reader
in Bibliography, Cambridge, 1895-1896. Hon. Fellow of University College,
Oxford. Correspondent of the Institute of France and of the Royal Prussian J Diplomatic.
Academy of Sciences. Author of Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography.
Editor of Chronicon Angliae. Joint Editor of publications of the Palaeographical
Society, the New Palaeographical Society, and of the Facsimile of the Laurentian
Sophocles.
J Diatomaceae (in part).
r
Eca de Queiroz.
REV. EUGENE HENRY O'MEARA, M.A
Vicar of Tallaght, County Dublin.
EDGAR PRESTAGE.
Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Com-
mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal
Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society, &c. L
FRANCIS ARTHUR BATHER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. f
Assistant Keeper of Geology, British Museum. Rolleston Prizeman, Oxford, 1892.] Echinoderma.
Author of " Echinoderma " in A Treatise on Zoology; Triassic Echinoderms of\
Bakony; &c. I
FRANK EVERS BEDDARD, M.A., F.R.S. f
Prosector of the Zoological Society, London. Formerly Lecturer in Biology at J Earth-worm.
Guy's Hospital. Naturalist to " Challenger " Expedition Commission, 1882-1884. 1
Author of Text-Book of Zoogeography; Animal Colouration; &c. I
FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A.
Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge.
| East Anglia.
viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
F. G. P. FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST.
Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on Diaphragm;
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women. < Ductless Glands*
Formerly Examiner in the Universities of Cambridge, Aberdeen, London and --
Birmingham ; and Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons.
F. G. P.* FRANK GEORGE POPE. J Diazo
Lecturer on Chemistry, East London College (University of London). "^
F. J. H. FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. f
Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of
Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Monographs on "
Roman History, especially Roman Britain, &c. L
F. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. f
Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, J Dendera;
Oxford. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Archaeological Reports of the | Edfu.
Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial German Archaeological [Institute. L
F. R. H. FREDERICK ROBERT HELMERT, PH.D., D.ING. /Knrtii IK f tt /
Professor of Geodesy, University of Berlin. \ W
F. R. M. FRANCIS RICHARD MAUNSELL, C.M.G. c
Lieutenant-Colonel. Military Vice-Consul, Sivas, Trebizond, Van (Kurdistan), J Diarbekr (* n ^a,rf\
1897-1898. Military Attache, British Embassy, Constantinople, 1901-1905. 1 ' part).
Author of Central Kurdistan ; &c. L
F. S. FRANCIS STORR, M.A. f D ,
Editor of the Journal of Education, London. Officier d'Academie, Paris \
F. T. M. SIR FRANK THOMAS MARZIALS, K.C.B. f rj umas . m
Formerly Accountant General of the Army. Editor of the " Great Writers " Series. \
F. V. T. FREDERICK VINCENT THEOBALD, M.A. f
Vice-Principal and Zoologist, S.E. Agricultural College, Wye, Kent (University of J BI... ._, ,,_. t _ .
London). Grand Medallist of the Societe Nationale d'Acclimatation de France. 1 t ' co lc Entomology.
Author of The Insect and other Allied Pests of Orchard, Bush and Hothouse Fruits ; &c. L
F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. f
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. -j Earthquake (in part).
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. I
F. W. W. FREDERIC W. WHYTE. f
Author of Actors of the Century; &c. Translator of Filon's English Stage; Schil-H Du Maurier, G.
ling's With Flashlight and Rifle; &c. L
G. A. B. GEORGE A. BOULENGER, F.R.S., D.Sc., PH.D. I"
In charge of the collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British -! Dory.
Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London. L
G. Be. GERTRUDE MARGARET LOTHIAN BELL. f nmcoc / * A/, A
Author of The Desert and the Sown ; &c. \ ul
G. B. M. C. GEORGE BARNARD MILBANK COORE. f -eM 11( , nn . ATW,;^,/,* c,,^,
Assistant Secretary, Board of Education, London. \ Education. Natwnal Systems.
G. C. W. GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON, LITT.D. f
Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures; Life of Richard J Downman;
Cosway, R.A . ; George Engleheart ; Portrait Drawings ; &c. Editor of new edition ] Dumont, Francois,
of Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers. I
G. F. B. G. F. BARWICK. ("
Assistant Keeper of Printed Books and Superintendent of Reading Room, British i Dhuleep Singh.
Museum. L
G. G. S. GEORGE GREGORY SMITH, M.A. f Douglas Gavin-
Professor of English Literature, Queen's University of Belfast: Author of The { _ ' ,,,..,.
Days of James IV.; The Transition Period ; Specimens of Middle Scots ; &c. [ Dul Dar, William.
G. H. Br. GEORGE HARTLEY BRYAN, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. f
Professor of Pure and Applied Mathematics, University College of North Wales. J Diffusion.
Formerly Fellow of Peterhouse, Cambridge. President of Mathematical Association, |
1907.
G. H. C. GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, B.Sc. f"
Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. Author of Insects: -I Dragon-fly (in part),
their Structure and Life.
G. S. W.* GEORGE STEPHEN WEST, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S. f
Professor of Botany, University of Birmingham. Associate of Royal College of } Diatomaceae (in part).
Science, London. Author of Treatise on British Fresh-water Algae; &c.
H. A. Mi. HENRY ALEXANDER MIERS, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. r
Principal of the University of London. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford.
Formerly Waynflete Professor of Mineralogy, Oxford. President of Mineralogical -J Diamond.
Society since 1904. Editor of the Mineralogical Magazine, 1891-1900. Author of
Mineralogy; &c. L
H. B. Wo. HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.S. ("
Formerly Assistant Director of the Geological Survey of England and Wales, -j Desmarest, N.
President, Geologists' Association, 1893-1894. Wollaston Medallist, 1908.
, Devonshire, Earls and Dukes
H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. of;
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christ! College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition-^ Dufferin and Ava 1st
of the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the loth edition. MarauSS* Edward VII
H. De.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ix
REV. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.J. f
Bollandist. Joint Author of the Acta Sanctorum. \ Denis, Saint.
H F. Ba. HENRY FREDERICK BAKER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. r
Fellow and Lecturer of St John's College, Cambridge. Cayley Lecturer in Mathe- J Differential Equation.
ma tics in the University. Author of Abel's Theory and the Allied Theory; &c.
H. F. G. HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, M.A., F.R.S., PH.D. f
Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge, -j Dodo (in part).
Author of Amphibia and Reptiles (Cambridge Natural History). L
H. G. HUGH GODFRAY, M.A.
Sometime Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Author of an Elementary { Dial and Dialling.
Treatise on the Lunar Theory; A Treatise on Astronomy. [_
H. H. T. HERBERT HALL TURNER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. r
Savilian Professor of Astronomy, Oxford University. Fellow of New College.
Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Chief Assistant at the Royal I jp-ii-,. f A -*1
Observatory, Greenwich. Correspondent, Institut de France. President, Royal | '"'UP 5 * l* pan).
Astronomical Society, 1903-1904. Author of Modern Astronomy; Astronomical
Discovery.
H. Lb. HORACE LAMB, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. f
Professor of Mathematics, University of Manchester. Formerly Fellow and J
Assistant Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Member of Council of Royal "j Dynamics.
Society, 1894-1896. Royal Medallist, 1902. President of London Mathematical
Society, 1902-1904. Author of Hydrodynamics; &c.
H. N. D. HENRY NEWTON DICKSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.R.G.S. [
Professor of Geography at University College, Reading. Formerly Vice-President, J Q eser *
Royal Meteorological Society. Lecturer in Physical Geography, Oxford. Author 1
of Meteorology ; Elements of Weather and Climate ; &c.
H. 0. T. HENRY OSBORN TAYLOR, LL.B. (Columbia). f _
Author of The Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages ; Ancient Ideals ; &c. \ Dion y sius AreopagltiCUS.
H. St. HENRY STURT, M.A.
Author of Idola T
H. S. S. HAROLD SPENCER SCOTT, M.A.
l~
Author of Idola Theatri ; The Idea of a Free Church ; and Personal Idealism. \
f
New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. 1 Dower.
H. Ti. HENRY TIEDEMANN. f
London Editor of the Nieuwe Rotterdamsche Courant. Ex-President of the Foreign -j Dozy.
Press Association.
H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. f - . ,. ,.,..._
Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, 1 ""
1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. [Edmund, Saint.
H. W. H. HOPE W. HOGG, M.A. f -,.
Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures in the University of Manchester. \
I. A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. f D u jj es Leopold
Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University of Cambridge. President, J nill a< A. .
Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short History of Jewish Ultra- | Z~ >n '
ture; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages. I Duran.
J. A.* JOHN AITKEN, LL.D., F.R.S. r
Investigator of Atmospheric Dust. Inventor of instruments for counting the dust
particles in the atmosphere. Author of papers on Dust Fogs and Clouds; Hazing -{ Dust.
Effects of Atmospheric Dust; Cyclones and Anticyclones; &c., in publications of
Royal Society.
J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc. f Devonian System ;
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. \ Drift.
J. A. P.* REV. JAMES ALEXANDER PATERSON, M.A., D.D. r
Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, New College, Edinburgh. Author
of The Period of the Judges; Book of Leviticus, in" Temple" Bible; Book o}\ Deuteronomy.
Numbers, in "Polychrome" Bible; &c. Translator of Schultz's Old Testament
Theology.
J. C. M. JAMES CLERK MAXWELL, D.C.L., F.R.S. / _.
See the biographical article: MAXWELL, JAMES CLERK. "^ Ula sram.
J. F.-K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LITT.D., F.R.HisT.S. r
Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. Deus, Joao de ;
Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. 4 Don Juan ;
Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of Frhpp-arav v Fi7a<Miirr
Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c.
J. G. H. JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.I.MECH.E. J Drawing- Draivine-OfficeWork
Author of Plating and Boiler Making ; Practical Metal Turning ; &c. I
J. H. G. JOHANN HENDRIK GALLE, PH.D.
Professor of Comparative Philology and Teutonic Languages, University of Utrecht. J Dutch Laneuaee
President of the Philological Society, Utrecht. Author of Altsdchsische Sprach- ]
denkmaler. (.
3. H. R. JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.). J Domesday Book;
Author of Feudal England ; Studies in Peerage and Family History ; Peerage and \ '
Pedigree ; &c. I Earl Marshal.
J. I. JULES ISAAC. f Dii Bellay, Guillaume and
Professor of History at the Lycee of Lyons. \ Jean.
* INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
J. J. H. J. J. HUMMEL, F.I.C. (d. 1902). [
Formerly Professor of Dyeing, University 01 Leeds. Author of The Dyeing oH Dyeing (in part).
Textile Fabrics.' [_
J. J. L.* REV. JOHN JAMES LIAS, M.A. ["
Chancellor of Llandaff Cathedral. Formerly Hulsean Lecturer in Divinity andi Dollinger.
Lady Margaret Preacher, University of Cambridge. L
J. L. M. JOHN LINTON MYRES, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. f
Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Formerly j Dorians
Gladstone Professor of Greek and Lecturer in Ancient Geography, University of |
Liverpool. Lecturer in Classical Archaeology in University of Oxford.
J. Mi. JOHN MILNE, F.G.S., F.R.S., D.Sc. I"
Formerly Professor of Mining and Geology, Imperial University of Tokio. Founder _ .
of the Seismic Survey of Japan. Designer of seismographs and instruments to H Earthquake (in part).
record vibrations on railways, &c. Author of Earthquakes; Seismology; Crystal-
lography; &c.
J. Mo. VISCOUNT MORLEY OF BLACKBURN. f _. ,
See the biographical article: MORLEY, VISCOUNT, OF BLACKBURN. \ IflQeroi.
J'. M. M. JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. f Draco'
Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London \ w ,
College (University of London). Joint Editor of Grote's History of Greece. I Jicclesla '
J. M. M. D. J. M. M. DALLAS. f ..
Formerly Secretary of the Edinburgh Draughts Club. \ Draughts (in part).
J. 0. B. JOHN OLIVER BORLEY, M.A. f _
Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. \ Dredge and Dredging: Marine.
J. P.-B. JAMES GEORGE JOSEPH PENDEREL-BRODHURST. r
Editor of the Guardian, London. "j Desk.
J. R. C. JOSEPH ROGERSON COTTER, M.A. r
Assistant to the Professor of Physics, Trinity College, Dublin. Editor of 2nd -I Dispersion.
edition of Preston's Theory of Heat.
J. R. F. JOHN RITCHIE FINDLAY. f
See the biographical article: FINDLAY, J. R. ^ De Qumcey.
J. R. Fo. JOHN R. FOTHERGILL. f _
Editor of The Slade. \ Drawing.
J. S. F. JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. r Diabase; Diorite;
Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in J rini..:*.. rtninmito-
Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby 1 , I* 6 ' Llolomlle
Medallist of the Geological.Society of London. I Ecloglte.
Dnieper (in part);
Dniester (in part);
J. T. Be. JOHN T. BEALBY.
Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c.
Don (in part);
Don Cossacks, Territory of the
(in part);
Dvina (in part);
-Echmiadzin (in part).
Jno. W. JOHN WESTLAKE, K.C., LL.D., D.C.L. ["
Professor of International Law, Cambridge, 1888-1908. One of the Members for
United Kingdom of International Court of Arbitration under the Hague Conven- -| Domicile,
tion, 1900-1906. Author of A Treatise on Private International Law; International
Law: I. Peace; II. War; &c.
J. Wn. JAMES WELTON, M.A. r
Professor of Education in the University of Leeds. Author of Logical Bases of-i Education: Theory.
Education ; Principles and Methods of Moral Training ; &c.
J. W. He. JAMES WYCLIFFE HEADLAM, M.A. f
Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education. Formerly
Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek and Ancient History at < Droysen, J. G.
Queen's College, London. Author of Bismarck and the Foundation of the German
Empire ; &c.
K. S. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. f Double-Bass; Drone;
Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra; &c. "\ Drum; Dulcimer.
L. F. V.-H. LEVESON FRANCIS VERNON-HARCOURT, M.A., M.lNST.C.E. (1830-1907). r
Formerly Professor of Civil Engineering at University College, London. Author of J r\ nf 'i e
Rivers and Canals; Harbours and Docks; Civil Engineering as applied in Con- 1 UOCK -
struction; &c.
L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A., F.G.S. f _.. ,. _..
Assistant, Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of Sidney J "lallage; Diaspore;
Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Mineralogical | Diopside; Dioptase.
Magazine.
L. V.* LUIGI VlLLARI.
Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Department). Formerly Newspaper Corre- niavnln Pra-
spondent in East of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906; Phil-S "
adelphia, 1907; and Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town Dona.
and Country; Fire and Sword in the Caucasus; &c.
M- A. C. MAURICE ARTHUR CANNEY, M.A. f
Assistant Lecturer in Semitic Languages in the University of Manchester. 1 Dorner.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi
M. Br. Miss MARGARET BRYANT. JDryden (in part); Dumas.
M. F. SIR MICHAEL FOSTER, K.C.B., D C.L., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.
See the biographical article: FOSTER, SIR M. -| Du Bois-Reymond.
M. G. D. RT. HON. SIR MOUNTSTUART ELPHINSTONE GRANT-DUFF, G.C.S.I., F.R.S.
(1829-1906).
M.P. for the Elgin Burghs, 1857-1881. Under-Secretary of State for India, 1868-
1874. Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies, 1880-1881. Governor of Madras, .,
1881-1886. President of the Royal Geographical Society, 1889-1893. President
of the Royal Historical Society, 1892-1899. Author of Studies in European Politics;
Notes from a Diary ; &c.
Derby, 14th Earl of.
M. Ha. MARCUS HARTOG, M.A., D.Sc., F.L S.
Professor of Zoology, University College, Cork. Author of Protozoa (in Cambridge -j Dinoflagellata.
Natural History) ; and papers for various scientific journals. [
M. Ja. MORRIS JASTROW, Jr., PH.D. f a .
Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania, U.S.A. Author of < vJL- n ,
Religion of the Babylonians and Assyrians; &c. L BgaDanl -
M. 0. B. C. MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. [
Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birming- -i Doris.
ham University, 1905-1908. L
N. M. NORMAN MCLEAN, M.A. f
Fellow, Lecturer and Librarian of Christ's College, Cambridge. University Lecturer J njonvsil
in Aramaic. Examiner for the Oriental Languages Tripos, and the Theological 1
Tripos, at Cambridge. L
N. M. B. NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER. f Education- United States
See the biographical article: BUTLER, N. M. \
N. W. T. NORTHCOTE WHITBRIDGE THOMAS, M.A. I" Demonology;
Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the J Divination*
Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and \ TW.II. r M
Marriage in Australia; &c. I DOU > Dreams -
0. J. R. H. OSBERT JOHN RADCLIFFE HOWARTH, M.A. f Denmark: Geography and
Christ Church, Oxford. Geographical Scholar, 1901. Assistant Secretary of the"! Statistics (in part)
British Association. L
Dnieper (in part) ; Dniester
n n nrnpTf *h
Don Cossacks, Territory of the
(tn part); Dvina (in part);
Echmiadzin (in part).
P. C. M. PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, F.R.S., M.A., D.Sc., LL.D. f
Secretary to the Zoological Society cf London. University Demonstrator in
Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891..) Dog (in part)
Lecturer on Biology at Charing Cross Hospital, 1892-1894; at London Hospital, I
1894. Examiner in Biology to the Royal College of Physicians, 1892-1896, 1901-
1903. Examiner in Zoology to the University of London, 1903.
f Derby, 7th Earl of;
P. C. Y. PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE M.A. I Digby Slr Everard;
Magdalen College, Oxford. j Digby> sir
P. Gi. PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LITT. D.
Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University J R
Reader in Comparative Philology. Late Secretary of the Cambridge Philological 1
Society. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology ; &c.
P. G. K. PAUL GEORGE KONODY. f
Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of The Artist. 1 Donatello.
Author of Ths Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; &c. I
R. LORD RAYLEIGH.
See the biographical article : RAYLEIGH, 3RD BARON.
R. A. S. M. ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. f
St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Explora- J Diptych,
tion Fund.
R. C. J. SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB., LITT.D., D.C.L. f nn - h
See the biographical article: JEBB, SIR RICHARD C. \ UM ies<
R. D. M. R. D. MlLNER. f lit.*.*-.. / A
Formerly Assistant, U.S. Department of Agriculture. \ uie s V n P art) -
R. H. D.* ROBERT HENRY DAVIS. f
Managing Director, Siebe, Gorman & Co., Ltd., Submarine Engineers, London. -| Divers and Diving Apparatus.
Author of A Diving Manual; &c.
R. I. P. REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S. f Earwig.
Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. \
R. J. RICHARD JORDAN. f Drau! ,hts (in *n.rt\
Draughts Champion of Scotland, 1896, and of the world, 1896 seq. \ "
R. J. H. RONALD JOHN McNEiLL, M.A. f Driving-
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's { r>,,_i,n <,.* r.,,.1 ;
Gazette, London. I Dur ham, 1st Earl of.
xii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
R. L.* RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. r ni niro . nolnhln-
Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of J
Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum; The Deer of] Dormouse; Dugong;
all Lands ; &c. L Duiker; Edentata.
R. Ma. REV. ROBERT MACKINTOSH, D.D. f
Professor of Christian Ethics and Apologetics, Lancashire Independent College.
Lecturer on the Philosophy of Religion, University of Manchester. Author of
Christ and the Jewish Law ; &c. 1.
R. M'L. ROBERT M'LACHLAN, F.R.S. | _ ,.
Editor of the Entomologists' Monthly Magazine. \ "ragon-ny (in part).
R. N. B. ROBERT -NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). f Denmark: Medieval and
Assistant Librarian, British Museum 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the Modern History
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, -\ n ff _.
1613 to 1725 ; Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1460 u *ewny; IMUgosz;
to 1796; &c. I Dolgoruki; Dozsa.
R. P. S. R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. r
Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past- I Dome; Door;
President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, -j Doorway;
London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's Earlv Enplfch Pprinri
History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c.
S. A. C. STANLEY ARTHUR COOK. /
Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and
formerly Fellow, Gonyille and Caius College, Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and j
Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Council of Royal Asiatic Society, 1904- -j Edom.
1905. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions; The Laws of Moses and Code
of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient
Palestine; &c.
ISC SeTthe biographical article: IDDESLEIGH, IST EARL OF. | Du Ver S ier de Hauranne.
St H. LORD ST HELIER (SIR FRANCIS HENRY JEUNE), P.C., K.C.B., G.C.B. (1843-1905). I"
President of the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division of the High Court oH Divorce.
Justice, 1892-1905. Honorary Fellow of Hertford College, Oxford. L
S. C. SIDNEY COLVIN, LL.D. f Dttrer.
See the biographical article : COLVIN, S. \
S. D. H. S. D. HOPKINSON. -I Dividend.
S. K. STEN KONOW, Pn.D. f
Prof esspr of Indian Philology in the University of Christiania. Officier del' Academic I
Franchise. Author of Stamavidhana brdhmana; The Karpuramanjan; volumes { Dravidian.
ori Tibeto-Burman languages; Munda and Dravidian; " Marathi Bhil " in The
Linguistic Survey of India.
S. N. SIMON NEWCOMB, LL.D. / Eclipse (in part);
See the biographical article : NEWCOMB, SIMON. I Ecliptic.
T. As. THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT., F.S.A.
Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. Corresponding Member
of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Formerly Scholar of Christ -j Eboli.
Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1897. Author of The Classical Topo-
graphy of the Roman Campagna ; &c.
T. A. I. THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D.
Trinity College, Dublin.
T. F. T. THOMAS FREDERICK TOUT, M.A. f
Professor of Medieval and Modern History in the University of Manchester. I Edward L, II., III.;
Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College, Oxford. Author of Edward I. ; The Empire ] Edward The Black Prince.
and Papacy ; &c.
T. K. C. REV. THOMAS KELLY CHEYNE, M.A., D.D. J~ _ .
See the biographical article: CHEYNE, T. K. \ Baen -
T. L. H. SIR THOMAS LITTLE HEATH, K.C.B., D.Sc. f
Assistant Secretary to the Treasury. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cam- I nionhantos
bridge. Author of Diophantos of Alexandria; Editor of The Thirteen Books of\
Euclid's Elements; &c.
T. M. F. THOMAS McCALL FALLOW, M.A., F.S.A. f
Formerly Editor of the Antiquary. Author of Memorials of Old Yorkshire ; -j Easter.
Cathedral Churches of Ireland ; &c. [
T. Se. THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A.
Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges Dickens;
(University of London). Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of 4 n os t o ievskv
Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson;
Joint Author of The Bookman History of English Literature ; &c.
T. W. R. D. T. W. RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., PH.D.
Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester. Professor of Pali and Buddhist Devadatta-
Literature, University College, London, 1882-1904. President of the Pali Text J "~ v **'
Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of Royal Asiatic DnammapSla.
Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Books of the Buddhists; Early
Buddhism; Buddhist India; Dialogues of the Buddha; &c. I
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Xlll
V.T.
W. A.
W. A. B. C.
VLADIMIR TCHERTKOFF.
Editor of The Free Age Press. Literary Representative of Leo Tolstoy. Author of -| DoukhobOFS.
Christian Martyrdom in Russia ; &c.
WILLIAM ARCHER.
See the biographical article Archer, William.
REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D. (Bern). ,
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's Dolomites, The;
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphine; The Range of < Dornbirn;
the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in Durance;
History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1889; &c. I Ebel J G
j Drama (Recent English).
f Digne;
W. A. P.
W. A. S. H.
W. B.
W. E. B.
WALTER ALISON
M.A.
f Diplomacy; Dispensation;
Donation nf
" OI LHOn l
W. E. D.
W. P. Sh.
W. F. W.
W. G. P. P.
W. Hy.
W. H.*
W. H. Ma.
W. L. G.
W. M.
W. IVl* K.
W. N. S.
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College,
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe ; &c.
WILLIAM ALBERT SAMUEL HEWINS, M.A.
Secretary of the Tariff Commission. Formerly Director of the London School
of Economics. Teacher of Modern Economic History in the University of
London, 1902-1903. Tooke Professor of Economic Science and Statistics at King's'
College, London, 1897-1903. Author of Imperialism and its Probable Effect on the
Commercial Policy of the United Kingdom ; &c.
WALTER BAXENDALE.
Kennel Editor of the Field.
REV. WILLIAM EMERY BARNES, M.A., D.D.
Hulsean Professor of Divinity, Cambridge. Fellow and Hon. Chaplain of Peter-
house, Cambridge. Examining Chaplain to the_Bishop of London. Joinl Editor
of Journal of Theological Studies, 1899-1901. Formerly Leclurer in Hebrew, -
Clare College, and Leclurer in Hebrew and Divinily, Peterhouse. Author of The
Canonical and Uncanonical Gospels', The Peshitta Text of Chronicles; The Psalms
in the Peshitta Version ; Genuineness of Isaiah ; &c.
WILLIAM ERNEST DALBY, M.A., M.lNST.C.E., M.I.M.E., A.M.lNSx.N.A.
Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineering al the City and Guilds of London
Institute Central Technical College, South Kensington. Formerly University -\ Dynamometer.
Demonstrator in the Engineering Department, Cambridge. Author of The Balanc-
ing of Engines ; Valves and Valve Gear Mechanism ;&c.
WILLIAM FLEETWOOD SHEPPARD, M.A.
Senior Examiner to the Board of Education.
Cambridge. Senior Wrangler, 1884.
Dragon; Duke;
I Eastern Question, The.
Economics.
Dog (in part).
Ecclesiasticus.
Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, -I Differences, Calculus of.
WALTER FRANCIS WILLCOX, LL.B., PH.D. [
Chief Statistician, United States Census Bureau. Professor of Social Science and
Statistics, Cornell University. Member of the American Social Science Association J Divorce: United States.
and Secretary of the American Economical Association. [Author of The Divorce
Problem: A Study in Statistics; Social Statistics of the United States; &c.
SIR WALTER GEORGE FRANK PHILLIMORE, BART., D.C.L., LL.D. f
Judge of the King's Bench Division. President of International Law Association,
1905. Author of Book of Church Law. Editor of 2nd editi9n of Phillimore's } Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction.
Ecclesiastical Law; yd edition of vol. iv. of Phillimore's International Law; &c. [
WILLIAM HENRY. r
Founder and Chief Secretary to the Royal Life Saying Society. Associate of the
Order of St John of Jerusalem. Joint Author of Swimming, (Badminton Library) ; "
&c.
Drowning and Life Saving.
WALTER HUNTER, M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., F.G.S.
Consulting Engineer for Waterworks to Crown Agents for the Colonies. Member
of Council of Institute of Civil Engineers. Silver Medallist, Royal Society of Arts. \
Originator of Staines Scheme of Storage Reservoirs. Has reported on Waterworks
at Accra, Secconder and Lagos; also on Rand Water Supply.
WILLIAM HENRY MAXWELL, A.M.I.C.E. f
Borough and Waterworks Engineer, Tunbridge Wells. Formerly President of
Institute of Sanitary Engineers, London. Author of Refuse Destructors; &c. "
Joint Editor of Encyclopaedia of Municipal and Sanitary Engineering.
WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A.
Professorial Queen'ss University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly Beit Lecturer in
anil
,.
Hydraulic Engineering.
Destructors.
rrotessor at yueen s university, Kingston, Canada, hormerly Beit Lecturer in I nw.ieM. ict
Colonial History at Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy Council, Colonial 1 uorcne lsl
series; Canadian Constitutional Development (in collaboration).
L
WILLIAM MINTO, M.A.
See the biographical article: MINTO, WILLIAM.
WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.
See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL.
Dry den (in part).
("Dole!; Domenichino;
t Dyce, William; Eastlake.
WILLIAM NAPIER SHAW, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. f"
Director of the Meteorological Office. Reader in Meteorology in the University of
London. President of Permanent International Meteorological Committee. I
Member of Meteorological Council, 1897-1905. Hon. Fellow of Emmanuel College, 1
Cambridge. Senior Tutor, 1890-1899. Joint Author of Text Book of Practical
Physics; &c.
XIV
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
W. 0. A.
W. R. E. H.
W. R. L.
W. S. J.
W. W.
W. W. R.*
WILBUR OLIN ATWATER, PH.D. (1844-1907).
Formerly Professor of Chemistry, Wesleyan University, U.S.A. Special Agent of H Dietetics (in part).
the United States Department of Agriculture in charge of Nutrition Investigations. L
WILLIAM RICHARD EATON HODGKINSON, PH.D., F.R.S. I"
Professor of Chemistry and Physics, Ordnance College, Woolwich. Formerly J
Professor of Chemistry andlPhysics, R.M.A., Woolwich. Part author of Valentin- 1
Hodgkinson's Prqctical Chemistry ; &c. I
W. R. LETHABY, F.S.A.
Principal of the Central School of Arts and Crafts under the London County Council.
Author of Architecture, Mysticism and Myth; &c.
WILLIAM STANLEY JEVONS, LL.D.
See the biographical article: JEVONS, WILLIAM STANLEY.
WILLIAM WALLACE.
See the biographical article: WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897).
Design.
: De Morgan.
1 Descartes.
WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, LIC.THEOL. / n , c , .
Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. \ uon ' &ynoa OI -
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
Democratic Party.
Democritus.
Derbyshire.
Desmoulins.
Detroit.
Devonshire.
De Witt, John.
Diabetes.
Diamond Necklace.
Dice.
Dictionary.
Didache.
Dietary.
Dietrich of Bern.
Digitalis.
Dijon.
Dionysius.
Diphtheria.
Distress.
Dittersdorf, Karl D. von.
Divining-rod.
Dockyards.
Doge.
Dominoes.
Donatists.
Donegal.
Dorset, Earls, Marquesses
and Dukes of.
Dorsetshire.
Douglas: Family.
Dover.
Down.
Dragoman.
Drainage of Land.
Drake, Sir Francis.
Dresden.
Dropsy.
Drummond of Hawthornden.
Drunkenness.
Dualism.
Dublin.
Dunbar.
Dundee, Viscount.
Dundee: City.
Dundonald.
Duns Scotus.
Durban.
Durham.
Dutch East India Company.
Dutch West India Company.
Dwarf.
Dyaks.
Dysentery.
Dyspepsia.
Earth.
Eastern Bengal and Assam,
East India Company.
Ebionites.
Ecarte".
Ecclesiastical Law.
Eclecticism.
Edgeworth.
Edinburgh.
Edinburghshire.
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME VIII
DEMIJOHN, a glass bottle or jar with a large round body and
narrow neck, encased in wicker-work and provided with handles.
The word is also used of an earthenware jar, similarly covered
with wicker. The capacity of a demijohn varies from two to
twelve gallons, but the common size contains five gallons.
According to the New English Dictionary the word is an adapta-
tion of a French Dame Jeanne, or Dame Jane, an application
of a personal name to an object which is not uncommon; cf. the
use of " Toby " for a particular form of jug and the many uses
of the name " Jack."
DEMISE, an Anglo-French legal term (from the Fr. demettre,
Lat. dimiltere, to send away) for a transfer of an estate, especially
by lease. The word has an operative effect in a lease implying a
covenant for " quiet enjoyment " (see LANDLORD AND TENANT).
The phrase " demise of the crown " is used in English law to
signify the immediate transfer of the sovereignty, with all its
attributes and prerogatives, to the successor without any inter-
regnum in accordance with the maxim " the king never dies."
At common law the death of the sovereign eo facto dissolved
parliament, but this was abolished by the Representation of the
People Act 1867, 51. Similarly the common law doctrine that
all offices held under the crown determined at its demise has
been negatived by the Demise of the Crown Act 1901. "Demise"
is thus often used loosely for death or decease.
DEMIURGE (Gr. d-rjfuovpyos, from Sixties, of or for the people,
and epyov, work), a handicraftsman or artisan. In Homer the
word has a wide application, including not only hand-workers
but even heralds and physicians. In Attica the demiurgi formed
one of the three classes (with the Eupatridae and the geomori,
georgi or agroeci) into which the early population was divided
(cf . Arist. Ath. Pol. xiii. 2). They represented either a class of the
whole population, or, according to Busolt, a commercial nobility
(see EUPATRIDAE). In the sense of " worker for the people "
the word was used throughout the Peloponnese, with the excep-
tion of Sparta, and in many parts of Greece, for a higher
magistrate. The demiurgi among other officials represent Elis
and Mantineia at the treaty of peace between Athens, Argos, Elis
andMantineiain42OB.c. (Thuc. v. 47). In the Achaean League
(q.v.) the name is given to ten elective officers who presided
over the assembly, and Corinth sent " Epidemiurgi " every year
to Potidaea, officials who apparently answered to the Spartan
harmosts. In Plato dijfuovpybs is the name given to the " creator
of the world " (Timaeus, 40) and the word was so adopted by
the Gnostics (see GNOSTICISM).
DEMMIN, a town of Germany, kingdom of Prussia, on the
navigable river Peene (which in the immediate neighbourhood
receives the Trebel and the Tollense), 72 m. W.N.W. of Stettin,
on the Berlin-Stralsund railway. Pop. (1905) 12,541. It has
manufactures of textiles, besides breweries, distilleries and
tanneries, and an active trade in corn and timber,
vm i
The town is of Slavonian origin and of considerable antiquity,
and was a place of importance in the time of Charlemagne. It
was besieged by a German army in 1 148, and captured by Henry
the Lion in 1164. In the Thirty Years' War Demmin was the
object of frequent conflicts, and even after the peace of West-
phalia was taken and retaken in the contest between the electoral
prince and the Swedes. It passed to Prussia in 1720, and its
fortifications were dismantled in 1759. In 1807 several engage-
ments took place in the vicinity between the French and Russians.
DEMOCHARES (c. 355-275 B.C.), nephew of Demosthenes,
Athenian orator and stateman, was one of the few distinguished
Athenians in the period of decline. He is first heard of in 322,
when he spoke in vain against the surrender of Demosthenes
and the other anti-Macedonian orators demanded by Antipater.
During the next fifteen years he probably lived in exile. On the
restoration of the democracy by Demetrius Poliorcetes in 307
he occupied a prominent position, but was banished in 303
for having ridiculed the decree of Stratocles, which contained
a fulsome eulogy of Demetrius. He was recalled in 298, and
during the next four years l fortified and equipped the city with
provisions and ammunition. In 296 (or 295) he was again
banished for having concluded an alliance with the Boeotians,
and did not return until 287 (or 286). In 280 he induced the
Athenians to erect a public monument in honour of his uncle with
a suitable inscription. After his death (some five years later)
the son of Demochares proposed and obtained a decree (Plutarch,
Vitae decent oratomm,p. 851) that a statue should be erected in
his honour, containing a record of his public services, which seem
to have consisted in a reduction of public expenses, a more
prudent management of the state finances (after his return in
287) and successful begging missions to the rulers of Egypt and
Macedonia. Although a friend of the Stoic Zeno, Demochares
regarded all other philosophers as the enemies of freedom, and
in 306 supported the proposal of one Sophocles, advocating their
expulsion from Attica. According to Cicero (Brutus, 83) Demo-
chares was the author of a history of his own times, written in
an oratorical rather than a historical style. As a speaker
he was noted for his freedom of language (Parrhesiastes, Seneca,
De ira, iii. 23) . He was violently attacked by Timaeus, but found
a strenuous defender in Polybius (xii. 13).
See also Plutarch, Demosthenes, 30, Demetrius, 24, Vitae decem
oralorum, p. 847; J. G. Droysen's essay on Demochares in Zeil-
schriftfiir die Altertumswissenschaft (1836), Nos. 20, 21.
DEMOCRACY (Gr. SrifioKparia, from Sij/uos, the people, ije.
the commons, and KP&.TOS, rule), in political science, that form
of government in which the people rules itself, either directly,
as in the small city-states of Greece, or through representatives.
According to Aristotle, democracy is the perverted form of the
1 For the " four years' war " and the chronological questions in-
volved, see C. W. Muller, Frag. Hist. Graec. ii. 445.
DEMOCRATIC PARTY
third form of government, which he called TroXireta, " polity "
or " constitutional government," the rule of the majority of the
free and equal citizens, as opposed to monarchy and aristocracy,
the rule respectively of an individual and of a minority consist-
ing of the best citizens (see GOVERNMENT and ARISTOCRACY).
Aristotle's restriction of " democracy " to bad popular govern-
ment, i.e. mob-rule, or, as it has sometimes been called,
" ochlocracy " (oxAos, mob), was due to the fact that the
Athenian democracy had in his day degenerated far below the
ideals of the 5th century, when it reached its zenith under Pericles.
Since Aristotle's day the word has resumed its natural meaning,
but democracy in modern times is a very different thing from
what it was in its best days in Greece and Rome. The Greek
states were what are known as " city-states," the characteristic
of which was that all the citizens could assemble together in the
city at regular intervals for legislative and other purposes. This
sovereign assembly of the people was known at Athens as the
Ecclesia (q.v.), at Sparta as the Apella (q.v.), at Rome variously
as the Comitia Centuriata or the Concilium Plebis (see COMITIA).
Of representative government in the modern sense there is
practically no trace in Athenian history, though certain of the
magistrates (see STRATEGUS) had a quasi-representative char-
acter. Direct democracy is impossible except in small states.
In the second place the qualification for citizenship was rigorous;
thus Pericles restricted citizenship to those who were the sons of
an Athenian father, himself a citizen, and an Athenian mother
(e &n<i>div iurroiv) . This system excluded not only all the slaves,
who were more numerous than the free population, but also
resident aliens, subject allies, and those Athenians whose descent
did not satisfy this criterion (T<$ yivei /ii) Kadapoi). The Athenian
democracy, which was typical in ancient Greece, was a highly
exclusive form of government.
With the growth of empire and nation states this narrow
parochial type of democracy became impossible. The population
became too large and the distance too great for regular assemblies
of qualified citizens. The rigid distinction of citizens and non-
citizens was progressively more difficult to maintain, and new
criteria of citizenship came into force. The first difficulty has
been met by various forms of representative government. The
second problem has been solved in various ways in different
countries; moderate democracies have adopted a low property
qualification, while extreme democracy is based on the exten-
sion of citizenship to all adult persons with or without dis-
tinction of sex. The essence of modern representative govern-
ment is that the people does not govern itself, but periodically
elects those who shall govern on its behalf (see GOVERNMENT;
REPRESENTATION) .
DEMOCRATIC PARTY, originally DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN
PARTY, the oldest of existing political parties in the United States.
Its origin lay in the principles of local self-government and
repugnance to social and political aristocracy established as
cardinal tenets of American colonial democracy, which by the
War of Independence, which was essentially a democratic move-
ment, became the basis of the political institutions of the nation.
The evils of lax government, both central and state, under the
Confederation caused, however, a marked anti-democratic
reaction, and this united with the temperamental conservatism
of the framers of the constitution of 1787 hi the shaping of that
conservative instrument. The influences and interests for and
against its adoption took form in the groupings of Federalists
and Anti-Federalists, and these, after the creation of the new
government, became respectively, in underlying principles, and,
to a large extent, in personnel, the Federalist party (q.v.) and
the Democratic-Republican party. 1 The latter, organized by
Thomas Jefferson in opposition to the Federalists dominated by
Alexander Hamilton, was a real party by 1 792. The great service
of attaching to the constitution a democratic bill of rights be-
longs to the Anti-Federalists or Democratic-Republican party,
although this was then amorphous. The Democratic-Republican
party gained full control of the government, save the judiciary,
1 The orefix " Democratic " was not used by Jefferson; it became
established, however, and official.
in 1801, and controlled it continuously thereafter until 1825.
No political " platforms " were then known, but the writings
of Jefferson, who dominated his party throughout this period,
take the place of such. His inaugural address of 1801 is a famous
statement of democratic principles, which to-day are taken for
granted only because, through the party organized by him to
secure their success, they became universally accepted as the
ideal of American institutions. In all the colonies, says John
Adams, " a court and a country party had always contended ";
Jefferson's followers believed sincerely that the Federalists were
a new court party, and monarchist. Hence they called themselves
" Republicans " as against monarchists, standing also, incident-
ally, for states' rights against the centralization that monarchy
(or any approach to it) implied; and " Democrats " as against
aristocrats, standing for the " common rights of Englishmen,"
the " rights of man," the levelling of social ranks and the widen-
ing of political privileges. In the early years of its history and
during the period of the French Revolution and afterwards
the Republicans sympathized with the French as against the
British, the Federalists with the British as against the French.
Devotion to abstract principles of democracy and liberty, and
in practical politics a strict construction of the constitution,
in order to prevent an aggrandizement of national power at the
expense of the states (which were nearer popular control) or the
citizens, have been permanent characteristics of the Democratic
party as contrasted with its principal opponents; but neither
these nor any other distinctions have been continuously or
consistently true throughout its long course. 2 After 1801 the
commercial and manufacturing nationalistic 3 elements of the
Federalist party,being now dependent on Jefferson for protection,
gradually went over to the Republicans, especially after the War
of 1812; moreover, administration of government naturally
developed in Republican ranks a group of broad-constructionists.
These groups fused, and became an independent party. 4 They
called themselves National Republicans, while the Jacksonian
Republicans soon came to be known simply as Democrats. 6
Immediately afterward followed the tremendous victory of the
Jacksonians in 1828, a great advance in radical democracy
over the victory of 1800. In the interval the Federalist party
had disappeared, and practically the entire country, embracing
Jeffersonian democracy, had passed through the school of the
Republican party. It had established the power of the " people "
in the sense of that word in present-day American politics. Bills
of rights in every state constitution protected the citizen; some
state judges were already elective; very soon the people came
to nominate their presidential candidates in national conven-
tions, and draft their party platforms through their conven-
tion representatives.* After the National Republican scission
the Democratic party, weakened thereby in its nationalistic
tendencies, and deprived of the leadership of Jackson, fell
quickly under the control of its Southern adherents and became
virtually sectional in its objects. Its states' rights doctrine was
turned to the defence of slavery. In thus opposing anti-slavery
sentiment inconsistently, alike as regarded the " rights of man "
and constitutional construction, with its original and permanent
2 Under the rubric of " strict construction " fall the greatest
struggles in the party's history: those over the United States Bank,
over tariffs for protection or for " revenue "only over "internal
improvements," over issues of administrative economy in pro-
viding for the " general welfare," &c. The course of the party
has frequently been inconsistent, and its doctrines have shown,
absolutely considered, progressive latitudinarianism.
8 " Nationalistic " is used here and below, not in the sense of a
general nationalistic spirit, such as that of Jackson, but to indicate
the centralizing tendency of a broad construction of constitutional
powers in behalf of commerce and manufactures.
4 Standing for protective tariffs, internal improvements, &c.
5 It should be borne in mind, however, that the Democratic party
of Jackson was not strictly identical with the Democratic- Republican
party of Jefferson, and some writers date back the origin of the
present Democratic party only to 1828-1829.
8 The Democratic national convention of 1832 was preceded by an
Anti-Masonic convention of 1830 and by the National-Republican
convention of 1831 ; but the Democratic platform of 1840 was the
first of its kind.
DEMOCRITUS
principles it lost morale and power. As a result of the contest
over Kansas it became fatally divided, and in 1860 put forward
two presidential tickets: one representing the doctrine of
Jefferson Davis that the constitution recognized slave-property,
and therefore the national government must protect slavery in
the territories; the other representing Douglas's doctrine that
the inhabitants of a territory might virtually exclude slavery by
" unfriendly legislation." The combined popular votes for the
two tickets exceeded that cast by the new, anti-slavery Republican
party (the second of the name) for Lincoln; but the election was
lost. During the ensuing Civil War such members of the party
as did not become War Democrats antagonized the Lincoln
administration, and in 1864 made the great blunder of pronounc-
ing the war " a failure." Owing to Republican errors in recon-
struction and the scandals of President Grant's administration,
the party gradually regained its strength and morale, until,
having largely subordinated Southern questions to economic
issues, it cast for Tilden for president in 1876 a popular vote
greater than that obtained by the Republican candidate, Hayes,
and gained control of the House of Representatives. The
Electoral Commission, however, made Hayes president, and the
quiet acceptance of this decision by the Democratic party did
it considerable credit.
Since 1877 the Southern states have been almost solidly
Democratic; but, except on the negro question, such unanimity
among Southern whites has been, naturally, factitious; and by
no means an unmixed good for the party. Apart from the
" Solid South," the period after 1875 is characterized by two
other party difficulties. The first was the attempt from 1878 to
1896 to "straddle" the silver issue; 1 the second, an attempt
after 1896 to harmonize general elements of conservatism and
radicalism within the party. In 1896 the South and West gained
control of the organization, and the national campaigns of
1896 and 1900 were fought and lost mainly on the issue of
" free silver," which, however, was abandoned before 1904.
After 1898 " imperialism," to which the Democrats were hostile,
became another issue. Finally, after 1896, there became very
apparent in the party a tendency to attract the radical elements
of society in the general re-alignment of parties taking place
on industrial-social issues; the Democratic party apparently
attracting, in this readjustment, the " radicals " and the
" masses " as in the time of Jefferson and Jackson. In this
process, in the years 1896-1900, it took over many of the principles
and absorbed, in large part, the members of the radical third-
party of the " Populists," only to be confronted thereupon by the
growing strength of Socialism, challenging it to a farther radical
widening of its programme. From 1860 to 1908 it elected but a
single president (Grover Cleveland, 1885-1889 and 1893-1897) . 2
All American parties accepted long ago in theory " Jeffersonian
democracy "; but the Democratic party has been " the political
champion of those elements of the [American] democracy which
are most democratic. It stands nearest the people." 3 It may
be noted that the Jeffersonian Republicans did not attempt to
democratize the constitution itself. The choice of a president
was soon popularized, however, in effect; and the popular
election of United States senators is to-day a definite Demo-
cratic tenet. 4
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For an exposition of the party's principles see
Thomas Jefferson, Writings, ed. by P. L. Ford (10 vols., New York,
1892-1899); J. P. Foley (ed.), The Jeffersonian Cyclopaedia (New
York, 1900) ; and especially the Campaign Text-Books of more recent
1 The attitude of the Republican party was no less inconsistent
and evasive.
1 It controlled the House of Representatives from 1874 to 1894
except in 1880-1882 and 1888-1890; but except for a time in
Cleveland^ second term, there were never simultaneously a
Democratic president and a Democratic majority in Congress.
1 Professor A. D. Morse in International Monthly, October 1000.
He adds, " It^has done more to Americanize the foreigner than all
other parties." (It is predominant in the great cities of the country.)
4 In connexion with the prevalent popular tendency to regard the
president as a people's tribune, it may be noted that a strong pre-
sidential veto is, historically, peculiarly a Democratic contribution,
owing to the history of Jackson's (compare Cleveland's) adminis-
tration.
times, usually issued by the national Democratic committee in
alternate years, and M. Carey, The Democratic Speaker's Hand-
book (Cincinnati, 1868). For a hostile criticism of the party, see
W. D.Jones, Mirror of Modern Democracy; History cf the Democratic
Party from 1825 to /S<5i(New York, 1864) ; Jonathan Norcross,History
of Democracy Considered as a Party-Name and a Political Organisa-
tion (New York, 1883); J. H. Patton, The Democratic Party: Its
Political History and Influence (New York, 1884). Favourable
treatises are R. H. Gillet, Democracy in the United States (New York,
1868); and George Fitch, Political Facts: an Historical Text-Book
of the Democratic and Other Parties (Baltimore, 1884). See also,
for general political history, Thomas H. Benton, Thirty Years' View
(2 vols., New York, 1854-1856, and later editions) ; James G. Elaine,
Twenty Years of Congress (2 vols., Norwich, Conn., 1884-1893);
S. S. Cox, Three Decades of Federal Legislation (Providence, 1885);
S. P. Orth, Five American Politicians: a Study in the Evolution of
American Politics (Cleveland, 1906), containing sketches of four
Democratic leaders Burr, De Witt Clinton.Van Buren and Douglas;
{. Maoy, Party Organization and Machinery (New York, 1904);
. H. Hopkins, History of Political Parties in the United States
(New York, 1900); E. S. Stanwood, History of the Presidency
(last ed., Boston, 1904); I. P. Gordy, History of Political Parties, \.
(New York, 1900); H. J. Ford, Rise and Growth of American Politics
(New York, 1898) ; Alexander Johnston, History of American Politics
(New York, 1900, and later editions); C. E. Merriam, A History
of American Political Theories (New York, 1903), containing
chapters on the Jeffersonian and the Jacksonian Democracy;
and James A. Woodburn, Political Parties and Partv Problems in
the United States (New York, 1903).
DEMOCRITUS, probably the greatest of the Greek physical
philosophers, was a native of Abdera in Thrace, or as some say
probably wrongly of Miletus (Diog. Laert. ix. 34). Our
knowledge of his life is based almost entirely on tradition of an
untrustworthy kind. He seems to have been born about 470 or
460 B.C., and was, therefore, an older contemporary of Socrates.
He inherited a considerable property, which enabled him to
travel widely in the East in search of information. In Egypt
he settled for seven years, during which he studied the mathe-
matical and physical systems of the ancient schools. The
extent to which he was influenced by the Magi and the Eastern
astrologists is a matter of pure conjecture. He returned from
his travels impoverished; one tradition says that he received
500 talents from his fellow-citizens, and that a public funeral was
decreed him. Another tradition states that he was regarded as
insane by the Abderitans, and that Hippocrates was summoned
to cure him. Diodorus Siculus tells us that he died at the age
of ninety; others make him as much as twenty years older.
His works, according to Diogenes Laertius, numbered seventy-
two, and were characterized by a purity of style which com-
pares favourably with that of Plato. The absurd epithet, the
" laughing philosopher," applied to him by some unknown and
very superficial thinker, may possibly have contributed in
some measure to the fact that his importance was for centuries
overlooked. It is interesting, however, to notice that Bacon
(De Principiis) assigns to him his true place in the history of
thought, and points out that both in his own day and later
" in the times of Roman learning " he was spoken of in terms
of the highest praise. In the variety of his knowledge, and in
the importance of his influence on both Greek and modern
speculation he was the Aristotle of the sth century, while the
sanity of his metaphysical theory has led many to regard him
as the equal, if not the superior, of Plato.
His views may be treated under the following heads:
i. The Atoms and Cosmology (adopted in part at least from
the doctrines of Leucippus, though the relations between the
two are hopelessly obscure). While agreeing with the Eleatics
as to the eternal sameness of Being (nothing can arise out of
nothing; nothing can be reduced to nothing), Democritus
followed the physicists in denying its oneness and immobility.
Movement and plurality being necessary to explain the pheno-
mena of the universe and impossible without space (not-Being),
he asserted that the latter had an equal right with Being
to be considered existent. Being is the Full (irMjoes, plenum) ;
not-Being is the Void (Kev6v, vacuum) , the infinite space in which
moved tire infinite number of atoms into which the single Being
of the Eleatics was broken up. These atoms are eternal and
invisible; absolutely small, so small that their size cannot be
DEMOGEOT DEMOGRAPHY
diminished (hence the name OTOJUOS, " indivisible "); absolutely
full and incompressible, they are without pores and entirely fill
the space they occupy; homogeneous, differing only in figure
(as A from N), arrangement (as AN from NA), position (as N is
Z on its side), magnitude (and consequently in weight, although
some authorities dispute this). But while the atoms thus differ
in quantity, their differences of quality are only apparent, due
to the impressions caused on our senses by different configurations
and combinations of atoms. A thing is only hot or cold, sweet
or bitter, hard or soft by convention (vonqi); the only things
that exist in reality (erej;) are the atoms and the void. Locke's
distinction between primary and secondary qualities is here
anticipated. Thus, the atoms of water and iron are the same,
but those of the former, being smooth and round, and therefore
unable to hook on to one another, roll over and over like small
globes, whereas the atoms of iron, being rough, jagged and
uneven, cling together and form a solid body. Since all
phenomena are composed of the same eternal atoms (just as a
tragedy and a comedy contain the same letters) it may be said
that nothing comes into being or perishes in the absolute sense
of the words (cf. the modern "indestructibility of matter " and
" conservation of energy ") , although the compounds of the atoms
are liable to increase and decrease, appearance and disappearance
in other words, to birth and death. As the atoms are eternal
and uncaused, so is motion; it has its origin in a preceding
motion, and so on ad infinitum. For the Love and Hate of
Empedocles and the Nous (Intelligence) of Anaxagoras, Demo-
critus substituted fixed and necessary laws (not chance; that is
a misrepresentation due chiefly to Cicero). Everything can be
explained by a purely mechanical (but not fortuitous) system,
in which there is no room for the idea of a providence or an
intelligent cause working with a view to an end. The origin of
the universe was explained as follows. An infinite number of
atoms was carried downwards through infinite space. The
larger (and heavier), falling with greater velocity, overtook and
collided with the smaller (and lighter), which were thereby forced
upwards. This caused various lateral and contrary movements,
resulting in a whirling movement (Sivrf) resembling the rotation
of Anaxagoras, whereby similar atoms were brought together
(as in the winnowing of grain) and united to form larger bodies
and worlds. Atoms and void being infinite in number and
extent, and motion having always existed, there must always
have been an infinite number of worlds, all consisting of similar
atoms, in various stages of growth and decay.
2. The Soul. Democritus devoted considerable attention to
the structure of the human body, the noblest portion of which
he considered to be the soul, which everywhere pervades it, a
psychic atom being intercalated between two corporeal atoms.
Although, in accordance with his principles, Democritus was
bound to regard the soul as material (composed of round,
smooth, specially mobile atoms, identified with the fire-atoms
floating in the air), he admitted a distinction between it and the
body, and is even said to have looked upon it as something
divine. These all-pervading soul atoms exercise different functions
in different organs; the head is the seat of reason, the heart of
anger, the liver of desire. Life is maintained by the inhalation
of fresh atoms to replace those lost by exhalation, and when
respiration, and consequently the supply of atoms, ceases, the
result is death. It follows that the soul perishes with, and in the
same sense as, the body.
3. Perception. Sensations are the changes produced in the
soul by external impressions, and are the result of contact, since
every action of one body (and all representations are corporeal
phenomena) upon another is of the nature of a shock. Certain
emanations (awoltpoai, biropfroiai) or images (elScoXa), consisting of
subtle atoms, thrown off from the surface of an object, penetrate
the body through the pores. On the principle that like acts upon
like, the particular senses are only affected by that which
resembles them. We see by means of the eye alone, and hear by
means of the ear alone, these organs being best adapted to receive
the images or sound currents. The organs are thus merely
conduits or passages through which the atoms pour into the soul.
The eye, for example, is damp and porous, and the act of seeing
consists in the reflection of the image (Sei/ctXoc) mirrored on the
smooth moist surface of the pupil. To the interposition of air
is due the fact that all visual images are to some extent blurred.
At the same time Democritus distinguished between obscure
(axoTtfj) cognition, resting on sensation alone, and genuine
(yvT\<r'ai) , which is the result of inquiry by reason, and is con-
cerned with atoms and void, the only real existences. This
knowledge, however, he confessed was exceedingly difficult to
attain.
It is in Democritus first that we find a real attempt to explain
colour. He regards black, red, white and green as primary.
White is characteristically smooth, i.e. casting no shadow, even,
flat; black is uneven, rough, shadowy and so on. The other
colours result from various mixtures of these four, and are
infinite in number. Colour itself is not objective; it is found not
in the ultimate plenum and vacuum, but only in derived objects
according to their physical qualities and relations.
4. Theology. The system of Democritus was altogether anti-
theistic. But, although he rejected the notion of a deity taking
part in the creation or government of the universe, he yielded
to popular prejudice so far as to admit the existence of a class
of beings, of the same form as men, grander, composed of very
subtle atoms, less liable to dissolution, but still mortal, dwelling
in the upper regions of air. These beings also manifested them-
selves to man by means of images in dreams, communicated with
him, and sometimes gave him an insight into the future. Some
of them were benevolent, others malignant. According to
Plutarch, Democritus recognized one god under the form of a
fiery sphere, the soul of the world, but this idea is probably
of later origin. The popular belief in gods was attributed by
Democritus to the desire to explain extraordinary phenomena
(thunder, lightning, earthquakes) by reference to superhuman
agency.
5. Ethics. Democritus's moral system the first collection of
ethical precepts which deserves the name strongly resembles
the negative side of the system of Epicurus. The summum
bonum is the maximum of pleasure with the minimum of pain.
But true pleasure is not sensual enjoyment; it has its principle
in the soul. It consists not in the possession of wealth or flocks
and herds, but in good humour, in the just disposition and con-
stant tranquillity of f the soul. Hence the necessity of avoiding
extremes; too much and too little are alike evils. True happi-
ness consists in taking advantage of what one has and being
content with it (see ETHICS).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Fragments edited by F. Mullach (1843) with
commentary and in his Fragmenta philosophorum Graecorum, i.(l86o).
See also H. Putter and L. Preller, Historia philosophiae (chap. i. ad
fin.)\ P. Lafaist (Lafaye), Dissertation sur la philosophic ato-
mistique (1833); L. Liard, De Democrito philosopho (Paris, 1873);
H. C. Liepmann, Die Leucipp-Democritischen Atome (Leipzig, 1886) ;
F.A.Lange, Geschichte des Materialismus (Eng.trans. by E.C.Thomas,
1877); G. Hart, Zur Seelen- und Erkennlnislekre des Democritus
(Leipzig, 1886); P. Natorp, Die Ethika des Demokritos (Marburg,
1893) ; A. Dyroff, Demokntstudien (Leipzig, 1899) ; among general
works C. A. Brandis, Gesch. d. Entwickelungen d. griech. Philosophie
(Bonn, 1862-1864); Ed. Zeller, Pre-Socratic Philosophy (Eng.trans.,
London, 1881); for his theory of sense-perception see especially
J. I. Beare, Greek Theories of Elementary Cognition (Oxford, 1906).
DEMOGEOT, JACQUES CLAUDE (1808-1894), French man
of letters, was born in Paris on the sth of July 1808. He was
professor of rhetoric at the Iyc6e Saint Louis, and subsequently
assistant professor at the Sorbonne. He wrote many detached
papers on various literary subjects, and two reports on
secondary education in England and Scotland in collaboration
with H. Montucci. His reputation rests on his excellent Histoire
de la litterature franc.aise depuis ses origines jusqu'a nos jours
(1851), which has passed through many subsequent editions.
He was also the author of a Tableau de la litterature fran$aise au
XVII' siecle (1859), and of a work (3 vols., 1880-1883) on the
influence of foreign literatures on the development of French
literature. He died in Paris in 1894.
DEMOGRAPHY (from Gr. Sijfia*, people, and ypa<j>tu>, to
write), the science which deals with the statistics of health and
DEMOIVRE DEMONOLOGY
disease, of the physical, intellectual, physiological and economical
aspects of births, marriages and mortality. The first to employ
the word was Achille Guillard in his tUments de statistique
humaine ou demographic comparee (1855), but the meaning which
he attached to it was merely that of the science which treats
of the condition, general movement and progress of population
in civilized countries, i.e. little more than what is comprised in
the ordinary vital statistics, gleaned from census and registra-
tion reports. The word has come to have a much wider meaning
and may now be defined as that branch of statistics which deals
with the life-conditions of peoples.
DEMOIVRE, ABRAHAM (1667-1754), English mathematician
of French extraction, was born at Vitry, in Champagne, on the
26th of May 1667. He belonged to a French Protestant family,
and was compelled to take refuge in England at the revocation of
the edict of Nantes, in 1685. Having laid the foundation of his
mathematical studies in France, he prosecuted them further in
London, where he read public lectures on natural philosophy for
his support. The Principia mathematical of Sir Isaac Newton,
which chance threw in his way, caused him to prosecute his
studies with vigour, and he soon became distinguished among
first-rate mathematicians. He was among the intimate personal
friends of Newton, and his eminence and abilities secured his
admission into the Royal Society of London in 1697, and after-
wards into the Academies of Berlin and Paris. His merit was
so well known and acknowledged by the Royal Society that they
judged him a fit person to decide the famous contest between
Newton and G. W. Leibnitz (see INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS).
The life of Demoivre was quiet and uneventful. His old age was
spent in obscure poverty, his friends and associates having
nearly all passed away before him. He died at London, on the
27th of November 1754.
The Philosophical Transactions contain several of his papers. He
also published some excellent works, such as Miscellanea analytica
de seriebus et quadraturis (1730), in 4to. This contained some elegant
and valuable improvements on then existing methods, which have
themselves, however, long been superseded. But he has been more
generally known by his Doctrine of Chances, or Method of Calculating
the Probabilities of Events at Play. This work was first printed in
1618, in 4to, and dedicated to Sir Isaac Newton. It was reprinted in
1738, with great alterations and improvements; and a third edition
was afterwards published with additions in 1756. He also published
a Treatise on Annuities (1725), which has passed through several
revised and corrected editions.
See C. Hutton, Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary (1815).
For Demoivre' s Theorem see TRIGONOMETRY: Analytical.
DEMONETIZATION, a term employed in monetary science in
two different senses, (a) The depriving or divesting of a metal
of its standard monetary value. From 1663 to 1717 silver was
the standard of value in England and gold coins passed at their
market value. The debasement and underrating of the silver
coinage insensibly brought about the demonetization of silver
in England as a standard of value and the substitution of gold.
During the latter half of the igth century, the tremendous
depreciation of silver, owing to its continually increasing pro-
duction, and consequently the impossibility of preserving any
ratio of stability between it and gold, led to the abandonment or
demonetization of the metal as a standard and to its use merely
as token money, (b) The withdrawal of coin from circulation, as,
for example, in England that of all pre- Victorian gold coins under
the provisions of the Coinage Act 1889, and the royal proclama-
tion of the 22nd of November 1890.
DEMONOLOGY (Aatjuwc, demon, genius, spirit), the branch
of the science of religions which relates to superhuman beings
which are not gods. It deals both with benevolent beings which
have no circle of worshippers or so limited a circle as to be below
the rank of gods, and with malevolent beings of all kinds. It may
be noted that the original sense of " demon " was a benevolent
being; but in English the name now connotes malevolence; in
German it has a neutral sense, e.g. Korndamonen. Demons,
when they are regarded as spirits, may belong to either of the
classes of spirits recognized by primitive animism (<?..); that is
to say, they may be human, or non-human, separable souls, or
discarnate spirits which have never inhabited a body; a sharp
distinction is often drawh between these two classes, notably
by the Melanesians, the West Africans and others; the Arab
jinn, for example, are not reducible to modified human souls;
at the same time these classes are frequently conceived as pro-
ducing identical results, e.g. diseases.
Under the head of demons are classified only such spirits as
are believed to enter into relations with the human race; the
term therefore includes (i) human souls regarded as genii or
familiars, (2) such as receive a cult (for which see ANCESTOR
WORSHIP), and (3) ghosts or other malevolent revenants;
excluded are souls conceived as inhabiting another world. But
just as gods are not necessarily spiritual, demons may also be
regarded as corporeal; vampires for example are sometimes
described as human heads with appended entrails, which issue
from the tomb to attack the living during the night watches.
The so-called Spectre Huntsman of the Malay Peninsula is said
to be a man who scours the firmament with his dogs, vainly
seeking for what he could not find on earth a buck mouse-deer
pregnant with male offspring; but he seems to be a living man;
there is no statement that he ever died, nor yet that he is a
spirit. The incubus and succubus of the middle ages are some-
times regarded as spiritual beings; but they were held to give
very real proof of their bodily existence. It should, however,
be remembered that primitive peoples do not distinguish clearly
between material and immaterial beings.
Prevalence of Demons. According to a conception of the
world frequently found among peoples of the lower cultures,
all the affairs of life are supposed to be under the control of
spirits, each ruling a certain element or even object, and them-
selves in subjection to a greater spirit. Thus, the Eskimo are
said to believe in spirits of the sea, earth and sky, the winds,
the clouds and everything in nature. Every cove of the seashore,
every point, every island and prominent rock has its guardian
spirit. All are of the malignant type, to be propitiated only by
acceptable offerings from persons who desire to visit the locality
where it is supposed to reside. A rise in culture often results in
an increase in the number of spiritual beings with whom man
surrounds himself. Thus, the Koreans go far beyond the
Eskimo and number their demons by thousands of billions;
they fill the chimney, the shed, the living-room, the kitchen,
they are on every shelf and jar; in thousands they waylay
the traveller as he leaves his home, beside him, behind him,
dancing in front of him, whirring over his head, crying out
upon him from air, earth and water. \
Especially complicated was the ancient Babylonian demon-
ology; all the petty annoyances of life a sudden fall, a headache,
a quarrel were set down to the agency of fiends; all the stronger
emotions love, hate, jealousy and so on were regarded as the
work of demons; in fact so numerous were they, that there were
special fiends for various parts of the human body one for the
head, another for the neck, and so on. Similarly in Egypt at the
present day the jinn are believed to swarm so thickly that it is
necessary to ask their permission before pouring water on the
ground, lest one should accidentally be soused and vent his
anger on the offending human being. But these beliefs are far
from being confined to the uncivilized; Greek philosophers like
Porphyry, no less than the fathers of the Church, held that the
world was pervaded with spirits; side by side with the belief in
witchcraft, we can trace through the middle ages the survival of
primitive animistic views; and in our own day even these beliefs
subsist in unsuspected vigour among the peasantry of the more
uneducated European countries. In fact the ready acceptance
of spiritualism testifies to the force with which the primitive
animistic way of looking at things appealed to the white races
in the middle of the last century.
Character of Spiritual World. The ascription of malevolence
to the world of spirits is by no means universal. In West Africa
the Mpongwe believe in local spirits, just as do the Eskimo; but
they are regarded as inoffensive in the main; true, the passer-
by must make some trifling offering as he nears their place of
abode; but it is only occasionally that mischievous acts, such as
the throwing down of a tree on a passer-by, are, in the view of the
DEMONOLOGY
natives, perpetuated by the Ombuiri. So too, many of the spirits
especially concerned with the operations of nature are conceived
as neutral or even benevolent; the European peasant fears the
corn-spirit only when he irritates him by trenching on his domain
and taking his property by cutting the corn; similarly, there is
no reason why the more insignificant personages of the pantheon
should be conceived as malevolent, and we find that the Petara
of the Dyaks are far from indiscriminating and malignant, though
disease and death are laid at their door.
Classification. Besides the distinctions of human and non-
human, hostile and friendly, the demons in which the lower races
believe are classified by them according to function, each class
with a distinctive name, with extraordinary minuteness, the list
in the case of the Malays running to several score. They have,
for example, a demon of the waterfall, a demon of wild-beast
tracks, a demon which interferes with snares for wild-fowl, a
baboon demon, which takes possession of dancers and causes them
to perform wonderful feats of climbing, &c. But it is impossible
to do more than deal with a few types, which will illustrate the
main features of the demonology of savage, barbarous and semi-
civilized peoples.
(a) Natural causes, either of death or of disease, are hardly,
if at all, recognized by the uncivilized; everything is attributed
to spirits or magical influence of some sort. The spirits which
cause disease may be human or non-human and their influence is
shown in more than one way; they may enter the body of the
victim (see POSSESSION), and either dominate his mind as well
as his body, inflict specific diseases, or cause pains of various
sorts. Thus the Mintra of the Malay Peninsula have a demon
corresponding to every kind of disease known to them; the
Tasmanian ascribed a gnawing pain to the presence within him
of the soul of a dead man, whom he had unwittingly summoned
by mentioning his name and who was devouring his liver; the
Samoan held that the violation of a food tabu would result in the
animal being formed within the body of the offender and cause
his death. The demon theory of disease is still attested by some
of our medical terms; epilepsy (Gr. ^riAjj^ts, seizure) points
to the belief that the patient is possessed. As a logical conse-
quence of this view of disease the mode of treatment among
peoples in the lower stages of culture is mainly magical; they
endeavour to propitiate the evil spirits by sacrifice, to expel them
by spells, &c. (see EXORCISM) , to drive them away by blowing, &c. ;
conversely we find the Khonds attempt to keep away smallpox
by placing thorns and brushwood in the paths leading to places
decimated by that disease, in the hope of making the disease
demon retrace his steps. This theory of disease disappeared
sooner than did the belief in possession; the energumens
(evepyovufvoi) of the early Christian church, who were under
the care of a special clerical order of exorcists, testify to a belief
in possession; but the demon theory of disease receives no recog-
nition; the energumens find their analogues in the converts
of missionaries in China, Africa and elsewhere. Another way in
which a demon is held to cause disease is by introducing itself into
the patient's body and sucking his blood; the Malays believe
that a woman who dies in childbirth becomes a langsuir and
sucks the blood of children; victims of the lycanthrope are
sometimes said to be done to death in the same way; and it is
commonly believed in Africa that the wizard has the power of
killing people in this way, probably with the aid of a familiar.
(6) One of the primary meanings of dainuv is that of genius
or familiar, tutelary spirit; according to Hesiod the men of the
golden race became after death guardians or watchers over
mortals. The idea is found among the Romans also; they
attributed to every man a genius who accompanied him through
life. A Norse belief found in Iceland is that the fylgia, a genius
in animal form, attends human beings; and these animal
guardians may sometimes be seen fighting; in the same way the
Siberian shamans send their animal familiars to do battle instead
of deciding their quarrels in person. The animal guardian re-
appears in the nagual of Central America (see article TOTEMISM),
the yunbeai of some Australian tribes, the manitou of the
Red Indian and the bush soul of some West African tribes;
among the latter the link between animal and human being
is said to be established by the ceremony of the blood bond.
Corresponding to the animal guardian of the ordinary man, we
have the familiar of the witch or wizard. All the world over it is
held that such people can assume the form of animals; some-
times the power of the shaman is held to depend on his being
able to summon his familiar; among the Ostiaks the shaman's
coat was covered with representations of birds and beasts; two
bear's claws were on his hands; his wand was covered with
mouse-skin; when he wished to divine he beat his drum till a
black bird appeared and perched on his hut; then the shaman
swooned, the bird vanished, and the divination could begin.
Similarly the Greenland angekok is said to summon his torngak
(which may be an ancestral ghost or an animal) by drumming;
he is heard by the bystanders to carry on a conversation and
obtain advice as to how to treat diseases, the prospects of good
weather and other matters of importance. The familiar, who is
sometimes replaced by the devil, commonly figured in witchcraft
trials; and a statute of James I. enacted that all persons invok-
ing an evil spirit or consulting, covenanting with, entertaining,
employing, feeding or rewarding any evil spirit should be guilty
of felony and suffer death. In modern spiritualism the familiar
is represented by the " guide," corresponding to which we have
the theosophical " guru."
(c) The familiar is sometimes an ancestral spirit, and here we
touch the fringe of the cult of the dead (see also ANCESTOR
WORSHIP). Especially among the lower races the dead are
regarded as hostile; the Australian avoids the grave even of a
kinsman and elaborate ceremonies of mourning are found amongst
most primitive peoples, whose object seems to be to rid the living
of the danger they run by association with the ghost of the dead.
Among the Zulu the spirits of the dead are held to be friendly or
hostile, just as they were in life; on the Congo a man after death
joins the good or bad spirits according as his life has been good
or bad. Especially feared among many peoples are the souls
of those who have committed suicide or died a violent death;
the woman who dies in childbed is held to become a demon of
the most dangerous kind; even the unburied, as restless, dis-
satisfied spirits, are more feared than ordinary ghosts. Naturally
spirits of these latter kinds are more valuable as familiars than
ordinary dead men's souls. We find many recipes for securing
their aid. In the Malay Peninsula the blood of a murdered man
must be put in a bottle and prayers said over; after seven days
of this worship a sound is heard and the operator puts his finger
into the bottle for the polong, as the demon is called, to suck;
it will fly through the air in the shape of an exceedingly diminutive
female figure, and is always preceded by its pet, the pelesit, in
the shape of a grasshopper. In Europe a similar demon is said
to be obtainable from a cock's egg. In South Africa and India,
on the other hand, the magician digs up a dead body, especially
of a child, to secure a familiar. The evocation of spirits, especially
in the form of necromancy, is an important branch of the demon-
ology of many peoples; and the peculiarities of trance medium-
ship, which seem sufficiently established by modern research,
go far to explain the vogue of this art. It seems to have been
common among the Jews, and the case of the witch of Endor is
narrated in a way to suggest something beyond fraud; in the
book of magic which bears the name of Dr Faustus may be found
many of the formulae for raising demons; in England may be
mentioned especially Dr Dee as one of the most famous of those
who claimed before the days of modern spiritualism (q.v.) to
have intercourse with the unseen world and to summon demons
at his will. Sometimes the spirits were summoned to appear
as did the phantoms of the Greek heroes to Odysseus; some-
times they were called to enter a crystal (see CRYSTAL-GAZING) ;
sometimes they are merely asked to declare the future or com-
municate by moving external objects without taking a visible
form; thus among the Karens at the close of the burial cere-
monies the ghost of the dead man, which is said to hover round
till the rites are completed, is believed to make a ring swing
round and snap the string from which it hangs.
(d) The vampire is a particular form of demon which calls for
DEMONOLOGY
some notice. In the Malay Peninsula, parts of Polynesia, &c.,
it is conceived as a head with attached entrails, which issues, it
may be from the grave, to suck the blood of living human beings.
According to the Malays a penanggalan (vampire) is a living
witch, and can be killed if she can be caught; she is especially
feared in houses where a birth has taken place and it is the
custom to hang up a bunch of thistle in order to catch her; she
is said to keep vinegar at home to aid her in re-entering her own
body. In Europe the Slavonic area is the principal seat of
vampire beliefs, and here too we find, as a natural development,
that means of preventing the dead from injuring the living have
been evolved by the popular mind. The corpse of the vampire,
which may often be recognized by its unnaturally ruddy and
fresh appearance, should be staked down in the grave or its head
should be cut off; it is interesting to note that the cutting off of
heads of the dead was a neolithic burial rite.
(e) The vampire is frequently blended in popular idea with
the Poltergeist (q.ii.) or knocking spirit, and also with the werwolf
(see LYCANTHROPY).
(/) As might be expected, dream demons are very common;
in fact the word " nightmare " (A.S. mar, spirit, elf) preserves
for us a record of this form of belief, which is found right down
to the lowest planes of culture. The Australian, when he suffers
from an oppression in his sleep, says that Koin is trying to throttle
him; the Caribs say that Maboya beats them in their sleep;
and the belief persists to this day in some parts of Europe;
horses too are said to be subject to the persecutions of demons,
which ride them at night. Another class of nocturnal demons
are the incubi and succubi, who are said to consort with human
beings in their sleep; in the Antilles these were the ghosts of the
dead; in New Zealand likewise ancestral deities formed liaisons
with females; in the Samoan Islands the inferior gods were
regarded as the fathers of children otherwise unaccounted for;
the Hindus have rites prescribed by which a companion nymph
may be secured. The question of the real existence of incubi and
succubi, whom the Romans identified with the fauns, was gravely
discussed by the fathers of the church ; and in 1418 Innocent VIII.
set forth the doctrine of lecherous demons as an indisputable
fact; and in the history of the Inquisition and of trials for witch-
craft may be found the confessions of many who bore witness
to their reality. In the Anatomy of Melancholy Burton assures
us that they were never more numerous than in A.D. 1600.
(g) Corresponding to the personal tutelary spirit (supra, b) we
have the genii of buildings and places. The Romans celebrated
the birthday of a town and of its genius, just as they celebrated
that of a man; and a snake was a frequent form for this kind of
demon; when we compare with this the South African belief that
the snakes which are in the neighbourhood of the kraal are the
incarnations of the ancestors of the residents, it seems probable
that some similar idea lay at the bottom of the Roman belief; to
this day in European folklore the house snake or toad, which lives
in the cellar, is regarded as the " life index " or other self of the
father of the house; the death of one involves the death of the
other, according to popular belief. The assignment of genii to
buildings and gates is connected with an important class of
sacrifices; in order to provide a tutelary spirit, or to appease
chthonic deities, it was often the custom to sacrifice a human
being or an animal at the foundation of a building; sometimes we
find a similar guardian provided for the frontier of a country or of
a tribe. The house spirit is, however, not necessarily connected
with this idea. In Russia the domovoi (house spirit) is an
important personage in folk-belief; he may object to certain
kinds of animals, or to certain colours in cattle; and must,
generally speaking, be propitiated and cared for. Corresponding
to him we have the drudging goblin of English folklore.
(h) It has been shown above how the animistic creed postulates
the existence of all kinds of local spirits, which are sometimes
tied to their habitats, sometimes free to wander. Especially
prominent in Europe, classical, medieval and modern, and in
East Asia, is the spirit of the lake, jiver, spring, or well, often
conceived as human, but also in the form of a bull or horse; the
term Old Nick may refer to the water-horse Nok. Less specialized
in their functions are many of the figures of modern folklore,
some of whom have perhaps replaced some ancient goddess,
e.g. Frau Holda; others, like the Welsh Pwck, the Lancashire
boggarts or the more widely found Jack-o'-Lantern (Will o' the
Wisp), are sprites who do no more harm than leading the
wanderer astray. The banshee is perhaps connected with
ancestral or house spirits; the Wild Huntsman, the Gabriel
hounds, the Seven Whistlers, &c., are traceable to some actual
phenomenon; but the great mass of British goblindom cannot
now be traced back to savage or barbarous analogues. Among
other local sprites may be mentioned the kobolds or spirits of the
mines. The fairies (see FAIRY), located in the fairy knolls by the
inhabitants of the Shetlands, may also be put under this head.
(i) The subject of plant souls is referred to in connexion with
animism (q.v.); but certain aspects of this phase of belief
demand more detailed treatment. Outside the European area
vegetation spirits of all kinds seem to be conceived, as a rule, as
anthropomorphic; in classical Europe, and parts of the Slavonic
area at the present day, the tree spirit was believed to have the
form of a goat, or to have goats' feet.
Of special importance in Europe is the conception of the
so-called " corn spirit "; W. Mannhardt collected a mass of
information proving that the life of the corn is supposed to exist
apart from the corn itseli and to take the form, sometimes of an
animal, sometimes of a man or woman, sometimes of a child.
There is, however, no proof that the belief is animistic in the
proper sense. The animal which popular belief identified with
the corn demon is sometimes killed in the spring in order to
mingle its blood or bones with the seed; at harvest- time it is
supposed to sit in the last corn and the animals driven out from it
are sometimes killed; at others the reaper who cuts the last ear
is said to have killed the " wolf " or the " dog," and sometimes
receives the name of " wolf " or " dog " and retains it till the next
harvest. The corn spirit is also said to be hiding in the barn till
the corn is threshed, or it may be said to reappear at midwinter,
when the farmer begins to think of his new year of labour and
harvest. Side by side with the conception of the corn spirit as
an animal is the anthropomorphic view of it; and this element
must have predominated in the evolution of the cereal deities
like Demeter; at the same time traces of the association of gods
and goddesses of corn with animal embodiments of the corn spirit
are found.
(;') In many parts of the world, and especially in Africa, is
found the conception termed the " otiose creator "; that is to
say, the belief in a great deity, who is the author of all that exists
but is too remote from the world and too high above terrestrial
things to concern himself with the details of the universe. As
a natural result of this belief we find the view that the operations
of nature are conducted by a multitude of more or less obedient
subordinate deities; thus, in Portuguese West Africa the
Kimbunda believe in Suku-Vakange, but hold that he has com-
mitted the government of the universe to innumerable kilulu
good and bad; the latter kind are held to be far more numerous,
but Suku-Vakange is said to keep them in order by occasionally
smiting them with his thunderbolts; were it not for this, man's
lot would be insupportable.
Sometimes the gods of an older religion degenerate into the
demons of the belief which supersedes it. A conspicuous example
of this is found in the attitude of the Hebrew prophets to the gods
of the nations, whose power they recognize without admitting
their claim to reverence and sacrifice. The same tendency is seen
in many early missionary works and is far from being without
influence even at the present day. In the folklore of European
countries goblindom is peopled by gods and nature-spirits of an
earlier heathendom. We may also compare the Persian dens
with the Indian devas.
Expulsion of Demons. In connexion with demonology mention
must be made of the custom of expelling ghosts, spirits or evils
generally. Primitive peoples from the Australians upwards
celebrate, usually at fixed intervals, a driving out of hurtful
influences. Sometimes, as among the Australians, it is merely
the ghosts of those who have died in the year which are thus
8
DE MORGAN
driven out; from this custom must be distinguished another,
which consists in dismissing the souls of the dead at the close of
the year and sending them on their journey to the other world;
this latter custom seems to have an entirely different origin and
to be due to love and not fear of the dead. In other cases it is
believed that evil spirits generally or even non-personal evils
such as sins are believed to be expelled. In these customs
originated perhaps the scapegoat, some forms of sacrifice (q.v.)
and other cathartic ceremonies.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Tylor, Primitive Culture; Frazer, Golden Bough;
Skeat, Malay Magic; Bastian, Der Mensch in der Geschichte;
Callaway, Religion of the Amazulu; Hild, Etude sur les demons;
Welcker, Griechische Gotterlehre, i. 731; Trans. Am. Phil. Soc.
xxvi. 79; Calmet, Dissertation sur les esprits; Maury, La Magie;
L. W. King, Babylonian Magie; Lenormant, La Magie chez les
Chaldeens; R. C. Thompson, Devils and Evil Spirits of Babylonia;
Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie ; Roskoff , Geschichte des Teufels ; Sibly,
Illustration of the Occult Sciences; Scott, Demonology; Pitcairn,
Scottish Criminal Trials; Jewish Quarterly Rev. viii. 576, &c. ;
Horst, Zauberbibliothek; Jewish Encyclopedia, s.v. " Demonology."
See also bibliography to POSSESSION, ANIMISM and other articles.
(N. W. T.)
DE MORGAN, AUGUSTUS (1806-1871), English mathema-
tician and logician, was born in June 1806, at Madura, in the
Madras presidency. His father, Colonel John De Morgan, was
employed in the East India Company's service, and his grand-
father and great-grandfather had served under Warren Hastings.
On the mother's side he was descended from JamesDodson,F.R.S.,
author of the Anti-logarithmic Canon and other mathematical
works of merit, and a friend of Abraham Demoivre. Seven
months after the birth of Augustus, Colonel De Morgan brought
his wife, daughter and infant son to England, where he left
them during a subsequent period of service in India, dying in
1 8 1 6 on his way home.
Augustus De Morgan received his early education in several
private schools, and before the age of fourteen years had learned
Latin, Greek and some Hebrew, in addition to acquiring much
general knowledge. At the age of sixteen years and a half he
entered Trinity College, Cambridge, and studied mathematics,
partly under the tuition of Sir G. B. Airy. In 1825 he gained a
Trinity scholarship. De Morgan's love of wide reading some-
what interfered with his success in the mathematical tripos, in
which he took the fourth place in 1827. He was prevented from
taking his M.A. degree, or from obtaining a fellowship, by his
conscientious objection to signing the theological tests then
required from masters of arts and fellows at Cambridge.
A career in his own university being closed against him, he
entered Lincoln's Inn ; but had hardly done so when the establish-
ment, in 1828, of the university of London, in Gower Street,
afterwards known as University College, gave him an opportunity
of continuing his mathematical pursuits. At the early age of
twenty-two he gave his first lecture as professor of mathematics
in the college which he served with the utmost zeal and success
for a third of a century. His connexion with the college, indeed,
was interrupted in 1831, when a disagreement with the governing
body caused De Morgan and some other professors to resign their
chairs simultaneously. When, in 1836, his successor was acci-
dentally drowned, De Morgan was requested to resume the
professorship.
In 1837 he married Sophia Elizabeth, daughter of William
Frend, a Unitarian in faith, a mathematician and actuary in
occupation, a notice of whose life, written by his son-in-law,
will be found in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society (vol. v.). They settled in Chelsea (30 Cheyne Row), where
in later years Mrs De Morgan had a large circle of intellectual
and artistic friends.
As a teacher of mathematics De Morgan was unrivalled. He
gave instruction in the form of continuous lectures delivered
extempore from brief notes. The most prolonged mathematical
reasoning, and the most intricate formulae, were given with
almost infallible accuracy from the resources of his extraordinary
memory. De Morgan's writings, however excellent, give little
idea of the perspicuity and elegance of his viva voce expositions,
which never failed to fix the attention of all who were worthy
of hearing him. Many of his pupils have distinguished them-
selves, and, through Isaac Todhunter and E. J. Routh, he had
an important influence on the later Cambridge school. For
thirty years he took an active part in the business of the Royal
Astronomical Society, editing its publications, supplying obituary
notices of members, and for eighteen years acting as one of the
honorary secretaries. He was also frequently employed as con-
sulting actuary, a business in which his mathematical powers,
combined with sound judgment and business-like habits, fitted
him to take the highest place.
De Morgan's mathematical writings contributed powerfully
towards the progress of the science. His memoirs on the
" Foundation of Algebra," in the ;th and 8th volumes of the
Cambridge Philosophical Transactions, contain some of the most
important contributions which have been made to the philosophy
of mathematical method; and Sir W. Rowan Hamilton, in the
preface to his Lectures on Quaternions, refers more than once to
those papers as having led and encouraged him in the working
out of the new system of quaternions. The work on Trigon-
ometry and Double Algebra (1849) contains in the latter part a
most luminous and philosophical view of existing and possible
systems of symbolic calculus. But De Morgan's influence on
mathematical science in England can only be estimated by a
review of his long series of publications, which commence, in
1828, with a translation of part of Bourdon's Elements of Algebra,
prepared for his students. In 1830 appeared the first edition of
his well-known Elements of Arithmetic, which did much to raise
the character of elementary training. It is distinguished by a
simple yet thoroughly philosophical treatment of the ideas of
number and magnitude, as well as by the introduction of new
abbreviated processes of computation, to which De Morgan
always attributed much practical importance. Second and third
editions were called for in 1832 and 1835; a sixth edition was
issued in 1876. De Morgan's other principal mathematical
works were The Elements of Algebra (1835), a valuable but some-
what dry elementary treatise; the Essay on Probabilities (1838),
forming the iO7th volume of Lardner's Cyclopaedia, which forms
a valuable introduction to the subject; and The Elements of
Trigonometry and Trigonometrical Analysis, preliminary to the
Differential Calculus (1837). Several of his mathematical works
were published by the Society for the Diffusfon of Useful Know-
ledge, of which De Morgan was at one time an active member.
Among these may be mentioned the Treatise on the Differential
and Integral Calculus (1842); the Elementary Illustrations of the
Differential and Integral Calculus, first published in 1832, but
often bound up with the larger treatise; the essay, On the Study
and Difficulties of Mathematics (1831); and a brief treatise on
Spherical Trigonometry (1834). By some accident the work on
probability in the same series, written by Sir J. W. Lubbock and
J. Drinkwater-Bethune, was attributed to De Morgan, an error
which seriously annoyed his nice sense of bibliographical accuracy.
For fifteen years he did all in his power to correct the mistake,
and finally wrote to The Times to disclaim the authorship. (See
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. xxvi.
p. 1 1 8.) Two of his most elaborate treatises are to be found in the
Encyclopaedia metropolitana, namely the articles on the Calculus
of Functions, and the Theory of Probabilities. DeMorgan's minor
mathematical writings were scattered over various periodicals.
A list of these and other papers will be found in the Royal
Society's Catalogue, which contains forty-two entries under the
name of De Morgan.
In spite, however, of the excellence and extent of his mathe-
matical writings, it is probably as a logical reformer that De
Morgan will be best remembered. In this respect he stands
alongside of his great contemporaries Sir W. R. Hamilton and
George Boole, as one of several independent discoverers of the
all-important principle of the quantification of the predicate.
Unlike most mathematicians, De Morgan always laid much stress
upon the importance of logical training. In his admirable papers
upon the modes of teaching arithmetic and geometry, originally
published in the Quarterly Journal of Education (reprinted in The
Schoolmaster, vol ii.), he remonstrated against the neglect of
DE MORGAN
logical doctrine. In 1839 he produced a small work called First
Notions of Logic, giving what he had found by experience to be
much wanted by students commencing with Euclid. In October
1846 he completed the first of his investigations, in the form of a
paper printed in the Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical
Society (vol. viii. No. 29). In this paper the principle of the
quantified predicate was referred to, and there immediately
ensued a memorable controversy with Sir W. R. Hamilton regard-
ing the independence of De Morgan's discovery, some communi-
cations having passed between them in the autumn of 1846. The
details of this dispute will be found in the original pamphlets,
in the Athenaeum and in the appendix to De Morgan's Formal
Logic. Suffice it to say that the independence of De Morgan's
discovery was subsequently recognized by Hamilton. The eight
forms of proposition adopted by De Morgan as the basis of his
system partially differ from those which Hamilton derived
from the quantified predicate. The general character of De
Morgan's development of logical forms was wholly peculiar and
original on his part.
Late in 1847 De Morgan published his principal logical treatise,
called Formal Logic, or the Calculus of Inference, Necessary and
Probable. This contains a reprint of the First Notions, an elabor-
ate development of his doctrine of the syllogism, and of the
numerical definite syllogism, together with chapters of great
interest on probability, induction, old logical terms and fallacies.
The severity of the treatise is relieved by characteristic touches
of humour, and by quaint anecdotes and allusions furnished from
his wide reading and perfect memory. There followed at
intervals, in the years 1850, 1858, 1860 and 1863, a series of four
elaborate memoirs on the " Syllogism," printed in volumes ix.
and x. of the Cambridge Philosophical Transactions. These
papers taken together constitute a great treatise on logic,
in which he substituted improved systems of notation, and
developed a new logic of relations, and a new onymatic system
of logical expression. In 1860 De Morgan endeavoured to render
their contents better known by publishing a Syllabus of a
Proposed System of Logic, from which may be obtained a good
idea of his symbolic system, but the more readable and interesting
discussions contained in the memoirs are of necessity omitted.
The article " Logic " in the English Cyclopaedia (1860) completes
the list of his logical publications.
Throughout his logical writings De Morgan was led by the idea
that the followers of the two great branches of exact science,
logic and mathematics, had made blunders, the logicians in
neglecting mathematics, and the mathematicians in neglecting
logic. He endeavoured to reconcile them, and in the attempt
showed how many errors an acute mathematician could detect
in logical writings, and how large a field there was for discovery.
But it may be doubted whether De Morgan's own system,
" horrent with mysterious spiculae," as Hamilton aptly described
it, is fitted to exhibit the real analogy between quantitative and
qualitative reasoning, which is rather to be sought in the logical
works of Boole.
Perhaps the largest part, in volume, of De Morgan's writings re-
mains still to be briefly mentioned ; it consists of detached articles
contributed to various periodical or composite works. During the
years 18331843 he contributed very largely to the first edition of
the Penny Cyclopaedia, writing chiefly on mathematics, astronomy,
physics and biography. His articles of various length cannot be
less in number than 850, and they have been estimated to constitute
a sixth part of the whole Cyclopaedia, of which they formed perhaps
the most valuable portion. He also wrote biographies of Sir Isaac
Newton and Edmund Halley for Knight's British Worthies, various
notices of scientific men for the Gallery of Portraits, and for the un-
completed Biographical Dictionary of the Useful Knowledge Society,
and at least seven articles in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman
Biography. Some of De Morgan's most interesting and useful minor
writings are to be found in the Companions to the British Almanack, to
which he contributed without fail one article each year from 1831 up
to 1857 inclusive. In these carefully written papers he treats a great
variety of topics relating to astronomy, chronology, decimal coinage,
life assurance, bibliography and the history of science. Most of
them are as valuable now as when written.
Among De Morgan's miscellaneous writings may be mentioned his
Explanation of the Gnomonic Projection of the Sphere, 1836, including
a description of the maps of the stars, published by the Useful Know-
ledge Society ; his Treatise on the Globes, Celestial and Terrestrial,lB45,
and his remarkable Book of Almanacks (2nd edition, 1871), which
contains a series of thirty-five almanacs, so arranged with indices of
reference, that the almanac for any year, whether in old style or new,
from any epoch, ancient or modern, up to A. D. 2000, may be found
without difficulty, means being added for verifying the almanac and
also for discovering the days of new and full moon from 2000 B. C. up
to A. D. 2000. De Morgan expressly draws attention to the fact that
the plan of this book was that of L. B. Francoeur and J. Ferguson,
but the plan was developed by one who was an unrivalled master of
all the intricacies of chronology. The two best tables of logarithms,
the small five-figure tables of the Useful Knowledge Society (1839 and
1857), and Shroen's Seven Figure-Table (5th ed., 1865), were printed
under De Morgan's superintendence. Several works edited by him
will be found mentioned in the British Museum Catalogue. He made
numerous anonymous contributions through a long series of years
to the Athenaeum, and to Notes and Queries, and occasionally to
The North British Review, Macmillan's Magazine, &c.
Considerable labour was spent by De Morgan upon the subject
of decimal coinage. He was a great advocate of the pound and mil
scheme. His evidence on this subject was sought by the Royal
Commission, and, besides constantly supporting the Decimal
Association in periodical publications, he published several separate
pamphlets on the subject.
One marked characteristic of De Morgan was his intense and yet
reasonable love of books. He was a true bibliophile and loved to
surround himself, as far as his means allowed, with curious and rare
books. He revelled in all the mysteries of watermarks, title-pages,
colophons, catch-words and the like; yet he treated bibliography
as an important science. As he himself wrote, " the most worthless
book of a bygone day is a record worthy of preservation; like a
telescopic star, its obscurity may render it unavailable for most
purposes; but it serves, in hands which know how to use it, to de-
termine the places of more important bodies." His evidence before
the Royal Commission on the British Museum in 1850 (Questions
5704*-58i5,* 6481-6513, and 8966-8967), should be studied by all
who would comprehend the principles of bibliography or the art of
constructing a catalogue, his views on the latter subject correspond-
ing with those carried out by Panizzi in the British Museum Catalogue.
A sample of De Morgan's bibliographical learning is to be found in
his account of Arithmetical Books, from the Invention of Printing
(1847), and finally in his Budget of Paradoxes. This latter work
consists of articles most of which were originally published in the
Athenaeum, describing the various attempts which have been made
to invent a perpetual motion, to square the circle, or to trisect the
angle ; but De Morgan took the opportunity to include many curious
bits gathered from his extensive reading, so that the Budget, as re-
printed by his widow (1872), with much additional matter prepared
by himself, forms a remarkable collection of scientific ana. De
Morgan's correspondence with contemporary scientific men was very
extensive and full of interest. It remains unpublished, as does also
a large mass of mathematical tracts which he prepared for the use
of his students, treating all parts of mathematical science, and
embodying some of the matter of his lectures. De Morgan's library
was purchased by Lord Overstone, and presented to the university
of London.
In 1866 his life became clouded by the circumstances which led
him to abandon the institution so long the scene of his labours.
The refusal of the council to accept the recommendation of the
senate, that they should appoint an eminent Unitarian minister
to the professorship of logic and mental philosophy, revived all
De Morgan's sensitiveness on the subject of sectarian freedom;
and, though his feelings were doubtless excessive, there is no
doubt that gloom was thrown over his life, intensified in 1867 by
the loss of his son George Campbell De Morgan, a young man of
the highest scientific promise, whose name, as De Morgan
expressly wished, will long be connected with the London
Mathematical Society, of which he was one of the founders.
From this time De Morgan rapidly fell into ill-health, previously
almost unknown to him, dying on the i8th of March 1871. An
interesting and truthful sketch of his life will be found in the
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society for the gth of
February 1872, vol. xxii. p. 112, written by A. C. Ranyard, who
says, " He was the kindliest, as well as the most learned of men
benignant to every one who approached him, never forgetting the
claims which weakness has on strength."
De Morgan left no published indications of his opinions on
religious questions, in regard to which he was extremely reticent.
He seldom or never entered a place of worship, and declared that
he could not listen to a sermon, a circumstance perhaps due to
the extremely strict religious discipline under which he was
brought up. Nevertheless there is reason to believe that he
IO
DEMOSTHENES
was of a deeply religious disposition. Like M. Faraday and
Sir I. Newton he entertained a confident belief in Provi-
dence, founded not on any tenuous inference, but on personal
feeling. His hope of a future life also was vivid to the last.
It is impossible to omit a reference to his witty sayings, some
specimens of which are preserved in Dr Sadler's most interesting
Diary of Henry Crabb Robinson (1869), which also contains a
humorous account of H. C. R. by De Morgan. It may be
added that De Morgan was a great reader and admirer of
Dickens; he was also fond of music, and a fair performer on
the flute. (W. S. J.)
His son, WILLIAM FREND DE MORGAN (b. i39), first became
known in artistic circles as a potter, the " De Morgan " tiles
being remarkable for his rediscovery of the secret of some beauti-
ful colours and glazes. But later in life he became even better
known to the literary world by his novels, Joseph Vance (1906),
Alice for Short (1907), Somehow Good (1908) and It Never Can
Happen Again (1909), in which the influence of Dickens and of
his own earlier family life were conspicuous.
DEMOSTHENES, the great Attic orator and statesman, was
born in 384 (or 383) B.C. His father, who bore the same name,
was an Athenian citizen belonging to the deme of Paeania. His
mother, Cleobule, was the daughter of Gylon, a citizen who had
been active in procuring the protection of the kings of Bosporus
for the Athenian colony of Nymphaeon in the Crimea, and whose
wife was a native of that region. On these grounds the adversaries
of Demosthenes, in after-days, used absurdly to taunt him with
a traitorous or barbarian ancestry. The boy had a bitter fore-
taste of life. He was seven years old when his father died,
leaving property (in a manufactory of swords, and another of
upholstery) worth about 3500, which, invested as it seems to
have been (20% was not thought exorbitant), would have
yielded rather more than 600 a year. 300 a year was a very
comfortable income at Athens, and it was possible to live decently
on a tenth of it. Nicias, a very rich man, had property equivalent,
probably, to not more than 4000 a year. Demosthenes was born
then, to a handsome, though not a great fortune. But his
guardians two nephews of his father, Aphobus and Demophon,
and one Therippides abused their trust, and handed over to
Demosthenes, when he came of age, rather less than one-seventh
of his patrimony, perhaps between 50 and 60 a year.
Demosthenes, after studying with Isaeus (q.v.) then the great
master of forensic eloquence and of Attic law, especially in will
cases ' brought an action against Aphobus, and gained a verdict
for about 2400. But it does not appear that he got the money;
and, after some more fruitless proceedings against Onetor,
the brother-in-law of Aphobus, the matter was dropped, not,
however, before his relatives had managed to throw a public
burden (the equipment of a ship of war) on their late ward,
whereby his resources were yet further straitened. He now
became a professional writer of speeches or pleas (\oyoy pa<tx>s)
for the law courts, sometimes speaking himself. Biographers
have delighted to relate how painfully Demosthenes made him-
self a tolerable speaker, how, with pebbles in his mouth, he
tried his lungs against the waves, how he declaimed as he ran up
hill, how he shut himself up in a cell, having first guarded himself
against a longing for the haunts of men by shaving one side of
his head, how he wrote out Thucydides eight times, how he was
derided by the Assembly and encouraged by a judicious actor who
met him moping about the Peiraeus. He certainly seems to have
been the reverse of athletic (the stalwart Aeschines upbraids him
with never having been a sportsman), and he probably had some
sort of defect or impediment in his speech as a boy. Perhaps the
most interesting fact about his work for the law courts is that
he seems to have continued it, in some measure, through the most
exciting parts of his great political career. The speech for
Phormio belongs to the same year as the plea for Megalopolis.
The speech against Boeotus " Concerning the Name " comes
between the First Philippic and the First Olynthiac. The speech
against Pantaenetus comes between the speech " On the Peace "
and the Second Philippic.
1 See Jebb's Attic Orators from Antiphon to Isaeos, vol. ii. p. 267 f.
The political career of Demosthenes, from his first direct
contact with public affairs in 355 B.C. to his death in 322, has
an essential unity. It is the assertion, in successive
forms adapted to successive moments, of unchanging Pollacal
principles. Externally, it is divided into the chap- "eec^"'
ter which precedes and the chapter which follows
Chaeronea. But its inner meaning, the secret of its indomitable
vigour, the law which harmonizes its apparent contrasts, cannot
be understood unless it is regarded as a whole. Still less can it
be appreciated in all its large wisdom and sustained self-mastery
if it is viewed merely as a duel between the ablest champion and
the craftiest enemy of Greek freedom. The time indeed came
when Demosthenes and Philip stood face to face as representative
antagonists in a mortal conflict. But, for Demosthenes, the
special peril represented by Philip, the peril of subjugation to
Macedon, was merely a disastrous accident. Philip happened
to become the most prominent and most formidable type of a
danger which was already threatening Greece before his baleful
star arose. As Demosthenes said to the Athenians, if the
Macedonian had not existed, they would have made another
Philip lor themselves. Until Athens recovered something of its
old spirit, there must ever be a great standing danger, not for
Athens only, but for Greece, the danger that sooner or later, in
some shape, from some quarter no man could foretell the hour,
the manner or the source barbarian violence would break up
the gracious and undefiled tradition of separate Hellenic life.
What was the true relation of Athens to Greece ? The answer
which he gave to this question is the key to the life of
Demosthenes. Athens, so Demosthenes held, was the natural
head of Greece. Not, however, as an empress holding subject
or subordinate cities in a dependence more or less compulsory.
Rather as that city which most nobly expressed the noblest
attributes of Greek political existence, and which, by her pre-
eminent gifts both of intellect and of moral insight, was primarily
responsible, everywhere and always, for the maintenance of those
attributes in their integrity. Wherever the cry of the oppressed
goes up from Greek against Greek, it was the voice of Athens
which should first remind the oppressor that Hellene differed
from barbarian in postponing the use of force to the persuasions
of equal law. Wherever a barbarian hand offered wrong to any
city of the Hellenic sisterhood, it was the arm of Athens which
should first be stretched forth in the holy strength of Apollo the
Averter. Wherever among her own children the ancient loyalty
was yielding to love of pleasure or of base gain, there, above all,
it was the duty of Athens to see that the central hearth of Hellas
was kept pure. Athens must never again seek " empire " in the
sense which became odious under the influence of Cleon and
Hyperbolus, when, to use the image of Aristophanes, the allies
were as Babylonian slaves grinding in the Athenian mill. Athens
must never permit, if she could help it, the re-establishment of
such a domination as Sparta exercised in Greece from the battle
of Aegospotami to the battle of Leuctra. Athens must aim
at leading a free confederacy, of which the members should be
bound to her by their own truest interests. Athens must seek
to deserve the confidence of all Greeks alike.
Such, in the belief of Demosthenes, was the part which Athens
must perform if Greece was to be safe. But reforms must be
effected before Athens could be capable of such a part. The evils
to be cured were different phases of one malady. Athens had
long been suffering from the profound decay of public spirit.
Since the early years of the Peloponnesian War, the separation
of Athenian society from the state had been growing more and
more marked. The old type of the eminent citizen, who was at
once statesman and general, had become almost extinct. Politics
were now managed by a small circle .of politicians. Wars were
conducted by professional soldiers whose troops were chiefly
mercenaries, and who were usually regarded by the politicians
either as instruments or as enemies. The mass of the
citizens took no active interest in public affairs. But, ^^
though indifferent to principles, they had quickly sensi-
tive partialities for men, and it was necessary to keep them in
good humour. Pericles had introduced the practice of giving a
DEMOSTHENES
ii
small bounty from the treasury to the poorer citizens, for the pur-
pose of enabling them to attend the theatre at the great festivals,
in other words, for the purpose of bringing them under the
concentrated influence of the best Attic culture. A provision
eminently wise for the age of Pericles easily became a mischief
when the once honourable name of " demagogue " began to
mean a flatterer of the mob. Before the end of the Pelopon-
nesian War the festival-money (theoricon) was abolished. A few
years after the restoration of the democracy it was again intro-
duced. But until 354 B.C. it had never been more than a gratuity,
of which the payment depended on the treasury having a surplus.
In 354 B.C. Eubulus became steward of the treasury. He was
an able man, with a special talent for finance, free from all taint
of personal corruption, and sincerely solicitous for the honour
of Athens, but enslaved to popularity, and without principles
of policy. His first measure was to make the festival-money a
permanent item in the budget. Thenceforth this bounty was in
reality very much what Demades afterwards called it, the
cement (xoXXa) of the democracy.
Years before the danger from Macedon was urgent, Demos-
thenes had begun the work of his life, the effort to lift the spirit
Forensic ^ Athens, to revive the old civic loyalty, to rouse the
speeches city into taking that place and performing that part
la public which her own welfare as well as the safety of Greece
causes, prescribed. His formally political speeches must never
be considered apart from his forensic speeches in public causes.
The Athenian procedure against the proposer of an unconstitu-
tional law i.e. of a law incompatible with existing laws had a
direct tendency to make the law court, in such cases, a political
arena. The same tendency was indirectly exerted by the
tolerance of Athenian juries (in the absence of a presiding expert
like a judge) for irrelevant matter, since it was usually easy for a
speaker to make capital out of the adversary's political ante-
cedents. But the forensic speeches of Demosthenes for public
causes are not only political in this general sense. They are
documents, as indispensable as the Olynthiacs or Philippics,
for his own political career. Only by taking them along with the
formally political speeches, and regarding the whole as one
unbroken series, can we see clearly the full scope of the task
which he set before him, a task in which his long resistance to
Philip was only the most dramatic incident, and in which his
real achievement is not to be measured by the event of
Chaeronea.
A forensic speech, composed for a public cause, opens the
political career of Demosthenes with a protest against a signal
abuse. In 355 B.C., at the age of twenty-nine, he wrote the
speech " Against Androtion." This combats on legal grounds a
proposal that the out-going senate should receive the honour of a
golden crown. In its larger aspect, it is a denunciation of the
corrupt system which that senate represented, and especially of
the manner in which the treasury had been administered by
Aristophon. In 354 B.C. Demosthenes composed and spoke the
oration " Against Leptines," who had effected a slender saving
for the state by the expedient of revoking those hereditary
exemptions from taxation which had at various times been
conferred in recognition of distinguished merit. The descendants
of Harmodius and Aristogeiton alone had been excepted from
the operation of the law. This was the first time that the voice
of Demosthenes himself had been heard on the public concerns
of Athens, and the utterance was a worthy prelude to the career
of a statesman. He answers the advocates of the retrenchment
by pointing out that the public interest will not ultimately be
served by a wholesale violation of the public faith. In the same
year he delivered his first strictly political speech, " On the Navy
Boards " (Symmories). The Athenians, irritated by the support
which Artaxerxes had lately given to the revolt of their allies,
and excited by rumours of his hostile preparations, were feverishly
eager for a war with Persia. Demosthenes urges that such an
enterprise would at present be useless; that it would fail to unite
Greece; that the energies of the city should be reserved for a real
emergency; but that, before the city can successfully cope with
any war, there must be a better organization of resources, and,
first of all, a reform of the navy, which he outlines with character-
istic lucidity and precision.
Two years later (352 B.C.) he is found dealing with a more
definite question of foreign policy. Sparta, favoured by the
depression of Thebes in the Phocian War, was threatening
Megalopolis. Both Sparta and Megalopolis sent embassies to
Athens. Demosthenes supported Megalopolis. The ruin of
Megalopolis would mean, he argued, the return of Spartan
domination in the Peloponnesus. Athenians must not favour
the tyranny of any one city. They must respect the rights of all
the cities, and thus promote unity based on mutual confidence.
In the same year Demosthenes wrote the speech " Against
Timocrates," to be spoken by the same Diodorus who had before
prosecuted Androtion, and who now combated an attempt to
screen Androtion and others from the penalties of embezzlement.
The speech " Against Aristocrates," also of 352 B.C., reproves that
foreign policy of feeble makeshifts which was now popular at
Athens. The Athenian tenure of the Thracian Chersonese partly
depended for its security on the good-will of the Thracian prince
Cersobleptes. Charidemus, a soldier of fortune who had already
played Athens false, was now the brother-in-law and the favourite
of Cersobleptes. Aristocrates proposed that the person of
Charidemus should be invested with a special sanctity, by the
enactment that whoever attempted his life should be an outlaw
from all dominions of Athens. Demosthenes points out that
such adulation is as futile as it is fulsome. Athens can secure
the permanence of her foreign possessions only in one way by
being strong enough to hold them.
Thus, between 355 and 352, Demosthenes had laid down
the main lines of his policy. Domestic administration must be
purified. Statesmen must be made to feel that they
are responsible to the state, They must not be allowed
to anticipate judgment on their deserts by voting each
other golden crowns. They must not think to screen mis-
appropriation of public money by getting partisans to pass new
laws about state-debtors. Foreign policy must be guided by a
larger and more provident conception of Athenian interests.
When public excitement demands a foreign war, Athens must not
rush into it without asking whether it is necessary, whether it
will have Greek support, and whether she herself is ready for it.
When a strong Greek city threatens a weak one, and seeks to
purchase Athenian connivance with the bribe of a border-town,
Athens must remember that duty and prudence alike command
her to respect the independence of all Greeks. When it is pro-
posed, by way of insurance on Athenian possessions abroad, to
flatter the favourite of a doubtful ally, Athens must remember
that such devices will not avail a power which has no army
except on paper, and no ships fit to leave their moorings.
But the time had gone by when Athenians could have tranquil
leisure for domestic reform. A danger, calling for prompt action,
had at last come very near. For six years Athens had
been at war with Philip on account of his seizure of
Amphipolis. Meanwhile he had destroyed Potidaea Philip.
and founded Philippi. On the Thracian coasts he had
become master of Abdera and Maronea. On the Thessalian coast
he had acquired Methone. In a second invasion of Thessaly,
he had overthrown the Phocians under Onomarchus, and had
advanced to Thermopylae, to find the gates of Greece closed
against him by an Athenian force. He had then marched
to Heraeon on the Propontis, and had dictated a peace to
Cersobleptes. He had formed an alliance with Cardia, Perinthus
and Byzantium. Lastly, he had begun to show designs on the
great Confederacy of Olynthus, the more warlike Miletus of
the North. The First Philippic of Demosthenes was spoken in
351 B.C. The Third Philippic the latest of the extant political
speeches was spoken in 341 B.C. Between these he delivered
eight political orations, of which seven are directly concerned
with Philip. The whole series falls into two great divisions.
The first division comprises those speeches which were spoken
against Philip while he was still a foreign power threatening
Greece from without. Such are the First Philippic and the three
orations for Olynthus. The second division comprises the speeches
12
DEMOSTHENES
spoken against Philip when, by admission to the Amphictyonic
Council, he had now won his way within the circle of the Greek
states, and when the issue was no longer between Greece and
Macedonia, but between the Greek and Macedonian parties in
Greece. Such are the speech " On the Peace," the speech " On
the Embassy," the speech " On the Chersonese," the Second and
Third Philippics.
The First Philippic, spoken early in 351 B.C., was no sudden
note of alarm drawing attention to an unnoticed peril. On the
contrary, the Assembly was weary of the subject. For
PAfl/ fc, s * x X ears tne war w * tn Philip had been a theme of barren
talk. Demosthenes urges that it is time to do some-
thing, and to do it with a plan. Athens fighting Philip has fared,
he says, like an amateur boxer opposed to a skilled pugilist.
The helpless hands have only followed blows which a trained eye
should have taught them to parry. An Athenian force must be
stationed in the north, at Lemnos or Thasos. Of 2000 infantry
and 200 cavalry at least one quarter must be Athenian citizens
capable of directing the mercenaries.
Later in the same year Demosthenes did another service to the
cause of national freedom. Rhodes, severed by its own act from
the Athenian Confederacy, had since 355 been virtually subject
to Mausolus, prince (Svvaarrp) of Caria, himself a tributary of
Persia. Mausolus died in 351, and was succeeded by his widow
Artemisia. The democratic party in Rhodes now appealed to
Athens for help in throwing off the Carian yoke. Demosthenes
supported their application in his speech " For the Rhodians."
No act of his life was a truer proof of statesmanship. He failed.
But at least he had once more warned Athens that the cause of
political freedom was everywhere her own, and that, wherever
that cause was forsaken, there a new danger was created both for
Athens and for Greece.
Next year (350) an Athenian force under Phocion was sent to
Euboea, in support of Plutarchus, tyrant of Eretria, against the
faction of Cleitarchus. Demosthenes protested against
spending strength, needed for greater objects, on the
local quarrels of a despot. Phocion won a victory at
Tamynae. But the " inglorious and costly war " entailed an
outlay of more than 12,000 on the ransom of captives alone,
and ended in the total destruction of Athenian influence through-
out Euboea. That island was now left an open field for the
intrigues of Philip. Worst of all, the party of Eubulus not only
defeated a proposal, arising from this campaign, for applying the
festival-money to the war-fund, but actually carried a law making
it high treason to renew the proposal. The degree to which
political enmity was exasperated by the Euboean War may be
judged from the incident of Midias, an adherent of Eubulus,
and a type of opulent rowdyism. Demosthenes was choragus
of his tribe, and was wearing the robe of that sacred office at
the great festival in the theatre of Dionysus, when Midias struck
him on the face. The affair was eventually compromised. The
speech " Against Midias " written by Demosthenes for the trial
(in 349) was neither spoken nor completed, and remains, as few
will regret, a sketch.
It was now three years since, in 352, the Olynthians had sent
an embassy to Athens, and had made peace with their only sure
ally. In 350 a second Olynthian embassy had sought
and obtained Athenian help. The hour of Olynthus
had indeed come. In 349 Philip opened war against
the Chalcidic towns of the Olynthian League. The First and
Second Olynthiacs of Demosthenes were spoken in that year in
support of sending one force to defend Olynthus and another to
attack Philip. " Better now than later," is the thought of the
First Olynthiac: The Second argues that Philip's strength is
overrated. The Third spoken in 348 carries us into the midst
of action. 1 It deals with practical details. The festival-fund
must be used for the war. The citizens must serve in person.
1 It is generally agreed that the Third Olynthiac is the latest ; but
the question of the order of the First and Second has been much
discussed. See Grote (History of Greece, chap. 88, appendix), who
prefers the arrangement ii. i. iii., and Blass, Die attische Beredsamkeit,
iii. p. 319.
Euboean
War.
Olyn-
thiacs.
A few months later, Olynthus and the thirty-two towns of the
confederacy were swept from the earth. Men could walk over
their sites, Demosthenes said seven years afterwards, without
knowing that such cities had existed. It was now certain that
Philip could not be stopped outside of Greece. The question
was, What point within Greece shall he be allowed to reach?
Eubulus and his party, with that versatility which is the
privilege of political vagueness, now began to call for a congress
of the allies to consider the common danger. They found a
brilliant interpreter in Aeschines, who, after having been a tragic
actor and a clerk to the assembly, had entered political life with
the advantages of a splendid gift for eloquence, a fine presence,
a happy address, a ready wit and a facile conscience. While
his opponents had thus suddenly become warlike, Demosthenes
had become pacific. He saw that Athens must have time to
collect strength. Nothing could be gained, meanwhile, by going
on with the war. Macedonian sympathizers at Athens, of whom
Philocrates was the chief, also favoured peace. Eleven envoys,
including Philocrates, Aeschines, and Demosthenes, were sent
to Philip in February 346 B.C. After a debate at Athens, peace
was concluded with Philip in April. Philip on the one Peace
hand, Athens and her allies on the other, were to keep between
what they respectively held at the time when the peace phll 'P aad
was ratified. But here the Athenians made a fatal
error. Philip was bent on keeping the door of Greece open.
Demosthenes was bent on shutting it against him. Philip was
now at war with the people of Halus in Thessaly. Thebes had
for ten years been at war with Phocis. Here were two distinct
chances for Philip's armed intervention in Greece. But if the
Kalians and the Phocians were included in the peace, Philip
could not bear arms against them without violating the peace.
Accordingly Philip insisted that they should not be included.
Demosthenes insisted they should be included. They were
not included. The result followed speedily. The same envoys
were sent a second time to Philip at the end of April 346 for
the purpose of receiving his oaths in ratification of the peace.
It was late in June before he returned from Thrace to Pella thus
gaining, under the terms, all the towns that he had taken mean-
while. He next took the envoys with him through Thessaly to
Thermopylae. There at the invitation of Thessalians and
Thebans he intervened in the Phocian War. Phalaecus
surrendered. Phocis was crushed. Philip took its
place in the Amphictyonic Council, and was thus p%Jfa a
established as a Greek power in the very centre, at the war.
sacred hearth, of Greece. The right of precedence in
consultation of the oracle (irponavrdo.) was transferred from
Athens to Philip. While indignant Athenians were clamouring for
the revocation of the peace, Demosthenes upheld it in his speech
" On the Peace " in September. It ought never to have been
made on such terms, he said. But, having been made, it had
better be kept. " If we went to war now, where should we find
allies? And after losing Oropus, Amphipolis, Cardia, Chios, Cos,
Rhodes, Byzantium, shall we fight about the shadow of Delphi?"
During the eight years between the peace of Philocrates and
the battle of Chaeronea, the authority of Demosthenes steadily
grew, until it became first predominant and then paramount. He
had, indeed, a melancholy advantage. Each year his argument
was more and more cogently enforced by the logic of facts. In
344 he visited the Peloponnesus for the purpose of counteracting
Macedonian intrigue. Mistrust, he told the Peloponnesian
cities, is the safeguard of free communities against tyrants.
Philip lodged a formal complaint at Athens. Here, as elsewhere,
the future master of Greece reminds us of Napoleon on the eve of
the first empire. He has the same imperturbable and persuasive
effrontery in protesting that he is doing one thing at the moment
when his energies are concentrated on doing the opposite.
Demosthenes replied in the Second Philippic. " If," he
said, " Philip is the friend of Greece, we are doing
wrong. If he is the enemy of Greece, we are doing
right. Which is he? I hold him to be our enemy, because
everything that he has hitherto done has benefited himself and
hurt us." The prosecution of Aeschines for malversation on the
Second
Philippic.
DEMOSTHENES
Third
Philippic.
embassy (commonly known as De falsa legalione), which was
brought to an issue in the following year, marks the moral
strength of the position now held by Demosthenes. When the
gravity of the charge and the complexity of the evidence are
considered, the acquittal of Aeschines by a narrow majority
must be deemed his condemnation. The speech " On the
Affairs of the Chersonese " and the Third Philippic were the
crowning efforts of Demosthenes. Spoken in the same year,
341 B.C., and within a short space of each other, they must be
taken together. The speech " On the Affairs of the Chersonese "
regards the situation chiefly from an Athenian point of view.
" If the peace means," argues Demosthenes, " that Philip can
seize with impunity one Athenian possession after another, but
that Athenians shall not on their peril touch aught that belongs
to Philip, where is the line to be drawn? We shall go to war, I
am told, when it is necessary. If the necessity has not come
yet, when will it come? " The Third Philippic surveys
a wider horizon. It ascends from the Athenian to the
Hellenic view. Philip has annihilated Olynthus and
the Chalcidic towns. He has ruined Pbocis. He has frightened
Thebes. He has divided Thessaly. Euboea and the Pelo-
ponnesus are his. His power stretches from the Adriatic to
the Hellespont. Where shall be the end? Athens is the last
hope of Greece. And, in this final crisis, Demosthenes was the
embodied energy of Athens. It was Demosthenes who went to
Byzantium, brought the estranged city back to the Athenian
alliance, and snatched it from the hands of Philip. It was
Demosthenes who, when Philip had already seized Elatea,
hurried to Thebes, who by his passionate appeal gained one last
chance, the only possible chance, for Greek freedom, who broke
down the barrier of an inveterate jealousy, who brought Thebans
to fight beside Athenians, and who thus won at the eleventh
hour a victory for the spirit of loyal union which took away
at least one bitterness from the unspeakable calamity of
Chaeronea.
But the work of Demosthenes was not closed by the ruin of his
cause. During the last sixteen years of his life (338-322) he
rendered services to Athens not less important, and
'activity? perhaps more difficult, than those which he had
rendered before. He was now, as a matter of course,
foremost in the public affairs of Athens. In January 337, at the
annual winter Festival of the Dead in the Outer Ceramicus, he
spoke the funeral oration over those who had fallen at Chaeronea.
He was member of a commission for strengthening the fortifica-
tions of the city (reixorotos). He administered the festival-fund.
During a dearth which visited Athens between 330 and 326 he
was charged with the organization of public relief. In 324 he was
chief (Apxt0wpos) of the sacred embassy to Olympia. Already,
in 336, Ctesiphon had proposed that Demosthenes should receive
a golden crown from the state, and that his extraordinary merits
should be proclaimed in the theatre at the Great Dionysia. The
proposal was adopted by the senate as a bill (irpoftovKevna) ;
but it must be passed by the Assembly before it could become
an act (^(^wrpta). To prevent this, Aeschines gave notice, in 336,
that he intended to proceed against Ctesiphon for having proposed
an unconstitutional measure. For six years Aeschines avoided
action on this notice. At last, in 330, the patriotic party felt
strong enough to force him to an issue. Aeschines spoke the
speech " Against Ctesiphon," an attack on the whole public life
of Demosthenes. Demosthenes gained an overwhelming victory
for himself and for the honour of Athens in the most finished, the
most splendid and the most pathetic work of ancient eloquence
the immortal oration " On the Crown."
In the winter of 325-324 Harpalus, the receiver-general of
Alexander in Asia, fled to Greece, taking with him 8000 mercen-
aries, and treasure equivalent to about a million and
Harpalus. a quarter sterling. On the motion of Demosthenes
he was warned from the harbours of Attica. Having
left his troops and part of his treasure at Taenarum, he again
present'ed himself at the Peiraeus, and was now admitted. He
spoke fervently of the opportunity which offered itself to those
who loved the freedom of Greece. All Asia would rise with Athens
to throw off the hated yoke. Fiery patriots like Hypereides were
in raptures. For zeal which could be bought Harpalus had other
persuasions. But Demosthenes stood firm. War with Alexander
would, he saw, be madness. It could have but one result, some
indefinitely worse doom for Athens. Antipater and Olympias
presently demanded the surrender of Harpalus. Demosthenes
opposed this. But he reconciled the dignity with the loyalty of
Athens by carrying a decree that Harpalus should be arrested,
and that his treasure should be deposited in the Parthenon, to be
held in trust for Alexander. Harpalus escaped from prison. The
amount of the treasure, which Harpalus had stated as 700 talents,
proved to be no more than 350. Demosthenes proposed that the
Areopagus should inquire what had become of the other 350.
Six months, spent in party intrigues, passed before the Areo-
pagus gave hi their report (dwo^cuns). The report inculpated
nine persons. Demosthenes headed the list of the accused.
Hypereides was among the ten public prosecutors. Demos-
thenes was condemned, fined fifty talents, and, in default of
payment, imprisoned. After a few days he escaped from prison
to Aegina, and thence to Troezen. Two things in this obscure
affair are beyond reasonable doubt. First, that Demosthenes
was not bribed by Harpalus. The hatred of the Macedonian
party towards Demosthenes, and the fury of those vehement
patriots who cried out that he had betrayed their best oppor-
tunity, combined to procure his condemnation, with the help,
probably, of some appearances which were against him.
Secondly, it can hardly be questioned that, by withstanding the
hot-headed patriots at this juncture, Demosthenes did heroic
service to Athens.
Next year (323 B.C.) Alexander died. Then the voice of Demos-
thenes, calling Greece to arms, rang out like a trumpet. Early
in August 322 the battle of Crannon decided the
Lamian War against Greece. Antipater demanded, as
the condition on which he would refrain from besieging war.
Athens, the surrender of the leading patriots. De-
mades moved the decree of the Assembly by which Demosthenes,
Hypereides, and some others were condemned to death as
traitors. On the 2oth of Boedromion (September 16) Demos-
322, a Macedonian garrison occupied Munychia. It thenes
was a day of solemn and happy memories, a day con ~
devoted, in the celebration of the Great Mysteries, to
sacred joy, the day on which the glad procession of the Initiated
returned from Eleusis to Athens. It happened, however, to have
another association, more significant than any ironical contrast
for the present purpose of Antipater. It was the day on which,
thirteen years before, Alexander had punished the rebellion of
Thebes with annihilation.
The condemned men had fled to Aegina. Parting there from
Hypereides and the rest, Demosthenes went on to Calauria, a
small island off the coast of Argolis. In Calauria there
was an ancient temple of Poseidon, once a centre of
Minyan and Ionian worship, and surrounded with a
peculiar sanctity as having been, from time immemorial, an
inviolable refuge for the pursued. Here Demosthenes sought
asylum. Archias of Thurii, a man who, like Aeschines, had begun
life as a tragic actor, and who was now in the pay of Antipater,
soon traced the fugitive, landed in Calauria, and appeared before
the temple of Poseidon with a body of Thracian spearmen.
Plutarch's picturesque narrative bears the marks of artistic
elaboration. Demosthenes had dreamed the night before that
he and Archias were competing for a prize as tragic actors; the
house applauded Demosthenes; but his chorus was shabbily
equipped, and Archias gained the prize. Archias was not the
man to stick at sacrilege. In Aegina, Hypereides and the others
had been taken from the shrine of Aeacus. But he hesitated to
violate an asylum so peculiarly sacred as the Calaurian temple.
Standing before its open door, with his Thracian soldiers around
him, he endeavoured to prevail on Demosthenes to quit the holy
precinct. Antipater would be certain to pardon him. Demos-
thenes sat silent, with his eyes fixed on the ground. At last, as
the emissary persisted in his bland persuasions, he looked up and
said, " Archias, you never moved me by your acting, and you
demned.
DEMOSTHENES
will not move me now by your promises." Archias lost his temper,
and began to threaten. " Now," rejoined Demosthenes, " you
speak like a real Macedonian oracle; before you were acting.
Wait a moment, then, till 1 write to my friends." With these
words, Demosthenes withdrew into the inner part of the temple,
still visible, however, from the entrance. He took out a roll of
paper, as if he were going to write, put the pen to his mouth, and
bit it, as was his habit in composing. Then he threw his head
back, and drew his cloak over it. The Thracian spearmen, who
were watching him from the door, began to gibe at his cowardice.
_ .. Archias went in to him, encouraged him to rise,
repeated his old arguments, talked to him of reconcilia-
tion with Antipater. By this time Demosthenes felt that the
poison which he had sucked from the pen was beginning to work.
He drew the cloak from his face, and looked steadily at Archias.
" Now you can play the part of Creon in the tragedy as soon as
you like," he said, " and cast forth my body unburied. But I,
O gracious Poseidon, quit thy temple while I yet live; Antipater
and his Macedonians have done what they could to pollute it."
He moved towards the door, calling to them to support his
tottering steps. He had just passed the altar of the god, when he
fell, and with a groan gave up the ghost (October 322 B.C.).
As a statesman, Demosthenes needs no epitaph but his own
words in the speech " On the Crown," / say that, if the event had
been manifest to the whole world beforehand, not even then
character. ou &ht Athens to have forsaken this course, if Athens had
any regard for her glory, or for her past, or for the ages to
come. The Persian soldier in Herodotus, following Xerxes to
foreseen ruin, confides to his fellow-guest at the banquet that the
bitterest pain which man can know is TroXXet <t>poveovra nr/Stvos
Kparktiv, complete, but helpless, prescience. In the grasp of a
more inexorable necessity, the champion of Greek freedom was
borne onward to a more tremendous catastrophe than that which
strewed the waters of Salamis with Persian wrecks and the field of
Plataea with Persian dead; but to him, at least, it was given to
proclaim aloud the clear and sure foreboding that filled his soul,
to do all that true heart and free hand could do for his cause, and,
though not to save, yet to encourage, to console and to ennoble.
As the inspiration of his life was larger and higher than the mere
courage of resistance, so his merit must be regarded as standing
altogether outside and above the struggle with Macedon. The
great purpose which he set before him was to revive the public
spirit, to restore the political vigour, and to re-establish the
Panhellenic influence of Athens, never for her own advantage
merely, but always in the interest of Greece. His glory is, that
while he lived he helped Athens to live a higher life. Wherever
the noblest expressions of her mind are honoured, wherever the
large conceptions of Pericles command the admiration of states-
men, wherever the architect and the sculptor love to dwell on the
masterpieces of Ictinus and Pheidias, wherever the spell of ideal
beauty or of lofty contemplation is exercised by the creations of
Sophocles or of Plato, there it will be remembered that the spirit
which wrought in all these would have passed sooner from among
men, if it had not been recalled from a trance, which others were
content to mistake for the last sleep, by the passionate breath of
Demosthenes.
The orator in whom artistic genius was united, more perfectly
than in any other man, with moral enthusiasm and with intel-
Orato lectual grasp, has held in the modern world the same
rank which was accorded to him in the old; but he
cannot enjoy the same appreciation. Macaulay's ridicule has
rescued from oblivion the criticism which pronounced the
eloquence of Chatham to be more ornate than that of Demos-
thenes, and less diffuse than that of Cicero. Did the critic, asks
Macaulay, ever hear any speaking that was less ornamented than
that of Demosthenes, or more diffuse than that of Cicero? Yet
the critic's remark was not so pointless as Macaulay thought
it. Sincerity and intensity are, indeed, to the modern reader,
the most obvious characteristics of Demosthenes. His style is,
on the whole, singularly free from what we are accustomed to
regard as rhetorical embellishment. Where the modern orator
would employ a wealth of imagery, or elaborate a picture in
exquisite detail, Demosthenes is content with a phrase or a
word. Burke uses, in reference to Hyder Ali, the same image
which Demosthenes uses in reference to Philip. " Compounding
all the materials of fury, havoc, desolation, into one black cloud,
he hung for a while on the declivity of the mountains. Whilst
the authors of all these evils were idly and stupidly gazing on this
menacing meteor, which darkened all their horizon, it suddenly
burst, and poured down the whole of its contents upon the plains
of the Carnatic." Demosthenes forbears to amplify. " The
people gave their voice, and the danger which hung upon our
borders went by like a cloud." To our modern feeling, the
eloquence of Demosthenes exhibits everywhere a general stamp
of earnest and simple strength. But it is well to remember the
charge made against the style of Demosthenes by a contempo-
rary Greek orator, and the defence offered by the best Greek
critic of oratory. Aeschines reproached the diction of Demos-
thenes with excess of elaboration and adornment (irepitpyia).
Dionysius, in reply, admits that Demosthenes does at times
depart from simplicity, that his style is sometimes elaborately
ornate and remote from the ordinary usage. But, he adds,
Demosthenes adopts this manner where it is justified by the
elevation of his theme. The remark may serve to remind us of
our modern disadvantage for a full appreciation of Demosthenes.
The old world felt, as we do, his moral and mental greatness, his
fire, his self-devotion, his insight. But it felt also, as we can
never feel, the versatile perfection of his skill. This it was that
made Demosthenes unique to the ancients. The ardent patriot,
the far-seeing statesman, were united in his person with the con-
summate and unapproachable artist. Dionysius devoted two
special treatises to Demosthenes, one on his language and style
(Xecrads TOJTOS) , the other on his treatment of subject-matter
(irpaynariKos Torres). The latter is lost. The former is one of
the best essays in literary criticism which antiquity has
bequeathed to us. The idea which it works out is that Demos-
thenes has perfected Greek prose by fusing in a glorious harmony
the elements which had hitherto belonged to separate types.
The austere dignity of Antiphon, the plain elegance of Lysias,
the smooth and balanced finish of that middle or normal char-
acter which is represented by Isocrates, have come together in
Demosthenes. Nor is this all. In each species he excels the
specialists. He surpasses the school of Antiphon in perspicuity,
the school of Lysias in verve, the school of Isocrates in variety, in
felicity, in symmetry, in pathos, in power. Demosthenes has at
command all the discursive brilliancy which fascinates a festal
audience. He has that power of concise and lucid narration, of
terse reasoning, of persuasive appeal, which is required by the
forensic speaker. His political eloquence can worthily image
the majesty of the state, and enforce weighty counsels with lofty
and impassioned fervour. A true artist, he grudged no labour
which could make the least part of his work more perfect.
Isocrates spent ten years on the Panegyricus. After Plato's
death, a manuscript was found among his papers with the first
eight words of the Republic arranged in several different orders.
What wonder, then, asks the Greek critic, if the diligence of
Demosthenes was no less incessant and minute? " To me,"
he says, " it seems far more natural that a man engaged in com-
posing political discourses, imperishable memorials of his power,
should neglect not even the smallest details, than that the
veneration of painters and sculptors, who are darkly showing
forth their manual tact and toil in a corruptible material, should
exhaust the refinements of their art on the veins, on the feathers,
on the down of the lip, and the like niceties."
More than half of the sixty-one speeches extant under the name
of Demosthenes are certainly or probably spurious. The results
to which the preponderance of opinion leans are given works.
in the following table. Those marked a were already
rejected or doubted in antiquity; those marked m, first in
modern times: 1
1 The dates agree in the main with those given by A. D. Schafer
in Demosthenes und seine Zeit (2nd ed., 1885-1887), and by F. Blass
in Die attische Beredsamkeit (1887-1898), who regards thirty-three
(or possibly thirty-five) of the speeches as genuine.
DEMOSTHENES
I. DELIBERATIVE SPEECHES.
GENUINE.
Or. 14. On the Navy Boards . . 354 B.C.
Or. 1 6. For the People of Megalopolis . 352
Or. 4. First Philippic . 351
Or. 15. For the Rhodians . 351
Or. i. First Olynthiac . 349
Or. 2. Second Olynthiac . 349
Or. 3. Third Olynthiac . 348
Or. 5. On the Peace . 346
Or. 6. Second Philippic . 344
Or. 8. On the Affairs of the Chersonese 341
Or. 9. Third Philippic . . . 341
SPURIOUS.
(a) Or. 7. On Halonnesus (by Hegesippus) . . 342 B.C.
Rhetorical Forgeries.
(a) Or. 17. On the Treaty with Alexander.
(a) Or. 10. Fourth Philippic.
(TO) Or. II. Answer to Philip's Letter. 1
(m) Or. 12. Philip's Letter.
(m) Or. 13. On the Assessment (oinrfu).
II. FORENSIC SPEECHES.
A. IN PUBLIC CAUSES.
GENUINE.
Or. 22. In (KOTA) Androtionem . 355 B.C.
Or. 20. Contra (irp6s) Leptinem 354
Or. 24. In Timocratem . 352 ,,
Or. 23. In Aristocratem . 352
Or. 21. In Midiam . . 349
Or. 19. On the Embassy . 343
Or. 18. On the Crown . 330
SPURIOUS.
(a) Or. 58. In Theocrinem ..... 339 B.C.
(a) Or. 25, 26. In Aristogitona I. and II. (Rhetorical forgeries).
B. IN PRIVATE CAUSES.
GENUINE.
Or. 27, 28. In Aphobum I. et II. . 364 B.C.
(m) Or. 30, 31. Contra Onetora I. et II. . 362
Or. 41. Contra Spudiam . . . ?
(m) Or. 55. Contra Calliclem . . ?
Or. 54. In Cononem. . . . 356 ,,
Or. 36. Pro Phormione . . . 352 ,,
(m) Or. 39. Contra Boeotum de Nomine . 350 ,,
Or. 37. Contra Pantaenetum . . 346-5 ,,
(m) Or. 38. Contra Nausimachum et Diopithem ?
SPURIOUS.
(The first eight of the following are given by Schafer to Apollodorus.)
.
after
(TO) Or. 52. Contra Callippum.
(a) Or. 53. Contra Nicostratum .
(a) Or. 49. Contra Timotheum .
(TO) Or. 50. Contra Polyclem .
(a) Or. 47. In Evergum et Mnesibulum
(m) Or. 45, 46. In Stephanum I. et II.
(a) Or. 59. In Neaeram . . 349[343~o, Blass]
(TO) -Or. 51. OntheTrierarchicCrown(by Cephiso-
dotus?)
369-8 B.C.
368
362
357
356
351
(TO) Or. 43. Contra Macartatum
(TO) Or. 48. In Olympiodorum.
(TO) Or. 44. Contra Leocharem.
,,_
300-359
after
343
(a) Or. 35. Contra Lacritum .... 341
(a) Or. 42. Contra Phaenippum ... ?
(m) Or. 32. Contra Zenothemin ... ?
(TO) Or. 34. Contra Phormionem ... ?
(TO) Or. 29. Contra Aphobum pro Phano
(a) Or. 40. Contra Boeotum de Dote . . 347
(TO) Or. 57. Contra Eubulidem . . . 346-5 ,,
(TO) Or. 33. Contra Apaturium . . ?
(a) Or. 56. In Dionysodorum . not before 322-1
Or. 60 (imT&<t>ios) and Or. 61 (4poiT6s) are works of rhetor-
icians. The six epistles are also forgeries; they were used by the
composer of the twelve epistles which bear the name of Aeschines.
The 56 irpoolfua, exordia or sketches for political speeches, are by
various hands and of various dates. 2 They are valuable as being
compiled from Demosthenes himself, or from other classical models.
The ancient fame of Demosthenes as an orator can be compared
only with the fame of Homer as a poet. Cicero, with generous
appreciation, recognizes Demosthenes as the standard of perfec-
tion. Dionysius, the closest and most penetrating of his ancient
critics, exhausts the language of admiration in showing how
1 Or. ii and 12 are probably both by Anaximenes of Lampsacus.
1 According to Blass, the second and third epistles and the exordia
are genuine.
Demosthenes united and elevated whatever had been best in
earlier masters of the Greek idiom. Hermogenes, in his works
on rhetoric, refers to Demosthenes as 6 p^rwp, the Literary
orator. The writer of the treatise On Sublimity knows history of
no heights loftier than those to which Demosthenes
has risen. From his own younger contemporaries,
Aristotle and Theophrastus, who founded their theory of rhetoric
in large part on his practice, down to the latest Byzantines, the
consent of theorists, orators, antiquarians, anthologists, lexico-
graphers, offered the same unvarying homage to Demosthenes.
His work busied commentators such as Xenon, Minucian,
Basilicus, Aelius, Theon, Zosimus of Gaza. Arguments to his
speeches were drawn up by rhetoricians so distinguished as
Numenius and Libanius. Accomplished men of letters, such as
Julius Vestinus and Aelius Dionysius, selected from his writings
choice passages for declamation or perusal, of which fragments
are incorporated in the miscellany of Photius and the lexicons
of Harpocration, Pollux and Suidas. It might have been
anticipated that the purity of a text so widely read and so
renowned would, from the earliest times, have been guarded with
jealous care. The works of the three great dramatists had been
thus protected, about 340 B.C., by a standard Attic recension.
But no such good fortune befell the works of Demosthenes.
Alexandrian criticism was chiefly occupied with poetry. The
titular works of Demosthenes were, indeed, registered, with
those of the other orators, in the catalogues (PTJTOPIKOI irlvoxts)
of Alexandria and Pergamum. But no thorough attempt was
made to separate the authentic works from those spurious works
which had even then become mingled with them. Philosophical
schools which, like the Stoic, felt the ethical interest of Demos-
thenes, cared little for his language. The rhetoricians who
imitated or analysed his style cared little for the criticism of his
text. Their treatment of it had, indeed, a direct tendency to
falsify it. It was customary to indicate by marks those passages
which were especially useful for study or imitation. It then
became a rhetorical exercise to recast, adapt or interweave such
passages. Sopater, the commentator on Hermogenes, wrote on
/iTa/3oXai xoi utrairoiriffta T&V &t\iuxj8ivovs \upiuv, " adap-
tations or transcripts of passages in Demosthenes." Such
manipulation could not but lead to interpolations or confusions
in the original text. Great, too, as was the attention bestowed
on the thought, sentiment and style of Demosthenes, compara-
tively little care was bestowed on his subject-matter. He was
studied more on the moral and the formal side than on the real
side. An incorrect substitution of one name for another, a reading
which gave an impossible date, insertions of spurious laws or
decrees, were points which few readers would stop to notice.
Hence it resulted that, while Plato, Thucydides and Demos-
thenes were the most universally popular of the classical prose-
writers, the text of Demosthenes, the most widely used perhaps
of all, was also the least pure. His more careful students at
length made an effort to arrest the process of corruption.
Editions of Demosthenes based on a critical recension, and called
'ArrLKiava (avriypatjia), came to be distinguished from the
vulgates, or oynuSea ec&fcmJ.
Among the extant manuscripts of Demosthenes upwards of
170 in number one is far superior, as a whole, to the rest. This
is Parisinus S 2934, of the loth century. A com-
parison of this MS. with the extracts of Aelius,
Aristeides and Harpocration from the Third Philippic
favours the view that it is derived from an 'AmKt.av6v, whereas
the SrjjuajSets ec56<Ts, used by Hermogenes and by the
rhetoricians generally, have been the chief sources of our other
manuscripts. The collation of this manuscript by Immanuel
Bekker first placed the textual criticism of Demosthenes on a
sound footing. Not only is this manuscript nearly free from
interpolations, but it is the sole voucher for many excellent
readings. Among the other MSS., some of the most important
are Marcianus 416 F, of the loth (or nth) century, the basis
of the Aldine edition; Augustanus I. (N 85), derived from the
last, and containing scholia to the speeches on the Crown and the
Embassy, by Ulpian, with some by a younger writer, who was
i6
DEMOTIC DEMPSTER
Scholia.
perhaps Moschopulus; Parisinus T ; Antverpiensis fl the last
two comparatively free from additions. The fullest authority
on the MSS. is J. T. Vomel, Notitia codicum Demosth., and
Prolegomena Critica to his edition published at Halle (1856-1857),
pp. 175-178.'
The extant scholia on Demosthenes are for the most part poor.
Their staple consists of Byzantine erudition; and their value
depends chiefly on what they have preserved of older
criticism. They are better than usual for the Ilept
are^avov, Kara Tt/JOKparous; best for the Ilepi irapairptcr-
(Setas. The Greek commentaries ascribed to Ulpian are especially
defective on the historical side, and give little essential aid.
Editions: C. W. Miiller, in Oral. Alt. ii. (1847-1858); Scholia
Graeca in Demosth. ex cod. aucta et emendata (Oxon., 1851; in
W. Dindorf's ed.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Editio princeps (Aldus, Venice, 1504); J. J.
Reiske (with notes of J. Wolf, J. Taylor, J. Markland, &c., 177-
1775); revised edition of Reiske by G. H. Schafer (1823-1826);
I. Bekker, in Oratores Attici (1823-1824), the first edition based on
codex S (see above); W. S. Dobson (1828); J. G. Baiter and
H. Sauppe (1850); W. Dindorf (in Teubner series, 1867, 4th ed. by
F. Blass, 1885-1889); H. Omont, facsimile edition of codex S
(1892-1893) ; S. H. Butcher in Oxford Scriptor'um Classicorum
Bibliotheca (1003 foil.); W. Dindorf (9 vols., Oxford, 1846-1851),
with notes of previous commentators and Greek scholia ; R. Whiston
(political speeches) with introductions and notes (1859-1868). For
a select list of the numerous English and foreign editions and trans-
lations of separate speeches see J. B. Mayor, Guide to the Choice of
Classical Books (1885, suppt. 1896). Mention may here be made of
De corona by W. W. Goodwin (1901, ed. min., 1904) ; W. H. Simcox
(1873, with Aeschines In Ctesiphontem) ; and P. E. Matheson
(1899); Leptines by J. E. Sandys (1890); De falsa legatione by
R. Shilleto (4th ed., 1874) ; Select Private Orations by J. E. Sandys and
F. A. Paley ford ed., 1898, 1896) ; Midias by W. W. Goodwin (1906).
C. R. Kennedy's complete translation is a model of scholarly finish,
and the appendices on Attic law, &c., are of great value. There are
indices to Demosthenes by J. Reiske (ed. G. H. Schafer, 1823);
S. Preuss (1892). Among recent papyrus finds are fragments of a
special lexicon to the Aristocratea and a commentary by Didymus
(ed. H. Diels and W. Schubart, 1904). Illustrative literature: A. D.
Schafer, Demosthenes und seine Zeit (2nd ed., 1885-1887), a masterly
and exhaustive historical work; F. Blass, Die attische Beredsamkeit
(1887-1898); W. J. Brodribb, " Demosthenes " in Ancient Classics
for English Readers (1877) ; S. H. Butcher, Introduction to the Study
of Demosthenes (1881); C. G. Bohnecke, Demosthenes, Lykurgos,
Hyperides, und ihr Zeitalter (1864); A. Bouille, Histoire de Demos-
thene (2nd ed., 1868) ; J. Girard, Etudes sur I'eloquence attique (1874) ;
M. Croiset, Des idees morales dans VEloquence politique de Demos-
thene (1874); A. Hug, Demosthenes als politischer Denker (1881);
L. Bredit, L'Eloquence politique en Grece (2nd ed., 1886) ; A. Bougot,
Rivalite d'Eschine et Demosthene (1891). For fuller bibliographical
information consult R. Nicolai, Griechische Literaturgeschichte
(1881); W. Engelmann, Scriptores Graeci (1881); G. Hiittner in
C. Bursian's Jahresbencht, li. (1889). (R. C. J.)
DEMOTIC (Gr. STIHOTIKOS, of or belonging to the people), a
term, meaning popular, specially applied to that cursive script
of the ancient Egyptian language used for business and literary
purposes, for the people. It is opposed to " hieratic " (Gr.
iepanKos, of or belonging to the priests), the script, an abridged
form of the hieroglyphic, used in transcribing the religious texts.
(See WRITING, and EGYPT: II., Andent,D. Langttageand Writing.)
DEMOTICA, or DIMOTICA, a town of European Turkey, in the
vilayet of Adrianople; on the Maritza valley branch of the
Constantinople-Salonica railway, about 35 m. S. of Adrianople.
Pop. (1905) about 10,000. Demotica is built at the foot of a
conical hill on the left bank of the river Kizildeli, near its junction
with the Maritza. It was formerly the seat of a Greek arch-
bishop, and besides the ancient citadel and palace on the summit
of the hill contains several Greek churches, mosques and public
baths. In the middle ages, when it was named Didymotichos,
it was one of the principal marts of Thrace; in modern times
it has regained something of its commercial importance, and
exports pottery, linen, silk and grain. These goods are sent
to Deddagatch for shipment. Demotica was the birthplace of the
1 See also H. Usener in Nachrichten von der Konigl. Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Gottingen, p. 188 (1892) ; J. H. Lipsius, " Zur Text-
critik des Demosthenes " in Berichte . . . der Konigl. Sachsischen
Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften (1893) with special reference to the
papyrus finds at the end of the 19th century; E. Bethe, Demosthenis
scriptorum corpus (1893).
Turkish sultan Bayezid I. (1347); after the battle of Poltava,
Charles XII. of Sweden resided here from February 1713 to
October 1714.
DEMPSTER, THOMAS (1570-1625), Scottish scholar and
historian, was born at Cliftbog, Aberdeenshire, the son of
Thomas Dempster of Muresk, Auchterless and Killesmont,
sheriff of Banff and Buchan. According to his own account,
he was the twenty -fourth of twenty-nine children, and was early
remarkable for precocious talent. He obtained his early educa-
tion in Aberdeenshire, and at ten entered Pembroke Hall,
Cambridge; after a short while he went to Paris, and, driven
thence by the plague, to Louvain, whence by order of the pope
he was transferred with several other Scottish students to the
papal seminary at Rome. Being soon forced by ill health to
leave, he went to the English college at Douai, where he remained
three years and took his M.A. degree. While at Douai he wrote
a scurrilous attack on Queen Elizabeth, which caused a riot
among the English students. But, if his truculent character
was thus early displayed, his abilities were no less conspicuous;
and, though still in his teens, he became lecturer on the
Humanities at Tournai, whence, after but a short stay, he returned
to Paris, to take his degree of doctor of canon law, and become
regent of the college of Navarre. He soon left Paris for Toulouse,
which in turn he was forced to leave owing to the hostility of the
city authorities, aroused by his violent assertion of university
rights. He was now elected professor of eloquence at the
university or academy of Nimes, but not without a murderous
attack upon him by one of the defeated candidates and his
supporters, followed by a suit for libel, which, though he ulti-
mately won his case, forced him to leave the town. A short
engagement in Spain, as tutor to the son of Marshal de Saint Luc,
was terminated by another quarrel; and Dempster now returned
to Scotland with the intention of asserting a claim to bis father's
estates. Finding his relatives unsympathetic, and falling into
heated controversy with the Presbyterian clergy, he made no
long stay, but returned to Paris, where he remained for seven
years, becoming professor in several colleges successively. At
last, however, his temporary connexion with the college de
Beauvais was ended by a feat of arms which proved him as stout
a fighter with his sword as with his pen; and, since his victory
was won over officers of the king's guard, it again became
expedient for him to change his place of residence. The dedica-
tion of his edition of Rosinus' Antiquitatum Romanorum corpus
absolutissimum to King James I. had won him an invitation
to the English court; and in 1615 he went to London. His
reception by the king was flattering enough; but his hopes of
preferment were dashed by the opposition of the Anglican clergy
to the promotion of a papist. He left for Rome, where, after a
short imprisonment on suspicion of being a spy, he gained the
favour of Pope Paul V., through whose influence with Cosimo II.,
grand duke of Tuscany, he was appointed to the professorship of
the Pandects at Pisa. He had married while in London, but ere
long had reason to suspect his wife's relations with a certain
Englishman. Violent accusations followed, indignantly repudi-
ated; a diplomatic correspondence ensued, and a demand was
made, and supported by the grand duke, for an apology, which
the professor refused to make, preferring rather to lose his chair.
He now set out once more for Scotland, but was intercepted by
the Florentine cardinal Luigi Capponi, who induced him to
remain at Bologna as professor of Humanity. This was the most
distinguished post in the most famous of continental universities,
and Dempster was now at the height of his fame. Though his
Roman Antiquities and Scotia illustrior had been placed on the
Index pending correction, Pope Urban VIII. made him a knight
and gave him a pension. He was not, however, to enjoy his
honours long. His wife eloped with a student, and Dempster,
pursuing the fugitives in the heat of summer, caught a fever, and
died at Bologna on the 6th of September 1625.
Dempster owed his great position in the history of scholarship
to his extraordinary memory, and to the versatility which made
him equally at home in philology, criticism, law, biography and
history. His style is, however, often barbarous; and the obvious
DEMURRAGE DENBIGH
defects of his works are due to his restlessness and impetuosity
and to a patriotic and personal vanity which led him in Scottish
questions into absurd exaggerations, and in matters affecting
his own life into an incurable habit of romancing. The besl
known of his works is the Hisloria ecclesiastica gentis Scotorum
(Bologna, 1627). In this book he tries to prove that Bernard
(Sapiens), Alcuin, Boniface and Joannes Scotus Erigena were
all Scots, and even Boadicea becomes a Scottish author. This
criticism is not applicable to his works on antiquarian subjects,
and his edition of Benedetto Accolti's De bello a Christianis
contra barbaros (1623) has great merits.
A portion of his Latin verse is printed in the first volume (pp. 306-
354) of Delitiae poetarum Scotorum (Amsterdam, 1637).
DEMURRAGE (from "demur," Fr. demeurer, to delay,
derived from Lat. mora), in the law of merchant shipping, the
sum payable by the freighter to the shipowner for detention of
the vessel in port beyond the number of days allowed for the
purpose of loading or unloading (see AFFREIGHTMENT: under
Charter-parties). The word is also used in railway law for the
charge on detention of trucks; and in banking for the charge
per ounce made by the Bank of England in exchanging coin
or notes for bullion.
DEMURRER (from Fr. demeurer, to delay, Lat. morari), in
English law, an objection taken to the sufficiency, in point of
law, of the pleading or written statement of the other side. In
equity pleading a demurrer lay only against the bill, and not
against the answer; at common law any part of the pleading
could be demurred to. On the passing of the Judicature Act
of 1875 the procedure with respect to demurrers in civil cases
was amended, and, subsequently, by the Rules of the Supreme
Court, Order XXV. demurrers were abolished and a more
summary process for getting rid of pleadings which showed
no reasonable cause of action or defence was adopted, called
proceedings in lieu of demurrer. Demurrer in criminal cases
still exists, but is now seldom resorted to. Demurrers are still
in constant use in the United States. See ANSWER; PLEADING.
DENAIN, a town of northern France in the department of
Nord, 8 m. S.W. of Valenciennes by steam tramway. A mere
village in the beginning of the igth century, it rapidly increased
from 1850 onwards, and, according to the censusof 1906, possessed
22,845 inhabitants, mainly engaged in the coal mines and iron-
smelting works, to which it owes its development. There are
also breweries, manufactories of machinery, sugar and glass.
A school of commerce and industry is among the institutions.
Denain has a port on the left bank of the Scheldt canal. Its
vicinity was the scene of the decisive victory gained in 1712 by
Marshal Villars over the allies commanded by Prince Eugene;
and the battlefield is marked by a monolithic monument
inscribed with the verses of Voltaire:
" Regardez dans Denain I'audacieux Villars
Disputant le tonnerre a 1'aigle des Cesars."
DENBIGH, WILLIAM FEILDING, IST EARL OF (d. 1643), son
of Basil Feilding 1 of Newnham Paddox in Warwickshire, and
of Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Walter Aston, was educated
at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and knighted in 1603. He
married Susan, daughter of Sir George Villiers, sister of the
future duke of Buckingham, and on the rise of the favourite
received various offices and dignities. He was appointed custos
rotulorum of Warwickshire, and master of the great wardrobe
in 1622, and created baron and viscount Feilding in 1620, and
earl of Denbigh on the I4th of September 1622. He attended
Prince Charles on the Spanish adventure, served as admiral in
the unsuccessful expedition to Cadiz in 1625, and commanded the
disastrous attempt upon Rochelle in 1628, becoming the same
year a member of the council of war, and in 1633 a member of the
council of Wales. In 1631 Lord Denbigh visited the East. On
the outbreak of the Civil War he served under Prince Rupert
1 Th descent of the Feildings from the house of Habsburg, through
the counts of Laufenburg and Rheinfelden, long considered authentic,
and immortalized by Gibbon, has been proved to have been based on
forged documents. See J. H. Round, Peerage and Family History
and was present at Edgehill. On the 3rd of April 1643 during
Rupert's attack on Birmingham he was wounded and died from
the effects on the 8th, being buried at Monks Kirby in Warwick-
shire. His courage, unselfishness and devotion to duty are much
praised by Clarendon.
See E. Lodge, Portraits (1850), iv. 113; J. Nichols, Hist of
Leicestershire (1807), iv. pt. I, 273; Hist. MSS. Comm Ser. 4th Rep.
app. 254 ; Cat. of State Papers, Dom. ; Studies in Peerage and Family
History, by J. H. Round (1901), 216.
His eldest son, BASIL FEILDING, 2nd earl of Denbigh (c. i6o8->
1675), was educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. He was
summoned to the House of Lords as Baron Feilding in March
1629. After seeing military service in the Netherlands he was
sent in 1634 by Charles I. as ambassador to Venice, where he
remained for five years. When the Civil War broke out Feilding,
unlike the other members of his family, ranged himself among
the Parliamentarians, led a regiment of horse at Edgehill, and,
having become earl of Denbigh in April 1643, was made com-
mander-in-chief of the Parliamentary army in Warwickshire and
the neighbouring counties, and lord-lieutenant of Warwickshire.
During the year 1644 he was fairly active in the field, but in some
quarters he was distrusted and he resigned his command after
the passing of the self-denying ordinance in April 1645. At
Uxbridge in 1645 Denbigh was one of the commissioners appointed
to treat with the king, and he undertook a similar duty at
Carisbrooke in 1647. Clarendon relates how at Uxbridge
Denbigh declared privately that he regretted the position in
which he found himself, and expressed his willingness to serve
Charles I. He supported the army in its dispute with the
parliament, but he would take no part in the trial of Charles I.
Under the government of the commonwealth Denbigh was a
member of the council of state, but his loyalty to his former
associates grew lukewarm, and gradually he came to be regarded
as a royalist. In 1664 the earl was created Baron St Liz.
Although four times married he left no issue when he died on the
28th of November 1675.
His titles devolved on his nephew WILLIAM FEILDING (1640-
1685), son and heir of his brother George (created Baron Feilding
of Lecaghe, Viscount Callan and earl of Desmond), and the
earldom of Desmond has been held by his descendants to the
present day in conjunction with the earldom of Denbigh.
DENBIGH (Dinbych), a municipal and (with Holt, Ruthin
and Wrexham) contributory parliamentary borough, market
town and county town of Denbighshire, N. Wales, on branches
of the London & North Western and the Great Western railways.
Pop. (1901) 6438. Denbigh Castle, surrounding the hill with a
double wall, was built, in Edward I.'s reign, by Henry de Lacy,
earl of Lincoln, from whom the town received its first charter.
The outer wall is nearly a mile round; over its main gateway is a
niche with a figure representing, possibly, Edward I., but more
probably, de Lacy. Here, in 1645, after the defeat of Rowton
Moor, Charles I. found shelter, the castle long resisting the
Parliamentarians, and being reduced to ruins by his successor.
The chief buildings are the Carmelite Priory (ruins dating
Derhaps from the i3th century); a Bluecoat school (1514); a
: ree grammar school (1527); an orphan girl school (funds left by
Thomas Howel to the Drapers' Co., in Henry VII. 's reign);
the town hall (built in 1572 by Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester,
enlarged and restored in 1780); an unfinished church (begun
Leicester); a market hall (with arcades or "rows," such as
:hose of Chester or Yarmouth); and the old parish church of
St Marcella. The streams near Denbigh are the Clwyd and
Elwy. The inhabitants of Denbigh are chiefly occupied in
he timber trade, butter-making, poultry-farming, bootmaking,
:anning and quarrying (lime, slate and paving-stones). The
jorough of Denbigh has a separate commission of the peace, but
no separate court of quarter sessions. The town has long been
known as a Welsh publishing centre, the vernacular newspaper,
Barter, being edited and printed here. Near Denbigh, at
Jodelwyddan, &c., coal is worked.
The old British tower and castle were called Castell caled
'ryn yn Rhds, the " castle of the hard hill in Rh6s." Din in
i8
DENBIGHSHIRE DENDERA
Dinbych means a fort. There is a goblin well at the castle.
Historically, David (Dafydd), brother of the last Llewelyn, was
here (act. Edward I.) perhaps on a foray; also Henry Lacy, who
built the castle (aet. Edward I.), given to the Mortimers and to
Leicester (under Edward III. and Elizabeth, respectively).
DENBiaHSHIRE (Dinbych), a county of N. Wales, bounded
N. by the Irish Sea, N.E. by Flint and Cheshire, S.E. by Flint
and Shropshire, S. by Montgomery and Merioneth, and W. by
Carnarvon. Area, 662 sq. m. On the N. coast, within the
Denbighshire borders and between Old Colwyn and Llandulas,
is a wedge of land included in Carnarvonshire, owing to a change
in the course of the Conwy stream. (Thus, also, Llandudno is
partly in the Bangor, and partly in the St Asaph, diocese.) The
surface of Denbighshire is irregular, and physically diversified.
In the N.W. are the bleak Hiraethog (" longing ") hills, sloping W.
to the Conwy and E. to the Clwyd. In the N. are Colwyn and
Abergele bays, on the S. the Yspytty (Lat. Hospitium) and
Llangwm range, between Denbigh and Merioneth. From this
watershed flow the Elwy, Aled, Clywedog, Merddwr and Alwen,
tributaries of the Clwyd, Conwy and Dee (Dyfrdwy). Some of
the valleys contrast agreeably with the bleak hills, e.g. those
of the Clwyd and Elwy. The portion lying between Ruabon
(Rhiwabon) hills and the Dee is agricultural and rich in minerals;
the Berwyn to Offa's Dyke (Wdl Of a) is wild and barren,
except the Tanat valley, Llansilin and Ceiriog. One feeder of
the Tanat forms the Pistyll Rhaiadr (waterspout fall), another
rises in Llyncaws (cheese pool) under Moel Sych (dry bare-hill),
the highest point in the county. Aled and Alwen are both lakes
and streams.
Geology. The geology of the county is full of interest, as it
develops all the principal strata that intervenes between the
Ordovician and the Triassic series. In the Ordovician district, which
extends from the southern boundary to the Ceiriog, the Llandeilo
formation of the eastern slopes of the Berwyn and the Bala beds of
shelly sandstone are traversed east and west by bands of intrusive
felspathic porphyry and ashes. The same formation occurs just
within the county border at Cerrig-y-Druidion, Langum, Bettys-y-
coed and in the Fairy Glen. Northwards from the Ceiriog to the
limestone fringe at Llandrillo the Wenlock shale of the Silurian
covers the entire mass of the Hiraethog and Clwydian hills, but
verging on its western slopes into the Denbighshire grit, which may
be traced southward in a continuous line from the mouth of the
Conway as far as Llanddewi Ystrad Enni in Radnorshire, near
Pentre-Voelas and Conway they are abundantly fossiliferous. On its
eastern slope a narrow broken band of the Old Red, or what may be
a conglomeratic basement bed of the Carboniferous Limestone series,
crops up along the Vale of Clwyd and in Eglwyseg. Resting upon this
the Carboniferous Limestone extends from Llanymynach, its extreme
southern point, to the Cyrnybrain fault, and there forks into two
divisions that terminate respectively in the Great Orme's Head and
in Talargoch, and are separated from each other by the denuded
shales of the Moel Famma range. In the Vale of Clwyd the jimestone
underlies the New Red Sandstone, and in the eastern division it is
itself overlaid by the Millstone Grit of Ruabon and Minera, and by
a long reach of the Coal Measures which near Wrexham are 4j m.
in breadth. Eastward of these a broad strip of the red marly beds
succeeds, formerly considered to be Permian but now regarded as
belonging to the Coal Measures, and yet again between this and the
Dee the ground is occupied as in the Vale of Clwyd by the New
Red rocks. As in the other northern counties of Wales, the whole
of the lower ground is covered more or less thickly with glacial drift.
On the western side of the Vale of Clwyd, at Cefn and Plas Heaton,
the caves, which are a common feature in such limestone districts,
have yielded the remains of the rhinoceros, mammoth, hippopotamus
and other extinct mammals.
Coal is mined from the Coal Measures, and from the limestone
below, lead with silver and zinc ores have been obtained. Valuable
fireclays and terra-cotta marls are also taken from the Coal Measures
about Wrexham.
The uplands being uncongenial for corn, ponies, sheep and
black cattle are reared, for fattening in the Midlands of England
and sale in London. Oats and turnips, rather than wheat,
barley and potatoes, occupy the tilled land. The county is
fairly wooded. There are several important farmers' clubs (the
Denbighshire and Flintshire, the vale of Conway, the Cerrig y
druidion, &c.). The London & North- Western railway (Holyhead
line), with the Conway and Clwyd valleys branches, together
with the lines connecting Denbigh with Ruabon (Rhiwabon),
via Ruthin and Corwen, Wrexham with Connah's Quay (Great
Central) and Rhosllanerchrhugog with Glyn Ceiriog (for the Great
Western and Great Central railways) have opened up the county.
Down the valley of Llangollen also runs the Holyhead road from
London, well built and passing thro ugh fine scenery. At Nantglyn
paving flags are raised, at Rhiwfelen (near Llangollen) slabs and
slates, and good slates are also obtained at Glyn Ceiriog. There
is plenty of limestone, with china stone at Brymbo. Cefn
Rhiwabon yields sandstone (for hones) and millstone grit.
Chirk, Ruabon and Brymbo have coal mines. The great Minera
is the principal lead mine. There is much brick and pottery clay.
The Ceiriog valley has a dynamite factory. Llangollen and
Llansantffraid (St Bridgit's) have woollen manufactures.
The area of the ancient county is 423,499 acres, with a popula-
tion in 1901 of 129,942. The area of the administrative county
is 426,084 acres. The chief towns are: Wrexham, a mining
centre and N. Wales . military centre, with a fine church;
Denbigh; Ruthin, where assizes are held (here are a grammar
school, a warden and a 13th-century castle rebuilt); Llangollen
and Llanrwst; and Holt, with an old ruined castle. The
Denbigh district of parliamentary boroughs is formed of:
Denbigh (pop. 6483), Holt (1059), Ruthin (2643), and Wrexham
(14,966). The county has two parliamentary divisions. The
urban districts are: Abergele and Pensarn (2083), Colwyn Bay
and Colwyn (8689), Llangollen (3303), and Llanrwst (2645).
Denbighshire is in the N. Wales circuit, assizes being held
at Ruthin. Denbigh and Wrexham boroughs have separate
commissions of the peace, but no separate quarter-session courts.
The ancient county, which is in the diocese of St Asaph, contains
seventy-five ecclesiastical parishes and districts and part of a
parish.
The county was formed, by an act of Henry VIII., out of the
lordships of Denbigh, Ruthin (Rhuthyn), Rhos and Rhyfoniog,
which are roughly the Perfeddwlad (midland) between Conway
and Clwyd, and the lordships of Bromfield, Yale (Idl, open land)
and Chirkland, the old possessions of Gruffydd ap Madoc,
arglwydd (lord) of Dinas Bran. Cefn (Elwy Valley) limestone
caves hold the prehistoric hippopotamus, elephant, rhinoceros,
lion, hyena, bear, reindeer, &c.; Plas Heaton cave, the glutton;
Pont Newydd, felstone tools and a polished stone axe (like that
of Rhosdigre) ; Carnedd Tyddyn Bleiddian, " platycnemic
(skeleton) men of Denbighshire " (like those of Perthi Chwareu).
Clawdd Coch has traces of the Romans; so also Penygaer
and Penbarras. Roman roads ran from Deva (Chester; to
Segontium (Carnarvon) and from Deva to Mons Henri (Tomen
y mur). To their period belong the inscribed Gwytherin and
Pentrefoelas (near Bettws-y-coed) stones. The Valle Crucis
" Eliseg's pillar " tells of Brochmael and tKe Cairlegion (Chester)
struggle against ^Ethelfrith's invading Northumbrians, A.D. 613,
while Offa's dike goes back to the Mercian advance. Near
and parallel to Offa's is the shorter and mysterious Watt's
dike. Chirk is the only Denbighshire castle comparatively
untouched by time and still occupied. Ruthin has cloisters;
Wrexham, the Brynffynnon " nunnery "; and at both are
collegiate churches. Llanrwst, Gresford and Derwen boast
rood lofts and screens; Whitchurch and Llanrwst, portrait
brasses and monuments; Derwen, a churchyard cross; Gresford
and Llanrhaiadr (Dyffryn Clwyd) , stained glass. Near Abergele,
known for its sea baths, is the ogof (or cave), traditionally the
refuge of Richard II. and the scene of his capture by Bolingbroke
in 1399.
See J. Williams, Denbigh (1856), and T. F. Tout, Welsh Shires.
DENDERA, a village in Upper Egypt, situated in the angle
of the great westward bend of the Nile opposite Kena. Here
was the ancient city of Tentyra, capital of the Tentyrite nome, the
sixth of Upper Egypt, and the principal seat of the worship of
Hathor [Aphrodite] the cow-goddess of love and joy. The old
Egyptian name of Tentyra was written Tn-t (Ant), but the pro-
nunciation of it is unknown: in later days it was 'In-t-t-ntr-t,
" ant of the goddess," pronounced Ni-tent6ri, whence Ttvrvpa,
Tevrupis. The temple of Hathor was built in the ist century B.C.,
being begun under the later Ptolemies (Ptol. XIII.) and finished
by Augustus, but much of the decoration is later. A great
DENDROCOMETES DENE-HOLES
rectangular enclosure of crude bricks, measuring about 900 X 850
ft., contains the sacred buildings: it was entered by two stone
gateways, in the north and the east sides, built by Domitian.
Another smaller enclosure lies to the east with a gateway also
of the Roman period.
The plan of the temple may be supposed to have included a
colonnaded court in front of the present facade, and pylon towers
at the entrance; but these were never built, probably for lack
of funds. The building, which is of sandstone, measures about
300 ft. from front to back, and consists of two oblong rectangles;
the foremost, placed transversely to the other, is the great
hypostyle hall or pronaos, the broadest and loftiest part of the
temple, measuring 135 ft. in width, and comprising about one-
third of the whole structure; the facade has six columns with
heads of Hathor, and the ceiling is supported by eighteen great
columns. The second rectangle contains a small hypostyle hall
with six columns, and the sanctuary, with their subsidiary
chambers. The sanctuary is surrounded by a corridor into which
the chambers open: on the west side is an apartment forming a
court and kiosk for the celebration of the feast of the New
Year, the principal festival of Dendera. On the roof of the
temple, reached by two staircases, are a pavilion and several
chambers dedicated to the worship of Osiris. Inside and out,
the whole of the temple is covered with scenes and inscriptions
in crowded characters, of ceremonial and religious import; the
decoration is even carried into a remarkable series of hidden
passages and chambers or crypts made in the solid walls for the
reception of its most valuable treasures. The architectural style
is dignified and pleasing in design and proportions. The interior
of the building has been completely cleared: from the outside,
however, its imposing effect is quite lost, owing to the mounds
of rubbish amongst which it is sunk. North-east of the entrance
is a " Birth House " for the cult of the child Harsemteu, and
behind the temple a small temple of Isis, dating from the reign
of Augustus. The original foundation of the temple must date
back to a remote time: the work of some of the early builders
is in fact referred to in the inscriptions on the present structure.
Petrie's excavation of the cemetery behind the temple enclosures
revealed burials dating from the fourth dynasty onwards, the
most important being mastables of the period from the sixth
to the eleventh dynasties; many of these exhibited a peculiar
degradation of the contemporary style of sculpture.
The zodiacs of the temple of Dendera gave rise to a consider-
able literature before their late origin was established by
Champollion in 1822: one of them, from a chamber on the roof,
was removed in 1820 to the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris.
Figures of the celebrated Cleopatra VI. occur amongst the
sculptures on the exterior of the temple, but they are purely
conventional, without a trace of portraiture. Horus of Edfu,
the enemy of the crocodiles and hippopotami of Set, appears
sometimes as the consort of Hathor of Dendera. The skill
displayed by the Tentyrites in capturing the crocodile is referred
to by Strabo and other Greek writers. Juvenal, in his seventeenth
satire, takes as his text a religious riot between the Tentyrites
and the neighbouring Ombites, in the course of which an unlucky
Ombite was torn to pieces and devoured by the opposite party.
The Ombos in question is not the distant Ombos south of Edfu,
where the crocodile was worshipped; Petrie has shown that
opposite Coptos, only about 15 m. from Tentyra, there was
another Ombos, venerating the hippopotamus sacred to Set.
See A. Mariette, Denderah (5 vols. atlas and text, 1869-1880);
W. M. F. Petrie, Denderah (1900) ; Nagada and Dallas (1896).
(F. LL. G.)
DENDROCOMETES (so named by F. Stein), a genus of
suctorian Infusoria, characterized by the repeatedly branched
attached body; each of the lobes of the body gives off a few
retractile tentacles. It is parasitic on the gills of the so-called
freshwater shrimp Gammarus pulex.
For its conjugation see Sydney H. HicksOn, in Quarterly Journ. of
Microsc. Science, vol xlv. (1902), p. 325.
DENE-HOLES, the name given to certain caves or excavations
in England, which have been popularly supposed to be due to the
Danes or some other of the early northern invaders of the country.
The common spelling " Dane hole " is adduced as evidence of
this, and individual names, such as Vortigern's Caves at Margate,
and Canute's Gold Mine near Bexley, naturally follow the same
theory. The word, however, is probably derived from the Anglo-
Saxon den, a hole or valley. There are many underground
excavations in the south of the country, also found to some extent
in the midlands and the north, but true dene-holes are found
chiefly in those parts of Kent and Essex along the lower banks
of the Thames. With one exception there are no recorded
specimens farther east than those of the Grays Thurrock district,
situated in Hangman's Wood, on the north, and one near
Rochester on the south side of the river.
The general outline of the formation of these caves is invariably
the same. The entrance is a vertical shaft some 3 ft. in diameter
falling, on an average, to a depth of 60 ft. The depth is regulated,
obviously, by the depth of the chalk from the surface, but,
although chalk could have been obtained close at hand within
a few feet, or even inches, from the surface, a depth of from
45 to 80 ft., or more, is a characteristic feature. It is believed
that dene-holes were also excavated in sand, but as these would
be of a perishable nature there are no available data of any
value. The shaft, when the chalk is reached, widens out into a
domed chamber with a roof of chalk some 3 ft. thick. The walls
frequently contract somewhat as they near the floor. As a rule
there is only one chamber, from 16 to 18 ft. in height, beneath
each shaft. From this excessive height it has been inferred that
the caves were not primarily intended for habitations or even
hiding-places. In some cases the chamber is extended, the roof
being supported by pillars of chalk left standing. A rare specimen
of a twin-chamber was discovered at Gravesend. In this case
the one entrance served for both caves, although a separate
aperture connected them on the floor level. Where galleries
are found connecting the chambers, forming a bewildering
labyrinth, a careful scrutiny of the walls usually reveals evidence
that they are the work of a people of a much later period than
that of the chambers, or, as they become in these cases, the
halls of the galleries.
Isolated specimens have been discovered in various parts of
Kent and Essex, but the most important groups have been found
at Grays Thurrock, in the districts of Woolwich, Abbey V/ood
and Bexley, and at Gravesend. Those at Bexley and Grays
Thurrock are the most valuable still existing.
It is generally found that the tool work on the root or ceiling
is rougher than that on the walls, where an upright position
could be maintained. Casts taken of some of the pick-holes
near the roof show that, in all probability, they were made
by bone or horn picks. And numerous bone picks have been
discovered in Essex and Kent. These pick-holes are amongst
the most valuable data for the study of dene-holes, and have
assisted in fixing the date of their formation to pre-Roman
times. Very few relics of antiquarian value have been discovered
in any of the known dene-holes which have assisted in fixing the
date or determining the uses of these prehistoric excavations.
Pliny mentions pits sunk to a depth of a hundred feet, " where
they branched out like the veins of mines." This has been used
in support of the theory that dene-holes were wells sunk for the
extraction of chalk; but no known dene-hole branches out in this
way. Chretien de Troyes has a passage on underground caves in
Britain which may have reference to dene-holes, and tradition of
the I4th century treated the dene-holes of Grays as the fabled
gold mines of Cunobeline (or Cymbeline) of the ist century.
Vortigern's Caves at Margate are possibly dene-holes which
have been adapted by later peoples to other purposes; and
excellent examples of various pick-holes may be seen on different
parts of the walls.
Local tradition in some cases traces the use of these caves to
the smugglers, and, when it is remembered that illicit traffic was
common not only on the coast but in the Thames as far up the
river as Barking Creek, the theory is at least tenable that these
ready-made hiding-places, difficult of approach and dangerous
to descend, were so utilized.
20
DENGUE DENHAM
There are three purposes for which dene-holes may have been
originally excavated: (a) as hiding-places or dwellings, (b) draw-
wells for the extraction of chalk for agricultural uses, and (c) store-
houses for grain . For several reasons it is unlikely that they were
used as habitations, although they may have been used occasion-
ally as hiding-places. Other evidence has shown that it is
equally improbable that they were used for the extraction of
chalk. The chief reasons against this theory are that chalk
could have been obtained outcropping close by, and that every
trace of loose chalk has been removed from the vicinity of the
holes, while known examples of chalk draw-wells do not descend
to so great a depth. The discovery of a shallow dene-hole, about
14 ft. below the surface, at Stone negatives this theory still
further. The last of the three possible uses for which these
prehistoric excavations were designed is usually accepted as
the most probable. Silos, or underground storehouses, are well
known in the south of Europe and Morocco. It is supposed that
the grain was stored in the ear and carefully protected from
damp by straw. A curious smoothness of the roof of one of the
chambers of the Gravesend twin-chamber dene-hole has been put
forward as additional evidence in support of this theory. One
other theory has been advanced, viz. that the excavations were
made in order to get flints for implements, but this is quite
impossible, as a careful examination of a few examples will show.
Further reference may be made to Essex Dene-holes by T. V. Holmes
and W. Cole; fo The Archaeological Journal (1882); the Transac-
tions of the Essex Field Club; Archaeologia Cantiana, &c.; Dene-
holes by F. W. Reader, in Old Essex, ed. A. C. Kelway (1908).
(A.J.P.)
DENGUE (pronounced deng-ga), an infectious fever occurring
in warm climates. The symptoms are a sudden attack of fever,
accompanied by rheumatic pains in the joints and muscles with
severe headache and erythema. After a few days a crisis is
reached and an interval of two or three days is followed by a
slighter return of fever and pain and an eruption resembling
measles, the most marked characteristic of the disease. The
disease is rarely fatal, death occurring only in cases of extreme
weakness caused by old age, infancy or other illness. Little is
known of the aetiology of " dengue." The virus is probably
similar to that of other exanthematous fevers and communicated
by an intermediary culex. The disease is nearly always epidemic,
though at intervals it appears to be pandemic and in certain
districts almost endemic. The area over which the disease ranges
may be stated generally to be between 32 47' N. and 23 23' S.
Throughout this area " dengue " is constantly epidemic. The
earliest epidemic of which anything is known occurred in 1779-
1780 in Egypt and the East Indies. The chief epidemics have
been those of 1824-1826 in India, and in the West Indies and
the southern states of North America, of 1870-1875, extending
practically over the whole of the tropical portions of the East and
reaching as far as China. In 1888 and 1889 a great outbreak
spread along the shores of the Aegean and over nearly the whole
of Asia Minor. Perhaps " dengue " is most nearly endemic in
equatorial East Africa and in the West Indies. The word has
usually been identified with the Spanish dengue, meaning stiff or
prim behaviour, and adopted in the West Indies as a name suit-
able to the curious cramped movements of a sufferer from the
disease, similar to the name " dandy-fever " which was given to
it by the negroes. According to the New English Dictionary
(quoting Dr Christie in The Glasgow Medical Journal, September
1881), both " dengue " and " dandy " are corruptions of the
Swahili word dinga or denga, meaning a sudden attack of cramp,
the Swahili name for the disease being ka-dinga pepo.
See Sir Patrick Manson, Tropical Diseases; a Manual of Diseases
of Warm Climates (1903).
DENHAM, DIXON (1786-1828), English traveller in West
Central Africa, was born in London on the ist of January 1786.
He was educated at Merchant Taylors' School, and was articled
to a solicitor, but joined the army in 1811. First in the 23rd
Royal Welsh Fusiliers, and afterwards in the 54th foot, he served
in the campaigns in Portugal, Spain, France and Belgium, and
received the Waterloo medal. In 1821 he volunteered to join
Dr Oudney and Hugh Clapperton (?..), who had been sent by the
British government via Tripoli to the central Sudan. He joined
the expedition at Murzuk in Fezzan. Finding the promised
escort not forthcoming, Denham, whose energy was boundless,
started for England to complain of the " duplicity " of the pasha
of Tripoli. The pasha, alarmed, sent messengers after him with
promises to meet his demands. Denham, who had reached
Marseilles, consented to return, the escort was forthcoming, and
Murzuk was regained in November 1822. Thence the expedition
made its way across the Sahara to Bornu, reached in February
1823. Here Denham, against the wish of Oudney and Clapperton,
accompanied a slave-raiding expedition into the Mandara high-
lands south of Bornu. The raiders were defeated, and Denham
barely escaped with his life. When Oudney and Clapperton set
out, December 1823, for the Hausa states, Denham remained
behind. He explored the western, south and south-eastern
shores of Lake Chad, and the lower courses of the rivers Waube,
Logone and Shari. In August 1824, Clapperton having returned
and Oudney being dead, Bornu was left on the return journey
to Tripoli and England. In December 1826 Denham, promoted
lieutenant-colonel, sailed for Sierra Leone as superintendent of
liberated Africans. In 1828 he was appointed governor of Sierra
Leone, but after administering the colony for five weeks died of
fever at Freetown on the 8th of May 1828.
See Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in Northern and Central
Africa in the years 1822-1824 (London, 1826), the greater part of
which is written by Denham ; The Story of Africa, vol. i. chap. xiii.
(London, 1892), by Dr Robert Brown.
DENHAM, SIR JOHN (1615-1669), English poet, only son of
Sir John Denham (1550-1639), lord chief baron of the exchequer
in Ireland, was born in Dublin in 1615. In 1617 his father
became baron of the exchequer in England, and removed to
London with his family. In Michaelmas term 1631 the future
poet was entered as a gentleman commoner at Trinity College,
Oxford. He removed in 1634 to Lincoln's Inn, where he was, says
John Aubrey, a good student, but not suspected of being a wit.
The reputation he had gained at Oxford of being the " dream-
ingest young fellow " gave way to a scandalous reputation for
gambling. In 1634 he married Ann Cotton, and seems to have
lived with his father at Egham, Surrey. In 1636 he wrote his
paraphrase of the second book of the Aeneid (published in 1656
as The Destruction of Troy, with an excellent verse essay on the
art of translation). About the same time he wrote a prose tract
against gambling, The Anatomy of Play (printed 1651), designed
to assure his father of his repentance, but as soon as he came into
his fortune he squandered it at play. It was a surprise to every-
one when in 1642 he suddenly, as Edmund Waller said, " broke
out like the Irish rebellion, three score thousand strong, when no
one was aware, nor in the least expected it," by publishing The
Sophy, a tragedy in five acts, the subject of which was drawn
from Sir Thomas Herbert's travels. At the beginning of the Civil
War Denham was high sheriff for Surrey, and was appointed
governor of Farnham Castle. He showed no military ability, and
speedily surrendered the castle to the parliament. He was sent
as a prisoner to London, but was soon permitted to join the king
at Oxford.
In 1642 appeared Cooper's Hill, a poem describing the Thames
scenery round his home at Egham. The first edition was
anonymous: subsequent editions show numerous alterations,
and the poem did not assume its final form until 1655. This
famous piece, which was Pope's model for his Windsor Forest, was
not new in theme or manner, but the praise which it received was
well merited by its ease and grace. Moreover Denham expressed
his commonplaces with great dignity and skill. He followed the
taste of the time in his frequent use of antithesis and metaphor,
but these devices seem to arise out of the matter, and are not
of the nature of mere external ornament. At Oxford he wrote
many squibs against the roundheads. One of the few serious
pieces belonging to this period is the short poem " On the Earl
of Stafford's Trial and Death."
From this time Denham was much in Charles I.'s confidence.
He was entrusted with the charge of forwarding letters to and
from the king when he was in the custody of the parliament, a
DENIA DENIS, SAINT
21
duty which he discharged successfully with Abraham Cowley, but
in 1648 he was suspected by the Parliamentary authorities, and
thought it wiser to cross the Channel. He helped in the removal
of the young duke of York to Holland, and for some time he
served Queen Henrietta Maria in Paris, being entrusted by her
with despatches for Holland. In 1650 he was sent to Poland in
company with Lord Crofts to obtain money for Charles II. They
succeeded in raising 10,000. After two years spent at the exiled
court in Holland, Denham returned to London and being quite
without resources, he was for some time the guest of the earl of
Pembroke at Wilton. In 1655 an order was given that Denham
should restrict himself to some place of residence to be selected
by himself at a distance of not less than 20 m. from London;
subsequently he obtained from the Protector a licence to live at
Bury St Edmunds, and in 1658 a passport to travel abroad with
the earl of Pembroke. At the Restoration Denham's services
were rewarded by the office of surveyor-general of works. His
qualifications as an architect were probably slight, but it is safe
to regard as grossly exaggerated the accusations of incompetence
and peculation made by Samuel Butler in his brutal " Panegyric
upon Sir John Denham's Recovery from his Madness." He
eventually secured the services of Christopher Wren as deputy-
surveyor. In 1660 he was also made a knight of the Bath>
In 1665 he married for the second time. His wife, Margaret,
daughter of Sir William Brooke, was, according to the comte de
Gramont, a beautiful girl of eighteen. She soon became known
as the mistress of the duke of York, and the scandal, according
to common report, shattered the poet's reason. While Denham
was recovering, his wife died, poisoned, it was said, by a cup of
chocolate. Some suspected the duchess of York of the crime,
but the Comte de Gramont says that the general opinion was
that Denham himself was guilty. No sign of poison, however,
was found in the examination after Lady Denham's death.
Denham survived her for two years, dying at his house near
Whitehall in March 1669. He was buried on the 23rd in West-
minster Abbey. In the last years of his life he wrote the bitter
political satires on the shameful conduct of the Dutch War entitled
" Directions to a Painter," and " Fresh Directions," continuing
Edmund Waller's " Instructions to a Painter." The printer of
these poems, with which were printed one by Andrew Marvell,
was sentenced to stand in the pillory. In 1667 Denham wrote his
beautiful elegy on Abraham Cowley.
Denham's poems include, beside those already given, a verse
paraphrase of Cicero's Cato major, and a metrical version of the
Psalms. As a writer of didactic verse, he was perhaps too highly
praised by his immediate successors. Dryden called Copper's Hill
" the exact standard of good writing," and Pope in his Windsor
Forest called him " majestic Denham. ' His collected poems with a
dedicatory epistle to Charles II. appeared in 1668. Other editions
followed, and they are reprinted in Chalmers' (1810) and other col-
lections of the English poets. His political satires were printed with
some of Rochester's and Marvell's in Bibliotheca curiosa, vol. i.
(Edinburgh, 1885).
D^NIA, a seaport of eastern Spain, in the province of Alicante;
on the Mediterranean Sea, at the head of a railway from Car-
cagente. Pop. ( i goo) 1 2 ,43 1 . Denia occupies the seaward slopes
of a hill surmounted by a ruined castle, and divided by a narrow
valley on the south from the limestone ridge of Mongo (2500 ft.),
which commands a magnificent view of the Balearic Islands and
the Valencian coast. The older houses of Denia are characterized
by their flat Moorish roofs (azoteas) and view-turrets (mir adores) ,
while fragments of the Moorish ramparts are also visible near the
harbour; owing, however, to the rapid extension of local com-
merce, many of the older quarters were modernized at the
beginning of the 2oth century. Nails, and woollen, linen and
esparto grass fabrics are manufactured here; and there is a
brisk export trade in grapes, raisins and onions, mostly consigned
to Great Britain or the United States. Baltic timber and
British coal are largely imported. The harbour bay, which is
well lighted and sheltered by a breakwater, contains only a small
space of deep water, shut in by deposits of sand on three sides.
In 1904 it accommodated 402 vessels of 175,000 tons; about
half of which were small fishing craft, and coasters carrying
agricultural produce to Spanish and African ports.
Denia was colonized by Greek merchants from Emporiae
(Ampurias in Catalonia), or Massilia (Marseilles), at a very early
date; but its Greek name of Hemeroskopeion was soon super-
seded by the Roman Dianium. In the ist century B.C., Sertorius
made it the naval headquarters of his resistance to Rome; and,
as its name implies, it was already famous for its temple of Diana,
built in imitation of that at Ephesus. The site of this temple can
be traced at the foot of the castle hill. D6nia was captured by
the Moors in 713, and from 1031 to 1253 belonged successively to
the Moorish kingdoms of Murcia and Valencia. According to an
ancient but questionable tradition, its population rose at this
period to 50,000, and its commerce proportionately increased.
After the city was retaken by the Christians in 1253, its pros-
perity dwindled away, and only began to revive in the igth
century. During the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14),
Denia was thrice besieged; and in 1813 the citadel was held for
five months by the French against the allied British and Spanish
forces, until the garrison was reduced to 100 men, and compelled
to surrender, on honourable terms.
DENIKER, JOSEPH (1852- ) French naturalist and
anthropologist, was born of French parents at Astrakhan, Russia,
on the 6th of March 1852. After receiving his education at the
university and technical institute of St Petersburg, he adopted
engineering as a profession, and in this capacity travelled ex-
tensively in the petroleum districts of the Caucasus, in Central
Europe, Italy and Dalmatia. Settling at Paris in 1876, he
studied at the Sorbonne, where he took his degree in natural
science. In 1888 he was appointed chief librarian of the Natural
History Museum, Paris. Among his many valuable ethnological
works mention may be made of Recherches anatomiques et embryo-
logiques sur les singes anthropoides (1886); lude sur les Kal-
mouks (1883); Les Ghiliaks (1883); and Races et peuples de la
lerre (1900). He became one of the chief editors of the Diction-
naire de g&ographie uniiierselle, and published many papers in the
anthropological and zoological journals of France.
DENILIQUIN, a municipal town of Townsend county, New
South Wales, Australia, 534 m. direct S.W. of Sydney, and 195 m.
by rail N. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 2644. The business of
the town is chiefly connected with the interests of the sheep
and cattle farmers of the Riverina district, a plain country, in
the main pastoral, but suited in some parts for cultivation.
Deniliquin has a well-known public school.
DENIM (an abbreviation of serge de Nimes), the name origin-
ally given to a kind of serge. It is now applied to a stout twilled
cloth made in various colours, usually of cotton, and used for
ovcrnlls &c
DENINA, CARLO GIOVANNI MARIA (1731-1813), Italian
historian, was born at Revello, Piedmont, in 1731, and was
educated at Saluzzo and Turin. In 1753 he was appointed to the
chair of humanity at Pignerol, but he was soon compelled by the
influence of the Jesuits to retire from it. In 1756 he graduated
as doctor in theology, and began authorship with a theological
treatise. Promoted to the professorship of humanity and rhetoric
in the college of Turin, he published (1769-1772) his Delle re-
voluzioni d'ltalia, the work on which his reputation is mainly
founded. Collegiate honours accompanied the issue of its
successive volumes, which, however, at the same time multiplied
his foes and stimulated their hatred. In 1782, at Frederick the
Great's invitation, he went to Berlin, where he remained for many
years, in the course of which he published his Vie et regne de
Frederic II (Berlin, 1788) and La Prusse litteraire sous Frederic
II (3 vols., Berlin, 1790-1791). His Delle revoluzioni della
Germania was published at Florence in 1804, in which year he
went to Paris as the imperial librarian, on the invitation of
Napoleon. At Paris he published in 1 805 his Tableau de la Haute
Italie, et des Alpes qui I'entourent. He died there on the 5th of
December 1813.
DENIS (DiONYSius) , SAINT, first bishop of Paris, patron saint
of France. According to Gregory of Tours (Hist. Franc, i. 30),
he was sent into Gaul at the time of the .emperor Decius. He
suffered martyrdom at the village of Catulliacus, the modern St
Denis. His tomb was situated by the side of the Roman road,
22
DENIS, J. N. C. M. DENIZLI
where rose the priory of St-Denis-de-l'Estre, which existed
until the i8th century. In the sth century the clergy of the
diocese of Paris built a basilica over the tomb. About 625
Dagobert, son of Lothair II., founded in honour of St Denis, at
some distance from the basilica, the monastery where the greater
number of the kings of France have been buried. The festival of
St Denis is celebrated on the gth of October. With his name are
already associated in the Martyrologium Hieronymianum the
priest Rusticus and the deacon Eleutherius. Other traditions
of no value are connected with the name of St Denis. A false
interpretation of Gregory of Tours, apparently dating from 724,
represented St Denis as having received his mission from Pope
Clement, and as having suffered martyrdom under Domitian
(81-96). Hilduin, abbot of St-Denis in the first half of the gth
century, identified Denis of Paris with Denis (Dionysius) the
Areopagite (mentioned in Acts xviii. 34), bishop of Athens
(Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. iii.4. io,iv. 23.3), and naturally attributed
to him the celebrated writings of the pseudo-Areopagite. St
Denis is generally represented carrying his head in his hands.
See Acta Sanctorum, Octobris, iv. 696-987; Bibliolheca hagio-
graphica graeca, p. 37 (Brussels, 1895); Bibiiotheca hagiographica
latina. No. 2171-2203 (Brussels, 1899); J. Havet, Les Origines de
Saint-Denis, in his collected works, i. 191-246 (Paris, 1896) ; Cahier,
Caracteristiques des saints, p. 761 (Paris, 1867). (H. DE.)
DENIS, JOHANN NEPOMUK COSMAS MICHAEL (1720-1800),
Austrian poet, was born at Scharding on the Inn, on the 27th
of September 1729. He was brought up by the Jesuits, entered
their order, and in 1759 was appointed professor in the
Theresianum in Vienna, a Jesuit college. In 1784, after the
suppression of the college, he was made second custodian of
the court library, and seven years later became chief librarian.
He died on the 2gth of September 1800. A warm admirer of
Klopstock, he was one of the leading members of the group of
so-called " bards "; and his original poetry, published under the
title Die Lieder Sineds des Barden (1772), shows all the extrava-
gances of the " bardic " movement. He is best remembered
as the translator of Ossian (1768-1769; also published together
with his own poems in 5 vols. as Ossians und Sineds Lieder, 1784).
More important than either his original poetry or his translations
were his efforts to familiarize the Austrians with the literature
of North Germany; his Sammlung kurzerer Gedichle aus den
neitern Dichtern Deutschlands, 3 vols. (1762-1766), was in this
respect invaluable. He has also left a number of bibliographical
compilations, Grundriss der Bibliographic und Bucherkunde
(1774), Grundriss der Literaturgeschichte (1776), Einleitung in
die Bucherkunde (1777) and Wiens Buchdruckergeschichle bis 1560
(1782).
Ossians und Sineds Lieder have not been reprinted since 1791 ; but
a selection of his poetry edited by R. Hamel will be found in vol.
48 (1884) of Kiirschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur. His Litera-
rischer NacUass was published by J. F. von Retzer in 1802 (2 vols.).
See P. von Hofmann-Wellenhof, Michael Denis (1881).
DENISON, GEORGE ANTHONY (1805-1896), English church-
man, brother of John Evelyn Denison (1800-1873; speaker of
the House of Commons 1857-1872; Viscount Ossington), was
born at Ossington, Notts, on the nth of December 1805, and
educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford. In 1828 he was
elected fellow of Oriel; and after a few years there as a tutor,
during which he was ordained and acted as curate at Cuddesdon,
he became rector of Broadwindsor, Dorset (1838). He became
a prebendary of Sarum in 1841 and of Wells in 1849. In 1851
he was preferred to the valuable living of East Brent, Somerset,
and in the same year was made archdeacon of Taunton. For
many years Archdeacon Denison represented the extreme Hjgh
Tory party not only in politics but in the Church, regarding
all " progressive " movements in education or theology as
abomination, and vehemently repudiating the " higher criticism "
from the days of Essays and Reviews (1860) to those of Lux
Mundi (1800). In 1853 he resigned his position as examining
chaplain to the bishop of Bath and Wells owing to his pronounced
eucharistic views. A suit on the complaint of a neighbouring
clergyman ensued and after various complications Denison was
condemned by the archbishops' court at Bath (1856); but on
appeal the court of Arches and the privy council quashed this
judgment on a technical plea. The result was to make Denison
a keen champion of the ritualistic school. He edited The Church
and State Review (1862-1865). Secular state education and the
" conscience clause " were anathema to him. Until the end of
his life he remained a protagonist in theological controversy and
a keen fighter against latitudinarianism and liberalism; but the
sharpest religious or political differences never broke his personal
friendships and his Christian charity. Among other things for
which he will be remembered was his origination of harvest
festivals. He died on the 2ist of March 1896.
DENISON, GEORGE TAYLOR (1839- ), Canadian soldier
and publicist, was born in Toronto on the 3ist of August 1839.
In 1861 he was called to the bar, and was from 1865-1867 a
member of the city council. From the first he took a prominent
part in the organization of the military forces of Canada, becom-
ing a lieutenant-colonel in the active militia in 1866. He saw
active service during the Fenian raid of 1866, and during the
rebellion of 1885. Owing to his dissatisfaction with the conduct
of the Conservative ministry during the Red River Rebellion in
1869-70, he abandoned that party, and in 1872 unsuccessfully
contested Algoma in the Liberal interest. Thereafter he remained
free from party ties. In 1877 he was appointed police magistrate
of Toronto. Colonel Denison was one of the founders of the
" Canada First " party, which did much to shape the national
aspirations from 1870 to 1878, and was a consistent supporter
of imperial federation and of preferential trade between Great
Britain and her colonies. He became a member of the Royal
Society of Canada, and was president of the section dealing with
English history and literature. The best known of his military
works is his History of Modern Cavalry (London, 1877), which
was awarded first prize by the Russian government in an open
competition and has been translated into German, Russian and
Japanese. In 1900 he published his reminiscences under the
title of Soldiering in Canada.
DENISON, a city of Grayson county, Texas, U.S.A., about
i\ m. from the S. bank of the Red river, about 70 m. N. of Dallas.
Pop. (1890) 10,958; (1900) 11,807, of whom 2251 were negroes;
(1910 census) 13,632. It is served by the Houston & Texas
Central, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the Texas & Pacific, and
the St Louis & San Francisco ('Frisco System) railways, and is
connected with Sherman, Texas, by an electric line. Denison
is the seat of the Gate City business college (generally known
as Harshaw Academy), and of St Xavier's academy (Roman
Catholic). It is chiefly important as a railway centre, as a
collecting and distributing point for the fruit, vegetables, hogs
and poultry, and general farming products of the surrounding
region, and as a wholesale and jobbing market for the upper
Red river valley. It has railway repair shops, and among its
manufactures are cotton-seed oil, cotton, machinery and foundry
products, flour, wooden-ware, and dairy products. In 1905 its
factory products were valued at $1,234,956, 47-0 % more than
in 1900. Denison was settled by Northerners at the time of
the construction of the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railway to
this point in 1872, and was named in honour of George Denison
(1822-1876), a director of the railway; it became a city in 1891,
and in 1907 adopted the commission form of government.
DENIZEN (derived through the Fr. from Lat. de intus, " from
within," i.e. as opposed to "foreign"), an alien who obtains
by letters patent (ex donatione regis) certain of the privileges of
a British subject. He cannot be a member of the privy council
or of parliament, or hold any civil or military office of trust, or
take a grant of land from the crown. The Naturalization Act
1870 provides that nothing therein contained shall affect the
grant of any letters of denization by the sovereign.
DENIZLI (anc. Laodicea (q.v.) ad Lycuni), chief town of a
sanjak of the Aidin vilayet of Asia Minor, altitude 1167 ft.
Pop. about 17,000. It is beautifully situated at the foot of Baba
Dagh (Mt. Salbacus), on a tributary of the Churuk Su (Lycus),
and is connected by a branch line with the station of Gonjeli
on the Smyrna-Dineir railway. It took the place of Laodicea
when that town was deserted during the wars between the
DENMAN DENMARK
Byzantines and Seljuk Turks, probably between 1158 and 1174.
It had become a fine Moslem city in the I4th century, and was
then called Ladik, being famous for the woven and embroidered
products of its Greek inhabitants. The delightful gardens of
Denizli have obtained for it the name of the "Damascus of
Anatolia."
DENMAN, THOMAS, IST BARON (1779-1854), English judge,
was born in London, the son of a well-known physician, on the
23rd of July 1779. He was educated at Eton and St John's
College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1800. Soon after
leaving Cambridge he married; and in 1806 he was called to the
bar at Lincoln's Inn, and at once entered upon practice. His
success was rapid, and in a few years he attained a position at
the bar second only to that of Brougham and Scarlett (Lord
Abinger). He distinguished himself by his eloquent defence of
the Luddites; but his most brilliant appearance was as one of
the counsel for Queen Caroline. His speech before the Lords
was very powerful, and some competent judges even considered
it not inferior to Brougham's. It contained one or two daring
passages, which made the king his bitter enemy, and retarded
his legal promotion. At the general election of 1818 he was
returned M.P. for Wareham, and at once took his seat with the
Whig opposition. In the following year he was returned for
Nottingham, for which place he continued to sit till his elevation
to the bench in 1832. His liberal principles had caused his
exclusion from office till in 1822 he was appointed common
Serjeant by the corporation of London. In 1830 he was made
attorney-general under Lord Grey's administration. Two years
later he was made lord chief justice of the King's Bench, and
in 1834 he was raised to the peerage. As a judge he is most
celebrated for his decision in the important privilege case of
Stockdale v. Hansard (9 Ad. & El. I.; n Ad. & El. 253), but
he was never ranked as a profound lawyer. In 1850 he resigned
his chief justiceship and retired into private life. He died on
the 26th of September 1854, his title continuing in the direct line.
The HON. GEORGE DENMAN (1810-1896), his fourth son, was
also a distinguished lawyer, and a judge of the Queen's Bench
from 1872 till his death in 1896.
See Memoir of Thomas, first Lord Denman, by Sir Joseph Arnould
(2 vols., 1873) ; E. Manson, Builders of our Law (1904).
DENMARK (Danmark), a small kingdom of Europe, occupying
part of a peninsula and a group of islands dividing the Baltic
and North Seas, in the middle latitudes of the eastern coast.
The kingdom lies between 54 33' and 57 45' N. and between
8 4' 54" and 12 47' 25* E., exclusive of the island of Bornholm,
which, as will be seen, is not to be included in the Danish archi-
pelago. The peninsula is divided between Denmark and Germany
(Schleswig-Holstein). The Danish portion is the northern and
the greater, and is called Jutland (Dan. Jylland). Its northern
part is actually insular, divided from the mainland by the
Limf jord or Liimf jord, which communicates with the North Sea
to the west and the Cattegat to the east, but this strait, though
broad and possessing lacustrine characteristics to the west, has
only very narrow entrances. The connexion with the North Sea
dates from 1825. The Skagerrack bounds Jutland to the north
and north-west. The Cattegat is divided from the Baltic by the
Danish islands, between the east coast of the Cimbric peninsula
in the neighbourhood of the German frontier and south-western
Sweden.
There is little variety in the surface of Denmark. It is
uniformly low, the highest elevation in the whole country, the
Himmelbjerg near Aarhus in eastern Jutland, being little more
than 500 ft. above the sea. Denmark, however, is nowhere low
in the sense in which Holland is; the country is pleasantly
diversified, and rises a little at the coast even though it remains
flat inland. The landscape of the islands and the south-eastern
part of Jutland is rich in beech-woods, corn fields and meadows,
and even the minute islets are green and fertile. In the western
and northern districts of Jutland this condition gives place to a
wide expanse of moorland, covered with heather, and ending
towards the sea in low whitish-grey cliffs. There is a certain
charm even about these monotonous tracts, and it cannot be
said that Denmark is wanting hi natural beauty of a quiet
order. Lakes, though small, are numerous; the largest are the
Arreso and the Esromso in Zealand, and the chain of lakes in
the Himmelbjerg region, which are drained by the largest river
hi Denmark, the Gudenaa, which, however, has a course not
exceeding 80 m. Many of the meres, overhung with thick beech-
woods, are extremely beautiful. The coasts are generally low
and sandy; the whole western shore of Jutland is a succession
of sand ridges and shallow lagoons, very dangerous to shipping.
In many places the sea has encroached; even in the igth
century entire villages were destroyed, but during the last
twenty years of the century systematic efforts were made to
secure the coast by groynes and embankments. A belt of sand
dunes, from 500 yds. to 7 m. wide, stretches along the whole of
this coast for about 200 m. Skagen, or the Skaw, a long, low,
sandy point, stretches far into the northern sea, dividing the
Skagerrack from the Cattegat. On the western side the coast is
bolder and less inhospitable; there are several excellent havens,
especially on the islands. The coast is nowhere, however, very
high, except at one or two points hi Jutland, and at the eastern
extremity of Moen, where limestone cliffs occur.
Continental Denmark is confined wholly to Jutland, the
geographical description of which is given under that heading.
Out of the total area of the kingdom, 14,829 sq. m., Jutland,
including the small islands adjacent to it, covers 9753 sq. m., and
the insular part of the kingdom (including Bornholm), 5076 sq. m.
The islands may be divided into two groups, consisting of the
two principal islands Fiinen and Zealand, and the lesser islands
attendant on each. Fiinen (Dan. Fyen), in form roughly an oval
with an axis from S.E. to N.W. of 53 m., is separated from
Jutland by a channel not half a mile wide hi the north, but
averaging 10 m. between the island and the Schleswig coast, and
known as the Little Belt. Fiinen, geologically a part of southern
Jutland, has similar characteristics, a smiling landscape of
fertile meadows, the typical beech-forests clothing the low hills
and the presence of numerous erratic blocks, are the superficial
signs of likeness. Several islands, none of great extent, lie off
the west coast of Fiinen in the Little Belt; off the south, how-
ever, an archipelago is enclosed by the long narrow islands of
Aero (16 m. in length) and Langeland (32 m.), including in a
triangular area of shallow sea the islands of Taasinge, Avernako,
Dreio, Turo and others. These aie generally fertile and well
cultivated. Aeroskjobing and Rudkjobing, on Aero and
Langeland respectively, are considerable ports. On Langeland is
the great castle of Tranekjaer, whose record dates from the i3th
century. The chief towns of Fiinen itself are all coastal. Odense
is the principal town, lying close to a great inlet behind the
peninsula of Hindsholm on the north-east, known as Odense
Fjord. Nyborg on the east is the port for the steam-ferry to
Korsor hi Zealand; Svendborg picturesquely overlooks the
southern archipelago; Faaborg on the south-west lies on a
fjord of the same name; Assens, on the west, a port for the
crossing of the Little Belt into Schleswig, still shows traces of
the fortifications which were stormed by John of Ranzau in
1535; Middelfart is a seaside resort near the narrowest reach
of the Little Belt; Bogense is a small port on the north coast.
All these towns are served by railways radiating from Odense.
The strait crossed by the Nyborg- Korsor ferry is the Great Belt
which divides the Fiinen from the Zealand group, and is con-
tinued south by the Langelands Belt, which washes the straight
eastern shore of that island, and north by the Samso Belt,
named from an island 15 m. in length, with several large villages,
which lies somewhat apart from the main archipelago.
Zealand, or Sealand (Dan. Sjaelland), measuring 82 m. N.
to S. by 68 E. to W. (extremes), with its fantastic coast-line
indented by fjords and projecting into long spits or promontories,
may be considered as the nucleus of the kingdom, inasmuch as it
contains the capital, Copenhagen, and such important towns as
Roskilde, Slagelse, Korsor, Naestved and Elsinore (Helsingor).
Its topography is described in detail under ZEALAND. Its
attendant islands lie mainly to the south and are parts of itself,
only separated by geologically recent troughs. The eastern
DENMARK
[GEOGRAPHY
coast of Moen is rocky and bold. It is recorded that this island
formed three separate isles in noo, and the village of Borre, now
2 m. inland, was the object of an attack by a fleet from Liibeck
in 1510. On Falster is the port of Nykjobing, and from Gjedser,
the extreme southern point of Denmark, communication is
maintained with Warnemiinde in Germany (29 m.). From
Nykjobing a bridge nearly one-third of a mile long crosses to
Laaland, at the west of which is the port of Nakskov; the other
towns are the county town of Maribo with its fine church of the
I4th century, Saxkjobing and Rodby. The island of Bornholm
lies 86 m. E. of the nearest point of the archipelago, and as it
belongs geologically to Sweden (from which it is distant only
22 m.) must be considered to be physically an appendage rather
than an internal part of the kingdom of Denmark.
Geology. The surface in Denmark is almost everywhere
formed by the so-called Boulder Clay and what the Danish
geologists call the Boulder Sand. The former, as is well known,
owes its origin to the action of ice on the mountains of Norway
in the Glacial period. It is unstratified; but by the action of
water on it, stratified deposits have been formed, some of clay,
containing remains of arctic animals, some, and very extensive
ones, of sand and gravel. This boulder sand forms almost every-
where the highest hills, and besides, in the central part of Jutland,
a wide expanse of heath and moorland apparently level, but really
sloping gently towards the west. The deposits of the boulder
formation rest generally on limestone of the Cretaceous period,
which in many places comes near the surface and forms cliffs
on the sea-coast. Much of the Danish chalk, including the well-
known limestone of Faxe, belongs to the highest or " Danian "
subdivision of the Cretaceous period. In the south-western
parts a succession of strata, described as the Brown Coal or
Lignite formations, intervenes between the chalk and the boulder
clay; its name is derived from the deposits of lignite which occur
in it. It is only on the island of Bornholm that older formations
come to light. This island agrees in geological structure with the
southern part of Sweden, and forms, in fact, the southernmost
portion of the Scandinavian system. There the boulder clay
lies immediately on the primitive rock, except in the south-western
corner of the island, where a series of strata appear belonging to
the Cambrian, Silurian, Jurassic and Cretaceous formations, the
true Coal formation, &c., being absent. Some parts of Denmark
are supposed to have been finally raised out of the sea towards
the close of the Cretaceous period; but as a whole the country
did not appear above the water till about the close of the Glacial
period. The upheaval of the country, a movement common to a
large part of the Scandinavian peninsula, still continues, though
slowly, north-east of a line drawn in a south-easterly direction
from Nissumfjord on the west coast of Jutland, across the island
of Fyen, a little south of the town of Nyborg. Ancient sea-
beaches, marked by accumulations of seaweed, rolled stones,
&c., have been noticed as much as 20 ft. above the present level.
But the upheaval does not seem to affect all parts equally.
Even in historic times it has vastly changed the aspect and
configuration of the country.
Climate, Flora, Fauna. The climate of Denmark does not
differ materially from that of Great Britain in the same latitude;
but whilst the summer is a little warmer, the winter is colder, so
that most of the evergreens which adorn an English garden in the
winter cannot be grown in the open in Denmark. During thirty
years the annual mean temperature varied from 43-88 F. to
46-22 in different years and different localities, the mean
average for the whole country being 45-14. The islands have,
upon the whole, a somewhat warmer climate than Jutland. The
mean temperatures of the four coldest months, December to
March, are 33-26, 31-64, 31-82, and 33-98 respectively, or for
the whole winter 32-7; that of the summer, June to August,
59-2, but considerable irregularities occur. Frost occurs on an
average on twenty days in each of the four winter months, but
only on two days in either October or May. A fringe of ice
generally lines the greater part of the Danish coasts on the eastern
side for some time during the winter, and both the Sound and the
Great Belt are at times impassable on account of ice. In some
winters the latter is sufficiently firm and level to admit of sledges
passing between Copenhagen and Malmo. The annual rainfall
varies between 21-58 in. and 27-87 in. in different years and
different localities. It is highest on the west coast of Jutland;
while the small island of Anholt in the Cattegat has an annual
rainfall of only 15-78 in. More than half the rainfall occurs
from July to November, the wettest month being September, with
an average of 2-95 in.; the driest month is April, with an
average of 1-14 in. Thunderstorms are frequent in the summer.
South-westerly winds prevail from January to March, and from
September to the end of the year. In April the east wind, which
is particularly searching, is predominant, while westerly winds
prevail from May to August. In the district of Aalborg, in the
north of Jutland, a cold and dry N.W. wind called skai prevails
in May and June, and is exceedingly destructive to vegetation;
while along the west coast of the peninsula similar effects are
produced by a salt mist, which carries its influence from 15 to
30 m. inland.
The flora of Denmark presents greater variety than might
be anticipated in a country of such simple physical structure.
The ordinary forms of the north of Europe grow freely in the mild
air and protected soil of the islands and the eastern coast; while
on the heaths and along the sandhills on the Atlantic side there
flourish a number of distinctive species. The Danish forest is
almost exclusively made up of beech, a tree which thrives better
in Denmark than in any other country of Europe. The oak and
ash are now rare, though in ancient times both were abundant
in the Danish islands. The elm is also scarce. The almost
universal predominance of the beech is by no means of ancient
origin, for in the first half of the I7th century the oak was still
the characteristic Danish tree. No conifer grows in Denmark
except under careful cultivation, which, however, is largely
practised in Jutland (<?..). But again, abundant traces of
ancient extensive forests of fir and pine are found in the numerous
peat bogs which supply a large proportion of the fuel locally used.
In Bornholm, it should be mentioned, the flora is more like that
of Sweden; not the beech, but the pine, birch and ash are the
most abundant trees.
The wild animals and birds of Denmark are those of the rest
of central Europe. The larger quadrupeds are ah 1 extinct; even
the red deer, formerly so abundant that in a single hunt in
Jutland in 1593 no less than 1600 head of deer were killed, is now
only to be met with in preserves. In the prehistoric " kitchen-
middens " (kjokkenmodding) and elsewhere, however, vestiges are
found which prove that the urochs, the wild boar, the beaver,
the bear and the wolf all existed subsequently to the arrival of
man. The usual domestic animals are abundantly found in
Denmark, with the exception of the goat, which is uncommon.
The sea fisheries are of importance. Oysters are found in some
places, but have disappeared from many localities, where their
abundance in ancient times is proved by their shell moulds on the
coast. The Gudenaa is the only salmon river in Denmark.
Population. The population of Denmark in 1901 was
2,449,540. It was 929,001 in 1801, showing an increase during
the century in the proportion of i to 2-63. In 1901 the average
density of the population of Denmark was 165-2 to the square
mile, but varied much in the different parts. Jutland showed
an average of only 109 inhabitants per square mile, whilst on the
islands, which had a total population of 1,385,537, the average
stood at 272-95, owing, on the one hand, to the fact that large
tracts in the interior of Jutland are almost uninhabited, and on
the other to the fact that the capital of the country, with its pro-
portionately large population, is situated on the island of Zealand.
The percentages of urban and rural population are respectively
about 38 and 62. A notable movement of the population to the
towns began about the middle of the igth century, and increased
until very near its end. It was stronger on the islands, where the
rural population increased by 5-3 % only in eleven years, whereas
in Jutland the increase of the rural population between 1890 and
1901 amounted to 12-0%. Here, however, peculiar circum-
stances contributed to the increase, as successful efforts have
been made to render the land fruitful by artificial means. The
S K A G EIR K A G-K
DENMARK
Scale. 1:1.800.000
Longitude East 10 of Greenwich Q
Emery Walker &c.
INDUSTRIES]
DENMARK
Danes are a yellow-haired and blue-eyed Teutonic race of
middle stature, bearing traces of their kinship with the northern
Scandinavian peoples. Their habits of life resemble those of the
North Germans even more than those of the Swedes. The in-
dependent tenure of the land by a vast number of small farmers,
who are their own masters, gives an air of carelessness, almost of
truculence, to the well-to-do Danish peasants. They are gener-
ally slow of speech and manner, and somewhat irresolute, but
take an eager interest in current politics, and are generally fairly
educated men of extreme democratic principles. The result of
a fairly equal distribution of wealth is a marked tendency towards
equality in social intercourse. The townspeople show a bias in
favour of French habits and fashions. The separation from
the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, which were more than
half German, intensified the national character; the Danes are
intensely patriotic; and there is no portion of the Danish
dominions except perhaps in the West Indian islands, where
a Scandinavian language is not spoken. The preponderance of
the female population over the male is approximately as 1052 to
1000. The male sex remains in excess until about the twentieth
year, from which age the female sex preponderates in increasing
ratio with advancing age. The percentage of illegitimacy is high
as a whole, although in some of the rural districts it is very low.
But in Copenhagen 20 % of the births are illegitimate. Between
the middle and the end of the ipth century the rate of mortality
decreased most markedly for all ages. During the last decade of
the century it ranged between 19-5 per thousand in 1891 and
15-1 in 1898 (17-4 in 1900). Emigration for some time in the
1 9th century at different periods, both in its early part and towards
its close, seriously affected the population of Denmark. But in
the last decade it greatly diminished. Thus in 1892 the number
of emigrants to Transatlantic places rose to 10,422 but in 1900
it was only 3570. The great bulk of them go to the United States;
next in favour is Canada.
Communications. The roads of Denmark form an extensive
and well-maintained system. The railway system is also fairly
complete, the state owning about three-fifths of the total mileage,
which amounts to some 2000. Two lines enter Denmark from
Schleswig across the frontier. The main Danish lines are as
follows. From the frontier a line runs east by Fredericia, across
the island of Fiinen by Odense and Nyborg, to Korsor on Zealand,
and thence by Roskilde to Copenhagen. The straits between
Fredericia and Middelfart and between Nyborg and Korsor are
crossed by powerful steam-ferries which are generally capable of
conveying a limited number of railway wagons. This system is
also in use on the line which runs south fromRoskilde to the island
of Falster, from the southernmost point of which, Gjedser, ferry-
steamers taking railway cars serve Warnemiinde in Germany.
The main lines in Jutland run (a) along the eastern side north
from Fredericia by Horsens, Aarhus, Randers, Aalborg and
Hjorring, to Frederikshavn, and (b) along the western side from
Esbjerg by Skjerne and Vemb, and thence across the peninsula
by Viborg to Langaa on the eastern line. The lines are generally
of standard gauge (4 ft. 8J in.), but there is also a considerable
mileage of light narrow-gauge railways. Besides the numerous
steam-ferries which connect island and island, and Jutland with
the islands, and the Gjedser-Warnemiinde route, a favourite
passenger line from Germany is that between Kiel and Korsor,
while most of the German Baltic ports have direct connexion with
Copenhagen. With Sweden communications are established by
ferries across the Sound between Copenhagen and Malmo and
Landskrona, and between Elsinore (Helsingor) and Helsingborg.
The postal department maintains a telegraph and telephone
service.
Industries. The main source of wealth in Denmark is agri-
culture, which employs about two-fifths of the entire population.
Most of the land is freehold and cultivated by the owner himself,
and comparatively little land is let on lease except very large
holdings and glebe farms. The independent small farmer
(bonder) maintains a hereditary attachment to his ancestral
holding. There is also a class of cottar freeholders (Junster).
Fully 74 % of the total area of the country is agricultural land.
Of this only about one-twelfth is meadow land. The land under
grain crops is not far short of one-half the remainder, the principal
crops being oats, followed by barley and rye in about equal
quantities, with wheat about one-sixth that of barley and hardly
one-tenth that of oats, Beet is extensively grown. During the
last forty years of the igth century dairy -farming was greatly
developed in Denmark, and brought to a high degree of perfection
by the application of scientific methods and the best machinery,
as well as by the establishment of joint dairies. The Danish
government has assisted this development by granting money
for experiments and by a rigorous system of inspection for the
prevention of adulteration. The co-operative system plays an
important part in the industries of butter-making, poultry-farm-
ing and the rearing of swine.
Rabbits, which are not found wild in Denmark, are bred for
export. Woods cover fully 7 % of the area, and their preserva-
tion is considered of so much importance that private owners are
under strict control as regards cutting of timber. The woods
consist mostly of beech, which is principally used for fuel, but
pines were extensively planted during the igth century. Allusion
has been made already to the efforts to plant the extensive heaths
in Jutland (q.v.) with pine-trees.
Agriculture. Rates and taxes on land are mostly levied ac-
cording to a uniform system of assessment, the unit of which is
called a Tonde Hartkorn. The Td. Htk., as it is usually abbrevi-
ated, has further subdivision, and is intended to correspond to
the same value of land throughout the country. The Danish
measure for land is a Tonde Land (Td. L.), which is equal to i -363
statute acres. Of the best ploughing land a little over 6 Td. L.,
or about 8 acres, go to a Td. Htk., but of unprofitable land a Td.
Htk. may represent 300 acres or more. On the islands and in the
more fertile part of Jutland the average is about 10 Td. L., or
13! acres. Woodland, tithes, &c., are also assessed to Td. Htk.
for fiscal purposes. In the island of Bornholm, the assessment
is somewhat different, though the general state of agricultural
holdings is the same as in other parts. The selling value of land
has shown a decrease in modern times on account of the agri-
cultural depression. A homestead with land assessed less than
i Td. Htk. is legally called a Huus or Sled, i.e. cottage, whilst
a farm assessed at i Td. Htk. or more is called Gaard, i.e. farm.
Farms of between i and 1 2 Td. Htk. are called Bondergaarde, or
peasant farms, and are subject to the restriction that such a hold-
ing cannot lawfully be joined to or entirely merged into another.
They may be subdivided, and portions may be added to another
holding, but the homestead, with a certain amount of land, must
be preserved as a separate holding for ever. The seats of the
nobility and landed gentry are called Herregaarde. The peasants
hold about 73 % of all the land according to its value. As regards
their size about 30 % are assessed from i to 4 Td. Htk. ; about
33% from 4 to 8 Td. Htk.; the remainder at about 8 Td. Htk.
An annual sum is voted by parliament out of which loans are
granted to cottagers who desire to purchase small freehold plots.
The fishery along the coasts of Denmark is of some importance
both on account of the supply of food obtained thereby for the
population of the country, and on account of the export; but the
good fishing grounds, not far from the Danish coast, particularly
in the North Sea, are mostly worked by the fishing vessels of other
nations, which are so numerous that the Danish government is
obliged to keep gun-boats stationed there in order to prevent
encroachments on territorial waters.
Other Industries. The mineral products of Denmark are
unimportant. It is one of the poorest countries of Europe in
this particular. It is rich, however, in clays, while in the island
of Bornholm there are quarries of freestone and marble. The
factories of Denmark supply mainly local needs. The largest are
those engaged in the construction of engines and iron ships. The
manufacture of woollens and cotton, the domestic manufacture
of linen in Zealand, sugar refineries, paper mills, breweries, and
distilleries may also be mentioned. The most notable manu-
facture is that of porcelain. The nucleus of this industry was a
factory started in 1772, by F. H. Muller, for the making of china
out of Bornholm clay. In 1779 it passed into the hands of the
DENMARK
[GOVERNMENT
state, and has remained there ever since, though there are
also private factories. Originally the Copenhagen potters
imitated the Dresden china made at Meissen, but they later pro-
duced graceful original designs. The creations of Thorvaldsen
have been largely repeated and imitated in this ware. Trade-
unionism flourishes in Denmark, and strikes are of frequent
occurrence.
Commerce. Formerly the commercial legislation of Denmark
was to such a degree restrictive that imported manufactures had
to be delivered to the customs, where they were sold by public
auction, the proceeds of which the importer received from the
custom-houses after a deduction was made for the duty. To this
restriction, as regards foreign intercourse, was added a no less
injurious system of inland duties impeding the commerce of the
different provinces with each other. The want of roads also,
and many other disadvantages, tended to keep down the develop-
ment of both commerce and industry. During the ipth century,
however, several commercial treaties were concluded between
Denmark and the other powers of Europe, which made the
Danish tariff more regular and liberal.
The vexed question, of many centuries' standing, concerning
the claim of Denmark to levy dues on vessels passing through the
Sound (q.v.), was settled by the abolition of the dues in 1857.
The commerce of Denmark is mainly based on home production
and home consumption, but a certain quantity of goods is im-
ported with a view to re-exportation, for which the free port and
bonded warehouses at Copenhagen give facilities. In modern
times the value of Danish commerce greatly increased, being
doubled in the last twenty years of the igth century, and ex-
ceeding a total of fifty millions sterling. The value of export is
exceeded as a whole by that of import in the proportion, roughly,
of i to i -35. By far the most important articles of export may be
classified as articles of food of animal origin, a group which covers
the vast export trade in the dairy produce, especially butter, for
which Denmark is famous. The value of the butter for export
reaches nearly 40% of the total value of Danish exports. A
small proportion of the whole is imported chiefly from Russia
(also Siberia) and Sweden and re-exported as of foreign origin.
The production of margarine is large, but not much is exported,
margarine being largely consumed in Denmark instead of
butter, which is exported. Next to butter the most important
article of Danish export is bacon, and huge quantities of eggs
are also exported. Exports of less value, but worthy of special
notice, are vegetables and wool, bones and tallow, also dairy
machinery, and finally cement, the production of which is a
growing industry. The classes of articles of food of animal
origin, and living animals, are the only ones of which the
exportation exceeds the importation; with regard to all other
goods, the reverse is the case. In the second of these classes the
most important export is home-bred horned cattle. The trade
in live sheep and swine, which was formerly important, has mostly
been converted into a dead-meat trade. A proportionally large
importation of timber is caused by the scarcity of native timber
suitable for building purposes, the plantations of firs and pines
being insufficient to produce the quantity required, and the
quality of the wood being inferior beyond the age of about forty
years. The large importation of coal, minerals and metals, and
goods made from them is likewise caused by the natural poverty
of the country in these respects.
Denmark carries on its principal import trade with Germany,
Great Britain and the United States of America, in this order,
the proportions being about 30, 20 and 16% respectively of the
total. Its principal export trade is with Great Britain, Germany
and Sweden, the percentage of the whole being 60, 18 and 10.
With Russia, Norway and France (in this order) general trade is
less important, but still large. A considerable proportion of
Denmark's large commercial fleet is engaged in the carrying
trade between foreign, especially British, ports.
Under a law of the 4th of May 1907 it was enacted that the
metric system of weights and measures should come into official
use in three years from that date, and into general use in
five years.
Money and Banking. Theunit of the Danish monetarysystem,
as of the Swedish and Norwegian, is the krone (crown), equal to
is. ijd., which is divided into 100 ore; consequently 75 ore are
equal to one penny. Since 1873 gold has been the standard, and
gold pieces of 20 and 10 kroner are coined, but not often met with,
as the public prefers bank-notes. The principal bank is the
National Bank at Copenhagen, which is the only one authorized
to issue notes. These are of the value of 10, 50, 100 and 500 kr.
Next in importance are the Danske Landmands Bank, the
Handels Bank and the Private Bank, all at Copenhagen. The
provincial banks are very numerous; many of them are at the
same time savings banks. Their rate of interest, with few ex-
ceptions, is 3^ to 4%. There exist, besides, in Denmark several
mutual loan associations (Kreditforeninger) , whose business is
the granting of loans on mortgage. Registration of mortgages
is compulsory in Denmark, and the system is extremely simple, a
fact which has been of the greatest importance for the improve-
ment of the country. There are comparatively large institutions
for insurance of all kinds in Denmark. The largest office for life
insurance is a state institution. By law of the gth of April 1891
a system of old-age pensions was established for the benefit of
persons over sixty years of age.
Government. Denmark is a limited monarchy, according to
the law of 1849, revised in 1866. The king shares his power with
the parliament (Rigsdag), which consists of two chambers, the
Landsihing and the Folkething, but the constitution contains no
indication of any difference in their attributes. The Landsthing,
or upper house, however, is evidently intended to form the con-
servative element in the constitutional machinery. While the
114 members of the Folkething (House of Commons) are elected
for three years in the usual way by universal suffrage, 12 out of
the 66 members of the Landsthing are life members nominated
by the crown. The remaining 54 members of the Landsthing are
returned for eight years according to a method of proportionate
representation by a body of deputy electors. Of these deputies
one-half are elected in the same way as members of the Folke-
thing, without any property qualification for the voters; the
other half of the deputy electors are chosen in the towns by those
who during the last preceding year were assessed on a certain
minimum of income, or paid at least a certain amount in rates
and taxes. In the rural districts the deputy electors returned by
election are supplemented by an equal number of those who have
paid the highest amounts in taxes and county rate"- together.
In this manner a representation is secured for fairly large
minorities, and what is considered a fair share of influence on
public affairs given to those who contribute the most to the needs
of the state. The franchise is held byevery male who has reached
his thirtieth year, subject to independence of public charity and
certain other circumstances. A candidate for either house of the
Rigsdag must have passed the age of twenty-five. Members are
paid ten kroner each day of the session and are allowed travelling
expenses. The houses meet each year on the first Monday in
October. The constitutional theory of the Folkething is that of
one member for every 16,000 inhabitants. The Faeroe islands,
which form an integral part of the kingdom of Denmark in the
wider sense, are represented in the Danish parliament, but not
the other dependencies of the Danish crown, namely Iceland,
Greenland and the West Indian islands of St Thomas, St John
and St Croix. The budget is considered by the Folkething at the
beginning of each session. The revenue and expenditure average
annually about 4,700,000. The principal items of revenue are
customs and excise, land and house tax, stamps, railways, legal
fees, the state lottery and death duties. A considerable reserve
fund is maintained to meet emergencies. The public debt is
about 13,500,000 and is divided into an internal debt, bearing
interest generally at 3^%, and a foreign debt (the larger), with
interest generally at 3%. The revenue and expenditure of the
Faeroes are included in the budget for Denmark proper, but
Iceland and the West Indies have their separate budgets. The
Danish treasury receives nothing from these possessions; on the
contrary, Iceland receives an annual grant, and the West Indian
islands have been heavily subsidized by the Danish finances to
ADMINISTRATION]
DENMARK
27
assist the sugar industry. The administration of Greenland
(q.v.) entails an annual loss which is posted on the budget of the
ministry of finances. The state council (Statsraad) includes the
presidency of the council and ministries of war, and marine,
foreign affairs, the interior, justice, finance, public institution and
ecclesiastical, agriculture and public works. ,
Local Government. For administrative purposes the country is
divided into eighteen counties (Amter, singular Ami), as follows,
(i) Covering the islands of Zealand and lesser adjacent islands,
Copenhagen, Frederiksborg, Holbaek, Soro, Praesto. (2) Cover-
ing the islands of Laaland and Falster, Maribo. (3) Covering
Fttnen, Langeland and adjacent islets, Svendborg, Odense.
(4) On the mainland, Hjorring, Aalborg, Thisted, Ringkjobing,
Viborg, Randers, Aarhus, Vejle, Ribe. (5) Bornholm. The
principal civil officer in each of these is the Amtmand. Local
affairs are managed by the Amslraad and Sogneraad, correspond-
ing to the English county council and parish council. These
institutions date from 1841, but they have undergone several
modifications since. The members of these councils are elected
on a system similar to that applied to the elections for the
Landsthing. The same is the case with the provincial town
councils. That of Copenhagen is elected by those who are rated
on an income of at least 400 kroner (22). The burgomasters are
appointed by the crown, except at Copenhagen, where they are
elected by the town council, subject to royal approbation. The
financial position of the municipalities in Denmark is generally
good. The ordinary budget of Copenhagen amounts to about
1,100,000 a year.
Justice. For the administration of justice Denmark is
divided into herreds or hundreds; as, however, they are mostly
of small extent, several are generally served by one judge
(herredsfoged) ; the townships are likewise separate jurisdictions,
each with a byfoged. There are 126 such local judges, each of
whom deals with all kinds of cases arising in his district, and
is also at the head of the police. There are two intermediary
Courts of Appeal (Overrel), one in Copenhagen, another in
Viborg; the Supreme Court of Appeal (Hojesteret) sits at Copen-
hagen. In the capital the different functions are more divided.
There is also a Court of Commerce and Navigation, on which
leading members of the trading community serve as assessors.
In the country, Land Commissions similarly constituted deal with
many questions affecting agricultural holdings. A peculiarity
of the Danish system is that, with few exceptions, no civil cause
can be brought before a court until an attempt has been made
at effecting an amicable settlement. This is mostly done by
so-called Committees of Conciliation, but in some cases by the
court itself before commencing formal judicial proceedings. In
this manner three-fifths of all the causes are settled, and many
which remain unsettled are abandoned by the plaintiffs.
Sanitary matters are under the control of a Board of Health.
The whole country is divided into districts, in each of which a
medical man is appointed with a salary, who is under the obliga-
tion to attend to poor sick and assist the authorities in medical
matters, inquests, &c. The relief of the poor is well organized,
mostly on the system of out-door relief. Many workhouses have
been established for indigent persons capable of work. There are
also many almshouses and similar institutions.
Army and Navy. The active army consists of a life guard
battalion and 10 infantry regiments of 3 battalions each, infantry,
5 cavalry regiments of 3 squadrons each, 12 field batteries (now
re-armed with a Krupp Q.F. equipment), 3 battalions of fortress
artillery and 6 companies of engineers, with in addition various
local troops and details. The peace strength of permanent
troops, without the annual contingent of recruits, is about
13,500 officers and men, the annual contingent of men trained
two or three years with the colours about 22,500, and the annual
contingent of special reservists (men trained for brief periods)
about 17,000. Thus the number of men maintained under arms
(without calling up the reserves) is as high as 75,000 during
certain periods of the year and averages nearly 60,000. Reservists
who have definitively left the colours are recalled for short
refresher trainings, the number of men so trained in 1907 being
about 80,000. The field army on a war footing, without depot
troops, garrison troops and reservists, would be about 50,000
strong, but by constituting new cadres at the outbreak of war
and calling up the reserves it could be more than doubled, and as
a matter of fact nearly 1 20,000 men were with the colours in the
manoeuvre season in 1907. The term of service is eight years in
the active army and its reserves and eight years in the second
line. The armament of the infantry is the Krag-jorgensen of
314 in. calibre, model 1889, that of the field artillery a 7-5 cm.
Krupp Q.F. equipment, model 1902. The navy consists of 6
small battleships, 3 coast defence armour-clads, 5 protected
cruisers, 5 gun-boats, and 24 torpedo craft.
Religion. The national or state church of Denmark is officially
styled " Evangelically Reformed," but is popularly described
as Lutheran. The king must belong to it. There is complete
religious toleration, but though most of the important Christian
communities are represented their numbers are very small. The
Mormon apostles for a considerable time made a special raid upon
the Danish peasantry and a few hundreds profess this faith.
There are seven dioceses, Fiinen, Laaland and Falster, Aarhus,
Aalborg, Viborg and Ribe, while the primate is the bishop
of Zealand, and resides at Copenhagen, but his cathedral is at
Roskilde. The bishops have no political function by reason of
their office, although they may, and often do, take a prominent
part in politics. The greater part of the pastorates comprise
more than one parish. The benefices are almost without excep-
tion provided with good residences and glebes, and the tithes, &c.,
generally afford a comfortable income. The bishops have fixed
salaries in lieu of tithes appropriated by the state.
Education and Arts. The educational system of Denmark is
maintained at a high standard. The instruction in primary schools
is gratuitous. Every child is bound to attend the parish school at
least from the seventh to the thirteenth year, unless the parents
can prove that it receives suitable instruction in other ways.
The schools are under the immediate control of school boards
appointed by the parish councils, but of which the incumbent of
the parish is ex-officio member; superior control is exercised by
the Amtmand, the rural dean, and the bishop, under the Minister
for church and education. Secondary public schools are provided
in towns, in which moderate school fees are paid. There are also
public grammar-schools. Nearly all schools are day-schools.
There are only two public schools, which, though on a much
smaller scale, resemble the great English schools, namely,
those of Soro and Herlufsholm, both founded by private munifi-
cence. Private schools are generally under a varying measure
of public control. The university is at Copenhagen (<?..).
Amongst numerous other institutions for the furtherance of
science and training of various kinds may be mentioned the large
polytechnic schools; the high school for agriculture and veter-
inary art; the royal library; the royal society of sciences;
the museum of northern antiquities; the society of northern
antiquaries, &c. The art museums of Denmark are not consider-
able, except the museum of Thorvaldsen, at Copenhagen, but
much is done to provide first-rate training in the fine arts and
their application to industry through the Royal Academy of Arts,
and its schools. Finally, it may be mentioned that a sum
proportionately large is available from public funds and regular
parliamentary grants for furthering science and arts by temporary
subventions to students, authors, artists and others of insufficient
means, in order to enable them to carry out particular works, to
profit by foreign travel, &c. The principal scientific societies
and institutions are detailed under COPENHAGEN. During the
earlier part of the igth century not a few men could be mentioned
who enjoyed an exceptional reputation in various departments
of science, and Danish scientists continue to contribute their full
share to the advancement of knowledge. The society of sciences,
that of northern antiquaries, the natural history and the botani-
cal societies, &c., publish their transactions and proceedings,
but the Naturhistorisk Tidsskrift, of which 14 volumes with
259 plates were published (1861-1884), an d which was in the
foremost rank in its department, ceased with the death in
1884 of the editor, the distinguished zoologist, I. C. Schiodte.
28
DENMARK
[HISTORY
Another extremely valuable publication of wide general interest,
the Meddelelser om Gronland, is published by the commission for
the exploration of Greenland. What may be called the modern
" art " current, with its virtues and vices, is as strong in Denmark
as in England. Danish sculpture will be always famous, if only
through the name of Thorvaldsen. In architecture the prevailing
fashion is a return to the style of the first half of the 1 7th century,
called the Christian IV. style; but in this branch of art no
marked excellence has been obtained.
AUTHORITIES. J. P. Trap, Statistisk Topographisk Beskrivelse af
Kongeriget Danmark (Copenhagen, 1859-1860, 3 vols., 2nd ed., 1872-
1879); . Falbe-Hansen and W. Scharling, Danmarks Statistik
(Copenhagen, 1878-1891, 6 vols.). (Various writers) Vort Folk i
del nittende Aarhundrede (Copenhagen, 1899 et seq.), illustrated;
J. Carlsen, H. Olrik and C. N. Starcke, Le Danemark (Copenhagen,
1900), 700 pp.; illustrated, published in connexion with the Paris
Exhibition. Statistisk Aarbog (1896, &c.). Annual publication,
and other publications of Statens Statistiske Bureau, Copenhagen ;
Annuaire meteorologique, Danish Meteorological Institution, Copen-
hagen; E. Loffler, Ddnemarks Natur and Volk (Copenhagen, 1905);
Margaret Thomas, Denmark Past and Present (London, 1902).
(C. A. G.;O. J. R. H.)
HISTORY
Ancient. Our earliest knowledge of Denmark is derived
from Pliny, who speaks of three islands named " Skandiai," a
name which is also applied to Sweden. He says nothing about
the inhabitants of these islands, but tells us more about the
Jutish peninsula, or Cimbric Chersonese as he calls it. He
places the Saxons on the neck, above them the Sigoulones,
Sabaliggoi and Kobandoi, then the Chaloi, then above them the
Phoundousioi, then the Charondes and finally the Kimbroi.
He also mentions the three islands called Alokiai, at the northern
end of the peninsula. This would point to the fact that the
Limfjord was then open at both ends, and agree with Adam of
Bremen (iv. 16), who also speaks of three islands called Wendila,
Morse and Thud. The Cimbri and Charydes are mentioned in
the Monumentum Ancyranum as sending embassies to Augustus
in A.D. 5. The Promontorium Cimbrorum is spoken of in Pliny,
who says that the Sinus Codanus lies between it and Mons
Saevo. The latter place is probably to be found in the high-
lying land on the N.E. coast of Germany, and the Sinus Codanus
must be the S.W. corner of the Baltic, and not the whole sea.
Pomponius Mela says that the Cimbri and Teutones dwelt on the
Sinus Codanus, the latter also in Scandinavia (or Sweden). The
Romans believed that these Cimbri and Teutones were the same
as those who invaded Gaul and Italy at the end of the 2nd century
B.C. The Cimbri may probably be traced in the province of
Aalborg, formerly known as Himmerland; the Teutones, with
less certainty, may be placed in Thyth or Thyland, north of the
Limfjord. No further reference to these districts is found till
towards the close of the migration period, about the beginning of
the 6th century, when the Heruli (q.v.), a nation dwelling in or
near the basin of the Elbe, were overthrown by the Langobardi.
According to Procopius (Bellum Gothicum, ii. 15), a part of them
made their way across the " desert of the Slavs," through the
lands of the Warni and the Danes to Thoule (i.e. Sweden). This
is the first recorded use of the name " Danes." It occurs again
in Gregory of Tours (Historiae Francorum, iii. 3) in connexion
with an irruption of a Gotish (loosely called Danish) fleet into the
Netherlands (c. 520). From this time the use of the name is
fairly common. The heroic poetry of the Anglo-Saxons may
carry the name further back, though probably it is not very
ancient, at all events on the mainland.
According to late Danish tradition Denmark now consisted
of Vitheslaeth (i.e. Zealand, Moen, Falster and Laaland),
Jutland (with Fyen) and Skaane. Jutland was acquired by
Dan, the eponymous ancestor of the Danes. He also won
Skaane, including the modern provinces of Halland, Kristianstad,
Malmohus and Blekinge, and these remained part of Denmark
until the middle of the I7th century. These three divisions
always remained more or less distinct, and the Danish kings had
to be recognized at Lund, Ringsted and Viborg, but Zealand
was from time immemorial the centre of government, and Lejre
was the royal seat and national sanctuary. According to tradition
this dates from the time of Skioldr, the eponymous ancestor of the
Danish royal family of Skioldungar. He was a son of Othin and
husband of the goddess Gefjon, who created Zealand. Anglo-
Saxon tradition also speaks of Scyld (i.e. Skioldr), who was
regarded as the ancestor of both the Danish and English royal
families, and it represented him as coming as a child of unknown
origin in a rudderless boat. There can be little doubt that from
a remote antiquity Zealand had been a religious sanctuary,
and very probably the god Nerthus was worshipped here by the
Angli and other tribes as described in Tacitus (Germania, c. 40).
The Lejre sanctuary was still in existence in the time of Thietmar
of Merseburg (i. 9), at the beginning of the nth century.
In Scandinavian tradition the next great figure is Fr65e the
peace-king, but it is not before the sth century that we meet with
the names of any kings which can be regarded as definitely
historical. In Beowulf we hear of a Danish king Healfdene,
who had three sons, Heorogar, Hrothgar and Halga. The hero
Beowulf comes to the court of Hrothgar from the land of the
Gotar, where Hygelac is king. This Hygelac is undoubtedly to
be identified with the Chochilaicus, king of the Danes (really
Gotar) who, as mentioned above, made a raid against the Franks
c. 520. Beowulf himself won fame in this campaign, and by the
aid of this definite chronological datum we can place the reign
of Healfdene in the last half of the 5th century, and that of
Hrothgar's nephew Hrothwulf, son of Halga, about the middle
of the 6th century. Hrothgar and Halga correspond to Saxo's
Hroar and Helgi, while Hrothwulf is the famous Rolvo or
Hrolfr Kraki of Danish and Norse saga. There is probably some
historical truth in the story that Heoroweard or HiorvarSr was
responsible for the death of Hrolfr Kraki. Possibly a still earlier
king of Denmark was Sigarr or Sigehere, who has won lasting
fame from the story of his daughter Signy and her lover
HagbarSr.
From the middle of the 6th to the beginning of the Sth century
we know practically nothing of Danish history. There are
numerous kings mentioned in Saxo, but it is impossible to identify
them historically. We have mention at the beginning of the
8th century of a Danish king Ongendus (cf. O. E. Ongen^eow)
who received a mission led by St Willibrord, and it was probably
about this time that there flourished a family of whom tradition
records a good deal. The founder of this line was Ivarr VitSfaSmi
of Skaane, who became king of Sweden. His daughter AuSr
married one Hroerekr and became the mother of Haraldr
Hilditonn. The genealogy of Haraldr is given differently in Saxo,
but there can be no doubt of his historical existence. In his time
it is said that the land was divided into four kingdoms Skaane,
Zealand, Fyen and Jutland. After a reign of great splendour
Haraldr met his death in the great battle of Bravalla (Bravik in
Ostergotland), where he was opposed by his nephew Ring, king
of Sweden.
The battle probably took place about the year 750. Fifty
years later the Danes begin to be mentioned with comparative
frequency in continental annals. From 777-798 we have mention
of a certain Sigifridus as king of the Danes, and then in 804 his
name is replaced by that of one Godefridus. This Godefridus
is the Godefridus-Guthredus of Saxo, and is to be identified also
with GuSroSr the Yngling, king in Vestfold in Norway. He came
into conflict with Charlemagne, and was preparing a great
expedition against him when he was killed by one of his own
followers (c. 810). He was succeeded by his brother Hemmingus,
but the latter died in 812 and there was a disputed succession.
The two claimants were " Sigefridus nepos Godefridi regis "
and " Anulo nepos Herioldi quondam regis " (i.e. probably
Haraldr Hilditonn). A great battle took place in which both
claimants were slam, but the party of Anulo (O.N. Ali) were
victorious and appointed as kings Anulo's brothers Herioldus
and Reginfridus. They soon paid a visit to Vestfold, " the
extreme district of their realm, whose peoples and chief men were
refusing to be made subject to them," and on their return had
trouble with the sons of Godefridus. The latter expelled them
from their kingdom, and in 814 Reginfridus fell in a vain attempt
to regain it. Herioldus now received the support of the emperor,
HISTORY]
DENMARK
29
and after several unsuccessful attempts a compromise was
effected in 819 when the parties agreed to share the realm.
In 820 Herioldus was baptized at Mainz and received from the
emperor a grant of Riustringen in N.E. Friesland. In 827 he
was expelled from his kingdom, but St Anskar, who had been sent
with Herioldus to preach Christianity, remained at his post. In
836 we find one Horic as king of the Danes; he was probably
a son of Godefridus. During his reign there was trouble with
the emperor as to the overlordship of Frisia. In the meantime
Herioldus remained on friendly terms with Lothair and received
a further grant of Walcheren and the neighbouring districts.
In 850 Horic was attacked by his own nephews and compelled
to share the kingdom with them, while in 852 Herioldus was
charged with treachery and slain by the Franks. In 854 a revo-
lution took place in Denmark itself. Horic's nephew Godwin,
returning from exile with a large following of Northmen, over-
threw his uncle in a three days' battle in which all members
of the royal house except one boy are said to have perished.
This boy now became king as " Horicus junior." Of his reign
we know practically nothing. The next kings mentioned are
Sigafrid and Halfdane, who were sons of the great Viking leader
Ragnarr LoSbrok. There is also mention of a third king named
Godefridus. The exact chronology and relationship of these
kings it is impossible to determine, but we know that Healfdene
died in Scotland in 877, while Godefridus was treacherously
slain by Henry of Saxony in 885. During these and the next
few years there is mention of more than one king of the names
Sigefridus and Godefridus: the most important event associated
with their names is that two kings Sigefridus and Godefridus fell
in the great battle on the Dyle in 891.
We now have the names of several kings, Heiligo, Olaph (of
Swedish origin), and his sons Chnob and Gurth. Then come a
Danish ruler Sigeric, followed by Hardegon, son of Swein, coming
from Norway. At some date after 916 we find mention of one
" Hardecnuth Urm " ruling among the Danes. Adam of Bremen,
from whom these details come, was himself uncertain whether
" so many kings or rather tyrants of the Danes ruled together or
succeeded one another at short intervals." Hardecnuth Urm
is to be identified with the famous Gorm the old, who married
Thyra Danmarkarbot: their son was Harold Bluetooth.
(A. Mw.)
Medieval and Modern. Danish history first becomes authentic
at the beginning of the gth century. The Danes, the southern-
most branch of the Scandinavian family, referred to by Alfred
(c. 890) as occupying Jutland, the islands and Scania, were, in
777, strong enough to defy the Frank empire by harbouring
its fugitives. Five years later we find a Danish king, Sigfrid,
among the princes who assembled at Lippe in 782 to make
their submission to Charles the Great. About the same
time Willibrord, from his see at Utrecht, made an unsuccessful
attempt to convert the " wild Danes." These three salient
facts are practically the sum of our knowledge of early Danish
history previous to the Viking period. That mysterious upheaval,
most generally attributed to a love of adventure, stimulated by
the pressure of over-population, began with the ravaging of
Lindisfarne in 793, and virtually terminated with the establish-
ment of Rollo in Normandy (911). There can be little doubt
that the earlier of these expeditions were from Denmark, though
the term Northmen was originally applied indiscriminately to all
these terrible visitants from the unknown north. The rovers
who first chastened and finally colonized southern England and
Normandy were certainly Danes.
The Viking raids were one of the determining causes of the
establishment of the feudal monarchies of western Europe,
but the un tameable freebooters were themselves finally
Coa ~. , subdued by the Church. At first sight it seems curious
version of ,-,,..
the Danes, that Christianity should have been so slow to reach
Denmark. But we must bear in mind that one very
important consequence of the Viking raids was to annihilate the
geographical remoteness which had hitherto separated Denmark
from the Christian world. Previously to 793 there lay between
Jutland and England a sea which no keel had traversed within
the memory of man. The few and peaceful traders who explored
those northern waters were careful never to lose sight of the
Saxon, Frisian and Prankish shores during their passage. Nor
was communication with the west by land any easier. For genera-
tions the obstinately -heathen Saxons had lain, a compact and
impenetrable mass, between Scandinavia and the Frank empire,
nor were the measures adopted by Charles the Great for the
conversion of the Saxons to the true faith very much to the
liking of their warlike Danish neighbours on the other side.
But by the time that Charles had succeeded in " converting "
the Saxons, the Viking raids were already at their height, and
though generally triumphant, necessity occasionally taught the
Northmen the value of concessions. Thus it was the desire
to secure his Jutish kingdom which induced Harold Klak, in
826, to sail up the Rhine to Ingelheim, and there accept
baptism, with his wife, his son Godfred and 400 of his suite,
acknowledging the emperor as his overlord, and taking back
with him to Denmark the missionary monk Ansgar. Ansgar
preached in Denmark from 826 to 861, but it was not till after
the subsidence of the Viking raids that Adaldag, archbishop
of Hamburg, could open a new and successful mission, which
resulted in the erection of the bishoprics of Schleswig, Ribe and
Aarhus (c. 948), though the real conversion of Denmark must be
dated from the baptism of King Harold Bluetooth (960).
Meanwhile the Danish monarchy was attempting to aggrandize
itself at the expense of the Germans, the Wends who then
occupied the Baltic littoral as far as the Vistula, and
the other Scandinavian kingdoms. Harold Bluetooth expansion,
(940-986) subdued German territory south of the
Eider, extended the Danevirke, Denmark's great line of defensive
fortifications, to the south of Schleswig and planted the military
colony of Julin or Jomsborg, at the mouth of the Oder. Part of
Norway was first seized after the united Danes and Swedes had
defeated and slain King Olaf Trygvesson at the battle of Svolde
(1000); and between 1028 and 1035 Canute the Great added the
whole kingdom to his own ; but the union did not long survive
him. Equally short-lived was the Danish dominion in England,
which originated in a great Viking expedition of King Sweyn I.
The period between the death of Canute the Great and the
accession of Valdemar I. was a troublous time for Denmark.
The k'' gdom was harassed almost incessantly, and Consollda-
more chan once partitioned,by pretenders to the throne, tloa of the
who did not scruple to invoke the interference of the ^j^rine
neighbouring monarchs, and even of the heathen vaide-
Wends, who established themselves for a time on mars,
the southern islands. Yet, throughout this chaos, one I1S7 ~
thing made for future stability, and that was the
growth and consolidation of a national church, which culmin-
ated in the erection of the archbishopric of Lund (c. 1104) and
the consequent ecclesiastical independence of Denmark. The
third archbishop of Lund was Absalon (1128-1201), Denmark's
first great statesman, who so materially assisted Valdemar I.
(1157-1182) and Canute VI. (1182-1202) to establish the
dominion of Denmark over the Baltic, mainly at the expense
of the Wends. The policy of Absalon was continued on a still
vaster scale by Valdemar II. (1202-1241), at a time when the
German kingdom was too weak and distracted to intervene to
save its seaboard; but the treachery of a vassal and the loss of
one great battle sufficed to plunge this unwieldy, unsubstantial
empire in the dust. (See VALDEMAR I., II., and ABSALON.)
Yet the age of the Valdemars was one of the most glorious in
Danish history, and it is of political importance as marking a
turning-point. Favourable circumstances had, from the first,
given the Danes the lead in Scandinavia. They held the richest
and therefore the most populous lands, and geographically
they were nearer than their neighbours to western civilization.
Under the Valdemars, however, the ancient patriarchal system
was merging into a more complicated development, of separate
estates. The monarchy, now dominant, and far wealthier than
before, rested upon the support of the great nobles, many of
whom held their lands by feudal tenure, and constituted the
royal Raod, or council. The clergy, fortified by royal privileges,
DENMARK
[HISTORY
had also risen to influence; but celibacy and independence of the
civil courts tended to make them mo*e and more of a separate
caste. Education was spreading. Numerous Danes, lay as well
as clerical, regularly frequented the university of Paris. There
were signs too of the rise of a vigorous middle class, due to the
extraordinary development of the national resources (chiefly
the herring fisheries, horse-breeding and cattle-rearing) and the
foundation of gilds, the oldest of which, the Edslag of Schleswig,
dates from the early iath century. The bonder, or yeomen, were
prosperous and independent, with well-defined rights. Danish
territory extended over 60,000 sq. kilometres, or nearly double
its present area; the population was about 700,000; and 160,000
men and 1400 ships were available for national defence.
On the death of Valdemar II. a period of disintegration ensued.
Valdemar's son, Eric Plovpenning, succeeded him as king; but
his near kinsfolk also received huge appanages, and
Period of family discords led to civil wars. Throughout the
aoa. t<>S!ra ' X 3 th and P art of tke ^ th century, the struggle raged
between the Danish kings and the Schleswig dukes;
and of six monarchs no fewer than three died violent deaths.
Superadded to these troubles was a prolonged struggle for
supremacy between the popes and the crown, and, still more
serious, the beginning of a breach between the kings and nobles,
which had important constitutional consequences. The prevalent
disorder had led to general lawlessness, in consequence of which
the royal authority had been widely extended; and a strong
opposition gradually arose which protested against the abuses
of this authority. In 1282 the nobles extorted from King Eric
Clipping the first Haandfoestning, or charter, which recognized
the Danehof, or national assembly, as a regular branch of the
administration and gave guarantees against further usurpations.
Christopher II. (1319-1331) was constrained to grant another
charter considerably reducing the prerogative, increasing the
privileges of the upper classes, and at the same time reducing the
burden of taxation. But aristocratic licence proved as mischiev-
ous as royal incompetence; and on the death of Christopher II.
the whole kingdom was on the verge of dissolution. Eastern
Denmark was in the hands of one magnate; another magnate
held Jutland and Fiinen in pawn; the dukes of Schleswig were
practically independent of the Danish crown; the Scandian pro-
vinces had (1332) surrendered themselves to Sweden.
It was reserved for another Valdemar (Valdemar IV., q.v.) to
reunite and weld together the scattered members of his heritage.
vaide- His long reign (1340-1375) resulted in the re-establish-
mariv., ment of Denmark as the great Baltic power. It is al&>
a very interesting period of her social and constitutional
development. This great ruler, who had to fight, year
after year, against foreign and domestic foes, could, nevertheless,
always find time to promote the internal prosperity of his much
afflicted country. For the dissolution of Denmark, during the
long anarchy, had been internal as well as external. The whole
social fabric had been convulsed and transformed. The monarchy
had been undermined. The privileged orders had aggrandized
themselves at the expense of the community. The yeoman class
had sunk into semi-serfdom. In a word, the natural cohesion of
the Danish nation had been loosened and there was no security
for law and justice. To make an end of this universal lawlessness
Valdemar IV. was obliged, in the first place, to re-establish the
royal authority by providing the crown with a regular and certain
income. This he did by recovering the alienated royal demesnes
in every direction, and from henceforth the annual landgilde, or
rent, paid by the royal tenants, became the monarch's principal
source of revenue. Throughout his reign Valdemar laboured
incessantly to acquire as much land as possible. Moreover, the
old distinction between the king's private estate and crown
property henceforth ceases; all such property was henceforth
regarded as the hereditary possession of the Danish crown.
The national army was also re-established on its ancient
footing. Not only were the magnates sharply reminded that they
held their lands on military tenure, but the towns were also made
to contribute both men and ships, and peasant levies, especially
archers, were recruited from every parish. Everywhere indeed
Valdemar intervened personally. The smallest detail was not
beneath his notice. Thus he invented nets for catching wolves
and built innumerable water-mills, " for he would not let the
waters run into the sea before they had been of use to the
community. ' ' Under such a ruler law and order were speedily re-
established. The popular tribunals regained their authority, and
a supreme court of justice, Del Kongelige Retterting, presided over
by Valdemar himself, not only punished the unruly and guarded
the prerogatives of the crown, but also protected the weak and
defenceless from the tyranny of the strong. Nor did Valdemar
hesitate to meet his people hi public and periodically render an
account of his stewardship. He voluntarily resorted to the old
practice of summoning national assemblies, the so-called Danehof.
At the first of these assemblies held at Nyborg, Midsummer Day
1314, the bishops and councillors solemnly promised that the
commonalty should enjoy all the ancient rights and privileges
conceded to them by Valdemar II., and the wise provision that
the Danehof should meet annually considerably strengthened its
authority. The keystone to the whole constitutional system was
" King Valdemar's Charter " issued in May 1360 at the Rigsmode,
or parliament, held at Kalundborg in May 1360. This charter
was practically an act of national pacification, the provisions
of which king and people together undertook to enforce for the
benefit of the commonweal.
The work of Valdemar was completed and consolidated by
his illustrious daughter Margaret (1375-1412), whose crowning
achievement was the Union of Kalmar (1397), whereby
she sought to combine the three northern kingdoms Tl " v "ioa
into a single state dominated by Denmark. In any ^^* tmar<
case Denmark was bound to be the only gainer by
the Union. Her population was double that of the two other
kingdoms combined, and neither Margaret nor her successors
observed the stipulations that each country should retain its own
laws and customs and be ruled by natives only. In both Norway
and Sweden, therefore, the Union was highly unpopular. The
Norwegian aristocracy was too weak, however, seriously to
endanger the Union at any time, but Sweden was, from the
first, decidedly hostile to Margaret's whole policy. Nevertheless
during her lifetime the system worked fairly well; but her pupil
and successor, Eric of Pomerania, was unequal to the burden
of empire and embroiled himself both with his neighbours and
his subjects. The Hanseatic League, whose political ascendancy
had been shaken by the Union, enraged by Eric's efforts to bring
in the Dutch as commercial rivals, as well as by the establish-
ment of the Sound tolls, materially assisted the Holsteiners in
their twenty-five years' war with Denmark (1410-35), and
Eric VII. himself was finally deposed (1439) in favour of his
nephew, Christopher of Bavaria.
The deposition of Eric marks another turning-point in Danish
history. It was the act not of the people but of the Rigsrood
(Senate), which had inherited the authority of the drouth O t
ancient Danehof and, after the death of Margaret, the power
grew steadily in power at the expense of the crown. ofihe
As the government grew more and more aristocratic,
the position of the peasantry steadily deteriorated. It is under
Christopher that we first hear, for instance, of the Vornedskab, or
patriarchal control of the landlords over their tenants, a system
which degenerated into rank slavery. In Jutland, too, after
the repression, in 1441, of a peasant rising, something very like
serfdom was introduced.
On the death of Christopher III. without heirs, in 1448, the
Rigsraad elected his distant cousin, Count Christian of Oldenburg,
king; but Sweden preferred Karl Knutsson (Charles
" VIII."), while Norway finally combined with Den- Break-up
mark, at the conference of Halmstad, in a double
election which practically terminated the Union,
though an agreement was come to that the survivor of the two
kings should reign over all three kingdoms. Norway, subse-
quently, threw in her lot definitively with Denmark. Dissensions
resulting in interminable civil wars had, even before the Union,
exhausted the resources of the poorest of the three northern
realms; and her ruin was completed by the ravages of the Black
HISTORY]
DENMARK
Death, which wiped out two-thirds of her population. Unfortu-
nately, too, for Norway's independence, the native gentry had
gradually died out, and were succeeded by immigrant Danish
fortune-hunters; native burgesses there were none, and the
peasantry were mostly thralls; so that, excepting the clergy,
there was no patriotic class to stand up for the national
liberties.
Far otherwise was it in the wealthier kingdom of Sweden. Here
the clergy and part of the nobility were favourable to the Union;
but the vast majority of the people hated it as a foreign usurpa-
tion. Matters were still further complicated by the continual
interference of the Hanseatic League; and Christian I. (1448-
1481) and Hans (1481-1513), whose chief merit it is to have
founded the Danish fleet, were, during the greater part of their
reigns, only nominally kings of Sweden. Hans also received
in fief the territory of Dietmarsch from the emperor, but, in
attempting to subdue the hardy Dietmarschers, suffered a
crushing defeat in which the national banner called " Danebrog "
fell into the enemy's hands ( 1 500) . Moreover, this defeat led to a
successful rebellion in Sweden, and a long and ruinous war with
Lubeck, terminated by the peace of Malmo, 1512. It was during
this war that a strong Danish fleet dominated the Baltic for the
first time since the age of the Valdemars.
On the succession of Hans's son, Christian II. (1513-1523),
Margaret's splendid dream of a Scandinavian empire seemed,
finally, about to be realized. The young king, a man
//**" ^ character and genius, had wide views and original
1523. ideas. Elected king of Denmark and Norway, he suc-
ceeded in subduing Sweden by force of arms; but
he spoiled everything at the culmination of his triumph by the
hideous crime and blunder known as the Stockholm massacre,
which converted the politically divergent Swedish nation into the
irreconcilable foe of the unional government (see CHRISTIAN
II.). Christian's contempt of nationality in Sweden is the more
remarkable as in Denmark proper he sided with the people
against the aristocracy, to his own undoing in that age of privilege
and prejudice. His intentions, as exhibited to his famous
Landelove (National Code), were progressive and enlightened to
an eminent degree; so much so, indeed, that they mystified
the people as much as they alienated the patricians; but his
actions were often of revolting brutality, and his whole career
was vitiated by an incurable double-mindedness which provoked
general distrust. Yet there is no doubt that Christian II. was
a true patriot, whose ideal it was to weld the three northern
kingdoms into a powerful state, independent of all foreign
influences, especially of German influence as manifested in the
commercial tyranny of the Hansa League. His utter failure was
due, partly to the vices of an undisciplined temperament, and
partly to the extraordinary difficulties of the most inscrutable
period of European history, when the shrewdest heads were at
fault and irreparable blunders belonged to the order of the day.
That period was the period of the Reformation, which profoundly
affected the politics of Scandinavia. Christian II. had always
subordinated religion to politics, and was Papist or Lutheran
according to circumstances. But, though he treated the Church
more like a foe than a friend and was constantly at war with the
Curia, he retained the Catholic form of church worship and never
seems to have questioned the papal supremacy. On the flight of
Christian II. and the election of his uncle, Frederick I. (1523-
Frederkk X 533)> tne Church resumed her jurisdiction and every-
I.,1523- thing was placed on the old footing. The newly
1533. The elected and still insecure German king at first remained
ao'a""*' neutra l; but in tne autumn of 1525 the current of
Lutheranism began to run so strongly in Denmark as
to threaten to whirl away every opposing obstacle. This novel
and disturbing phenomenon was mainly due to the zeal and
eloquence of the ex-monk Hans Tausen and his associates, or
disciples, Peder Plad and Sadolin; and, in the autumn of 1526,
Tausen was appointed one of the royal chaplains. The three
ensuing years were especially favourable for the Reformation,
as during that time the king had unlooked-for opportunities for
filling the vacant episcopal sees with men after his own heart,
and at heart he was a Lutheran. The reformation movement in
Denmark was further promoted by Schleswig-Holstein influence.
Frederick's eldest son Duke Christian had, since 1527, resided at
Haderslev, where he collected round him Lutheran teachers
from Germany, and made his court the centre of the propaganda
of the new doctrine. On the other hand, the Odense Recess of
the 20th of August 1527, which put both confessions on a footing
of equality, remained unrepealed; and so long as it remained in
force, the spiritual jurisdiction of the bishops, and, consequently,
their authority over the " free preachers " (whose ambition
convulsed all the important towns of Denmark and aimed
at forcibly expelling the Catholic priests from their churches)
remained valid, to the great vexation of the reformers. The
inevitable ecclesiastical crisis was still further postponed by the
superior stress of two urgent political events Christian II. 's
invasion of Norway (1531) and the outbreak, in 1533, of
" Grevens fejde," or " The Count's War " (1534-36), no
the count in question being Christopher of Oldenburg, Count'*
great-nephew of King Christian I., whom Lubeck and War,
her allies, on the death of Frederick I., raised up l j? 3 ~
against Frederick's son Christian III. The Catholic
party and the lower orders generally took the part of Count
Christopher, who acted throughout as the nominee of the captive
Christian II., while the Protestant party, aided by the Holstein
dukes and Gustavus Vasa of Sweden, sided with Christian III.
The war ended with the capture of Copenhagen by the forces of
Christian III., on the 2pth of July 1536, and the triumph of so
devoted a Lutheran sealed the fate of the Roman Catholic
Church in Denmark, though even now it was necessary for the
victorious king to proceed against the bishops and their friends
by a coup d'itat, engineered by his German generals the Rantzaus.
The Recess of 1536 enacted that the bishops should forfeit their
temporal and spiritual authority, and that all their property
should be transferred to the crown for the good of the common-
wealth. In the following year a Church ordinance, based upon
the canons of Luther, Melanchthon and Bugenhagen, was drawn
up, submitted to Luther for his approval, and promulgated on
the 2nd of September 1537. On the same day seven " super-
intendents," including Tausen and Sadolin, all of whom had
worked zealously for the cause of the Reformation, were
consecrated in place of the dethroned bishops. The position of
the superintendents and of the reformed church generally was
consolidated by the Articles of Ribe in 1542, and the constitution
of the Danish church has practically continued the same to the
present day. But Catholicism could not wholly or immediately
be dislodged by the teaching of Luther. It had struck deep
roots into the habits and feelings of the people, and traces of its
survival were distinguishable a whole century after the triumph
of the Reformation. Catholicism lingered longest in the cathedral
chapters. Here were to be found men of ability proof against
the eloquence of Hans Tausen or Peder Plad and quite capable
of controverting their theories men like Povl Helgesen, for
instance, indisputably the greatest Danish theologian of his day,
a scholar whose voice was drowned amidst the clash of conflicting
creeds.
Though the Reformation at first did comparatively little for
education, 1 and the whole spiritual life of Denmark was poor and
feeble in consequence for at least a generation after-
wards, the change of religion was of undeniable, if the K *_
temporary, benefit to the state from the political formation.
point of view. The enormous increase of the royal
revenue consequent upon the confiscation of the property of the
Church could not fail to increase the financial stability of the
monarchy. In particular the suppression of the monasteries
benefited the crown in two ways. The old church had, indeed,
frequently rendered the state considerable financial aid, but such
voluntary assistance was, from the nature of the case, casual
and arbitrary. Now, however, the state derived a fixed and
certain revenue from the confiscated lands; and the possession
1 It is true the university was established on the 9th of September
1537. but its influence was of very gradual growth and small at
first.
DENMARK
[HISTORY
of immense landed property at the same time enabled the
crown advantageously to conduct the administration. The
gross revenue of the state is estimated to have risen threefold.
Before the Reformation the annual revenue from land averaged
400,000 bushels of corn; after the confiscations of Church
property it averaged 1,200,000 bushels. The possession of a
full purse materially assisted the Danish government in its
domestic administration, which was indeed epoch-making. It
enabled Christian III. to pay off his German mercenaries
immediately after the religious coup d'etat of 1536. It enabled
him to prosecute shipbuilding with such energy that, by. 1550,
the royal fleet numbered at least thirty vessels, which were
largely employed as a maritime police in the pirate-haunted
Baltic and North Seas. It enabled him to create and
remunerate adequately a capable official class, which proved
its efficiency under the strictest supervision, and ultimately
produced a whole series of great statesmen and admirals like
Johan Friis, Peder Oxe, Herluf Trolle and Peder Skram. It is
not too much to say that the increased revenue derived from the
appropriation of Church property, intelligently applied, gave
Denmark the hegemony of the North during the
latter P art of Christian III.'s reign, the whole reign
of of Frederick II. and the first twenty-five years of the
Denmark, reign of Christian IV., a period embracing, roughly
speaking, eighty years ( 1 544- 1626). Within this period
Denmark was indisputably the leading Scandinavian
power. While Sweden, even after the advent of Gustavus Vasa,
was still of but small account in Europe, Denmark easily held
her own in Germany and elsewhere, even against Charles V., and
was important enough, in 1553, to mediate a peace between the
emperor and Saxony. Twice during this period Denmark and
Sweden measured their strength in the open field, on the first
occasion in the " Scandinavian Seven Years' War" (1562-70),
on the second in the " Kalmar War" (1611-13), and on both
occasions Denmark prevailed, though the temporary advantage
she gained was more than neutralized by the intense feeling of
hostility which the unnatural wars, between the two kindred
peoples of Scandinavia, left behind them. Still, the fact remains
that, for a time, Denmark was one of the great powers of Europe.
Frederick II., in his later years (1571-1588), aspired to the
dominion of all the seas which washed the Scandinavian coasts,
and before he died he was able to enforce the rule that all foreign
ships should strike their topsails to Danish men-of-war as a token
of his right to rule the northern seas. Favourable political
circumstances also contributed to this general acknowledgment
of Denmark's maritime greatness. The power of the Hansa had
gone; the Dutch were enfeebled by their contest with Spain;
England's sea-power was yet in the making; Spain, still the
greatest of the maritime nations, was exhausting her resources
in the vain effort to conquer the Dutch. Yet more even than to
felicitous circumstances, Denmark owed her short-lived greatness
to the great statesmen and administrators whom Frederick II.
succeeded in gathering about him. Never before, since the age
of Margaret, had Denmark been so well governed, never before
had she possessed so many political celebrities nobly emulous for
the common good.
Frederick II. was succeeded by his son Christian IV. (April 4,
1588), who attained his majority on the i7th of August 1596, at
Denmark ^ e a ge of nineteen. The realm which Christian IV. was
at the ac- to govern had undergone great changes within the last
cession of two generations. Towards the south the boundaries of
^v^isss ^ e Danish state remained unchanged. Levensaa and
the Eider still separated Denmark from the Empire.
Schleswig was recognized as a Danish fief, in contradistinc-
tion to Holstein, which owed vassalage to the Empire. The
" kingdom " stretched as far as Kolding and Skedborg, where
the " duchy " began; and this duchy since its amalgamation
with Holstein by means of a common Landtag, and especially
since the union of the dual duchy with the kingdom on almost
equal terms in 1533, was, in most respects, a semi-independent
state. Denmark, moreover, like Europe in general, was, politic-
ally, on the threshold of a transitional period. During the whole
course of the i6th century the monarchical form of government
was in every large country, with the single exception of Poland,
rising on the ruins of feudalism. The great powers of the late
i6th and early ryth centuries were to be the strong, highly
centralized, hereditary monarchies, like France, Spain and
Sweden. There seemed to be no reason why Denmark also should
not become a powerful state under the guidance of a powerful
monarchy, especially as the sister state of Sweden was developing
into a great power under apparently identical conditions. Yet,
while Sweden was surely ripening into the dominating power of
northern Europe, Denmark had as surely entered upon a period
of uninterrupted and apparently incurable decline. What was
the cause of this anomaly ? Something of course must be allowed
for the superior and altogether extraordinary genius of the great
princes of the house of Vasa; yet the causes of the decline
of Denmark lay far deeper than this. They may roughly be
summed up under two heads: the inherent weakness of an
elective monarchy, and the absence of that public spirit which
is based on the intimate alliance of ruler and ruled. Whilst
Gustavus Vasa had leaned upon the Swedish peasantry, in other
words upon the bulk of the Swedish nation, which was and
continued to be an integral part of the Swedish body-politic,
Christian III. on his accession had crushed the middle and lower
classes in Denmark and reduced them to political insignificance.
Yet it was not the king who benefited by this blunder. The
Danish monarchy since the days of Margaret had continued to be
purely elective; and a purely elective monarchy at that stage of
the political development of Europe was a mischievous anomaly.
It signified in the first place that the crown was not the highest
power in the state, but was subject to the aristocratic Rigsraad,
or council of state. The Rigsraad was the permanent owner of the
realm and the crown-lands; the king was only their temporary
administrator. If the king died before the election of his
successor, the Rigsraad stepped into the king's place. Moreover,
an elective monarchy implied that, at every fresh succession, the
king was liable to be bound by a new Haandfaestning, or charter.
The election itself might, and did, become a mere formality;
but the condition precedent of election, the acceptance of
the charter, invariably limiting the royal authority, remained a
reality. This period of aristocratic rule, which dates practically
from the accession of Frederick I. (1523), and lasted for nearly
a century and a half, is known in Danish history as Adelsvaelde,
or rule of the nobles.
Again, the king was the ruler of the realm, but over a very
large portion of it he had but a slight control. The crown-lands
and most of the towns were under his immediate jurisdiction,
but by the side of the crown-lands lay the estates of the nobility,
which already comprised about one-half of the superficial area
of Denmark, and were in many respects independent of the central
government both as regards taxation and administration. In a
word, the monarchy had to share its dominion with the nobility;
and the Danish nobility in the i6th century was one of the most
exclusive and selfish aristocracies in Europe, and already far
advanced in decadence. Hermetically sealing itself from any
intrusion from below, it deteriorated by close and constant inter-
marriage; and it was already, both morally and intellectually,
below the level of the rest of the nation. Yet this very aristo-
cracy, whose claim to consideration was based not upon its own
achievements but upon the length of its pedigrees, insisted upon
an amplification of its privileges which endangered the economical
and political interests of the state and the nation. The time was
close at hand when a Danish magnate was to demonstrate that he
preferred the utter ruin of his country to any abatement of his
own personal dignity.
All below the king and the nobility were generally classified
together as " subjects." Of these lower orders the clergy stood
first in the social scale. As a spiritual estate, indeed, it had
ceased to exist at the Reformation, though still represented in the
Rigsdag or diet. Since then too it had become quite detached
from the nobility, which ostentatiously despised the teaching
profession. The clergy recruited themselves therefore from
the class next below them, and looked more and more to the
HISTORY]
DENMARK
33
crown for help and protection as they drew apart from
the gentry, who, moreover, as dispensers of patronage, lost no
opportunity of appropriating church lands and cutting down
tithes.
The burgesses had not yet recovered from the disaster of
" Grevens fejde"; but while the towns had become more
dependent on the central power, they had at the same time been
released from their former vexatious subjection to the local mag-
nates, and could make their voices heard in the Rigsdag, where
they were still, though inadequately, represented. Within the
Estate of Burgesses itself, too, a levelling process had begun.
The old municipal patriciate, which used to form the connecting
link between the bourgeoisie and the nobility, had disappeared,
and a feeling of common civic fellowship had taken its place.
All this tended to enlarge the political views of the burgesses, and
was not without its influence on the future. Yet, after all, the
prospects of the burgesses depended mainly on economic con-
ditions; and in this respect there was a decided improvement,
due to the increasing importance of money and commerce all
over Europe, especially as the steady decline of the Hanse towns
immediately benefited the trade of Denmark-Norway; Norway
by this time being completely merged in the Danish state,
and ruled from Copenhagen. There can, indeed, be no doubt
that the Danish and Norwegian merchants at the end of the
i6th century flourished exceedingly, despite the intrusion and
competition of the Dutch and the dangers to neutral shipping
arising from the frequent wars between England, Spain and
the Netherlands.
At the bottom of the social ladder lay the peasants, whose
condition had decidedly deteriorated. Only in one respect had
they benefited by the peculiar conditions of the i6th century:
the rise in the price of corn without any corresponding rise in the
land-tax must have largely increased their material prosperity.
Yet the number of peasant-proprietors had diminished, while
the obligations of the peasantry generally had increased; and,
still worse, their obligations were vexatiously indefinite, varying
from year to year and even from month to month. They
weighed especially heavily on the so-called Ugedasmaend, who
were forced to work two or three days a week in the demesne
lands. This increase of villenage morally depressed the peasantry,
and widened still further the breach between the yeomanry and
the gentry. Politically its consequences were disastrous. While
in Sweden the free and energetic peasant was a salutary power
in the state, which he served with both mind and plough, the
Danish peasant was sinking to the level of a bondman. While
the Swedish peasants were well represented in the Swedish
Riksdag, whose proceedings they sometimes dominated, the
Danish peasantry had no political rights or privileges what-
ever.
Such then, briefly, was the condition of things in Denmark
when, in 1 588, Christian IV. ascended the throne. Where so much
was necessarily uncertain and fluctuating, there was
iv S 1S88- room f r an almost infinite variety of development.
1648. Much depended on the character and personality of
the young prince who had now taken into his hands
the reins of government, and for half a century was to guide the
destinies of the nation. In the beginning of his reign the hand
of the young monarch, who was nothing if not energetic, made
itself felt in every direction. The harbours of Copenhagen,
Elsinore and other towns were enlarged; many decaying towns
were abolished and many new ones built under more promising
conditions, including Christiania, which was founded in August
1624, on the ruins of the ancient city of Oslo. Various attempts
were also made to improve trade and industry by abolishing the
still remaining privileges of the Hanseatic towns, by promoting
a wholesale immigration of skilful and well-to-do Dutch traders
and handicraftsmen into Denmark under most favourable
conditions, by opening up the rich fisheries of the Arctic seas,
and by establishing joint-stock chartered companies both in the
East and the West Indies. Copenhagen especially benefited by
Christian IV.'s commercial policy. He enlarged and embellished
it, and provided it with new harbours and fortifications; in short,
did his best to make it the worthy capital of a great empire.
But it was in the foreign policy of the government that the royal
influence was most perceptible. Unlike Sweden, Denmark had
remained outside the great religious-political movements which
were the outcome of the Catholic reaction; and the peculiarity
of her position made her rather hostile than friendly to the other
Protestant states. The possession of the Sound enabled her to
close the Baltic against the Western pcwers; the possession of
Norway carried along with it the control of the rich fisheries
which were Danish monopolies, and therefore a source of irrita-
tion to England and Holland. Denmark, moreover, was above
all things a Scandinavian power. While the territorial expansion
of Sweden in the near future was a matter of necessity, Denmark
had not only attained, but even exceeded, her natural limits.
Aggrandizement southwards, at the expense of the German
empire, was becoming every year more difficult; and in every
other direction she had nothing more to gain. Nay, more,
Denmark's possession of the Scanian provinces deprived Sweden
of her proper geographical frontiers. Clearly it was Denmark's
wisest policy to seek a close alliance with Sweden in their common
interests, and after the conclusion of the " Kalmar War " the
two countries did remain at peace for the next thirty-one years.
But the antagonistic interests of the two countries in Germany
during the Thirty Years' War precipitated a fourth contest
between them (1643-45), in which Denmark would have been
utterly ruined but for the heroism of King Christian IV. and his
command of the sea during the crisis of the struggle. Even so,
by the peace of Bromsebro (February 8, 1645)
Denmark surrendered the islands of Oesel and Gotland / osseg /
and the provinces of Jemteland and Herjedal (in territory.
Norway) definitively, and Halland for thirty years.
The freedom from the Sound tolls was by the same treaty also
extended to Sweden's Baltic provinces.
The peace of Bromsebro was the first of the long series
of treaties, extending down to our own days, which mark the
progressive shrinkage of Danish territory into an irreducible
minimum. Sweden's appropriation of Danish soil had begun,
and at the same time Denmark's power of resisting the encroach-
ments of Sweden was correspondingly reduced. The Danish
national debt, too, had risen enormously, while the sources of
future income and consequent recuperation had diminished
or disappeared. The Sound tolls, for instance, in consequence of
the treaties of Bromsebro and Kristianopel (by the latter treaty
very considerable concessions were made to the Dutch) had sunk
from 400,000 to 140,000 rix-dollars. The political influence of
the crown, moreover, had inevitably been weakened, and the
conduct of foreign affairs passed from the hands of the king
into the hands of the Rigsraad. On the accession
of Frederick III. (1648-1670) moreover, the already IIL> '
>
diminished royal prerogative was still further curtailed 1670.
by the Haandfaestning, or charter, which he was
compelled to sign. Fear and hatred of Sweden, and the never
abandoned hope of recovering the lost provinces, animated king
and people alike; but it was Denmark's crowning misfortune
that she possessed at this difficult crisis no statesman of the first
rank, no one even approximately comparable with such com-
petitors as Charles X. of Sweden or the " Great Elector "
Frederick William of Brandenburg. From the very beginning
of his reign Frederick III. was resolved upon a rupture at the
first convenient opportunity, while the nation was, if possible,
even more bellicose than the king. The apparently insuperable
difficulties of Sweden in Poland was the feather that turned the
scale; on the ist of June 1657, Frederick III. signed the manifesto
justifying a war which was never formally declared and brought
Denmark to the very verge of ruin. The extraordinary details
of this dramatic struggle will be found elsewhere (see FREDERICK
III., king of Denmark, and CHARLES X., king of Sweden) ;
suffice it to say that by the peace of Roskilde
(February 26, 1658), Denmark consented to cede the
three Scanian provinces, the island of Bornholm and less.
the Norwegian provinces of Baahus and Trondhjem;
to renounce all anti-Swedish alliances and to exempt all Swedish
5
34
DENMARK
[HISTORY
llshed,
1660.
vessels, even when carrying foreign goods, from all tolls. These
terrible losses were somewhat retrieved by the subsequent
treaty of Copenhagen (May 27, 1660) concluded by the Swedish
regency with Frederick III. after the failure of Charles X.'s
second war against Denmark, a failure chiefly owing to the
heroic defence of the Danish capital (1658-60). By this treaty
Treaty of Sweden gave back the province of Trondhjem and the
Copeo- isle of Bornholm and released Denmark from the most
hagea, onerous of the obligations of the treaty of Roskilde.
In fact the peace of Copenhagen came as a welcome
break in an interminable series of disasters and humiliations.
Anyhow, it confirmed the independence of the Danish state.
On the other hand, if Denmark had emerged from the war with
her honour and dignity unimpaired, she had at the same time
tacitly surrendered the dominion of the North to her Scandi-
navian rival.
But the war just terminated had important political conse-
quences, which were to culminate in one of the most curious and
Hereditary interesting revolutions of modern history. In the first
monarchy place, it marks the termination of the Adelsvaelde, or
estab- rule of the nobility. By their cowardice, incapacity,
egotism and treachery during the crisis of the struggle,
the Danish aristocracy had justly forfeited the respect
of every other class of the community, and emerged from the
war hopelessly discredited. On the other hand, Copenhagen,
proudly conscious of her intrinsic importance and of her inestim-
able services to the country, whom she had saved from annihilation
by her constancy, now openly claimed to have a voice in public
affairs. Still higher had risen the influence of the crown. The
courage and resource displayed by Frederick III. in the extremity
of the national danger had won for " the least expansive of
monarchs " an extraordinary popularity.
On the loth of September 1660, the Rigsdug, which was to
repair the ravages of the war and provide for the future, was
opened with great ceremony in the Riddersaal of the castle
of Copenhagen. The first bill laid before the Estates by the
government was to impose an excise tax on the principal articles
of consumption, together with subsidiary taxes on cattle, poultry,
&c., in return for which the abolition of all the old direct taxes
was promised. The nobility at first claimed exemption from
taxation altogether, while the clergy and burgesses insisted upon
an absolute equality of taxation. There were sharp encounters
between the presidents of the contending orders, but the position
of the Lower Estates was considerably prejudiced by the dissen-
sions of its various sections. Thus the privileges of the bishops
and of Copenhagen profoundly irritated the lower clergy and
the unprivileged towns, and made a cordial understanding
impossible, till Hans Svane, bishop of Copenhagen, and Hans
Nansen the burgomaster, who now openly came forward as the
leader of the reform movement, proposed that the privileges
which divided the non-noble Estates should be abolished. In
accordance with this proposal, the two Lower Estates, on the
i6th of September, subscribed a memorandum addressed to the
Rigsraad, declaring their willingness to renounce their privileges,
provided the nobility did the same; which was tantamount to a
declaration that the whole of the clergy and burgesses had made
common cause against the nobility. The opposition so formed
took the name of the " Conjoined Estates." The presentation
of the memorial provoked an outburst of indignation. But the
nobility soon perceived the necessity of complete surrender.
On the 30th of September the First Estate abandoned its former
standpoint and renounced its privileges, with one unimportant
reservation.
The struggle now seemed to be ended, and the financial
question having also been settled, the king, had he been so
minded, might have dismissed the Estates. But the still more
important question of reform was now raised. On the I7th of
September the burgesses introduced a bill proposing a new
constitution, which was to include local self-government in the
towns, the abolition of serfdom, and the formation of a national
army. It fell to the ground for want of adequate support; but
another proposition, the fruit of secret discussion between the
king and his confederates, which placed all fiefs under the control
of the crown as regards taxation, and provided for selling and
letting them to the highest bidder, was accepted by the Estate
of burgesses. The significance of this ordinance lay in the fact
that it shattered the privileged position of the nobility, by
abolishing the exclusive right to the possession of fiefs. What
happened next is not quite clear. Our sources fail us, and we are
at the mercy of doubtful rumours and more or less unreliable
anecdotes. We have a vision of in trigues, mysterious conferences,
threats and bribery, dimly discernible through a shifting mirage
of tradition.
The first glint of light is a letter, dated the 23rd of September,
from Frederick III. to Svane and Nansen, authorizing them to
communicate the arrangements already made to reliable men,
and act quickly, as " if the others gain time they may possibly
gain more." The first step was to make sure of the city train-
bands: of the garrison of Copenhagen the king had no doubt.
The headquarters of the conspirators was the bishop's palace
near Vor Frue church, between which and the court messages
were passing continually, and where the document to be adopted
by the Conjoined Estates took its final shape. On the 8th of
October the two burgomasters, Hans Nansen and Kristoffer
Hansen, proposed that the realm of Denmark should be made
over to the king as a hereditary kingdom, without prejudice to
theprivilegesof the Estates ; whereupon they proceeded to Brewer's
Hall, and informed the Estate of burgesses there assembled
of what had been done. A fiery oration from Nansen dissolved
some feeble opposition; and simultaneously Bishop Svane
carried the clergy along with him. The so-called " Instrument,"
now signed by the Lower Estates, offered the realm to the king
and his house as a hereditary monarchy, by way of thank-offering
mainly for his courageous deliverance of the kingdom during
the war; and the Rigsraad and the nobility were urged to
notify the resolution to the king, and desire him to maintain
each Estate in its due privileges, and to give a written counter-
assurance that the revolution now to be effected was for the sole
benefit of the state. Events now moved forward rapidly. On
the loth of October a deputation from the clergy and burgesses
proceeded to the Council House where the Rigsraad were de-
liberating, to demand an answer to their propositions. After
a tumultuous scene, the aristocratic Raad rejected the " Instru-
ment " altogether, whereupon the deputies of the commons pro-
ceeded to the palace and were graciously received by the king,
who promised them an answer next day. The same afternoon
the guards in the streets and on the ramparts were doubled; on
the following morning the gates of the city were closed, powder
and bullets were distributed among the city train-bands, who
were bidden to be in readiness when the alarm bell called them,
and cavalry was massed on the environs of the city. The same
afternoon the king sent a message to the Rigsraad urging them
to declare their views quickly, as he could no longer hold himself
responsible for what might happen. After a feeble attempt
at a compromise the Raad gave way. On the I3th of October
it signed a declaration to the effect that it associated itself
still with the Lower Estates in the making over of the kingdom,
as a hereditary monarchy, to his majesty and his heirs male and
female. The same day the king received the official communi-
cation of this declaration and the congratulation of the burgo-
masters. Thus the ancient constitution was transformed; and
Denmark became a monarchy hereditary in Frederick III. and
his posterity.
But although hereditary sovereignty had been introduced, the
laws of the land had not been abolished. The monarch was
specifically now a sovereign over-lord, but he had not been
absolved from his obligations towards his subjects. Hereditary
sovereignty per se was not held to signify unlimited dominion,
still less absolutism. On the contrary, the magnificent gift of
the Danish nation to Frederick III. wa? made under express
conditions. The " Instrument " drawn up by the Lower
Estates implied the retention of all their rights; and the king,
in accepting the gift of a hereditary crown, did not repudi-
ate the implied inviolability of the privileges of the donors.
HISTORY]
DENMARK
35
Unfortunately everything had been left so vague, that it was
an easy matter for ultra-royalists like Svane and Nansen to
ignore the privileges of the Estates, and even the Estates
themselves.
On the 1 4th of October a committee was summoned to the
palace to organize the new government. The discussion turned
mainly upon two points, (i) whether a new oath of homage should
be taken to the king, and (2) what was to be done with the
Haandfaestning or royal charter. The first point was speedily
decided in the affirmative, and, as to the second, it was ultimately
decided that the king should be released from his oath and the
charter returned to him ; but a rider was added suggesting that
he should, at the same time, promulgate a Recess providing for
his own and his people's welfare. Thus Frederick III. was not
left absolutely his own master; for the provision regarding a
Recess, or new constitution, showed plainly enough that such
a constitution was expected, and, once granted, would of course
have limited the royal power.
It now only remained to execute the resolutions of the com-
mittee. On the 1 7th of October the charter, which the king had
sworn to observe twelve years before, was solemnly handed back
to him at the palace, Frederick III. thereupon promising to rule
as a Christian king to the satisfaction of all the Estates of the
realm. On the following clay the king, seated on the topmost
step of a lofty tribune surmounted by a baldaquin, erected in the
midst of the principal square of Copenhagen, received the public
homage of his subjects of all ranks, in the presence of an immense
concourse, on which occasion he again promised to rule " as a
Christian hereditary king and gracious master," and, " as soon as
possible, to prepare and set up " such a constitution as should
secure to his subjects a Christian and indulgent sway. The
ceremony concluded with a grand banquet at the palace. After
dinner the queen and the clergy withdrew; but the king remained.
An incident now occurred which made a strong impression on all
present. With a brimming beaker in his hand, Frederick III.
went up to Hans Nansen, drank with him and drew him aside.
They communed together in a low voice for some time, till the
burgomaster, succumbing to the influence of his potations,
fumbled his way to his carriage with the assistance of some of
his civic colleagues. Whether Nansen, intoxicated by wine
and the royal favour, consented on this occasion to sacrifice the
privileges of his order and his city, it is impossible to say; but
it is significant that, from henceforth, we hear no more of the
Recess which the more liberal of the leaders of the lower
orders had hoped for when they released Frederick III. from
the obligations of the charter.
We can follow pretty plainly the stages of the progress from
a limited to an absolute monarchy. By an act dated the icth
Establish- ^ J anuar Y 1661, entitled " Instrument, or pragmatic
meat of sanction," of the king's hereditary right to the king-
absolute doms of Denmark and Norway, it was declared that
all the prerogatives of majesty.'and " all regalia as an
absolute sovereign lord," had been made over to the king. Yet,
even after the issue of the " Instrument," there was nothing,
strictly speaking, to prevent Frederick III. from voluntarily
conceding to his subjects some share in the administration.
Unfortunately the king was bent upon still further emphasizing
the plenitude of his power. At Copenhagen his advisers were
busy framing drafts of a Lex Regia Perpetua ; and the one
which finally won the royal favour was the famous Kongelov, or
" King's Law."
This document was in every way unique. In the first place
it is remarkable for its literary excellence. Compared with the
barbarous macaronic jargon of the contemporary official language
it shines forth as a masterpiece of pure, pithy and original
Danish. Still more remarkable are the tone and tenor of this
royal law. The Kongelov has the highly dubious honour of being
the one written law in the civilized world which fearlessly carries
out absolutism to the last consequences. The monarchy is de-
clared to owe its origin to the surrender of the supreme authority
by the Estates to the king. The maintenance of the indivisi-
bility of the realm and of the Christian faith according to the
Augsburg Confession, and the observance of the Kongelov itself,
are now the sole obligations binding upon the king. The supreme
spiritual authority also is now claimed; and it is expressly stated
that it becomes none to crown him ; the moment he ascends the
throne, crown and sceptre belong to him of right. Moreover,
par. 26 declares guilty of llse-majestt whomsoever shall in any
way usurp or infringe the king's absolute authority. In the
following reign the ultra-royalists went further still. In their
eyes the king was not merely autocratic, but sacrosanct. Thus
before the anointing of Christian V. on the 7th of June 1671, a
ceremony by way of symbolizing the new autocrat's humble
submission to the Almighty, the officiating bishop of Zealand
delivered an oration in which he declared that the king was God's
immediate creation, His vicegerent on earth, and that it was the
bounden duty of all good subjects to serve and honour the
celestial majesty as represented by the king's terrestrial majesty.
The Kongelov is dated and subscribed the I4th of November
1665, but was kept a profound secret, only two initiated persons
knowing of its existence until after the death of Frederick III.,
one of them being Kristoffer Gabel, the king's chief intermediary
during the revolution, and the other the author and custodian
of the Kongelov, Secretary Peder Schumacher, better known as
Griffenfeldt. It is significant that both these confidential agents
were plebeians.
The revolution of 1660 was certainly beneficial to Norway.
With the disappearance of the Rigsraad, which, as representing
the Danish crown, had hitherto exercised sovereignty Effa^ of
over both kingdoms, Norway ceased to be a subject the revoiu-
principality. The sovereign hereditary king stood in tloa of
exactly the same relations to both kingdoms; and 1660 '
thus, constitutionally, Norway was placed on an equality with
Denmark, united with but not subordinate to it. It is clear
that the majority of the Norwegian people hoped that the
revolution would give them an administration independent
of the Danish government; but these expectations were not
realised. Till the cessation of the Union in 1814, Copenhagen
continued to be the headquarters of the Norwegian administra-
tion; both kingdoms had common departments of state; and
the common chancery continued to be called the Danish chancery.
On the other hand the condition of Norway was now greatly
improved. In January 1661 a land commission was appointed
to investigate the financial and economical conditions of the
kingdoms; the fiefs were transformed into counties; the nobles
were deprived of their immunity from taxation; and in July
1662 the Norwegian towns received special privileges, including
the monopoly of the lucrative timber trade.
The Enevaelde, or absolute monarchy, also distinctly benefited
the whole Danish state by materially increasing its reserve of
native talent. Its immediate consequence was to throw open
every state appointment to the middle classes; and the middle
classes of that period, with very few exceptions, monopolized the
intellect and the energy of the nation. New blood of the best
quality nourished and stimulated the whole body politic. Ex-
pansion and progress were the watchwords at home, and abroad
it seemed as if Denmark were about to regain her
former position as a great power. This was especially
the case during the brief but brilliant administration
of Chancellor Griffenfeldt. Then, if ever, Denmark
had the chance of playing once more a leading part in inter-
national politics. But Griffenfeldt's difficulties, always serious,
were increased by the instability of the European situation,
depending as it did on the ambition of Louis XIV. Resolved to
conquer the Netherlands, the French king proceeded, first of all,
to isolate her by dissolving the Triple Alliance. (See SWEDEN
and GRIFFENFELDT.) In April 1672 a treaty was concluded
between France and Sweden, on condition that France should not
include Denmark in her system of alliances without the consent
of Sweden. This treaty showed that Sweden weighed more in
the French balances than Denmark. In June 1672 a French
army invaded the Netherlands; whereupon the elector of
Brandenburg contracted an alliance with the emperor Leopold,
to which Denmark was invited to accede; almost simultaneously
DENMARK
[HISTORY
the States-General began to negotiate for a renewal of the recently
expired Dano-Dutch alliance.
In these circumstances it was as difficult for Denmark to
remain neutral as it was dangerous for her to make a choice.
a 'li ance w ith France would subordinate her to
Denmark
in the Sweden ; an alliance with the Netnerlands would expose
Great her to an attack from Sweden. The Franco-Swedish
wZr" 1 "' alliance left Griffenfeldt no choice but to accede to the
opposite league, for he saw at once that the ruin of the
Netherlands would disturb the balance of power in the north by
giving an undue preponderance to England and Sweden. But
Denmark's experience of Dutch promises in the past was not
reassuring; so, while negotiating at the Hague for a renewal of
the Dutch alliance, he at the same time felt his way at Stockholm
towards a commercial treaty with Sweden. His Swedish mission
proved abortive, but, as he had anticipated, it effectually acceler-
ated the negotiations at the Hague, and frightened the Dutch
into unwonted liberality. In May 1673 a treaty of alliance was
signed by the ambassador of the States-General at Copenhagen,
whereby the Netherlands pledged themselves to pay Denmark
large subsidies in return for the services of 10,000 men and
twenty warships, which were to be held in readiness in case the
United Provinces were attacked by another enemy besides
France. Thus, very dexterously, Griffenfeldt had succeeded in
gaining his subsidies without sacrificing his neutrality.
His next move was to attempt to detach Sweden from France;
but, Sweden showing not the slightest inclination for a rapproche-
ment, Denmark was compelled to accede to the anti-French
league, which she did by the treaty of Copenhagen, of January
1674, thereby engaging to place an army of 20,000 in the field
when required; but here again Griffenfeldt safeguarded himself
to some extent by stipulating that this provision was not to be
operative till the allies were attacked by a fresh enemy. When,
in December 1674, a Swedish army invaded Prussian Pomerania,
Denmark was bound to intervene as a belligerent, but Griffen-
feldt endeavoured to postpone this intervention as long as
possible; and Sweden's anxiety to avoid hostilities with her
southern neighbour materially assisted him to postpone the evil
day. He only wanted to gain time, and he gained it. To the last
he endeavoured to avoid a rupture with France even if he broke
with Sweden; but he could not restrain for ever the foolish
impetuosity of his own sovereign, Christian V., and his fall in
the beginning of 1676 not only, as he had foreseen, involved
Denmark in an unprofitable war, but, as his friend and disciple,
Jens Juel, well observed, relegated her henceforth to the humiliat-
ing position of an international catspaw. Thus at the peace of
Fontainebleau (September 2, 1679) Denmark, which had borne
the brunt of the struggle in the Baltic, was compelled by the
inexorable French king to make full restitution to Sweden, the
treaty between the two northern powers being signed at Lund
on the 26th of September. Freely had she spent her blood and
her treasure, only to emerge from the five years' contest exhausted
and empty-handed.
By the peace of Fontainebleau Denmark had been sacrificed
to the interests of France and Sweden; forty-one years later she
was sacrificed to the interests of Hanover and Prussia by the
peace of Copenhagen (1720), which ended the Northern War so
far as the German powers were concerned. But it would not
have terminated advantageously for them at all, had not the
powerful and highly efficient Danish fleet effectually prevented
the Swedish government from succouring its distressed German
provinces, and finally swept the Swedish fleets out of the northern
waters. Yet all the compensation Denmark received for her
inestimable services during a whole decade was 600,000 rix-
dollars! The bishoprics of Bremen and Verden, the province of
Farther Pomerania and the isle of Riigen which her armies had
actually conquered, and which had been guaranteed to her by a
whole catena of treaties, went partly to the upstart electorate
of Hanover and partly to the upstart kingdom of Prussia, both of
which states had been of no political importance whatever at the
beginning of the war of spoliation by which they were, ultimately,
to profit so largely and so cheaply.
The last ten years of the reign of Christian V.'s successor,
Frederick IV. (1690-1730), were devoted to the nursing and
development of the resources of the country, which had
suffered only less severely than Sweden from the effects
of the Great Northern War. The court, seriously pious,
did much for education. A wise economy also contri-
buted to reduce the national debt within manageable limits, and
in the welfare of the peasantry Frederick IV. took a deep interest.
In 1722 serfdom was abolished in the case of all peasants in the
royal estates born after his accession.
The first act of Frederick's successor, Christian VI. (1730-1746),
was to abolish the national militia, which had been an intoler-
able burden upon the peasantry; yet the more pressing
agrarian difficulties were not thereby surmounted, chrlstlaa
as had been hoped. The price of corn continued ij46? 3 ~
to fall; the migration of the peasantry assumed
alarming proportions; and at last, " to preserve the land " as
well as to increase the defensive capacity of the country, the
national militia was re-established by the decree of the 4th of
February 1733, which at the same time bound to the soil all
peasants between the age of nine and forty. Reactionary as the
measure was it enabled the agricultural interest, on which the
prosperity of Denmark mainly depended, to tide over one of the
most dangerous crises in its history; but certainly the position
of the Danish peasantry was never worse than during the reign
of the religious and benevolent Christian VI.
Under the peaceful reign of Christian's son and successor,
Frederick V. (1746-1766), still more was done for commerce,
industry and agriculture. To promote Denmark's
carrying trade, treaties were made with the Barbary
States, Genoa and Naples; and the East Indian
Trading Company flourished exceedingly. On the
other hand the condition of the peasantry was even worse under
Frederick V. than it had been under Christian VI., the Stavns-
baand, or regulation which bound all males to the soil, being
made operative from the age of four. Yet signs of a coming
amelioration were not wanting. The theory of the physiocrats
now found powerful advocates in Denmark; and after 1755, when
the press censorship was abolished so far as regarded political
economy and agriculture, a thorough discussion of the whole
agrarian question became possible. A commission appointed
in 1757 worked zealously for the repeal of many agricultural
abuses; and several great landed proprietors introduced heredi-
tary leaseholds, and abolished the servile tenure.
Foreign affairs during the reigns of Frederick V. and Christian
VI. were left in the capable hands of J. H. E. Bernstorff, who
aimed at steering clear of all foreign complications and preserving
inviolable the neutrality of Denmark. This he succeeded in
doing, in spite of the Seven Years' War and of the difficulties
attending the thorny Gottorp question in which Sweden and
Russia were equally interested. The same policy was victori-
ously pursued by his nephew and pupil Andreas Bernstorff, an
even greater man than the elder Bernstorff, who controlled the
foreign policy of Denmark from 1773 to 1778, and again from
1784 till his death in 1797. The period of the younger
Bernstorff synchronizes with the greater part of the
long reign of Christian VII. (1766-1808), one of the
most eventful periods of modern Danish history. The
king himself was indeed a semi-idiot, scarce responsible for his
actions, yet his was the era of such striking personalities as
the brilliant charlatan Struensee, the great philanthropist and
reformer C. D. F. Reventlow, the ultra-conservative Ove
Hoegh-Guldberg, whose mission it was to repair'the damage done
by Struensee, and that generation of alert and progressive spirits
which surrounded the young crown prince Frederick, whose first
act, on taking his seat in the council of state, at the age of
sixteen, on the 4th of April 1784, was to dismiss Guldberg.
A fresh and fruitful period of reform now began, lasting till
nearly the end of the century, and interrupted only by the brief
but costly war with Sweden in 1788. The emancipation of
the peasantry was now the burning question of the day, and
the whole matter was thoroughly ventilated. Bernstorff and the
HISTORY]
DENMARK
37
crown prince were the most zealous advocates of the peasantry
in the council of state; but the honour of bringing the whole
peasant question within the range of practical politics un-
doubtedly belongs to C. D. F. Reventlow (<?..). Nor was the
reforming principle limited to the abolition of serfdom. In 1788
the corn trade was declared free; the Jews received civil rights;
and the negro slave trade was forbidden. In 1796 a special
ordinance reformed the whole system of judicial procedure,
making it cheaper and more expeditious; while the toll ordinance
of the ist of February 1797 still further extended the principle
of free trade. Moreover, until two years after Bernstorff's death
in 1797, the Danish press enjoyed a larger freedom of speech than
the press of any other absolute monarchy in Europe, so much so
that at last Denmark became suspected of favouring Jacobin
views. But in September 1799 under strong pressure from
the Russian emperor Paul, the Danish government forbade
anonymity, and introduced a limited censorship.
It was Denmark's obsequiousness to Russia which led to the
first of her unfortunate collisions with Great Britain. In 1800
Denmark tne Danis!l government was persuaded by the tsar
and Great to accede to the second Armed Neutrality League,
Britain la which Russia had just concluded with Prussia and
theNapo- Sweden. Great Britain retaliated by laying an
^art embargo on the vessels of the three neutral powers,
and by sending a considerable fleet to the Baltic under
the command of Parker and Nelson. Surprised and unprepared
though they were, the Danes, nevertheless, on the 2nd of April
1801, offered a gallant resistance; but their fleet was destroyed,
their capital bombarded, and, abandoned by Russia, they were
compelled to submit to a disadvantageous peace.
The same vain endeavour of Denmark to preserve her neutrality
led to the second breach with England. After the peace of Tilsit
there could be no further question of neutrality. Napoleon had
determined that if Great Britain refused to accept Russia's
mediation, Denmark, Sweden and Portugal were to be forced to
close their harbours to her ships and declare war against her.
It was the intention of the Danish government to preserve its
neutrality to the last, although, on the whole, it preferred an
alliance with Great Britain to a league with Napoleon, and was
even prepared for a breach with the French emperor if he pressed
her too hardly. The army had therefore been assembled in
Holstein, and the crown prince regent was with it. But the
British government did not consider Denmark strong enough to
resist France, and Canning had private trustworthy information
of the designs of Napoleon, upon which he was bound to act. He
sent accordingly a fleet, with 30,00x3 men on board, to the Sound
to compel Denmark, by way of security for her future conduct,
to unite her fleet with the British fleet. Denmark was offered
an alliance, the complete restitution of her fleet after the war, a
guarantee of all her possessions, compensation for all expenses,
and even territorial aggrandizement.
Dictatorially presented as they were, these terms were liberal
and even generous; and if a great statesman like Bernstorff
had been at the head of affairs in Copenhagen, he would, no
doubt, have accepted them, even if with a wry face. But the
prince regent, if a good patriot, was a poor politician, and
invincibly obstinate. When, therefore, in August 1807, Gambier
arrived in the Sound, and the English plenipotentiary Francis
James Jackson, not perhaps the most tactful person that could
have been chosen, hastened to Kiel to place the British demands
before the crown prince, Frederick not only refused to negotiate,
but ordered the Copenhagen authorities to put the city in the best
state of defence possible. Taking this to be tantamount to a
declaration of war, on the i6th of August the British army
landed at Vedback; and shortly afterwards the Danish capital
was invested. Anything like an adequate defence was hopeless;
Loss of a bombardment began which lasted from the 2nd of
Norway. September till the sth of September, and ended with
tne ca P !tulat ' on f tne city an d the surrender of the
fleet intact, the prince regent having neglected to give
orders for its destruction. After this Denmark, unwisely, but
not unnaturally, threw herself into the arms of Napoleon and
continued to be his faithful ally till the end of the war. She was
punished for her obstinacy by being deprived of Norway, which
she was compelled to surrender to Sweden by the terms of the
treaty of Kiel (1814), on the I4th of January, receiving by way
of compensation a sum of money and Swedish Pomerania, with
Riigen, which were subsequently transferred to Prussia in ex-
change for the duchy of Lauenburg and 2,000,000 rix-dollars.
On the establishment of the German Confederation in 1815,
Frederick VI. acceded thereto as duke of Holstein, but refused
to allSw Schleswig to enter it, on the ground that Schleswig was
an integral part of the Danish realm.
The position of Denmark from 1815 to 1830 was one of great
difficulty and distress. The loss of Norway necessitated consider-
able reductions of expenditure, but the economies
actually practised fell far short of the requirements of
the diminished kingdom and its depleted exchequer;
while the agricultural depression induced by the enormous fall in
the price of corn all over Europe caused fresh demands upon
the state, and added 10,000,000 rix-dollars to the national debt
before 1835. The last two years of the reign of Frederick VI.
(1838-1839) were also remarkable for the revival of political life,
provincial consultative assemblies being established for Jutland,
the Islands, Schleswig and Holstein, by the ordinance of the 28th
of May 1831. But these consultative assemblies were regarded
as insufficient by the Danish Liberals, and during the last years
of Frederick VI. and the whole reign of his successor, Christian
VIII. (1839-1848), the agitation for a free constitution,
both in Denmark and the duchies, continued to grow
in strength, in spite of press prosecutions and other
repressive measures. The rising national feeling in Beginnings
Germany also stimulated the separatist tendencies otthe
of the duchies; and " Schleswig-Holsteinism," as fioiste^n^
it now began to be called, evoked in Denmark the Question.
counter-movement known as Eiderdansk-polilik,
i.e. the policy of extending Denmark to the Eider and
obliterating German Schleswig, in order to save Schleswig
from being absorbed by Germany. This division of national
sentiment within the monarchy, complicated by the ap-
proaching extinction of the Oldenburg line of the house of
Denmark, by which, in the normal course under the Salic law,
the succession to Holstein would have passed away from the
Danish crown, opened up the whole complicated Schleswig-
Holstein Question with all its momentous consequences. (See
ScHLESWic-HoLSTEiN QUESTION.) Within the monarchy itself,
during the following years, " Schleswig-Holsteinism " and
" Eiderdanism " faced each other as rival, mutually exacerbating
forces; and the efforts of succeeding governments to solve the
insoluble problem broke down ever on the rock of nationalist
passion and the interests of the German powers. The unionist
constitution, devised by Christian VIII., and pro- u a i oa i st
mulgated by his successor, Frederick VII. ( 1 848-1 863) , constita-
on the 28th of January 1848, led to the armed inter- Honor
vention of Prussia, at the instance of the new German I84S ' aaa
parliament at. Frankfort; and, though with the help
of Russian and British diplomacy, the Danes were
ultimately successful, they had to submit, in 1851, to the
government of Holstein by an international commission consisting
of three members, Prussian, Austrian and Danish respectively.
Denmark, meanwhile, had been engaged in providing herself
with a parliament on modern lines. The constitutional rescript
of the 28th of January 1848 had been withdrawn in favour of an
electoral law for a national assembly, of whose 152 members
38 were to be nominated by the king and to form an Upper
House (Landsting) , while the remainder were to be elected by
the people and to form a popular chamber (Folkeiing). The
Bondevenlige, or philo-peasant party, which objected to the king's
right of nomination and preferred a one-chamber system, now
separated from the National Liberals on this point. But the
National Liberals triumphed at the general election; fear of
reactionary tendencies finally induced the Radicals to accede to
the wishes of the majority; and on the sth of June 1849 the new
constitution received the royal sanction.
DENMARK
[HISTORY
At this stage Denmark's foreign relations prejudicially affected
her domestic politics. The Liberal Eiderdansk party was for
Qermaay dividing Schleswig into three distinct administrative
ad the belts, according as the various nationalities predomin-
Danish a ted (language rescripts of i85i),butGermansentiment
duchies. was O pp 0se( { to anv such settlement and, still worse,
the great continental powers looked askance on the new Danish
constitution as far too democratic. The substance of the notes
embodying the exchange of views, in 1851 and 1852, between the
German great powers and Denmark, was promulgated, dn the
28th of January 1852, in the new constitutional decree which,
together with the documents on which it was founded, was known
as the Conventions of 1851 and 1852. Under this
onven- arrangement each part of the monarchy was to have
1852? local autonomy, with a common constitution for
common affairs. Holstein was now restored to
Denmark, and Prussia and Austria consented to take part in the
conference of London, by which the integrity of Denmark was
upheld, and the succession to the whole monarchy settled on
Prince Christian, youngest son of Duke William of Schleswig-
Holstein-Sonderburg-Glucksburg, and husband of Louise of
Hesse, the niece of King Christian VIII. The " legitimate "
heir to the duchies, under the Salic law, Duke Christian of
Sonderburg-Augustenburg, accepted the decision of the London
conference in consideration of the purchase by the Danish
government of his estates in Schleswig.
On the 2nd of October 1855 was promulgated the new common
constitution, which for two years had been the occasion of a
fierce contention between the Conservatives and the
Constitu- R ac ji ca i s . it proved no more final than its predecessors.
isss. The representatives of the duchies in the new common
Rigsraod protested against it, as subversive of the Con-
ventions of 1851 and 1852; and their attitude had the support
of the German powers. In 1857, Carl Christian Hall (q.v.) became
prime minister. After putting off the German powers by seven
years of astute diplomacy, he realized the impossibility of carrying
out the idea of a common constitution and, on the 3oth of March
1862, a royal proclamation was issued detaching Holstein as far
as possible from the common monarchy. Later in the year he
introduced into the Rigsraad a common constitution
tio'not"' f r Denmark and Schleswig, which was carried through
1863 and and confirmed by the council of state on the I3th of
accession November 1863. It had not, however, received the
royal assent when the death of Frederick VII. brought
the " Protocol King " Christian IX. to the throne.
Placed between the necessity of offending his new subjects or
embroiling himself with the German powers, Christian chose the
remoter evil and, on the i8th of November, the new constitution
became law. This once more opened up the whole question in an
acute form. Frederick, son of Christian of Augustenburg, refus-
ing to be bound by his father's engagements, entered Holstein
and, supported by the Estates and the German diet, proclaimed
himself duke. The events that followed: the occupation of the
duchies by Austria and Prussia, the war of 1864,
gallantly fought by the Danes against overwhelming
War of odds, and the astute diplomacy by which Bismarck
1864, and succeeded in ultimately gaining for Prussia the seaboard
cess/ooo/ SQ es se n tial for her maritime power, are dealt with
duchies. elsewhere (see ScHLESwic-HoLSTEiN QUESTION). For
Denmark the question was settled when, by the peace
of Vienna (October 30, 1864), the duchies were irretrievably
lost to her. At the peace of Prague, which terminated the
Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Napoleon III. procured the in-
sertion in the treaty of paragraph v., by which the northern
districts of Schleswig were to be reunited to Denmark when the
majority of the population by a free vote should so desire; but
when Prussia at last thought fit to negotiate with Denmark
on the subject, she laid down conditions which the Danish
government could not accept. Finally, in 1878, by a separate
agreement between Austria and Prussia, paragraph v. was
rescinded.
The salient feature of Danish politics during subsequent years
of Chris
tlan IX.
was the struggle between the two Tings, the Folketing or Lower
House, and the Landsting, or Upper House of the
Rigsdag. This contest began in 1872, when a com- 2^"""
bination of all the Radical parties, known as the struggles
" United Left," passed a vote of want of confidence l"Dea-
against the government and rejected the budget, ^jJ* sla< *
Nevertheless, the ministry, supported by the Landsting,
refused to resign; and the crisis became acute when, in 1875,
J. B. Estrup became prime minister. Perceiving that the coming
struggle would be essentially a financial one, he retained the
ministry of finance in his own hands; and, strong in the support
of the king, the Landsting, and a considerable minority in the
country itself, he devoted himself to the double task of establish-
ing the political parity of the Landsting with the Folketing and
strengthening the national armaments, so that, in the event of
a war between the European great powers, Denmark might be
able to defend her neutrality.
The Left was willing to vote 30,000,000 crowns for
extraordinary military expenses, exclusive of the fortifications
of Copenhagen, on condition that the amount should be raised
by a property and income tax; and, as the elections of 1875 had
given them a majority of three-fourths in the popular chamber,
they spoke with no uncertain voice. But the Upper House
steadily supported Estrup, who was disinclined to accept any
such compromise. As an agreement between the two houses on
the budget proved impossible, a provisional financial decree was
issued on the i2th of April 1877, which the Left stigmatized as a
breach of the constitution. But the difficulties of the ministry
were somewhat relieved by a split in the Radical party, still
further accentuated by the elections of 1879, which enabled
Estrup to carry through the army and navy defence bill and
the new military penal code by leaning alternately upon one or
the other of the divided Radical groups.
After the elections of 1881, which brought about the reamalga-
mation of the various Radical sections, the opposition presented
a united front to the government, so that, from 1882 onwards,
legislation was almost at a standstill. The elections of 1884
showed clearly that the nation was also now on the side of the
Radicals, 83 out of the 102 members of the Folketing belonging
to the opposition. Still Estrup remained at his post. He had
underestimated the force of public opinion, but he was conscienti-
ously convinced that a Conservative ministry was necessary to
Denmark at this crisis. When therefore the Rigsdag rejected
the budget, he advised the king to issue another provisional
financial decree. Henceforth, so long as the Folketing refused to
vote supplies, the ministry regularly adopted these makeshifts.
In 1886 the Left, having no constitutional means of dismissing
the Estrup ministry, resorted for the first time to negotiations;
but it was not till the ist of April 1894 that the majority of the
Folketing could arrive at an agreement with the government and
the Landsting as to a budget which should be retrospective and
sanction the employment of the funds so irregularly obtained for
military expenditure. The whole question of the provisional
financial decrees was ultimately regularized by a special resolution
of the Rigsdag; and the retirement of the Estrup ministry in
August 1894 was the immediate result of the compromise.
In spite of the composition of 1894, the animosity between
Folketing and Landsting continues to characterize Danish politics,
and the situation has been complicated by the division of both
Right and Left into widely divergent groups. The elections of
1895 resulted in an undeniable victory of the extreme Radicals;
and the budget of 1895-1896 was passed only at the last moment
by a compromise. The session of 1896-1897 was remarkable for
a rapprochement between the ministry and the " Left Reform
Party," caused by the secessions of the " Young Right," which led
to an unprecedented event in Danish politics the voting of the
budget by the Radical Folketing and its rejection by the Conserva-
tive Landsting in May 1897; whereupon the ministry resigned
in favour of the moderate Conservative Horring cabinet, which
induced the Upper House to pass the budget. The elections of
1898 were a fresh defeat for the Conservatives, and in the autumn
session of the same year, the Folketing, by a crushing majority of
LITERATURE]
DENMARK
39
85 to 12, rejected the military budget. The ministry was
saved by a mere accident the expulsion of Danish agitators
from North Schleswig by the German government, which evoked
a passion of patriotic protest throughout Denmark, and united
all parties, the war minister declaring in the Folketing, during
the debate on the military budget (January 1899), that the
armaments of Denmark were so far advanced that any great
power must think twice before venturing to attack her. The
chief event of the year 1899 was the great strike of 40,000
artisans, which cost Denmark 50,000,000 crowns, and brought
about a reconstruction of the cabinet in order to bring in, as
minister of the interior, Ludwig Ernest Bramsen, the great
specialist in industrial matters, who succeeded (September 2-4)
in bringing about an understanding between workmen and
employers. The session 1900-1901 was remarkable for the
further disintegration of the Conservative party still in office
(the Sehested cabinet superseded the Horring cabinet on the
27th of April 1900) and the almost total paralysis of parliament,
caused by the interminable debates on the question of taxation
reform. The crisis came in 1901. Deprived of nearly all its
supporters in the Folketing, the Conservative ministry resigned,
and King Christian was obliged to assent to the formation of
a " cabinet of the Left " under Professor Deuntzer. Various
reforms were carried, but the proposal to sell the Danish islands
in the West Indies to the United States fell through. During
these years the relations between Denmark and the German
empire improved, and in the country itself the cause of social
democracy made great progress. In January 1906 King Christian
ended his long reign, and was succeeded by his son Frederick VIII.
At the elections of 1996 the government lost its small absolute
majority, but remained in power with support from the Moderates
and Conservatives. It was severely shaken, however, when
Herr A. Alberti, who had been minister of justice since 1901,
and was admitted to be the strongest member of the cabinet, was
openly accused of nepotism and abuse of the power of his position.
These charges gathered weight until the minister was forced to
resign in July 1908, and in September he was arrested on a charge
of forgery in his capacity as director of the Zealand Peasants'
Savings Bank. The ministry, of which Herr Jens Christian
Christensen was head, was compelled to resign in October. The
effect of these revelations was profound not only politically, but
also economically; the important export trade in Danish butter,
especially, was adversely affected, as Herr Alberti had been
interested in numerous dairy companies.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. I. GENERAL HISTORY. Danmarks Riges
Historic (Copenhagen, 1897-1905); R. Nisbet Bain, Scandinavia
(Cambridge, 1905); H. Weitemeyer, Denmark (London, 1901);
Adolf Ditlev Jorgensen, Historiske Afhandlinger (Copenhagen, 1898) ;
ib. Fortaellinger af Nordens Historic (Copenhagen, 1892). II. EARLY
AND MEDIEVAL HISTORY. Saxo, GestaDanorum (Strassburg, 1886) ;
Repertorium diplomaticum regni Danici mediaevalis (Copenhagen,
1894); Ludvig Holberg, Konge og Danehof (Copenhagen, 1895);
Poul Frederik Barford, Danmarks Historie 1319-1536 (Copenhagen,
1885); ib. 1536-1670 (Copenhagen, 1891). III. i6TH TO 19111
CENTURY. Philip P. Munch, Kobstadstyrelsen i Danmark (Copen-
hagen, 1900) ; Peter Edvard Holm, Danmark Norges indre Historie,
1660-1720 (Copenhagen, 1885-1886); ib. Danmark Norges Histoiie,
1720-1814 (Copenhagen, 1891-1894); Soren Bloch Thrige, Dan-
marks Historie i vort Aarhundrede (Copenhagen, 1888); Marcus
Rubin, Frederick VI.' s Tid fra Kielerfreden (Copenhagen, 1895) ;
Christian Frederick von Holten, Erinnerungen; Der deutsch-danische
Krieg (Stuttgart, 1900) ; Niels Peter Jensen, Den anden slesvigske
Krig (Copenhagen, 1900); S. N. Mouritsen, Vor Forfatnings Historie
(Copenhagen, 1894) : Carl Frederik Vilhelm Mathildus Rosenberg,
Danmarkfi Aaret 1848 (Copenhagen, 1891). See also the special
bibliographies appended to the biographies of the Danish kings
and statesmen. (R. N. B.)
LITERATURE
The present language of Denmark is derived directly from
the same source as that of Sweden, and the parent of both is the
old Scandinavian (see SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES). In Iceland
this tongue, with some modifications, has remained in use, and
until about noo it was the literary language of the whole of
Scandinavia. The influence of Low German first, and High
German afterwards, has had the effect of drawing modern Danish
constantly farther from this early type. The difference began to
show itself in the I2th century. R. K. Rask, and after him
N. M. Petersen, have distinguished four periods in the develop-
ment of the language. The first, which has been called Oldest
Danish, dating from about noo and 1250, shows a slightly
changed character, mainly depending on the system of inflections.
In the second period, that of Old Danish, bringing us down to
1400, the change of the system of vowels begins to be settled,
and masculine and feminine are mingled in a common gender.
An indefinite article has been formed, and in the conjugation of
the verb a great simplicity sets in. In the third period, 1400-
1 530, the influence of German upon the language is supreme, and
culminates in the Reformation. The fourth period, from 1530 to
about 1680, completes the work of development, and leaves the
language as we at present find it.
The earliest work known to have been written in Denmark was
a Latin biography of Knud the Saint, written by an English monk
/Elnoth, who was attached to the church of St Alban in Odense
where King Knud was murdered. Denmark produced several
Latin writers of merit. Anders Sunesen (d. 1228) wrote a long
poem in hexameters, Hexaemeron, describing the creation.
Under the auspices of Archbishop Absalon the monks of Soro
began to compile the annals of Denmark, and at the end of the
1 2th century Svend Aagesen, a cleric of Lund, compiled from
Icelandic sources and oral tradition his Compendiosa historia
regum Daniae. The great Saxo Grammaticus (q.ii.) wrote his
Historia Danica under the same patronage.
It was not till the i6th century that literature began to be
generally practised in the vernacular in Denmark. The oldest
laws which are still preserved date from the beginning of the i3th
century, and many different collections are in existence. 1 A
single work detains us in the I3th century, atreatise en medicine 3
by Henrik Harpestreng, who died in 1 244. The first royal edict
written in Danish is dated 1386; and the Act of Union at Kalmar,
written in 1397, is the most important piece of the vernacular of
the I4th century. Between 1300 and 1500, however, it is sup-
posed that the Kjaempeviser, or Danish ballads, a large collection
of about 500 epical and lyrical poems, were originally composed,
and these form the most precious legacy of the Denmark of the
middle ages, whether judged historically or poetically. We know
nothing of the authors of these poems, which treat of the heroic
adventures of the great warriors and lovely ladies of the chivalric
age in strains of artless but often exquisite beauty. Some of the
subjects are borrowed in altered form from the old mythology,
while a few derive from Christian legend, and many deal with
national history. The language in which we receive these ballads,
however, is as late as the i6th or even the i7th century, but it
is believed that they have become gradually modernized in the
course of oral tradition. The first attempt to collect the ballads
was made in 1591 by Anders Sorensen Vedel (1542-1616), who
published 100 of them. Peder Syv printed 100 more in 1695.
In 1812-1814 an elaborate collection in five volumes appeared
at Christiania, edited by W. H. F. Abrahamson, R. Nyerup
and K. M. Rahbek. Finally, Svend Grundtvig produced an
exhaustive edition, Danmarks gamle Folkeviser (Copenhagen,
1853-1883, 5 vols.), which was supplemented (1891) by A. Olrik.
In 1490, the first printing press was set up at Copenhagen, by
Gottfried of Gemen, who had brought it from Westphalia; and
five years later the first Danish book was printed. This was the
famous Rimkronike 3 ; a history of Denmark in rhymed Danish
verse, attributed by its first editor to Niels (d. 1481), a monk of
the monastery of Soro. It extends to the death of Christian I.,
in 1481, which may be supposed to be approximately the date
of the poem. In 1479 the university of Copenhagen had been
founded. In 1506 the same Gottfried of Gemen published a
famous collection of proverbs, attributed to Peder Laale.
Mikkel, priest of St Alban's Church in Odense, wrote three sacred
poems, The Rose-Garland of Maiden Mary, The Creation and
1 Collected as Samling af gamle danske Love (5 vols., Copenhagen,
1821-1827).
2 Henrik Harpestraengs Laegebog (ed. C. Molbech, Copenhagen,
1826).
3 Ed. C. Molbech (Copenhagen, 1825).
DENMARK
[LITERATURE
Human Life, which came out together in 1514, shortly before
his death. The popular Lucidarius also appeared in the vulgar
tongue.
These few productions appeared along with innumerable works
in Latin, and dimly heralded a Danish literature. It was the
Reformation that first awoke the living spirit in the popular
tongua. Christiern Pedersen (<?..; 1480-1554) was the first man
of letters produced in Denmark. He edited and published, at
Paris in 1514, the Latin text of the old chronicler, Saxo Gram-
maticus; he worked up in their present form the beautiful half-
mythical stories of Karl Magnus (Charlemagne) and Holger
Danske (Ogier the Dane). He further translated the
Psalms of David and the New Testament, printed in 1529, and
finally in conjunction with Bishop Peder Palladius the Bible,
which appeared in 1550. Hans Tausen, the bishop of Ribe
(1494-1561), continued Pedersen's work, but with far less
literary talent. He may, however, be considered as the greatest
orator and teacher of the Reformation movement. He wrote a
number of popular hymns, partly original, partly translations;
translated the Pentateuch from the Hebrew; and published
(1536) a collection of sermons embodying the reformed doctrine
and destined for the use of clergy and laity.
The Catholic party produced one controversialist of striking
ability, Povel Helgesen 1 (b. c. 1480), also known as Paulus
Eliae. He had at first been inclined to the party of reform,
but when Luther broke definitely with the papal authority he
became a bitter opponent. His most important. polemical work
is an answer (1528) to twelve questions on the religious question
propounded by Gustavus I. of Sweden. He is also supposed to be
the author of the Skiby Chronicle? in which he does not confine
himself to the duties of a mere annalist, but records his personal
opinion of people and events. Vedel, by the edition of the
Kjaempeviser which is mentioned above, gave an immense
stimulus to the progress of literature. He published an excellent
translation of Saxo Grammaticus in 1575. The first edition of
a Danish Reineke Fucks, by Herman Weigere, appeared at
Liibeck in 1555, and the first authorized Psalter in 1559. Arild
Huitfeld wrote Chronicle of the Kingdom of Denmark, printed in
ten volumes, between 1595 and 1604.
There are few traces of dramatic effort in Denmark before
the Reformation; and many of the plays of that period may be
referred to the class of school comedies. Hans Sthen, a lyrical
poet, wrote a morality entitled Kortvending (" Change of For-
tune "), which is really a collection of monologues to be delivered
by students. The anonymous Ludus de Sancto Kanuto 3 (c. 1 530)
which in spite of its title, is written in Danish, is the earliest
Danish national drama. The burlesque drama assigned to
Christian Hansen, The Faithless Wife, is the only one of its
kind that has survived. But the best of these old dramatic
authors was a priest of Viborg, Justesen Ranch (1539-1607),
who wrote Kong Salomons Hylding (" The Crowning of King
Solomon ") (1585), Samsons Faengsel (" The Imprisonment of
Samson "), which includes lyrical passages which have given it
claims to be considered the first Danish opera, and a farce, Karrig
Niding (" The Miserly Miscreant "). Beside these works Ranch
wrote a famous moralizing poem, entitled " A new song, of the
nature and song of certain birds, in which many vices are pun-
ished, and many virtues praised." Peder Clausen 4 (1545-1614),
a Norwegian by birth and education, wrote a Description of
Norway, as well as an admirable translation of Snorri Sturlason's
Heimskringla, published ten years after Clausen's death. The
father of Danish poetry, Anders Kristensen Arrebo (1587-1637),
was bishop of Trondhjem, but was deprived of his see for im-
morality. He was a poet of considerable genius, which is most
brilliantly shown in an imitation of Du Bartas's Divine Semaine,
1 See Povel Eliesens danske Skrifler (Copenhagen, 1855, &c.),
edited by C. E. Secher.
1 See Monumenta historiae Danicae (ed. H. Rordam, vol. i., 1873).
"Ed. Sophus Birket Smith (Copenhagen, 1868), who also edited
the comedies ascribed to Chr. Hansen as De tre aeldste danske
Skuespil (1874), and the works of Ranch (1876).
* His works were edited by Gustav Storm (Christiania, 1877-
1879).
the Hexaemeron, a poem on the creation, in six books, which did
not appear till 1661. He also made a translation of the Psalms.
He was followed by Anders Bording (1619-1677), a cheerful
occasional versifier, and by Thoger Reenberg (1656-1742), a poet
of somewhat higher gifts, who lived on into a later age. Among
prose writers should be mentioned the grammarian Peder Syv, 6
(1631-1702); Bishop Erik Pontoppidan (1616-1678), whose
Grammatica Danica, published in 1668, is the first systematic
analysis of the language; Birgitta Thott (1610-1662), a lady
who translated Seneca (1658); and Leonora Christina Ulfeld,
daughter of Christian IV., who has left a touching account of
her long imprisonment in her Jammer sminde. Ole Worm (1588-
1654), a learned pedagogue and antiquarian, preserved in his
Danicorum monumentorum libri sex (Copenhagen, 1643) the
descriptions of many antiquities which have since perished or
been lost.
In two spiritual poets the advancement of the literature of
Denmark took a further step. Thomas Kingo 6 (1634-1703) was
the first who wrote Danish with perfect ease and grace. He was
a Scot by descent, and retained the vital energy of his ancestors
as a birthright. In 1677 he became bishop in Funen, where
he died in 1703. His Winter Psalter (1689), and the so-called
Kingo's Psalter (1699), contained brilliant examples of lyrical
writing, and an employment of language at once original and
national. Kingo had a charming fancy, a clear sense of form and
great rapidity and variety of utterance. Some of his very best
hymns are in the little volume he published in 1681, and hence
the old period of semi-articulate Danish may be said to close with
this eventful decade, which also witnessed the birth of Holberg.
The other great hymn- writer was Hans Adolf Brorson (1694-
1764), who published in 1740 a great psalm-book at the king's
command, in which he added his own to the best of Kingo's.
Both these men held high posts in the church, one being bishop
of Fiinen and the other of Ribe; but Brorson was much inferior
to Kingo in genius. With these names the introductory period
of Danish literature ends. The language was now formed, and
was being employed for almost all the uses of science and philo-
sophy.
Ludvig Holberg (q.v.; 1684-1754) may be called the founder
of modern Danish literature. His various works still retain their
freshness and vital attraction. As an historian his style was terse
and brilliant, his spirit philosophical, and his data singularly
accurate. He united two unusual gifts, being at the same time
the most cultured man of his day, and also in the highest degree
a practical person, who clearly perceived what would most rapidly
educate and interest the uncultivated. In his thirty-three
dramas, sparkling comedies in prose, more or less in imitation of
Moliere, he has left his most important positive legacy to litera-
ture. Nor in any series of comedies in existence is decency so
rarely sacrificed to a desire for popularity or a false sense of wit.
Holberg founded no school of immediate imitators, but his
stimulating influence was rapid and general. The university
of Copenhagen, which had been destroyed by fire in 1728, was
reopened in 1742, and under the auspices of the historian Hans
Gram (1685-1748), who founded the Danish Royal Academy of
Sciences, it inspired an active intellectual life. Gram laid the
foundation of critical history in Denmark. He brought to bear
on the subject a full knowledge of documents and sources. His
best work lies in his annotated editions of the older chroniclers.
In 1744 Jakob Langebek (1710-1775) founded the Society for
the Improvement of the Danish Language, which opened the field
of philology. He began the great collection of Scriptores rerum
Danicarum medii aevi (9 vols., Copenhagen, 1772-1878). In
jurisprudence Andreas Hoier (1690-1739) represented the new
impulse, and in zoology Erik Pontoppidan (q.v.), the younger.
This last name represents a lifelong activity in many branches
of literature. From Holberg's college of Sort), two learned
professors, Jens Schelderup Sneedorff ( 1 7 24- 1 7 64) and Jens Kraft
(1720-1765), disseminated the seeds of a wider culture. All
these men were aided by the generous and enlightened patronage
6 See Fr. W. Horn, Peder Syv (Copenhagen, 1878).
6 See A. C. L. Heiberg, Thomas Kingo (Odense, 1852).
LITERATURE]
DENMARK
of Frederick V. A little later on, the German poet Klopstock
settled in Copenhagen, bringing with him the prestige of his great
reputation, and he had a strong influence in Germanizing
Denmark. He founded, however, the Society for the Fine Arts,
and had it richly endowed. The first prize offered was won by
Christian Braumann Tullin (1728-1765) for his beautiful poem
of May-day. Tullin, a Norwegian by birth, represents the first
accession of a study of external nature in Danish poetry ; he was
an ardent disciple of the English poet Thomson. Christian
Falster (1690-1752) wrote satires of some merit, but most of his
work is in Latin. The New Heroic Poems of Jorgen Sorterup are
notable as imitations of the old folk-literature. Ambrosius Stub 1
(1705-1758) was a lyrist of great sweetness, born before his due
time, whose poems, not published till 1771, belong to a later age
than their author.
The Lyrical Revival. Between 1742 and 1749, that is to say,
at the very climax of the personal activity of Holberg, several
poets were born, who were destined to enrich the language with
its first group of lyrical blossoms. Of these the two eldest,
Wessel and Ewald, were men of extraordinary genius, and
destined to fascinate the attention of posterity, not only by the
brilliance of their productions, but by the suffering and brevity
of their lives. Johannes Ewald (q.v.; 1743-1781) was not only
the greatest Danish lyrist of the i8th century, but he had few
rivals in the whole of Europe. As a dramatist, pure and simple,
his bird-like instinct of song carried him too often into a sphere
too exalted for the stage; but he has written nothing that is
not stamped with the exquisite quality of distinction. Johan
Herman Wessel 2 (1742-1785) excited even greater hopes in his
contemporaries, but left less that is immortal behind him. After
the death of Holberg, the affectation of Gallicism had reappeared
in Denmark; and the tragedies of Voltaire, with their stilted
rhetoric, were the most popular dramas of the day. Johan
Nordahl Brun (1745-1816), a young writer who did better things
later on, gave the finishing touch to the exotic absurdity by
bringing out a wretched piece called Zarina, which was hailed by
the press as the first original Danish tragedy, although Ewald's
exquisite RolfKrage, which truly merited that title, had appeared
two years before. Wessel, who up to that time had only been
known as the president of a club of wits, immediately wrote
Love without Stockings (1772), in which a plot of the most abject
triviality is worked out in strict accordance with the rules of
French tragedy, and in most pompous and pathetic Alexandrines.
The effect of this piece was magical; the Royal Theatre ejected
its cuckoo-brood of French plays, and even the Italian opera.
It was now essential that every performance should be national,
and in the Danish language. To supply the place of the opera,
native musicians, and especially J. P. E. Hartmann, set the
dramas of Ewald and others, and thus the Danish school of
music originated. Johan Nordahl Brun's best work is to be
found in his patriotic songs and his hymns. He became bishop
of Bergen in 1803.
Of the other poets of the revival the most important were born
in Norway. Nordahl Brun, Claus Frimann (1746-1829), Claus
Fasting (1746-1791), who edited a brilliant aesthetic journal, The
Critical Observer, Christian H. Pram 3 (1756-1821), author of
Staerkodder, a romantic epic, based on Scandinavian legend, and
Edvj>.rd Storm (1749-1794), were associates and mainly fellow-
students at Copenhagen, where they introduced a style peculiar
to themselves, and distinct from that of the true Danes. Their
lyrics celebrated the mountains and rivers of the magnificent
country they had left; and, while introducing images and
scenery unfamiliar to the inhabitants of monotonous Denmark,
they enriched the language with new words and phrases. This
group of writers is now claimed by the Norwegians as the founders
of a Norwegian literature; but their true place is certainly among
the Danes, to whom they primarily appealed. They added
1 His collected works were edited by Fr. Barford (Copenhagen,
5th ed., 1879).
_ 2 Wessel's Digte (3rd ed., 1895) are edited by J. Levin, with a
biographical introduction.
3 A biography by his friend, K. L. Rahbek, is prefixed to a selection
of his poetry (6 vols., 1824-1829).
nothing to the development of the drama, except in the person
of N. K. Bredal (1733-1778), who became director of the Royal
Danish Theatre, and the writer of some mediocre plays.
To the same period belong a few prose writers of eminence.
Werner Abrahamson (1744-1812) was the first aesthetic critic
Denmark produced. Johan Clemens Tode (1736-1806) was
eminent in many branches of science, but especially as a medical
writer. Ove Mailing (1746-1829) was an untiring collector of
historical data, which he annotated in a lively style. Two
historians of more definite claim on our attention are Peter
Frederik Suhm (1728-1798), whose History of Denmark (n vols.,
Copenhagen, 1782-1812,) contains a mass of original material,
and Ove Guldberg (1731-1808). In theology Christian Bastholm
(1740-1819) and Nicolai Edinger Balle (1744-1816), bishop of
Zealand, a Norwegian by birth, demand a reference. But the
only really great prose-writer of the period was the Norwegian,
Niels Treschow (1751-1833), whose philosophical works are
composed in an admirably lucid style, and are distinguished
for their depth and originality.
The poetical revival sank in the next generation to a more
mechanical level. The number of writers of some talent was very
great, but genius was wanting. Two intimate friends, Jonas
Rein (1760-1821) and Jens Zetlitz (1761-1821), attempted, with
indifferent success, to continue the tradition of the Norwegian
group. Thomas Thaarup (1740-1821) was a fluent and eloquent
writer of occasional poems, and of homely dramatic idylls. The
early death of Ole Samsoe (1759-1796) prevented the develop-
ment of a dramatic talent that gave rare promise. But while
poetry languished, prose, for the first time, began to flourish
in Denmark. Knud Lyne Rahbek (1760-1830) was a pleasing
novelist, a dramatist of some merit, a pathetic elegist, and a witty
song-writer; he was also a man full of the literary instinct, and
through a long life he never ceased to busy himself with editing
the works of the older poets, and spreading among the people a
knowledge of Danish literature through his magazine, Minerva,
edited in conjunction with C. H. Pram. Peter Andreas Heiberg
(1758-1841) was a political and aesthetic critic of note. Hewas
exiled from Denmark in company with another sympathizer with
the principles of the French Revolution, Malte Conrad Brunn
(1775-1826), who settled in Paris, and attained a world-wide
reputation as a geographer. O. C. Olufsen (1764-1827) was a
writer on geography, zoology and political economy. Rasmus
Nyerup (1759-1829) expended an immense energy in the compila-
tion of admirable works on the history of language and literature.
From 1 7 78 to his death he exercised a great power in the statistical
and critical departments of letters. The best historian of this
period, however, was Engelstoft (1774-1850), and the most
brilliant theologian Bishop Mynster (1775-1854). In the annals
of modern science Hans Christian Oersted (1777-1851) is a name
universally honoured. He explained his inventions and described
his discoveries in language so lucid and so characteristic that he
claims an honoured place in the literature of the country of whose
culture, in other branches, he is one of the most distinguished
ornaments.
On the threshold of the romantic movement occurs the name
of Jens Baggesen (q.v.; 1764-1826), a man of great genius,
whose work was entirely independent of the influences around
him. Jens Baggesen is the greatest comic poet that Denmark
has produced; and as a satirist and witty lyrist he has no rival
among the Danes. In his hands the difficulties of the language
disappear; he performs with the utmost ease extraordinary
tours de force of style. His astonishing talents were wasted on
trifling themes and in a fruitless resistance to the modern spirit
in literature.
Romanticism. With the beginning of the I9th century the new
light in philosophy and poetry, which radiated from Germany
through all parts of Europe, found its way into Denmark also.
In scarcely any country was the result so rapid or so brilliant.
There arose in Denmark a school of poets who created for them-
selves a reputation in all parts of Europe, and would have done
honour to any nation or any age. The splendid cultivation of
metrical art threw other branches into the shade; and the epoch
DENMARK
[LITERATURE
of which we are about to speak is eminent above all for mastery
over verse. The swallow who heralded the summer was a
German by birth, Adolph Wilhelm Schack von Staffeldt 1 (1769-
1826), who came over to Copenhagen from Pomerania, and
prepared the way for the new movement. Since Ewald no one
had written Danish lyrical verse so exquisitely as Schack von
Staffeldt, and the depth and scientific precision of his thought
won him a title which he has preserved, of being the first philo-
sophic poet of Denmark. The writings of this man are the
deepest and most serious which Denmark had produced, and at
his best he yields to no one in choice and skilful use of expression.
This sweet song of Schack von Staffeldt's, however, was early
silenced by the louder choir that one by one broke into music
around him. It was Adam Gottlob Ohlenschlager (q.ii.; 1779-
1850), the greatest poet of Denmark, who was to bring about
the new romantic movement. In 1802 he happened to meet the
young Norwegian Henrik Steffens (1773-1845), who had just
returned from a scientific tour in Germany, full of the doctrines
of Schelling. Under the immediate direction of Steffens,
Ohlenschlager began an entirely new poetic style, and destroyed
all his earlier verses. A new epoch in the language began, and the
rapidity and matchless facility of the new poetry was the wonder
of Steffens himself. The old Scandinavian mythology lived in the
hands of Ohlenschlager exactly as the classical Greek religion was
born again in Keats. He aroused in his people the slumbering
sense of their Scandinavian nationality.
The retirement of Ohlenschlager comparatively early in life,
left the way open for the development of his younger con-
temporaries, among whom several had genius little inferior to
his own. Steen Steensen Blicher (1782-1848) was a Jutlander,
and preserved all through life the characteristics of his sterile and
sombre fatherland. After a struggling youth of great poverty,
he published, in 1807-1809, a translation of Ossian; in 1814 a
volume of lyrical poems; and in 1817 he attracted considerable
attention by his descriptive poem of The Tour in Jutland. His
real genius, however, did not lie in the direction of verse; and
his first signal success was with a story, A Village Sexton's Diary,
in 1824, which was rapidly followed by other tales, descriptive of
village life in Jutland, for the next twelve years. These were
collected in five volumes (1833-1836). His masterpiece is a collec-
tion of short stories, called The Spinning Room. He also produced
many national lyrics of great beauty. But it was Blicher's use of
patois which delighted his countrymen with a sense of freshness
and strength. They felt as though they heard Danish for the first
time spoken in its fulness. The poet Aarestrup (in 1 848) declared
that Blicher had raised the Danish language to the dignity of
Icelandic. Blicher is a stern realist, in many points akin to
Crabbe, and takes a singular position among the romantic
idealists of the period, being like them, however, in the love of
precise and choice language, and hatred of the mere common-
places of imaginative writing. 2
Nikolai Frederik Severin Grundtvig (q.v.; 1783-1872), like
Ohlenschlager, learned the principles of the German romanticism
from the lips of Steffens. He adopted the idea of introducing the
Old Scandinavian element into art, and even into life, still more
earnestly than the older poet. Bernhard Severin Ingemann
(q.v.; 1789-1862) contributed to Danish literature historical
romances in the style of Sir Walter Scott. Johannes Carsten
Hauch (q.v.; 1790-1872) first distinguished himself as a disciple
of Ohlenschlager, and fought under him in the strife against the
old school and Baggesen. But the master misunderstood the
disciple; and the harsh repulse of Ohlenschlager silenced Hauch
for many years. He possessed, however, a strong and fluent
genius, which eventually made itself heard in a multitude of
volumes, poems, dramas and novels. All that Hauch wrote is
marked by great qualities, and by distinction; he had a native
bias towards the mystical, which, however, he learned to keep
in abeyance.
1 See F. L. Liebenberg, Schack Staff eldts samlede Digte (2 vols.,
Copenhagen, 1843), and Samlinger til Schack Staff eldts Levnet (4 vols.,
1846-1851).
* Blicher's Tales were edited by P. Hansen (3 vols., Copenhagen,
1871), and his Poems in 1870.
Johan Ludvig Heiberg (q.v.; 1791-1860) was a critic who
ruled the world of Danish taste for many years. His mother,
the Baroness Gyllembourg-Ehrensvard (q.v.; 1773-1856), wrote
a large number of anonymous novels. Her knowledge of life,
her sparkling wit and her almost faultless style, make these
short stories masterpieces of their kind.
Christian Hviid Bredahl (1784-1860) produced six volumes
of Dramatic Scenes 3 (1810-1833) which, in spite of their many
brilliant qualities, were little appreciated at the time. Bredahl
gave up literature in despair to become a peasant farmer, and
died in poverty.
Ludvig Adolf Bodtcher (1793-1874) wrote a single volume of
lyrical poems, which he gradually enlarged in succeeding editions.
He was a consummate artist in verse, and his impressions are
given with the most delicate exactitude of phrase, and in a very
fine strain of imagination. He was a quietist and an epicurean,
and the closest parallel to Horner in the literature of the North.
Most of Bodtcher's poems deal with Italian life, which he learned
to know thoroughly during a long residence in Rome. He was
secretary to Thorwaldsen for a considerable time.
Christian Winther (q.v.; 1796-1876) made the island of
Zealand his loving study, and that province of Denmark belongs
to him no less thoroughly than the Cumberland lakes belong
to Wordsworth. Between the latter poet and Winther there
was much resemblance. He was, without compeer, the greatest
pastoral lyrist of Denmark. His exquisite strains, in which pure
imagination is blended with most accurate and realistic descrip-
tions of scenery and rural life, have an extraordinary charm not
easily described.
The youngest of the great poets born during the last twenty
years of the i8th century was Henrik Hertz (q.v.; 1797-1870).
As a satirist and comic poet he followed Baggesen, and hi all
branches of the poetic art stood a little aside out of the main
current of romanticism. He introduced into the Danish literature
of his time inestimable elements of lucidity and purity. In his
best pieces Hertz is the most modern and most cosmopolitan of
the Danish writers of his time.
It is noticeable that all the great poets of the romantic period
lived to an advanced age. Their prolonged literary activity
for some of them, like Grundtvig, were busy to the last had a
slightly damping influence on their younger contemporaries, but
certain names in the next generation have special prominence.
Hans Christian Andersen (q.v.; 1805-1875) was the greatest of
modern fabulists. In 1835 there appeared the first collection of
his Fairy Tales, and won him a world-wide reputation. Almost
every year from this time forward until near his death he published
about Christmas time one or two of these unique stories, so delicate
in their humour and pathos, and so masterly in their simplicity.
Carl Christian Bagger (1807-1846) published volumes in 1834
and 1836 which gave promise of a great future, a promise
broken by his early death. Frederik Paludan-Muller (q.v.;
1809-1876) developed, as a poet, a magnificent career, which
contrasted in its abundance with his solitary and silent life as a
man. His mythological or pastoral dramas, his great satiric
epos of Adam Homo (1841-1848), his comedies, his lyrics, and
above all his noble philosophic tragedy of Kalanus, prove the
immense breadth of his compass, and the inexhaustible riches
of his imagination. C. L. Emil Aarestrup (1800-1856) published
in 1838 a volume of vivid erotic poetry, but its quality was
only appreciated after his death. Edvard Lembcke (1815-1897)
made himself famous as the admirable translator of Shakespeare,
but the incidents of 1864 produced from him some volumes of
direct and manly patriotic verse.
The poets completely ruled the literature of Denmark during
this period. There were, however, eminent men in other depart-
ments of letters, and especially in philology. Rasmus Christian
Rask (1787-1832) was one of the most original and gifted linguists
of his age. His grammars of Old Frisian, Icelandic and Anglo-
Saxon were unapproached in his own time, and are still admirable.
Niels Matthias Petersen (1791-1862), a disciple of Rask, was the
author of an admirable History of Denmark in the Heathen
* Edited (3 vols., and ed., 1855, Copenhagen) by F. L. Liebenberg.
LITERATURE]
DENMARK
43
Antiquity, and the translator of many of the sagas. Martin
Frederik Arendt (1773-1823), the botanist and archaeologist,
did much for the study of old Scandinavian records. Christian
Molbech (1783-1857) was a laborious lexicographer, author of
the first good Danish dictionary, published in 1833. In Joachim
Frederik Schouw ( 1 789-185 2) , Denmark produced a very eminent
botanist, author of an exhaustive Geography of Plants. In later
years he threw himself with zeal into politics. His botanical
researches were carried on by Frederik Liebmann (1813-1856).
The most famous zoologist contemporary with these men was
Salomon Dreier (1813-1842).
The romanticists found their philosopher in a most remarkable
man, Soren Aaby Kierkegaard (1813-1855), one of the most
subtle thinkers of Scandinavia, and the author of some brilliant
philosophical and polemical works. A learned philosophical
writer, not to be compared, however, for genius or originality to
Kierkegaard, was Frederik Christian Sibbern (1785-1872). He
wrote a dissertation On Poetry and Art (3 vols., 1853-1869) and
The Contentsjtf a MS. from the Year 2133 (3 vols., 1858-1872).
Among novelists who were not also poets was Andreas Nikolai
de Saint-Aubain (1798-1865), who, under the pseudonym of
Carl Bernhard, wrote a series of charming romances. Mention
must also be made of two dramatists, Peter Thun Feorsom
(i777-i8i7),who produced an excellent translation of Shakespeare
(1807-1816), and Thomas Overskou (1798-1873), author of a long
series of successful comedies, and of a history of the Danish
theatre (5 vols., Copenhagen, 1854-1864).
Other writers whose names connect the age of romanticism
with a later period were Meyer Aron Goldschmidt (1819-1887),
author of novels and tales; Herman Frederik Ewald (1821-1908),
who wrote a long series of historical novels; Jens Christian
Hostrup (1818-1892), a writer of exquisite comedies; and the
miscellaneous writer Erik Bogh (1822-1899). In zoology,
J. J. S. Steenstrup (1813-1898); in philology, J. N. Madvig
(1804-1886) and his disciple V. Thomsen (b. 1842); in anti-
quarianism, C. J. Thomsen (1788-1865) and J. J. Asmussen
Worsaae (1821-1885); and in philosophy, Rasmus Nielsen
(1809-1884) and Hans Brochner (1820-1875), deserve mention.
The development of imaginative literature in Denmark became
very closely defined during the latter half of the igth century.
The romantic movement culminated in several poets of great
eminence, whose deaths prepared the way for a new school.
In 1874 Bodtcher passed away, in 1875 Hans Christian Andersen,
in the last week of 1876 Winther, and the greatest of all, Frederik
Paludan-Miiller. The field was therefore left open to the
successors of those idealists, and in 1877 the reaction began to
be felt. The eminent critic, Dr Georg Brandes (q.v.), had long
foreseen the decline of pure romanticism, and had advocated a
more objective and more exact treatment of literary phenomena.
Accordingly, as soon as all the great planets had disappeared,
a new constellation was perceived to have risen, and all the stars
in it had been lighted by the enthusiasm of Brandes. The new
writers were what he called Naturalists, and their sympathies
were with the latest forms of exotic, but particularly of French
literature. Among these fresh forces three immediately took
place as leaders Jacobsen, Drachmann and Schandorph. In
J. P. Jacobsen (q.v.; 1847-1885) Denmark was now taught
to welcome the greatest artist in prose which she has ever pos-
sessed; his romance of Marie Grubbe led off the new school "with
a production of unexampled beauty. But Jacobsen died young,
and the work was really carried out by his two companions. Holger
Drachmann (q.v.; 1846-1908) began life as a marine painter;
and a first little volume of poems, which he published in 1872,
attracted slight attention. In 1877 he came forward again with
one volume of verse, another of fiction, a third of travel; in each
he displayed great vigour and freshness of touch, and he rose at
one leap to the highest position among men of promise. Drach-
mann retained his place, without rival, as the leading imaginative
writer in Denmark. For many years he made the aspects of
life at sea his particular theme, and he contrived to rouse the
patriotic enthusiasm of the Danish public as it had never been
roused before. His various and unceasing productiveness, his
freshness and vigour, and the inexhaustible richness of his lyric
versatility, early brought Drachmann to the front and kept him
there. Meanwhile prose imaginative literature was ably sup-
ported by Sophus Schandorph (1836-1901), who had been entirely
out of sympathy with the idealists, and had taken no step while
that school was in the ascendant. In 1876, in his fortieth year,
he was encouraged by the change in taste to publish a volume
of realistic stories, Country Life, and in 1878 a novel, Without a
Centre. He has some relation with Guy de Maupassant as a close
analyst of modern types of character, but he has more humour. He
has been compared with such Dutch painters of low life as Teniers.
His talent reached its height in the novel called Little Folk (1880),
a most admirable study of lower middle-class life in Copenhagen.
He was for a while, without doubt, the leading living novelist,
and he went on producing works of great force, in which, however,
a certain motonony is apparent. The three leaders had meanwhile
been joined by certain younger men who took a prominent
position. Among these Karl Gjellerup and Erik Skram were the
earliest. Gjellerup (b. 1857), whose first works of importance
date from 1878, was long uncertain as to the direction of his
powers; he was poet, novelist, moralist and biologist in one;
at length he settled down into line with the new realistic school,
and produced in 1882 a satirical novel of manners which had a
great success, The Disciple of the Teutons. Erik Skram (b. 1847)
had in 1879 written a solitary novel, Gertrude Coldbjornsen,
which created a sensation, and was hailed by Brandes as ex-
actly representing the " naturalism " which he desired to see
encouraged; but Skram has written little else of importance.
Other writers of reputation in the naturalistic school were
Edvard Brandes (b. 1847), and Herman Bang (b. 1858). Peter
Nansen (b. 1861) has come into wide notoriety as the author,
in particularly beautiful Danish, of a series of stories of a
pronouncedly sexual type, among which Maria (1894) has been
the most successful. Meanwhile, several of the elder generation,
unaffected by the movement of realism, continued to please the
public. Three lyrical poets, H. V. Kaalund (1818-1885), Carl
Ploug (1813-1894) and Christian Richardt (1831-1892), of very
great talent, were not yet silent, and among the veteran novelists
were still active H. F. Ewald and Thomas Lange (1829-1887).
Ewald's son Carl (1856-1908) achieved a great name as a novelist,
but did his most characteristic work in a series of books for
children, in which he used the fairy tale, in the manner of Hans
Andersen, as a vehicle for satire and a theory of morals. During
the whole of this period the most popular writer of Denmark was
J. C. C. Brosboll (1816-1900), who wrote, under the pseudonym
Cant Etlar, a vast number of tales. Another popular novelist
was Vilhelm Bergsoe (b. 1835), author of In the Sabine Mountains
(1871), and other romances. Sophus Bauditz(b. 1850) persevered
in composing novels which attain a wide general popularity.
Mention must be made also of the dramatist Christian Molbech
(1821-1888).
Between 1885 and 1892 there was a transitional period in
Danish literature. Up to that time all the leaders had been
united in accepting the naturalistic formula, which was combined
with an individualist and a radical tendency. In 1885, however,
Drachmann, already the recognized first poet of the country,
threw off his allegiance to Brandes, denounced the exotic|tradition,
declared himself a Conservative, and took up a national and
patriotic attitude. He was joined a little later by Gjellerup, while
Schandorph remained stanchly by the side of Brandes. The camp
was thus divided. New writers began to make their appearance,
and, while some of these were stanch to Brandes, others were
inclined to hold rather with Drachmann. Of the authors who
came forward during this period of transition, the strongest
novelist proved to be Hendrik Pontoppidan (b. 1857). In some
of his books he reminds the reader of Turgeniev. Pontoppidan
published in 1 898 the first volume of a great novel entitled Lykke-
Per, the biography of a typical Jutlander named Per Sidenius,
a work to be completed in eight volumes. From 1893 to 1909 no
great features of a fresh kind revealed themselves. The Danish
public, grown tired of realism, and satiated with pathological
phenomena, returned to a fresh study of their own national
44
DENNERY DENNIS
characteristics. The cultivation of verse, which was greatly dis-
couraged in the eighties, returned. Drachmann was supported by
excellent younger poets of his school. J. J. Jorgensen (b. 1866),
a Catholic decadent, was very prolific. Otto C. Fonss (b. 1853)
published seven little volumes of graceful lyrical poems in praise
of gardens and of farm-life. Andreas Dolleris (b. 1850), of Vejle,
showed himself an occasional poet of merit. Alfred Ipsen (b. 1852)
must also be mentioned as a poet and critic. Valdemar Rb'rdam,
whose The Danish Tongue was the lyrical success of 1901, may
also be named. Some attempts were made to transplant
the theories of the symbolists to Denmark, but without signal
success. On the other hand, something of a revival of naturalism
is to be observed in the powerful studies of low life admirably
written by Karl Larsen (b. 1860).
The drama has long flourished in Denmark. The principal
theatres are liberally open to fresh dramatic talent of every kind,
and the great fondness of the Danes for this form of entertain-
ment gives unusual scope for experiments in halls or private
theatres; nothing is too eccentric to hope to obtain somewhere
a fair hearing. Drachmann produced with very great success
several romantic dramas founded on the national legends. Most
of the novelists and poets already mentioned also essayed the
stage, and to those names should be added these of Einar
Christiansen (b. 1861), Ernst von der Recke (b. 1848), Oskar
Benzon (b. 1856) and Gustav Wied (b. 1838).
In theology no names were as eminent as in the preceding
generation, in which such writers as H. N. Clausen (1793-1877),
and still more Hans Lassen Martensen (1808-1884), lifted the
prestige of Danish divinity to a high point. But in history the
Danes have been very active. Karl Ferdinand Allen (181 1-1871)
began a comprehensive history of the Scandinavian kingdoms
(5 vols., 1864-1872). Jens Peter Trap (1810-1885) concluded
his great statistical account of Denmark in 1879. The i6th
century was made the subject of the investigations of Troels
Lund (?..). About 1880 several of the younger historians
formed the plan of combining to investigate and publish the
sources of Danish history; in this the indefatigable Johannes
Steenstrup (b. 1844) was prominent. The domestic history of
the country began, about 1885, to occupy the attention of
Edvard Holm (b. 1833), O. Nielsen and the veteran P. Frederik
Barfod (1811-1896). The naval histories of G. Liitken attracted
much notice. Besides the names already mentioned, A. D.
J6rgensen (1840-1897), J. Fredericia (b. 1849), Christian Erslev
(b. 1852) and Vilhelm Mollerup have all distinguished them-
selves in the excellent school of Danish historians. In 1896 an
elaborate composite history of Denmark was undertaken by some
leading historians (pub. 1897-1905). In philosophy nothing has
recently been published of the highest value. Martensen's Jakob
Bohme (1881) belongs to an earlier period. H. Hoffding (b. 1843)
has been the most prominent contributor to psychology. His
Problems of Philosophy and his Philosophy of Religion were
translated into English in 1906. Alfred Lehmann (b. 1858) has,
since 1896, attracted a great deal of attention by his sceptical
investigation of psychical phenomena. F. Ronning has written
on the history of thought in Denmark. In the criticism of art,
Julius Lange (1838-1896), and later Karl Madsen, have done
excellent service. In literary criticism Dr Georg Brandes is
notable for the long period during which he remained pre-
dominant. His was a steady and stimulating presence, ever
pointing to the best in art and thought, and his influence on
his age was greater than that of any other Dane.
AUTHORITIES. R. Nyerup, Den danske Digtekunsts Historie
(1800-1808), and Almindeligt Literaturlexikon (1818-1820); N. M.
Petersen, Literaturhistorie (2nd ed., 1867-1871, 5 vols.); Oyerskpu,
Den danske Skueplads (1854-1866, 5 vols.), with a continuation
(2 vols., 1873-1876) by E Collin; Chr. Bruun, Bibliotheca Danica
(3 vols., 1872-1896) ; Bricka, Dansk biografisk Lexikon (1887-1901) ;
J. Paludan, Danmarks Literatur i Middelalderen (Copenhagen, 1896) ;
P. Hansen, Illustreret Dansk Literaturhistorie (3 vols., 1901-1902);
F. W. Horn, History of the Scandinavian North from the most ancient
times to the present (English translation by Rasmus B. Anderson
(Chicago, 1 884), with bibliographical appendix by Thorwald Solberg) ;
Ph. Schweitzer, Geschichte der Skandinavischen Litteratur (3 pts.,
Leipzig, 1886-1889), forming vol. viii. of the Geschichte der Welt-
litteratur. See also Brandes, Kritiker og Portraiter (1870); Brandes,
Danske Dilgere (1877); Marie Herzfeld, Die Skandinavische
Litteratur und ihre Tendenzen (Berlin and Leipzig, 1898) ; Hjalmar
Hjorth Boyesen, Essays on Scandinavian Literature (London, 1895);
Edmund Gosse, Studies in the Literature of Northern Europe (newed.,
London, 1883); Vilhelm Andersen, Litteraturbilleder (Copenhagen,
1903); A. P. J. Schener, Kortfattet Indledning til Romantikkus
Periode i Danmarks Litteratur (Copenhagen, 1894). (E. G.)
DENNERY, or D'ENNERY, ADOLPHE (1811-1899), French
dramatist and novelist, whose real surname was PHILIPPE, was
born in Paris on the I7th of June 1811. He obtained his first
success in collaboration with Charles Desnoyer in Emile, ou le
fils d'un pair de France (1831), a drama which was the first of a
series of some two hundred pieces written alone or in collaboration
with other dramatists.' Among the best of them may be
mentioned Gaspard Hauser (1838) with Anicet Bourgeois; Les
Bohemiens de Paris (1842) with Eugene Grange; with Mallian,
Marie-Jeanne, ou la femme du peuple (1845), i n which Madame
Dorval obtained a great success; La Case d'Oncle Tom (1853);
Les Deux Orphelines (1875), perhaps his best piece, with Eugene
Cormon. He wrote the libretto^for Gounod's Tribut de Zamora
(1881); with Louis Gallet and Edouard Blan he composed the
book of Massenet's Cid (1885); and, again in collaboration with
Eugene Cormon, the books of Auber's operas, Le Premier Jour de
bonheur (1868) and Reve d' amour (1869). He prepared for the
stage Balzac's posthumous comedy Mercadet ou le faiseur,
presented at the Gymnase theatre in 1851. Reversing the usual
order of procedure, Dennery adapted some of his plays to the form
of novels. He died in Paris in 1899.
DENNEWITZ, a village of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Brandenburg, near Juterbog, 40 m. S.W. from Berlin. It is
memorable as the scene of a decisive battle on the 6th of
September 1813, in which Marshal Ney, with an army of 58,000
French, Saxons and Poles, was defeated with great loss by 50,000
Prussians under Generals Billow (afterwards Count Billow of
Dennewitz) and Tauentzien. The site of the battle is marked by
an iron obelisk.
DENNIS, JOHN (1657-1734), English critic and dramatist, the
son of a saddler, was born in London in 1657. He was educated
at Harrow School and Caius College, Cambridge, where he took
his B.A. degree in 1679. In the next year he was fined and dis-
missed from his college for having wounded a fellow-student with
a sword. He was, however, received at Trinity Hall, where he
took his M.A. degree in 1683. After travelling in France and
Italy, he settled in London, where he became acquainted with
Dryden, Wycherley and others; and being made temporarily
independent by inheriting a small fortune, he devoted himself to
literature. The duke of Marlborough procured him a place as one
of the queen's waiters in the customs with a salary of 1 20 a year.
This he afterwards disposed of for a small sum, retaining, at the
suggestion of Lord Halifax, a yearly charge upon it for a long
term of years. Neither the poems nor the plays of Dennis are of
any account, although one of his tragedies, a violent attack on
the French in harmony with popular prejudice, entitled Liberty
Asserted, was produced with great success at Lincoln's Inn
Fields in 1704. His sense of his own importance approached
mania, and he is said to have desired the duke of Marlborough to
have a special clause inserted in the treaty of Utrecht to secure
him from French vengeance. Marlborough pointed out that
although he had been a still greater enemy of the French nation,
he had no fear for his own security. This tale and others of a
similar nature may well be exaggerations prompted by his
enemies, but the infirmities of character and temper indicated in
them were real. Dennis is best remembered as a critic, and Isaac
D 'Israeli, who took a by no means favourable view of Dennis,
said that some of his criticisms attain classical rank. The
earlier ones, which have nothing of the rancour that afterwards
gained him the nickname of " Furius," are the best. They are
Remarks . . . (1696), on Blackmore's epic of Prince Arthur;
Letters upon Several Occasions written by and between Mr Dryden,
Mr Wycherley, Mr Moyle, Mr Gangrene and Mr Dennis, published
by Mr Dennis (1696); two pamphlets in reply to Jeremy
Collier's Short View; The Advancement and Reformation of
DENOMINATION DENOTATION
45
Modern Poetry (1701), perhaps his most important work ;
The Grounds of Criticism in Poetry (i 704), in which he argued that
the ancients owed their superiority over the moderns in poetry
to their religious attitude; an Essay upon Publick Spirit . . .
(1711), in which he inveighs against luxury, and servile imitation
of foreign fashions and customs; and Essay on the Genius and
Writings of Shakespeare in three Letters (1712).
Dennis had been offended by a humorous quotation made
from his works by Addison, and published in 1713 Remarks upon
Colo. Much of this criticism was acute and sensible, and it is
quoted at considerable length by Johnson in his Life of Addison,
but there is no doubt that Dennis was actuated by personal
jealousy of Addison's success. Pope replied in The Narrative
of Dr Robert N orris, concerning the strange and deplorable frenzy
of John Dennis . . . (1713). This pamphlet was full of personal
abuse, exposing Dennis's foibles, but offering no defence of Cato.
Addison repudiated any connivance in this attack, and in-
directly notified Dennis that when he did answer his objections,
it would be without personalities. Pope had already assailed
Dennis in 1711 in the Essay on Criticism, as Appius. Dennis
retorted by Reflections, Critical and Satirical . . . , a scurrilous
production in which he taunted Pope with his deformity, saying
among other things that he was " as stupid and as venomous as
a hunch-backed toad." He also wrote in 1717 Remarks upon
Mr Pope's Translation of Homer . . . and A True Character of
Mr Pope. He accordingly figures in the Dunciad, and in a
scathing note in the edition of 1729 (bk. i. i. 106) Pope quotes
his more outrageous attacks, and adds an insulting epigram
attributed to Richard Savage, but now generally ascribed to
Pope. More pamphlets followed, but Dennis's day was over. He
outlived his annuity from the customs, and his last years were
spent in great poverty. Bishop Atterbury sent him money, and
he received a small sum annually from Sir Robert Walpole.
A benefit performance was organized at the Haymarket
(December 18, 1733) on his behalf. Pope wrote for the occasion
an ill-natured prologue which Gibber recited. Dennis died within
three weeks of this performance, on the 6th of January 1734.
His other works include several plays, for one of which, Appius
and Virginia (1709), he invented a new kind of thunder. He wrote
a curious Essay on the Operas after the Italian Manner (1706), main-
taining that opera was the outgrowth of effeminate manners, and
should, as such, be suppressed. His Works were published in 1702,
Select Works ... (2 vols.) in 1718, and Miscellaneous Tracts, the first
volume only of which appeared, in 1727. For accounts of Dennis
see Gibber's Lives of the Poets, vol. iv. ; Isaac D'Israeli's essays on
Pope and Addison in the Quarrels of Authors, and " On the Influence
of a Bad Temper in Criticism " in Calamities of Authors; and
numerous references in Pope's Works.
DENOMINATION (Lat. denominare, to give a specific name
to), the giving of a specific name to anything, hence the name or
designation of a person or thing, and more particularly of a class
of persons or things; thus, in arithmetic, it is applied to a unit
in a system of weights and measures, currency or numbers. The
most general use of " denomination " is for a body of persons
holding specific opinions and having a common name, especially
with reference to the religious opinions of such a body. More
particularly the word is used of the various " sects " into which
members of a common religious faith may be divided. The term
" denominationalism " is thus given to the principle of emphasiz-
ing the distinctions, rather than the common ground, in the faith
held by different bodies professing one sort of religious belief.
This use is particularly applied to that system of religious
education which lays stress on the principle that children
belonging to a particular religious sect should be publicly taught
in the tenets of their belief by members belonging to it and under
the general control of the ministers of the denomination.
DENON, DOMINIQUE VIVANT, BARON DE (1747-1825),
French artist and archaeologist, was born at Chalon-sur-Saone
on the 4th of January 1747. He was sent to Paris to study law,
but he showed a decided preference for art and literature, and
soon gave up his profession. In his twenty-third year he pro-
duced a comedy, Le Bon Pere, which obtained a succes d'estime, as
he had already won a position in society by his agreeable manners
and exceptional conversational powers. He became a favourite
of Louis XV., who entrusted him with the collection and arrange-
ment of a cabinet of medals and antique gems for Madame de
Pompadour, and subsequently appointed him attache to the
French embassy at St Petersburg. On the accession of Louis
XVI. Denon was transferred to Sweden; but he returned, after
a brief interval, to Paris with the ambassador M. de Vergennes,
who had been appointed foreign minister. In 1775 Denon was
sent on a special mission to Switzerland, and took the oppor-
tunity of visiting Voltaire at Ferney. He made a portrait of the
philosopher, which was engraved and published on his return to
Paris. His next diplomatic appointment was to Naples, where
he spent seven years, first as secretary to the embassy and after-
wards as charge d'affaires. He devoted this period to a careful
study of the monuments of ancient art, collecting many specimens
and making drawings of others. He also perfected himself in
etching and mezzotinto engraving. The death of his patron,
M. de Vergennes, in 1787, led to his recall, and the rest of his life
was given mainly to artistic pursuits. On his return to Paris
he was admitted a member of the Academy of Painting. After
a brief interval he returned to Italy, living chiefly at Venice.
He also visited Florence and Bologna, and afterwards went to
Switzerland. While there he heard that his property had been
confiscated, and his name placed on the list of the proscribed, and
with characteristic courage he resolved at once to return to Paris.
His situation was critical, but he was spared, thanks to the
friendship of the painter David, who obtained for him a com-
mission to furnish designs for republican costumes. When the
Revolution was over, Denon was one of the band of eminent men
who frequented the house of Madame de Beauharnais. Here he
met Bonaparte, to whose fortunes he wisely attached himself.
At Bonaparte's invitation he joined the expedition to Egypt, and
thus found the opportunity of gathering the materials for his most
important literary and artistic work. He accompanied General
Desaix to Upper Egypt, and made numerous sketches of the
monuments of ancient art, sometimes under the very fire of the
enemy. The results were published in his Voyage dans la basse
el la haute Egypte (2 vols. fol., with 141 plates, Paris, 1802), a
work which crowned his reputation both as an archaeologist
and as an artist. In 1804 he was appointed by Napoleon to the
important office of director-general of museums, which he filled
until the restoration in 1815, when he had to retire. He was a
devoted friend of Napoleon, whom he accompanied in his ex-
peditions to Austria, Spain and Poland, taking sketches with his
wonted fearlessness on the various battlefields, and advising the
conqueror in his choice of spoils of art from the various cities
pillaged. After his retirement he began an illustrated history of
ancient and modern art, in which he had the co-operation of
several skilful engravers. He died at Paris on the 27th of April
1825, leaving the work unfinished. It was published posthu-
mously, with an explanatory text by Amaury Duval, under the
title Monuments des arts du dessin chez les peuples tant anciens
que modernes, recueillis par Vivant Denon (4 vols. fol., Paris, 1829) .
Denon was the author of a novel, Point de lendemain (1777), of
which further editions were printed in 1812, 1876 and 1879.
See J. Renouvier, Histoire de I'art pendant la Revolution; A. de la
Fizeliere, L'CEuvre originate de Vivant-Denon (2 vols., Paris, 1872-
1873); Roger Portallis, Les Dessinateurs d' illustrations au XVIII'
siecle; D. H. Beraldi, Les Craveurs d' illustrations au XVIII" siecle.
DENOTATION (from Lat. denotare, to mark out, specify), in
logic, a technical term used strictly as the correlative of Con-
notation, to describe one of the two functions of a concrete term.
The concrete term " connotes " attributes and " denotes " all
the individuals which, as possessing these attributes, constitute
the genus or species described by the term. Thus " cricketer "
denotes the individuals who play cricket, and connotes the
qualities or characteristics by which these individuals are marked.
In this sense, in which it was first used by J. S. Mill, Denotation
is equivalent to Extension, and Connotation to Intension. It is
clear that when the given term is qualified by a limiting adjective
the Denotation or Extension diminishes, while the Connotation
or Intension increases; e.g. a generic term like "flower" has a
larger Extension, and a smaller Intension than " rose ": " rose "
4 6
DENS DENSITY
than " moss-rose." In more general language Denotation
is used loosely for that which is meant or indicated by a word,
phrase, sentence or even an action. Thus a proper name or
even an abstract term is said to have Denotation. (See
CONNOTATION.)
DENS, PETER (1690-1775), Belgian Roman Catholic theo-
logian, was born at Boom near Antwerp. Most of his life was
spent in the archiepiscopal college of Malines, where he was for
twelve years reader in theology and for forty president. His
great work was the Theologia moralis el dogmatica, a compendium
in catechetical form of Roman Catholic doctrine and ethics
which has been much used as a students' text-book. Dens died
on the isth of February 1775.
DENSITY (Lat. densus, thick), in physics, the mass or quantity
of matter contained in unit volume of any substance: this is the
absolute density; the term relative density or specific gravity
denotes the ratio of the mass of a certain volume of a substance
to the mass of the same volume of some standard substance.
Since the weights used in conjunction with a balance are really
standard masses, the word " weight " may be substituted for
the word " mass " in the preceding definitions; and we may
symbolically express the relations thus: If M be the weight of
substance occupying a volume V, then the absolute density
A = M/V; and if m, mi be the weights of the substance and
of the standard substance which occupy the same volume, the
relative density or specific gravity S = m\m\, or more generally
if t m\ be the weight of a volume v of the substance, and mi the
weight of a volume i\ of the standard, then S = rrm\lm\v. In the
numerical expression of absolute densities it is necessary to
specify the units of mass and volume employed; while in the case
of relative densities, it is only necessary to specify the standard
substance, since the result is a mere number. Absolute densities
are generally stated in the C.G.S. system, i.e. as grammes per
cubic centimetre. In commerce, however, other expressions are
met with, as, for example, " pounds per cubic foot " (used for
woods, metals, &c.), " pounds per gallon," &c. The standard
substances employed to determine relative densities are: water
for liquids and solids, and hydrogen or atmospheric air for gases;
oxygen (as 16) is sometimes used in this last case. Other
standards of reference may be used in special connexions; for
example, the Earth is the usual unit for expressing the relative
density of the other members of the solar system. Reference
should be made to the article GRAVITATION for an account of the
methods employed to determine the " mean density of the earth."
In expressing the absolute or relative density of any substance,
it is necessary to specify the conditions for which the relation
holds: in the case of gases, the temperature and pressure of the
experimental gas (and of the standard, in the case of relative
density) ; and in the case of solids and liquids, the temperature.
The reason for this is readily seen; if a mass M of any gas
occupies a volume V at a temperature T (on the absolute scale)
and a pressure P, then its absolute density under these conditions
is A = M/V; if now the temperature and pressure be changed to
Ti and PI, the volume Vi under these conditions is VPT/PiTi,
and the absolute density is MPiT/VPTi. It is customary to re-
duce gases to the so-called " normal temperature and pressure,"
abbreviated to N.T.P., which is o C. and 760 mm.
The relative densities of gases are usually expressed in terms
of the standard gas under the same conditions. The density
gives very important information as to the molecular weight,
since by the law of Avogadro it is seen that the relative density
is the ratio of the molecular weights of the experimental and
standard gases. In the case of liquids and solids, comparison
with water at 4 C., the temperature of the maximum density of
water; at o C., the zero of the Centigrade scale and the freezing-
point of water; at 15 and 18, ordinary room-temperatures;
and at 25, the temperature at which a thermostat may be
conveniently maintained, are common in laboratory practice.
The temperature of the experimental substance may or may not
be the temperature of the standard. In such cases a bracketed
fraction is appended to the specific gravity, of which the numer-
ator and denominator are respectively the temperatures of the
M
substance and of the standard; thus 1-093 ( e /4) means that
the ratio of the weight of a definite volume of a substance at o
to the weight of the same volume of water 4 is 1-093. It ma y
be noted that if comparison be made with water at 4, the relative
density is the same as the absolute density, since the unit of mass
in the C.G.S. system is the weight of a cubic centimetre of water
at this temperature. In British units, especially in connexion
with the statement of relative densities of alcoholic liquors for
Inland Revenue purposes, comparison is made with water at
62 F. (16-6 C.); a reason for this is that the gallon of water
is defined by statute as weighing 10 Ib at 62 F., and hence the
densities so expressed admit of the ready conversion of volumes
to weights. Thus if d be the relative density, then lod represents
the weight of a gallon in Ib. The brewer has gone a step further
in simplifying his expressions by multiplying the density by 1000,
and speaking of the difference between the density so expressed
and 1000 as " degrees of gravity " (see BEER).
PRACTICAL DETERMINATION OF DENSITIES
The methods for determining densities may be divided into two
groups according as hydrostatic principles are employed or not. In
the group where the principles of hydrostatics are not employed the
method consists in determining the weight and volume of a certain
quantity of the substance, or the weights of equal
volumes of the substance and of the standard. In
the case of solids we may determine the volume in
some cases by direct measurement this gives at the
best a very rough and ready value ; a better method
is to immerse the body in a fluid (in which it must
sink and be insoluble) contained in a graduated
glass, and to deduce its volume from the height to
which the liquid rises. The weight may be directly
determined by the balance. The ratio " weight to
volume " is the absolute density. The separate
determination of the volume and mass of such
substances as gunpowder, cotton-wool, soluble sub-
stances, &c., supplies the only means of determining
their densities. The stereometer of Say, which was
greatly improved by Regnault and further modified
by Kopp, permits an accurate determination of the
volume of a given mass of any such substance. In
its simplest form the instrument consists of a glass
tube PC (fig. l), of uniform bore, terminating in a
cup PE, the mouth of which can be rendered air-
tight by the plate of glass E. The substance whose
volume is to be determined is placed in the cup PE,
and the tube PC is immersed in the vessel of mercury
D, until the mercury reaches the mark P. The plate
E is then placed on the cup, and the tube PC raised
until the surface of the mercury in the tube stands
at M, that in the vessel D being at C, and the
height MC is measured. Let k denote this height,
and let PM be denoted by /. Let u represent the
volume of air in the cup before the body was inserted,
v the volume of the body, a the area of the horizontal Fi G . t . Say's
section of the tube PC, and h the height of the Stereometer.
mercurial barometer. Then, by Boyle's law
(uv+al) (hk) = (uv)h, and therefore v ual(hk)/k.
The volume u may be determined by repeating the experiment
when only air is in the cup. In this case t>=o, and the equation
becomes (u+al 1 ) (h k l ) = uh, whence u=al 1 (h k 1 )/k l . Substituting
this value in the expression for v , the volume of the body inserted in
the cup becomes known. The chief errors to which the stereometer
is liable are (l) variation of temperature and atmospheric pressure
during the experiment, and (2) the presence of moisture which dis-
turbs Boyle's law.
The method of weighing equal volumes is particularly applicable
to the determination of the relative densities of liquids. It consists
in weighing a glass vessel (i) empty, (2) filled with the liquid, (3)
filled with the standard substance. Calling the weight of the empty
vessel w, when filled with the liquid W, and when filled with the
standard substance Wi , it is obvious that W to, and Wi w,
are the weights of equal volumes of the liquid and standard,
and hence the relative density is (W a>)/(Wi w).
Many forms of vessels have been devised. The com
moner type of " specific gravity bottle " consists of a thin
glass bottle (fig. 2) of a capacity varying from 10 to 100 cc., ,
fitted with an accurately ground stopper, which is vertically
perforated by a fine hole. The bottle is carefully cleansed
by washing with soda, hydrochloric acid and distilled
water, and then dried by heating in an air bath or by blow-
ing in warm air. It is allowed to cool and then weighed. FIG. 2.
The bottle is then filled with distilled water, and brought
to a definite temperature by immersion in a thermostat, and the
stopper inserted. It is removed from the thermostat, and carefully
DENSITY
47
XJ
FIG. 3.
wiped. After cooling it is weighed. The bottle is again cleaned and
dried, and the operations repeated with the liquid under examina-
tion instead of water. Numerous modifications of this bottle are in
use. For volatile liquids, a flask provided with a long neck which
carries a graduation and is fitted with a well-ground stopper is
recommended. The bringing of the liquid to the mark is effected
by removing the excess by means of a capillary. In many forms a
thermometer forms part of the apparatus.
Another type of vessel, named the Sprengel tube or pycnometer
(Gr. jrwcvAs, dense), is shown in fig. 3. It consists of a cylindrical
tube of a capacity ranging from 10 to 50 cc., provided at the upper
end with a thick-walled capillary bent as shown on the left of the
figure. From the bottom there leads
" another fine tube, bent upwards, and
then at right angles so as to be at the
same level as the capillary branch. This
tube bears a graduation. A loop of plati-
num wire passed under these tubes serves
to suspend the vessel from the balance
arm. The manner of cleansing, &c., is
the same as in the ordinary form. The
vessel is filled by placing the capillary
in a vessel containing the liquid and
gently aspirating. Care must be taken
that no air bubbles are enclosed. The
liquid is adjusted to the mark by
withdrawing any excess from the capillary end by a strip of
bibulous paper or by a capillary tube. Many variations of this
apparatus are in use; in one of the commonest there are two
cylindrical chambers, joined at the bottom, and each provided
at the top with fine tubes bent at right angles ; sometimes the inlet
and outlet tubes are provided with caps.
The specific gravity bottle may be used to determine the relative
density of a solid which is available in small fragments, and is insoluble
in the standard liquid. The method involves three operations:
(i) weighing the solid in air (W), (2) weighing the specific gravity
bottle full of liquid (Wi), (3) weighing the bottle containing the solid
and filled up with liquid (W 2 ). It is readily seen that W+Wi-W 2 is
the weight of the liquid displaced by the solid, and therefore is the
weight of an equal volume of liquid; hence the relative density is
W/fW+Wi-Wa).
The determination of the absolute densities of gases can only be
effected with any high degree of accuracy by a development of this
method. As originated by Regnault, it consisted in filling a large
glass globe with the gas by alternately exhausting with an air-pump
and admitting the pure and dry gas. The flask was then brought to
o by immersion in melting ice, the pressure of the gas taken, and
the stop-cock closed. The flask is removed from the ice, allowed to
attain the 1 temperature of the room,and then weighed. The flask
is now partially exhausted, transferred to the cooling bath, and after
standing the pressure of the residual gas is taken by a manometer.
The flask is again brought to room-temperature, and re-weighed.
The difference in the weights corresponds to the volume of gas at a
pressure equal to the difference of the recorded pressures. The
volume of the flask is determined by weighing empty and filled with
water. This method has been refined by many experimenters,
among whom we may notice Morley and Lord Rayleigh. Morley
determined the densities of hydrogen and oxygen in the course of
his classical investigation of the composition of water. The method
differed from Regnault's inasmuch as the flask was exhausted to an
almost complete vacuum, a performance rendered possible by the high
efficiency of the modern air-pump. The actual experiment necessi-
tates the most elaborate precautions, for which reference must be
made to Morley's original papers in the Smithsonian Contributions
to Knowledge (1895), or to M. Travers, The Study of Gases. Lord
Rayleigh has made many investigations of the absolute densities of
gases, one of which, namely on atmospheric and artificial nitrogen,
undertaken in conjunction with Sir William Ramsay, culminated in
the discovery of argon (g.ti.). He pointed put in 1888 (Proc. Roy.
Soc. 43, p. 361) an important correction which had been overlooked
by previous experimenters with Regnault's method, viz. the change
in volume of the experimental globe duetoshrinkage under diminished
pressure; this may be experimentally determined and amounts to
between 0-04 and 0-16 % of the volume of the globe.
Related to the determination of the density of a gas is the deter-
mination of the density of a vapour, i.e. matter which at ordinary
temperatures exists as a solid or liquid. This subject owes its
importance in modern chemistry to the fact that the vapour density,
when hydrogen is taken as the standard, gives perfectly definite
information as to the molecular condition of the compound, since
twice the vapour density equals the molecular weight of the
compound. Many methods have been devised. In historical order
we may briefly enumerate the following: in 1811, Gay-Lussac
volatilized a weighed quantity of liquid, which must be readily
volatile, by letting it rise up a short tube containing mercury and
standing inverted in a vessel holding the same metal. This method
was developed by Hofmann in 1868, who replaced the short tube
of Gay-Lussac by an ordinary barometer tube, thus effecting the
volatilization in a Torricellian vacuum. In 1826 Dumas devised a
method suitable for substances of high boiling-point ; this consisted
in its essential point in vaporizing the substance in a flask made of
suitable material, sealing it when full of vapour, and weighing. This
method is very tedious in detail. H. Sainte-Claire Deville and
L. Tropst made it available for specially high temperatures by
employing porcelain vessels, sealing them with the oxyhydrogen
blow-pipe, and maintaining a constant temperature by a vapour
bath of mercury (350), sulphur (440), cadmium (860) and zinc
(1040). In 1878 Victor Meyer devised his air-expulsion method.
Before discussing the methods now used in detail, a summary of
the conclusions reached by Victor Meyer in his classical investiga-
tions in this field as to the applicability of the different methods will
be given:
(1) For substances which do not boil higher than 260 and have
vapours stable for 30 above the boiling-point and which do not
react on mercury, use Victor Meyer's "mercury expulsion method."
(2) For substances boiling between 260 and 420, and which do
not react on metals, use Meyer's " Wood's alloy expulsion method."
(3) For substances boiling at higher temperatures, or for any
substance which reacts on mercury, Meyer's " air expulsion method '
must be used. It is to be noted, however, that this method is
applicable to substances of any boiling-point (see below).
(4) For substances which can be vaporized only under diminished
pressure, several methods may be used, (a) Hofmann's is the best
if the substance volatilizes at below 310, and does not react on
mercury; otherwise (b) Demuth and Meyer's, Eykman's, Schall's, or
other methods may be used.
i. Meyer's " Mercury Expulsion " Method. A small quantity of
the substance is weighed into a tube, of the form shown in fig. 4,
which has a capacity of about 35 cc., provided with a capillary tube
at the top, and a bent tube about 6 mm. in diameter at the bottom.
The vessel is completely filled with mercury, the capillary
sealed, and the vessel weighed. The vessel is then lowered
into a jacket containing vapour at a known temperature
which is sufficient to volatilize the substance. Mercury is
expelled, and when this expulsion ceases, the vessel is
removed, allowed to cool, and weighed. It is necessary to
determine the pressure exerted on the vapour by the
mercury in the narrow limb; this is effected by opening
the capillary and inclining the tube until the mercury just
reaches the top of the narrow tube; the difference between FIG. 4.
the height of the mercury in the wide tube and the top of
the narrow tube represents the pressure due to the mercury column,
and this must be added to the barometric pressure in order to
deduce the total pressure on the vapour.
The result is calculated by means of the formula :
n W( i +q<)X 7,980,000
in which W = weight of substance taken; / = temperature of vapour
bath; = 0-00366 = temperature coefficient of gases; p = baro-
metric pressure; p\ height of mercury column in vessel; s =
vapour tension of mercury at t ; m = weight of mercury contained in
the vessel; mi = weight of mercury left in vessel after heating;
(S = coefficient of expansion of glass = -0000303 ; y = coefficient of
expansion of mercury =0-00018 (0-00019 above 240) (see Ber. 1877,
10, p. 2068; 1886, 19, p. 1862).
2. Meyer's Wood's Alloy Expulsion Method. This method is a
modification of the one just described. The alloy used is composed
of 15 parts of bismuth, 8 of lead, 4 of tin and 3 of cadmium; it
melts at 70, and can be experimented with as readily as mercury.
The cylindrical vessel is replaced by a globular one, and the pressure
on the vapour due to the column of alloy in the side tube is readily
reduced to millimetres of mercury since the specific gravity of the
alloy at the temperature of boiling sulphur, 444 (at which the
apparatus is most frequently used), is two-thirds of
that of mercury (see Ber. 1876, 9, p. 1220).
3. Meyer's Air Expulsion Method. The simplicity,
moderate accuracy, and adaptability of this method
to every class of substance which can be vaporized
entitles it to rank as one of the most potent methods
in analytical chemistry; its invention is indissolubly
connected with the name of Victor M eyer, being termed
" Meyer's method " to the exclusion of his other
original methods. It consists in determining the
air expelled from a vessel by the vapour of a given
quantity of the substance. The apparatus is shown
in fig. 5. A long tube (a) terminates at the bottom in
a cylindrical chamber of about 100-150 cc. capacity.
The top is fitted with a rubber stopper, or in some
forms with a stop-cock, while a little way down there
is a bent delivery tube (b). To use the apparatus, the
long tube is placed in a vapour bath (c) of the requisite
temperature, and after the air within the tube is in
equilibrium, the delivery tube is placed beneath the
surface of the water in a pneumatic trough, the rubber
stopper pushed home, and observation made as to FIG. 5.
whether any more air is being expelled. If this be not
so, a graduated tube (d) is filled with water, and inverted over the
delivery tube. The rubber stopper is removed and the experimental
substance introduced, and the stopper quickly replaced to the same
extent as before. Bubbles are quickly disengaged and collect in the
4 8
DENSITY
graduated tube. Solids may be directly admitted to the tube from
a weighing bottle, while liquids are conveniently introduced by
means of small stoppered bottles, or, in the case of exceptionally
volatile liquids, by means of a bulb blown on a piece of thin
capillary tube, the tube being sealed during the weighing operation,
and the capillary broken just before transference to the ap-
paratus. To prevent the bottom of the apparatus being knocked
out by the impact of the substance, a layer of sand, asbestos or
sometimes mercury is placed in the tube. To complete the experi-
ment, the graduated tube containing the expelled air is brought
to a constant and determinate temperature and pressure, and this
volume is the volume which the given weight of the substance
would occupy if it were a gas under the same temperature and
pressure. The vapour density is calculated by the following formula :
_ W(l + aQ X 587,780
in which W = weight of substance taken, V = volume of air expelled,
a 1/273 = -003665, t and p = temperature and pressure at which
expelled air is measured, and s = vapour pressure of water at t.
By varying the material of the bulb, this apparatus is rendered
available for exceptionally high temperatures. Vapour baths of iron
are used in connexion with boiling anthracene (335), anthraquinone
e^ (368),sulphur(444),phosphoruspentasulphide(5i8);
molten lead may also be used. For higher tempera-
tures the bulb of the vapour density tube is made of
porcelain or platinum, and is heated in a gas furnace.
(40) Hofmann's Method. Both the modus operandi
and apparatus employed in this method particularly
recommend its use for substances which do not react
on mercury and which boil in a vacuum at below 310.
The apparatus (fig. 6) consists of a barometer tube,
containing mercury and standing in a bath of the same
metal, surrounded by a vapour jacket. The vapour is
circulated through the jacket, and the height of the
mercury read by a cathetometer or otherwise. The sub-
stance is weighed into a small stoppered bottle, which
is then placed beneath the mouth of the barometer tube.
It ascends the tube, the substance is rapidly volatilized,
and the mercury column is depressed ; this depression
is read off. It is necessary to know the volume of the
tube above the second level ; this may most efficiently
be determined by calibrating the tube prior to its use.
Sir T. E. Thorpe employed a barometer tube 96 cm.
long, and determined the volume from the closed end
for a distance of about 35 mm. by weighing in mercury ;
below this mark it was calibrated in the ordinary way so that a scale
reading gave the volume at once. The calculation is effected by the
following formulae:
1-0036650
FIG. 6.
0-0012934 XVXB
*,__ lit
',+*
1+0-00018/1 \i +0-00018/2 1+0-00018*
in which w = weight of substance taken; / = temperature of vapour
jacket ; V = volume of vapour at / ; h = height of barometer reduced
to o; /; =temperature of air; hi = height of mercury column below
vapour jacket; fe = temperature of mercury column not heated by
vapour; hi = height of mercury column within vapour jacket; s =
vapour tension of mercury at /. The vapour tension of mercury
need not be taken into account when water is used in the jacket.
(46) Demuth and Meyer's Method. The principle of this method
is as follows: In the ordinary air expulsion method, the vapour
always mixes to some extent with the air in the tube, and this in-
volves a reduction of the pressure of the vapour. It is obvious that
this reduction may be increased by accelerating the diffusion of the
vapour. This may be accomplished by using a vessel with a some-
what wide bottom, and inserting the substance so that it may be
volatilized very rapidly, as, for example, in tubes of Wood's alloy,
_ and by filling the tube with hydrogen. (For further
details see Ber. 23, p. 311.)
We may here notice a modification of Meyer's
r-*, process in which the increase of pressure due to the
* * volatilization of the substance, and not the volume
of the expelled air, is measured. This method has
been developed by J. S. Lumsden (Jcurn. Chem.
Soc. 1903, 83, p. 342), whose apparatus is shown
diagrammatically in fig. 7. The vaporizing bulb
A has fused about it a jacket B, provided with a
condenser c. Two side tubes are fused on to the
neck of A : the lower one leads to a mercury mano-
meter M, and to the air by means of a cock C ; the
upper tube is provided with a rubber stopper
through which a glass rod passes this rod serves
FlG. 7. to support the tube containing the substance to be
experimented upon, and so avoids the objection to
the practice of withdrawing the stopper of the tube, dropping the
substance in, and reinserting the stopper. To use the apparatus, a
liquid of suitable boiling-point is placed in the jacket and brought
to the boiling-point. All parts of the apparatus are open to the air,
and the mercury in the manometer is adjusted so as to come to a
fixed mark a. The substance is now placed on the support already
mentioned, and the apparatus closed to the air by inserting the
cork at D and turning the cock C. By turning or withdrawing
the support the substance enters the bulb; and! during its vapori-
zation the free limb of the manometer is raised so as to maintain
the mercury at a. When the volatilization is quite complete, the
level is accurately adjusted, and the difference of the levels of the
mercury gives the pressure exerted by the vapour. To calculate the
result it is necessary to know the capacity of the apparatus to the
mark a, and the temperature of the jacket.
Methods depending on the Principles of Hydrostatics. Hydro-
statical principles can be applied to density determinations in four
typical ways: (l) depending upon the fact that the heights of liquid
columns supported by the same pressure vary inversely as the
densities of the liquids ; (2) depending upon the fact that a body which
sinks in a liquid loses a weight equal to the weight of liquid which
it displaces; (3) depending on the fact that a body remains sus-
pended, neither floating nor sinking, in a liquid of exactly the same
density; (4) depending on the fact that a floating body is immersed
to such an extent that the weight of the fluid displaced equals the
weight of the body.
1. The method of balancing columns is of limited use. Two forms
are recognized. In one, applicable only to liquids which do not mix,
the two liquids are poured into the limbs of a U tube. The heights
of the columns above the surface of junction of the liquids are in-
versely proportional to the densities of the liquids. In the second
form, named after Robert Hare (1781-1858), professor of chemistry
at the university of Pennsylvania, the liquids are drawn or aspirated
up vertical tubes which have their lower ends placed in reservoirs
containing the different liquids, and their upper ends connected to a
common tube which is in communication with an aspirator for
decreasing the pressure within the vertical tubes. The heights to
which the liquids rise, measured in each case by the distance between
the surfaces in the reservoirs and in the tubes, are inversely pro-
portional to the densities.
2. The method of " hydrostatic weighing " is one of the most
important. The principle may be thus stated : the solid is weighed
in air, and then in water. If W be the weight in air, and Wi the
weight in water, then Wi is always less than W, the difference W-W,
representing the weight of the water displaced, i.e. the weight of a
volume of water equal to that of the solid. Hence W/(W-Wi) is the
relative density or specific gravity of the body. The principle is
readily adapted to the determination of the relative densities of two
liquids, for it is obvious that if W be the weight of a solid body in air,
Wi and W 2 its weights when immersed in the liquids, then W-Wi
and W-Wz are the weights of equal volumes of the liquids, and
therefore the relative density is the quotient (W-Wi)/(W-Ws).
The determination in the case of solids lighter than water is effected
by the introduction of a sinker i.e. a body which when affixed to the
light solid causes it to sink. I" W be the weight of the experimental
solid in air, w the weight of the sinker in water, and Wi the weight of
the solid plus sinker in water, then the relative density is given by
W/(W+w-Wi). In practice the solid or plummet is suspended
from the balance arm by a fibre silk, platinum, &c. and carefully
weighed. A small stool is then placed over the balance pan, and on
this is placed a beaker of distilled water so that the solid is totally
immersed. Some balances are provided with a " specific gravity
pan," i.e. a pan with short suspending arms, provided with a hook
at the bottom to which the fibre may be attached ; when this is so,
the stool is unnecessary. Any air bubbles are removed from the
surface of the body by brushing with a camel-hair brush; if the
solid be of a porous nature it is desirable to boil it for some time in
water, thus expelling the air from its interstices. The weighing is
conducted in the usual way by vibrations, except when the weight
be small ; it is then advisable to bring the pointer to zero, an opera-
tion rendered necessary by the damping due to the adhesion of water
to the fibre. The temperature and pressure of the air and water
must also be taken.
There are several corrections of the formula A = W/(W-Wi)
necessary to the accurate expression of the density. Here we can
only summarize the points of the investigation. It may be assumed
that the weighing is made with brass weights in air at / and p mm.
pressure. To determine the true weight in vacua at o, account
must be taken of the different buoyancies, or losses of true weight,
due to the different volumes of the solids and weights. Similarly
in the case of the weighing in water, account must be taken of the
buoyancy of the weights, and also, if absolute densities be required,
of the density of water at the temperature of the experiment. In a
form of great accuracy the absolute density A(o/4) is given by
A(o/4) = (poW-5Wi)/(W-Wi),
in which W is the weight of the body in air at t and p mm. pressure,
Wi the weight in water, atmospheric conditions remaining very
nearly the same ; p is the density of the water in which the body is
weighed, a is (l+o/) in which a is the coefficient of cubical
expansion of the body, and S is the density of the air at t, p mm.
Less accurate formulae are A = p W/(W-Wi), the factor involving
the density of the air, and the coefficient of the expansion of the
solid being disregarded, and A = W/(W-Wi), in which the density
of water is taken as unity. Reference may be made to J. Wade and
R. W. Merriman, Journ. Chem. Soc. 1909, 95, p. 2174.
DENTATUS
49
FIG. 8.
The determination of the density of a liquid by weighing a
plummet in air, and in the standard and experimental liquids,
has been put into a very
convenient laboratory form
by means of the apparatus
known as a Westphal balance
' (fig. 8). It consists of a steel-
yard mounted on a fulcrum;
one arm carries at its extrem-
ity a heavy bob and pointer,
the latter moving along a scale
affixed to the stand and serv-
ing to indicate when the beam
is in its standard position.
The other arm is graduated
in ten divisions and carries
riders bent pieces of wire of
determined weights and at
its extremity a hook from
which the glass plummet is
suspended. To complete the
apparatus there is a glass jar which serves to hold the liquid
experimented with. The apparatus is so designed that when the
plummet is suspended in air, the index of the beam is at the zero
of the scale; if this be not so, then it is adjusted by a levelling
screw. The plummet is now placed in distilled water at 15, and the
beam brought to equilibrium by means of a rider, which we shall call
I, hung on a hook; other riders are provided, ^th and ji th respec-
tively of I. To determine the density of any liquid it is only neces-
sary to suspend the plummet in the liquid, and to bring the beam
to its normal position by means of the riders; the relative density is
read off directly from the riders.
3. Methods depending on the free suspension of the solid in a
liquid of the same density have been especially studied by Retgers
and Gossner in view of their applicability to density determinations
of crystals. Two typical forms are in use; in one a liquid is pre-
pared in which the crystal freely swims, the density of the liquid
being ascertained by the pycnometer or other methods; in the other
a liquid of variable density, the so-called " diffusion column," is
prepared, and observation is made of the level at which the particle
comes to rest. The first type is in commonest use; since both
necessitate the use of dense liquids, a summary of the media of most
value, with their essential properties, will be given.
Acetylene tetrabromide, C 2 H 2 Br<, which is very conveniently
prepared by passing acetylene into cooled bromine, has a density
of 3-001 at 6 C. It is highly convenient, since it is colourless,
odourless, very stable and easily mobile. It may be diluted with
benzene or toluene.
Methylene iodide, CH 2 I 2 , has a density of 3-33, and may be diluted
with benzene. Introduced by Brauns in 1886, it was recommended
by Retgers. Its advantages rest on its high density and mobility;
its main disadvantages are its liability to decomposition, the
originally colourless liquid becoming dark owing to the separation of
iodine, and its high coefficient of expansion. Its density may be
raised to 3-65 by dissolving iodoform and iodine in it.
Thoulct s solution, an aqueous solution of potassium and mercuric
iodides (potassium iodo-mercurate), introduced by Thoulet and
subsequently investigated by V. Goldschmidt, has a density of
3-196 at 22-9. It is almost colourless and has a small coefficient of
expansion; its hygroscopic properties, its viscous character, and
its action on the skin, however, militate against its use. A. Duboin
(Compt. rend., 1905, p. 141) has investigated the solutions of mercuric
iodide in other alkaline iodides; sodium iodo-mercurate solution has
a density of 3-46 at 26, and gives with an excess of water a dense
precipitate of mercuric iodide, which dissolves without decomposition
in alcohol; lithium iodo-mercurate solution has a density of 3-28
at 25-6; and ammonium iodo-mercurate solution a density of
2-98 at 26.
Rohrbach's solution, an aqueous solution of barium and mercuric
iodides, jntroduced by Carl Rohrbach, has a density of 3-588.
Klein's solution, an aqueous solution of cadmium borotungstate,
2Cd(OH) 2 -B 2 O 3 -9WCVi6H 2 O, introduced by D. Klein, has a
density up to 3-28. The salt melts in its water of crystallization at
75, and the liquid thus obtained goes up to a density of 3-6.
Silver -thallium nitrate^, TIAg(NO 3 ) 2 , introduced by Retgers, melts
at 75 to form a clear liquid of density 4-8; it may be diluted with
water.
The method of using these liquids is in all cases the same; a
particle is dropped in; if it floats a diluent is added and the mixture
well stirred. This is continued until the particle freely swims,
and then the density of the mixture is determined by the ordinary
methods (see MINERALOGY).
In_the "diffusion column" method, a liquid column uniformly
varying in density from about 3-3 to I is prepared by pouring a little
methylene iodide into a long test tube and adding five times as much
benzene. The tube is tightly corked to prevent evaporation, and
allowed to stand for some hours. The density of the column at any
level is determined by means of the areometrical beads proposed by
Alexander Wilson (1714-1786), professor of astronomy at Glasgow
University. These are hollow glass beads of variable density;
they may be prepared by melting off pieces of very thin capillary
tubing, and determining the density in each case by the method just
previously described. To use the column, the experimental fragment
is introduced, when it takes up a definite position. By successive
trials two beads, of known density, say d t , d,, are obtained, one of
which floats above, and the other below, the test crystal; the
distances separating the beads from the crystal are determined by
means of a scale placed behind the tube. If the bead of density d\
be at the distance I, above the crystal, and that of d, at ^ below,
it is obvious that if the density of the column varies uniformly, then
the density of the test crystal is (d J / 2 +<Wi)/(A+/2).
Acting on a principle quite different from any previously dis-
cussed is the capillary hydrometer or staktometer of Brewster,
which is based upon the difference in the surface tension and
density of pure water, and of mixtures of alcohol and water in varying
proportions.
If a drop of water be allowed to form at the extremity of a fine
tube, it will go on increasing until its weight overcomes the surface
tension by which it clings to the tube, and then it will
fall. Hence any impurity which diminishes the surface
tension of the water will diminish the size of the drop
(unless the density is proportionately diminished).
According to Quincke, the surface tension of pure water
in contact with air at 20 C. is 8 1 dynes per linear centi-
metre, while that of alcohol is only 25-5 dynes; and a
small percentage of aldohol produces much more than a
proportional decrease in the surface tension when added
to pure water. The capillary hydrometer consists simply
of a small pipette with a bulb in the middle of the stem,
the pipette terminating in a very fine capillary point.
The instrument being filled with distilled water, the
number of drops required to empty the bulb and
portions of the stem between two marks m and n (fig. 9)
on the latter is carefully counted, and the experiments
repeated at different temperatures. The pipette having
been carefully dried, the process is repeated with pure
alcohol or with proof spirits, and the strength of any
admixture of water and spirits is determined from the
corresponding number of drops, but the formula generally p JG
given is not based upon sound data. Sir David Brewster B rew ster's
found with one of these instruments that the number Stakto-
of drops of pure water was 734, while of proof spirit, meter
sp. gr. 920, the number was 2117.
REFERENCES. Density and density determinationsarediscussed in
all works on practical physics; reference may be made to B. Stewart
and W. W. Haldane Gee, Practical Physics, vol. i. (1901); Kohl-
rausch, Practical Physics; Ostwald, Physico- Chemical Measure-
ments. The density of gases is treated in M. W. Travers, The Ex-
perimental Study of Gases (1901) ; and vapour density determinations
in Lassar-Cohn's Arbeitsmeihoden fur organisch-chemische Labora-
tctien (1901), and Manual of Organic Chemistry (1896), and in
H. Biltz, Practical Methods for determining Molecular Weights
(1899). (C. E.*)
DENTATUS, MANIUS CURIUS, Roman general, conqueror of
the Samnites and Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, was born of humble
parents, and was possibly of Sabine origin. He is said to have
been called Dentatus because he was born with his teeth already
grown (Pliny, Nat. Hist. vii. 15). Except that he was tribune of
the people, nothing certain is known of him until his first consul-
ship in 290 B.C. when, in conjunction with his colleague
P. Cornelius Rufinus, he gained a decisive victory over the
Samnites, which put an end to a war that had lasted fifty years.
He also reduced the revolted Sabines to submission; a large
portion of their territory was distributed among the Roman
citizens, and the most important towns received the citizenship
without the right of voting for magistrates (cimlas sine sufragio).
With the proceeds of the spoils of the war Dentatus cut an
artificial channel to carry off the waters of Lake Velinus, so as to
drain the valley of Reate. In 275, after Pyrrhus had returned
from Sicily to Italy, Dentatus (again consul) took the field
against him. The decisive engagement took place near Bene-
ventum in the Campi Arusini, and resulted in the total defeat of
Pyrrhus. Dentatus celebrated a magnificent triumph, in which
for the first time a number of captured elephants were exhibited.
Dentatus was consul for the third time in 274, when he finally
crushed the Lucanians and Samnites, and censor in 272. In the
latter capacity he began to build an aqueduct to carry the waters
of the Anio into the city, but died (270) before its completion.
Dentatus was looked upon as a model of old Roman simplicity
and frugality. According to the well-known anecdote, when the
Samnites sent ambassadors with costly presents to induce him
to exercise his influence on their behalf in the senate, they found
DENTIL DENTISTRY
him sitting on the hearth and preparing his simple meal of roasted
turnips. He refused their gifts, saying that earthen dishes were
good enough for him, adding that he preferred ruling those who
possessed gold to possessing it himself. It is also said that he
died so poor that the state was obliged to provide dowries for his
daughters. But these and similar anecdotes must be received
with caution, and it should be remembered that what was a
competence in his day would have been considered poverty by
the Romans of later times.
Livy, epitome, 11-14; Polybius ii. 19; Eutropius ii. 9, 14;
Florus i. 18 ; Val. Max. iv. 3, 5, vi. 3, 4 ; Cicero, De senectute, 16 ;
Juvenal xi. 78 ; Plutarch, Pyrrhus, 25.
DENTIL (from Lat. dens, a tooth), in architecture, a small
tooth-shaped block used as a repeating ornament in the bed-
mould of a cornice. Vitruvius (iv. 2) states that the dentil
represents the end of a rafter (asser) ; and since it occurs in its
most pronounced form in the Ionic temples of Asia Minor, the
Lycian tombs and the porticoes and tombs of Persia, where
it represents distinctly the reproduction in stone of timber
construction, there is but little doubt as to its origin. The earliest
example is that found on the tomb of Darius, c. 500 B.C., cut in the
rock in which the portico of his palace is reproduced. Its first
employment in Athens is in the cornice of the caryatid portico
or tribune of the Erechtheum (480 B.C.). When subsequently
introduced into the bed-mould of the cornice of the choragic
monument of Lysicrates it is much smaller in its dimensions.
In the later temples of Ionia, as in the temple of Priene, the larger
scale of the dentil is still retained. As a general rule the pro-
jection of the dentil is equal to its width, and the intervals
between to half the width. In some cases the projecting band
has never had the sinkings cut into it to divide up the dentils,
as_in the Pantheon at Rome, and it is then called a dentil-band.
The dentil was the chief decorative feature employed in the bed-
mould by the Romans and the Italian Revivalists. In the porch
of the church of St John Studius at Constantinople, the dentil
and the interval between are equal in width, and the interval
is splayed back from top to bottom; this is the form it takes in
what is known as the" Venetian dentil," which was copied from
the Byzantine dentil in Santa Sophia, Constantinople. There,
however, it no longer formed part of a bed-mould: its use at
Santa Sophia was to decorate the projecting moulding enclosing
the encrusted marbles, and the dentils were cut alternately on
both sides of the moulding. The Venetian dentil was also intro-
duced as a label round arches and as a string course.
DENTISTRY (from Lat. dens, a tooth), a special department
of medical science, embracing the structure, function and
therapeutics of the mouth and its contained organs,
sketchf* specifically the teeth, together with their surgical and
prosthetic treatment. (For the anatomy of the teeth
see TEETH.) As a distinct vocation it is first alluded to by
Herodotus (500 B.C.). There are evidences that at an earlier
date the Egyptians and Hindus attempted to replace lost teeth
by attaching wood or ivory substitutes to adjacent sound teeth
by means of threads or wires, but the gold fillings reputed to
have been found in the teeth of Egyptian mummies have upon
investigation been shown to be superficial applications of gold
leaf for ornamental purposes. The impetus given to medical
study in the Grecian schools by the followers of Aesculapius
and especially Hippocrates (500 to 400 B.C.) developed among the
practitioners of medicine and surgery considerable knowledge of
.dentistry. Galen (A.D. 131) taught that the teeth were true bones
existing before birth, and to him is credited the belief that the
upper canine teeth receive branches from the nerve which supplies
the eye, and hence should be called " eye-teeth." Abulcasis
(loth cent. A.D.) describes the operation by which artificial crowns
are attached to adjacent sound teeth. Vesalius (1514), Ambroise
Par6, J. J. Scaliger, T. Kerckring, M. Malpighi, and lesser
anatomists of the same period contributed dissertations which
threw some small amount of light upon the structure and
functions of the teeth. The operation of transplanting teeth is
usually attributed to John Hunter (1728-1793), who practised it
extensively, and gave to it additional prominence by transplanting
a human tooth to the comb of a cock, but the operation was
alluded to by Ambroise Par6 (1509-1590), and there is evidence
to show that it was practised even earlier. A. von Leeuwenhoek
in 1678 described with much accuracy the tubular structure of
the dentine, thus making the most important contribution to
the subject which had appeared up to that time. Until the latter
part of the i8th century extraction was practically the only
operation for the cure of toothache.
The early contributions of France exerted a controlling influ-
ence upon the development of dental practice. UrbainHe'mard,
surgeon to the cardinal Georges of Arm^gnac, whom Dr Blake
(1801) calls an ingenious surgeon and a great man, published in
1582 his Researches upon the Anatomy of the Teeth, their Nature
and Properties. Of Hemard, M. Fauchard says: " This surgeon
had read Greek and Latin authors, whose writings he has judici-
ously incorporated in his own works." In 1728 Fauchard, who
has been called the father of modern dentistry, published his
celebrated work, entitled Le Chirurgien Dentiste ou traite des
dents. The preface contains the following statement as to the
existing status of dental art and science in France, which might
have been applied with equal truth to any other European
country: " The most celebrated surgeons having abandoned
this branch of surgery, or having but little cultivated it, their
negligence gave rise to a class of persons who, without theoretic
knowledge or experience, and without being qualified, practised
it at hazard, having neither principles nor system. It was only
since the year 1 700 that the intelligent in Paris opened their eyes
to these abuses, when it was provided that those who intended
practising dental surgery should submit to an examination by
men learned in all the branches of medical science, who should
decide upon their merits." After the publication of Fauchard 's
work the practice of dentistry became more specialized and
distinctly separated from medical practice, the best exponents
of the art being trained as apprentices by practitioners of ability,
who had acquired their training in the same way from their
predecessors. Fauchard suggested porcelain as an improvement
upon bone and ivory for the manufacture of artificial teeth, a
suggestion which he obtained from R. A. F. de Reaumur, the
French savant and physicist, who was a contributor to the royal
porcelain manufactory at Sevres. Later, Duchateau, an apothe-
cary of St Germain, made porcelain teeth, and communicated his
discovery to the Academy of Surgery in 1 7 76, but kept the process
secret. Du Bois Ch6mant carried the art to England, and the
process was finally made public by M. Du Bois Foucou. M. Fonzi
improved the art to such an extent that the Athenaeum of Arts
in Paris awarded him a medal and crown (March 14, 1808).
In Great Britain the igth century brought the dawning of
dental science. The work of Dr Blake in 1801 on the anatomy
of the teeth was distinctly in advance of anything previously
written on the subject. Joseph Fox was one of the first members
of the medical profession to devote himself exclusively to dentistry,
and his work is a repository of the best practice of his time.
The processes described, though comparatively crude, involve
principles in use at the present time. Thomas Bell, the successor
of Fox as lecturer on the structure and disease of the teeth at
Guy's Hospital, published his well-known work in 1829. About
this period numerous publications on dentistry made their appear-
ance, notably those of Koecker, Johnson and Waite, followed
somewhat later by the admirable work of Alexander Nasmyth
(1839). By this time Cuvier, Serres, Rousseau, Berlin, Herissant
and others in France had added to the knowledge of human
and comparative dental anatomy, while M. G. Retzius, of Sweden,
and E. H. Weber, J. C. Rosenmuller, Schreger, J. E. von Purkinje,
B. Fraenkel and J. Miiller in Germany were carrying forward the
same lines of research. The sympathetic nervous relationships
of the teeth with other parts of the body, and the interaction of
diseases of the teeth with general pathological conditions, were
clearly established. Thus a scientific foundation was laid, and
dentistry came to be practised as a specialty of medicine. Certain
minor operations, however, such as the extraction of teeth and
the stopping of caries in an imperfect way, were still practised by
barbers, and the empirical practice of dentistry, especially of
DENTISTRY
those operations which were almost wholly mechanical, had
developed a considerable body of dental artisans who, though
without medical education in many cases, possessed a high
degree of manipulative skill. Thus there came to be two classes
of practitioners, the first regarding dentistry as a specialty of
medicine, the latter as a distinct and separate calling.
In America representatives of both classes of dentists began
to arrive from England and France about the time of the Revolu-
tion. Among these were John Wooffendale (1766), a student of
Robert Berdmore of Liverpool, surgeon-dentist to George III.;
James Gardette (1778), a French physician and surgeon; and
Joseph Lemaire (1781), a French dentist who went out with the
army of Count Rochambeau. During the winter of 1781-1782,
while the Continental army was in winter quarters at Providence,
Rhode Island, Lemaire found time and opportunity to practise
his calling, and also to instruct one or two persons, notably
Josiah Flagg, probably the first American dentist. Dental
practice was thus established upon American soil, where it has
produced such fertile results.
Until well into the igth century apprenticeship afforded the
only means of acquiring a knowledge of dentistry. 'The profits
derived from the apprenticeship system fostered secrecy and
quackery among many of the early practitioners; but the more
liberal minded and better educated of the craft developed an
increasing opposition to these narrow methods. In 1837 a local
association of dentists was formed in New York, and in
J ^ 4 a nat i na l association, The American Society of
Dental Surgeons, the object of which was " to advance
the science by free communication and interchange of senti-
ments." The first dental periodical in the world, The American
Journal of Dental Science, was issued in June 1839, and in
November 1840 was established the Baltimore College of Dental
Surgery, the first college in the world for the systematic education
of dentists. Thus the year 1830-1840 marks the birth of the
three factors essential to professional growth in dentistry. All
this, combined with the refusal of the medical schools to furnish
the desired facilities for dental instruction, placed dentistry for
the time being upon a footing entirely separate from general
medicine. Since then the curriculum of study preparatory to
dental practice has been systematically increased both as to" its
content and length, until in all fundamental principles it is
practically equal to that required for the training of medical
specialists, and in addition includes the technical subjects
peculiar to dentistry. In England, and to some extent upon
the continent, the old apprenticeship system is retained as an
adjunct to the college course, but it is rapidly dying out, as it has
already done in America. Owing to the regulation by law of the
educational requirements, the increase of institutions devoted
to the professional training of dentists has been rapid in all
civilized countries, and during the past twenty years especially
so in the United States. Great Britain possesses upwards of
twelve institutions for dental instruction, France two, Germany
and Switzerland six, all being based upon the conception that
dentistry is a department of general medicine. In the United
States there were in 1878 twelve dental schools, with about
700 students; in 1907 there were fifty-seven schools, with 6919
students. Of these fifty-seven schools, thirty-seven are depart-
ments of universities or of medical institutions, and there is a
growing tendency to regard dentistry from its educational aspect as
a special department of the general medical and surgical practice.
Recent studies have shown that besides being an important
part of the digestive system, the mouth sustains intimate re-
lationship with the general nervous system, and is important as
the portal of entrance for the majority of the bacteria that cause
specific diseases. This fact has rendered more intimate the
relations between dentistry and the general practice of medicine,
and has given a powerful impetus to scientific studies in dentistry.
Through the researches of Sir J. Tomes, Mummery,
Hopewell Smith, Williams and others in England,
O. Hertwig, Weil and Rose in Germany, Andrews, Sudduth
and Black in America, the minute anatomy and embryology of
the dental tissues have been worked out with great fulness and
Research.
precision. In particular, it has been demonstrated that certain
general systemic diseases have a distinct oral expression. Through
their extensive nervous connexions with the largest of the cranial
nerves and with the sympathetic nervous system, the teeth
frequently cause irritation resulting in profound reflex nervous
phenomena, which are curable only by removal of the local tooth
disorder. Gout, lithaemia, scurvy, rickets, lead and mercurial
poisoning, and certain forms of chronic nephritis, produce dental
and oral lesions which are either pathognomonic or strongly
indicative of their several constitutional causes, and are thus of
great importance in diagnosis. The most important dental re-
search of modern times is that which was carried out by Professor
W. D. Miller of Berlin (1884) upon the cause of caries of the teeth,
a disease said to affect the human race more extensively than any
other. Miller demonstrated that, as previous observers had
suspected, caries is of bacterial origin, and that acids play an
important r61e in the process. The disease is brought about by
a group of bacteria which develop in the mouth, growing natur-
ally upon the debris of starchy or carbohydrate food, producing
fermentation of the mass, with lactic acid as the end product.
The lactic acid dissolves the mineral constituent of the tooth
structure, calcium phosphate, leaving the organic matrix of the
tooth exposed. Another class of germs, the peptonising and
putrefactive bacteria, then convert the organic matter into liquid
or gaseous end products. The accuracy of the conclusions ob-
tained from his analytic research was synthetically proved, after
the manner of Koch, by producing the disease artificially. Caries
of the teeth has been shown to bear highly important relation to
more remote or systemic diseases. Exposure and death of the
dental pulp furnishes an avenue of entrance for disease-producing
bacteria, by which invasion of the deeper tissues may readily
take place, causing necrosis, tuberculosis, actinomycosis,
phlegmon and other destructive inflammations, certain of which,
affecting the various sinuses of the head, have been found to
cause meningitis, chronic empyema, metastatic abscesses in
remote parts of the body, paralysis, epilepsy and insanity.
Operative Dentistry. The art of dentistry is usually divided
arbitrarily into operative dentistry, the purpose of which is to
preserve as far as possible the teeth and associated tissues, and
prosthetic dentistry, the purpose of which is to supply the loss of
teeth by artificial substitutes. The filling of carious
cavities was probably first performed with lead, sug-
gested apparently by an operation recorded by Celsus
(100 B.C.), who recommended that frail or decayed teeth be
stuffed with lead previous to extraction, in order that they might
not break under the forceps. The use of lead as a filling was
sufficiently prevalent in France during the I7th century to bring
into use the word plombage, which is still occasionally applied in
that country to the operation of filling. Gold as a filling material
came into general use about the beginning of the igth century. 1
The earlier preparations of gold were so impure as to be virtually
without cohesion, so that they were of use only in cavities which
had sound walls for its retention. In the form of rolls or tape it
was forced into the previously cleaned and prepared cavity, con-
densed with instruments under heavy hand pressure, smoothed
with files, and finally burnished. Tin foil was also used to a
limited extent and by the same method. Improvements in the
refining of gold for dental use brought the product to a fair degree
of purity, and, about 1855, led to the invention by Dr Robert
Arthur of Baltimore of a method by which it could be welded
firmly within the cavity. The cohesive properties of the foil
were developed by passing it through an alcohol flame, which
dispelled its surface contaminations. The gold was then welded
piece by piece into a homogeneous mass by plugging instruments
with serrated points. In this process of cold- weld ing, the mallet,
hitherto in only limited use, was found more efficient than hand
pressure, and was rapidly developed. The primitive mallet of
wood, ivory, lead or steel, was supplanted by a mallet in which
1 The filling of teeth with gold foil is recorded in the oldest known
book'pn dentistry, Artzney Buchlein, published anonymously in 1530,
in which the operation is quoted from Mesue (A.D. 857), physician to
the caliph Haroun al-Raschid.
DENTISTRY
a hammer was released automatically by a spring condensed by
pressure of the operator's hand. Then followed mallets operated
by pneumatic pressure, by the dental engine, and finally by the
electro-magnet, as utilized in 1867 by Bonwill. These devices
greatly facilitated the operation, and made possible a partial
or entire restoration of the tooth-crown in conformity with
anatomical lines.
The dental engine in its several forms is the outgrowth of the
simple drill worked by the hand of the operator. It is used in
removing decayed structure and for shaping the cavity for
inserting the filling. From time to time its usefulness has been
extended, so that it is now used for finishing fillings and polishing
them, for polishing the teeth, removing deposits from them and
changing their shapes. Its latest development, the dento- surgical
engine, is of heavier construction and is adapted to operations
upon all of the bones, a recent addition to its equipment being the
spiral osteotome of Cryer, by which, with a minimum shock to
the patient, fenestrae of any size or shape in the brain-case may
be made, from a simple trepanning operation to the more ex-
tensive openings required in intra-cranial operations. The rotary
power' may be supplied by the foot of the operator, or by
hydraulic or electric motors. The rubber dam invented by
S. C. Barnum of New York (1864) provided a means for protecting
the field of operations from the oral fluids, and extended the scope
of operations even to the entire restoration of tooth-crowns with
cohesive gold foil. Its value has been found to be even greater
than was at first anticipated. In all operations involving the
exposed dental pulp or the pulp-chamber and root-canals, it is
the only efficient method of mechanically protecting the field of
operation from invasion by disease-producing bacteria.
The difficulty and annoyance attending the insertion of gold,
its high thermal conductivity, and its objectionable colour have
led to an increasing use of amalgam, guttapercha, and cements
of zinc oxide mixed with zinc chloride or phosphoric acid.
Recently much attention has been devoted to restorations with
porcelain. A piece of platinum foil of -ooi inch thickness is
burnished and pressed into the cavity, so that a matrix is pro-
duced exactly fitting the cavity. Into this matrix is placed a
mixture of powdered porcelain and water or alcohol, of the colour
to match the tooth. The mass is carefully dried and then fused
until homogeneous. Shrinkage is counteracted by additions of
porcelain powder, which are repeatedly fused until the whole
exactly fills the matrix. After cooling, the matrix is stripped
away and the porcelain is cemented into the cavity. When the
cement has hardened, the surface of the porcelain is ground
and polished to proper contour. If successfully made, porcelain
fillings are scarcely noticeable. Their durability remains to be
tested.
Until recent times the exposure of the dental pulp inevitably
led to its death and disintegration, and, by invasion of bacteria
via the pulp canal, set up an inflammatory process
Dental which eventually caused the loss of the entire tooth.
A rational system of therapeutics, in conjunction with
proper antiseptic measures, has made possible both
the conservative treatment of the dental pulp when exposed, and
the successful treatment of pulp-canals when the pulp has been
devitalized either by design or disease. The conservation of the
exposed pulp is affected by the operation of capping. In capping
a pulp, irritation is allayed by antiseptic and sedative treatment,
and a metallic cap, lined with a non-irritant sedative paste, is
applied under aseptic conditions immediately over the point
of pulp exposure. A filh'ng of cement is superimposed, and this,
after it has hardened, is covered with a metallic or other suitable
filling. The utility of arsenious acid for devitalizing the dental
pulp was discovered by J. R. Spooner of Montreal, and first
published in 1836 by his brother Shear jashub in his Guide to
Sound Teeth. The painful action of arsenic upon the pulp was
avoided by the addition of various sedative drugs, morphia,
atropia, iodoform, &c., and its use soon became universal. Of
late years it is being gradually supplanted by immediate surgical
extirpation under the benumbing effect of cocaine salts. By the
use of cocaine also the pain incident to excavating and shaping
of cavities in tooth structure may be controlled, especially when
the cocaine is driven into the dentine by means of an electric
current. To fill the pulp-chamber and canals of teeth after loss
of the pulp, all organic remains of pulp tissue should be removed
by sterilization, and then, in order to prevent the entrance of
bacteria, and consequent infection, the canals should be perfectly
filled. Upon the exclusion of infection depends the future
integrity and comfort of the tooth. Numberless methods have
been invented for the operation. Pulpless teeth are thus pre-
served through long periods of usefulness, and even those remains
of teeth in which the crowns have been lost are rendered com-
fortable and useful as supports for artificial crowns, and as
abutments for assemblages of crowns, known as bridge-work.
The discoloration of the pulpless tooth through putrefactive
changes in its organic matter were first overcome by bleaching
it with chlorine. Small quantities of calcium hypochlorite are
packed into the pulp-chamber and moistened with dilute acetic
acid; the decomposition of the calcium salt liberates chlorine in
situ, which restores the tooth to normal colour in a short time.
The cavity is afterwards washed out, carefully dried, lined with a
light-coloured cement and filled. More efficient bleaching agents
of recent introduction are hydrogen dioxide in a 25% solution
or a saturated solution of sodium peroxide; they are less irritating
and much rnore convenient in application. Unlike chlorine,
these do not form soluble metallic salts which may subsequently
discolour the tooth. Hydrogen dioxide may be carried into the
tooth structure by the electric current. In which case a current
of not less than forty volts controlled by a suitable graduated
resistance is applied with the patient in circuit, the anode being a
platinum-pointed electrode hi contact with the dioxide solution
in the tooth cavity, and the cathode a sponge or plate electrode
in contact with the hand or arm of the patient. The current is
gradually turned on until two or three milliamperes are indicated
by a suitable ammeter. The operation requires usually twenty to
thirty minutes.
Malposed teeth are not only unsightly but prone to disease, and
may be the cause of disease in other teeth, or of the associated
tissues. The impairment of function which their abnormal
position causes has been found to be the primary cause of
disturbances of the general bodily health; for example, enlarged
tonsils, chronic pharyngitis and nasal catarrh, indigestion
and malnutrition. By the use of springs, screws, vulcanized
caoutchouc bands, elastic ligatures, &c., as the case may require,
practically all forms of dental irregularity may be corrected, even
such protrusions and retrusions of the front teeth as cause great
disfigurement of the facial contour.
The extraction of teeth, an operation which until quite recent
times was one of the crudest procedures in minor surgery, has
been reduced to exactitude by improved instruments,
designed with reference to the anatomical relations of
the teeth and their alveoli, and therefore adapted to the
several classes of teeth. The operation has been rendered painless
by the use of anaesthetics. The anaesthetic generally employed
is nitrous oxide, or laughing-gas, the use of which was discovered
in 1844 by Horace Wells, a dentist of Hartford, Conn., U.S.A.
Chloroform and ether, as well as other general anaesthetics, have
been employed in extensive operations because of their more pro-
longed effect; but chloroform, especially, is dangerous, owing to
its effect upon the heart, which in many instances has suddenly
failed during the operation. Ether, while less manageable than
nitrous oxide, has been found to be practically devoid of danger.
The local injection of solutions of cocaine and allied anaesthetics
into the gum-tissue is extensively practised; but is attended with
danger, from the toxic effects of an overdose upon the heart, and
the local poisonous effect upon the tissues, which lead in numerous
cases to necrosis and extensive sloughing.
Dental Prosthesis. The fastening of natural teeth or carved
substitutes to adjoining sound teeth by means of thread or wire
preceded their attachment to base-plates of carved xrt/flcfa ,
wood, bone or ivory, which latter method was practised teeth.
until the introduction of swaged metallic plates. Where
the crown only of a tooth or those of several teeth were lost, the
DENTISTRY
53
restoration was effected by engrafting upon the prepared root a
suitable crown by means of a wooden or metallic pivot. When
possible, the new crown was that of a corresponding sound tooth
taken from the mouth of another individual; otherwise an
artificial crown carved from bone or ivory, or sometimes from the
tooth of an ox, was used. To replace entire dentures a base-plate
of carved hippopotamus ivory was constructed, upon which were
mounted the crowns of natural teeth, or later those of porcelain.
The manufacture of a denture of this character was tedious and
uncertain, and required much skill. The denture was kept in
place by spiral springs attached to the buccal sides of the appliance
above and below, which caused pressure upon both jaws, necessi-
tating a constant effort upon the part of the unfortunate wearer.
to keep it in place. Metallic swaged plates were introduced in
the latter part of the i8th century. An impression of the gums
was taken in wax, from which a cast was made in plaster of
Paris. With this as a model, a metallic die of brass or zinc was
prepared, upon which the plate of gold or silver was formed, and
then swaged into contact with the die by means of a female die or
counter-die of lead. The process is essentially the same to-day,
with the addition of numerous improvements in detail, which
have brought it to a high degree of perfection. The discovery, by
Gardette of Philadelphia in 1800, of the utility of atmospheric
pressure in keeping artificial dentures in place led to the abandon-
ment of spiral springs. A later device for enhancing the stability
is the vacuum chamber, a central depression in the upper surface
of the plate, which, when exhausted of air by the wearer, materi-
ally increases the adhesion. The metallic base-plate is used also
for supporting one or more artificial teeth, being kept in place
by metallic clasps fitting to, and partially surrounding, adjacent
sound natural teeth, the plate merely covering the edentulous
portion of the alveolar ridge. It may also be kept in place by
atmospheric adhesion, in which case the palatal vault is included,
and the vacuum chamber is utilized in the palatal portion to
increase the adhesion.
In the construction usually practised, porcelain teeth are
attached to a gold base-- date by means of stay-pieces of gold,
perforated to receive the platinum pins baked in the body of the
tooth. The stay-pieces or backings are then soldered to the pins
and to the plate by means of high-fusing gold solder. The teeth
used may be single or in sections, and may be with or without
an extension designed in form and colour to imitate the gum of
the aveolar border. Even when skillfully executed, the process is
imperfect in that the jointing of the teeth to each other, and
their adaptation to the base-plate, leaves crevices and recesses,
in which food debris and oral secretions accumulate. To obviate
these defects the enamelled platinum denture was devised.
Porcelain teeth are first attached to a swaged base-plate of pure
platinum by a stay-piece of the same metal soldered with pure
gold, after which the interstices between the teeth are filled, and
the entire surface of the plate, excepting that in contact with the
palate and alveolar border, is covered with a porcelain paste
called the body, which is modelled to the normal contour of the
gums, and baked in a muffle furnace until vitrified. It is then
enamelled with a vitreous enamel coloured in imitation of the
colour of the natural gum, which is applied and fired as before,
the result being the most artistic and hygienic denture known.
This is commonly known as the continuous gum method. Origin-
ating in France in the early part of the igth century, and variously
improved by several experimenters, it was brought to its present
perfection by Dr John Allen of New York about 1846-1847.
Dentures supported upon cast bases of metallic alloys and of
aluminium have been employed as substitutes for the more
expensive dentures of gold and platinum, but have had only a
limited use, and are less satisfactory.
Metallic bases were used exclusively as supports for artificial
dentures until in 1855-1856 Charles Goodyear, jun., patented in
England a process for constructing a denture upon vulcanized
caoutchouc as a base. Several modifications followed, each the
subject of patented improvements. Though the cheapness and
simplicity of the vulcanite base has led to its abuse in incom-
petent hands, it has on the whole been productive of much
benefit. It has been used with great success as a means of
attaching porcelain teeth to metallic bases of gold, silver and
aluminium. It is extensively used also in correcting irregular
positions of the teeth, and for making interdental splints in the
treatment of fractures of the jaws. For the mechanical correction
of palatal defects causing imperfection of deglutition and speech,
which comes distinctly within the province of the prosthetic
dentist, the vulcanite base produces the best-known apparatus.
Two classes of palatal mechanism are recognized the obturator,
a palatal plate, the function of which is to close perforations
or clefts in the hard palate, and the artificial velum, a movable
attachment to the obturator or palatal plate, which closes the
opening in the divided natural velum and, moving with it,
enables the wearer to close off the nasopharynx from the oral
cavity in the production of the guttural sounds. Vulcanite is
also used for extensive restorations of the jaws after surgical
operations or loss by disease, and in the majority of instances
wholly corrects the deformity.
For a time vulcanite almost supplanted gold and silver as
a base for artificial denture, and developed a generation of
practitioners deficient in that high degree of skill necessary
to the construction of dentures upon metallic bases.
The recent development of crown-and-bridge work methods.
has brought about a renaissance, so that a thorough
training is more than ever necessary to successful practice in
mechanical dentistry. The simplest crown is of porcelain, and is
engrafted upon a sound natural tooth-root by means of a metallic
pin of gold or platinum, extending into the previously enlarged
root-canal and cemented in place. In another type of crown the
point between the root-end and the abutting crown-surface is
encircled with a metallic collar or band, which gives additional
security to the attachment and protects the joints from fluids
or bacteria. Crowns of this character are constructed with a
porcelain facing attached by a stay-piece or backing of gold to a
plate and collar, which has been previously fitted to the root-end
like a ferrule, and soldered to a pin which projects through the
ferrule into the root-canal. The contour of the lingual surface of
the crown is made of gold, which is shaped to conform to the
anatomical lines of the tooth. The shell-crown consists of a
reproduction of the crown entirely of gold plate, filled with
cement, and driven over the root-end, which it closely encircles.
The two latter kinds of crowns may be used as abutments for
the support of intervening crowns in constructing bridge-work.
When artificial crowns are supported not by natural tooth-roots
but by soldering them to abutments, they are termed dummies.
The number of dummies which may be supported upon a given
number of roots depends upon the position and character of the
abutments, the character of the alveolar tissues, the age, sex and
health of the patient, the character of the occlusion or bite, and
the force exerted in mastication. In some cases a root will not
properly support more than one additional crown; in others
an entire bridge denture has been successfully supported upon
four well-placed roots. Two general classes of bridge-work are
recognized, namely, the fixed and the removable. Removable
bridge-work, though more difficult to construct, is preferable, as
it can be more thoroughly and easily cleansed. When properly
made and applied to judiciously selected cases, the bridge
denture is the most artistic and functionally perfect restoration
of prosthetic dentistry.
The entire development of modern dentistry dates from the
igth century, and mainly from its latter half. Beginning with a
few practitioners and no organized professional basis, educational
system or literature, its practitioners are to be found in all
civilized communities, those in Great Britain numbering about
5000; in the United States, 27,000; France, 1600, of whom
376 are graduates; German Empire, qualified practitioners
(Zahnarzte) , 1400; practitioners without official qualification,
4100. Its educational institutions are numerous and well
equipped. It possesses a large periodical and standard litera-
ture in all languages. Its practice is regulated by legislative
enactment in all countries the same as is medical practice.
The business of manufacturing and selling dentists' supplies
54
DENTON DENVER
represents an enormous -industry, in which millions of capital
are invested.
AUTHORITIES. W. F. Litch, American System of Dentistry;
Julius Scheff, jun., Handbuch der Zahnheilkunde; Charles J. Essig,
American Text-Book of Prosthetic Dentistry; Tomes, Dental Anatomy
and Dental Surgery; W. D. Miller, Microorganisms of the Human
Mouth; Hopewell Smith, Dental Microscopy; H. H. Burchard,
Dental Pathology, Therapeutics and Pharmacology; F. J. S. Gorgas,
Dental Medicine; E. H. Angle, Treatment of Malocclusion of the
Teeth and Fractures of the Maxillae ; G. Evans, A Practical Treatise
on Artificial Crown-and-Bridge Work and Porcelain Dental Art;
C. N. Johnson, Principles and Practice of Filling Teeth, American
Text-Book of Operative Dentistry (3rd ed., 1905); Edward C. Kirk,
Principles and Practice of Operative Dentistry (2nd ed., 1905);
J. S. Marshall, American Text-Book of Prosthetic Dentistry (edited by
C. R. Turner; 3rd ed., 1907). (E. C. K.)
DENTON, an urban district in the Gorton parliamentary
division of Lancashire, England, 4^ m. N.E. from Stockport, on
the London & North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 14,934. In
the township are reservoirs for the water supply of Manchester,
with a capacity of 1,860,000,000 gallons. The manufacture of
felt hats is the leading industry. Coal is extensively mined in
the district.
DENVER, the capital of Colorado, U.S.A., the county-seat
of Denver county, and the largest city between Kansas City,
Missouri, and the Pacific coast, sometimes called the " Queen
City of the Plains." Pop. (1870) 4759; (1880) 35,629; (1890)
106,713; (1900), 133,859, of whom 25,301 were foreign-born
and 3923 were negroes; (1910 census) 213,381. Of the
25,301 foreign-born in 1900, 5114 were Germans; 3485, Irish;
3376, Swedes; 3344, English; 2623, English-Canadian;
1338, Russians; and 1033, Scots. Denver is an important
railway centre, being served by nine railways, of which the
chief are the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe; the Chicago,
Burlington & Quincy; the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific;
the Denver & Rio Grande; the Union Pacific; and the
Denver, North-Western & Pacific.
Denver lies on the South Platte river, at an altitude exactly
i m. above the sea, about ism. from the E. base of the Rocky
mountains, which stretch along the W. horizon from N. to S.
in an unbroken chain of some 175 m. Excursions may be made
in all directions into the mountains, affording beautiful scenery
and interesting views of the mining camps. Various peaks are
readily accessible from Denver: Long's Peak (14,271 ft.), Gray's
Peak (14,341 ft.), Torrey Peak (14,336 ft.), Mt. Evans (14,330 ft.),
Pike's Peak (14,108 ft.), and many others of only slightly less
altitudes. The streets are excellent, broad and regular. The
parks are a fine feature of the city; by its charter a fixed
percentage of all expenditures for public improvements must be
used to purchase park land. Architectural variety and solidity
are favoured in the buildings of the city by a wealth of beautiful
building stones of varied colours (limestones, sandstones, lavas,
granites and marbles), in addition to which bricks and Roman
tiles are employed. The State Capitol, built of native granite and
marble (1887-1895, cost $2,500,000), is an imposing building.
Noteworthy also are the Denver county court house; the hand-
some East Denver high school; the Federal building, containing
the United States custom house and post office; the United
States mint; the large Auditorium, in which the Democratic
National convention met in 1908; a Carnegie library (1908)
and the Mining Exchange; and there are various excellent
business blocks, theatres, clubs and churches. Denver has an
art museum and a zoological museum. The libraries of the city
contain an aggregate of some 300,000 volumes. Denver is the
seat of the Jesuit college of the Sacred Heart (1888; in the
suburbs); and the university of Denver (Methodist, 1889), a
co-educational institution, succeeding the Colorado Seminary
(founded in 1864 by John Evans), and consisting of a college
of liberal arts, a graduate school, Chamberlin astronomical
observatory and a preparatory school these have buildings
in University Park and (near the centre of the city) the
Denver and Gross College of Medicine, the Denver law school, a
college of music in the building of the old Colorado Seminary, and
a Saturday college (with classes specially for professional men).
The prosperity of the city depends on that of the rich mining
country about it, on a very extensive wholesale trade, for which
its situation and railway facilities admirably fit it, and on its
large manufacturing and farming interests. The value of
manufactures produced in 1900 was $41,368,698 (increase
1890-1900, 41-5 %). The value of the factory product for 1905,
however, was 3-3 % less than that for 1900, though it represented
36-6 % of the product of the state as a whole. The principal
industry is the smelting and refining of lead, and the smelting
works are among the most interesting sights of the city. The
value of the ore reduced annually is about $10,000,000. Denver
has also large foundries and machine shops, flour and grist mills,
and slaughtering and meat-packing establishments. Denver is
the central live-stock market of the Rocky Mountain states. The
beet sugar, fruit and other agricultural products of the sur-
rounding and tributary section were valued in 1906 at about
$20,000,000. The assessed valuation of property in the city in
1905 was $115,338,920 (about the true value), and the bonded
debt $1,079,595.
At Denver the South Platte is joined by Cherry Creek, and
here in October 1858 were established on opposite sides of the
creek two bitterly rival settlements, St Charles and Auraria; the
former was renamed almost immediately Denver, after General
J. W. Denver (1818-1892), ex-governor of Kansas (which then
included Colorado), and Auraria was absorbed. Denver had
already been incorporated by a provisional local (extra legal)
" legislature," and the Kansas legislature gave a charter to a
rival company which the Denver people bought out. A city
government was organized in December 1859; and continued
under a reincorporation effected by the first territorial legislature
of 1861. This body adjourned from Colorado City, nominally
the capital, to Denver, and in 1862 Golden was made the seat of
government. In 1868 Denver became the capital, but feeling in
the southern counties was then so strong against Denver that
provision was made for a popular vote on the situation of the
capital five years after Colorado should become a state. This
popular vote confirmed Denver in 1881. Until 1870, when it
secured a branch railway from the Union Pacific line at Cheyenne
(Wyoming), the city was on one side of the transcontinental travel-
routes. The first road was quickly followed by the Kansas
Pacific from Kansas City (1870, now also part of the Union
Pacific), the Denver & Rio Grande (1871), the Burlington system
(1882), the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe (1887), and other roads
which have made Denver's fortune. In April 1859 appeared the
first number of The Rocky Mountain News. The same year a
postal express to Leavenworth, Kansas (10 days, letters 25 cents
an ounce) was established; and telegraph connexion with Boston
and New York ($9 for 10 words) in 1863. A private mint was
established in 1 860. In the 'seventies all the facilities of a modern
city gas, street-cars, water-works, telephones were intro-
duced. Much the same might be said of a score of cities in the
new West, but none is a more striking example than Denver of
marvellous growth. The city throve on the freighting trade of
the mines. In 1864 a tremendous flood almost ruined it, and
another flood in 1878, and a famous strike in Denver and
Leadville in 1879-1880 were further, but only momentary,
checks to its prosperity. As in every western city, particularly
those in mining regions whose sites attained speculative values,
Denver had grave problems with " squatters " or " land-
jumpers "in her early years; and there was the usual gambling
and outlawry, sometimes extra-legally repressed by vigilantes.
Settled social conditions, however, soon established themselves.
In 1880 there was a memorable election riot under the guise of
an anti-Chinese demonstration. In the decade 1870-1880 the
population increased 648-7%. The 'eighties were notable
for great real estate activity, and the population of the city
creased 199-5% f rom J 88o to 1890. In 1882-1884 three
successive annual exhibits of a National Mining and Industrial
Exposition were held. After 1890 growth was slower but
continuous. In 1902 a city-and-county of Denver was created
with extensive powers of framing its own charter, and in
1904 a charter was adopted. The constitution of the state was
DEODAND DEPARTMENT
55
framed by a convention that sat at Denver from December 1875
to March 1876; various territorial conventions met here; and
here W. J. Bryan was nominated in 1908 for the presidency.
DEODAND (Lat. Deodandum, that which is to be given to God),
in English law, was a personal chattel (any animal or thing)
which, on account of its having caused the death of a human
being, was forfeited to the king for pious uses. Blackstone, while
tracing in the custom an expiatory design, alludes to analogous
Jewish and Greek laws, 1 which required that what occasions a
man's death should be destroyed. In such usages the notion of
the punishment of an animal or thing, or of its being morally
affected from having caused the death of a man, seems to be
implied. The forfeiture of the offending instrument in no way
depends on the guilt of the owner. This imputation of guilt to
inanimate objects or to the lower animals is not inconsistent with
what we know of the ideas of uncivilized races. In English law,
deodands came to be regarded as mere forfeitures to the king, and
the rules on which they depended were not easily explained by
any key in the possession of the old commentators. The law
distinguished, for instance, between a thing in motion and a thing
standing still. If a horse or other animal in motion killed a
person, whether infant or adult, or if a cart ran over him, it was
forfeited as a deodand. On the other hand, if death were caused
by falling from a cart or a horse at rest, the law made the chattel
a deodand if the person killed were an adult, but not if he
were below the years of discretion. Blackstone accounts for the
greater severity against things in motion by saying that in such
cases the owner is more usually at fault, an explanation which
is doubtful in point of fact, and would certainly not account
for other instances of the same tendency. Thus, where a man's
death is caused by a thing not in motion, that part only which is
the immediate cause is forfeited, as " if a man be climbing up the
wheel of a cart, and is killed by falling from it, the wheel alone is
a deodand"; whereas, if the cart were in motion, not only the
wheel but all that moves along with it (as the cart and the
loading) are forfeited. A similar distinction is to be found in
Britton. Where a man is killed by a vessel at rest the cargo is not
deodand; where the vessel is under sail, hull and cargo are both
deodand. For the distinction between the death of a child and the
death of an adult Blackstone accounts by suggesting that the child
" was presumed incapable of actual sin, and therefore needed no
deodand to purchase propitiatory masses; but every adult who
died in actual sin stood in need of such atonement, according to
the humane superstition of the founders of the English law." Sir
Matthew Hale's explanation was that the child could not take
care of himself, whereon Blackstone asks why the owner should
save his forfeiture on account of the imbecility of the child, which
ought to have been an additional reason for caution. The
finding of a jury was necessary to constitute a deodand, and the
investigation of the value of the instrument by which death was
caused occupied an important place among the provisions of
early English criminal law. It became a necessary part of an
indictment to state the nature and value of the weapon employed
as, that the stroke was given by a certain penknife, of the value
of sixpence so that the king might have his deodand. Accidents
on the high seas did not cause forfeiture, being beyond the domain
of the common law; but it would appear that in the case of
ships in fresh water the law held good. The king might grant his
right to deodands to another. In later times these forfeitures
became extremely unpopular; and juries, with the connivance
of judges, found deodands of trifling value, so as to defeat the
inequitable claim. At last, by an act of 1 846 they were abolished,
the date noticeably coinciding with the introduction of railways
and modern steam-engines.
DE06ARH, the name of several towns of British India, (i) A
town in the Santal Parganas district of Bengal. Pop. (1901)
8838. It is famous for a group of twenty-two temples dedicated
to Siva, the resort of numerous pilgrims. It is connected with
the East Indian railway by a steam tramway, 5 m. in length.
'"Compare also the rule of the Twelve Tables, by which an animal
which had inflicted mischief might be surrendered in lieu of com-
pensation.
(2) The headquarters of the Bamra feudatory state in Bengal;
58 m. by road from the Bamra Road station on the Bengal-
Nagpur railway. Pop. (1901) 5702. The town, which is well
laid out, with parks and gardens, and pleasantly situated in a
hollow among hills, rapidly increased in population under the
enlightened administration of the raja, Sir Sudhal Rao, K.C.I.E.
(b. 1860). It has a state-supported high school affiliated to
Calcutta University, with a chemical and physical laboratory.
(3) The chief town of the Deogarh estate in the state of Udaipur,
Rajputana, about 68 m. N.N.E. of the city of Udaipur. It is
walled, and contains a fine palace. Pop. (1901) 5384. The
holder of the estate is styled raivat, and is one of the first-class
nobles of Mewar. (4) Deogarh Fort, the ancient Devagiri or
Deoeiri (see DAULATABAD).
DEOLS, a suburb of the French town of Chateauroux, in the
department of Indre. Pop. (1906) 2337. Deols lies to the
north of Chateauroux, from which it is separated by the Indre.
It preserves a fine Romanesque tower and other remains of the
church of a famous Benedictine abbey, the most important in
Berry, founded in 917 by Ebbes the Noble, lord of Deols. A
gateway flanked by towers survives from the old ramparts of
the town. The parish church of St Stephen (i5th and i6th
centuries) has a Romanesque facade and a crypt containing the
ancient Christian tomb of St Ludre and his father St Leocade, who
according to tradition were lords of the town in the 4th century.
There are also interesting old paintings of the loth century
representing the ancient abbey. The pilgrimage to the tomb of
St Ludre gave importance to Deols, which under the name of
Vicus Dolensis was in existence in the Roman period. In 468
the Visigoths defeated the Gauls there, the victory carrying with
it the supremacy over the district of Berry. In the middle ages
the head of the family of D6ols enjoyed the title of prince and
held sway over nearly all Lower Berry, of which the town itself
was the capital. In the loth century Raoul of Deols gave his
castle to the monks of the abbey and transferred his residence
to Chateauroux. For centuries this change did not affect the
prosperity of the place, which was maintained by the prestige
of its abbey. But the burning of the abbey church by the
Protestants during the religious wars and in 1622 the suppression
of the abbey by the agency of Henry II., prince of Conde and of
Deols, owing to the corruption of the monks, led to its decadence.
DEPARTMENT (Fr. department, from dtpartir, to separate
into parts), a division. The word is used of the branches of the
administration in a state or municipality; in Great Britain it
is applied to the subordinate divisions only of the great offices
and boards of state, such as the bankruptcy department of the
Board of Trade, but in the United States these subordinate
divisions are known as " bureaus," while " department " is used
of the eight chief branches of the executive.
A particular use of the word is that for a territorial division
of France, corresponding loosely to an English county. Previous
to the French Revolution, the local unit in France was the
province, but this division was too closely bound up with the
administrative mismanagement of the old regime. Accordingly,
at the suggestion of Mirabeau, France was redivided on entirely
new lines, the thirty-four provinces being broken up into eighty-
three departments (see FRENCH REVOLUTION). The idea was
to render them as nearly as possible equal to a certain average
of size and population, though this was not always adhered to.
They derived their names principally from rivers, mountains
or other prominent geographical features. Under Napoleon the
number was increased to one hundred and thirty, but in 1815 it
was reduced to eighty-six. In 1860 three new departments were
created out of the newly annexed territory of Savoy and Nice. In
1871 three departments (Bas-Rhin, Haut-Rhin and Moselle)
were lost after the German war. Of the remains of the Haut-
Rhin was formed the territory of Belfort, and the fragments of
the Moselle were incorporated in the department of Meurthe,
which was renamed Meurthe-et-Moselle, making the number
at present eighty-seven. For a complete list of the departments
see FRANCE. Each department is presided over by an officer
called a prefect, appointed by the government, and assisted by a
DE PERE DEPORTATION
prefectorial council (conseil de prefecture). The departments are
subdivided into arrondissements, each in charge of a sub-prefect.
Arrondissements are again subdivided into cantons, and these
into communes, somewhat equivalent to the English parish
(see FRANCE: Local Government).
DE PERE, a city of Brown county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., on both
sides of the Fox river, 6 m. above its mouth, and 109 m. N. of
Milwaukee. Pop. (1890) 3625; (1900) 4038, of whom 1025
were foreign-born; (1905, state census) 4523. It is served by
the Chicago & North- Western and Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul
railways, by interurban electric lines and by lake and river
steamboat lines, it being the head of lake navigation on the Fox
river. Two bridges here span the Fox, which is from f m. to % m.
in width. It is a shipping and transfer point and has paper
mills, machine shops, flour mills, sash, door and blind factories,
a launch and pleasure-boat factory, and knitting works, cheese
factories and dairies, brick yards and grain elevators. There is
an excellent water-power. De Pere is the seat of St Norbert's
college (Roman Catholic, 1902) and has a public library. North
of the city is located the state reformatory. On the coming
of the first European, Jean Nicolet, who visited the place in
1634-1635, De Pere was the site of a polyglot Indian settlement
of several thousand attracted by the fishing at the first rapids of
the Fox river. Here in 1670 Father Claude Allouez established
the mission of St Francis Xavier, the second in what is now
Wisconsin. From the name Rapid.es des Peres, which the French
applied to the place, was derived the name De Pere. Here
Nicolas Perrot, the first French commandant in the North- West,
established his headquarters, and Father Jacques Marquette
wrote the journal of his journey to the Mississippi. A few
miles south of the city lived for many years Eleazer Williams
(c. 1 787-1857), the alleged " lost dauphin " Louis XVII. of France
and an authority on Indians, especially Iroquois. De Pere was
incorporated as a village in 1857, and was chartered as a city
in 1883.
DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL (1834- ), American
lawyer and politician, was born in Peekskill, New York, on the
23rd of April 1834, of a Huguenot family (originally Du Puis or
De Puy). He graduated at Yale in 1856, entered politics as a
Whig his father had been a Democrat was admitted to the
bar in 1858, was a member of the New York Assembly in
1861-1862, and was secretary of state of New York state in
1864-1865. He refused a nomination to be United States
minister to Japan, and through his friendship with Cornelius and
William H. Vanderbilt in 1866 became attorney for the New York
& Harlem railway, in 1869 was appointed attorney of the newly
consolidated New York Central & Hudson river railway, of which
he soon became a director, and in 1875 was made general counsel
for the entire Vanderbilt system of railways. He became second
vice-president of the New York Central & Hudson river in 1869
and was its president in 1885-1898, and in- 1898 was made
chairman of the board of directors of the Vanderbilt system. In
1872 he joined the Liberal-Republican movement, and was
nominated and defeated for the office of lieutenant-governor of
New York. In 1888 in the National Republican convention he
was a candidate for the presidential nomination, but withdrew
his name in favour of Benjamin Harrison, whose offer to him in
1889 of tne portfolio of state he refused. In 1899 he was elected
United States senator from New York state, and in 1904 was
re-elected for the term ending in 1911. His great personal
popularity, augmented by his ability as an orator, suffered
considerably after 1905, the inquiry into life insurance company
methods by a committee of the state legislature resulting in
acute criticism of his actions as a director of the Equitable Life
Assurance Society and as counsel to Henry B. Hyde and his
son. Among his best-known orations are that delivered at
the unveiling of the Bartholdi statue of Liberty enlightening
the World (1886), an address at the Washington Centennial in
New York (1889), and the Columbian oration at the dedication
ceremonies of the Chicago World's Fair (1892).
DEPILATORY (from Lat. depilare, to pull out the pilus or
hair), any substance, preparation or process which will remove
superfluous hair. For this purpose caustic alkalis, alkaline earths
and also orpiment (trisulphide of arsenic) are used, the last being
somewhat dangerous. No application is permanent in its effect,
as the hair always grows again. The only permanent method,
which is, however, painful, slow in operation and likely to leave
small scars, is by the use of an electric current for the destruction
of the follicles by electrolysis.
DEPORTATION, or TRANSPORTATION, a system of punishment
for crime, of which the essential factor is the removal of the
criminal to a penal settlement outside his own country. It is to
be distinguished from mere -expulsion (q.v.) from a country,
though the term " deportation " is now used in that sense in
English law under the Aliens Act 1905 (see ALIEN). Strictly,
the deportation or transportation system has ceased to exist in
England, though the removal or exclusion of undesirable persons
from British territory, under various Orders in Council, is possible
in places subject to the Foreign Jurisdiction Acts, and in the case
of criminals under the Extradition Acts.
Earlier British Transportation System. At a time when the
British statute-book bristled with capital felonies, when the pick-
pocket or sheep-stealer was hanged out of hand, when Sir Samuel
Romilly, to whose strenuous exertions the amelioration of the
penal code is in a great measure due, declared that the laws
of England were written in blood, another and less sanguinary
penalty came into great favour. The deportation of criminals
beyond the seas grew naturally out of the laws which prescribed
banishment for certain offences. The Vagrancy Act of Elizabeth's
reign contained in it the germ of transportation, by empowering
justices in quarter sessions to banish offenders and order
them to be conveyed into such parts beyond the seas as should
be assigned by the privy council. Full effect was given to this
statute in the next reign, as is proved by a letter of James I.
dated 1619, in which the king directs " a hundred
dissolute persons " to be sent to Virginia. Another
act of similar tenor was passed in the reign of
Charles II. ; in which the term " transportation "
appears to have been first used. A further and more systematic
development of the system of transportation took place in
1617, when an act was passed by which offenders who had
escaped the death penalty were handed over to contractors,
who engaged to transport them to the American colonies.
These contractors were vested with a property in the
labour of the convicts for a certain term, generally from
seven to fourteen years, and this right they frequently sold.
Labour in those early days was scarce in the new settlements;
and before the general adoption of negro slavery there was a
keen competition for felon hands. An organized system
of kidnapping prevailed along the British coasts; young lads
were seized and sold into what was practically white slavery in
the American plantations. These malpractices were checked, but
the legitimate traffic in convict labour continued, until it was
ended peremptorily by the revolt of the American colonies and
the achievement of their independence in 1776.*
The British legislature, making a virtue of necessity, discovered
that transportation to the colonies was bound to be attended by
various inconveniences, particularly by depriving the kingdom of
many subjects whose labour might be useful to the community;
and an act was accordingly passed which provides that convicts
sentenced to transportation might be employed at haid labour
at home. At the same time the consideration of some scheme
for their disposal was entrusted to three eminent public men
Sir William Blackstone, Mr Eden (afterwards Lord Auckland)
and John Howard. The result of their labours was an act for the
establishment of penitentiary houses, dated 1778. This act is of
peculiar importance. It contains the first public enunciation of a
general principle of prison treatment, and shows that even at that
early date the system since nearly universally adopted was fully
understood. The. object in view was thus stated. It was hoped
" by sobriety, cleanliness and medical assistance, by a regular
series of labour, by solitary confinement during the intervals of
work and by due religious instruction to preserve and amend
1 See J. C. Ballagh, While Servitude in Virginia (Baltimore, 1895.)
DEPORTATION
57
the health of the unhappy offenders, to inure them to habits of
industry, to guard them from pernicious company, to accustom
them to serious reflection and to teach them both the principles
and practice of every Christian and moral duty." The experience
of succeeding years has added little to these the true principles
of penal discipline; they form the basis of every species of prison
system carried out since the passing of an act of 1779.
No immediate action was taken by the committee appointed.
Its members were not in accord as to the choice of site. One was
for Islington, another for Limehouse; Howard only stipulated
for some healthy place well supplied with water and conveniently
situated for supervision. He was strongly of opinion that the
penitentiary should be built by convict labour. Howard withdrew
from the commission, and new members were appointed, who
were on the eve of beginning the first penitentiary when the
discoveries of Captain Cook in the South Seas turned the attention
of the government towards these new lands. The vast territories
Australian f Australasia promised an unlimited field for convict
penal colonization, and for the moment the scheme for
setae- penitentiary houses fell to the ground. Public opinion
*** generally preferred the idea of establishing penal
settlements at a distance from home. " There was general
confidence," says Merivale in his work on colonization, " in the
favourite theory that the best mode of punishing offenders was
that which removed them from the scene of offence and tempta-
tion, cut them off by a great gulf of space from all their former
connexions, and gave them the opportunity of redeeming past
crimes by becoming useful members of society." These views so
far prevailed that an expedition consisting of nine transports
and two men-of-war, the " first fleet " of Australian annals, sailed
in March 1787 for New South Wales. This first fleet reached
Botany Bay in January 1 788, but passed on and landed at Port
Jackson, where it entered and occupied Sydney harbour. From
that time forward convicts were sent in constantly increasing
numbers from England to the Antipodes. Yet the early settle-
ment at Sydney had not greatly prospered. The infant colony
had had a bitter struggle for existence. It had been hoped that
the community would raise its own produce and speedily become
self-supporting. But the soil was unfruitful; the convicts knew
nothing of farming. All lived upon rations sent out from home;
and when convoys with relief lingered by the way famine stared
all in the face. The colony was long a penal settlement and
nothing more, peopled only by two classes, convicts and their
masters; criminal bondsmen on the one hand who had forfeited
their independence and were bound to labour without wages for the
state, on the other officials to guard and exact the due perform-
ance of tasks. A few free families were encouraged to emigrate,
but they were lost in the mass they were intended to leaven,
swamped and outnumbered by the convicts, shiploads of whom
continued to pour in year after year. When the influx increased,
difficulties as to their employment arose. Free settlers were too
few to give work to more than a small proportion. Moreover, a
new policy was in the ascendant, initiated by Governor Macquarie,
who considered the convicts and their rehabilitation his chief
care, and steadily discouraged the irrfmigration of any but those
who " came out for their country's good." The great bulk of the
convict labour thus remained in government hands.
This period marked the first phase in the history of transporta-
tion. The penal colony, having triumphed over early dangers
and difficulties, was crowded with convicts in a state of semi-
freedom, maintained at the public expense and utilized in the
development of the latent resources of the country. The methods
employed by Governor Macquarie were not, perhaps, invariably
the best; the time was hardly ripe as yet for the erection of
palatial buildings in Sydney, while the congregation of the work-
men in large bodies tended greatly to their demoralization. But
some of the works undertaken and carried out were of incalculable
service to the young colony; and its early advance in wealth and
prosperity was greatly due to the magnificent roads, bridges and
other facilities of inter-communication for which it was indebted
to Governor Macquarie. As time passed the criminal sewage
flowing from the Old World to the New greatly increased in
volume under milder and more humane laws. Many now escaped
the gallows, and much of the overcrowding of the gaols at home
was caused by the gangs of convicts awaiting transhipment to
the Antipodes. They were packed off, however, with all con-
venient despatch, and the numbers on government hands in the
colonies multiplied exceedingly, causing increasing embarrass-
ment as to their disposal. Moreover, the expense of the Australian
convict establishments was enormous.
Some change in system was inevitable, and the plan of " assign-
ment" was introduced; in other words, that of freely lending the
convicts to any who would relieve the authorities of the burden-
some charge. By this time free settlers were arriving
in greater number, invited by a different and more ^*^"
liberal policy than that of Governor Macquarie. system.
Inducements were especially offered to persons
possessed of capital to assist in the development of the country.
Assignment developed rapidly; soon eager competition arose for
the convict hands that had been at first so reluctantly taken.
Great facilities existed for utilizing them on the wide areas of
grazing land and on the new stations in the interior. A pastoral
life, without temptations and contaminating influences, was well
suited for convicts. As the colony grew richer and more populous,
other than agricultural employers became assignees, and numer-
ous enterprises were set on foot. The trades and callings which
minister to the needs of all civilized communities were more and
more largely pursued. There was plenty of work for skilled
convicts in the towns, and the services of the more intelligent
were highly prized. It was a great boon to secure gratis the
assistance of men specially trained as clerks, book-keepers or
handicraftsmen. Hence all manner of intrigues and manoeuvres
were afoot on the arrival of drafts and there was a scramble for
the best hands. Here at once was a palpable flaw in the system
of assignment. The lot of the convict was altogether unequal.
Some, the dull, unlettered and unskilled, were drafted up country
to heavy manual labour at which they remained, while clever
expert rogues found pleasant, congenial and often profitable
employment in the towns. The contrast was very marked from
the first, but it became the more apparent when in due course it
was seen that some were still engaged in irksome toil, while others
who had come out by the same ship had already attained to
affluence and ease. For the latter transportation was no punish-
ment, but often the reverse. It meant too often transfer to a new
world under conditions more favourable to success, removed from
the keener competition of the old. By adroit management, too,
convicts often obtained the command of funds, the product of
nefarious transactions at home, which wives or near relatives or
unconvicted accomplices presently brought out to them. It was
easy for the free new-comers to secure the assignment of their
convict friends; and the latter, although still nominally servants
and in the background, at once assumed the real control.
Another system productive of much evil was the employment of
convict clerks in positions of trust in various government offices;
convicts did much of the legal work of the colony; a convict was
clerk to the attorney general; others were schoolmasters and
were entrusted with the education of youth.
Under a system so anomalous and uncertain the main object
of transportation as a method of penal discipline and repression
was in danger of being quite overlooked. Yet the state
could not entirely abdicate its functions, although it
surrendered to a great extent the care of criminals to system.
private persons. It had established a code of penalties
for the coercion of the ill-conducted, while it kept the
worst perforce in its own hands. The master was always at
liberty to appeal to the strong arm of the law. A message carried
to a neighbouring magistrate, often by the culprit himself, brought
down the prompt retribution of the lash. Convicts' might be
flogged for petty offences, for idleness, drunkenness, turbulence,
absconding and so forth. At the out-stations some show of
decorum and regularity was observed, although the work done
was generally scanty and the convicts were secretly given to all
manner of evil courses. The town convicts were worse, because
they were far less controlled. They were nominally under the
DEPORTATION
surveillance and supervision of the police, which amounted to
nothing at all. They came and went, and amused themselves
after working hours, so that Sydney and all the large towns were
hotbeds of vice and immorality. The masters as a rule made
no attempt to watch over their charges; many of them were
absolutely unfitted to do so, being themselves of low character,
" emancipists " frequently, old convicts conditionally pardoned
or who had finished their terms. No effort was made to prevent
the assignment of convicts to improper persons; every applicant
got what he wanted, even though his own character would not
bear inspection. All whom the masters could not manage the
incorrigible upon whom the lash and bread and water had been
tried in vain were returned to government charge. These, in
short, comprised the whole of the refuse of colonial convictdom.
Every man who could not agree with his master, or who was
to undergo a penalty greater than flogging or less than capital
punishment, came back to government and was disposed of in
one of three ways, (i) the road parties, (2) the chain gang, or (3) the
penal settlements, (i) In the first case, the convicts might be
kept in the vicinity of the towns or marched about the country
according to the work in hand; the labour was severe, but, owing
to inefficient supervision, never intolerable; the diet was ample
and there was no great restraint upon independence within
certain wide limits. To the slackness of control over the road
parties was directly traceable the frequent escape of desperadoes,
who, defying recapture, recruited the gangs of bushrangers
which were a constant terror to the whole country. In (2) the
chain or iron gangs, as they were sometimes styled, discipline was
far more rigorous. It was maintained by the constant presence
of a military guard, and when most efficiently organized the gang
was governed by a military officer who was also a magistrate.
The work was really hard, the custody close in hulk, stockaded
barrack or caravan; the first was at Sydney, the second in the
interior, the last when the undertaking required constant change
of place. All were locked up from sunset to sunrise; all wore
heavy leg irons; and all were liable "to immediate flagellation.
The convict " scourger " was one of the regular officials attached
to every chain gang. (3) The third and ultimate receptacle was
the penal settlement, to which no offenders were transferred till
all other methods of treatment had failed. These were terrible
cesspools of iniquity, so bad that it seemed, to use the words of
one who knew them well, that " the heart of a man who went to
them was taken from him and he was given that of a beast."
The horrors accumulated at Norfolk Island, Moreton Bay, Port
Arthur and Tasman's Peninsula are almost beyond description.
The convicts herded together in them were soon utterly degraded
and brutalized; . no wonder that reckless despair took possession
of them, that death on the gallows for murder purposely com-
mitted, or the slow terror from starvation following escape into
surrounding wilds was often welcomed as a relief.
The stage which transportation was now reaching and the
actual condition of affairs in the Australian colonies about this
period do not appear to have been much understood in England.
Earnest and thoughtful men might busy themselves with prison
discipline at home, and the legislature might watch with peculiar
interest the results obtained from the special treatment of a
limited number of selected offenders in Millbank penitentiary.
But for the great mass of criminality deported to a distant shore
no very active concern was shown. The country for a long time
seemed satisfied with transportation. Portions of the system
might be open to criticism. Thus the Commons committee of
1832 freely condemned the hulks at Woolwich and other arsenals
in which a large number of convicts were kept while waiting
embarkation. It was reported that the indiscriminate associa-
tion of prisoners in them produced more vice, profaneness and
demoralization than in the ordinary prisons. After dark the
wildest orgies went on unchecked dancing, fighting, gambling,
singing and so forth; it was easy to get drink and tobacco and
to see friends from outside. The labour hours were short and
the tasks light; "altogether the situation of the convict in
the hulks," says the report, " cannot be considered penal; it is
a state of restriction, but hardly of punishment."
But no objection was raised to transportation. It was con-
sidered by this same committee " a most valuable expedient
in the system of secondary punishment." They only thought it
necessary to suggest that exile should be preceded by a period
of severe probationary punishment in England, a proposal
which was reiterated later on and actually adopted. It was in
the country most closely affected that dissatisfaction first began
to find voice. Already in 1832 the most reputable sections of
Australian society were beginning to murmur grievously. Trans-
portation had fostered the growth of a strong party that
representing convict views and these were advocated boldly in
unprincipled prints. This party, constantly recruited
from the emancipists and ticket-of-leave holders, A "* tr * u " t
gradually grew very numerous, and threatened soon fans'.
to swamp the honest and untainted parts of the
community. As years passed the prevalence of crime, and the
universally low tone of morality due to the convict element,
became more and more in the ascendant. At length in 1835
Judge Burton made a loud protest, and in a charge to the grand
jury of Sydney plainly intimated that transportation must cease.
While it existed, he said, the colonies could never rise to their
proper position; they could not claim free institutions. This
bold but forcible language commanded attention. It was speedily
echoed in England, and particularly by Archbishop Whately,
who argued that transportation failed in all the leading requisites
of any system of secondary punishment. Transportation
exercised no salutary terror in offenders; it was no longer exile to
an unknown inhospitable region, but to one flowing with milk and
honey, whither innumerable friends and associates had gone
already. The most glowing descriptions came back of the wealth
which any clever fellow might easily amass; stories were told
and names mentioned of those who had made ample fortunes in
Australia in a few years. As a matter of fact the convicts, or at
least large numbers of them, had prospered exceedingly. Some
had incomes of twenty, thirty, everrforty thousand pounds a year.
The deteriorating effects of the system were plainly manifest on
the surface from the condition of the colony, the profligacy of
the towns, the scant reprobation of crimes and those who had
committed them. Down below, in the openly sanctioned slavery
called assignment, in the demoralizing chain gangs and in the
inexpressibly horrible penal settlements, were more abundant
and more awful proofs of the general wickedness and corruption.
Moreover these appalling results were accompanied by colossal
expenditure. The cost of the colonial convict establishments,
with the passages out, amounted annually to upwards of
300,000; another 100,000 was expended on the military
garrisons; and various items brought the whole outlay to about
half a million per annum. It may be argued that this was not a
heavy price to pay for peopling a continent and laying the founda-
tions of a vast Australasian empire. But that empire could never
have expanded to its present dimensions if it had depended on
convict immigration alone. There was a point, too, at which
all development, all progress, would have come to a full stop
had it not been relieved of its stigma as a penal colony.
That point was reachefl between 1835 an d 1840, when a
powerful party came into existence in New South Wales, pledged
to bring about the abandonment of transportation. A strongly
hostile feeling was also gaining ground in England. In 1837
a new committee of the House of Commons had
made a patient and searching investigation into the
meritsand demerits of the system and freely condemned meat.
it. The government had no choice but to give way;
it could not ignore the protests of the colonists, backed up by
such an authoritative expression of opinion. In 1840 orders were
issued to suspend the deportation of criminals to New South
Wales. But what was to become of the convicts? It was
impossible to keep them at home. The hulks which might have
served had also failed; the faultiness of their internal manage-
ment had been fully proved. The committee had recommended
the erection of more penitentiaries. But the costly experiment
of Millbank had been barren of results. The model prison at
Pentonville, in process of construction under the pressure of a
DEPORTATION
59
movement towards prison reform, could offer but limited accom-
modation. A proposal was put forward to construct convict
barracks in the vicinity of the great arsenals; but this, which
contained really the germ of the present British penal system,
was premature. The government in this dilemma steered a
middle course and resolved to adhere to transportation, but under
a greatly modified and it was hoped much improved form. The
colony of Van Diemen's Land, younger and less self-reliant than
its neighbour, had also endured convict immigration but had
made no protest. It was resolved to direct the whole stream
of deportation upon Van Diemen's Land, which was thus con-
stituted one vast colonial prison. The main principle of the new
system was one of probation; hence its name. All convicts were
to pass through various stages and degrees of punishment accord-
ing to their conduct and character. Some general depot was
needed where the necessary observation could be made, and it
was found at Millbank penitentiary. Thence boys were sent
to the prison for juveniles at Parkhurst; the most promising
subjects among the adults were selected to undergo the experi-
mental discipline of solitude and separation at Pentonville; less
hopeful cases went to the hulks; and all adults alike passed on to
the Antipodes. Fresh stages awaited the convict on his arrival
at Van Diemen's Land. The first was limited to " lifers " and
colonial convicts sentenced a second time. It consisted in deten-
tion at one of the penal stations, either Norfolk Island or Tasman's
Peninsula, where the disgraceful conditions already described
continued unchanged to the very last. The second stage received
the largest number, who were subjected in it to gang labour,
working under restraint in various parts of the colony. These
probation stations, as they were called, were intended to inculcate
habits of industry and subordination; they were provided with
supervisors and religious instructors; and had they not been
tainted by the vicious virus brought to them by others arriving
from the penal stations, they might have answered their purpose
for a time. But they became as bad as the worst of the penal
settlements and contributed greatly to the breakdown of the
whole system. The third stage and the first step towards freedom
was the concession of a pass which permitted the convict to be
at large under certain conditions to seek work for himself; the
fourth was a ticket-of-leave, the possession of which allowed him
to come and go much as he pleased; the fifth and last was
absolute pardon, with the prospects of rehabilitation.
This scheme seemed admirable on paper; yet it failed com-
pletely when put into practice. Colonial resources were quite
unable to bear the pressure. Within two or three years
abandoa- ^ an Diemen's Land was inundated with convicts.
meat. Sixteen thousand were sent out in four years; the
average annual number in the colony was about
30,000, and this when there were only 37,000 free settlers.
Half the whole number of convicts remained in government
hands and were kept in the probation gangs, engaged upon public
works of great utility; but the other half, pass-holders
and ticket-of-leave men in a state of semi-freedom, could
get little or no employment. The supply greatly exceeded the
demand; there were no hirers of labour. Had the colony been as
large and as prosperous as its neighbour it could scarcely have
absorbed the glut of workmen; but it was really on the verge
of bankruptcy its finances were embarrassed, its trades and
industries at a standstill. But not only were the convicts idle;
they were utterly depraved. It was soon found that the system
which kept large bodies always together had a most pernicious
effect upon their moral condition. " The congregation of
criminals in large batches without adequate supervision meant
simply wholesale, widespread pollution," as was said at the time.
These ever-present and constantly increasing evils forced the
government to reconsider its position; and in 1846 transporta-
tion to Van Diemen's Land was temporarily suspended for a
couple of years, during which it was hoped some relief might be
afforded. The formation of a new convict colony in North
Australia had been contemplated; but the project, warmly
espoused by Mr Gladstone, then under-secretary of state for the
colonies, was presently abandoned; and it now became clear
that no resumption of transportation was possible. The measures
taken to substitute other methods of secondary punishment are
set forth in the article PRISON (q.v.).
France. France adopted deportation for criminals as far back
as 1763, when a penal colony was founded in French Guiana and
failed disastrously. An expedition was sent there, composed
of the most evil elements of the Paris population
and numbering 14,000, all of whom died. .The practice.
attempt was repeated in 1766 and with the same
miserable result. Other failures are recorded, the worst being
the scheme of the philanthropist Baron Milius, who in 1823
planned to form a community on the banks of the Mana (French
Guiana) by the marriage of exiled convicts and degraded women,
which resulted in the most ghastly horrors. The principle of
deportation was then formally condemned by publicists and
government until suddenly in 1854 it was reintroduced into the
French penal code with many high-sounding phrases. Splendid
results were to be achieved in the creation of rich colonies afar,
and the regeneration of the criminal by new openings in a new
land. The only outlet available at the moment beyond the sea
was French Guiana, and it was again to be utilized despite its
pestilential climate. Thousands were exiled, more than half to
find certain death; none of the penal settlements prospered.
No return was made by agricultural development, farms and
plantations proved a dead loss under the unfavourable conditions
of labour enforced in a malarious climate and unkindly soil, and
it was acknowledged by French officials that the attempt to
establish a penal colony on the equator was utterly futile.
Deportation to Guiana was not abandoned, but instead of native-
born French exiles, convicts of subject races, Arabs, Anamites
and Asiatic blacks, were sent exclusively, with no better success
as regards colonization.
In 1864, however, it was possible to divert the stream else-
where. New Caledonia in the Australian Pacific was annexed to
France in 1853. Ten years later it became a new settlement for
convict emigrants. A first 'shipload was disembarked in 1864 at
Noumea, and the foundations of the city laid. Prison buildings
were the first erected and were planted upon the island of Nou,
a small breakwater to the Bay of Noumea. Outwardly all went
well under the fostering care of the authorities. The population
steadily increased; an average total of 600 in 1867 rose in the
following year to 1554. In 1874 the convict population exceeded
5000; in 1880 it had risen to 8000; the total reached 9608
at the end of December 1883. But from that time forward the
numbers transported annually fell, for it was found that this
South Pacific island, with its fertile soil and fairly temperate
climate, by no means intimidated the dangerous classes; and
the French administration therefore resumed deportation of
French-born whites to Guiana, which was known as notoriously
unhealthy and was likely to act as a more positive deterrent.
The authorities divided their exiles between the two outlets,
choosing New Caledonia for the convicts who gave some promise
of regeneration, and sending criminals with the worst antecedents
and presumably incorrigible to the settlements on the equator.
This was in effect to hand over a fertile colony entirely to
criminals. Free immigration to New Caledonia was checked, and
the colony became almost exclusively penal. The natural growth
of a prosperous colonial community made no advance, and
convict labour did little to stimulate it, the public works, essential
for development, and construction of roads were neglected; there
was no extensive clearance of lands, no steady development of
agriculture. From 1898 simple deportation practically ceased,
but the islands were full of convicts already sent, and they still
received the product of the latest invention in the criminal code
known as " relegation," a punishment directed against the
recidivist or incorrigible criminal whom no penal retribution
had hitherto touched and whom the French law felt justified
in banishing for ever to the " back of beyond." A certain
period of time spent in a hard labour prison preceded relegation,
but the convicts on arrival were generally unfitted to assist in
colonization. They were for the most part decadent, morally
and physically; their labour was of no substantial value to
6o
DEPOSIT DEPRETIS
colonists or themselves, and there was small hope of profitable
result when they gained conditional liberation, with a concession
of colonial land and a possibility of rehabilitation by their own
efforts abroad, for by their sentence they were forbidden to hope
for return to France. The punishment of relegation was not
long in favour, the number of sentences to it fell year after year,
and it has now been practically abandoned.
Other Countries. Penal exile has been practised by some other
countries as a method of secondary punishment. Russia since
1823 has directed a stream of offenders, mainly political, upon
Siberia, and at one time the yearly average sent was 18,000. The
Siberian exile system, the horrors of which cannot be exaggerated,
belongs only in part to penitentiary science, but it was very
distinctly punitive and aimed at regeneration of the individual
and the development of the soil by new settlements. Although
the journey was made mostly on foot and not by sea transport,
the principle of deportation (or more exactly of removal) was
the essence of the system. The later practice, however, has been
exactly similar to transportation as originated by England and
afterwards followed by France. The penal colonization of the
island of Sakhalin reproduced the preceding methods, and the
Russian convicts were conveyed by ships through the Suez
Canal to the Far East. Sakhalin was hopefully intended as an
outlet for released convicts and their rehabilitation by their own
efforts, precisely in the manner tried in Australia and New
Caledonia. The result repeated previous experiences. There was
land to reclaim, forests to cut down, marshes to drain, everything
but a temperate climate and a good will of the felon labourers to
create a prosperous colony. But the convicts would not work; a
few sought to win the right to occupy a concession of soil, but the
bulk were pure vagabonds, wandering to and fro in search of food.
The agricultural enterprise was a complete failure. The wrong
sites for cultivation were chosen, the labourers were unskilled and
they handled very indifferent tools. Want amounting to constant
starvation was a' constant rule; the rations were insufficient and
unwholesome, very little meat eked out with salt fish and with
entire absence of vegetables. The general tone of morals was
inconceivably low, and a universal passion for alcohol and card-
playing prevailed. According to one authority the life of the
convicts at Sakhalin was a frightful nightmare, " a mixture of
debauchery and innocence mixed with real sufferings and almost
inconceivable privations, corrupt in every one of its phases."
The prisons hopelessly ruined all who entered them, all classes
were indiscriminately herded together. It is now generally
allowed that deportation, as practised, had utterly failed, the
chief reasons being the unmanageable numbers sent and the
absence of outlets for their employment, even at great
cost.
The prisons on Sakhalin have been described as hotbeds of
vice; the only classification of prisoners is one based on the length
of sentence. Some imperfect attempt is made to separate those
waiting trial from the recidivist or hardened offender, but too
often the association is indiscriminate. Prison discipline is
generally slack and ineffective, the staff of warders, from ill-
judged economy, too weak to supervise or control. The officers
themselves are of inferior stamp, drunken, untrustworthy, over-
bearing, much given to " trafficking " with the prisoners, accept-
ing bribes to assist escape, quick to misuse and oppress their
charges. Crime of the worst description is common.
Italy has practised deportation in planting various agricultural
colonies upon the islands to be found on her coast. They
were meant to imitate the intermediate prisons of the Irish
system, where prisoners might work out their redemption, when
provisionally released. Two were established on the islands
of Pianoso and Gorgona, and there were settlements made
on Monte Christo and Capraia. They were used also to give
effect to the system of enforced residence or domicilio
coatlo.
Portugal also has tried deportation to the African colony
of Angola on a small scale with some success, and combined
it with free emigration. The settlers have been represented as
well disposed towards the convicts, gladly obtaining their
services or helping them in the matter of security. The
convict element is orderly, and, although their treatment is
" pen repressive et relativement debonnaire," few commit offences.
The Andaman Islands have been utilized by the Indian
government since the mutiny (1857) for the deportation of
heinous criminals (see ANDAMAN ISLANDS).
AUTHORITIES. Captain A. Phillip, R.N., The Voyage of Governor
Phillip to New South Wales (1790); David Collins, Account of the
English Colony of New South Wales (1798); Archbishop Whately,
Remarks on Transportation (1834); Herman Merivale, Colonization
and Colonies (1841); d'Haussonville, Etablissements penitenliaires
en France et aux colonies (1875) ; George Griffith, In a Prison Land;
Cuche, Science et legislation penitentiaire (1905); Hawes, The Utter-
most East (1906). (A. G.)
DEPOSIT (Lat. depositum, from deponere, to lay down, to put
in the care of), anything laid down or separated; as in geology,
any mass of material accumulated by a natural agency (see
BED), and in chemistry, a precipitate or matter settling from
a solution or suspension. In banking, a deposit may mean,
generally, a sum of money lodged in a bank without regard to
the conditions under which it is held, but more specially money
lodged with a bank on " deposit account " and acknowledged by
the banker by a " deposit receipt " given to the depositor. It is
then not drawn upon by cheque, usually bears interest at a rate
varying from time to time, and can only be withdrawn after fixed
notice. Deposit is also used in the sense of earnest or security
for the performance of a contract. In the law of mortgage the
deposit of title-deeds is usual as a security for the repayment of
money advanced. Such a deposit operates as an equitable
mortgage. In the law of contract, deposit or simple bailment is
delivery or bailment of goods in trust to be kept without recom-
pense, and redelivered on demand (see BAILMENT).
DEPOT (from the Fr. depSt, Lat. depositum, laid down; the
French accent marks are usually dispensed with in English), a
place where things may be stored or deposited, such as a furniture
or forage depot, the accumulation of military stores, especially
in the theatre of operatior s. In America the word is used of a
railway station, whether for passengers or goods; in Great
Britain on railways the word, when in use, is applied to goods
stations. A particular military application is to a depot, situated
as a rule in the centre of the recruiting district of the regiment or
other unit, where recruits are received and undergo the necessary
preliminary training before joining the active troops. Such
depots are maintained in peace time by all armies which have to
supply distant or oversea garrisons; in an army raised by com-
pulsory service and quartered in its own country, the regiments
are usually stationed in their own districts, and on their taking
the field for war leave behind a small nucleus for the formation
and training of drafts to be sent out later. These nucleus troops
are generally called depot troops.
DEPRETIS, AGOSTINO (1813-1887), Italian statesman, was
born at Mezzana Corte, in the province of Stradella on the 3ist
of January 1813. From early manhood a disciple of Mazzini
and affiliated to the Giovane Italia, he took an active part in the
Mazzinian conspiracies and was nearly captured by the Austrians
while smuggling arms into Milan. Elected deputy in 1848, he
joined the Left and founded the journal II Diritto, but held
no official position until appointed governor of Brescia in 1859.
In 1860 he went to Sicily on a mission to reconcile the policy of
Cavour (who desired the immediate incorporation of the island
in the kingdom of Italy) with that of Garibaldi, who wished to
postpone the Sicilian plebiscite until after the liberation of Naples
and Rome. Though appointed pro-dictator of Sicily by Garibaldi,
he failed in his attempt. Accepting the portfolio of public works
in the Rattazzi cabinet in 1862, he served as intermediary in
arranging with Garibaldi the expedition which ended disastrously
at Aspromonte. Four years later, on the outbreak of war against
Austria, he entered the Ricasoli cabinet as minister of marine,
and, by maintaining Admiral Persano in command of the fleet,
contributed to the defeat of Lissa. His apologists contend,
however, that, as an inexperienced civilian, he could not have
made sudden changes in naval arrangements without disorganiz-
ing the fleet, and that in view of the impending hostilities he was
DEPTFORD DE QUINCEY
61
obliged to accept the dispositions of his predecessors. Upon the
death of Rattazzi in 1873, Depretis became leader of the Left,
prepared the advent of his party to power, and was called upon
to form the first cabinet of the Left in 1876. Overthrown by
Cairoli in March 1878 on the grist-tax question, he succeeded,
in the following December, in defeating Cairoli, became again
premier, but on the 3rd of July 1879 was once more overturned
by Cairoli. In November 1879 he, however, entered the Cairoli
cabinet as minister of the interior, and in May 1881 succeeded to
the premiership, retaining that office until his death on the 29th of
July 1887. During the long interval he recomposed his cabinet
four times, first throwing out Zanardelli and Baccarini in order
to please the Right, and subsequently bestowing portfolios upon
Ricotti, Robilant and other Conservatives, so as to complete the
political process known as " trasformismo." A few weeks before
his death he repented of his transformist policy, and again in-
cluded Crispi and Zanardelli in his cabinet. During his long term
of office he abolished the grist tax, extended the suffrage, com-
pleted the railway system, aided Mancini in forming the Triple
Alliance, and initiated colonial policy by the occupation of
Massawa; but, at the same time, he vastly increased indirect
taxation, corrupted and destroyed the fibre of parliamentary
parties, and, by extravagance in public works, impaired the
stability of Italian finance.
DEPTFORD, a south-eastern metropolitan borough of London,
England, bounded N. by Bermondsey, E. by the river Thames
and Greenwich, S. by Lewisham and W. by Camberwell. Pop.
(1901) 110,398. The name is connected with a ford over the
Ravensbourne, a stream entering the Thames through Deptford
Creek. The borough comprises only the parish of Deptford
St Paul, that of Deptford St Nicholas being included in the
borough of Greenwich. Deptford is a district of poor streets,
inhabited by a large industrial population, employed in engineer-
ing and other riverside works. On the river front, extending
into the borough of Greenwich, are the royal victualling yard
and the site of the old Deptford dockyard. The first supplies the
navy with provisions, medicines, furniture, &c., manufactured or
stored in the large warehouses here. The dockyard ceased to be
used in 1869, and was filled up and converted into a foreign cattle
market by the City Corporation. Of public buildings the most
noteworthy are St Paul's church (1730), of classic design; the
municipal buildings; and the hospital for master mariners,
maintained by the corporation of the Trinity House, which was
founded at Deptford, the old hall being pulled down in 1787.
Other institutions are the Goldsmiths' Polytechnic Institute,
New Cross; and the South-eastern fever hospital. A mansion
known as Sayes Court, taken down in 1729, was the residence of
the duke of Sussex in the reign of Elizabeth; it was occupied in
the following century by John Evelyn, author of Sylva, and by
Peter the Great during his residence in England in 1698. The
site of its gardens is occupied by Deptford Park of n acres.
Another open space is Telegraph Hill (9! acres). The parlia-
mentary borough of Deptford returns one member. The borough
council consists .of a mayor, 6 aldermen, and 36 councillors.
Area, 1562-7 acres.
DEPUTY ((through the Fr. from a Late Lat. use of deputare, to
cut off, allot; putare having the original sense of to trim, prune),
one appointed to act or govern instead of another; one who
exercises an office in another man's right, a substitute; in
representative government a member of an elected chamber. In
general, the powers and duties of a deputy are those of his
principal (see also REPRESENTATION), but the extent to which he
may exercise them is dependent upon the power delegated to him.
He may be authorized to exercise the whole of his principal's
office, in which case he is a general deputy, or to act only in
some particular matter or service, when he is termed a special
deputy. In the United Kingdom various officials are specifically
empowered by statute to appoint deputies to act for them
under certain circumstances. Thus a clerk of the peace, in case
of illness, incapacity or absence, may appoint a fit person to act
as his deputy. While judges of the supreme court cannot act by
deputy, county court judges and recorders can, in cases of illness
or unavoidable absence, appoint deputies. So can registrars of
county courts and returning officers at elections.
DE QUINCEY, THOMAS (1785-1859), English author, was born
at Greenheys, Manchester, on the isth of August 1785. He was
the fifth child in a family of eight (four sons and four daughters'*
His father, descended from a Norman family, was a merchant,
who left his wife and six children a clear income of 1600 a
year. Thomas was from infancy a shy, sensitive child, with a
constitutional tendency to dreaming by night and by day; and,
under the influence of an elder brother, a lad " whose genius for
mischief amounted to inspiration," who died in his sixteenth year,
he spent much of his boyhood in imaginary worlds of their own
creating. The amusements and occupations of the whole family,
indeed, seem to have been mainly intellectual; and in De
Quincey's case, emphatically, " the child was father to the man."
" My life has been," he affirms in the Confessions, " on the whole
the life of a philosopher; from my birth I was made an intellectual
creature, and intellectual in the highest sense my pursuits and
pleasures have been." From boyhood he was more or less in
contact with a polished circle; his education, easy to one of
such native aptitude, was sedulously attended to. When he
was in his twelfth year the family removed to Bath, where he was
sent to the grammar school, at which he remained for about two
years; and for a year more he attended another public school at
Winkfield, Wiltshire. At thirteen he wrote Greek with ease; at
fifteen he net only composed Greek verses in lyric measures, but
could converse in Greek fluently and without embarrassment; one
of his masters said of him, " that boy could harangue an Athenian
mob better than you or I could address an English one."
Towards the close of his fifteenth year he visited Ireland, with
a companion of his own age, Lord Westport, the son of Lord
Altamont, an Irish peer, and spent there in residence and travel
some months of the summer and autumn of the year 1800,
being a spectator at Dublin of " the final ratification of the
bill which united Ireland to Great Britain." On his return
to England, his mother having now settled at St John's
Priory, a residence near Chester, De Quincey was sent
to the Manchester grammar school, mainly in the hope of
securing one of the school exhibitions to help his expenses at
Oxford.
Discontented with the mode in which his guardians conducted
his education, and with some view apparently of forcing them to
send him earlier to college, he left this school after less than
a year's residence ran away, in short, to his mother's house.
There his mother's brother, Colonel Thomas Penson, made an
arrangement f or him to have a weekly allowance, on which he
might reside at some country place in Wales, and pursue his
studies, presumably till he could go to college. From Wales,
however, after brief trial, " suffering grievously from want of
books," he went off as he had done from school, and hid himself
from guardians and friends in the world of London. And now, as
he says, commenced " that episode, or impassioned parenthesis
of my life, which is comprehended in The Confessions of an
English Opium Eater." This London episode extended over a
year or more; his money soon vanished, and he was in the
utmost poverty; he obtained shelter for the night in Greek
Street, Soho, from a moneylender's agent, and spent his days
wandering in the streets and parks; finally the lad was recon-
ciled to his guardians, and in 1803 was sent to Worcester College,
Oxford, being by this time about nineteen. It was in the course
of his second year at Oxford that he first tasted opium, having
taken it to allay neuralgic pains. De Quincey's mother had
settled at Weston Lea, near Bath, and on one of his visits
to Bath, De Quincey made the acquaintance of Coleridge; he
took Mrs Coleridge to Grasmere, where he became personally
acquainted with Wordsworth.
After finishing his career of five years at college in 1808 he
kept terms at the Middle Temple; but in 1809 visited the
Wordsworths at Grasmere, and in the autumn returned to
Dove Cottage, which he had taken on a lease. His choice was
of course influenced partly by neighbourhood to Wordsworth,
whom he early appreciated, having been, he says, the only man
DE QUINCEY
in all Europe who quoted Wordsworth so early as 1802. His
friendship with Wordsworth decreased within a few years, and
when in 1834 De Quincey published in Tail's Magazine his
reminiscences of the Grasmere circle, the indiscreet references to
the Wordsworths contained in the article led to a complete
cessation of intercourse. Here also he enjoyed the society and
friendship of Coleridge, Southey and especially of Professor
Wilson, as in London he had of Charles Lamb and his circle. He
continued his classical and other studies, especially exploring the
at that time almost unknown region of German literature, and
indicating its riches to English readers. Here also, in 1816, he
married Margaret Simpson, the " dear M " of whom a
charming glimpse is accorded to the reader of the Confessions;
his family came to be five sons and three daughters.
For about a year and a half he edited the Westmoreland Gazette.
He left Grasmere for London in the early part of 1820. The
Lambs received him with great kindness and introduced him to
the proprietors of the London Magazine. It was in this journal
in 1821 that the Confessions appeared. De Quincey also con-
tributed to Blackwood, to Knight's Quarterly Magazine, and later
to Tail's Magazine. His connexion with Blackwood took him to
Edinburgh in 1828, and he lived there for twelve years, contribut-
ing from time to time to the Edinburgh Literary Gazette. His
wife died in 1837, and the family eventually settled at Lasswade,
but from this time De Quincey spent his time in lodgings in
various places, staying at one place until the accumulation of
papers filled the rooms, when he left them in charge of the
landlady and wandered elsewhere. After his wife's death he gave
way for the fourth time in his life to the opium habit, but in 1844
he reduced his daily quantity by a tremendous effort to six
grains, and never again yielded. He died in Edinburgh on the
8th of December 1859, and is buried in the West Churchyard.
During nearly fifty years De Quincey lived mainly by his pen.
His patrimony seems never to have been entirely exhausted,
and his habits and tastes were simple and inexpensive; but he
was reckless in the use of money, and had debts and pecuniary
difficulties of all sorts. There was, indeed, his associates affirm,
an element of romance even in his impecuniosity, as there was in
everything about him; and the diplomatic and other devices
by which he contrived to keep clear of clamant creditors, while
scrupulously fulfilling many obligations, often disarmed ani-
mosity, and converted annoyance into amusement. The famous
Confessions of an English Opium Eater was published in a small
volume in 1822, and attracted a very remarkable degree of
attention, not simply by its personal disclosures, but by the
extraordinary power of its dream-painting. No other literary
man of his time, it has been remarked, achieved so high and
universal a reputation from such merely fugitive efforts. The
only works published separately (not in periodicals) were a novel,
Klosterheim (1832), and The Logic of Political Economy (1844).
After his works were brought together, De Quincey's reputation
was not merely maintained, but extended. For range of thought
and topic, within the limits of pure literature, no like amount of
material of such equality of merit proceeded from any eminent
writer of the day. However profuse and discursive, De Quincey
is always polished, and generally exact a scholar, a wit, a man of
the world and a philosopher, as well as a genius. He looked upon
letters as a noble and responsible calling; in his essay on Oliver
Goldsmith he claims for literature the rank not only of a fine art,
but of the highest and most potent of fine arts; and as such he
himself regarded and practised it. He drew a broad distinction
between " the literature of knowledge and the literature of power,"
asserting that the function of the first is to teach, the function of
the second to move, maintaining that the meanest of authors
who moves has pre-eminence over all who merely teach, that
the literature of knowledge must perish by supersession, while the
literature of power is " triumphant for ever as long as the language
exists in which it speaks." It is to this class of motive literature
that De Quincey's own works essentially belong; it is by virtue
of that vital element of power that they have emerged from the
rapid oblivion of periodicalism, and live in the minds of later
generations. But their power is weakened by their volume.
De Quincey fully defined his own position and claim to dis-
tinction in the preface to his collected works. These he divides
into three classes: "first, that class which proposes primarily
to amuse the reader," such as the Narratives, Autobiographic
Sketches, &c.; " second, papers which address themselves purely
to the understanding as an insulated faculty, or do so primarily,"
such as the essays on Essenism, the Caesars, Cicero, &c.; and
finally, as a third class, " and, in virtue of their aim, as a far
higher class of compositions," he ranks those " modes of im-
passioned prose ranging under no precedents that I am aware
of in any literature," such as the Confessions and Suspiria de
Profundis. The high claim here asserted has been questioned;
and short and isolated examples of eloquent apostrophe, and
highly wrought imaginative description, have been cited from
Rousseau and other masters of style; but De Quincey's power
of sustaining a fascinating and elevated strain of " impassioned
prose " is allowed to be entirely his own. Nor, in regard to his
writings as a whole, will a minor general claim which he makes be
disallowed, namely, that he " does not write without a thoughtful
consideration of his subject," and also with novelty and freshness
of view. " Generally," he says, " I claim (not arrogantly, but
with firmness) the merit of rectification applied to absolute errors,
or to injurious limitations of the truth." Another obvious
quality of all his genius is its overflowing fulness of allusion and
illustration, recalling his own description of a great philosopher
or scholar " Not one who depends simply on an infinite memory,
but also on an infinite and electrical power of combination,
bringing together from the four winds, like the angel of the
resurrection, what else were dust from dead men's bones into the
unity of breathing life." It is useless to complain of his having
lavished and diffused his talents and acquirements over so vast
a variety of often comparatively trivial ana passing topics.
The world must accept gifts from men of genius as they offer
them; circumstance and the hour often rule their form. Those
influences, no less than the idiosyncrasy of the man, determined
De Quincey to the illumination of such matter for speculation
as seemed to lie before him; he was not careful to search out
recondite or occult themes, though these he did not neglect, a
student, a scholar and a recluse, he was yet at the same time a
man of the world, keenly interested in the movements of men and
in the page of history that unrolled itself before htm day by day.
To the discussion of things new, as readily as of things old, aided
by a capacious, retentive and ready memory, which dispensed
with reference to printed pages, he brought also the exquisite
keenness and subtlety of his highly analytic and imaginative
intellect, the illustrative stores of his vast and varied erudition,
and that large infusion of common sense which preserved him
from becoming at any time a mere doctrinaire, or visionary. If
he did not throw himself into any of the great popular contro-
versies or agitations of the day, it was not from any want of
sympathy with the struggles of humanity or the progress of
the race, but rather because his vocation was to apply to such
incidents of his own time, as to like incidents of all history, great
philosophical principles and tests of truth and power. In politics,
in the party sense of that term, he would probably have been
classed as a Liberal Conservative or Conservative Liberal at
one period of his life perhaps the former, and at a later the latter.
Originally, as we have seen, his surroundings were aristocratic,
in his middle life his associates, notably Wordsworth, Southey
and Wilson, were all Tories; but he seems never to have held the
extreme and narrow views of that circle. Though a flavour of
high breeding runs through his writings, he has no vulgar sneers
at the vulgar. As he advanced in years his views became more
and more decidedly liberal, but he was always as far removed
from Radicalism as from Toryism, and may be described as a
philosophical politician, capable of classification under no definite
party name or colour. Of political economy he had been an
early and earnest student, and projected, if he did not so far
proceed with, an elaborate and systematic treatise on the science,
of which all that appears, however, are his fragmentary Dialogues
on the system of Ricardo, published in the London Magazine in
1824, and The Logic of Political Economy (1844). But political
DE QUINCEY
and economic problems largely exercised his thoughts, and his
historical sketches show that he is constantly alive to their
interpenetrating influence. The same may be said of his bio-
graphies, notably of his remarkable sketch of Dr Parr. Neither
politics nor economics, however, exercised an absorbing influence
on his mind, they were simply provinces in the vast domain of
universal speculation through which he ranged " with unconfined
wings." How wide and varied was the region he traversed a
glance at the titles of the papers which make up his collected
or more properly, selected works (for there was much matter
of evanescent interest not reprinted) sufficiently shows. Some
things in his own line he has done perfectly; he has written
many pages of magnificently mixed argument, irony, humour
and eloquence, which, for sustained brilliancy, richness, subtle
force and purity of style and effect, have simply no parallels;
and he is without peer the prince of dreamers. The use of opium
no doubt stimulated this remarkable faculty of reproducing in
skilfully selected phrase the grotesque and shifting forms of that
" cloudland, gorgeous land," which opens to the sleep-closed eye.
To the appreciation of De Quincey the reader must bring an
imaginative faculty somewhat akin to his own a certain general
culture, and large knowledge of books, and men and things.
Otherwise much of that slight and delicate allusion that gives
point and colour and charm to his writings will be missed; and
on this account the full enjoyment and comprehension of De
Quincey must always remain a luxury of the literary and in-
tellectual. But his skill in narration, his rare pathos, his wide
sympathies, the pomp of his dream-descriptions, the exquisite
playfulness of his lighter dissertations, and his abounding
though delicate and subtle humour, commend him to a larger
class. Though far from being a professed humorist a char-
acter he. would have shrunk from there is no more expert
worker in a sort of half-veiled and elaborate humour and
irony than De Quincey; but he employs those resources for
the most part secondarily. Only in one instance has he given
himself up to them unreservedly and of set purpose,
namely, in the famous " Essay on Murder considered as one
of the Fine Arts," published in Blackwood, an effort which,
admired and admirable though it be, is also, it must be
allowed, somewhat strained. His style, full and flexible, pure
and polished, is peculiarly his own; yet it is not the style of a
mannerist, its charm is, so to speak, latent; the form never
obtrudes; the secret is only discoverable by analysis and study.
It consists simply in the reader's assurance of the writer's
complete mastery over all the infinite applicability and resources
of the English language. Hence involutions and parentheses,
" cycle on epicycle," evolve themselves into a stately clearness
and harmony; and sentences and paragraphs, loaded with
suggestion, roll on smoothly and musically, without either
fatiguing or cloying rather, indeed, to the surprise as well as
delight of the reader; for De Quincey is always ready to indulge
hi feats of style, witching the world with that sort of noble
horsemanship which is as graceful as it is daring.
It has been complained that, in spite of the apparently full
confidences of the Confessions and Autobiographic Sketches,
readers are left in comparative ignorance, biographically speaking,
of the man De Quincey. Two passages in his Confessions afford
sufficient clues to this mystery. In one he describes himself
" as framed for love and all gentle affections," and in another
confesses to the " besetting infirmity " of being " too much of an
eudaemonist." " I hanker," he says, " too much after a state of
happiness, both for myself and others; I cannot face misery,
whether my own or not, with an eye of sufficient firmness, and
am little capable of surmounting present pain for the sake of
any recessionary benefit." His sensitive disposition dictated the
ignoring in his writings of traits merely personal to himself, as
well as his ever-recurrent resort to opium as a doorway of escape
from present ill; and prompted those habits of seclusion, and
that apparently capricious abstraction of himself from the society
not only of his friends, but of his own family, in which he from
time to time persisted. He confessed to occasional accesses of
an almost irresistible impulse to flee to the labyrinthine shelter
of some great city like London or Paris, there to dwell solitary
amid a multitude, buried by day in the cloister-like recesses of
mighty libraries, and stealing away by night to some obscure
lodging. Long indulgence in seclusion, and in habits of study the
most lawless possible in respect of regular hours or any con-
siderations of health or comfort, the habit of working as pleased
himself without regard to the divisions of night or day, of times
of sleeping or waking, even of the slow procession of the seasons,
had latterly so disinclined him to the restraints, however slight,
of ordinary social intercourse, that he very seldom submitted
to them. On such rare occasions, however, as he did appear,
perhaps at some simple meal with a favoured friend, or in later
years in his own small but refined domestic circle, he was the most
charming of guests, hosts or companions. A short and fragile,
but well-prcportioned frame; a shapely and compact head; a
face beaming with intellectual light, with rare, almost feminine
beauty of feature and complexion; a fascinating courtesy of
manner; and a fulness, swiftness and elegance of silvery
speech, such was the irresistible " mortal mixture of earth's
mould " that men named De Quincey. He possessed in a high
degree what James Russell Lowell called " the grace of perfect
breeding, everywhere persuasive, and nowhere emphatic "; and
his whole aspect and manner exercised an undefinable attraction
over every one, gentle or simple, who came within its influence;
for shy as he was, he was never rudely shy, making good his
boast that he had always made it his " pride to converse familiarly
more socratico with all human beings man, woman and child "
looking on himself as a catholic creature standing in an equal
relation to high and low, to educated and uneducated. He would
converse with a peasant lad or a servant girl in phrase as choice,
and sentences as sweetly turned, as if his interlocutor were his
equal both in position and intelligence; yet without a suspicion
of pedantry, and with such complete adaptation of style and topic
that his talk charmed the humblest as it did the highest that
listened to it. His conversation was not a monologue; if he had
the larger share, it was simply because his hearers were only too
glad that it should be so; he would listen with something like
deference to very ordinary talk, as if the mere fact of the speaker
being one of the same company entitled him to all consideration
and respect. The natural bent of his mind and disposition, and
his life-long devotion to letters, to say nothing of his opium
eating, rendered him, it must be allowed, regardless of ordinary
obligations in life domestic and pecuniary to a degree that
would have been culpable in any less singularly constituted
mind. It was impossible to deal with or judge De Quincey
by ordinary standards not even his publishers did so. Much
no doubt was forgiven him, but all that needed forgiveness
is covered by the kindly veil of time, while his merits as a master
in English literature are still gratefully acknowledged. 1 ,
[BIBLIOGRAPHY. In r853 De Quincey began to prepare an edition
of his works, Selections Grave and Gay. Writings Published and Un-
published (14 vols., Edinburgh, 1853-1860), followed by a second
edition (1863-1871) with notes by James Hogg and two additional
volumes ; a further supplementary volume appeared in 1878. The
first comprehensive edition, however, was printed in America
(Boston, 20 vols., 1850-1855); and the "Riverside" edition
(Boston and New York, 12 vols., 1877) is still fuller. The standard
English edition is The Collected Writings of Thomas De Quincey (14
vols., Edinburgh, 1889-1 890), edited by David Masson, whoalsowrote
his biography (1881) for the " English Men of Letters " series. The
Uncollected Writings of Thomas De Quincey (London, 2 vols., 1890)
contains a preface and annotations by James Hogg ; The Posthumous
Writings of Thomas De Quincey (2 vols., 1891-1893) were edited by
A. H. Japp (" H. A. Page "), who wrote the standard biography,
Thomas De Quincey: his Life and Writings (London, 2 vols., and ed.,
1879), and De Quincey Memorials (2 vols., 1891). See also Arvede
Barine, Nevroses (Pans, 1898) ; Sir L. Stephen, Hours in a Library;
H. S. Salt, De Quincey (1904) ; and De Quincey and his Friends (1895),
a collection edited by James Hogg, which includes essays by Dr Hill
Burton and Shadworth Hodgson.] (J. R. F.)
1 The above account has been corrected and amplified in some
statements of fact for this edition. Its original author, John Ritchie
Findlay (1824-1898), proprietor of The Scotsman newspaper, and the
donor of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery in Edinburgh, had
been intimate with De Quincey, and in 1886 published his Personal
Recollections of him.
DERA GHAZI KHAN DERBY, EARLS OF
DERA GHAZI KHAN, a town and district of British India,
in the Punjab. In 1001 the town had a population of 21,700.
There are several handsome mosques in the native quarter. It
commands the direct approaches to the Baluch highlands by
Sakki Sarwar and Fort Monro. For many years past both the
town and cantonment have been threatened by the erosion of
the river Indus. The town was founded at the close of the 1 5th
century and named after Ghazi Khan, son of Haji Khan, a
Baluch chieftain, who after holding the country for the Langah
sultans of Multan had made himself independent. Together
with the two other deras (settlements), Dera Ismail Khan and
Dera Fateh Khan, it gave its name to the territorial area locally
and historically known as Derajat, which after many vicissitudes
came into the possession of the British after the Sikh War, in 1849,
and was divided into the two districts of Dera Ghazi Khan and
Dera Ismail Khan.
The DISTRICT or DERA GHAZI KHAN contains an area of
5306 sq. m. The district is a long narrow strip of country,
198 m. in length, sloping gradually from the hills which form
its western boundary to the river Indus on the east. Below
the hills the country is high and arid, generally level, but some-
tunes rolling in sandy undulations, and much intersected by hill
torrents, 201 in number. With the exceptions of two, these
streams dry up after the rains, and their influence is only felt for
a few miles below the hills. The eastern portion of the district is
at a level sufficiently low to benefit by the floods of the Indus. A
barren tract intervenes between these zones, and is beyond the
reach of the hill streams on the one hand and of the Indus on the
other. Although liable to great extremes of temperature, and
to a very scanty rainfall, the district is not unhealthy. The
population in 1001 was 471,149, the great majority being Baluch
Mahommedans. The principal exports are wheat and indigo.
The only manufactures are for domestic use. There is no railway
in the district, and only 29 m. of metalled road. The Indus,
which is nowhere bridged within the district, is navigable by
native boats. The geographical boundary between the Pathan
and Baluch races in the hills nearly corresponds with the northern
limit of the district. The frontier tribes on the Dera Ghazi Khan
border include the Kasranis, Bozdars, Khosas, Lagharis,
Khetvans, Gurchanis, Mazaris, Mariris and Bugtis. The chief
of these are described under their separate names.
DERA ISMAIL KHAN, a town and district hi the Derajat
division of the North- West Frontier Province of India. The town
is situated near the right bank of the Indus, which is here crossed
by a bridge of boats during half the year. In 1901 it had a
population of 31,737. It takes its name from Ismail Khan, a
Baluch chief who settled here towards the end of the I5th century,
and whose descendants ruled for 300 years. The old town was
swept away by a flood in 1823, and the present town stands 4 m.
back from the permanent channel of the river. The native quarters
are well laid out, with a large bazaar for Afghan traders. It is the
residence of many Mahommedan gentry. The cantonment accom-
modates abou t a brigade of troops. There is considerable through
trade with Afghanistan by the Gomal Pass, and there are local
manufactures of cotton cloth scarves and inlaid wood-work.
The DISTRICT OF DERA ISMAIL KHAN contains an area of 3403
sq. m. It was formerly divided into two almost equal portions
by the Indus, which intersected it from north to south. To the
west of the Indus the characteristics of the country resemble
those of Dera Ghazi Khan. To the east of the present bed of the
river there is a wide tract known as the Kachi, exposed to river
action. Beyond this, the country rises abruptly, and a barren,
almost desert plain stretches eastwards, sparsely cultivated, and
inhabited only by nomadic tribes of herdsmen. In 1901 ths
trans-Indus tract was allotted to the newly formed North- West
Frontier Province, the cis-Indus tract remaining in the Punjab
jurisdiction. The cis-Indus portions of the Dera Ismail Khan
and Bannu districts now comprise the new Punjab district, of
Mianiwali. In 1001 the population was 252,379. chiefly Pathan
and Baluch Mahommedans. Wheat and wool are exported.
The Indus is navigable by native boats throughout its course
of 120 m. within the district, which is the borderland of Pathan
and Baluch tribes, the Pathan element predominating. The chief
frontier tribes are the Sheranis and Ustaranas.
DERBENT, or DERBEND, a town of Russia, Caucasia, in the
province of Daghestan, on the western shore of the Caspian,
153 m. by rail N.W. of Baku, in 42 4' N. and 48 15' E. Pop.
(1873) 15,739; (1897) 14,821. It occupies a narrow strip of
land beside the sea, from which it climbs up the steep heights
inland to the citadel of Naryn-kaleh, and is on all sides except
towards the east surrounded by walls built of porous limestone.
Its general aspect is Oriental, owing to the flat roofs of its two-
storeyed houses and its numerous mosques. The environs are
occupied by vineyards, gardens and orchards, in which madder,
saffron and tobacco, as well as figs, peaches, pears and other
fruits, are cultivated. Earthenware, weapons and silk and cotton
fabrics are the principal products of the manufacturing industry.
To the north of the town is the monument of the Kirk-lar, or
" forty heroes," who fell defending Daghestan against the Arabs
in 728; and to the south lies the seaward extremity of the
Caucasian wall (50 m. long), otherwise known as Alexander's
wall, blocking the narrow pass of the Iron Gate or Caspian Gates
(Portae Albanae or Portae Caspiae). This, when entire, had a
height of 29 ft. and a thickness of about 10 ft., and with its iron
gates and numerous watch-towers formed a valuable defence of
the Persian frontier. Derbent is usually identified with Albana,
the capital of the ancient Albania. The modern name, a Persian
word meaning " iron gates," came into use in the end of the 5th
or the beginning of the 6th century, when the city was refounded
by Kavadh of the Sassanian dynasty of Persia. The walls and
the citadel are believed to belong to the time of Kavadh's son,
Khosrau (Chosroes) Anosharvan. In 728 the Arabs entered into
possession, and established a principality in the city, which they
called Bab-el-Abwab (" the principal gate "), Bab-el-Khadid
(" the iron gate "), and Seraill-el-Dagab (" the golden throne ").
The celebrated caliph, Harun-al-Rashid, lived hi Derbent at
different times, and brought it into great repute as a seat of the
arts and commerce. In 1220 it was captured by the Mongols,
and in the course of the succeeding centuries it frequently changed
masters. In 1722 Peter the Great of Russia wrested the town
from the Persians, but in 1 736 the supremacy of Nadu- Shah was
again recognized. In 1 796 Derbent was besieged by the Russians,
and in 1813 incorporated with the Russian empire.
DERBY, EARLS OF. The ist earl of Derby was probably
Robert de Ferrers (d. 1139), who is said by John of Hexham to
have been made an earl by King Stephen after the battle of
the Standard in 1138. Robert and his descendants retained
the earldom until 1266, when Robert (c. I24O-C. 1279), probably
the 6th earl, having taken a prominent part in the baronial
rising against Henry III., was deprived of his lands and practi-
cally of his title. These earlier earls of Derby were also known
as Earls Ferrers, or de Ferrers, from their surname; as earls
of Tutbury from their residence; and as earls of Nottingham
because this county was a lordship under their rule. The large
estates which were taken from Earl Robert in 1266 were given
by Henry III. in the same year to his son, Edmund, earl of
Lancaster; and Edmund's son, Thomas, earl of Lancaster,
called himself Earl Ferrers. In 1337 Edmund's grandson,
Henry (c. 1290-1361), afterwards duke of Lancaster, was created
earl of Derby, and this title was taken by Edward III.'s son,
John of Gaunt, who had married Henry's daughter, Blanche.
John of Gaunt's son and successor was Henry, earl of Derby,
who became king as Henry IV. in 1399.
In October 1485 Thomas, Lord Stanley, was created earl of
Derby, and the title has since been retained by the Stanleys,
who, however, have little or no connexion with the county
of Derby. Thomas also inherited the sovereign lordship of the
Isle of Man, which had been granted by the crown in 1406 to
his great-grandfather, Sir John Stanley; and this sovereignty
remained in possession of the earls of Derby till 1736, when it
passed to the duke of Atholl.
The earl of Derby is one of the three " catskin earls," the others
being the earls of Shrewsbury and Huntingdon. The term
" catskin " is possibly a corruption of quatre-skin, derived from
DERBY, EARLS OF
the fact that in ancient times the robes of an earl (as depicted
in some early representations) were decorated with four rows of
ermine, as in the robes of a modern duke, instead of the three
rows to which they were restricted in later centuries. The three
" catskin "earldoms are the only earldoms now in existence which
date from creations prior to the i?th century. (A. W. H.*)
THOMAS STANLEY, ist earl of Derby (c. 1435-1504), was
the son of Thomas Stanley, who was created Baron Stanley in
1456 and died in 1459. His grandfather, Sir John Stanley
(d. 1414), had founded the fortunes of his family by marrying
Isabel Lathom, the heiress of a great estate in the hundred of West
Derby in Lancashire; he was lieutenant of Ireland in 1380-1391,
and again in 1399-1401, and in 1405 received a grant of the
lordship of Man from Henry IV. The future earl of Derby was
a squire to Henry VI. in 1454, but not long afterwards married
Eleanor, daughter of the Yorkist leader, Richard Neville, earl of
Salisbury. At the battle of Blore Heath in August 1459 Stanley,
though close at hand with a large force, did not join the royal
army, whilst his brother William fought openly for York. In
1461 Stanley was made chief justice of Cheshire by Edward IV.,
but ten years later he sided with his brother-in-law Warwick in
the Lancastrian restoration. Nevertheless, after Warwick's fall,
Edward made Stanley steward of his household. Stanley served
with the king in the French expedition of 1475, and with Richard
of Gloucester in Scotland in 1482. About the latter date he
married, as his second wife, Margaret Beaufort, mother of the
exiled Henry Tudor. Stanley was one of the executors of
Edward IV., and was at first loyal to the young king Edward V.
But he acquiesced in Richard's usurpation, and retaining his
office as steward avoided any entanglement through his wife's
share in Buckingham's rebellion. He was made constable of
England in succession to Buckingham, and granted possession of
his wife's estates with a charge to keep her in some secret place at
home. Richard could not well afford to quarrel with so powerful
a noble, but early in 1485 Stanley asked leave to retire to his
estates in Lancashire. In the summer Richard, suspicious of his
continued absence, required him to send his eldest son, Lord
Strange, to court as a hostage. After Henry of Richmond had
landed, Stanley made excuses for not joining the king ; for his
son's sake he was obliged to temporize, even when his brother
William had been publicly proclaimed a traitor. Both the
Stanleys took the field; but whilst William was in treaty
with Richmond, Thomas professedly supported Richard. On
the morning of Bosworth (August 22), Richard summoned
Stanley to join him, and when he received an evasive reply
ordered Strange to be executed. In the battle it was William
Stanley who turned the scale in Henry's favour, but Thomas,
who had taken no part in the fighting, was the first to salute the
new king. Henry VII. confirmed Stanley in all his offices, and on
the 27th of October created him earl of Derby. As husband of
the king's mother Derby held a great position, which was not
affected by the treason of his brother William in February 1495.
In the following July the earl entertained the king and queen
with much state at Knowsley. Derby died on the zgth of July
1504. Strange had escaped execution in 1485, through neglect to
obey Richard's orders; but he died before his father in 1497, and
his son Thomas succeeded as second earl. An old poem called
The Song of the Lady Bessy, which was written by a retainer of
the Stanleys, gives a romantic story of how Derby was enlisted
by Elizabeth of York in the cause of his wife's son.
For fuller narratives see I. Gairdner's Richard III. and J. H.
Ramsay's Lancaster and York; also Seacome's Memoirs of the
House of Stanley (1741). (C. L. K.)
EDWARD STANLEY, 3rd earl of Derby (1508-1572), was a
son of Thomas Stanley, 2nd earl and grandson of the ist earl,
and succeeded to the earldom on his father's death in May 1521.
During his minority Cardinal Wolsey was his guardian, and as
soon as he came of age he began to take part in public life, being
often in the company of Henry VIII. He helped to quell the
rising in the north of England known as the Pilgrimage of Grace
in 1536; but remaining true to the Roman Catholic faith he
disliked and opposed the religious changes made under Edward
vni. 3
VI. During Mary's reign the earl was more at ease, but under
Elizabeth his younger sons, Sir Thomas (d. 1 576) and Sir Edward
Stanley (d. 1609), were concerned in a plot to free Mary, queen of
Scots, and he himself was suspected of disloyalty. However, he
kept his numerous dignities until his death at Lathom House,
near Ormskirk, on the 24th of October 1572.
Derby's first wife was Katherine, daughter of Thomas Howard,
duke of Norfolk, by whom he had, with other issue, a son Henry,
the 4th earl (c. 1531-1593), who was a member of the council of
the North, and like his father was lord-lieutenant of Lancashire.
Henry was one of the commissioners who tried Mary, queen of
Scots, and was employed by Elizabeth on other high under-
takings both at home and abroad. He died on the 25th of
September 1593. His wife Margaret (d. 1596), daughter of
Henry Clifford, 2nd earl of Cumberland, was descended through
the Brandons from King Henry VII. Two of his sons, Ferdinando
(c. 1559-1594), and William (c. 1561-1642), became in turn the
5th and 6th earls of Derby. Ferdinando, the 5th ear! (d. 1594),
wrote verses, and is eulogized by the poet Spenser under the name
of Amyntas. (A. W. H.*)
JAMES STANLEY, 7th earl of Derby (1607-1651), sometimes
styled the Great Earl of Derby, eldest son of William, 6th
earl, and Elizabeth de Vere, daughter of Edward, i7th earl of
Oxford, was born at Knowsley on the 3ist of January 1607.
During his father's life he was known as Lord Strange. After
travelling abroad he was chosen member of parliament for
Liverpool in 1625, was created knight of the Bath on the occasion
of Charles's coronation in 1626, and was joined with his father
the same year as lieutenant of Lancashire and Cheshire and
chamberlain of Chester, and in the administration of the Isle of
Man, being appointed subsequently lord-lieutenant of North
Wales. On the 7th of March 1628 he was called up to the House
of Lords as Baron Strange. He took no part in the political
disputes between king and parliament and preferred country
pursuits and the care of his estates to court or public life. Never-
theless when the Civil War broke out in 1642, Lord Strange
devoted himself to the king's cause. His plan of securing
Lancashire at the beginning and raising troops there, which
promised success, was however discouraged by Charles, who was
said to be jealous of his power and royal lineage and who com-
manded his presence at Nottingham. His subsequent attempts
to recover the county were unsuccessful. He was unable to get
possession of Manchester, was defeated at Chowbent and Lowton
Moor, and in 1643 after gaining Preston failed to take Bolton and
Lancaster castles. Finally, after successfully beating off Sir
William Brereton's attack on Warrington, he was defeated at
Whalley and withdrew to York, Warrington in consequence
surrendering to the enemy's forces. In June he left for the Isle
of Man to attend to affairs there, and in the summer of 1644 he
took part in Prince Rupert's successful campaign in the north,
when Lathom House, where Lady Derby had heroically resisted
the attacks of the besiegers, was relieved, and Bolton Castle
taken. He followed Rupert to Marston Moor, and after the
complete defeat of Charles's cause in the north withdrew to the
Isle of Man, where he held out for the king and offered an asylum
to royalist fugitives. His administration of the island imitated
that of Strafford in Ireland. It was strong rather than just. He
maintained order, encouraged trade, remedied some abuses, and
defended the people from the exactions of the church; but he
crushed opposition by imprisoning his antagonists, and aroused a
prolonged agitation by abolishing the tenant-right and introduc-
ing leaseholds. In July 1649 he refused scornfully terms offered
to him by Ireton. By the death of his father on the 29th of
September 1642 he had succeeded to the earldom, and on the
1 2th of January 1650 he obtained the Garter. He was chosen by
Charles II. to command the troops of Lancashire and Cheshire,
and on the isth of August 1651 he landed at Wyre Water in
Lancashire in support of Charles's invasion, and met the king
on the 1 7th. Proceeding to Warrington he failed to obtain
the support of the Presbyterians through his refusal to take the
Covenant, and on the 25th was totally defeated at Wigan, being
severely wounded and escaping with difficulty. He joined
66
DERBY, EARLS OF
Charles at Worcester; after the battle on the 3rd of September
he accompanied him to Boscobel, and while on his way north
alone was captured near Nantwich and given quarter. He was
tried by court-martial at Chester on the 2gth of September, and
on the ground that he was a traitor and not a prisoner of war
under the act of parliament passed in the preceding month,
which declared those who corresponded with Charles guilty of
treason, his quarter was disallowed and he was condemned to
death. When his appeal for pardon to parliament was rejected,
though supported by Cromwell, he endeavoured to escape; but
was recaptured and executed at Bolton on the isth of October
1651. He was buried in Ormskirk church. Lord Derby was a
man of deep religious feeling and of great nobility of character,
who though unsuccessful in the field served the king's cause with
single-minded purpose and without expectation of reward. His
political usefulness was handicapped in the later stages of the
struggle by his dislike of the Scots, whom he regarded as guilty
of the king's death and as unfit instruments of the restoration.
According to Clarendon he was " a man of great honour and clear
courage," and his defects the result of too little knowledge of
the world. Lord Derby left in MS. " A Discourse concerning the
Government of the Isle of Man " (printed in the Stanley Papers
and in F. Peck's Desiderata Curiosa, vol. ii.) and several volumes
of historical collections, observations, devotions (Stanley Papers)
and a commonplace book. He married on the 26th of June 1626
Charlotte de la Tremoille (1590-1664), daughter of Claude, due
de Thouars, and granddaughter of William the Silent, prince
of Orange, by whom besides four daughters he had five sons, of
whom the eldest, Charles (1628-1672), succeeded him as 8th earl.
Charles's two sons, William, the pth earl (c. 1655-1702), and
James, the icth earl (1664-1736), both died without sons, and
consequently, when James died in February 1736, his titles and
estates passed to Sir Edward Stanley (1680-1776), a descendant
of the ist earl. From him the later earls were descended, the
1 2th earl (d. 1834) being his grandson.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Article in Diet, of Nat. Biog. with authorities
and article in same work on Charlotte Stanley, countess of Derby;
the Stanley Papers, with the too laudatory memoir by F. R. Haines
(Chetham Soc. publications, vols. 62, 66, 67, 70) ; Memoires, by De
Lloyd (1668), 572; State Trials, v. 293-324; Notes & Queries, viii.
Ser. iii. 246; Seacombe's House of Stanley] Clarendon's Hist, of
the Rebellion; Gardiner's Hist, of the Civil War and Protectorate;
The Land of Home Rule, by Spencer Walpole (1893); Hist, of
the Isle of Man, by A. W. Moore (1900); Manx Soc. publications,
vols. 3, 25, 27. (P. C. Y.)
EDWARD GEOFFREY SMITH STANLEY, i4th earl of Derby (1799-
1869), the " Rupert of Debate," born at Knowsley in Lanca-
shire on the 29th of March 1799, grandson of the I2th earl and
eldest son of Lord Stanley, subsequently (1834) i3th earl of Derby
(1775-1851). He was educated at Eton and at Christ Church,
Oxford, where he distinguished himself as a classical scholar,
though he took no degree. In 1819 he obtained the Chancellor's
prize for Latin verse, the subject being " Syracuse." He gave
early promise of his future eminence as an orator, and in his youth
he used to practise elocution under the instruction of Lady
Derby, his grandfather's second wife, the actress, Elizabeth
Farren. In 1820 he was returned for Stockbridge in Hampshire,
one of the nomination boroughs whose electoral rights were
swept away by the Reform Bill of 1832, Stanley being a warm
advocate of their destruction.
His maiden speech was delivered early in the session of 1824 in
the debate on a private bill for lighting Manchester with gas. On
the 6th of May 1824 he delivered a vehement and eloquent speech
against Joseph Hume's motion for a reduction of the Irish Church
establishment, maintaining in its most conservative form the
doctrine that church property is as sacred as private property.
From this time his appearances became frequent; and he soon
asserted his place as one of the most powerful speakers in the
House. Specially noticeable almost from the first was the skill
he displayed in reply. Macaulay, in an essay published in 1834,
remarked that he seemed to possess intuitively the faculty which
in most men is developed only by long and laborious practice. In
the autumn of 1824 Stanley went on an extended tour through
Canada and the United States in company with Mr Labo-uchere,
afterwards Lord Taunton, and Mr Evelyn Denison, afterwards
Lord Ossington. In May of the following year he married the
second daughter of Edward Bootle-Wilbraham, created Baron
Skelmersdale in 1828, by whom he had a family of two sons
and one daughter who survived.
At the general election of 1826 Stanley renounced his connec-
tion with Stockbridge, and became the representative of the
borough of Preston, where the Derby influence was paramount.
The change of seats had this advantage, that it left him free to
speak against the system of rotten boroughs, which he did with
great force during the Reform Bill debates, without laying himself
open to the charge of personal inconsistency as the representative
of a place where, according to Gay, cobblers used to " feast three
years upon one vote." In 1827 he and several other distinguished
Whigs made a coalition with Canning on the defection of the more
unyielding Tories, and he commenced his official life as under-
secretary for the colonies, but the coalition was broken up by
Canning's death in August. Lord Goderich succeeded to the
premiership, but he never was really in power, and he resigned
his place after the lapse of a few months. During the succeeding
administration of the duke of Wellington (1828-1830), Stanley
and those with whom he acted were in opposition. His robust
and assertive Liberalism about this period seemed curious after-
wards to a younger generation who knew him only as the very
embodiment of Conservatism.
By the advent of Lord Grey to power in November 1830,
Stanley obtained his first opportunity of showing his capacity for
a responsible office. He was appointed to the chief secretary-
ship of Ireland, a position in which he found ample scope
for both administrative and debating skill. On accepting
office he had to vacate his seat for Preston and seek re-election;
and he had the mortification of being defeated by the Radical
" orator " Hunt. The contest was a peculiarly keen one, and
turned upon the question of the ballot, which Stanley refused to
support. He re-entered the House as one of the members for
Windsor, Sir Hussey Vivian having resigned in his favour. In 1 83 2
he again changed his seat, being returned for North Lancashire.
Stanley was one of the most ardent supporters of Lord Grey's
Reform Bill. Of this no other proof is needed than his frequent
parliamentary utterances, which were fully in sympathy with the
popular cry " The bill, the whole bill, and nothing but the bill."
Reference may be made especially to the speech he delivered on
the 4th of March 1831 on the adjourned debate on the second
reading of the bill, which was marked by all the higher qualities
of his oratory. Apart from his connexion with the general policy
of the government, Stanley had more than enough to have
employed all his energies in the management of his own depart-
ment. The secretary of Ireland has seldom an easy task; Stanley
found it one of peculiar difficulty. The country was in a very
unsettled state. The just concession that had been somewhat
tardily yielded a short time before in Catholic emancipation
had excited the people to make all sorts of demands, reasonable
and unreasonable. Undaunted by the fierce denunciations of
O'Connell, who styled him Scorpion Stanley, he discharged with
determination the ungrateful task of carrying a coercion bill
through the House. It was generally felt that O'Connell,
powerful though he was, had fairly met his match in Stanley,
who, with invective scarcely inferior to his own, evaded no
challenge, ignored no argument, and left no taunt unanswered.
The title " Rupert of Debate " is peculiarly applicable to him
in connexion with the fearless if also often reckless method of
attack he showed in his parliamentary war with O'Connell.
It was first applied to him, however, thirteen years later by Sir
Edward Bulwer Lytton in The New Timon:
" One after one the lords of time advance ;
Here Stanley meets here Stanley scorns the glance!
The brilliant chief, irregularly great,
Frank, haughty, rash, the Rupert of debate."
The best answer, however, which he made to the attacks of the
great agitator was not the retorts of debate, effective though
these were, but the beneficial legislation he was instrumental in
DERBY, EARLS OF
67
passing. He introduced and carried the first national education
act for Ireland, one result of which was the remarkable and to
many almost incredible phenomenon of a board composed
of Catholics, Episcopalians and Presbyterians harmoniously
administering an efficient education scheme. He was also chiefly
responsible for the Irish Church Temporalities Act, though the
bill was not introduced into parliament until after he had quitted
the Irish secretaryship for another office. By this measure two
archbishoprics and eight bishoprics were abolished, and a remedy
was provided for various abuses connected with the revenues of
the church. As originally introduced, the bill contained a clause
authorizing the appropriation of surplus revenues to non-
ecclesiastical purposes. This had, however, been strongly opposed
from the first by Stanley and several other members of the
cabinet, and it was withdrawn by the government before the
measure reached the Lords.
In 1833, just before the introduction of the Irish Church
Temporalities Bill, Stanley had been promoted to be secretary
for the colonies with a seat in the cabinet. In this position it fell
to his lot to carry the emancipation of the slaves to a successful
practical issue. The speech which he delivered on introducing
the biU for freeing the slaves in the West Indies, on the i4th of
May 1833, was one of the finest specimens of his eloquence.
The Irish Church question determined more than one turning-
point in his political career. The most important occasion on
which it did so was in 1834, when the proposal of the government
to appropriate the surplus revenues of the church to educational
purposes led to his secession from the cabinet, and, as it proved,
his complete and final separation from the Whig party. In the
former of these steps he had as his companions Sir James Graham,
the earl of Ripon and the duke of Richmond. Soon after it
occurred, O'Connell, amid the laughter of the House, described
the secession in a couplet from Canning's Loves of the Triangles:
" Still down thy steep, romantic Ashbourne, glides
The Derby dilly carrying six insides."
Stanley was not content with marking his disapproval by the
simple act of withdrawing from the cabinet. He spoke against the
bill to which he objected with a vehemence that showed the
strength of his feeling in the matter, and against its authors with
a bitterness that he himself is understood to have afterwards
admitted to have been unseemly towards those who had so
recently been his colleagues. The course followed by the govern-
ment was " marked with all that timidity, that want of dexterity,
which led to the failure of the unpractised shoplifter." His late
colleagues were compared to "thimble-riggers at a country fair,"
and their plan was "petty larceny, for it had not the redeeming
qualities of bold and open robbery."
In the end of 1834, Lord Stanley, as he was now styled by
courtesy, his father having succeeded to the earldom in October,
was invited by Sir Robert Peel to join the short-lived Con-
servative ministry which he formed after the resignation of Lord
Melbourne. Though he declined the offer for reasons stated in a
letter published in the Peel memoirs, he acted from that date
with the Conservative party, and on its next accession to power,
in 1841, he accepted the office of colonial secretary, which he had
held under Lord Grey. His position and his temperament alike,
however, made him a thoroughly independent supporter of any
party to which he attached himself. When, therefore, the injury
to health arising from the late hours in the Commons led him
in 1844 to seek elevation to the Upper House in the right of his
father's barony, Sir Robert Peel, in acceding to his request, had
the satisfaction of at once freeing himself from the possible effects
of his " candid friendship " in the House, and at the same time
1 greatly strengthening the debating power on the Conservative
side in the other. If the premier in taking this step had any
presentiment of an approaching difference on a vital question, it
was not long in being realized. When Sir Robert Peel accepted
the policy of free trade in 1846, the breach between him and Lord
Stanley was, as might have been anticipated from the antecedents
of the latter, instant and irreparable. Lord Stanley at once
asserted himself as the uncompromising opponent of that policy,
and he became the recognized leader of the Protectionist party,
having Lord George Bentinck and Disraeli for his lieutenants
in the Commons. They did all that could be done in a case in
which the logic of events was against them, though Protection
was never to become more than their watchword.
It is one of the peculiarities of English politics, however, that
a party may come into power because it is the only available one
at the time, though it may have no chance of carrying the very
principle to which it owes its organized existence. Such was the
case when Lord Derby, who had succeeded to the earldom on the
death of his father in June 1851, was called upon to form his first
administration in February 1852. He was in a minority, but the
circumstances were such that no other than a minority govern-
ment was possible, and he resolved to take the only available
means of strengthening his position by dissolving parliament and
appealing to the country at the earliest opportunity. The appeal
was made in autumn, but its result did not materially alter the
position of parties. Parliament met in November, and by the
middle of the following month the ministry had resigned in
consequence of their defeat on Disraeli's budget. For the six
following years, during Lord. Aberdeen's "ministry of all the
talents " and Lord Palmerston's premiership, Lord Derby
remained at the head of the opposition, whose policy gradually
became more generally Conservative and less distinctively
Protectionist as the hopelessness of reversing the measures
adopted in 1846 made itself apparent. In 1855 he was asked to
form an administration after the resignation of Lord Aberdeen,
but failing to obtain sufficient support, he declined the task. It
was in somewhat more hopeful circumstances that, after the
defeat of Lord Palmerston on the Conspiracy Bill in February
1858, he assumed for the second time the reins of government.
Though he still could not count upon a working majority, there
was a possibility of carrying on affairs without sustaining defeat,
which was realized for a full session, owing chiefly to the dexterous
management of Mr Disraeli in the Commons. The one rock
ahead was the question of reform, on which the wishes of the
country were being emphatically expressed, but it was not so
pressing as to require to be immediately dealt with. During the
session of 1858 the government contrived to pass two measures
of very considerable importance, one a bill to remove Jewish
disabilities, and the other a bill to transfer the government of
India from the East India Company to the crown. Next year
the question of parliamentary reform had to be faced, and,
recognizing the necessity, the government introduced a bill
at the opening of the session, which, in spite of, or rather in
consequence of, its " fancy franchises," was rejected by the
House, and, on a dissolution, rejected also by the country. A
vote of no confidence having been passed in the new parliament
on the loth of June, Lord Derby at once resigned.
After resuming the leadership of the Opposition Lord Derby
devoted much of the leisure the position afforded him to the
classical studies that had always been congenial to him. It was
his reputation for scholarship as well as his social position that
had led in 1852 to his appointment to the chancellorship of the
university of Oxford, in succession to the duke of Wellington ;
and perhaps a desire to justify the possession of the honour on
the former ground had something to do with his essays in the
field of authorship. His first venture was a poetical version of the
ninth ode of the third book of Horace, which appeared in Lord
Ravensworth's collection of translations of the Odes. In 1862 he
printed and circulated in influential quarters a volume entitled
Translations of Poems Ancient and Modern, with a very modest
dedicatory letter to Lord Stanhope, and the words " Not
published " on the title-page. It contained, besides versions of
Latin, Italian, French and German poems, a translation of the
first book of the Iliad. The reception of this volume was such as
to encourage him to proceed with the task he had chosen as his
magnum opus, the translation of the whole of the Iliad, which
accordingly appeared in 1864.
During the seven years that elapsed between Lord Derby's
second and third administrations an industrial crisis occurred
in his native county, which brought out very conspicuously his
public spirit and his philanthropy. The destitution in Lancashire
68
DERBY, EARLS OF
caused by the stoppage of the cotton-supply in consequence of the
American Civil War, was so great as to threaten to overtax the
benevolence of the country. That it did not do so was probably
due to Lord Derby more than to any other single man. From the
first he was the very life and soul of the movement for relief. His
personal subscription, munificent though it was, represented the
least part of his service. His noble speech at the meeting in
Manchester in December 1862, where the movement was initiated,
and his advice at the subsequent meetings of the committee,
which he attended very regularly, were of the very highest value
in stimulating and directing public sympathy. His relations
with Lancashire had always been of the most cordial description,
notwithstanding his early rejection by Preston; but it is not
surprising that after the cotton famine period the cordiality
passed into a warmer and deeper feeling, and that the name of
Lord Derby was long cherished in most grateful remembrance
by the factory operatives.
On the rejection of Earl Russell's Reform Bill in 1866, Lord
Derby was for the third time entrusted with the formation of a
cabinet. Like those he had previously formed it was destined to
be short-lived, but it lived long enough to settle on a permanent
basis the question that had proved fatal to its predecessor. The
" education " of the party that had so long opposed all reform to
the point of granting household suffrage was the work of another;
but Lord Derby fully concurred in, if he was not the first to
suggest, the statesmanlike policy by which the question was
disposed of in such a way as to take it once for all out of the region
of controversy and agitation. The passing of the Reform Bill was
the main business of the session 1867. The chief debates were, of
course, in the Commons, and Lord Derby's failing powers pre-
vented him from taking any large share in those which took place
in the Lords. His description of the measure as a " leap in the
dark " was eagerly caught up, because it exactly represented the
common opinion at the time, the most experienced statesmen,
while they admitted the granting of household suffrage to be a
political necessity, being utterly unable to foresee what its effect
might be on the constitution and government of the country.
Finding himself unable, from declining health, to encounter
the fatigues of another session, Lord Derby resigned office early
in 1868. The step he had taken was announced in both Houses
on the evening of the 2$th of February, and warm tributes of
admiration and esteem were paid by the leaders of the two great
parties. He yielded the entire leadership of the party as well
as the premiership to Disraeli. His subsequent appearances in
public were few and unimportant. It was noted as a consistent
close to his political life that his last speech in the House of Lords
should have been a denunciation of Gladstone's Irish Church Bill
marked by much of his early fire and vehemence. A few months
later, on the 23rd of October 1869, he died at Knowsley.
Sir Archibald Alison, writing of him when he was in the zenith
of his powers, styles him " by the admission of all parties the
most perfect orator of his day." Even higher was the opinion of
Lord Aberdeen, who is reported by The Times to have said that
no one of the giants he had listened to in his youth, Pitt, Fox,
Burke or Sheridan, " as a speaker, is to be compared with our
own Lord Derby, when Lord Derby is at his best." (W.B.S.)
EDWARD HENRY STANLEY, isth earl of Derby (1826-
1893), eldest son of the i4th earl, was educated at Rugby
and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took a high degree
and became a member of the society known as the Apostles. In
March 1848 he unsuccessfully contested the borough of Lancaster,
and then made a long tour in the West Indies, Canada and the
United States. During his absence he was elected member for
King's Lynn, which he represented till October 1869, when he
succeeded to the peerage. He took his place, as a matter of
course, among the Conservatives, and delivered his maiden speech
in May 1850 on the sugar duties. Just before, he had made a
very brief tour in Jamaica and South America. In 1852 he went
to India, and while travelling in that country he was appointed
under-secretary for foreign affairs in his father's first administra-
tion. From the outset of his career he was known to be a most
Liberal Conservative, and in 1855 Lord Palmerston offered him
the post of colonial secretary. He was much tempted by the
proposal, and hurried down to Knowsley to consult his father,
who called out when he entered the room, "Hallo, Stanley!
what brings you here ? Has Dizzy cut his throat, or are you
going to be married ? " When the object of his sudden appear-
ance had been explained, the Conservative chief received the
courteous suggestion of the prime minister with anything but
Favour, and the offer was declined. In his father's second
administration Lord Stanley held, at first, the office of secretary
for the colonies, but became president of the Board of Control on
the resignation of Lord EUenborough. He had the charge of the
India Bill of 1858 in the House of Commons, became the first
secretary of state for India, and left behind him in the India
Office an excellent reputation as a man of business. After the
revolution in Greece and the disappearance of King Otho, the
people most earnestly desired to have Queen Victoria's second
son, Prince Alfred, for their king. He declined the honour, and
they then took up the idea that the next best thing they could
do would be to elect some great and wealthy English noble, not
concealing the hope that although they might have to offer him
a Civil List he would decline to receive it. Lord Stanley was the
prime favourite as an occupant of this bed of thorns, and it has
been said that he was actually offered the crown. That, however,
is not true; the offer was never formally made. After the fall of
the Russell government in 1866 he became foreign secretary in
his father's third administration. He compared his conduct in
that great post to that of a man floating down a river and fending
off from his vessel, as well as he could, the various obstacles it
encountered. He thought that that should be the normal
attitude of an English foreign minister, and probably under the
circumstances of the years 1866-1868 it was the right one. He
arranged the collective guarantee of the neutrality of Luxemburg
in 1867, negotiated a convention about the " Alabama," which,
however, was not ratified, and most wisely refused to take any
part in the Cretan troubles. In 1874 he again became foreign
secretary in Disraeli's government. He acquiesced in the
purchase of the Suez Canal shares, a measure then considered
dangerous by many people, but ultimately most successful; he
accepted the Andrassy Note, but declined to accede to the Berlin
Memorandum. His part in the later phases of the Russo-Turkish
struggle has never been fully explained, for with equal wisdom
and generosity he declined to gratify public curiosity at the cost
of some of his colleagues. A later generation will know better
than his contemporaries what were the precise developments of
policy which obliged him to resign. He kept himself ready to
explain in the House of Lords the course he had taken if those
whom he had left challenged him to do so, but from that course
theyconsistently.refrained. Already in October i879itwas clear
enough that he had thrown in his lot with the Liberal party, but
it was not till March 1880 that he publicly announced this change
of allegiance. He did not at first take office in the second
Gladstone government, but became secretary for the colonies in
December 1882, holding this position till the fall of that govern-
ment in the summer of 1885. In 1886 the old Liberal party was
run on the rocks and went to pieces. Lord Derby became a
Liberal Unionist, and took an active part in the general manage-
ment of that party, leading it in the House of Lords till 1801,
when Lord Hartington became duke of Devonshire. In 1892 he
presided over the Labour Commission, but his health never
recovered an attack of influenza which he had in 1891, and he
died at Knowsley on the 2ist of April 1893.
During a great part of Lord Derby's life he was deflected from
his natural course by the accident of his position as the son of the
leading Conservative statesman of the day. From first to last *
he was at heart a moderate Liberal. After making allowance,
however, for this deflecting agency, it must be admitted that in
the highest quality of the statesman, " aptness to be right," he
was surpassed by none of his contemporaries, or if by anybody
by Sir George Cornewall Lewis alone. He would have been
more at home in a state of things which did not demand from its
leading statesman great popular power; he had none of those
" isms " and " prisms of fancy " which stood in such good stead
DERBY
69
some of his rivals. He had another defect besides the want
of popular power. He was so anxious to arrive at right con-
clusions that he sometimes turned and turned and turned a
subject over till the time for action had passed. One of his best
lieutenants said of him in a moment of impatience: " Lord
Derby is like the God of Hegel: ' Er setzt sich, er verneint sich,
er verneint seine Negation.' " His knowledge, acquired both
from books and by the ear, was immense, and he took every
opportunity of increasing it. He retained his old university
habit of taking long walks with a congenial companion, even in
London, and although he cared but little for what is commonly
known as society the society of crowded rooms and fragments
of sentences he very much liked conversation. During the
many years in which he was a member of " The Club " he was
one of its most assiduous frequenters, and his loss was acknow-
ledged by a formal resolution. His talk was generally grave, but
every now and then was lit up by dry humour. The late Lord
Arthur Russell once said to him, after he had been buying some
property in southern England: " So you still believe in land,
Lord Derby." " Hang it," he replied, " a fellow must believe in
something! " He did an immense deal of work outside politics.
He was lord rector of the University of Glasgow from 1868 to
1871, and later held the same office in that of Edinburgh. From
1875 to 1893 he was president of the Royal Literary Fund, and
attended most closely to his duties then. He succeeded Lord
Granville as chancellor of the University of London in 1891, and
remained in that position till his death. He lived much in
Lancashire, managed his enormous estates with great skill, and
did a great amount of work as a local magnate. He married in
1870 Maria Catharine, daughter of the 5th earl de la Warr, and
widow of the 2nd marquess of Salisbury.
The earl left no children and he was succeeded as i6th earl
by his brother Frederick Arthur Stanley (1841-1908), who had
been made a peer as Baron Stanley of Preston in 1886. He was
secretary of state for war and for the colonies and president of
the board of trade; and was governor-general of Canada from
1888 to 1893. He died on the i4th of June 1908, when his eldest
son, Edward George Villiers Stanley, became earl of Derby. As
Lord Stanley the latter had been member of parliament for the
West Houghton division of Lancashire from 1892 to 1906; he
was financial secretary to the War Office from 190x5 to 1903, and
postmaster-general from 1903 to 1905.
The best account of the I5th Lord Derby is that which was
prefixed by W. E. H. Lecky, who knew him very intimately,
to the edition of his speeches outside parliament, published in
1894. (M. G. D.)
DERBY, a city of New Haven county, Connecticut, U.S.A.,
coextensive with the township of Derby, about 10 m. W. of New
Haven, at the junction of the Housatonic and Naugatuck rivers.
Pop. (1900) 7930 (2635 foreign-born); (1910) 8991. It is served
by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and by
interurban electric railways. In Derby there are an opera house,
owned by the city, and a public library. Across the Housatonic
is the borough of Shelton (pop. 1910, 4807), which is closely
related, socially and industrially, to Derby, the two having a
joint board of trade. Adjoining Derby on the N. along the
Naugatuck is Ansonia. Derby, Ansonia and Shelton form one of
the most important manufacturing communities in the etate;
although their total population in 1900 (23,448) was only 2-9%
of the state's population, the product of their manufactories was
7-4% of the total manufactured product of Connecticut. Among
the manufactures of Derby are pianos and organs, woollen goods,
pins, keys, dress stays, combs, typewriters, corsets, hosiery, guns
and ammunition, and foundry and machine-shop products.
Derby was settled in 1642 as an Indian trading post under the
name Paugasset, and received its present name in 1675. The
date of organization of the township is unknown. Ansonia was
formed from a part of Derby in 1889. In 1893 the borough of
Birmingham, on the opposite side of the Naugatuck, was annexed
to Derby, and Derby was chartered as a city. In the i8th
century Derby was the centre of a thriving commerce with the
West Indies. Derby is the birthplace of David Humphreys
(1752-1818), a soldier, diplomatist and writer, General
Washington's aide and military secretary from 1780 until the
end of the War of Independence, the first minister of the
United States to Portugal (1790-1797) and minister to Spain in
1797-1802, and one of the " Hartford Wits."
See Samuel Orcutt and Ambrose Beardsley, History of the Old
Town of Derby (Springfield, 1880); and the Town Records of Derby
from 1655 to 1710 (Derby, 1901).
DERBY, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough,
and the county town of Derbyshire, England, 128$ m. N.N.W.
of London by the Midland railway; it is also served by the
Great Northern railway. Pop. (1891) 94,146; (1901) 114,848.
Occupying a position almost in the centre of England, the town
is situated chiefly on the western bank of the river Derwent, on an
undulating site encircled with gentle eminences, from which flow
the Markeaton and other brooks. In the second half of the igth
century the prosperity of the town was enhanced by the establish-
ment of the head offices and principal workshops of the Midland
Railway Company. Derby possesses several handsome public
buildings, including the town hall, a spacious range of buildings
erected for the postal and inland revenue offices, the county hall,
corn exchange and market hall. Among churches may be
mentioned St Peter's a fine building principally of Perpendicular
date but with earlier portions; St Alkmund's with its lofty spire,
Decorated in style; St Andrew's, in the same style, by Sir G. G.
Scott; and All Saints', which contains a beautiful choir-screen,
good stained glass and monuments by L. F. Roubiliac, Sir
Francis Chantrey and others. The body of this church is in
classic style (1725), but the tower was built 1509-1527, and is one
of the finest in the midland counties, built in three tiers, and
crowned with battlements and pinnacles, which give it a total
height of 210 ft. The Roman Catholic church of St Mary is one
of the best examples of the work of A. W. Pugin. The Derby
grammar school, one of the most ancient in England, was placed
in 1 1 60 under the administration of the chapter of Darley Abbey,
which lay a little north of Derby. It occupies St Helen's House,
once the town residence of the Strutt family, and has been
enlarged in modern times, accommodating about 160 boys. The
Derby municipal technical college is administered by the corpora-
tion. Other institutions include schools of science and art,
public library, museum and art gallery, the Devonshire alms-
houses, a remodelled foundation inaugurated by Elizabeth,
countess of Shrewsbury, in the i6th century, and the town and
county infirmary. The free library and museum buildings,
together with a recreation ground, were gifts to the town from
M. T. Bass, M.P. (d. 1884), while an arboretum of seventeen
acres was presented to the town by Joseph Strutt in 1840.
Derby has been long celebrated for its porcelain, which
rivalled that of Saxony and France. This manufacture was
introduced about 1750, and although for a time partially
abandoned, it has been revived. There are also spar works where
the fluor-spar, or Blue John, is wrought into a variety of useful
and ornamental articles. The manufacture of silk, hosiery, lace
and cotton formerly employed a large portion of the population,
and there are still numerous silk mills and elastic web works.
Silk " throwing " or spinning was introduced into England in
1717 by John Lombe, who found out the secrets of the craft
when visiting Piedmont, and set up machinery in Derby. Other
industries include the manufacture of paint, shot, white and
red lead and varnish; and there are sawmills and tanneries.
The manufacture of hosiery profited greatly by the inventions
of Jedediah Strutt about 1750. In the northern suburb of
Littlechester, there are chemical and steam boiler works. The
Midland railway works employ a large number of hands. Derby
is a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of Southwell. The parlia-
mentary borough returns two members. The town is governed
by a mayor, sixteen aldermen and forty-two councillors. Area,
3449 acres.
Littlechester, as its name indicates, was the site of a Roman
fort or village; the site is in great part built over and the remains
practically effaced. Derby was known in the time of the
heptarchy as Northworthig, and did not receive the name of
DERBYSHIRE
Deoraby or Derby until after it was given up to the Danes by the
treaty of Wedmore and had become one of their five boroughs,
probably ruled in the ordinary way by an earl with twelve
" lawmen " under him. Being won back among the sweeping
conquests of iEthelflad, lady of the Mercians, in 91 7, it prospered
during the icth century, and by the reign of Edward the Con-
fessor there were 243 burgesses in Derby. However, by 1086 this
number had decreased to 100, while 103 " manses " which used
to be assessed were waste. In spite of this the amount rendered
by the town to the lord had increased from 24 to 30. The first
extant charter granted to Derby is dated 1 206 and is a grant of all
those privileges which the burgesses of Nottingham had in the
time of Henry I. and Henry II., which included freedom from toll,
a gild merchant, power to elect a provost at their will, and the
privilege of holding the town at the ancient farm with an increase
of 10 yearly. The charter also provides that no one shall dye
cloth within ten leagues of Derby except in the borough. A
second charter, granted by Henry III. in 1229, limits the power of
electing a provost by requiring that he shall be removed if he
be displeasing to the king. Henry III. also granted the burgesses
two other charters, one in 1225 confirming their privileges and
granting that the comitalus of Derby should in future be held on
Thursdays in the borough, the other in 1260 granting that no
Jew should be allowed to live in the town. In 1337 Edward III.
on the petition of the burgesses granted that they might have two
bailiffs instead of one. Derby was incorporated by James I. in
1611 under the name of the bailiffs and burgesses of Derby, but
Charles I. in 1637 appointed a mayor, nine aldermen, fourteen
brethren and fourteen capital burgesses. In 1680 the burgesses
were obliged to resign their charters, and received a new one,
which did not, however, alter the government of the town. Derby
has been represented in parliament by two members since 1295.
In the rebellion of 1745 the young Pretender marched with his
army as far south as Derby, where the council was held which
decided that he should return to Scotland instead of going on to
London.
Among early works on Derby are W. Hutton, History of Derby
(London, 1791); R. Simpson, History and Antiquities of Derby
(Derby, 1826).
DERBYSHIRE, a north midland county of England, bounded
N. and N.E. by Yorkshire, E. by Nottinghamshire, S.E. and S. by
Leicestershire, S. and S.W. by Staffordshire, and W. and N.W. by
Cheshire. The area is 1029- 5 sq. m. The physical aspect is much
diversified. The extreme south of the county is lacking in
picturesqueness, being for the most part level, with occasional
slight undulations. The Peak District of the north, on the other
hand, though inferior in grandeur to the mountainous Lake
District, presents some of the finest hill scenery in England,
deriving a special beauty from the richly wooded glens and
valleys, such as those of Castleton, Glossop, Dovedale and
Millersdale. The character of the landscape ranges from the wild
moorland of the Cheshire borders or the grey rocks of the Peak,
to the park lands and woods of the Chatsworth district. Some of
the woods are noted for their fine oaks, those at Kedleston, 3 m.
from Derby, ranking among the largest and oldest in the kingdom.
From the northern hills the streams of the county radiate.
Those of the north-west belong to the Mersey, and those of the
north-east to the Don, but all the others to the Trent, which, like
the Don, falls into the Humber. The principal river is the Trent,
which, rising in the Staffordshire moorlands, intersects the
southern part of Derbyshire, and forms part of its boundary
with Leicestershire. After the Trent the most important river
is the Derwent, one of its tributaries, which, taking its rise in the
lofty ridges of the High Peak, flows southward through a beautiful
valley, 'receiving a number of minor streams in its course, includ-
ing the Wye, which, rising near Buxton, traverses the fine
Millersdale and Monsal Dale. The other principal rivers are the
following: The Dane rises at the junction of the three counties,
Staffordshire, Cheshire and Derbyshire. The Goyt has its source
a little farther north, at the base of the same hill, and, taking a
N.N.E. direction, divides Derbyshire from Cheshire, and falls into
the Mersey. The Dove rises on the southern slope, and flows as
the boundary stream between Derbyshire and Staffordshire for
nearly its entire course. It receives several feeders, and falls into
the Trent near Repton. The Erewash is the boundary stream
between Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire. The Rother rises
about Baslow, and flows into Yorkshire, with a northerly course,
joining the Don. Besides the attractions of its scenery Derby-
shire possesses, in Buxton, Matlock and Bakewell, three
health resorts in much favour on account of their medicinal
springs.
The whole northward extension of the county is occupied by
the plateau of the Peak and other plateau-like summits, the
highest of which are of almost exactly similar elevation. Thus
in the extreme north Bleaklow Hill reaches 2060 ft., while
southward from this point along the axis of main elevation are
found Shelf Moss (2046 ft.), and Kinder Scout and other summits
of the Peak itself, ranging up to 2088 ft. This plateau-mass is
demarcated on the north and west by the vales of the Etherow
and Goyt, by the valley of the Derwent on the east, and in part
by that of its tributary the Noe on the south. The flanks of the
plateau are deeply scored by abrupt ravines, often known as
" cloughs " (an Anglo-Saxon word, cloh) watered by streams
which sometimes descend over precipitous ledges in picturesque
falls, such as the Kinder Downfall, formed by the brook of that
name v/hich rises on Kinder Scout. The most picturesque
cloughs are found on the south, descending to Edale, and on the
west. Edale is the upper part of the Noe valley, and the narrow
gorge at its head is exceedingly beautiful, as is the more gentle
scenery of the Vale of Hope, the lower part of the valley. In a
branch vale is situated Castleton (<?..), with the ruined Peak
Castle or Castle of the Peak, and the Peak Cavern, Blue John
Mine and other caves. The upper Derwent valley, or Derwent
Dale, is narrow and well wooded. In it, near the village of
Derwent Chapel, is Derwent Hall, a fine old mansion formerly
a seat of the Newdigate family. On Derwent Edge, above the
village, are various peculiar rock formations, known by such
names as the Salt-cellar. Ashopton, another village lower down
the dale, is a favourite centre, and here the main valley is joined
by Ashop Dale, a bold defile in its upper part, penetrating the
heart of the Peak.
The well-known high road crossing the plateau from east to
west, between the lower Derwent valley, Bakewell, Buxton and
Macclesfield, shows the various types of scenery characteristic
of the limestone hill-country of Derbyshire south of the Peak
itself. The lower Derwent valley, about Chatsworth, Rowsley,
Darley and Matlock, is open, fertile and well wooded. The road
leads up the tributary valley of the Wye, which after Bakewell
quickly narrows, and in successive portions is known as Monsal
Dale, Millersdale (which the main road does not touch), Chee
Dale and Wye Dale. On the flanks of these beautiful dales bold
cliffs and bastions of limestone stand out among rich woods.
Near the mouth of the valley, about Stanton, the fantastic
effects of weathering on the limestone are especially well seen,
as in Rowtor Rocks and Robin Hood's Stride, and in the same
locality are a remarkable number of tumuli and other early
remains, and the Hermitage, a cave containing sacred carvings.
From Buxton the road ascends over the high moors, here open
and grassy in contrast to the heather of the Peak, and shortly
after crossing the county boundary, reaches the head of the pass
well known by the name of an inn, the Cat and Fiddle, at its
highest point, 1690 ft.
South of Buxton the elevations along the main axis decrease,
thus Axe Edge reaches 1600 ft., and this height is nowhere
exceeded as the hills sink to the plain valley of the Trent. The
dales and ravines which ramify among the limestone heights are
characteristic and beautiful, and the valley of the Dove (q.v.)
or Dovedale, on the border with Staffordshire, is as famous as
any of the northern dales. Swallow-holes or waterworn caverns
are common in many parts of the limestone region. The hills
east of the Derwent are nowhere so high as those to the west
Margley Hill reaches 1793 ft., Howden Edge 1787 ft. and Der-
went Moors 1505 ft. The plateau type is maintained. The
valley of the Derwent provides the most attractive scenery in
DERBYSHIRE
the southern part of the county, from Matlock southward by
Heage, Belper and Duffield to Derby.
Geology. Five well-contrasted types of scenery in Derbyshire are
clearly traceable to as many varieties of rock ; the bleak dry uplands
of the north and east, with deep-cut ravines and swift clear streams,
are due to the great mass of Mountain Limestone; round the lime-
stone boundary are the valleys with soft outlines in the Pendleside
Shales; these are succeeded by the rugged moorlands, covered with
heather and peat, which are due to the Millstone Grit series; east-
ward lies the Derbyshire Coalfield with its gently moulded grass-
covered hills; southward is the more level tract of red Triassic rocks.
The principal structural feature is the broad anticline, its axis running
north and south, which has brought up the Carboniferous Limestone ;
this uplifted region is the southern extremity of the Pennine Range.
The Carboniferous or " Mountain " Limestone is the oldest formation
in the county; its thickness is not known, but it is certainly over
2000 ft. ; it is well exposed in the numerous narrow gorges cut by the
Derwent and its tributaries and by the Dove on the Staffordshire
border. Ashwood Dale, Chee Dale, Millersdale, Monsal Dale and the
valley at Matlock are all flanked by abrupt sides of this rock. It is
usually a pale, thick-bedded rock, sometimes blue and occasionally,
as at Ashford, black. In some places, e.g. Thorpe Cloud, it is highly
fossiliferous, but it is usually somewhat barren except for abundant
crinoids and smaller organisms. It is polished in large slabs at
Ashford, where crinoidal, black and " rosewood " marbles are pro-
duced. Volcanic rocks, locally called " Toadstone,"_are represented
in the limestones by intrusive sills and flows of dolerite and by necks
of agglomerate, notably near Tideswell, Millersdale and Matlock.
Beds and nodules of chert are abundant in the upper parts of the
limestone; at Bakewell it is quarried for use in the Potteries. At
some points the limestone has been dolomitized ; near Bpnsall it has
been converted into a granular silicified rock. A series of black
shales with nodular limestones, the Pendleside series, rests upon the
Mountain Limestone on the east, south and north-west ; much of the
upper course of the Derwent has been cut through these soft beds.
Mam Tor, or the Shivering Mountain, is made of these shales. Next
in upward sequence is a thick mass of sandstones, grits and shales
the Millstone Grit series. On the west side these extend from
Blacklow Hill to Axe Edge ; on the east, from Derwent Edge to near
Derby; outlying masses form the rough moorland on Kinder Scout
and the picturesque tors near Stanton-by-Youlgreave. A small
patch of Millstone Grit and Limestone occurs in the south of the
county about Melbourne and Ticknall. The Coal Measures repose
upon the Millstone Grit ; the largest area of these rocksliesonthe east,
where they are conterminous with the coalfields of Yorkshire and
Nottingham. A small tract, part of the Leicestershire coalfield, lies
in the south-east corner, and in the north-west corner a portion of the
Lancashire coalfield appears about New Mills and Whaley Bridge.
They yield valuable coals, clays, marls and ganister. East of
Bolsover, the Coal Measures are covered unconformably by the
Permian breccias and magnesian limestone. Flanking the hills
between Ashbourne and Quarndon are red beds of Bunter marl,
sandstone and conglomerate ; they also appear at Morley, east of the
Derwent, and again round the small southern coalfield. Most of the
southern part of the county is occupied by Keuper marls and sand-
stones, the latter yield good building stone; and at Chellaston the
gypsum beds in the former are excavated on a large scale. Much of
the Triassic area is covered superficially by glacial drift and alluvium
of the Trent. Local boulders as well as northern erratics are found
in the valley of the Derwent. The bones of Pleistocene mammals,
the rhinoceros, mammoth, bison, hyaena, &c., have been found at
numerous places, often in caves and fissures in the limestones, e.g. at
Castleton, Wirksworth and Creswell. At Doveholes the Pleiocene
Mastodon has been reported. Galena and other lead ores are
abundant in veins in the limestone, but they are now only worked on
a large scale at Mill Close, near Winster; calamine, zinc, blende,
barytes, calcite and fluor-spar are common. Apeculiar variety of the
last named, called " Blue John," is found only near Castleton; at
the same place occurs the remarkable elastic bitumen, " elaterite."
Limestone is quarried at Buxton, Millersdale and Matlock for lime,
fluxing and chemical purposes. Good sandstone is obtained from
the Millstone Grit at Stancliffe, Tansley and Whatstandwell. Cal-
careous tufa or travertine occurs in the valley of Matlock and else-
where, and in some places is still being deposited by springs. Large
pits containing deposits of white sand, clay and pebbles are found
in the limestone at Longcliff, Newhaven and Carsington.
Climate. From the elevation which it attains in its northern
division the county is colder and is rainier than other midland
counties. Even in summer cold and thick fogs are often seen
hanging over the rivers, and clinging to the lower parts of the
hills, and hoar-frosts are by no means unknown even in June
and July. The winters in the uplands are generally severe, and
the rainfall heavy. At Buxton, at an elevation of about 1000 ft.,
the mean temperature in January is 34-9 F., and in July 57-5,
the mean annual being 45-4. These conditions contrast with
those at Derby, in the southern lowland, where the figures are
respectively 37-5, 61-2 and 48-8, while intermediate conditions
are found at Belper, 9 m. higher up the Derwent valley, where
the figures are 36-3, 59-9 and 47'3- The contrasts shown by
the mean annual rainfall are similarly marked. Thus at Wood-
head, lying high in the extreme north, it is 52-03 in., at Buxton
49-33 in., at Matlock, in the middle part of the Derwent valley,
35-2 in., and at Derby 24-35 m -
Agriculture. A little over seven-tenths of the total area of
the county is under cultivation. Among the higher altitudes of
north Derbyshire, where the soil is poor and the climate harsh,
grain is unable to flourish, while even in the more sheltered parts
of this region the harvest is usually belated. In such districts
sheep farming is chiefly practised, and there is a considerable
area of heath pasture. Farther south, heavy crops of wheat,
turnips and other cereals and green crops are not uncommon,
while barley is cultivated about Repton and Gresley, and also in
the east of the county, in order to supply the Burton breweries.
A large part of the Trent valley is under permanent pasture,
being devoted to cattle-feeding and dairy-farming. This industry
has prospered greatly, and the area of permanent pasture
encroaches continually upon that of arable land. Derbyshire
cheeses are exported or sent to London in considerable quantities;
and cheese fairs are held in various parts of the county, as at
Ashbourne and Derby. A feature of the upland districts is the
total absence of hedges, and the substitution of limestone walls,
put together without any mortar or cement.
Other Industries. The manufactures of Derbyshire are both
numerous and important, embracing silks, cotton hosiery, iron,
woollen manufactures, lace, elastic web and brewing. For many
of these this county has long been famous, especially for that of
silk, which is carried on to a large extent in Derby, as well as in
Belper and Duffield. Derby is also celebrated for its china, and
silk-throwing is the principal industry of the town. Elastic web
weaving by power looms is carried on to a great extent, and the
manufacture of lace and net curtains, gimp trimmings, braids
and cords. In the county town and neighbourhood are several
important chemical and colour works; and in various parts of
the county, as at Belper, Cromford, Matlock, Tutbury, are cotton-
spinning mills, as well as hosiery and tape manufactories. The
principal works of the Midland Railway Company are at Derby.
The principal mineral is coal. Ironstone is not extensively
wrought, but, on account of the abundant supply of coal, large
quantities are imported for smelting purposes. There are
smelting furnaces in several districts, as at Alfreton, Chesterfield,
Derby, Ilkeston. Besides lead, gypsum and zinc are raised, to
a small extent ; and for the quarrying of limestone Derbyshire is
one of the principal English counties. The east and the extreme
south-west parts are the principal industrial districts.
Communications. The chief railway serving the county is the
Midland, the south, east and north being served by its main line
and branches. In the north-east and north the Great Central
system touches the county; in the west the North Staffordshire
and a branch of the London & North- Western ; while a branch of
the Great Northern serves Derby and other places in the south.
The Trent & Mersey canal crosses the southern part of the county,
and there is a branch canal (the Derby) connecting Derby with
this and with the Erewash canal, which runs north from the
Trent up the Erewash valley. From it there is a little-used
branch (the Cromford canal) to Matlock.
Population and Administration. The area of the ancient
county is 658,885 acres, with a population in 1891 of 528,033,
and 1901 of 620,322. The area of the administrative county is
652,272 acres. The county contains six hundreds. The municipal
boroughs are Chesterfield (pop. 27,185), Derby, a county borough
and the county town (114,848), Glossop (21,526), Ilkeston
(25,384). The other urban districts are Alfreton (17,505),
Alvastonand Boulton(i279), Ashbourne (4039), Bakewell(285o),
Baslow and Bubnell (797), Belper (10,934), Bolsover (6844)
Bonsall (1360), Brampton and Walton (2698),Buxton-(io,i8i),
Clay Cross(83s8), Dronfield^Sog), Fairfield(2969), Heage(2889),
Heanor (16,249), Long Eaton (13,045), Matlock (5979), Matlock
Bath and Scarthin Nick (1819), Newbold and Dunston (5986),
DERBYSHIRE
New Mills (7773), North Barley (2756), Ripley (10,111),
South Barley (788), Swadlmcote (18,014), Whittington (9416),
Wirksworth (3807). Among other towns may be mentioned
Ashover (2426), Barlborough (2056), Chapel-en-le-Frith (4626),
Clowne (3896), Crich (3063), Killamarsh (3644), Staveiey (i 1,420),
Whitwell (3380). The county is in the Midland circuit, and
assizes are held at Berby. It has one court of quarter sessions
and is divided into fifteen petty sessional divisions . The boroughs
of Berby, Chesterfield and Glossop have separate commissions of
the peace, and that of Berby has also a separate court of quarter
sessions. The total number of civil parishes is 3 14. The county
is mainly in the diocese of Southwell, with small portions in the
dioceses of Peterborough and Lichfield, and contains 255 ecclesi-
astical parishes or districts. The parliamentary divisions of
the county are High Peak, North-Eastern, Chesterfield, Mid,
Ilkeston, Southern and Western, each returning one member,
while the parliamentary borough of Berby returns two members.
History, The earliest English settlements in the district which
is now Berbyshire were those of the West Angles, who in the
course of their northern conquests in the 6th century pushed
their way up the valleys of the Berwent and the Bove, where they
became known as the Pecsaetan. Later the district formed the
northern division of Mercia, and in 848 the Mercian witenagemot
assembled at Repton. In the gth century the district suffered
frequently from the ravages of the Banes, who in 874 wintered at
Repton and destroyed its famous monastery, the burial-place of
the kings of Mercia. Berby under Guthrum was one of the five
Banish burghs, but in 917 was recovered by ^Ethelflaed. In 924
Edward the Elder fortified Bakewell, and in 942 Edmund
regained Berby, which had fallen under the Banish yoke.
Barrows of the Saxon period are numerous in Wirksworth
hundred and the Bakewell district, among the most remarkable
being White-low near Winster and Bower's-low near Tissington.
There are Saxon cemeteries at Stapenhill and Foremark Hall.
Berbyshire probably originated as a shire in the time of
/Ethelstan, but for long it maintained a very close connexion with
Nottinghamshire, and the Bomesday Survey gives a list of local
customs affecting the two counties alike. The two shire-courts
sat together for the Bomesday Inquest, and the counties were
united under one sheriff until the time of Elizabeth. The villages
of Appleby, Oakthorpe, Bonisthorpe, Stret.ton-en-le-Field,
Willesley, Chilcote and Measham were reckoned as part of
Berbyshire in 1086, although separated from it by the Leicester-
shire parishes of Over and Nether Seat.
The early divisions of the county were known as wapentakes,
five being mentioned in Bomesday, while 13th-century documents
mention seven wapentakes, corresponding with the six present
hundreds, except that Repton and Gresley were then reckoned as
separate divisions. In the i4th century the divisions were more
frequently described as hundreds, and Wirksworth alone retained
the designation wapentake until modern times. Ecclesiastically
the county constituted an archdeaconry in the diocese of
Lichfield, comprising the six deaneries of Berby, Ashbourne,
High Peak, Castillar, Chesterfield and Repington. In 1884 it
was transferred to the newly formed diocese of Southwell. The
assizes for Nottinghamshire and Berbyshire were held at
Nottingham until the reign of Henry III., when they were held
alternately at Nottingham and Berby until 1569, after which the
Berbyshire assizes were held at Berby. The court of the Honour
of Peverel, held at Basford in Nottinghamshire, which formerly
exercised jurisdiction in the hundreds of Scarsdale, the Peak and
Wirksworth- was abolished in 1849. The miners of Berbyshire
formed an independent community under the jurisdiction of
a steward and barmasters, who held two Barmote courts
(q.v.) every year. The forests of Peak and Buffield had their
separate courts and officers, the justice seat of the former being
in an extra-parochial part at equal distances from Castleton,
Tideswell and Bowden, while the pleas of Buffield Forest were
held at Tutbury. Both were disafforested in the I7th
century.
The greatest landholder in Berbyshire at the time of the
Bomesday Survey was Henry de Ferrers, who owned almost the
whole of the modern hundred of Appletree. The Ferrers estates
were forfeited by Robert, earl of Berby, in the reign of Henry III.
Another great Bomesday landholder was William Peverel, the
historic founder of Peak Castle, whose vast possessions were
known as the Honour of Peverel. In 1155 the younger Peverel
was disinherited for poisoning the earl of Chester, and his estates
forfeited to the crown. Few Englishmen retained estates of any
importance after the Conquest, but one, Elfin, an under-tenant
of Henry de Ferrers, not only held a considerable property but
was the ancestor of the Berbyshire family of Brailsford. The
families of Shirley and Gresley can also boast an unbroken descent
from Bomesday tenants.
Buring the rebellion of Prince Henry against Henry II. the
castles of Tutbury and Buffield were held against the king, and
in the civil wars of John's reign Bolsover and Peak Castles were
garrisoned by the rebellious barons. In the Barons' War of the
reign of Henry III. the earl of Berby was active in stirring up
feeling in the county against the king, and in 1266 assembled
a considerable force, which was defeated by the king's party at
Chesterfield. At the time of the Wars of the Roses discontent
was rife in Berbyshire, and riots broke out in 1443, but the county
did not lend active support to either party. On the outbreak of
the Civil War of the i7th century, the county at first inclined
to support the king, who received an enthusiastic reception
when he visited Berby in 1642, but by the close of 1643 Sir
John Cell of Hopton had secured almost the whole county for
the parliament. Berby, however, was always royalist in sym-
pathy, and did not finally surrender till 1646; in 1659 it rebelled
against Richard Cromwell, and in 1745 entertained the young
Pretender.
Berbyshire has always been mainly a mining and manufactur-
ing county, though the rich land in the south formerly produced
large quantities of corn. The lead mines were worked by the
Romans, and the Bomesday Survey mentions lead mines at
Wirksworth, Matlock, Bakewell, Ashford and Crich. Iron has
also been produced in Berbyshire from an early date, and coal
mines were worked at Norton and Alfreton in the beginning of the
1 4th century. The woollen industry flourished in the county
before the reign of John, when an exclusive privilege of dyeing
cloth was conceded to the burgesses of Berby. Thomas Fuller
writing in 1662 mentions lead, malt and ale as the chief products
of the county, and the Buxton waters were already famous in his
day. The i8th century saw the rise of numerous manufactures.
In 1718 Sir Thomas and John Lombe set up an improved silk-
throwing machine at Berby, and in 1758 Jedediah Strutt intro-
duced a machine for making ribbed stockings, which became
famous as the " Berby rib." In 1771 Sir Richard Arkwright set
up one of his first cotton mills in Cromford, and in 1787 there
were twenty-two cotton mills in the county. The Berby porcelain
or china manufactory was started about 1750.
From 1295 until the Reform Act of 1832 the county and town
of Berby each returned two members to parliament. From this
latter date the county returned four members in two divisions
until the act of 1868, under which it returned six members for
three divisions.
Antiquities. Monastic remains are scanty, but there are
interesting portions of a priory incorporated with the school
buildings at Repton. The village church of Beauchief Abbey,
near Bronfield, is a remnant of an abbey founded c. 1175 by
Robert Fitzranulf . It has a stately transitional Norman tower,
and three fine Norman arches. Bale Abbey, near Berby, was
founded early in the I3th century for the Premonstratensian
order. The ruins are scanty, but the east window is preserved,
and the present church incorporates remains of the ancient rest-
house for pilgrims. The church has a peculiar music gallery,
entered from without. The abbey church contained famous
stained glass, and some of this is preserved in the neighbouring
church at Morley. Berbyshire is rich in ecclesiastical architecture
as a whole. The churches are generally of various styles. The
chancel of the church at Repton is assigned to the second half of
the loth century, though subsequently altered, and the crypt
beneath is supposed to be earlier still; its roof is supported by
DEREHAM DERHAM
73
four round pillars, and it is approached by two stairways. Other
remains of pre-Conquest date are the chancel arches in the
churches of Marston Montgomery and of Sawley; and the
curiously carved font in Wilne church is attributed to the same
period. Examples of Norman work are frequent in doorways,
as in the churches of Allestree and Willington near Repton,
while a fine tympanum is preserved in the modern church of
Findern. There is a triple-recessed doorway, with arcade above,
in the west end of Bakewell church, and there is another fine
west doorway in Melbourne church, a building principally of the
late Norman period, with central and small western towers.
In restoring this church curious mural paintings were discovered.
At Steetley, near Worksop, is a small Norman chapel, with
apse, restored from a ruinous condition; Youlgrave church, a
building of much general interest, has Norman nave pillars and
a fine font of the same period, and Normanton church has a
peculiar Norman corbel table. The Early English style is on
the whole less well exemplified in the county, but Ashbourne
church, with its central tower and lofty spire, contains beautiful
details of this period, notably the lancet windows in the Cockayne
chapel.
The parish churches of Dronfield, Hathersage (with some
notable stained glass), Sandiacre and Tides well exemplify the
Decorated period; the last is a particularly stately and beautiful
building, with a lofty and ornate western tower and some good
early brasses. The churches of Dethic, Wirksworth and Chester-
field are typical of the Perpendicular period; that of Wirksworth
contains noteworthy memorial chapels, monuments and brasses,
and that of Chesterfield is celebrated for its crooked spire.
The remains of castles are few; the ancient Bolsover Castle is
replaced by a castellated mansion of the lyth century; of the
Norman Peak Castle near Castleton little is left; of Codnor
Castle in the Erewash valley there are picturesque ruins of the
I3th century. Among ancient mansions Derbyshire possesses
one of the most famous in England in Haddon Hall, of the
15th century. Wingfield manor house is a ruin dating from
the same century. Hardwick Hall is a very perfect example of
Elizabethan building; ruins of the old Tudor hall stand near by.
Other Elizabethan examples are Barlborough and Tissington
Halls.
The village of Tissington is noted for the maintenance of an
old custom, that of " well-dressing." On the Thursday before
Easter a special church service is celebrated, and the wells are
beautifully ornamented with flowers, prayers being offered at
each. The ceremony has been revived also in several other
Derbyshire villages.
See Davies, New Historical and Descriptive View of Derbyshire
(Helper, 181 1) ; D. Lysons, Magna Britannia, vol. v. (London, 1817) ;
Maunder, Derbyshire Miners' Glossary (Bakewell, 1824) ; R. Simpson,
Collection of Fragments illustrative of the History of Derbyshire (1826) ;
S. Glover, History and Gazetteer of the County of Derby, ed. T. Noble,
part i of vols. i. and ii. (Derby, 1831-1833) ; T. Bateman, Vestiges
of the Antiquities of Derbyshire (London, 1848); L. Jewitt, Ballads
and Songs of Derbyshire (London, 1867); J. C. Cox, Notes on the
Churches of Derbyshire (Chester, 1875), and Three Centuries of
Derbyshire Annals (2 vols., London, 1890); R. N. Worth, Derby, in
"Popular County Histories" (London, 1886); T. P. Yeatman,
Feudal History of the County of Derby (3 vols., London, 1886-1895) :
Victoria County History, Derbyshire. See also Notts and Derbyshire
Notes and Queries.
DEREHAM (properly EAST DEREHAM), a market town in the
Mid parliamentary division of Norfolk, England, 122 m. N.N.E.
from London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban
district (1901) 5545. The church of St Nicholas is a cruciform
Perpendicular structure with a beautiful central tower, and some
portions of earlier date. It contains a monument to William
Cowper, who came to live here in 1796, and the Congregational
chapel stands on the site of the house where the poet spent his
last days. Dereham is an important agricultural centre with
works for the manufacture of agricultural implements, iron
foundries and a malting industry.
DERELICT (from Lat. derelinquere, to forsake), in law,
property thrown away or abandoned by the owner in such a
manner as to indicate that he intends to make no further claim to
it. The word is used more particularly with respect to property
abandoned at sea (see WRECK), but it is also applied in other
senses; for example, land gained from the sea by receding of the
water is termed dereliction. Land gained gradually and slowly
by dereliction belongs to the owner of the adjoining land, but in
the case of sudden or considerable dereliction the land belongs to
the Crown. This technical use of the term " dereliction " is to
be distinguished from the more general modern sense, dere-
liction or abandonment of duty, which implies a culpable failure
or neglect in moral or legal obligation.
DERENBOUR6, JOSEPH (1811-1895), Franco-German
orientalist. He was a considerable force in the educational
revival of Jewish education in France. He made great contribu-
tions to the knowledge of Saadia, and planned a complete edition
of Saadia's works in Arabic and French. A large part of this
work appeared during his lifetime. He also wrote an Essai sur
I'histoire et la geographic de la Palestine (Paris, 1867). This was
an original contribution to the history of the Jews and Judaism
in the time of Christ, and has been much used by later writers on
the subject (e.g. by Schiirer). He also published in collaboration
with his son Hartwig, Opuscules et Iraites d'Abou-'l-Walid (with
translation, 1 880); Deux Versions hebraiques du livre de Kalilah
et Dimnah (1881), and a Latin translation of the same story
under the title Joannis de Capua directorium vitae humanae
(1889); Commentaire de Maimonide sur la Mischnah Seder
Tohorot (Berlin, 1886-1891); and a second edition of S. de
Sacy's Seances de Hariri. He died on the 29th of July 1895, at
Ems.
His son, HARTWIG DERENBOURG (1844-1908), was born in Paris
on the 1 7th of June 1844. He was educated at Gottingen and
Leipzig. Subsequently he studied Arabic at the Ecole des
Langues Orientales. In 1879 he was appointed professor of
Arabic, and in 1886 professor of Mahommedan Religion, at the
Ecole des Hautes Etudes in Paris. He collaborated with his
father in the great edition of Saadia and the edition of Abu-'l-
Walld, and also produced a number of important editions of
other Arabic writers. Among these are Le Lftwdn de Ndbiqa
Dhobyanl; Le Livre de Slbawaihi (2 vols., Paris, 1881-1889);
Chrestomathie elenientaire de I'arabe litteral (in collaboration with
Spiro, 1885; and ed., 1892); Ousdma ibn Mounkidh, un emir
syrien (1889); Ousdma ibn Mounkidh, preface du livre du baton
(with trans., 1887); Al-Fdkhrt (1895); Oumdra du Gemen
(1897), a catalogue of Arabic MSS. in the Escorial (vol. i.,
1884).
DERG, LOUGH, a lake of Ireland, on the boundary of the
counties Galway, Clare and Tipperary. It is an expansion of the
Shannon, being the lowest lake on that river, and is 23 m. long
and generally from i to 3 m. broad. It lies where the Shannon
leaves the central plain of Ireland and flows between the hills
which border the plain. While the northerly shores of the lake,
therefore, are flat, the southern are steep and picturesque, being
backed by theSlieveAughty,SlieveBernaghandArraMountains.
Ruined churches and fortresses are numerous on the eastern
shore, and on Iniscaltra Island are a round tower and remains of
five churches.
Another LOUGH DERG, near Pettigo in Donegal, though small,
is famous as the traditional scene of St Patrick's purgatory. In
the middle ages its pilgrimages had a European reputation, and
they are still observed annually by many of the Irish from June i
to August 15. The hospice, chapels, &c., are on Station Island,
and there is a ruined monastery on Saints' Island.
DERHAM, WILLIAM (1657-1735), English divine, was born at
Stoulton, near Worcester, on the 26th of November 1657. He was
educated at Blockley, in his native county, and at Trinity College,
Oxford. In 1682 he became vicar of Wargrave, in Berkshire;
and in 1689 he was preferred to the living of Upminster, in Essex.
In 1696 he published his Artificial Clockmaker, which went
through several editions. The best known of his subsequent
works are Physico-Theology, published in 1713; Astro- Theology,
1714; and Christo-Theology, 1730. The first two of these books
were Ideological arguments for the being and attributes of God,
and were used by Paley nearly a century later. In 1 702 Derham
74
D'ERLON DEROULEDE
was elected fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1716 was made
a canon of Windsor. He was Boyle lecturer in 1711-1712. His
last work, entitled A Defence of the Church's Right in Leasehold
Estates, appeared in 1731. He died on the sth of April 1735.
Besides the works published in his own name, Derham, who
was keenly interested in natural history, contributed a variety
of papers to the Transactions of the Royal Society, revised the
Miscellanea Curiosa, edited the correspondence of John Ray and
Eleazar Albin's Natural History, and published some of the MSS.
of Robert Hooke, the natural philosopher.
D'ERLON, JEAN BAPTISTE DROUET, COUNT (1765-1844),
marshal of France, was born at Reims on the 2pth of July 1765.
He entered the army as a private soldier in 1782, was discharged
after five years' service, re-entered it in 1792, and rose rapidly to
the rank of an officer. From 1 794 to 1 796 he was aide-de-camp
to General Lefebvre. He did good service in the campaigns of
the revolutionary wars and in 1799 attained the rank of general
of brigade. In the campaign of that year he was engaged in
the Swiss operations under Massena. In 1800 he fought under
Moreau at Hohenlinden. As a general of division he took part in
Napoleon's campaigns of 1805 and 1806, and rendered excellent
service at Jena. He was next engaged under Lefebvre in the
siege of Danzig and negotiated the terms of surrender; after this
he rejoined the field army and fought at Friedland (1807),
receiving a severe wound. After this battle he was made grand
officer of the Legion of Honour, was created Count d'Erlon and
received a pension. For the next six years d'Erlon was almost
continuously engaged as commander of an army corps in the
Peninsular War, in which he added greatly to his reputation as a
capable general. At the pass of Maya in the Pyrenees he inflicted
a defeat upon Lord Hill's troops, and in the subsequent battles
of the 1814 campaign he distinguished himself further. After
the first Restoration he was named commander of the i6th
military division, but he was soon arrested for conspiring with
the Orleans party, to which he was secretly devoted. He escaped,
however, and gave in his adhesion to Napoleon, who had returned
from Elba. The emperor made him a peer of France, and gave
him command of the I. army corps, which formed part of the
Army of the North. In the Waterloo campaign d'Erlon's corps
formed part of Ney's command on the i6th of June, but, in
consequence of an extraordinary series of misunderstandings,
took part neither at Ligny nor at Quatre Bras (see WATERLOO
CAMPAIGN). He was not, however, held to account by Napoleon,
and as the latter's practice in such matters was severe to the
verge of injustice, it may be presumed that the failure was not
due to d'Erlon.
He was in command of the right wing of the French army
throughout the great battle of the i8th of June, and fought in
the closing operations around Paris. At the second Restoration
d'Erlon fled into Germany, only returning to France after the
amnesty of 1825. He was not restored to the service until the
accession of Louis Philippe, in whose interests he had engaged in
several plots and intrigues. As commander of the I2th military
division (Nantes), he suppressed the legitimist agitation in his
district and caused the arrest of the duchess of Berry (1832).
His last active service was in Algeria, of which country he was
made governor-general in 1834 at the age of seventy. He
returned to France after two years, and was made marshal of
France shortly before his death at Paris on the 25th of January
1844-
DERMOT MAC MURROUGH (d. 1171), Irish king of Leinster,
succeeded his father in the principality of the Hui Cinsellaigh
(1115) and eventually in the kingship of Leinster. The early
events of his life are obscure; but about 1152 we find him
engaged in a feud with O Ruairc, the lord of Breifne (Leitrim and
Cavan). Dermot abducted the wife of O Ruairc more with the
object of injuring his rival than from any love of the lady. The
injured husband called to his aid Roderic, the high king (aird-
righ) of Connaught; and in 1166 Dermot fled before this powerful
coalition to invoke the aid of England. Obtaining from Henry II.
a licence to enlist allies among the Welsh marchers, Dermot
secured the aid of the Clares and Geraldines. To Richard
Strongbow, earl of Pembroke and head of the house of Clare,
Dermot gave his daughter Eva in marriage; and on his death
was succeeded by the earl in Leinster. The historical importance
of Dermot lies in the fact that he was the means of introducing
the English into Ireland. Through his aid the towns of Water-
ford, Wexford and Dublin had already become English colonies
before the arrival of Henry II. in the island.
See The Song of Dermot and the Earl, an old French Poem (by M.
Regan?), ed. with trans, by G. H. Orpen, 1892; Kate Norgate,
England under the Angevin Kings, vol. ii. (H. W. C. D.)
DERNA (anc. Darnis- Zarine}, a town on the north coast of
Africa and capital of the eastern hah" of the Ottoman province
of Bengazi or Barca. Situated below the eastern butt of Jebel
Akhdar on a small but rich deltaic plain, watered by fine perennial
springs, it has a growing population and trade, the latter being
mainly in fruits grown in its extensive palm gardens, and in hides
and wool brought down by the nomads from the interior. If the
port Avere better there would be more rapid expansion. The bay
is open from N.W. round to S.E. and often inaccessible in winter
and spring, and the steamers of the Nav. Gen. Italiana sometimes
have to pass without calling. The population has recovered
from the great plague epidemic of 1821 and reached its former
figure of about 7000. A proportion of it is of Moorish stock, of
Andalusian origin, which emigrated in 1493; the descendants
preserve a fine facial type. The sheikhs of the local Bedouin
tribes have houses in the place, and a Turkish garrison of about
2 50 men is stationed in barracks. There is a lighthouse W. of the
bay. A British consular agent is resident and the Italians
maintain a vice-consul. The names Darnis and Zarine are
philologically identical and probably refer to the same place. No
traces are left of the ancient town except some rock tombs.
Darnis continued to be of some importance in early Moslem times
as a station on the Alexandria-Kairawan road, and has served
on more than one occasion as a base for Egyptian attacks on
Cyrenaica and Tripolitana. In 1805 the government of the
United States, having a quarrel with the dey of Tripoli on account
of piracies committed on American shipping, landed a force to
co-operate in the attack on Derna then being made by Sidi
Ahmet, an elder brother of the dey. This force, commanded by
William Eaton (<?..), built a fort, whose ruins and rusty guns are
still to be seen, and began to improve the harbour; but its work
quickly came to an end with the conclusion of peace. After 1835
Derna passed under direct Ottoman control, and subsequently
served as the point whence the sultan exerted a precarious but
increasing control over eastern Cyrenaica and Marmarica. It is
now in communication by wireless telegraphy with Rhodes and
western Cyrenaica. It is the only town, or even large village,
between Bengazi and Alexandria (600 m.) (D. G. H.)
DEROULEDE, PAUL (1846- ), French author and poli-
tician, was born in Paris on the 2nd of September 1846. He
made his first appearance as a poet in the pages of the Revue
nationals, under the pseudonym of Jean Rebel, and in 1869 pro-
duced at the Theatre Francais a one-act drama in verse entitled
Juan Strenner. On the outbreak of the Franco-German War he
enlisted as a private, was wounded and taken prisoner at Sedan,
and sent to Breslau, but effected his escape. He then served
under Chanzy and Bourbaki, took part in the latter's disastrous
retreat to Switzerland, and fought against the Commune in Paris.
After attaining the rank of lieutenant, he was forced by an
accident to retire from the army. He published in 187 2 a number
of patriotic poems (Chants du soldat), which enjoyed unbounded
popularity. This was followed in 1875 by another collection,
Nowveaux Chants du soldat. In 1877 he produced a drama in
verse called L'Hetman, which derived a passing success from the
patriotic fervour of its sentiments. For the exhibition of 1 878 he
wrote a hymn, Vive la France, which was set to music by Gounod.
In 1880 his drama in verse, La Moiibite, which had been accepted
by the Theatre Franjais, was forbidden by the censor on religious
grounds. In 1882 M. Deroulede founded the Ligue des patriotes,
with the object of furthering France's " revanche " against
Germany. He was one of the first advocates of a Franco-Russian
alliance, and as early as 1883 undertook a journey to Russia for
DERRICK DERVISH
75
the furtherance of that object. On the rise of General Boulanger,
M. Deroulede attempted to use the Ligue des palriotes, hitherto a
non-political organization, to assist his cause, but was deserted by
a great part of the league and forced to resign his presidency.
Nevertheless he used the section that remained faithful to him
with such effect that the government found it necessary in 1889
to decree its suppression. In the same year he was elected to the
chamber as member for Angouleme. He was expelled from the
chamber in 1890 for his disorderly interruptions during debate.
He did not stand at the elections of 1803, but was re-elected in
1898, and distinguished himself by his violence as a nationalist
and anti-Dreyfusard. After the funeral of President Faure, on
the 23rd of February 1899, he endeavoured to persuade General
Roget to lead his troops upon the Elysee. For this he was
arrested, but on being tried for treason was acquitted (May 31).
On the 1 2th of August he was again arrested and accused, together
with Andre Buffet, Jules Guerin and others, of conspiracy against
the republic. After a long trial before the high court, he was
sentenced, on the 4th of January 1900, to ten years' banishment
from France, and retired to San Sebastian. In 1901, he was
again brought prominently before the public by a quarrel with
his Royalist allies, which resulted in an abortive attempt to
arrange a duel with M. Buffet in Switzerland. In November
1905, however, the law of amnesty enabled him to return to
France.
Besides the works already mentioned, he published Le Sergent,
in the Thedtre de campagne (1880); De I' education nationale
(1882); Monsieur le Uhlan et les Irois couleurs (1884); Le
Premier grenadier de France; La Tour d'Auvergne (1886); Le
Lime de la ligue des palriotes (1887); Refrains militaires (1888);
Histoire d'amour (1890); a pamphlet entitled Desarmement?
(1891); Chants du paysan (1894); Poesies Militaires (1896) and
Messire du Guesclin, drame en vers (1895); La mart de Hoche.
Cinq actes en prose (1897); La Plus belle fitte du monde, conte
dialogue en vers libres (1898).
DERRICK, a sort of crane (<?..); the name is derived from
that of a famous early 17th-century Tyburn hangman, and was
originally applied as a synonym.
DERRING-DO, valour, chivalrous conduct, or " desperate
courage," as it is denned by Sir Walter Scott. The word in its
present accepted substantival form is a misconstruction of the
verbal substantive dorryng or durring, daring, and do or don,
the present infinitive of " do," the phrase dorryng do thus
meaning " daring to do." It is used by Chaucer in Troylus,
and by Lydgate in the Chronicles of Troy. Spenser in the
Shepherd's Calendar first adapted derring-do as a substantive
meaning " manhood and chevalrie," and this use was revived
by Scott, through whom it came into vogue with writers of
romance.
DE RUYTER, MICHAEL ADRIANZOON (1607-1676), Dutch
naval officer, was born at Flushing on the 24th of March 1607.
He began his seafaring life at the age of eleven as a cabin boy,
and in 1636 was entrusted by the merchants of Flushing with
the command of a cruiser against the French pirates. In 1640 he
entered the service of the States, and, being appointed rear-
admiral of a fleet fitted out to assist Portugal against Spain,
specially distinguished himself at Cape St Vincent, on the 3rd of
November 1641. In the following year he left the service of the
States, and, until the outbreak of war with England in 1652, held
command of a merchant vessel. In 1653 a squadron of seventy
vessels was despatched against the English, under the command
of Admiral Tromp. Ruyter, who accompanied the admiral in
this expedition, seconded him with great skill and bravery in the
three battles which were fought with the English. He was after-
wards stationed in the Mediterranean, where he captured several
Turkish vessels. In 1659 he received a commission to join the
king of Denmark in his war with the Swedes. As a reward of
his services, the king of Denmark ennobled him and gave him
a pension. In 1661 he grounded a vessel belonging to Tunis,
released forty Christian slaves, made a treaty with the Tunisians,
and reduced the Algerine corsairs to submission. From his
achievements on the west coast of Africa he was recalled in 1665
to take command of a large fleet which had been organized
against England, and in May of the following year, after a long
contest off the North Foreland, he compelled the English to take
refuge in the Thames. On the 7th of June 1672 he fought a
drawn battle with the combined fleets of England and France, in
Southwold or Sole Bay, and after the fight he convoyed safely
home a fleet of merchantmen. His valour was displayed to equal
advantage in several engagements with the French and English
in the following year. In 1676 he was despatched to the assistance
of Spain against France in the Mediterranean, and, receiving
a mortal wound in the battle on the 2ist of April off Messina,
died on the 2gth at Syracuse. A patent by the king of Spain,
investing him with the dignity of duke, did not reach the fleet till
after his death. His body was carried to Amsterdam, where a
magnificent monument to his memory was erected by command
of the states-general.
See Life of De Ruyter by Brandt (Amsterdam, 1687), and by
Klopp (2nd ed., Hanover, 1858).
DERVISH, a Persian word, meaning "seeking doors," i.e.
" beggar," and thus equivalent to the Arabic faqir (fakir).
Generally in Islam it indicates a member of a religious fraternity,
whether mendicant or not; but in Turkey and Persia it indicates
more exactly a wandering, begging religious, called, in Arabic-
speaking countries, more specifically a faqir. With important
differences, the dervish fraternities may be compared to the
regular religious orders of Roman Christendom, while the Ulema
(q.v.) are, also with important differences, like the secular clergy.
The origin and history of the mystical life in Islam, which led to
the growth of the order of dervishes, are treated under SUFI'ISM.
It remains to treat here more particularly of (i) the dervish
fraternities, and (2) the Sufi hierarchy.
i. The Dervish Fraternities. In the earlier times, the relation
between devotees was that of master and pupil. Those inclined
to the spiritual life gathered round a revered sheikh (murshid,
"guide," usladh, pir, "teacher"), lived with him, shared his
religious practices and were instructed by him. In time of
war against the unbelievers, they might accompany him to the
threatened frontier, and fight under his eye. Thus murabit,
" one who pickets his horse on a hostile frontier," has become
the marabout (q.v.) or dervish of French Algeria; and ribat, " a
frontier fort," has come to mean a monastery. The relation,
also, might be for a time only. The pupil might at any time
return to the world, when his religious education and training
were complete. On the death of the master the memory of his
life and sayings might go down from generation to generation,
and men might boast themselves as pupils of his pupils. Con-
tinuous corporations to perpetuate his name were slow in forming.
Ghazali himself, though he founded, taught and ruled a Sufi
cloister (khanqah) at Tus. left no order behind him. But 'Adi
al-Hakkari, who founded a cloister at Mosul and died about 1 163,
was long reverenced by the 'Adawite Fraternity, and in 1166
died 'Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani, from whom the Qadirite order
descends, one of the greatest and most influential to this day.
The troublous times of the break up of the Seljuk rule may have
been a cause in this, as, with St Benedict, the crumbling Roman
empire. Many existing fraternities, it is true, trace their origin
to saints of the third, second and even first Moslem centuries, but
that is legend purely. Similar is the tendency to claim all the
early pious Moslems as good Sufis; collections of Sufi biography
begin with the ten to whom Mahomet promised Paradise. So,
too, the ultimate origin of fraternities is assigned to either Ali
or Abu Bekr. and in Egypt all are under the rule of a direct
descendant of the latter.
To give a complete list of these fraternities is quite impossible.
Commonly, thirty-two are reckoned, but many have vanished
or have been suppressed, and there are sub-orders innumerable.
Each has a " rule " dating back to its founder, and a ritual which
the members perform when they meet together in their convent
(khanqah, zawiya, takya). This may consist simply in the repeti-
tion of sacred phrases, or it may be an elaborate performance,
such as the whirlings of the dancing dervishes, the Mevlevites,
an order founded by Jelal ud-Dln ar-Rumi, the author of the
7 6
DERWENT
great Persian mystical poem, the Mesnevi, and always ruled by
one of his descendants. Jelal ud-DIn was an advanced pantheist,
and so are the Mevlevites, but that seems only to earn them the
dislike of the Ulema, and not to affect their standing in Islam.
They are the most broad-minded and tolerant of all. There are
also the performances of the Rifa'ites or " howling dervishes."
In ecstasy they cut themselves with knives, eat live coals and
glass, handle red-hot iron and devour serpents. They profess
miraculous healing powers, and the head of the Sa'dites, a sub-
order, used, in Cairo, to ride over the bodies of his dervishes
without hurting them, the so-called Doseh (dausa). These
different abilities are strictly regulated. Thus, one sub-order
may eat glass and another may eat only serpents. Another
division is made by their attitude to the law of Islam. When a
dervish is in a state of ecstasy (majdhub), he is supposed to be
unconscious of the actions of his body. Reputed saints, therefore,
can do practically anything, as their souls will be supposed to be
out of their bodies and in the heavenly regions. They may not
only commit the vilest of actions, but neglect in general the
ceremonial and ritual law. This goes so far that in Persia and
Turkey dervish orders are classified as ba-shar', " with law," and
bi-shar', " without law." The latter are really antinomians, and
the best example of them is the Bakhtashite order, widely spread
and influential in Turkey and Albania and connected by legend
with the origin of the Janissaries. The Qalandarite order is known
to all from the " Calenders " of the Thousand and One Nights.
They separated from the Bakhtashites and are under obligation
of perpetual travelling. The Senussi (Senussia) were the last
order to appear, and are distinguished from the others by a
severely puritanic and reforming attitude and strict orthodoxy,
without any admixture of mystical slackness in faith or conduct.
Each order is distinguished by a peculiar garb. Candidates for
admission have to pass through a noviciate, more or less lengthy.
First comes the 'ahd, or initial covenant, in which the neophyte
or murtd, " seeker," repents of his past sins and takes the sheikh
of the order he enters as his guide (murshid) for the future.
He then enters upon a course of instruction and discipline, called
a " path " (tarlqa), on which he advances through diverse
" stations " (maqamdt) or " passes " ('aqabaf) of the spiritual life.
There is a striking resemblance here to the gnostic system, with
its seven Archon-guarded gates. On another side, it is plain that
the sheikh, along with ordinary instruction of the novice, also
hypnotizes him and causes him to see a series of visions, marking
his penetration of the divine mystery. The part that hypnosis
and autohypnosis, conscious and unconscious, has played here
cannot easily be overestimated. The Mevlevites seem to have
the most severe noviciate. Their aspirant has to labour as a lay
servitor of the lowest rank for 1001 days called the kdrra kolak,
or " jackal " before he can be received. For one day's failure
he must begin again from the beginning.
But besides these full members there is an enormous number
of lay adherents, like the tertiaries of the Franciscans. Thus,
nearly every religious man of the Turkish Moslem world is a lay
member of one order or another, under the duty of saying certain
prayers daily. Certain trades, too, affect certain orders. Most
of the Egyptian Qadirites, for example, are fishermen and, on
festival days, carry as banners nets of various colours. On this side,
the orders bear a striking resemblance to lodges of Freemasons
and other friendly societies, and points of direct contact have
even been alleged between the more pantheistic and antinomian
orders, such as the Bakhtashite, and European Freemasonry.
On another side, just as the dhikrs of the early ascetic mystics
suggest comparison with the class-meetings of the early
Methodists, so these orders are the nearest approach in Islam
to the different churches of Protestant Christendom. They are
the only ecclesiastical organization that Islam has ever known,
but it is a multiform organization, unclassified internally or
externally. They differ thus from the Roman monastic orders,
in that they are independent and self-developing, each going its
own way in faith and practice, limited only by the universal
conscience (ijma\ "agreement": see MAHOMMEDAN LAW) of
Islam. Strange doctrines and moral defects may develop, but
freedom is saved, and the whole people of Islam can be reached
and affected.
2. Saints and the ufl Hierarchy. That an elaborate doctrine
of wonder-working saints should have grown up in Islam may, at
first sight, appear an extreme paradox. It can, however, be
conditioned and explained. First, Mahomet left undoubted
loop-holes for a minor inspiration, legitimate and illegitimate.
Secondly, the Sufis, under various foreign influences, developed
these to the fullest. Thirdly, just as the Christian church has
absorbed much of the mythology of the supposed exterminated
heathen religions into its cult of local saints, so Islam, to an
even higher degree, has been overlaid and almost buried by
the superstitions of the peoples to which it has gone. Their
religious and legal customs have completely overcome the direct
commands of the Koran, the traditions from Mahomet and
even the " Agreement " of the rest of the Moslem world (see
MAHOMMEDAN LAW). The first step in this, it is true, was taken
by Mahomet himself wl*en he accepted the Meccan pilgrimage and
the Black Stone. The worship of saints, therefore, has appeared
everywhere in Islam, with an absolute belief in their miracles
and in the value of their intercession, living or dead.
Further, there appeared very early in Islam a belief that there
was always in existence some individual in direct intercourse
with God and having the right and duty of teaching and ruling
all mankind. This individual might be visible or invisible;
his right to rule continued. This is the basis of the Isma'ilite
and Shi'ite positions (see MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION and
MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS). The Sufis applied this idea of
divine right to the doctrine of saints, and developed it into the
Sufi hierarchy. This is a single, great, invisible organization,
forming a saintly board of administration, by which the invisible
government of the world is supposed to be carried on. Its head
is called the Qutb (Axis); he is presumably the greatest saint
of the time, is chosen by God for the office and given greater
miraculous powers and rights of intercession than any other saint
enjoys. He wanders through the world, often invisible and
always unknown, performing the duties of his office. Under
him there is an elaborate organization of walls, of different ranks
and powers, according to their sanctity and faith. The term -wall
is applied to a saint because of Kor. x. 63, " Ho! the walls of
God; there is no fear upon them, nor do they grieve," where
wall means " one who is near ," friend or favourite.
In the fraternities, then, all are dervishes, cloistered or lay;
those whose faith is so great that God has given them miraculous
powers and there are many are walls; begging friars are
fakirs. All forms of life solitary, monastic, secular, celibate,
married, wandering, stationary, ascetic, free are open. Their
theology is some form of Sufi'ism.
AUTHORITIES. The bibliography of this subject is very large, and
the following only a selection: (i) On Dervishes. In Egypt, Lane's
Modern Egyptians, chaps, x. xx., xxiv., xxv. ; in Turkey, D'Ohsson,
Tableau general de I'emp. othoman, ii. (Paris, 1790); Turkey in
Europe by " Odysseus " (London, 1900); in Persia, E. G. Browne,
A Year among the Persians (1893) ; in Morocco, T. H. Weir, Sheikhs
of Morocco (Edinburgh, 1904) ; B. Meakin, The Moors (London, 1902),
chap. xix. ; in Central Asia, all Vambery's books of travel and
history. In general, Hughes, Diet, of Islam, s.v. " Faqir "; Depont
and Cappolani, Les Confreries religieuses musulmanes (Alger, 1897) ;
J. P. Brown, The Dervishes, or Oriental Spiritualism (London, 1868).
(2) On Saints. I. Goldziher, Muhammedanische Studien, ii. 277 ff.,
and " De 1'ascedsme aux premiers temps de 1'Islam " in Revue de
I'histoire des religions, I vol. xxxvii. pp. 134. ff. ; Lane, Modern
Egyptians, chap. x. ; Arabian Nights, chap. lit. note 63; Vollers in
Zeitsch. d. morgenldnd. Gesellsch. xliii. 115 ff. (D. B. MA.)
DERWENT (Celtic Dwr-gent, clear water), the name of several
English rivers, (i) The Yorkshire Derwent collects the greater
part of the drainage of the North Yorkshire moors, rising in their
eastern part. A southern head-stream, however, rises in the
Yorkshire Wolds near Filey, little more than a mile from the
North Sea, from which it is separated by a morainic deposit, and
thus flows in an inlan d direction. The early course of the Derwent
lies through a flat open valley between the North Yorkshire moors
and the Yorkshire Wolds, the upper part of which is known as
the Carrs, when the river follows an artificial drainage cut. It
receives numerous tributaries from the moors, then breaches the
DERWENTWATER
77
low hills below Malton in a narrow picturesque valley, and
debouches upon the central plain of Yorkshire. Its direction,
hitherto westerly and south-westerly from the Carrs, now becomes
southerly, and it flows roughly parallel to the Ouse, which it
joins near Barmby-on-the-Marsh, in the level district between.
Selby and the head of the Humber estuary, after a course,
excluding minor sinuosities, of about 70 m. As a tributary of
the Ouse it is included in the Humber basin. It is tidal up to
Sutton-upon-Derwent, ism. from the junction with the Ouse,
and is locked up to Malton, but the navigation is little used. A
canal leads east from the tidal water to the small market town of
Pocklington.
(2; The Derbyshire Derwent rises in Bleaklow Hill north of
the Peak and traverses a narrow dale, which, with those of such
tributary streams as the Noe, watering Hope Valley, and the Wye,
is famous for its beauty (see DERBYSHIRE). The Derwent flows
south past Chatsworth, Matlock and Belper and then, passing
Derby, debouches upon a low plain, and turns south-eastward,
with an extremely sinuous course, to join the Trent near Sawley.
Its length is about 60 m. It falls in all some 1700 ft. (from
Matlock 200 ft.), and no part is navigable, save certain reaches at
Matlock and elsewhere for pleasure boats.
(3) The Cumberland Derwent rises below Great End in the
Lake District, draining Spinkling and Sty Head tarns, and flows
through Borrowdale, receiving a considerable tributary from
Lang Strath. It then drains the lakes of Derwentwater and
Bassenthwaite, after which its course, hitherto N. and N.N.W.,
turns W. and W. by S. past Cockermouth to the Irish Sea
at Workington. The length is about 34 m., and the fall about
2000 ft. (from Derwentwater 244 ft.); the waters are usually
beautifully clear, and the river is not navigable. At a former
period this stream must have formed one large lake covering the
whole area which includes Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite;
between which a flat alluvial plain is formed of the deposits of
the river Greta, which now joins the Derwent from the east
immediately below Derwentwater, and the Newlands Beck,
which enters Bassenthwaite. In time of high flood this plain is
said to have been submerged, and the two lakes thus reunited.
(4) A river Derwent rises in the Pennines near the borders of
Northumberland and Durham, and, forming a large part of the
boundary between these counties, takes a north-easterly course
of 30 m. to the Tyne, which it joins 3 m. above Newcastle.
DERWENTWATER, EARL OF, an English title borne by the
family of Radclyffe, or Radcliffe, from 1688 to 1716 when the
3rd earl was attainted and beheaded, and claimed by his
descendants, adherents of the exiled house of Stewart, from .that
date until the death of the last male heir in 1814. Sir Francis
Radclyffe, 3rd baronet (1625-1697), was the lineal descendant of
Sir Nicholas Radclyffe, who acquired the extensive Derwent-
water estates in 1417 through his marriage with the heiress of
John de Derwentwater, and of Sir Francis Radclyffe, who was
made a baronet in 1619. In 1688 Sir Francis was created
Viscount Radclyffe and earl of Derwentwater by James II.,
and dying in 1697 was succeeded as 2nd earl by his eldest
son Edward (1655-1705), who had married Lady Mary Tudor
(d. 1726), a natural daughter of Charles II. The 2nd earl died
in 1705, and was succeeded by his eldest son James (1689-1716),
who was born in London on the 28th of June 1689, and was
brought up at the court of the Stewarts in France as companion
to Prince James Edward, the old Pretender. In 1710 he came
to reside on his English estates, and in July 1712 was married to
Anna Maria (d. 1723), daughter of Sir John Webb, baronet, of
Odstock, Wiltshire. Joining without any hesitation in the
Stewart rising of 1715, Derwentwater escaped arrest owing to the
devotion of his tenantry, and in October, with about seventy
followers, he joined Thomas Forster at Green-rig. Like Forster
the earl was lacking in military experience, and when the rebels
capitulated at Preston he was conveyed to London and im-
peached. Pleading guilty at his trial he was attainted and
condemned to death. Great efforts were made to obtain a
mitigation of the sentence, but the government was obdurate,
and Derwentwater was beheaded on Tower Hill on the 24th
of February 1716, declaring on the scaffold his devotion to the
Roman Catholic religion and to King James III. The earl was
very popular among his tenantry and in the neighbourhood of
his residence, Dilston Hall. His gallant bearing and his sad
fate have been celebrated in song and story, and the aurora
borealis, which shone with exceptional brightness on the night of
his execution, is known locally as " Lord Derwentwater's lights."
He left an only son John, who, in spite of his father's attainder,
assumed the title of earl of Derwentwater, and who died un-
married in 1731; and a daughter Alice Mary (d. 1760), who
married in 1732 Robert James, 8th Baron Petre (1713-1742).
On the death of John Radclyfle in 1731 his uncle Charles
(1693-1746), the only surviving son of the 2nd earl, took the
title of earl of Derwentwater. Charles Radclyffe had shared the
fate of his brother, the 3rd earl, at Preston in November 1715,
and had been condemned to death for high treason; but, more
fortunate than James, he had succeeded in escaping from prison,
and had joined the Stewarts on the Continent. In 1724 he
married Charlotte Maria (d. 1755), in her own right countess of
Newburgh, and after spending some time in Rome, he was
captured by an English ship in November 1745 whilst proceeding
to join Charles Edward, the young Pretender, in Scotland.
Condemned to death under his former sentence he was beheaded
on the 8th of December 1 746. His eldest son, James Bartholomew
(1725-1786), who had shared his father's imprisonment, then
claimed the title of earl of Derwentwater, and on his mother's
death in 1755 became 3rd earl of Newburgh. His only son
and successor, Anthony James (1757-1814), died without issue
in 1814, when the title became extinct de fafto as well as de
jure. Many of the forfeited estates in Northumberland and
Cumberland had been settled upon Greenwich Hospital, and in
1 749 a sum of 30,000 had been raised upon them for the benefit
of the earl of Newburgh. The present representative of the
Radclyffe family is Lord Petre, and in 1874 the bodies of the
first three earls of Derwentwater were reburied in the family vault
of the Petres at Thorndon, Essex.
In 1865 a woman appeared in Northumberland who claimed
to be a grand-daughter of the 4th earl and, as there were
no male heirs, to be countess of Derwentwater and owner of the
estates. She said the 4th earl had not died in 1731 but had
married and settled in Germany. Her story aroused some
interest, and it was necessary to eject her by force from Dilston
Hall.
See R. Patten, History of the Late Rebellion (London, 1717) ; W. S.
Gibson, Dilston Hall, or Memoirs of James Radcliffe, earl of Derwent-
water (London, 1848-1850) ; G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage
(Exeter, 1887-1 898) ; and Dictionary of National Biography, vol. xlvii.
(London, 1896).
DERWENTWATER, a lake of Cumberland, England, in the
northern part of the celebrated Lake District (q.v. for the physical
relations of the lake with the district at large). It is of irregular
figure, approaching to an oval, about 3 m. in length and from
J m. to i J m. in breadth. The greatest depth is 70 ft. The lake
is seen at one view, within an amphitheatre of mountains of
varied outline, overlooked by others of greater height. Several
of the lesser elevations near the lake are especially famous as
view-points, such as Castle Head, Walla Crag, Ladder Brow and
Cat Bells. The shores are well wooded, and the lake is studded
with several islands, of which Lord's Island, Derwent Isle and
St Herbert's are the principal. Lord's Island was the residence
of the earls of Derwentwater. St Herbert's Isle receives its name
from having been the abode of a holy man of that name mentioned
by Bede as contemporary with St Cuthbert of Fame Island in the
7th century. Derwent Isle, about six acres in extent, contains
a handsome residence surrounded by lawns, gardens and timber
of large growth. The famous Falls of Lodore, at the upper end
of the lake, consist of a series of cascades in the small Watendlath
Beck, which rushes over an enormous pile of protruding crags
from a height of nearly 200 ft. The " Floating Island " appears
at intervals on the upper portion of the lake near the mouth
of the beck. This singular phenomenon is supposed to owe its
appearance to an accumulation of gas, formed by the decay of
DES ADRETS DESAULT
vegetable matter, detaching and raising to the surface the matted
weeds which cover the floor of the lake at this point. The river
Derwent (q.v.) enters the lake from the south and leaves it on the
north, draining it through Bassenthwaite lake, to the Irish Sea.
To the north-east of the lake lies the town of Keswick.
DES ADRETS, FRANCOIS DE BEAUMONT, BARON (c. 1512-
1587), French Protestant leader, was born in 1512 or 1513 at
the chateau of La Frette (Isere) . During the reign of Henry II. of
France he served with distinction in the royal army and became
colonel of the " legions " of Dauphine, Provence and Languedoc.
In 1562, however, he joined the Huguenots, not from religious
conviction but probably from motives of ambition and personal
dislike of the house of Guise. His campaign against the Catholics
in 1562 was eminently successful. In June of that year Des
Adrets was master of the greater part of DauphinS. But his
brilliant military qualities were marred by his revolting atrocities.
The reprisals he exacted from the Catholics after their massacres
of the Huguenots at Orange have left a dark stain upon his name.
The garrisons that resisted him were butchered with every cir-
cumstance of brutality, and at Montbrison, in Fores, he forced
eighteen prisoners to precipitate themselves from the top of the
keep. Having alienated the affections of the Huguenots by
his pride and violence, he entered into communication with the
Catholics, and declared himself openly in favour of conciliation.
On the loth of January 1563 he was arrested on suspicion by
some Huguenot officers and confined in the citadel of Nimes.
He was liberated at the edict of Amboise in the following March,
and, distrusted alike by Huguenots and Catholics, retired to the
chateau of La Frette, where he died, a Catholic, on the 2nd of
February 1587.
AUTHORITIES. I. Roman, Documents inedits sur le baron des
Adrets (1878); and memoirs and histories of the time. See also
Guy Allard, Vie de Francois de Beaumont (1675) ; 1'abbe J. C. Martin,
Histoire politique et militaire de Francois de Beaumont (1803) ; Eugene
and Emile Haag, La France protestante (and ed., 1877 seq.).
DESAIX DE VEYGOUX, LOUIS CHARLES ANTOINE
(1768-1800), French general, was born of a noble though im-
poverished family. He received a military education at the
school founded by Marshal d'Effiat, and entered the French
royal army. During the first six years of his service the young
officer devoted himself assiduously to duty and the study of his
profession, and at the outbreak of the Revolution threw himself
whole-heartedly into the cause of liberty. In spite of the pressure
put upon him by his relatives, he refused to " emigrate," and
in 1792 is found serving on Broglie's staff. The disgrace of this
general nearly cost young Desaix his life, but he escaped the
guillotine, and by his conspicuous services soon drew upon
himself the favour of the Republican government. Like many
other members of the old ruling classes who had accepted the new
order of things, the instinct of command, joined to native ability,
brought Desaix rapidly to high posts. By 1794 he had attained
the rank of general of division. In the campaign of 1795 he
commanded Jourdan's right wing, and in Moreau's invasion of
Bavaria in the following year he held an equally important
command. In the retreat which ensued when the archduke
Charles won the battles of Amberg and Wtirzburg (see FRENCH
REVOLUTIONARY WARS) Desaix commanded Moreau's rearguard,
and later the fortress of Kehl, with the highest distinction, and
his name became a household word, like those of Bonaparte,
Jourdan, Hoche, Marceau and Kleber. Next year his initial
successes were interrupted by the Preliminaries of Leoben,
and he procured for himself a mission into Italy in order to
meet General Bonaparte, who spared no pains to captivate the
brilliant young general from the almost rival camps of Germany.
Provisionally appointed commander of the " Army of England,"
Desaix was soon transferred by Bonaparte to the expeditionary
force intended for Egypt. It was his division which bore the
brunt of the Mameluke attack at the battle of the Pyramids, and
he crowned his reputation by his victories over Murad Bey in
Upper Egypt. Amongst the fellaheen he acquired the significant
appellation of the " Just Sultan." When his chief handed over
the command to Kleber and prepared to return to France,
Desaix was one of the small party selected to accompany the
future emperor. But, from various causes, it was many months
before he could join the new Consul. The campaign of 1800 was
well on its way to the climax when Desaix at last reported
himself for duty in Italy. He was immediately assigned to the
command of a corps of two infantry divisions. Three days later
(June 14), detached, with Boudet's division, at Rivalta, he heard
the cannon of Marengo on his right. Taking the initiative he
marched at once towards the sound, meeting Bonaparte's staff
officer, who had come to recall him, half way on the route. He
arrived with Boudet's division at the moment when the Austrians
were victorious all along the line. Exclaiming, " There is yet
time to win another battlel" he led his three regiments straight
against the enemy's centre. At the moment of victory Desaix
was killed by a musket ball. Napoleon paid a just tribute to the
memory of one of the most brilliant soldiers of that brilliant time
by erecting the monuments of Desaix on the Place Dauphine and
the Place des Victoires in Paris.
See F. Martha-Beker, Comte de Mons, Le General L. C. A. Desaix
(Paris, 1852).
DESAUGIERS, MARC ANTOINE MADELEINE (1772-1827),
French dramatist and song-writer, son of Marc Antoine
Desaugiers, a musical composer, was born at Frejus (Var) on
the i7th of November 1772. He studied at the Mazarin college
in Paris, where he had for one of his teachers the critic Julien
Louis Geoffrey. He entered the seminary Saint Lazare with a
view to the priesthood, but soon gave up his intention. In his
nineteenth year he produced in collaboration with his father a
light opera (1791) adapted from the Medecin malgrelui of Moliere.
During the Revolution he emigrated to St Domingo, and during
the negro revolt he was made prisoner, barely escaping with his
life. He took refuge in the United States, where he supported
himself by teaching the piano. In 1797 he returned to his native
country, and in a very few years he became famous as a writer of
comedies, operas and vaudevilles, which were produced in rapid
succession at the Theatre des Varietes and the Vaudeville. He
also wrote convivial and satirical songs, which, though different
in character, can only worthily be compared with those of
Beranger. He was at one time president of the Caveau, a con-
vivial society whose members were then chiefly drawn from
literary circles. He had the honour of introducing Beranger as a
member. In 1815 Desaugiers succeeded Pierre Yves Barre as
manager of the Vaudeville, which prospered under his manage-
ment until, in 1820, the opposition of the Gymnase proved too
strong for him, and he resigned. He died in Paris on the 9th of
August 1827.
Among his pieces may be mentioned Le Valet d'emprunt ( i 807 ) ^
Monsieur Vaulour (181 1) ; and Le Rigne d'un terme et le terme d'un
regne, aimed at Napoleon.
An edition of Desaugiers' Chansons et Poesies diverses appeared in
1827. A new selection with a notice by Alfred de Bougy appeared
in 1858. See also Sainte-Beuve's Portraits contemporains, vol.v.
DESAULT, PIERRE JOSEPH (1744-1795), French anatomist
and surgeon, was born at Magny-Vernois (Haute Saone) on the
6th of February 1744. He was destined for the church, but his
own inclination was towards the study of medicine; and, after
learning something from the barber-surgeon of his native village,
he was settled as an apprentice in the military hospital of Belfort,
where he acquired some knowledge of anatomy and military
surgery. Going to Paris when about twenty years of age, he
opened a school of anatomy in the winter of 1766, the success
of which excited the jealousy of the established teachers and
professors, who endeavoured to make him give up his lectures.
In 1776 he was admitted a member of the corporation of
surgeons; and in 1782 he was appointed surgeon-major to the
hospital De la Chariti. Within a few years he was recognized
as one of the leading surgeons of France. The clinical school of
surgery which he instituted at the H6tel Dieu attracted great
numbers of students, not only from every part of France but also
from other countries; and he frequently had an audience of
about 600. He introduced many improvements into the practice
of surgery, as well as into the construction of various surgical
DES BARREAUX DESCARTES
79
instruments. In 1791 he established a Journal de chirurgerie,
edited by his pupils, which was a record of the most interesting
cases that had occurred in his clinical school, with the remarks
which he had made upon them in the course of his lectures. But
in the midst of his labours he became obnoxious to some of the
revolutionists, and he was, on some frivolous charge, denounced
to the popular sections. After being twice examined, he was
seized on the 28th of May 1793, while delivering a lecture, carried
away from his theatre, and committed to prison in the Luxem-
bourg. In three days, however, he was liberated, and permitted
to resume his functions. He died in Paris on the ist of June 1795,
the story that his death was caused by poison being disproved
by the autopsy carried out by his pupil, M. F. X. Bichat. A
pension was settled on his widow by the republic. Together
with Francois Chopart (1743-1795) he published a Traite des
maladies chirurgicales (1779), and Bichat published a digest
of his surgical doctrines in CEuvres chirurgicales de Desault
(1798-1799).
DES BARREAUX, JACQUES VALLEE, SIEUR (1602-1673),
French poet, was born in Paris in 1602. His great-uncle,
Geoff roy-Vallee, had been hanged in 1574 for the authorship of
a book called Le Flfau de la joy. His nephew appears to have
inherited his scepticism, which on one occasion nearly cost him
his life. The peasants of Touraine attributed to the presence
of the unbeliever an untimely frost that damaged the vines,
and proposed to stone him. His authorship of the sonnet on
" P6nitence," by which he is generally known, has been disputed.
He had the further distinction of being the first of the lovers of
Marion Delorme. He died at Chalon-sur-Sa6ne on the 9th of
May 1673.
See Poesies de Des Barreaux (1904), edited by F. Lachevre.
DESBOROUGH, JOHN (1608-1680), English soldier and
politician, son of James Desborough of Eltisley, Cambridgeshire,
and of Elizabeth Hatley of Over, in the same county, was baptized
on the I3th of November 1608. He was educated for the law.
On the 23rd of June 1636 he married Eltisley Jane, daughter
of Robert Cromwell of Huntingdon, and sister of the future
Protector. He took an active part in the Civil War when it
broke out, and showed considerable military ability. In 1645 he
was present as major in the engagement at Langport on the loth
of July, at Hambleton Hill on the 4th of August, and on the loth
of September he commanded the horse at the storming of Bristol.
Later he took part in the operations round Oxford. In 1648
as colonel he commanded the forces at Great Yarmouth. He
avoided all participation in the trial of the king in June 1649,
being employed in the settlement of the west of England. He
fought at Worcester as major-general and nearly captured
Charles II. near Salisbury. After the establishment of the
Commonwealth he was chosen, on the lyth of January 1652, a
member of the committee for legal reforms. In 1653 he became
a member of the Protectorate council of state, and a com-
missioner of the treasury, and was appointed one of the four
generals at sea and a commissioner for the army and navy. In
1654 he was made constable of St Briavel's Castle in Gloucester-
shire. Next year he was appointed major-general over the west.
He had been nominated a member of Barebones' parliament
in 1653, and he was returned to the parliament of 1654 for
Cambridgeshire, and to that of 1656 for Somersetshire. In July
1657 he became a member of the privy council, and in 1658 he
accepted a seat in Cromwell's House of Lords. In spite of his
near relationship to the Protector's family, he was one of the
most violent opponents of the assumption by Cromwell of the
royal title, and after the Protector's death, instead of supporting
the interests and government of his nephew Richard Cromwell,
he was, with Fleetwood, the chief instigator and organizer of the
hostility of the army towards his administration, and forced him
by threats and menaces to dissolve his parliament in April 1659.
He was chosen a member of the council of state by the restored
Rump, and made colonel and governor of Plymouth, but pre-
senting with other officers a seditious petition from the army
council, on the 5th of October, was about a week later dismissed.
After the expulsion of the Rump by Fleetwood on the i3th of
October he was chosen by the officers a member of the new
administration and commissary-general of the horse. The new
military government, however, rested on no solid foundation, and
its leaders quickly found themselves without any influence.
Desborough himself became an object of ridicule, his regiment
even revolted against him, and on the return of the Rump he
was ordered to quit London. At the restoration he was excluded
from the act of indemnity but not included in the clause of pains
and penalties extending to life and goods, being therefore only
incapacitated from public employment. Soon afterwards he was
arrested on suspicion of conspiring to kill the king and queen,
but was quickly liberated. Subsequently he escaped to Holland,
where he engaged in republican intrigues. Accordingly he was
ordered home, in April 1666, on pain of incurring the charge of
treason, and obeying was imprisoned in the Tower till February
1667, when he was examined before the council and set free.
Desborough died in 1680. By his first wife, Cromwell's sister, he
had one daughter and seven sons; he married a second wife in
April 1658 whose name is unrecorded. Desborough was a good
soldier and nothing more; and his only conception of govern-
ment was by force and by the army. His rough person and
manners are the constant theme of ridicule in the royalist ballads,
and he is caricatured in Butler's Hudibras and in the Parable of
the Lien and Fox.
DESCARTES, RENE (1596-1650), French philosopher, was
born at La Haye, in Touraine, midway between Tours and
Poitiers, on the 3ist of March 1596, and died at Stockholm on the
nth of February 1650. The house where he was born is still
shown, and a mttairie about 3 m. off retains the name of
Les Cartes. His family on both sides was of Poitevin descent.
Joachim Descartes, his father, having purchased a commission
as counsellor in the parlement of Rennes, introduced the family
into that demi-noblesse of the robe which, between the bourgeoisie
and the high nobility, maintained a lofty rank in French society.
He had three children, a son who afterwards succeeded to his
father in the parlement, a daughter who married a M. du Crevis,
and Rene, after whose birth the mother died.
Descartes, known as Du Perron, from a small estate destined
for his inheritance, soon showed an inquisitive mind. From
1604 to 1612 he studied at the school of La Flfiche,
which Henry IV. had lately founded and endowed for
the Jesuits. He enjoyed exceptional privileges; his
feeble health excused him from the morning duties, and thus
early he acquired the habit of reflection in bed, which clung to
him throughout life. Even then he had begun to distrust the
authority of tradition and his teachers. Two years before he
left school he was selected as one of the twenty-four who went
forth to receive the heart of Henry IV. as it was borne to its
resting-place at La Fle'che. At the age of sixteen he went home
to his father, who was now settled at Rennes, and had married
again. During the winter of 1612 he completed his preparations
for the world by lessons in horsemanship and fencing; and then
started as his own master to taste the pleasures of Parisian life.
Fortunately he went to no perilous lengths; the worst we hear
of is a passion for gaming. Here, too, he made the acquaintance
of Claude Mydorge, one of the foremost mathematicians of France,
and renewed an early intimacy with Marin Mersenne (g.v.), now
Father Mersenne, of the order of Minim friars. The withdrawal
of Mersenne in 1614 to a post in the provinces was the signal for
Descartes to abandon social life and shut himself up for nearly
two years in a secluded house of the faubourg St Germain.
Accident betrayed the secret of his retirement; he was com-
pelled to leave his mathematical investigations, and to take part
in entertainments, where the only thing that chimed in with his
theorizing reveries was the music. French politics were at that
time characterized by violence and intrigue to such an extent
that Paris was no fit place for a student, and there was little
honourable prospect for a soldier. Accordingly, in May 1617,
Descartes set out for the Netherlands and took service in the
army of Prince Maurice of Orange. At Breda he enlisted as a
volunteer, and the first and only pay which he accepted he kept
as a curiosity through life. There was a lull in the war, and the
Early
years.
8o
DESCARTES
Netherlands was distracted by the quarrels of Gomarists and
Arminians. During the leisure thus arising, Descartes one day
had his attention drawn to a placard in the Dutch tongue; as
the language, of which he never became perfectly master, was
then strange to him, he asked a bystander to interpret it into
either French or Latin. The stranger, Isaac Beeckman, principal
of the college of Dort, offered to do so into Latin, if the inquirer
would bring him a solution of the problem, for the advertise-
ment was one of those challenges which the mathematicians of
the age were accustomed to throw down to all comers, daring
them to discover a geometrical mystery known as they fancied
to themselves alone. Descartes promised and fulfilled; and a
friendship grew up between him and Beeckman broken only
by the dishonesty of the latter, who in later years took credit for
the novelty contained in a small essay on music (Compendium
Musicae) which Descartes wrote at this period and entrusted to
Beeckman. 1
After spending two years in Holland as a soldier in a period
of peace, Descartes, in July 1619, attracted by the news of
the impending struggle between the house of Austria and the
Protestant princes, consequent upon the election of the palatine
of the Rhine to the kingdom of Bohemia, set out for upper
Germany, and volunteered into the Bavarian service. The
winter of 1619, spent in quarters at Neuburg on the Danube, was
the critical period in his life. Here, in his warm room (dans un
poele), he indulged those meditations which afterwards led to the
Discourse of Method. It was here that, on the eve of St Martin's
day, he " was filled with enthusiasm, and discovered the founda-
tions of a marvellous science." He retired to rest with anxious
thoughts of his future career, which haunted him through the
night in three dreams that left a deep impression on his mind.
The date of his philosophical conversion is thus fixed to a day.
But as yet he had only glimpses of a logical method which should
invigorate the syllogism by the co-operation of ancient geometry
and modern algebra. For during the year that elapsed before he
left Swabia (and whilst he sojourned at Neuburg and Ulm), and
amidst his geometrical studies, he would fain have gathered some
knowledge of the mystical wisdom attributed to the Rosicrucians;
but the Invisibles, as they called themselves, kept their secret.
He was present at the battle of Weisser Berg (near Prague), where
the hopes of the elector palatine were blasted (November 8,
1620), passed the winter with the army in southern Bohemia,
and next year served in Hungaiy under Karl Bonaventura de
Longueval, Graf von Buquoy or Boucquoi (1571-1621). On the
death of this general Descartes quitted the imperial service, and
in July 1621 began a peaceful tour through Moravia, the borders
of Poland, Pomerania, Brandenburg, Holstein and Friesland,
from which he reappeared in February 1622 in Belgium, and
betook himself directly to his father's home at Rennes in
Brittany.
At Rennes Descartes found little to interest him; and, after
he had visited the maternal estate of which his father now put
him in possession, he went to Paris, where he found the Rosi-
crucians the topic of the hour, and heard himself credited with
partnership in their secrets. A short visit to Brittany enabled
him, with his father's consent, to arrange for the sale of his
property in Poitou. The proceeds were invested in such a way
at Paris as to bring him in a yearly income of between 6000 and
7000 francs (equal now to more than 500). Towards the end
of the year Descartes was on his way to Italy. The natural
phenomena of Switzerland, and the political complications in
the Valtellina, where the Catholic inhabitants had thrown off the
yoke of the Orisons and called in the Papal and Spanish troops
to their assistance, delayed him some time; but he reached
Venice in time to see the ceremony of the doge's wedlock with the
Adriatic. After paying his vows at Loretto, he came to Rome,
which was then on the eve of a year of jubilee an occasion which
Descartes seized to observe the variety of men and manners which
the city then embraced within its walls. In the spring of 1625
1 It was only published after the author's death; and of it, besides
the French version, there exists an English translation " by a Person
of Quality."
he returned home by Mont Cenis, observing the avalanches,'
instead of, as his relatives hoped, securing a post in the French
army in Piedmont.
For an instant Descartes seems to have concurred in the plan
of purchasing a post at Chatellerault, but he gave up the idea,
and settled in Paris (June 1625), in the quarter where he had
sought seclusion before. By this time he had ceased to devote
himself to pure mathematics, and in company with his friends
Mersenne and Mydorge was deeply interested in the theory of
the refraction of light, and in the practical work of grinding
glasses of the best shape suitable for optical instruments. But
all the while he was engaged with reflections on the nature of
man, of the soul and of God, and for a while he remained invisible
even to his most familiar friends. But their importunity made a
hermitage in Paris impossible; a graceless friend even surprised
the philosopher in bed at eleven in the morning meditating and
taking notes. In disgust, Descartes started for the west to take
part in the siege of La Rochelle, and entered the city with the
troops (October 1628). A meeting at which he was present after
his return to Paris decided his vocation. He had expressed an
opinion that the true art of memory was not to be gained by
technical devices, but by a philosophical apprehension of things;
and the cardinal de Berulle, the founder of the Congregation of
the Oratory, was so struck by the tone of the remarks as to
impress upon the speaker the duty of spending his life in the
examination of truth. Descartes accepted the philosophic
mission, and in the spring of 1629 he settled in Holland. His
financial affairs he had entrusted to the care of the abbe Picot,
and as his literary and scientific representative he adopted
Mersenne.
Till 1649 Descartes lived in Holland. Thrice only did he
revisit France in 1644, 1647 and 1648. The first of these
occasions was in order to settle family affairs after the death
of his father in 1640. The second brief visit, in 1647, partly on
literary, partly on family business, was signalized by the award
of a pension of 3000 francs, obtained from the royal bounty
by Cardinal Mazarin. The last visit in 1648 was less fortunate.
A royal order summoned him to France for new honours an
additional pension and a permanent post for his fame had by
this time gone abroad, and it was the age when princes sought to
attract genius and learning to their courts. But when Descartes
arrived, he found Paris rent asunder by the civil war of the
Fronde. He paid the costs of his royal parchment, and left
without a word of reproach. The only other occasions on which
he was out of the Netherlands were in 1630, when he made a
flying visit to England to observe for himself some alleged
magnetic phenomena, and in 1634, when he took an excursion
to Denmark.
During his residence in Holland he lived at thirteen different
places, and changed his abode twenty-four times. In the choice
of these spots two motives seem to have influenced him the
neighbourhood of a university or college, and the amenities of
the situation. Among these towns were Franeker in Friesland,
Harderwyk, Deventer, Utrecht, Leiden, Amersfoort, Amster-
dam, Leeuwarden in Friesland. His favourite residences were
Endegeest, Egmond op den Hoef and Egmond the Abbey (west
of Zaandam).
The time thus spent seems to have been on the whole happy,
even allowing for warm discussions with the mathematicians
and metaphysicians of France, and for harassing controversies in
the Netherlands. Friendly agents chiefly Catholic priests were
the intermediaries who forwarded his correspondence from Dort,
Haarlem, Amsterdam and Leiden to his proper address, which he
kept completely secret; and Father Mersenne sent him objections
and questions. His health, which in his youth had been bad,
improved. " I sleep here ten hours every night," he writes
from Amsterdam, " and no care ever shortens my slumber."
" I take my walk every day through the confusion of a great
multitude with as much freedom and quiet as you could find in
your rural avenues." 3 At his first coming to Franeker he
arranged to get a cook acquainted with French cookery; but,
i (Euvres, v. 255. '76. vi. 199.
DESCARTES
81
to prevent misunderstanding, it may be added that his diet was
mainly vegetarian, and that he rarely drank wine. New friends
gathered round him who took a keen interest in his researches.
Once only do we find him taking an interest in the affairs of his
neighbours, to ask pardon from the government for a homicide. 1
He continued the profession of his religion. Sometimes from
curiosity he went to the ministrations of anabaptists, 2 to hear
the preaching of peasants and artisans. He carried few books
to Holland with him, but a Bible and the Summa of Thomas
Aquinas were amongst them. 3 One of the recommendations of
Egmond the Abbey was the free exercise there allowed to the
Catholic religion. At Franeker his house was a small chateau,
" separated by a moat from the rest of the town, where the mass
could be said in safety." 4 And one motive in favour of accepting
an invitation to England lay in the alleged leanings of Charles I.
to the older church.
The best account of Descartes's mental history during his
life in Holland is contained in his letters, which extend over the
whole period, and are particularly frequent in the latter half.
The majority of them are addressed to Mersenne, and deal with
problems of physics, musical theory (in which he took a special
interest), and mathematics. Several letters between 1643 and
1649 are addressed to the princess Elizabeth, the eldest daughter
of the ejected elector palatine, who lived at The Hague, where her
mother maintained the semblance of a royal court. The princess
was obliged to quit Holland, but kept up a philosophical corre-
spondence with Descartes. It is to her that the Principles of
Philosophy were dedicated; and in her alone, according to
Descartes, were united those generally separated talents for
metaphysics and for mathematics which are so characteristically
co-operative in the Cartesian system. Two Dutch friends,
Constantijn Huygens (von Zuylichem), father of the more
celebrated Huygens, and Hoogheland, figure amongst the
correspondents, not to mention various savants, professors and
churchmen (particularly Jesuits).
His residence in the Netherlands fell in the most prosperous
and brilliant days of the Dutch state, under the stadtholdership
of Frederick Henry (1625-1647). Abroad its navigators mono-
polized the commerce of the world, and explored unknown seas;
at home the Dutch school of painting reached its acme in
Rembrandt (1607-1669); and the philological reputation of
the country was sustained by Grotius, Vossius and the elder
Heinsius. And yet, though Rembrandt's " Nightwatch " is dated
the very year after the publication of the Meditations, not a word
in Descartes breathes of any work of art or historical learning.
The contempt of aesthetics and erudition is characteristic of the
most typical members of what is known as the Cartesian school,
especially Malebranche. Descartes was not in any strict sense a
reader. His wisdom grew mainly out of his own reflections and
experiments. The story of his disgust when he found that
Queen Christina devoted some time every day to the study of
Greek under the tuition of Vossius is at least true in substance. 5
It gives no evidence of science, he remarks, to possess a tolerable
knowledge of the Roman tongue, such as once was possessed by
the populace of Rome. 6 In all his travels he studied only the
phenomena of nature and human life. He was a spectator
rather than an actor on the stage of the world. He entered the
army, merely because the position gave a vantage-ground from
which to make his observations. In the political interests which
these contests involved he took no part; his favourite disciple,
the princess Elizabeth, was the daughter of the banished king,
against whom he had served in Bohemia; and Queen Christina,
his second royal follower, was the daughter of Gustavus
Adolphus.
Thus Descartes is a type of that spirit of science to which
erudition and all the heritage of the past seem but elegant
trifling. The science of Descartes was physics in all its branches,
but especially as applied to physiology. Science, he says, may
be compared to a tree; metaphysics is the root, physics is the
trunk, and the three chief branches are mechanics, medicine and
1 CEuvres, viii. 59.
4 Ib. vi. 123.
2 76. viii. 173.
' Ib. x. 375.
3 Ib. viii. 181.
' Ib. ix. 6.
morals, the three applications of our knowledge to the outward
world, to the human body, and to the conduct of life. 7
Such then was the work that Descartes had in view in Holland.
His residence was generally divided into two parts one his
workshop for science, the other his reception-room for society.
" Here are my books," he is reported to have told a visitor, as he
pointed to the animals he had dissected. He worked hard at his
book on refraction, and dissected the heads of animals in order to
explain imagination and memory, which he considered physical
processes. 8 But he was not a laborious student. " I can say
with truth," he writes to the princess Elizabeth, 9 " that the
principle which I have always observed in my studies, and which
I believe has helped me most to gain whatjtnowledge I have, has
been never to spend beyond a very few hours daily in thoughts
which occupy the imagination, and a very few hours yearly in
those which occupy the understanding, and to give all the rest of
my time to the relaxation of the senses and the repose of the
mind." But his expectations from the study of anatomy and
physiology went a long way. " The conservation of health,"
he writes in 1646, " has always been the principal end of my
studies." 10 In 1629 he asks Mersenne to take care of himself
" till I find out if there is any means of getting a medical theory
based on infallible demonstrations, which is what I am now
inquiring." u Astronomical inquiries in connexion with optics,
meteorological phenomena, and, in a word, the whole field
of natural Jaws, excited his desire to explain them. His own
observation, and the reports of Mersenne, furnished his data. Of
Bacon's demand for observation and collection of facts he is
an imitator; and he wishes (in a letter of 1632) that " some one
would undertake to give a history of celestial phenomena after
the method of Bacon, and describe the sky exactly as it appears
at present, without introducing a single hypothesis." 12
He had several writings in hand during the early years of his
residence in Holland, but the main work of this period was a
physical doctrine of the universe which he termed The World.
Shortly after his arrival he writes to Mersenne that it will prob-
ably be finished in 1633, but meanwhile asks him not to disclose
the secret to his Parisian friends. Already anxieties appear as to
the theological verdict upon two of his fundamental views the
infinitude of the universe, and the earth's rotation round the
sun. 13 But towards the end of year 1633 we find him writing as
follows: " I had intended sending you my World as a New
Year's gift, and a fortnight ago I was still minded to send you a
fragment of the work, if the whole of it could not be transcribed
in time. But I have just been at Leyden and Amsterdam to
ask after Galileo's cosmical system as I imagined I had heard of
its being printed last year in Italy. I was told that it had been
printed, but that every copy had been at the same time burnt at
Rome, and that Galileo had been himself condemned to some
penalty." 14 He has also seen a copy of Galileo's condemnation
at Liege (September 20, 1633), with the words "although he
professes that the [Copernican] theory was only adopted by him
as a hypothesis." His friend Beeckman lent him a copy of
Galileo's work, which he glanced through in his usual manner
with other men's books; he found it good, and " failing more
in the points where it follows received opinions than where it
diverges from them." 15 The consequence of these reports of the
hostility of the church led him to abandon all thoughts of
publishing. The World was consigned to his desk; and although
doctrines in all essential respects the same constitute the physical
portion of his Principia, it was not till after the death of Descartes
that fragments of the work, including Le Monde, or ?, treatise on
light, and the physiological tracts L'Homme and La Formation du
fcelus, were given to the world by his admirer Claude Clerselier
(1614-1684) in 1664. Descartes was not disposed to be a
martyr; he had a sincere respect for the church, and had no
wish to begin an open conflict with established doctrines.
In 1636 Descartes had resolved to publish some specimens of
the fruits of his method, and some general observations on its
7 Ib. iii. 24.
10 Ib. ix. 341.
13 Ib. vi. 73.
8 Ib. vi. 234.
11 Ib. vi. 89.
14 Ib. vi. 239.
9 Ib. ix. 131.
w Ib. vi. 210.
16 Ib. vi. 248.
DESCARTES
nature which, under an appearance of simplicity, might sow the
good seed of more adequate ideas on the world and man. " I
should be glad," he says, when talking of a publisher, 1 " if the
whole book were printed in good type, on good paper, and I
should like to have at least 200 copies for distribution. The book
will contain four essays, all in French, with the general title of
' Project of a Universal science, capable of raising our nature to
its highest perfection; also Dioptrics, Meteors and Geometry,
wherein the most curious matters which the author could select
as a proof of the universal science which he proposes are explained
in such a way that even the unlearned may understand them.' "
The work appeared anonymously at Leiden (published by Jean
Maire) in 1637, under the modest title of Essais philosophiques;
and the project of a universal science becomes the Discours de la
methode pour bien conduire sa raison et chercher la iifrite dans les
sciences. In 1644 it appeared in a Latin version, revised by
Descartes, as Specimina philosophica. A work so widely circu-
lated by the author naturally attracted attention, but in France
it was principally the mathematicians who took it up, and their
criticisms were more pungent than complimentary. Fermat,
Roberval and Desargues took exception in their various ways to
the methods employed in the geometry, and to the demonstra-
tions of the laws of refraction given in the Dioptrics and Meteors.
The dispute on the latter point between Fermat and Descartes
was continued, even after the philosopher's death, as late as
1662. In the youthful Dutch universities the effect of the essays
was greater.
The first public teacher of Cartesian views was Henri Renery,
a Belgian, who at Deventer and afterwards at Utrecht had
introduced the new philosophy which he had learned
Cart** ' f rom personal intercourse with Descartes. Renery
s/n/sm. on ly survived five years at Utrecht, and it was reserved
for Heinrich Regius (van Roy) who in 1638 had been
appointed to the new chair of botany and theoretical medicine
at Utrecht, and who visited Descartes at Egmond in order more
thoroughly to learn his views to throw down the gauntlet to
the adherents of the old methods. With more eloquence than
judgment, he propounded theses bringing into relief the points
in which the new doctrines clashed with the old. The attack was
opened by Gisbert Voe't, foremost among the orthodox theo-
logical professors and clergy of Utrecht. In 1639 he published a
series of arguments against atheism, in which the Cartesian views
were not obscurely indicated as perilous for the faith, though no
name was mentioned. Next year he persuaded the magistracy
to issue an order forbidding Regius to travel beyond the received
doctrine. The magisterial views seem to have prevailed in the
professoriate, which formally in March 1642 expressed its dis-
approbation of the new philosophy as well as of its expositors.
As yet Descartes was not directly attacked. Voe't now issued,
under the name of Martin Schoock, one of his pupils, a pamphlet
with the title of Methodus novae philosophiae Renati Descartes, in
which atheism and infidelity were openly declared to be the effect
of the new teaching. Descartes replied to Voet directly in a letter,
published at Amsterdam in 1643. He was summoned before the
magistrates of Utrecht to defend himself against charges of
irreligion and slander. What might have happened we cannot
tell; but Descartes threw himself on the protection of the French
ambassador and the prince of Orange, and the city magistrates,
from whom he vainly demanded satisfaction in a dignified letter, 2
were snubbed by their superiors. About the same time (April
1645) Schoock was summoned before the university of Groningen,
of which he was a member, and forthwith disavowed the more
abusive passages in his book. So did the effects of the odium
theologicum, for the meanwhile at least, die away.
In the Discourse of Method Descartes had sketched the main
points in his new views, with a mental autobiography which
Discourse m ^S^ explain their origin, and with some suggestions
of Method, as to their applications. His second great work,
andMedi- Meditations on the First Philosophy, which had been
tatiocs. begun soon after his settlement in the Netherlands,
expounded in more detail the foundations of his system,
1 (Euvres, vi. 276. 2 76. ix. 250.
laying especial emphasis on the priority of mind to body, and on
the absolute and ultimate dependence of mind as well as body on
the existence of God. In 1640 a copy of the work in manuscript
was despatched to Paris, and Mersenne was requested to lay it
before as many thinkers and scholars as he deemed desirable,
with a view to getting their views upon its argument and doctrine.
Descartes soon had a formidable list of objections to reply to.
Accordingly, when the work was published at Paris in August
1641, under the title of Medilaliones de prima philosophia ubi de
Dei existentia et animae immortalitate (though it was in fact not
the immortality but the immateriality of the mind, or, as the
second edition described it, animae humanae a corpore distinctio,
which was maintained), the title went on to describe the larger
part of the book as containing various objections of learned
men, with the replies of the author. These objections in the first
edition are arranged under six heads: the first came from
Caterus, a theologian of Louvain; the second and sixth are
anonymous criticisms from various hands; whilst the third,
fourth and fifth belong respectively to Hobbes, Arnauld and
Gassendi. In the second edition appeared the seventh objec-
tions from Pere Bourdin, a Jesuit teacher of mathematics in
Paris; and subsequently another set of objections, known
as those of Hyperaspistes, was included in the collection of
Descartes's letters. The anonymous objections are very much
the statement of common-sense against philosophy; those of
Caterus criticize the Cartesian argument from the traditional
theology of the church; those of Arnauld are an appreciative
inquiry into the bearings and consequences of the meditations
for religion and morality; while those. of Hobbes (q.v.) and
Gassendi both somewhat senior to Descartes and with a
dogmatic system of their own already formed are a keen assault
upon the spiritualism of the Cartesian position from a generally
" sensational " standpoint. The criticisms of the last two are
the criticisms of a hostile school of thought; those of Arnauld
are the difficulties of a possible disciple.
In 1644 the third great work of Descartes, the Principia
philosophiae, appeared at Amsterdam. Passing briefly over
the conclusions arrived at in the Meditations, it deals
in its second, third and fourth parts with the general cl * ia
principles of physical science, especially the laws of
motion, with the theory of vortices, and with the phenomena of
heat, light, gravity, magnetism, electricity, &c., upon the earth.
This work exhibits some curious marks of caution. Undoubtedly,
says Descartes, the world was in the beginning created in all its
perfection. "But yet as it is best, if we wish to understand the
nature of plants or of men, to consider how they may by degrees
proceed from seeds, rather than how they were created by God
in the beginning of the world, so, if we can excogitate some
extremely simple and comprehensible principles, out of which,
as if they were seeds, we can prove that stars, and earth and all
this visible scene could have originated, although we know full
well that they never did originate in such a way, we shall in that
way expound their nature far better than if we merely described
them as they exist at present." 3 The Copernican theory is
rejected in name, but retained in substance. The earth, or other
planet, does not actually move round the sun; yet it is carried
round the sun in the subtle matter of the great vortex, where it
lies in equilibrium, carried like the passenger in a boat, who may
cross the sea and yet not rise from his berth.
In 1647 the difficulties that had arisen at Utrecht were repeated
on a smaller scale at Leiden. There the Cartesian innovations
had found a patron in Adrian Heerebord, and were openly
discussed in theses and lectures. The theological professors took
the alarm at passages in the Meditations; an attempt to prove
the existence of God savoured, as they thought, of atheism and
heresy. When Descartes complained to the authorities of this
unfair treatment, 4 the only reply was an order by which all
mention of the name of Cartesianism, whether favourable or
adverse, was forbidden in the university. This was scarcely
what Descartes wanted, and again he had to apply to the prince
of Orange, whereupon the theologians were asked to behave with
* Princip. L. iii. S. 45. * CEuvres, x. 26.
DESCARTES
civility, and the name of Descartes was no longer proscribed.
But other annoyances were not wanting from unfaithful disciples
and unsympathetic critics. The Instantiate of Gassendi appeared
at Amsterdam in 1644 as a reply to the reply which Descartes had
published of his previous objections; and the publication by
Heinrich Regius of his work on physical philosophy (Fundamenta
phy sices; 1646) gave the world to understand that he had ceased
to be a thorough adherent of the philosophy which he had so
enthusiastically adopted.
It was about 1648 that Descartes lost his friends Mersenne
and Mydorge by death. The place of Mersenne as his Parisian
representative was in the main taken by Claude Clerselier (the
French translator of the Objections and Responses), whom he had
become acquainted with in Paris. Through Clerselier .he came to
know Pierre Chanut, who in 1645 was sent as French ambassador
to the court of Sweden. Queen Christina was not yet twenty,
and took a lively if a somewhat whimsical interest in literary
and philosophical culture. Through Chanut, with whom she
was on terms of familiarity, she came to hear of Descartes, and a
correspondence which the latter nominally carried on with the
ambassador was in reality intended for the eyes of the queen.
The correspondence took an ethical tone. It began with a long
letter on love in all its aspects (February 1647),' a topic suggested
by Chanut, who had been discussing it with the queen; and this
was soon followed by another to Christina herself on the chief
good. An essay on the passions of the mind (Passions de I'dme),
which had been written originally for the princess Elizabeth,
in development of some ethical views suggested by the De vita
beata of Seneca, was enclosed at the same time for Chanut. It
was a draft of the work published in 1650 under the same title.
Philosophy, particularly that of Descartes, was becoming a
fashionable divertissement for the queen and her courtiers, and
it was felt that the presence of the sage himself was necessary
to complete the good work of education. An invitation to
the Swedish court was urged upon Descartes, and after much
hesitation accepted; a vessel of the royal navy was ordered
to wait upon him, and in September 1649 he left Egmond for
the north.
The position on which he entered at Stockholm was unsuited
for a man who wished to be his own master. The young queen
Death wanted Descartes to draw up a code for a proposed
academy of the sciences, and to give her an hour of
philosophic instruction every morning at five. She had already
determined to create him a noble, and begun to look out an estate
in the lately annexed possessions of Sweden on the Pomeranian
coast. But these things were not to be. His friend Chanut fell
dangerously ill; and Descartes, who devoted himself to attend
in the sick-room, was obliged to issue from it every morning in
the chill northern air of January, and spend an hour in the palace
library. The ambassador recovered, but Descartes fell a victim
to the same disease, inflammation of the lungs. The last time he
saw the queen was on the ist of February 1650, when he handed
to her the statutes he had drawn up for the proposed academy.
On the nth of February he died. The queen wished to bury him
at the feet of the Swedish kings, and to raise a costly mausoleum
in his honour; but these plans were overruled, and a plain
monument in the Catholic cemetery was all that marked the place
of his rest. Sixteen years after his death the French treasurer
d'Alibert made arrangements for the conveyance of the ashes to
his native land; and in 1667 they were interred in the church of
Ste Genevieve du Mont, the modern Pantheon. In 1819, after
being temporarily deposited in a stone sarcophagus in the court
of the Louvre during the Revolutionary epoch, they were
transferred to St Germain-des-Pres, where they now repose
between Montfaucon and Mabillon. A monument was raised
to his memory at Stockholm by Gustavus III.; and a modern
statue has been erected to him at Tours, with an inscription on
the pedestal: " Je pense, done je suis."
Descartes never married, and had little of the amorous in his
temperament. He has alluded to a childish fancy for a young
girl with a slight obliquity of vision; but he only mentions it
1 CEuvres, x. 3.
d propos of the consequent weakness which led him to associate
such a defect with beauty. 2 In person he was small, with large
head, projecting brow, prominent nose, and eyes wide apart,
with black hair coming down almost to his eyebrows. His voice
was feeble. He usually dressed in black, with unobtrusive
propriety.
Philosophy. The end of all study, says Descartes, in one of his
earliest writings, ought to be to guide the mind to form true and
sound judgments on every thing that may be presented to it. 3
The sciences in their totality are but the intelligence of man;
and all the details of knowledge have no value save as they
strengthen the understanding. The mind is not for the sake of
knowledge, but knowledge for the sake of the mind. This is the
reassertion of a principle which the middle ages had lost sight of
that knowledge, if it is to have any value, must be intelligence,
and not erudition.
But how is intelligence, as opposed to erudition, possible?
The answer to that question is the method of Descartes. That
idea of a method grew up with his study of geometry
and arithmetic, the only branches of knowledge
which he would allow to be " made sciences." But
they did not satisfy his demand for intelligence. " I found in
them," he says, " different propositions on numbers of which,
after a calculation, I perceived the truth; as for the figures, I
had, so to speak, many truths put before my eyes, and many
others concluded from them by analogy; but it did not seem to me
that they told my mind with sufficient clearness why the things
were as I was shown, and by what means their discovery was
attained-" 4 The mathematics of which he thus speaks included
the geometry of the ancients, as it had been handed down to the
modern world, and arithmetic with the developments it had
received in the direction of algebra. The ancient geometry, as we
know it, is a wonderful monument of ingenuity a series of
tours de force, in which each problem to all appearance stands
alone, and, if solved, is solved by methods and principles peculiar
to itself. Here and there particular curves, for example, had
been obliged to yield the secret of their tangent; but the ancient
geometers apparently had no consciousness of the general
bearings of the methods which they so successfully applied.
Each problem was something unique; the elements of transition
from one to another were wanting; and the next step which
mathematics had to make was to find some method of reducing,
for instance, all curves to a common notation. When that was
found, the solution of one problem would immediately entail the
solution of all others which belonged to the same series as itself.
The arithmetical half of mathematics, which had been gradually
growing into algebra, and had decidedly established itself as such
in the Ad logisticen speciosam notae priores of Francois Vieta
(1540- 1 603), supplied to some extent the means of generalizing
geometry. And the algebraists or arithmeticians of the i6th
century, such as Luca Pacioli (Lucas de Borgo), Geronimo or
Girolamo Cardano (1501-1576), and Niccola Tartaglia (1506-
1559), had used geometrical constructions to throw light on
the solution of particular equations. But progress was made
difficult, in consequence of the clumsy and irregular nomenclature
employed. With Descartes the use of exponents as now employed
for denoting the powers of a quantity becomes systematic; and
without some such step by which the homogeneity of successive
powers is at once recognized, the binomial theorem could scarcely
have been detected. The restriction of the early letters of the
alphabet to known, and of the late letters to unknown, quantities
is also his work. In this and other details he crowns and com-
pletes, in a form henceforth to be dominant for the language
of algebra, the work of numerous obscure predecessors, such as
Etienne de la Roche, Michael Stifel or Stiefel (1487-1567), and
others.
Having thus perfected the instrument, his next step was to
apply it in such a way as to bring uniformity of method into the
isolated and independent operations of geometry. " I had no
intention," 6 he says in the Method, "of attempting to master all
2 76. x. 53. Regulae, CEuvres, xi. 202.
4 CEuvres, xi. 219. Disc, de methode, part ii.
DESCARTES
the particular sciences commonly called mathematics; but as I
observed that, with all differences in their objects, they agreed in
considering merely the various relations or proportions subsisting
among these objects, I thought it best for my purpose to consider
these relations in the most general form possible, without refer-
ring them to any objects in particular except such as would
most facilitate the knowledge of them. Perceiving further, that
in order to understand these relations I should sometimes have
to consider them one by one, and sometimes only to bear them in
mind or embrace them in the aggregate, I thought that, in order
the better to consider them individually, I should view them as
subsisting between straight lines, than which I could find no
objects more simple, or capable of being more distinctly repre-
sented to my imagination and senses; and on the other hand
that, in order to retain them in the memory or embrace an
aggregate of many, I should express them by certain characters,
the briefest possible." Such is the basis of the algebraical or
modern analytical geometry. The problem of the curves is
solved by their reduction to a problem of straight lines; and the
locus of any point is determined by its distance from two given
straight lines the axes of co-ordinates. Thus Descartes gave
to modern geometry that abstract and general character in
which consists its superiority to the geometry of the ancients.
In another question connected with this, the problem of drawing
tangents to any curve, Descartes was drawn into a controversy
with Pierre (de) Fermat (1601-1663), Gilles Persone de Roberval
(1602-1675), and Girard Desargues (1593-1661). Fermat and
Descartes agreed in regarding the tangent to a curve as a secant
of that curve with the two points of intersection coinciding, while
Roberval regarded it as the direction of the composite movement
by which the curve can be described. Both these methods,
differing from that now employed, are interesting as preliminary
steps towards the method of fluxions and the differential calculus.
In pure algebra Descartes expounded and illustrated the general
methods of solving equations up to those of the fourth degree
(and believed that his method could go beyond), stated the law
which connects the positive and negative roots of an equation
with the changes of sign in the consecutive terms, and introduced
the method of indeterminate coefficients for the solution of
equations. 1 These innovations have been attributed on in-
adequate evidence to other algebraists, e.g. William Oughtred
(1575-1660) and Thomas Harriot (1560-1621).
The Geometry of Descartes, unlike the other parts of his essays,
is not easy reading. It dashes at once into the middle of the
subjects with the examination of a problem which had baffled
the ancients, and seems as if it were tossed at the heads of
the French geometers as a challenge. An edition of it ap-
peared subsequently, with notes by his friend Florimond de
Beaune (1601-1652), calculated to smooth the difficulties of
the work. All along mathematics was regarded by Descartes
rather as the envelope than the foundation of his method; and
the " universal mathematical science " which he sought after
was only the prelude of a universal science of all-embracing
character. 2
The method of Descartes rests upon the proposition that all
the objects of our knowledge fall into series, of which the members
are more or less known by means of one another. In
method* everv sucn series or group there is a dominant element,
simple and irresoluble, the standard on which the rest
of the series depends, and hence, so far as that group or series is
concerned, absolute. The other members of the group are relative
and dependent, and only to be understood as in various degrees
subordinate to the primitive conception. The characteristic by
which we recognize the fundamental element in a series is its
intuitive or self-evident character; it is given by " the evident
conception of a healthy and attentive mind so clear and distinct
that no doubt is left." * Having discovered this prime or absolute
member of the group, we proceed to consider the degrees in which
the other members enter into relation with it. Here deduction
comes into play to show the dependence of one term upon the
others; and, in the case of a long chain of intervening links, the
1 Geometric, book iii. * (Euvres, xi. 224. Ib. xi. 212.
problem for intelligence is so to enunciate every element, and so
to repeat the connexion that we may finally grasp all the links
of the chain in one. In this way we, as it were, bring the causal
or primal term and its remotest dependent immediately together,
and raise a derivative knowledge into one which is primary and
intuitive. Such are the four points of Cartesian method:
(i) Truth requires a clear and distinct conception of its object,
excluding all doubt; (2) the objects of knowledge naturally fall
into series or groups; (3) in these groups investigation must
begin with a simple and indecomposable element, and pass from
it to the more complex and relative elements; (4) an exhaustive
and immediate grasp of the relations and interconnexion of
these elements is necessary for knowledge in the fullest sense of
that word.?
" There is no question," he says in anticipation of Locke
and Kant, " more important to solve than that of knowing
what human knowledge is and how far it extends." " This is a
question which ought to be asked at least once in their lives by
all who seriously wish to gain wisdom. The inquirer will find
that the first thing to know is intellect, because on it depends the
knowledge of all other things. Examining next what immediately
follows the knowledge of pure intellect, he will pass in review all
the other means of knowledge, and will find that they are two
(or three) , the imagination and the senses (and the memory) . He
will therefore devote all his care to examine and distinguish
these three means of knowledge; and seeing that truth and error
can, properly speaking, be only in the intellect, and that the two
other modes of knowledge are only occasions, he will carefully
avoid whatever can lead him astray." 6 This separation of
intellect from sense, imagination and memory is the cardinal
precept of the Cartesian logic; it marks off clear and distinct
(i.e. adequate and vivid) from obscure, fragmentary and
incoherent conceptions.
The Discourse of Method and the Meditations apply what the
Rules for the Direction of the Mind had regarded in particular
instances to our conceptions of the world as a whole. p aa aa.
They propose, that is, to find a simple and indecom- mental
posable point, or absolute element, which gives to the principles
world and thought their order and systematization. O/ P* //O "
The grandeur of this attempt is perhaps unequalled in sop y '
the annals of philosophy. The three main steps in the argument
are the veracity of our thought when that thought is true to
itself, the inevitable uprising of thought from its fragmentary
aspects in our habitual consciousness to the infinite and perfect
existence which God is, and the ultimate reduction of the material
universe to extension and local movement. There are the central
dogmas of logic, metaphysics and physics, from which start
the subsequent inquiries of Locke, Leibnitz and Newton. They
are also the direct antitheses to the scepticism of Montaigne and
Pascal, to the materialism of Gassendi and Hobbes, and to the
superstitious anthropomorphism which defaced the reawakening
sciences of nature. Descartes laid down the lines on which
modern philosophy and science were to build. But himself no
trained metaphysician, and unsusceptible to the lessons of history,
he gives but fragments of a system which are held together, not
by their intrinsic consistency, but by the vigour of his personal
conviction transcending the weaknesses and collisions of his
several arguments. " All my opinions," he says, " are so
conjoined, and depend so closely upon one another, that it would
be impossible to appropriate one without knowing them all." 6
Yet every disciple of Cartesianism seems to disprove the dictum
by his example.
The very moment when we begin to think, says Descartes,
when we cease to be merely receptive, when we draw back and
fix our attention on any point whatever of our belief, that
moment doubt begins. If we even stop for an instant to ask
ourselves how a word ought to be spelled, the deeper we ponder
that one word by itself the more hopeless grows the hesitation.
The doubts thus awakened must not be stifled, but pressed
systematically on to the point, if such a point there be, where
doubt confutes itself. The doubt as to the details is natural; it
*Disc. de methods, part. ii. 6 (Euvres, xi. 243. Ib. vii. 381.
DESCARTES
is no less natural to have recourse to authority to silence the
doubt. The remedy proposed by Descartes is (while not neglect-
ing our duties to others, ourselves and God) to let doubt range
unchecked through the whole fabric of our customary convictions.
One by one they refuse to render any reasonable account of
themselves; each seems a mere chance, and the whole tends to
elude us like a mirage which some malignant power creates for
our illusion. Attacked in detail, they vanish one after another
into as many teasing spectra of uncertainty. We are seeking
from them what they cannot give. But when we have done our
worst in unsettling them, we come to an ultimate point in the fact
that it is we who are doubting, we who are thinking. We may
doubt that we have hands or feet, that we sleep or wake, and that
there is a world of material things around us; but we cannot
doubt that we are doubting. We are certain that we
ergosum. are thinking, and in so far as we are thinking we are.
Je pense, done je suis. In other words, the criterion
of truth is a clear and distinct conception, excluding all pos-
sibility of doubt.
The fundamental point thus established is the veracity of
consciousness when it does not go beyond itself, or does not
postulate something which is external to itself. At this point
Gassendi arrested Descartes and addressed his objections to him
as pure intelligence, O mensi But even this mens, or mind, is
but a point we have found no guarantee as yet for its continuous
existence. The analysis must be carried deeper, if we are to gain
any further conclusions.
Amongst the elements of our thought there are some which we
can make and unmake at our pleasure; there are others which
come and go without our wish; there is also a third class which is
of the very essence of our thinking, and which dominates our
conceptions. We find that sail our ideas of limits, sorrows and
weaknesses presuppose an infinite, perfect and ever-blessed
something beyond them and including them, that all our ideas,
in all their series, converge to one central idea, in which they find
their explanation. The formal fact of thinking is what constitutes
our being; but this thought leads us back, when we consider its
concrete contents, to the necessary pre-supposition on which our
ideas depend, the permanent cause on which they and we as
conscious beings depend. We have therefore the idea of an in-
finite, perfect and all-powerful being an idea which cannot be
the creation of ourselves, and must be given by some being who
really possesses all that we in idea attribute to him. Such a
being he identifies with God. But the ordinary idea of God can
scarcely be identified with such a conception. " The majority
of men," he says himself, " do not think of God as an infinite and
incomprehensible being, and as the sole author from whom all
things depend ; they go no further than the letters of his name." 1
" The vulgar almost imagine him as a finite thing."
ofaod. The God of Descartes is not merely the creator of
the material universe; he is also the father of all
truth in the intellectual world. " The metaphysical truths," he
says, " styled eternal have been established by God, and, like
the rest of his creatures, depend entirely upon him. To say that
these truths are independent of him is to speak of God as a
Jupiter or a Saturn, to subject him to Styx and the Fates." 2
The laws of thought, the truths of number, are the decrees of God.
The expression is anthropomorphic, no less than the dogma of
material creation; but it is an attempt to affirm the unity of the
intellectual and the material world. Descartes establishes a
philosophic monotheism, by which the medieval polytheism of
substantial forms, essences and eternal truths fades away before
God, who is the ruler of the intellectual world no less than of the
kingdom of nature and of grace. *)
To attach a dear and definite meaning to the Cartesian
-doctrine of God, to show how much of it comes from the Christian
theology and how much from the logic of idealism, how far the
conception of a personal being as creator and preserver mingles
with the pantheistic conception of an infinite and perfect some-
thing which is all in all, would be to go beyond Descartes
and to ask for a solution of difficulties of which he was
1 CEuvres, vi. 132. t lb. vi. 109.
scarcely aware. It seems impossible to deny that the tendency
of his principles and his arguments is mainly in the line of a
metaphysical absolute, as the necessary completion and founda-
tion of all being and knowledge. Through the truthfulness of
that God as the author of all truth he derives a guarantee for our
perceptions in so far as these are clear and distinct. And it is in
guaranteeing the veracity of our clear and distinct conceptions
that the value of his deduction of God seems in his own estimate
to rest. All conceptions which do not poseess these two attri-
butes of being vivid in themselves and discriminated from all
others cannot be true. But the larger part of our conceptions
are in such a predicament. We think of things not in the abstract
elements of the things themselves, but in connexion with, and
in language which presupposes, other things. Ouuidea of body,
e.g., involves colour and weight, and yet when we try to think
carefully, and without assuming anything, we find that we cannot
attach any distinct idea to these terms when applied to body.
In truth therefore these attributes do not belong to body at all ;
and if we go on in the same way testing the received qualities of
matter, we shall find that in the last resort we understand nothing
by it but extension, with the secondary and derivative characters
of divisibility and mobility.
But it would again be useless to ask how extension as the
characteristic attribute of matter is related to mind which thinks,
and how God is to be regarded in reference to extension. The
force of the universe is swept up and gathered in God, who com-
municates motion to the parts of extension, and sustains that
motion from moment to moment; and in the same way the force
of mind has really been concentrated in God. Every moment one
expects to find Descartes saying with Hobbes that man's thought
has created God, or with Spinoza and Malebranche that it is God
who really thinks in the apparent thought of man. After all, the
metaphysical theology of Descartes, however essential in his own
eyes, serves chiefly as the ground for constructing his theory of
man and of the universe. His fundamental hypothesis relegates
to God all forces in their ultimate origin. Hence the world is
left open for the free play of mechanics and geometry. The dis-
turbing conditions of will, life and organic forces are eliminated
from the problem; he starts with the clear and distinct idea of
extension, figured and moved, and thence by mathematical laws
he gives a hypothetical explanation of all things. Such ex-
planationof physical phenomena is the main problemof Descartes,
and it goes on encroaching upon territories once supposed proper
to the mind. Descartes began with the certainty that we are
thinking beings; that region remains untouched; but up to its
very borders the mechanical explanation of nature reigns
unchecked.
The physical theory, in its earlier form in The World, and later
in the Principles of Philosophy (which the present account
follows), rests upon the metaphysical conclusions of the
Meditations. . It proposes to set forth the genesis of the theory*
existing universe from principles which can be plainly
understood, and according to the acknowledged laws of the trans-
mission of movement. The idea of force is one of those obscure
conceptions which originate in an obscure region, in the sense
of muscular power. The true physical conception is motion, the
ultimate ground of which is to be sought in God's infinite power.
Accordingly the quantity of movement in the universe, like its
mover, can neither increase nor diminish. The only circum-
stance which physics has to consider is the transference of move-
ment from one particle to another, and the change of its direction.
Man himself cannot increase the sum of motion; he can only alter
its direction. The whole conception of force may disappear from
a theory of the universe; and we can adopt a geometrical
definition of motion as the shifting of one body from the neigh-
bourhood of those bodies which immediately touch it, and which
are assumed to be at rest, to the neighbourhood of other bodies.
Motion, in short, is strictly locomotion, and nothing else.
Descartes has laid down three laws of nature, and seven
secondary laws regarding impact. The latter are to a large
extent incorrect. The first law affirms that every body, so far
as it is altogether unaffected by extraneous causes, always
86
DESCARTES
perseveres in the same state of motion or of rest; and the second
law that simple or elementary motion is always in a straight line. 1
These doctrines of inertia, and of the composite character of
curvilinear motion, were scarcely apprehended even by Kepler
or Galileo; but they follow naturally from the geometrical
analysis of Descartes.
Extended body has no limits to its extent, though the power
of God has divided it in lines discriminating its parts in endless
ways. The infinite universe is infinitely full of matter. Empty
space, as distinguished from material extension, is a fictitious
abstraction. There is no such thing really as a vacuum, any
more than there are atoms or ultimate indivisible particles.
In both these doctrines of d, priori science Descartes has not
been subverted, but, if anything, corroborated by the results of
experimental physics; for the so-called atoms of chemical theory
already presuppose, from the Cartesian point of view, certain
aggregations of the primitive particles of matter. Descartes
regards matter as uniform in character throughout the universe;
he anticipates, as it were, from his own transcendental ground,
the revelations of spectrum analysis as applied to the sun and
stars. We have then to think of a full universe of matter
(and matter = extension) divided and figured with endless variety,
and set (and kept) in motion by God; and any sort of division,
figure and motion will serve the purposes of our supposition as
well as another. " Scarcely any supposition," 2 he says, " can be
made from which the same result, though possibly with greater
difficulty, might not be deduced by the same laws of nature; for
since, in virtue of these laws, matter successively assumes all the
forms of which it is capable, if we consider these forms in order,
we shall at one point or other reach the existing form of the world,
so that no error need here be feared from a false supposition."
As the movement of one particle in a closely -packed universe is
only possible if all other parts move simultaneously, so that
the last in the series steps into the place of the first; and as
the figure and division of the particles varies in each point in the
universe, there will inevitably at the same instant result through-
out the universe an innumerable host of more or less circular
movements, and of vortices or whirlpools of material particles
varying in size and velocity. Taking for convenience a limited
portion of the universe, we observe that in consequence
f tne circular movement, the particles of matter have
their corners pared off by rubbing against each other;
and two species of matter thus arise, one consisting of small
globules which continue their circular motion with a (centrifugal)
tendency to fly off from the centre as they swing round the axis
of rotation, while the other, consisting of the fine dust the
filings and parings of the original particles gradually becoming
finer and finer, and losing its velocity, tends (centripetally) to
accumulate in the centre of the vortex, which has been gradually
left free by the receding particles of globular matter. This finer
matter which collects in the centre of each vortex is the first
matter of Descartes it constitutes the sun or star. The spherical
particles are the second matter of Descartes, and their tendency
to propel one another from the centre in straight lines towards the
circumference of each vortex is what gives rise to the phenomenon
of light radiating from the central star. This second matter is
atmosphere or firmament, which envelops and revolves around
the central accumulation of first matter.
A third form of matter is produced from the original particles.
As the small filings produced by friction seek to pass through
the interstices between the rapidly revolving spherical particles
in the vortex, they are detained and become twisted and chan-
nelled in their passage, and when they reach the edge of the inner
ocean of solar dust they settle upon it as the froth and foam
produced by the agitation of water gathers upon its surface.
These form what we term spots in the sun. In some cases they
come and go, or dissolve into an aether round the sun; but in
other cases they gradually increase until they form a dense crust
round the central nucleus. In course of time the star, with
its expansive force diminished, suffers encroachments from the
neighbouring vortices, and at length they catch it up. If the
1 Princip. part ii. 37. * 76. part iii. 47.
velocity of the decaying star be greater than that of any part of
the vortex which has swept it up, it will ere long pass out of the
range of that vortex, and continue its movement from one to
another. Such a star is a comet. But in other cases the en-
crusted star settles in that portion of the revolving vortex which
has a velocity equivalent to its own, and so continues to revolve
in the vortex, wrapped in its own firmament. Such a reduced and
impoverished star is a planet; and the several planets of our
solar system are the several vortices which from time to time have
been swept up by the central sun-vortex. The same considera-
tions serve to explain the moon and other satellites. They too
were once vortices, swallowed up by some other, which at a later
day fell a victim to the sweep of our sun.
Such in mere outline is the celebrated theory of vortices, which
for about twenty years after its promulgation reigned supreme
in science, and for much longer time opposed a tenacious resist-
ance to rival doctrines. It is one of the grandest hypotheses
which ever have been formed to account by mechanical processes
for the movements of the universe. While chemistry rests in the
acceptance of ultimate heterogeneous elements, the vortex-theory
assumed uniform matter through the universe, and reduced
cosmical physics to the same principles as regulate terrestrial
phenomena. It ended the old Aristotelian distinction between
the sphere beneath the moon and the starry spaces beyond.
It banished the spirits and genii, to which even Kepler had
assigned the guardianship of the planetary movements; and,
if it supposes the globular particles of the envelope to be the
active force in carrying the earth round the sun, we may
remember that Newton himself assumed an aether for somewhat
similar purposes. The great argument on which the Cartesians
founded their opposition to the Newtonian doctrine was that
attraction was an occult quality, not wholly intelligible by the
aid of mere mechanics. The Newtonian theory is an analysis of
the elementary movements which in their combination determine
the planetary orbits, and gives the formula of the proportions
according to which they act. But the Cartesian theory, like
the later speculations of Kant and Laplace, proposes to give a
hypothetical explanation of the circumstances and motions which
in the normal course of things led to the state of things required
by the law of attraction. In the judgment of D'Alembert the
Cartesan theory was the best that the observations of the age
admitted; and " its explanation of gravity was one of the most
ingenious hypotheses which philosophy ever imagined." That
the explanation fails in detail is undoubted: it does not account
for the ellipticity of the planets; it would place the sun, not in
one focus, but in the centre of the ellipse; and it would make
gravity directed towards the centre only under the equator.
But these defects need not blind us to the fact that this hypothesis
made the mathematical progress of Hooke, Borelli and Newton
much more easy and certain. Descartes professedly assumed a
simplicity in the phenomena which they did not present. But
such a hypothetical simplicity is the necessary step for solving
the more complex problems of nature. The danger lies not in
forming such hypotheses, but in regarding them as final, or as
more than an attempt to throw light upon our observation of
the phenomena. In doing what he did, Descartes actually
exemplified that reduction of the processes of nature to mere
transposition of the particles of matter, which in different ways
was a leading idea in the minds of Bacon, Hobbes and Gassendi.
The defects of Descartes lie rather in his apparently imperfect
apprehension of the principle of movements uniformly acceler-
ated which his contemporary Galileo had illustrated and insisted
upon, and in the indistinctness which attaches to his views of the
transmission of motion in cases of impact. It should be added
that the modern theory of vortex-atoms (Lord Kelvin's) to
explain the constitution of matter has but slight analogy with
Cartesian doctrine, and finds a parellel, if anywhere, in a
modification of that doctrine by Malebranche.
Besides the last two parts of the Principles of Philosophy, the
physical writings of Descartes include the Dioptrics and Meteors,
as well as passages in the letters. His optical investigations are
perhaps the subject in which he most contributed to the progress
DESCARTES
of science; and the lucidity of exposition which marks his
Dioptrics stands conspicuous even amid the generally luminous
style of his works. Its object is a practical one, to
'theories, determine by scientific considerations the shape of lens
best adapted to improve the capabilities of the tele-
scope, which had been invented not long before. The conclusions
at which he arrives have not been so useful as he imagined, in
consequence of the mechanical difficulties. But the investiga-
tion by which he reaches them has the merit of first prominently
publishing and establishing the law of the refraction of light.
Attempts have been made, principally founded on some remarks
of Huygens, to show that Descartes had learned the principles
of refraction from the manuscript of a treatise by Willebrord
Snell, but the facts are uncertain; and, so far as Descartes founds
his optics on any one, it is probably on the researches of Kepler.
In any case the discovery is to some extent his own, for his proof
of the law is founded upon the theory that light is the propagation
of the aether in straight lines from the sun or luminous body to
the eye (see LIGHT). Thus he approximates to the wave theory
of light, though he supposed that the transmission of light was
instantaneous. The chief of his other contributions to optics was
the explanation of the rainbow an explanation far from com-
plete, since the unequal refrangibility of the rays of light was yet
undiscovered but a decided advance upon his predecessors,
notably on the De radiis visus et lucis (1611) of Marc- Antonio
de Dominis, archbishop of Spalato.
If Descartes had contented himself with thus explaining the
phenomena of gravity, heat, magnetism, light and similar forces
by means of the molecular movements of his vortices, even such a
theory would have excited admiration. But he did not stop short
in the region of what is usually termed physics. Chemistry and
biology are alike swallowed up in the one science of physics, and
reduced to a problem of mechanism. This theory, he believed,
would afford an explanation of every phenomenon whatever, and
in nearly every department of knowledge he has given specimens
of its power. But the most remarkable and daring application
of the theory was to account for the phenomena of organic life,
especially in animals and man. " If we possessed a thorough
knowledge," he says, 1 " of all the parts of the seed of any species
of animal (e.g. man), we could from that alone, by reasons entirely
mathematical and certain, deduce the whole figure and conforma-
tion of each of its members, and, conversely, if we knew several
peculiarities of this conformation, we could from these deduce
the nature of its seed." The organism in this way is regarded as
a machine, constructed from the particles of the seed, which in
virtue of the laws of motion have arranged themselves (always
under the governing power of God) in the particular animal shape
in which we see them. The doctrine of the circulation of the
blood, which Descartes adopted from Harvey, supplied additional
arguments in favour of his mechanical theory, and he probably
did much to popularize the discovery. A fire without light,
compared to the heat which gathers hi a haystack when the hay
has been stored before it was properly dry heat, in short, as an
agitation of the particles is the motive cause of the contraction
and dilatations of the heart. Those finer particles of the blood
which become extremely rarefied during this process pass off
in two directions one portion, and the least important in the
theory, to the organs of generation, the other portion to the
cavities of the brain. There not merely do they serve to nourish
the organ, they also give rise to a fine ethereal flame or wind
through the action of the brain upon them, and thus form the
so-called " animal " spirits. From the brain these spirits are
conveyed through the body by means of the nerves, regarded by
Descartes as tubular vessels, resembling the pipes conveying the
water of a spring to act upon the mechanical apph'ances in an
artificial fountain. The nerves conduct the animal spirits to act
upon the muscles, and in their turn convey the impressions of
the organs to the brain.
Man and the animals as thus described are compared to
automata, and termed machines. The vegetative and sensitive
souls which the Aristotelians had introduced to break the leap
1 CEuvres, iv. 494.
Auto-
tnstism.
between inanimate matter and man are ruthlessly swept away;
only one soul, the rational, remains, and that is restricted to man.
One hypothesis supplants the various principles of
life; the rule of absolute mechanism is as complete in
the animal as in the cosmos. Reason and thought,
the essential quality of the soul, do not belong to the brutes;
there is an impassable gulf fixed between man and the lower
animals. The only sure sign of reason is the power of language
i.e. of giving expression to general ideas; and language in that
sense is not found save in man. The cries of animals are but
the working of the curiously-contrived machine, in which, when
one portion is touched in a certain way, the wheels and springs
concealed in the interior perform their Work, and, it may be, a
note supposed to express joy or pain is evolved; but there is
no consciousness or feeling. " The animals act naturally and by
springs, like a watch." 2 " The greatest of all the prejudices we
have retained from our infancy is that of believing that the beasts
think." 3 If the beasts can properly be said to see at all, " they
see as we do when our mind is distracted and keenly applied else-
where; the images of outward objects paint themselves on the
retina, and possibly even the impressions made in the optic nerves
determine our limbs to different movements, but we feel nothing
of it all, and move as if we were automata." 4 The sentience of
the animal to the lash of his tyrant is not other than the sensi-
tivity of the plant to the influences of light and heat. It is not
much comfort to learn further from Descartes that " he denies
life to no animal, but makes it consist in the mere heat of the
heart. Nor does he deny them feeling in so far as it depends on
the bodily organs." 6
Descartes, with an unusual fondness for the letter of Scripture,
quotes oftener than once in support of this monstrous doctrine
the dictum, " the blood is the life "; and he remarks, with some
sarcasm possibly, that it is a comfortable theory for the eaters of
animal flesh. And the doctrine found acceptance among some
whom it enabled to get rid of the difficulties raised by Montaigne
and those who allowed more difference between animal and animal
than between the higher animals and man. It also encouraged
vivisection a practice common with Descartes himself. 6 The
recluses of Port Royal seized it eagerly, discussed automatism,
dissected living animals in order to show to a morbid curiosity
the circulation of the blood, were careless of the cries of tortured
dogs, and finally embalmed the doctrine in a syllogism of their
logic, No matter thinks; every soul of beast is matter: there-
fore no soul of beast thinks.
But whilst all the organic processes in man go on mechani-
cally, and though by reflex action he may repel attack uncon-
sciously, still the first affirmation of the system was that man was
essentially a thinking being; and, while we retain this original
dictum, it must not be supposed that the mind is a mere spectator,
or like the boatman in the boat. Of course a unity of nature
is impossible between mind and body so described.
And yet there is a unity of composition, a unity so
close that the compound is " really one and in a sense and body.
indivisible." You cannot in the actual man .cut soul
and body asunder; they interpenetrate in every member. But
there is one point in the human frame a point midway in the
brain, single and free, which may in a special sense be called the
seat of the mind. This is the so-called c narion, or pineal gland,
where in a minimized point the mind on one hand and the vital
spirits on the other meet and communicate. In that gland the
mystery of creation is concentrated; thought meets extension
and directs it; extension moves towards thought and is per-
ceived. Two clear and distinct ideas, it seems, produce an
absolute mystery. Mind, driven from the field of extension,
erects its last fortress in the pineal gland. In such a state of
despair and destitution there is no hope for spiritualism, save
in God; and Clauberg, Geulincx and Malebranche all take
refuge under the shadow of his wings to escape the tyranny of
extended matter.
In the psychology of Descartes there are two fundamental
2 Tb. ix. 426. ' Ib. x. 204. 4 76. vi. 339.
6 Ib. x. 208. 6 Ib. iv. 452 and 454.
88
DESCARTES
Psycho-
log}-.
modes of thought, perception and volition. " It seems to me,"
he says, " that in receiving such and such an idea the mind is
passive, and that it is active only in volition; that its
ideas are put in it partly by the objects which touch the
senses, partly by the impressions in the brain, and
partly also by the dispositions which have preceded in the mind
itself and by the movements of its will." l The will, therefore,
as being more originative, has more to do with true or false
judgments than the understanding. Unfortunately, Descartes is
too lordly a philosopher to explain distinctly what either under-
standing or wfll may mean. But we gather that in two directions
our reason is bound up with bodily conditions, which make or mar
it, according as the will, or central energy of thought, is true to
itself or not. In the range of perception, intellect is subjected to
the material conditions of sense, memory and imagination; and
in infancy, when the will has allowed itself to assent precipitately
to the conjunctions presented to it by these material processes,
thought has become filled with obscure ideas. In the moral
sphere the passions or emotions (which Descartes reduces to the
six primitive forms of admiration, love, hatred, desire, joy and
sadness) are the perceptions or sentiments of the mind, caused and
maintained by some movement of the vital spirits, but specially
referring to the mind only. The presentation of some object of
dread, for example, to the eye has or may have a double effect.
On one hand the animal spirits " reflected " 2 from the image
formed on the pineal gland proceed through the nervous tubes to
make the muscles turn the back and lift the feet, so as to escape
the cause of the terror. Such is the reflex and mechanical
movement independent of the mind. But, on the other hand,
the vital spirits cause a movement in the gland by which the mind
perceives the affection of the organs, learns that something is to
be loved or hated, admired or shunned. Such perceptions dispose
the mind to pursue what nature dictates as useful. But the
estimate of goods and evils which they give is indistinct and
unsatisfactory. The office of reason is to give a true and distinct
appreciation of the values of goods and evils; or firm and
determinate judgments touching the knowledge of good and
evil are our proper arms against the influence of the passions. 3
We are free, therefore, through knowledge: ex magna luce in
intellectu sequitur magna propensio in voluntate, and omnis peccans
est ignorans. " If we clearly see that what we are doing is wrong,
it would be impossible for us to sin, so long as we saw it in that
light." 4 Thus the highest liberty, as distinguished from mere
indifference, proceeds from clear and distinct knowledge, and
such knowledge can only be attained by firmness and resolution,
i.e. by the continued exercise of the will. Thus in the perfection
of man, as in the nature of God, will and intellect must be united.
For thought, will is as necessary as understanding. And innate
ideas therefore are mere capacities or tendencies, possibilities
wJiich apart from the will to think may be regarded as nothing
at all.
The Cartesian School. The philosophy of Descartes fought its
first battles and gained its first triumphs in the country of his
adoption. In his lifetime his views had been taught in Utrecht
and Leiden. In the universities of the Netherlands and of lower
Germany? as yet free from the conservatism of the old-established
seats of learning, the new system gained an easy victory over
Aristotelianism, and, as it was adapted for lectures and exam-
inations, soon became almost as scholastic as the doctrines
it had supplanted. At Leiden, Utrecht, Groningen, Franeker,
Breda, Nimeguen, Harderwyk, Duisburg and Herborn, and at
the Catholic university of Louvain, Cartesianism was warmly
expounded and defended in seats of learning, of which many are
now left desolate, and by adherents whose writings have for the
most part long lost interest for any but the antiquary.
The Cartesianism of Holland was a child of the universities,
and its literature is mainly composed of commentaries upon
Holland **" e or 'g ma l texts, of theses discussed in the schools,
and of systematic expositions of Cartesian philosophy
for the benefit of the student. Three names stand out in this
1 CEuvres, ix. 166.
1 76. 48.
2 Passions de I'ame, 36.
4 CEuvres, ix. 170.
Cartesian professoriate, Wittich, Clauberg and Geulincx. Chris-
toph Wittich (1625-1687), professor at Duisburg and Leiden,
is a representative of the moderate followers who professed
to reconcile the doctrines of their school with the faith of
Christendom and to refute the theology of Spinoza. Johann
Clauberg (q.v.) commented clause by clause upon the Meditations
of Descartes; but he specially claims notice for his work De
corporis et animae in homine conjunctione, where he maintains
that the bodily movements are merely procatarctic causes (i.e.
antecedents, but not strictly causes) of the mental action, and
sacrifices the independence of man to the omnipotence of God.
The same tendency is still more pronounced in Arnold Geulincx
(q.v.). With him the reciprocal action of mind and body is
altogether denied; they resemble two clocks, so made by the
artificer as to strike the same hour together. The mind can act
only upon itself; beyond that limit, the power of God must
intervene to make any seeming interaction possible between body
and soul. Such are the half-hearted attempts at consistency in
Cartesian thought, which eventually culminate in the pantheism
of Spinoza (see CARTESIANISM).
Descartes occasionally had not scrupled to interpret the
Scriptures according to his own tenets, while still maintaining,
when their letter contradicted him, that the Bible was not meant
to teach the sciences. Similar tendencies are found amongst his
followers. Whilst Protestant opponents put him in the list of
atheists like Vanini, and the Catholics held him as dangerous as
Luther or Calvin, there were zealous adherents who ventured to
prove the theory of vortices in harmony with the book of Genesis.
It was this rationalistic treatment of the sacred writings which
helped to confound the Cartesians with the allegorical school of
John Cocceius, as their liberal doctrines in theology justified the
vulgar identification of them with the heresies of Socinian and
Arminian. The chief names in this advanced theology connected
with Cartesian doctrines are Ludwig Meyer, the friend and editor
of Spinoza, author of a work termed Philosophia scripturae
inter pres (1666); Balthasar Bekker, whose World Bewitched
helped to discredit the superstitious fancies about the devil; and
Spinoza, whose Tractatus theologico-polilicus is in some respects
the classical type of rational criticism up to the present day.
Against this work and the Ethics of Spinoza the orthodox
Cartesians (who were in the majority), no less than sceptical
hangers-on like Bayle, raised an all but universal howl of repro-
bation, scarcely broken for about a century.
In France Cartesianism won society and literature before
it penetrated into' the universities. Clerselier (the friend of
Descartes and his literary executor), his son-in-law _
Rohault (who achieved that relationship through his
Cartesianism), and others, opened their houses for readings to
which the intellectual world of Paris its learned professors
not more than the courtiers and the fair sex, flocked to hear the
new doctrines explained, and possibly discuss their value. Grand
seigneurs, like the prince of Conde, the due de Nevers and the
marquis de Vardes, were glad to vary the monotony of their
feudal castles by listening to the eloquent rehearsals of Male-
branche or Regis. And the salons of Mme de Sevigne, of her
daughter Mme de Grignan, and of the duchesse de Maine for
a while gave the questions of philosophy a place among the topics
of polite society, and furnished to Moliere the occasion of his
Femmes savantes. The Chateau of the due de Luynes, the trans-
lator of the Meditations, was the home of a Cartesian club, that
discussed the questions of automatism and of the comoosition
of the sun from filings and parings, and rivalled Port Royal in
its vivisections. The cardinal de Retz in his leisurely age at
Commercy found amusement in presiding at disputations between
the more moderate Cartesians and Don Robert Desgabets, who
interpreted Descartes in an original way of his own. Though
rejected by the Jesuits, who found peripatetic formulae a faithful
weapon against the enemies of the church, Cartesianism was
warmly adopted by the Oratory, which saw in Descartes some-
thing of St Augustine, by Port Royal, which discovered a
connexion between the new system and Jansenism, and by some
amongst the Benedictines and the order of Ste Genevieve-
DESCARTES
89
The popularity which Cartesianism thus gained in the social
and literary circles of the capital was largely increased by the
labours of Pierre-Sylvain Regis (1632-1707). On his visit to
Toulouse in 1665, with a mission from the Cartesian chiefs, his
lectures excited boundless interest; ladies threw themselves
with zeal and ability into the study of philosophy; and Regis
himself was made the guest of the civic corporation. In 1671
scarcely less enthusiasm was roused in Montpellier; and in 1680
he opened a course of lectures at Paris, with such acceptance
that hearers had to take their seats in advance. Regis, by
removing the paradoxes and adjusting the metaphysics to the
popular powers of apprehension, made Cartesianism popular,
and reduced it to a regular system.
But a check was at hand. Descartes, in his correspondence
with the Jesuits, had shown an almost cringing eagerness to have
their powerful organization on his side. Especially he had
written to Pere Mesland, one of the order, to show how the
Catholic doctrine of the eucharist might be made compatible with
his theories of matter. But his undue haste to arrange matters
with the church only served to compromise him more deeply.
Unwise admirers and malicious opponents exaggerated the
theological bearings of his system in this detail; and the efforts
of the Jesuits succeeded in getting the works of Descartes, in
November 1663, placed upon the index of prohibited books,
donee corriganlur. Thereupon the power of church and state
enforced by positive enactments the passive resistance of old
institutions to the novel theories. In 1667, the oration at the
interment was forbidden by royal order. In 1669, when the chair
of philosophy at the College Royal fell vacant, one of the four
selected candidates had to sustain a thesis against " the pretended
new philosophy of Descartes." In 1671 the archbishop of Paris,
by the king's order, summoned the heads of the university to
his presence, and enjoined them to take stricter measures against
philosophical novelties dangerous to the faith. In 1673 a decree
of the parlement against Cartesian and other unlicensed theories
was on the point of being issued, and was only checked injtime by
the appearance of a burlesque mandamus against the intruder
Reason, composed by Boileau and some of his brother-poets.
Yet in 1675 the university of Angers was empowered to repress
all Cartesian teaching within its domain, and actually appointed
a commission charged to look for such heresies in the theses and
the students' note-books of the college of Anjou belonging to
the Oratory. In 1677 the university of Caen adopted not less
stringent measures against Cartesianism. And so great was the
influence of the Jesuits, that the congregation of St Maur, the
canons of Ste Genevieve, and the Oratory laid their official ban
on the obnoxious doctrines. From the real or fancied rapproche-
ments between Cartesianism and Jansenism, it became for a
while impolitic, if not dangerous, to avow too loudly a preference
for Cartesian theories. Regis was constrained to hold back for
ten years his System of Philosophy; and when it did appear, in
1690, the name of Descartes was absent from the title-page.
There were other obstacles besides the mild persecutions of the
church. Pascal and other members of Port Royal openly
expressed their doubts about the place allowed to God in the
system; the adherents of Gassendi met it by resuscitating
atoms; and the Aristotelians maintained their substantial forms
as of old; the Jesuits argued against the arguments for the being
of God, and against the theory of innate ideas; whilst Pierre
Daniel Huet (16305-1721), bishop of Avranches, once aCartesian
himself, made a vigorous onslaught on the contempt in which his
former comrades held literature and history, and enlarged on the
vanity of all human aspirations after rational truth.
The greatest and most original of the French Cartesians was
Malebranche (q.v.). His Recherche de la v6rit, in 1674, was the
baptism of the system into a theistic religion which borrowed
its imagery from Augustine; it brought into prominence the
metaphysical base which Louis Delaforge, Jacques Rohault and
Regis had neither cared for nor understood. But this doctrine
was a criticism and a divergence, no less than a consequence,
from the principles in Descartes; and it brought upon
Malebranche the opposition, not merely of the Cartesian
physicists, but also ot Arnauld, Fenelon and Bossuet, who found,
or hoped to find, in the Meditations, as properly understood,
an ally for theology. Popular enthusiasm, however, was with
Malebranche, as twenty years before it had been with Descartes;
he was the fashion of the day; and his disciples rapidly increased
both in France and abroad.
In 1705 Cartesianism was still subject to prohibitions from the
authorities; but in a project of new statutes, drawn up for the
faculty of arts at Paris in 1720, the Method and Meditations of
Descartes were placed beside the Organon and the Metaphysics
of Aristotle as text-books for philosophical study. And before
1725, readings, both public and private, were given from
Cartesian texts in some of the Parisian colleges. But when
this happened, Cartesianism was no longer either interesting
or dangerous; its theories, taught as ascertained and verified
truths, were as worthless as the systematic verbiage which
preceded them. Already antiquated, it could not resist the wit
and raillery with which Voltaire, in his Lettres sur les Anglais
(1728), brought against it the principles and results of Locke and
Newton. The old Cartesians, Jean Jacques Dortous de Mairan
(1678-1771) and especially Fontenelle, with his Theoris des
tourbillons (1752), struggled in vain to refute Newton by styling
attraction an occult quality. Fortunately the Cartesian method
had already done its service, even where the theories were
rejected. The Port Royalists, Pierre Nicole (1625-1695) and
Antoine Arnauld (1612-1694), had applied it to grammar and
logic; Jean Domat or Daumat (1625-1696) and Henri Francois
Daugesseau (1668-1751) to jurisprudence; Fontenelle, Charles
Perrault (1628-1703) and Jean Terrasson (1670-1750) to literary
criticism, and a worthier estimate of modern literature. Though
it never ceased to influence individual thinkers, it had handed on
to Condillac its popularity with the masses. A Latin abridgment
of philosophy, dated 1784, tells us that the innate ideas of
Descartes are founded on no arguments, and are now universally
abandoned. The ghost of innate ideas seems to be all that it
had left. _
In Germany a few Cartesian lecturers taught at Leipzig and
Halle, but the system took no root, any more than in Switzerland,
where it had a brief reign at Geneva after 1669. In a erma ay.
Italy the effects were more permanent. What is
termed the iatro-mechanical school of medicine, with G. A.
Borelli (1608-1679) as its most notable name, entered in a way
on the mechanical study of anatomy suggested by Descartes, but
was probably much more dependent upon the positive researches
of Galileo. At Naples there grew up a Cartesian school, of which
the best known members are Michel Angelo Fardella (1650-1708)
and Cardinal Gerdil (1718-1802), both of whom, however,
attached themselves to the characteristic views of Malebranche.
In England Cartesianism took but slight hold. Henry More,
who had given it a modified sympathy in the lifetime of the
author, became its opponent in later years; and England.
Cudworth differed from it in most essential points.
Antony Legrand, from Douai, attempted to introduce it into
Oxford, but failed. He is the author of several works, amongst
others a system of Cartesian philosophy, where a chapter on
" Angels " revives the methods of the schoolmen. His chief
opponent was SamuelParker (1640- 1688), bishop of Oxford, who,
in his attack on the irreligious novelties of the Cartesian, treats
Descartes as a fellow-criminal in infidelity with Hobbes and
Gassendi. Rohault's version of the Cartesian physics was
translated into English; and Malebranche found an ardent
follower in John Norris (1667-1711). Of Cartesianism towards
the close of the I7th century the only remnants were an over-
grown theory of vortices, which received its death-blow from
Newton, and a dubious phraseology anent innate ideas, which
found a witty executioner in Locke.
For an account of the metaphysical doctrines of Descartes,
in their connexions with Malebranche and Spinoza, see
CARTESIANISM.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. I. Editions and Translations. The collected
works of Descartes were published in Latin in 8 vols. at Amsterdam
(1670-1683), in 7 vols. at Frankfort (1697) and in 9 vols. by Elzevir
9
DESCHAMPS
(1713); in French in 13 vols. (Paris, 172,1-1729), republished by
Victor Cousin (Paris, 1824-1826) in 11 vols., and again under the
authority of the minister of public instruction by C. Adam and
P. Tannery (1897 foil.). Theseinclude his so-called posthumous works.
The Rules for the Direction of the Mind, The Search for Truth by the
Light of Nature, and other .unimportant fragments, published (in
Latin) in 1701. In l859-i8'6o Foucher de C'areil published in two
parts some unedited writings of Descartes from copies taken by
Leibnitz from the original papers. Six editions of the Opera philo-
sophica appeared at Amsterdam between 1650 and 1678; a two-
volume edition at Leipzig in 1843; there are also French editions,
CEuvres phttosophiques, by A. Gamier, 3 vols. (1834-1835), and L.
Aime-Martin (1838) and CEuvres morales et philosophiques by Aime-
Martin with an introduction on life and works by Amedee Prevost
(Paris, 1855); CEuvres choisies (1850) by Jules Simon. A complete
French edition of the collected works was begun in the Romance
Library (1907 foil.). German translations by J. H. von Kirchmann
under the title Philosophische Werke (with biography, &c., Berlin,
1868; and ed , 1882-1891), by Kuno Fischer, Die Hauptschriften
zur Grundlegung seiner Philosophic (1863), with introduction by
Ludwig Fischer (1892). There are also numerous editions and trans-
lations of separate works, especially the Method, in French, German,
Italian, Spanish and Hungarian. There are English translations by
J Veitch, Method, Meditations and Selections from the Principles
(1850-1853; iithed., 1897; New York, 1899); by H. A. P. Torrey
(New York, 1892).
II. Biographical. A. Baillet, La Vie de M. Des Cartes (Pans, 1691 ;
Eng. trans., 1692), exhaustive but uncritical; notices in the editions
of Gamier and Aime-Martin; A. Hoffmann, Rene Descartes (1905);
Elizabeth S. Haldane, Descartes, his Life and Times (1905), contain-
ing full bibliography ; A. Barbier, Rene Descartes, sa famille, son lieu
de naissance, &c. (1901)? Richard Lowndes, Rene Descartes, his
Life and Meditations (London, 1878) ; J. P. Mahaffy, Descartes (1902),
with an appendix on Descartes 's mathematical work by Frederick
Purser; Victor de Swarte, Descartes directeur spirituel (Paris, 1904),
correspondence with the Princess Palatine ; C. J. Jeannel, Descartes
et la princesse palatine (Paris, 1869); Lettres de M. Descartes, ed.
Claude Clerselier (1657). A usetul sketch of recent biographies is to
be found in The Edinburgh Review (July 1906).
III. Philosophy. Beside the histories of philosophy, the article
CARTESIANISM, and the above works, consult J.B.Bqrdas-Demoulini
Le Cartesianisme (2nd ed., Paris, 1874); J. P. Damiron, Histoire de
la philosophie du X VII' siecle (Paris, 1846) ; C. B. Renouvier, Manuel
de philosophie moderne (Paris, 1842); V. Cousin, Fragments philo-
sophiques, vol. ii. (3rd ed., Paris, 1838), Fragments de philosophie
cartesienne (Paris, 1845), and in the Journal des savants (1860-1861) ;
F. Bouillier, Hist, de la philosophie cartesienne (Paris, 1854), 2 vols.,
and Hist, et critique de la revolution cartesienne (Paris, 1842) ; J. Millet,
Descartes, sa vie, ses travaux, ses decouvertes dvant 1637 (Paris,
1867), and Hist, de Descartes depuis 1637 (Paris, 1870); L. Liard,
Descartes (Paris, 1882); A. Fouillee, Descartes (Paris, 1893); Revue
de metaphysique et de morale (July, 1896, Descartes number) ; Norman
Smith, Studies in the Cartesian Philosophy (1902); R. Keussen,
Bewusstsein und Erkenntnis bei Descartes (1906); A. Kayserling,
Die Idee der Kausalitdt in den Lehren der Occasionalisten (1896);
J. Iverach, Descartes, Spinoza and the New Philosophy (1904);
R. Joerges, Die Lehre von den Empfindungen bei Descartes (1901);
Kuno Fischer, Hisi. of Mod. Phil. Descartes and his Schobl (Eng. trans.,
1887) ; B. Christiansen, Das Urteil bei Descartes (1902) ; E. Boutroux,
'' Descartes and Cartesianism " in Cambridge Modern History, vol.
iv. (1906), chap. 27, with a very full bibliography, pp. 950-953;
P. Natorp, Descartes' Erkenntnis stlieorie (Marburg, 1882); L. A.
Prevost-Paradol, Les Moralistes franc,ais (Paris, 1865) ; C. Schaar-
schmidt, Descartes und Spinoza' (Bonn, 1850); R. Adamson, The
Development of Modern Philosophy (Edinburgh, 1903); J. Miiller,
Der Begriff der sittlichen Unvollkommenheit bei Descartes und Spinoza
(1890); J. H. von Kirchmann, R. Descartes' Prinzipien der Philos.
(1863); G. Touchard, La Morale de Descartes (1898); Lucien Levy-
Bruhl, Hist, of Mod. Philos. in France (Eng. trans., 1899), PP- J -7 6 -
IV. Science and Mathematics. V. Cajori, History of Mathematics
(London, 1894) ; M. Cantor, Vorlesungen iiber die Geschichte der
Mathematik (Leipzig, 1894-1901); Sir Michael Foster, Hist, of
Physiol. during the Sixteenth, Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries
(1901); Duboux, La Physique de Descartes (Lausanne, 1881); G.
H. Zeuthen, Geschichte der MatJiematik im 16. und 17. Jahrhunden
(1903); Chas\es,Aperc,u historique sur I'origine et le developpement
des methodes en geometrie (3rd ed., 1889). (W. W.; X.)
DESCHAMPS, (5MILE (1791-1871), French poet and man of
letters, was born at Bourges on the zoth of February 1791. The
son of a civil servant, he adopted his father's career, but as early
as 1812 he distinguished himself by an ode, La Paix conquise,
which won the praise of Napoleon. In 1818 he collaborated with
Henri de Latouche in two verse comedies, Selmours de Flotian
and Le Tour defaveur. He and his brother were among the most
enthusiastic disciples of the cenacle gathered round Victor Hugo
and in July 1823 Emile founded with his master the Muse
franqaise, which during the year of its existence was the soeciaJ
organ of the romantic party. His Etud es franc. aises et elrangeres
[1828) were preceded by a preface which may be regarded as
one of the manifestos of the romanticists. The versions oi
Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet (1839) and of Macbeth (1844),
important as they were in the history of the romantic movement,
were never staged. He was the author of several libretti, among
which may be mentioned the Romeo el Juliette of Berlioz. The
list of his more important works is completed by his two volumes
of stories, Cohtes physiologiques (1854) and Realites fantastiques
(1854). He died at Versailles in April 1871. His (Euvres
completes were published in 1872-1874 (6 vols.).
His brother, Antoine Francois Marie, known as ANTONY
DESCHAMPS, was born in Paris on the i2th of March 1800 and
died at Passy on the agth of October 1869. Like his brother,
he was an ardent romanticist, but his production was limited by
a nervous disorder, which has left its mark on his melancholy
work. He translated the Divina Commedia in 1829, and his
poems, Dernieres Paroles and Resignation, were republished with
his brother's in 1841.
DESCHAMPS, EUSTACHE, called MOREL (i3 4 6?-i 4 o6?),
French poet, was born at Vertus in Champagne about 1346. He
studied at Reims, where he is said to have received some lessons
in the art of versification from Guillaume de Machaut, who is
stated to have been his uncle. From Reims he proceeded about
1360 to the university of Orleans to study law and the seven
liberal arts. He entered the king's service as royal messenger
about 1367, and was sent on missions to Bohemia, Hungary and
Moravia. In 1372 he was made huissier d'armes to Charles V.
He received many other important offices, was bailli of Valois,
and afterwards of Senlis, squire to the Dauphin, and governor of
Fismes. In 1380 his patron, Charles V., died, and in the same
year the English burnt down his house at Vertus. In his child-
hood he had been an eye-witness of the English invasion of 1358;
he had been present at the siege of Reims and seen the march on
Chartres; he had witnessed the signing of the treaty of Bretigny;
he was now himself a victim of the English fury. His violent
hatred of the English found vent in numerous appeals to carry
the war into England, and in the famous prophecy * that England
would be destroyed so thoroughly that no one should be able
to point to her ruins. His own misfortunes and the miseries of
France embittered his temper. He complained continually of
poverty, railed against women and lamented the woes of his
country. His last years were spent on his Miroir de manage, a
satire of 13,000 lines against women, which contains some real
comedy. The mother-in-law of French farce has her prototype
in the Miroir.
The historical and patriotic poems of Deschamps are of much
greater value. He does not, like Froissart, cast a glamour over
the miserable wars of the time but gives a faithful picture of the
anarchy of France, and inveighs ceaselessly against the heavy
taxes, the vices of the clergy and especially against those who
enrich themselves at the expense of the people. The terrible
ballad with the refrain " Sa, de V argent; ia, de I'argent " is
typical of his work. Deschamps excelled in the use of the ballade
and the chant royal. In each of these forms he was the greatest
master of his time. In ballade form he expressed his regret for
the death of Du Guesclin, who seems to have been the only man
except his patron, Charles V., for whom he ever felt any admira-
tion. One of his ballades (No. 283) was sent with a copy of his
works to Geoffrey Chaucer, whom he addresses with the words:
" Tu es d'amours mondains dieux en Albie
Et de la Rose en la terre Angelique."
Deschamps was the author of an Art poetique, with the title of
L'Art de dictier et de fere chancons, balades, wrelais et rondeaulx.
Besides giving rules for the composition of the kinds of verse
mentioned in the title he enunciates some curious theories on
poetry. He divides music into music proper and poetry. Music
proper he calls artificial on the ground that everyone could by
dint of study become a musician; poetry he calls natural because
1 " De la prophecie Merlin sur la destruction d'Angleterre qui doit
brief advenir " (CEuvres, No. 211).
DESCHANEL DESCRIPTIVE POETRY
he says it is not an art that can be acquired but a gift. He lays
immense stress on the harmony of verse, because, as was the
fashion of his day, he practically took it for granted that all
poetry was to be sung.
The work of Deschamps marks an important stage in the history
of French poetry. With him and his contemporaries the long,
formless narrations of the trouveres give place to complicated and
exacting kinds of verse. He was perhaps by nature a moralist
and satirist rather than a poet, and the force and truth of his
historical pictures gives him a unique place in 14th-century
poetry. M. Raynaud fixes the date of his death in 1406, or at
latest, 1407. Two years earlier he had been relieved of his
charge as bailli of Senlis, his plain-spoken satires having made
him many enemies at court.
His (Euvres completes were edited (10 vols., 1878-1901) for the
Societe des anciens textes frangais by Queux de Saint-Hilaire and
Gaston Raynaud. A supplementary volume consists of an Introduc-
tion by G. Raynaud. See also Dr E. Hoeppner, Eustache Deschamps
(Strassburg, 1904).
DESCHANEL, PAUL EUGENE LOUIS (1856- ), French
statesman, son of Emile Deschanel (1819-1904), professor at the
College de France and senator, was born at Brussels, where his
father was living in exile (1851-1859), owing to his opposition to
Napoleon III. Paul Deschanel studied law, and began his career
as secretary to Deshayes de Marcere (1876), and to Jules Simon
(1876-1877). In October 1885 he was elected deputy for Eure
and Loire. From the first he took an important place in the
chamber, as one of the ,most notable orators of the Progressist
Republican group. In January 1 896 he was elected vice-president
of the chamber, and henceforth devoted himself to the struggle
against the Left, not only in parliament, but also in public
meetings throughout France. His addresses at Marseilles on the
a6th of October 1896, at Carmaux on the 27th of December 1896,
and at Roubaix on the loth of April 1897, were triumphs of clear
and eloquent exposition of the political and social aims of the
Progressist party. In June 1898 he was elected president of
the chamber, and was re-elected in 1901, but rejected in 1902.
Nevertheless he came forward brilliantly in 1904 and 1905 as a
supporter of the law on the separation of church and state. He
was elected a member of the French Academy in 1899, his most
notable works being Orateurs et hommes d'etat (1888), Figures
defemmts (1889), La Decentralization (1895), La Question sociale
(1898).
DES CLOIZEAUX, ALFRED LOUIS OLIVIER LEGRAND
(1817-1897), French mineralogist, was born at Beauvais, in the
department of Oise, on the i7th of October 1817. He became
professor of mineralogy at the Ecole Normale Superieure and
afterwards at the Musee d'Histoire Naturelle in Paris. He
studied the geysers of Iceland, and wrote also on the classification
of some of the eruptive rocks; but his main work consisted in the
systematic examination of the crystals of numerous minerals, in
researches on their optical properties and on the subject of polar-
ization. He wrote specially on the means of determining the
different felspars. He was awarded the Wollaston medal by the
Geological Society of London in 1886. He died in May 1897.
His best-known books are Lemons de cristallographie (1861);
Manuel de mineralogie (2 vols., Paris, 1862, 1874 and 1893).
DESCLOIZITE, a rare mineral species consisting of basic lead
and zinc vanadate, (Pb, Zn) 2 (OH)VO 4 , crystallizing in the ortho-
rhombic system and isomorphous with olivenite. It was dis-
covered by A. Damour in 1854, and named by him in honour
of the French mineralogist Des Cloizeaux. It occurs as small
prismatic or pyramidal crystals, usually forming drusy crusts
and stalaetitic aggregates; also as fibrous encrusting masses with
a mammillary surface. The colour is deep cherry-red to brown
or black, and the crystals are transparent or translucent with a
greasy lustre; the streak is orange-yellow to brown; specific
gravity 5-9 to 6-2; hardness 3^. A variety known as cupro-
descloizite is dull green in colour; it contains a considerable
amount of copper replacing zinc and some arsenic replacing
vanadium. Descloizite occurs in veins of lead ores in association
with pyromorphite, vanadinite, wulfenite, &c. Localities are
the Sierra de Cordoba in Argentina, Lake Valley in Sierra county,
New Mexico, Arizona, Phoenixville in Pennsylvania, and Kappel
(Eisen-Kappel) near Klagenfurt in Carinthia.
Other names which have been applied to this species are
vanadite, tritochorite and ramirite; the uncertain vanadates
:usynchite, araeoxene and dechenite are possibly identical
with it.
DESCRIPTIVE POETRY, the name given to a class of literature,
which may be defined as belonging mainly to the i6th, i7th and
1 8th centuries in Europe. From the earliest times, all poetry
which was not subjectively lyrical was apt to indulge in ornament
which might be named descriptive. But the critics of the
1 7th century formed a distinction between the representations
of the ancients and those of the moderns. We find Boileau
emphasizing the statement that, while Virgil paints, Tasso
describes. This may be a useful indication for us in defining not
what should, but what in practice has been called " descriptive
poetry." It is poetry in which it is not imaginative passion
which prevails, but a didactic purpose, or even something of the
instinct of a sublimated auctioneer. In other words, the land-
scape, or architecture, or still life, or whatever may be the object
of the poet's attention, is not used as an accessory, but is itself
the centre of interest. It is, in this sense, not correct to call
poetry in which description is only the occasional ornament of a
poem, and not its central subject, descriptive poetry. The land-
scape or still life must fill the canvas, or, if human interest is
introduced, that must be treated as an accessory. Thus, in the
Hero and Leander of Marlowe and in the Alastor of Shelley,
description of a very brilliant kind is largely introduced, yet
these are not examples of what is technically called " descriptive
poetry," because it is not the strait between Sestos and Abydos,
and it is not the flora of a tropical glen, which concentrates the
attention of the one poet or of the other, but it is an example of
physical passion in the one case and of intellectual passion in the
other, which is diagnosed and dilated on. On the other hand
Thomson's Seasons, in which landscape takes the central place,
and Drayton's Polyolbion, where everything is sacrificed to a
topographical progress through Britain, are strictly descriptive.
It will be obvious from this definition that the danger ahead
of all purely descriptive poetry is that it will lack intensity, that
it will be frigid, if not dead. Description for description's sake,
especially in studied verse, is rarely a vitalized form of literature.
It is threatened, from its very conception, with languor and
coldness; it must exercise an extreme art or be condemned to
immediate sterility. Boileau, with his customary intelligence,
was the first to see this, and he thought that the danger might be
avoided by care in technical execution. His advice to the poets
of his time was:
" Soyez riches et pompeux dans vos descriptions ;
C'est-Ia qu'il faut des vers etaler 1'elegance,"
and:
" De figure sans nombre 6gayez votre ouvrage ;
Que toute y fasse aux yeux une riante image,"
and in verses of brilliant humour he mocked the writer who,
too full of his subject, and describing for description's sake, will
never quit his theme until he has exhausted it :
" Fuyez de ces auteurs 1'abondance sterile
Et ne vous chargez point d'un detail inutile."
This is excellent advice, but Boileau 's humorous sallies do not
quite meet the question whether such purely descriptive poetry
as he criticizes is legitimate at all.
In England had appeared the famous translation (1592-1611),
by Josuah Sylvester, of the Divine Weeks and Works of Du
Bartas, containing such lines as those which the juvenile Dryden
admired so much:
" But when winter's keener breath began
To crystallize the Baltic ocean,
To glaze the lakes, and bridle up the floods,
Andperriwig with wool the bald-pate woods."
There was also the curious physiological epic of Phineas Fletcher,
The Purple Island (1633). But on the whole it was not until
French influences had made themselves felt on English poetry,
DESERT
that description, as Boileau conceived it, was cultivated as a
distinct art. The Cooper's Hill (1642) of Sir John Denham may
be contrasted with the less ambitious Penshurst of Ben Jonson,
and the one represents the new no less completely than the other
does the old generation. If, however, we examine Cooper's Hill
carefully, we perceive that its aim is after all rather philosophical
than topographical. The Thames is described indeed, but not
very minutely, and the poet is mainly absorbed in moral reflec-
tions. Marvell's long poem on the beauties of Nunappleton comes
nearer to the type. But it is hardly until we reach the iSth
century that we arrive, in English literature, at what is properly
known as descriptive poetry. This was the age in which poets,
often of no mean capacity, began to take such definite themes
as a small country estate (Pomfret's Choice, 1700), the cultivation
of the grape (Gay's Wine, 1708), a landscape (Pope's Windsor
Forest, 1713), a military manoeuvre (Addison's Campaign, 1704),
the industry of an apple-orchard (Philip's Cyder, 1708) or a piece
of topography (Tickell's Kensington Gardens, 1722), as the sole
subject of a lengthy poem, generally written in heroic or blank
verse. These tours de force were supported by minute efforts in
miniature-painting, by touch applied to touch, and were often
monuments of industry, but they were apt to lack personal
interest, and to suffer from a general and deplorable frigidity.
They were infected with the faults which accompany an artificial
style; they were monotonous, rhetorical and symmetrical, while
the uniformity of treatment which was inevitable to their plan
rendered them hopelessly tedious, if they were prolonged to any
great extent.
This species of writing had been cultivated to a considerable
degree through the preceding century, in Italy and (as the
remarks of Boileau testify) in France, but it was in England that
it reached its highest importance. The classic of descriptive
poetry, in fact, the specimen which the literature of the world
presents which must be considered as the most important and
the most successful, is TheSeasons (1726-1730) of James Thomson
(q.v.). In Thomson, for the first time, a poet of considerable
eminence appeared, to whom external nature was all sufficient,
and who succeeded in conducting a long poem to its close by a
single appeal to landscape, and to the emotions which it directly
evokes. Coleridge, somewhat severely, described The Seasons as
the work of a good rather than of a great poet, and it is an in-
disputable fact that, at its very best, descriptive poetry fails to
awaken the highest powers of the imagination. A great part of
Thomson's poem is nothing more nor less than a skilfully varied
catalogue of natural phenomena. The famous description of twi-
light in " the fading many-coloured woods" of autumn may be
taken as an example of the highest art to which purely descriptive
poetry has ever attained. It is obvious, even here, that the effect
of these rich and sonorous lines, in spite of the splendid effort
of the artist, is monotonous, and leads us up to no final crisis of
passion or rapture. Yet Thomson succeeds, as few other poets
of his class have succeeded, in producing nobly-massed effects
and comprehensive beauties such as were utterly unknown to his
predecessors. He was widely imitated in England, especially by
Armstrong, by Akenside, by Shenstone (in The Schoolmistress,
1742), by the anonymous author of Albania, 1737, and by
Goldsmith (in The Deserted Village, 1770). No better example
of the more pedestrian class of descriptive poetry could be found
than the last-mentioned poem, with its minute and Dutch-like
painting:
" How often have I paused on every charm:
The sheltered cot, the cultivated farm;
The never-failing brook, the busy mill.
The decent church that topped the neighbouring hill:
The hawthorn-bush, with seats beneath the shade.
For talking age and whispering lovers made."
On the continent of Europe the example of Thomson was almost
immediately fruitful. Four several translations of The Seasons
into French contended for the suffrages of the public, and J. F.
de Saint-Lambert (1716-1803) imitated Thomson in Les Saisons
(1769), a poem which enjoyed popularity for half a century, and
of which Voltaire said that it was the or.ly one of its generation
which would reach posterity. Nevertheless, as Madame du
Deffand told Walpole, Saint-Lambert is " froid, fade et faux,"
and the same may be said of J. A. Roucher (1745-1794), who
wrote Les Mois in 1779, a descriptive poem famous in its
day. The Abbe Jacques Delille (1738-1813), perhaps the most
ambitious descriptive poet who has ever lived, was treated
as a Virgil by his contemporaries; he published Les Georgiques
in 1769, Les Jardins in 1782, and L'Homme des champs in 1803,
but he went furthest in his brilliant, though artificial, Trois
regnes de la nature (1809), which French critics have called the
masterpiece of this whole school of descriptive poetry. Delille,
however, like Thomson before him, was unable to avoid mono-
tony and want of coherency. Picture follows picture, and no
progress is made. The satire of Marie Joseph Chenier, in his
famous and witty Discours sur les poemes descriptifs, brought
the vogue of this species of poetry to an end.
In England, again, Wordsworth, who treated the genius of
Thomson with unmerited severity, revived descriptive poetry
in a form which owed more than Wordsworth realized to the
model of The Seasons. In The Excursion and The Prelude, as
well as in many of his minor pieces, Wordsworth's philosophical
and moral intentions cannot prevent us from perceiving the
large part which pure description takes; and the same may be
said of much of the early blank verse of S. T. Coleridge. Since
their day, however, purely descriptive poetry has gone more and
more completely out of fashion, and its place has been taken by
the richer and director effects of such prose as that of Ruskin
in English, or 'of Fromentin and Pierre Loti in French. It is
almost impossible in descriptive verse to obtain those vivid
and impassioned appeals to the imagination which are of the
very essence of genuine poetry, and it is unlikely that descrip-
tive poetry, as such, will again take a prominent place in living
literature. (E. G.)
DESERT, a term somewhat loosely employed to describe those
parts of the land surface of the earth which do not produce
sufficient vegetation to support a human population. Few areas
of large extent in any part of the world are absolutely devoid of
vegetation, and the transition from typical desert conditions is
often very gradual and ill-defined. (" Desert " comes from Lat.
deserere, to abandon; distinguish " desert," merit, and " dessert,"
fruit eaten after dinner, from de and servier, to serve.)
Deserts are conveniently divided into two classes according
to the causes which give rise to the desert conditions. In " cold
deserts " the want of vegetation is wholly due to the prevailing
low temperature, while in " hot deserts " the surface is uroro-
ductive because, on account of high temperature and deficient
rainfall, evaporation is largely in excess of precipitation. Cold
deserts accordingly occur in high latitudes (see TUNDRA and
POLAR REGIONS). Hot desert conditions are primarily found
along the tropical belts of high atmospheric pressure in which the
conditions of warmth and dryness are most fully realized, and on
their equatorial sides, but the zonal arrangement is considerably
modified in some regions by the monsoonal influence of elevated
land. Thus we have in the northern hemisphere the Sahara
desert, the deserts of Arabia, Iran, Turan, Takla Makan and
Gobi, and the desert regions of the Great Basin in North
America; and in the southern hemisphere the Kalahari desert
in Africa, the desert of Australia, and the desert of Atacama in
South America. Where the line of elevated land runs east and
west, as in Asia, the desert belt tends to be displaced into higher
latitudes, and where the line runs north and south, as in Africa,
America and Australia, the desert zone is cut through on the
windward side of the elevation and the arid conditions intensified
on the lee side. Desert conditions also arise from local causes,
as in the case of the Indian desert situated in a region inaccessible
to either of the two main branches of the south-west monsoon.
Although rivers rising in more favoured regions may traverse
deserts on their way to the sea, as in the case of the Nile and the
Colorado, the fundamental physical condition of an arid area is
that it contributes nothing to the waters of the ocean. The rain-
fall chiefly occurs in violent cloudbursts, and the soluble matter
in the soil is carried down by intermittent streams to salt lakes
DESERTION DESFORGES
93
around which deposits are formed as evaporation takes place.
The land forms of a desert are exceedingly characteristic. Surface
erosion is chiefly due to rapid changes of temperature through a
wide range, and to the action of wind transferring sand and dust,
often in the form of " dunes " resembling the waves of the sea.
Dry valleys, narrow and of great depth, with precipitous sides,
and ending in " cirques," are probably formed by the intense
action of the occasional cloud-bursts.
When water can be obtained and distributed over an arid
region by irrigation, the surface as a rule becomes extremely
productive. Natural springs give rise to oases at intervals and
make the crossing of large deserts possible. Where a river crosses
a desert at a level near that of the general surface, irrigation can
be carried on with extremely profitable results, as has been done
in the valley of the Nile and in parts of the Great Basin of North
America; in cases, however, where the river has cut deeply and
flows far below the general surface, irrigation is too expensive.
Much has been done in parts of Australia by means of artesian
wells.
For a general account of deserts see Professor Johannes Walther,
Das Gesetz der Wustcnbildimg (Berlin, 1900), in which many references
to other original authorities will be found. (H. N. D.)
DESERTION, the act of forsaking or abandoning; more
particularly, the wilful abandonment of an employment or of
duty, in violation of a legal or moral obligation.
The offence of naval or military desertion is constituted when
a man absents himself with the intention either of not returning
or of escaping some important service, such as embarkation for
foreign service, or service in aid of the civil power. In the
United Kingdom desertion has always been recognized by the
civil law, and until 1827 (7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 28) was a felony
punishable by death. It was subsequently dealt with by the
various Mutiny Acts, which were replaced by the Army Act
1881, renewed annually by the Army (Annual) Act. By 12
of the act every person subject to military law who deserts or
attempts to desert, or who persuades or procures any person to
desert, shall, on conviction by court martial, if he committed the
offence when on active service or under orders for active service,
be liable to suffer death, or such less punishment as is mentioned
in the act. When the offence is committed under any other
circumstances, the punishment for the first offence is imprison-
ment, and for the second or any subsequent offence penal servi-
tude or such less punishment as is mentioned in the act. 44
contains a scale of punishments, and 175-184 an enumeration
of persons subject to military law. By 153 any person who
persuades a soldier to desert or aids or assists him or conceals him
is liable, on conviction, to be imprisoned, with or without hard
labour, for not more than six months. 154 makes provision
for the apprehension of deserters. 161 lays down that where a
soldier has served continuously in an exemplary manner for not
less than three years in any corps of regular forces he is not to be
tried or punished for desertion which has occurred before the
commencement of the three years. Desertion from the regular
forces can only be tried by a military court, but in the case of the
militia and reserve forces desertion can be tried by a civil court.
The Army Act of 1881 made a welcome distinction between
actual desertion, as defined at the commencement of this article,
and the quitting one regiment in order to enlist in another. This
offence is now separately dealt with as fraudulent enlistment;
formerly, it was termed "desertion and fraudulent enlistment,"
and the statistics of desertion proper were consequently and
erroneously magnified. The gross total of desertions in the
British Army in an average year (1903-1904) was nearly 4000,
or 1-4% of the average strength of the army, but owing to men
rejoining from desertion, fraudulent enlistment, &c., the net loss
was no more than 1286, i.e. less than -5%. The army of the
United States suffers very severely from desertion, and very few
deserters rejoin or are recaptured (see Journal of the Roy. United
Service Inst., December 1905, p. 1469). In the year 1900-1901,
3110 men deserted (4-3% of average strength); in 1001-1902,
4667 (or 5-9%); in 1904-1905,6353 (o'r 6-8%); and in 1905-1906,
6258 out of less than 60,000 men, or 7-4%.
In all armies desertion while on actire service is punishable
by death; on the continent of Europe, owing to the system of
compulsory service, desertion is infrequent, and takes place
usually when the deserter wishes to leave his country altogether.
It was formerly the practice in the English army to punish a man
convicted of desertion by tattooing on him the letter " D " to
prevent his re-enlistment, but this has been long abandoned in
deference to public opinion, which erroneously adopted the idea
that the " marking " was effected by red-hot irons or in some
other manner involving torture. The Navy Discipline Act 1866,
and the Naval Deserters Act 1847, contain similar provisions to
the Army Act of 1881 for dealing with desertions from the navy.
In the United States navy the term " straggling " is applied to
absence without leave, where the probability is that the person
does not intend to desert. The United States government offers
a monetary reward of between $20 and $30 for the arrest and
delivery of deserters from the army and navy.
In the British merchant service the offence of desertion is
defined as the abandonment of duty by quitting the ship before
the termination of the engagement, without justification, and
with the intention of not returning.
Desertion is also the term applied to the act by which a man
abandons his wife and children, or either of them. Desertion of
a wife is a matrimonial, offence; under the Matrimonial Causes
Act 1857, a decree of judicial separation may be obtained in
England by either husband or wife on the ground of desertion,
without cause, for two years and upwards (see also DIVORCE).
For the desertion of children see CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO;
INFANT. (T. A. I.)
DBS ESSARTS, EMMANUEL ADOLPHE (1839- ), French
poet and man of letters, was born at Paris on the sth of Febru-
ary 1839. His father, Alfred Stanislas Langlois des Essarts
(d. 1893), was a P oet an( i novelist of considerable reputation.
The son was educated at the Ecole Normale Superieure, and
became a teacher of rhetoric and finally professor of literature
at Dijon and at Clermont. His works are: Poesies parisiennes
(1862), a volume of light verse on trifling subjects ; Les Elevations
(1864), philosophical poems; Origines de la poesie lyrique en
France au XVI' siede (i%i $) ; Du geniede Chateaubriand (1876) ;
Poemes de la Revolution (1879); Pallas Athene (1887); Portraits
de maitres (1888), &c.
DESFONTAINES, REN6 LOUICHE (1750-1833), French
botanist, was born at Tremblay (lle-et-Vilaine) on the i4th of
February 1750. After graduating in medicine at Paris, he was
elected a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1783. In the
same year he set out for North Africa, on a scientific exploring
expedition, and on his return two years afterwards brought with
him a large collection of plants, animals, &c., comprising, it is
said, 1600 species of plants, of which about 300 were described
for the first time. In 1786 he was nominated to the post of
professor at the Jardin des Plantes, vacated in his favour by his
friend, L. G. Lemonnier. His great work, Flora Atlanlica she
historia plantarum quae in Allanle, agro Tunetano el Algeriensi
crescunt, was published in 2 vols. 4to in 1 798, and he produced in
1804 a Tableau de I'ecole botanique du museum d'histoire naturelle
de Paris, of which a third edition appeared in 1831, under the
new title Catalogus plantarum horti regii Parisiensis. He was
also the author of many memoirs on vegetable anatomy and
physiology, descriptions of new genera and species, &c., one
of the most important being a " Memoir on the Organization of
the Monocotyledons." He died at Paris on the 1 6th of November
1833. His Barbary collection was bequeathed to the Museum
d'Histoire Naturelle, and his general collection passed into the
hands of the English botanist, Philip Barker Webb.
DESFORGES, PIERRE JEAN BAPTISTE CHOUDARD (1746-
(1806), French dramatist and man of letters, natural son of Dr
Antoine Petit, was born in Paris on the isth of September 1746.
He was educated at the College Mazarin and the College de
Beauvais.and at his father's desire began the study of medicine.
Dr Petit's death left him dependent on his own resources, and
after appearing on the stage of the Comedie Italienne in Paris
he joined a troupe of wandering actors, whom he served in the
94
DESGARCINS DESIDERIO DA SETTIGNANO
capacity of playwright. He married an actress, and the two
spent three years in St Petersburg, where they were well received.
In 1782 he produced at the Comedie Italienne an adaptation of
Fielding's novel with the title Tom Jones a Londres. His first
great success was achieved with L'&preuve villageoise (1785)
to the music of Gretry. La Femme jalouse, a five-act comedy in
verse (1785), Jocnnde (1790) for the music of Louis Jaden, Les
poux divorces (1799), a comedy, and other pieces followed.
Desforges was one of the first to avail himself of the new facilities
afforded under the Revolution for divorce and re-marriage.
The curious record of his own early indiscretions in Le Poete, ou
mimoires d'un homme de lettres ecrits par lui-meme (4 vols., 1798)
is said to have been undertaken at the request of Madame
Desforges. He died in Paris on the I3th of August 1806.
DESGARCINS, MAGDELEINE MARIE [LOUISE] (1769-1797),
French actress, was born at Mont Dauphin (Hautes Alpes). In
her short career she became one of the greatest of French tragedi-
ennes, the associate of Talma, with whom she nearly always
played. Her debut at the Comedie Francaise occurred on the
24th of May 1788, in Bajazet, with such success that she was at
once made sociftaire. She was one of the actresses who left the
Comedie Francaise in 1791 for the house in the rue Richelieu,
soon to become the Theatre de la Republique, and there her
triumphs were no less in King Lear, Othello, La Harpe's
Melanie el Virginie, &c. Her health, however, failed, and she
died insane, in Paris, on the 27th of October 1797.
DESHAYES, GERARD PAUL (1795-1875), French geologist
and conchologist, was born at Nancy on the I3th of May 1797,
his father at that time being professor of experimental physics
in the ficole Centrale of the department of la Meurthe. He
studied medicine at Strassburg, and afterwards took the degree
of bachelier es lettres in Paris in 1821; but he abandoned the
medical profession in order to devote himself to natural history.
For some time he gave private lessons on geology, and subse-
quently became professor of natural history in the Museum
d'Histoire Naturelle. He was distinguished for his researches on
the fossil mollusca of the Paris Basin and of other Tertiary areas.
His studies on the relations of the fossil to the recent species led
him as early as 1829 to conclusions somewhat similar to those
arrived at by Lyell, to whom Deshayes rendered much assistance
in connexion with the classification of the Tertiary system into"
Eocene, Miocene and Pliocene. He was one of the founders of
the Societe Geologique de France. In 1839 he began the publica-
tion of his TraM elemcntaire de conchyliologie, the last part
of which was not issued until 1858. In the same year (1839) he
went to Algeria for the French Government, and spent three
years in explorations in that country. His principal work, which
resulted from the collections he made, Mollusques de VAlgirie,
was issued (incomplete) in 1848. In 1870 the Wollaston medal
of the Geological Society of London was awarded to him. He
died at Boran on the 9th of June 1875. His publications included
Description des coquilles fossiles des environs de Paris (2 vols.
and atlas, 1824-1837); Description des animaux sans vertebres
decouverts dans le bassin de Paris (3 vcls. and atlas, 1856-1866) ;
Catalogue des mollusques de I'ilede la Reunion (1863).
DESHOULIERES, ANTOINETTE DU LIGIER DE LA GARDE
(1638-1694), French poet, was born in Paris on the ist of January
1638. She was the daughter of Melchior du Ligier, sieur de la
Garde, maitre d'hoiel to the queens Marie de' Medici and Anne
of Austria. She received a careful and very complete education,
acquiring a knowledge of Latin, Spanish and Italian, and study-
ing prosody under the direction of the poet Jean Hesnault.
At the age of thirteen she married Guillaume de Boisguerin,
seigneur Deshoulieres, who followed the prince of Conde as
lieutenant-colonel of one of his regiments to Flanders about a
year after the marriage. Madame Deshoulieres returned for a time
to the house of her parents, where she gave herself to writing
poetry and studying the philosophy of Gassendi. She rejoined
her husband at Rocroi, near Brussels, where, being distinguished
for her personal beauty, she became the object of embarrassing
attentions on the part of the prince of Conde. Having made
herself obnoxious to the government by her urgent demand for
the arrears of her husband's pay, she was imprisoned in the
chateau of Wilworden. After a few months she was freed by her
husband, who attacked the chateau at the head of a small band
of soldiers. An amnesty having been proclaimed, they returned
to France, where Madame Deshoulieres soon became a conspicu-
ous personage at the court of Louis XIV. and in literary society.
She won the friendship and admiration of the most eminent
literary men of the age some of her more zealous flatterers
even going so far as to style her the tenth muse and the
French Calliope. Her poems were very numerous, and included
specimens of nearly all the minor forms, odes, eclogues, idylls,
elegies, chansons, ballads, madrigals, &c. Of these the idylls
alone, and only some of them, have stood the test of time, the
others being entirely forgotten. She wrote several dramatic
works, the best of which do not rise to mediocrity. Her friend-
ship for Corneille made her take sides for the Phedre of Pradon
against that of Racine. Voltaire pronounced her the best of
women French poets; and her reputation with her contempor-
aries is indicated by her election as a member of the Academy of
the Ricovrati of Padua and of the Academy of Aries. In 1688
a pension of 2000 livres was bestowed upon her by the king, and
she was thus relieved from the poverty in which she had long
lived. She died in Paris on the I7th February 1694. Complete
editions of her works were published at Paris in 1695, I 747, &c.
These include a few poems by her daughter, Antoine Therese
Deshoulieres (1656-1718), who inherited her talent.
DESICCATION (from the Lat. desiccare, to dry up), the
operation- of drying or removing water from a substance. It is
of particular importance in practical chemistry. If a substance
admits of being heated to say 100, the drying may be effected
by means of an air-bath, which is simply an oven heated by gas
or by steam. Otherwise a desiccator must be employed; this
is essentially a closed vessel in which a hygroscopic substance is
placed together with the substance to be dried. The process may
be accelerated by exhausting the desiccator; this so-called
vacuum desiccation is especially suitable for the concentration
of aqueous solutions of readily decomposable substances. Of the
hygroscopic substances in common use, phosphoric anhydride,
concentrated sulphuric acid, and dry potassium hydrate are
almost equal in power; sodium hydrate and calcium chloride are
not much behind.
Two common types of desiccator are in use. In one the
absorbent is placed at the bottom, and the substance to be dried
above. Hempel pointed out that the efficiency would be
increased by inverting this arrangement, since water vapour is
lighter than air and consequently rises. Liquids are dried either
by means of the desiccator, or, as is more usual, by shaking with
a substance which removes the water. Fused calcium chloride
is the commonest absorbent; but it must not be used with
alcohols and several other compounds, since it forms compounds
with these substances. Quicklime, barium oxide, and dehy-
drated copper sulphate are especially applicable to alcohol and
ether; the last traces of water may be removed by adding
metallic sodium and distilling. Gases are dried by leading them
through towers or tubes containing an appropriate drying
material. The experiments of H. B. Baker on the influence of
moisture on chemical combination have shown the difficulty of
removing the last traces of water.
In chemical technology, apparatus on the principle of the
laboratory air-bath are mainly used. Crystals and precipitates,
deprived of as much water as possible by centrifugal machines
or filter-presses, are transported by means of a belt, screw, or
other form of conveyer, on to trays staged in brick chambers
heated directly by flue gases or steam pipes; the latter are easily
controlled, and if the steam be superheated a temperature of
300 and over may be maintained. In some cases the material
traverses the chamber from the coolest to the hottest part on a
conveyer or in wagons. Rotating cylinders are also used; the
material to be dried being placed inside, and the cylinder heated
by a steam jacket or otherwise.
DESIDERIO DA SETTIGNANO (1428-1464), Italian sculptor,
was born at Settignano, a village on the southern slope of the hill
DESIDERIUS DESK
95
of Fiesole, still surrounded by the quarries of sandstone of which
the hill is formed, and inhabited by a race of " stone-cutters."
Desiderio was for a short time a pupil of Donatello, whom,
according to Vasari, he assisted in the work on the pedestal
of David, and he seems to have worked also with Mino da
Fiesole, with the delicate and refined style of whose works
those of Desiderio seem to have a closer affinity than with the
perhaps more masculine tone of Donatello. Vasari particularly
extols the sculptor's treatment of the figures of women and
children. It does not appear that Desiderio ever worked else-
where than at Florence; and it is there that those who are
interested in the Italian sculpture of the Renaissance must seek
his few surviving decorative and monumental works, though a
number of his delicately carved marble busts of women and
children are to be found in the museums and private collections of
Germany and France. The most prominent of his works are the
tomb of the secretary of state, Marsuppini, in Santa Croce, and
the great marble tabernacle of the Annunciation in San Lorenzo,
both of which belong to the latter period of Desiderio's activity;
and the cherubs' heads which form the exterior frieze of the
Pazzi Chapel. Vasari mentions a marble bust by Desiderio
of Marietta degli Strozzi, which for many years was held to
be identical with a very beautiful bust bought in 1878 from the
Strozzi family for the Berlin Museum. This bust is now, however,
generally acknowledged to be the work of Francesco Laurana;
whilst Desiderio's bust of Marietta has been recognized in another
marble portrait acquired by the Berlin Museum in 1842. The
Berlin Museum also owns a coloured plaster bust of an Urbino
lady by Desiderio, the model for which is in the possession of
the earl of Wemyss. Other important busts by the master are
in the Bargello, Florence, the Louvre in Paris, the collections of
M. Figdor and M. Benda in Vienna, and of M. Dreyfus in Paris.
Like most of Donatello's pupils, Desiderio worked chiefly in marble,
and not a single work in bronze has been traced to his hand.
See Wilhelm Bode, Die iialienische Plastik (Berlin, 1893).
DESIDERIUS, the last king of the Lombards, is chiefly known
through his connexion with Charlemagne. He was duke of
Tuscany and became king of the Lombards after the death of
Aistulf in 756. Seeking, like his predecessors, to extend the
Lombard power in Italy, he came into collision with the papacy,
and about 772 the new pope, Adrian I., implored the aid of
Charlemagne against him. Other causes of quarrel already
existed between the Frankish and the Lombard kings. In 770
Charlemagne had married a daughter of Desiderius; but he soon
put this lady away, and sent her back to her father. Moreover,
Gerberga, the widow of Charlemagne's brother Carloman, had
sought the protection of the Lombard king after her husband's
death in 771 ; and in return for the slight cast upon his daughter,
Desiderius had recognized Gerberga's sons as the lawful Frankish
kings, and had attacked Adrian for refusing to crown them. Such
was the position when Charlemagne led his troops across the Alps
in 773, took the Lombard capital, Ticinum, the modern Pavia,
in June 774, and added the kingdom of Lombardy to his own
dominions. Desiderius was carried to France, where he died,
and his son, Adalgis, spent his life in futile attempts to recover
his father's kingdom. The' name of Desiderius appears in the
romances of the Carolingian period.
See S. Abel, Untergang des Langobardenreichs (Gottingen, 1859);
and Jahrbucher des frdnkischen Reiches unter Karl dem Grossen
(Leipzig, 1865); L. M. Hartmann, Geschichte Italiens im Mittelalter
(Gotha, 1903) ; and Paulus Diaconus, Historia Langobardorum, edited
by L. Bethmann and G. Waitz (Hanover, 1878).
DESIGN (Fr. dessin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out),
in the arts, a drawing, more especially when made as a guide
for the execution of work; that side of drawing which deals
with arrangement rather than representation; and generally,
by analogy, a deliberate planning, scheming or purpose. Modern
use has tended to associate design with the word " original " in
the sense of new or abnormal. The end of design, however, is
properly utility, fitness and deligh't. If a discovery, it should be
a discovery of what seems inevitable, an inspiration arising out
of the conditions, and parallel to invention in the sciences. The
faculty of design has best flourished when an almost spontaneous
development was taking place in the arts, and while certain
classes of arts, more or less noble, were generally demanded and
the demand copiously satisfied, as in the production of Greek
vases, Byzantine mosaics, Gothic cathedrals, and Renaissance
paintings. Thus where a " school of design " arises there is much
general likeness in the products but also a general progress.
The common experience " tradition " is a part of each
artist's stock in trade; and all are carried along in a stream of
continuous exploration. Some of the arts, writing, for instance,
have been little touched by conscious originality in design, all
has been progress, or, at least, change, in response to conditions.
Under such a system, in a time of progress, the proper limitations
react as intensity; when limitations are removed the designer
has less and less upon which to react, and unconditioned liberty
gives him nothing at all to lean on. Design is response to needs,
conditions and aspirations. The Greeks so well understood this
that they appear to have consciously restrained themselves to
the development of selected types, not only in architecture and
literature, but in domestic arts, like pottery. Design with them
was less the new than the true.
For the production of a school of design it is necessary that
there should be a considerable body of artists working together,
and a large demand from a sympathetic public. A process of
continuous development is thus brought into being which sustains
the individual effort. It is necessary for the designer to know
familiarly the processes, the materials and the skilful use of the
tools involved in the productions of a given art, and properly
only one who practises a craft can design for it. It is necessary
to enter into the traditions of the art, that is, to know past
achievements. It is necessary, further, to be in relation with
nature, the great reservoir of ideas, for it is from it that fresh
thought will flow into all forms of art. These conditions being
granted, the best and most useful meaning we can give to
the word design is exploration, experiment, consideration of
possibilities. Putting too high a value on originality other than
this is to restrict natural growth from vital roots, in which true
originality consists. To take design in architecture as an example,
we have rested too much on definite precedent (a different thing
from living tradition) and, on the other hand, hoped too much from
newness. Exploration of the possibilities in arches, vaults, domes
and the like, as a chemist or a mathematician explores, is little
accepted as a method in architecture at this time, although in
antiquity it was by such means that the great master-works were
produced: the Pantheon, Santa Sophia, Durham and Amiens
cathedrals. The same is true of all forms of design. Of course
the genius and inspiration of the individual artist is not here
ignored, but assumed. What we are concerned with is a mode
of thought which shall make it most fruitful. (W. R. L.)
DESIRE, in popular usage, a term for a wishing or longing
for something which one has not got. For its technical use see
PSYCHOLOGY. The word is derived through the French from
Lat. desiderare, to long or wish for, to miss. The substantive
desiderium has the special meaning of desire for something one
has once possessed but lost, hence regret or grief. The usual
explanation of the word is to connect it with sidus, star, as in
considerare, to examine the stars with attention, hence, to look
closely at. If this is so, the history of the transition in meaning
is unknown. J. B. Greenough (Harvard Studies in Classical
Philology, i. 96) has suggested that the word is a military slang
term. According to this theory desiderare meant originally to
miss a soldier from the ranks at roll-call, the root being that
seen in sedere, to sit, sedes, seat, place, &c.
DESK (from Lat. discus, quoit, in med. sense of " table,"
cf. " dish " and Ger. Tisch, table, from same source), any-
kind of flat or sloping table for writing or reading. Its
earliest shape was probably that with which we are familiar
in pictures of the monastic scriptorium rather high and
narrow with a sloping slab. The primitive desk had little
accommodation for writing materials, and no storage room for
papers; drawers, cupboards and pigeon-holes were the evolution
of periods when writing grew common, and when letters and
other documents requiring preservation became numerous. It
9 6
DESLONGCHAMPS
was long the custom to secure papers in chests or cabinets, whereas
the modern desk serves the double purpose of a writing-table and
a storehouse for documents. The first development from the
early stall-like desk consisted of the addition of a drawer; then
the table came to be supported upon legs or columns, which, as
in the many beautiful examples constructed by Boulle and his
school, were often of elaborate grace. Eventually the legs were
replaced by a series of superimposed drawers forming pedestals
hence the familiar pedestal writing-table.
For a long period there were two distinct contemporary forms
of desk the table and the bureau or escritoire. The latter shape
attained a popularity so great that, especially in England and
America, it was found even in houses in which there was little
occasion for writing. The English-speaking people of the i8th
century were amazingly fond of pieces of furniture which
served a double or triple purpose. The bureau the word is
the French generic appellation for a desk derives its name
from the material with which it was originally covered (Fr. bure,
woollen cloth). It consists of an upright carcass sloping inward
at the top, and provided with long drawers below. The upper
part is fitted with small drawers and pigeon-holes, and often with
secret places, and the writing space is formed by a hinged slab
supported on runners; when not in use this slab closes up the
sloping top. 'During the iSth century innumerable thousands of
these bureaux were made on both sides of the Atlantic indeed,
if we except tables and chairs, no piece of old furniture is more
common. In the first part of that period they were usually of
oak, but when mahogany was introduced into Europe it speedily
ousted the heavier-looking wood. Its deep rich colour and the
high polish of which it was capable added appreciably to its
ornamental appearance. While the pigeon-holes and small
drawers were used for papers, the long drawers were often
employed for purposes other than literary. In time the bureau-
secretaire became a bureau-bookcase, the glazed shelves, which
were often a separate erection, resting upon the top of the bureau.
The cabinetmakers of the second half of the i8th century, the
period of the greatest floraison of this combination, competed
with each other in devising elegant frets for the glass fronts.
Solid and satisfying to the eye, if somewhat severe in form, the
mahogany bureau was usually an exceedingly presentable piece
of furniture. Occasionally it had a bombe front which mitigated
its severity; this was especially the case in the Dutch varieties,
which were in a measure free adaptations of the French Louis
Quinze commode. These Dutch bureaux, and the English ones
made in imitation of them, were usually elaborately inlaid with
floral designs in coloured woods; but whereas the Batavian
marquetry was often rough and crude, the English work was
usually of considerable excellence. Side by side with this form of
writing apparatus was one variety or another of the writing-table
proper. In so far as it is possible to generalize upon such a detail
it would appear that the bureau was the desk of the yeoman and
what we now call the lower middle class, and that the slighter and
more table-like forms were preferred by those higher in the social
scale. This probably means no more than that while the one
class preserved the old English affection for the solid and'heavy
furniture which would last for generations, those who were more
free to follow the fashions and fancies of their time were, as the
pecuniarily easy classes always have been, ready to abandon the
old for the new.
Just about the time when the flat table with its drawers in a
single row, or in nests serving as pedestals, was finally assuming
its familiar modern shape, an invention was introduced which
was destined eventually, so far as numbers and convenience go,
to supersede all other forms of desk. This was the cylinder-top
writing-table. Nothing is known of the originator of this device,
but it is certain that if not French himself he worked in France.
The historians of French furniture agree in fixing its introduction
about the year 1730, and we know that a desk worked on this
principle was in the possession of the French crown in the year
1760. Even in its early days the cylinder took more than one
form. It sometimes consisted of a solid piece of curved wood,
and sometimes of a tambour frame that is to say, of a series of
narrow jointed strips of wood mounted on canvas; the revolving
shutters of a shop-front are an adaptation of the idea. For a long
period, however, the cylinder was most often solid, and remained
so until the latter part of the igth century, when the " American
roll-top desk " began to be made in large numbers. This is
indeed the old French form with a tambour cylinder, and it is
now the desk that is most frequently met with all over the world
for commercial purposes. Its popularity is due to its large
accommodation, and to the facility with which the closing of the
cylinder conceals all papers, and automatically locks every drawer.
To France we owe not only the invention of this ubiquitous form,
but the construction of many of the finest and most historic desks
that have survived the characteristic marquetry writing-tables
of the Boulle period, and the gilded splendours of that of Louis
Quinze have never been surpassed in the history of furniture.
Indeed, the " Bureau du roi " which was made for Louis XV. is the
most famous and magnificent piece of furniture that, so far as we
know, was ever constructed. This desk, which is now one of the
treasures of the Louvre, was the work of several artist-artificers,
chief among whom were Oeben and Riesener Oeben, it may be
added here as a matter of artistic interest, became the grand-
father of Eugene Delacroix. The bureau is signed " Riesener fa.
1769 a 1'Arsenal de Paris," but it has been established that,
however great may have been the share of its construction which
fell to him, the conception was that of Oeben. The work was
ordered in 1760; it would thus appear that nine years were
consumed in perfecting it, which is not surprising when we learn
from the detailed account of its construction that the work began
with making a perfect miniature model followed by one of full
size. The " bureau du roi " is a large cylinder desk elaborately
inlaid in marquetry of woods, and decorated with a wonderful
and ornate series of mounts consisting of mouldings, plaques,
vases and statuettes of gilt bronze cast and chased. These
bronzes are the work of Duplessis, Winant and Hervieux. The
desk, which shows plainly the transition between the Louis
Quinze and Louis Seize styles, is as remarkable for the boldness
of its conception as for the magnificent finish of its details. Its
lines are large, flowing and harmonious, and although it is no
longer exactly as it left the hands of its makers (Oeben died
before it was finished) the alterations that have been made have
hardly interfered with the general effect. For the head of the
king for whom it was made that of Minerva in a helmet was
substituted under his successor. The ciphers of Louis XV. have
been removed and replaced by Sevres plaques, and even the
key which bore the king's initial crowned with laurels and
palm leaves, with his portrait on the one side, and the fleur de lys
on the other, has been interfered with by an austere republicanism.
Yet no tampering with details can spoil the monumental nobility
of this great conception. (J. P.-B.)
DESLONGCHAMPS, JACQUES AMAND EUDES- (1794-1867),
French naturalist and palaeontologist, was born at Caen in
Normandy on the I7th of January 1794. His parents, though
poor, contrived to give him a good education, and he studied
medicine in his native town to such good effect that in 1812 he
was appointed assistant-surgeon in the navy, and in 1815 surgeon
assistant major to the military hospital of Caen. Soon after-
wards he proceeded to Paris to qualify for the degree of doctor of
surgery, and there the researches and teachings of Cuvier attracted
his attention to subjects of natural history and palaeontology.
In 1822 he was elected surgeon to the board of relief at Caen, and
while he never ceased to devote his energies to the duties of this
post, he sought relaxation in geological studies. Soon he dis-
covered remains of Teleosaurus in one of the Caen quarries, and
he became an ardent palaeontologist. He was one of the founders
of the museum of natural history at Caen, and acted as honorary
curator; he was likewise one of the founders of the Societe
linneenne de Normandie (1823), to the transactions of which
society he communicated papers on Teleosaurus, Poekilopleuron
(Megalosaurus), on Jurassic mollusca and brachiopoda. In 1825
he became professor of zoology to the faculty of sciences, and in
1847, dean. He died on the i?th of January 1867.
His son EUGENE EUDES-DESLONGCHAMPS (1830-1889), French
DESMAISEAUX DESMARETS, N.
97
palaeontologist, was born in 1830. He succeeded his father about
the year 1856 as professor of zoology at the faculty of sciences at
Caen, and in 1861 he became also professor of geology and dean.
After the death of his father in 1867, he devoted himself to the
completion of a memoir on the Teleosaurs: the joint labours
being embodied in his Prodrome des Teliosauriens du Calvados.
To the Societe Linneenne de Normandie he contributed memoirs
on Jurassic brachiopods, on the geology of the department of La
Manche (1856), of Calvados (1856-1863), on the Terrain callovien
(1859), on Nouvelle-Caledonie (1864), and Etudes sur les etages
jurassiqttes inflrieurs de la Normandie (1864). His work Le
Jura normand was issued in 1877-1878 (incomplete). He died
at Chateau Matthieu, Calvados, on the 2ist of December 1889.
DESMAISEAUX, PIERRE (1673-1745); French writer, was
born at Saillat, probably in 1673. His father, a minister of the
reformed church, had to leave France on the revocation of the
edict of Nantes, and took refuge in Geneva, where Pierre was
educated. Bayle gave him an introduction to the 3rd Lord
Shaftesbury, with whom, in 1699, he came to England, where he
engaged in literary work. He remained in close touch with
the religious refugees in England and Holland, and constantly in
correspondence with the leading continental savants and writers,
who were in the habit of employing him to conduct such business
as they might have in England. In 1720 he was elected a fellow
of the Royal Society. Among his works are Vie de St Evremond
(1711), Vie de Boileau-DesprSaux (1712), Vie de Bayle (1730).
He also took an active part in preparing the Bibliotheque raisonnfe
des outrages de I'Europe (1728-1753), and the Bibliotheque
britannique (1733-1747), and edited a selection of St Evremond's
writings (1706). Part of Desmaiseaux's correspondence is pre-
served in the British Museum, and other letters are in the royal
library at Copenhagen. He died on the nth of July 1745.
DESMAREST, NICOLAS (1725-1815), French geologist, was
born at Soulaines, in the department of Aube, on the i6th of
September 1725. Of humble parentage, he was educated at
the college of the Oratorians of Troyes and Paris. Taking full
advantage of the instruction he received, he was able to support
himself by teaching, and to continue his studies independently.
Buffon's Theory of the Earth interested him, and in 1753 he
successfully competed for a prize by writing an essay on the
ancient connexion between England and France. This attracted
much attention, and ultimately led to his being employed in
studying and reporting on manufactures in different countries,
and in 1788 to his appointment as inspector-general of the
manufactures of France. He utilized his journeys, travelling on
foot, so as to add to his knowledge of the earth's structure. In
1763 he made observations in Auvergne, recognizing that the
prismatic basalts were old lava streams, comparing them with
the columns of the Giant's Causeway in Ireland, and referring
them to the operations of extinct volcanoes. It was not, however,
until 1774 that he published an essay on the subject, accompanied
by a geological map, having meanwhile on several occasions
revisited the district. He then pointed out the succession of
volcanic outbursts and the changes the rocks had undergone
through weathering and erosion. As remarked by Sir A. Geikie,
the doctrine of the origin of valleys by the erosive action of the
streams which flow through them was first clearly taught by
Desmarest. An enlarged and improved edition of his map of the
volcanic region of Auvergne was published after his death, in
1823, by his son ANSELME GAETAN DESMAREST (1784-1838), who
was distinguished as a zoologist, and author of memoirs on recent
and fossil Crustacea. He died in Paris on the 2oth of September
1815.
See The Founders of Geology, by Sir A. Geikie (1897), pp. 48-78.
(H. B. Wo.)
DESMARETS (or DESMARETZ), JEAN, SIEUR DE SAINT-
SORLIN (1595-1676), French dramatist and miscellaneous writer,
was born in Paris in 1595. When he was about thirty he was
introduced to Richelieu, and became one of the band of writers
who carried out the cardinal's literary ideas. Desmarets's own
inclination was to novel-writing, and the success of his romance
Ariane in 1631 led to his formal admission to the circle that met
vin. 4
at the house of Valentine Conrart and later developed into the
Academic Francaise. Desmarets was its first chancellor. It was
at Richelieu's request that he began to write for the theatre. In
this kind he produced a comedy long regarded as a masterpiece,
Les Visionnaires (1637); a prose-tragedy, Erigone (1638); and
Scipion (1639), a tragedy in verse. His success led to official
preferment, and he was made conseiller du roi, contrdleur -Central
de V extraordinaire des guerres, and secretary-general of the fleet
of the Levant. His long epic Clovis (1657) is noteworthy because
Desmarets rejected the traditional pagan background, and
maintained that Christian imagery should supplant it. With
this standpoint he contributed several works in defence of
the moderns in the famous quarrel between the Ancients and
Moderns. In his later years Desmarets devoted himself chiefly
to producing a quantity of religious poems, of which the best-
known is perhaps his verse translation of the Office de la Vierge
(1645). He was a violent opponent of the Jansenists, against
whom he wrote a Reponse a I'insolente apologie de Port-Royal . . .
(1666). He died in Paris on the 28th of October 1676.
See also H. Rigault, Histoire de la querelle des anciens et des
modernes (1856), pp. 80-103.
DESMARETS, NICOLAS, SIEUR DE MAILLEBOIS (1648-1721),
French statesman, was born in Paris on the loth of September
1648. His mother was the sister of J. B. Colbert, who took him
into his offices as a clerk. He became counsellor to the parlement
in 1672, master of requests in 1674 and intendant of finances in
1678, In these last functions he had to treat with the financiers
for the coinage of new silver pieces of four sous. After Colbert's
death he was involved in the legal proceedings taken against those
financiers who had manufactured coins of bad alloy. The
prosecution, conducted by the members of the family of Le Tellier,
rivals of the Colberts, presented no proof against Desmarets.
Nevertheless he was stripped of his offices and exiled to his
estates by the king, on the 23rd of December 1683. In March
1686 he was authorized to return to Paris, and again entered
into relations with the controllers-general of finance, to whom
he furnished for more than ten years remarkable memoirs on the
economic situation in France. As early as 1687 he showed the
necessity for radical reforms in the system of taxation, insisting
on the ruin of the people and the excessive expenses of the king.
By these memoirs he established his claim to a place among
the great economists of the time, Vauban, Boisguilbert and the
comte de Boulainvilliers. When in September 1699 Chamillart
was named controller-general of finances, he took Desmarets for
counsellor; and when he created the two offices of directors
of finances, he gave one to Desmarets (October 22, 1703).
Henceforth Desmarets was veritable minister of finance. Louis
XIV. had long conversations with him. Madame de Maintenon
protected him. The economists Vauban and Boisguilbert ex-
changed long conversations with him. When Chamillart found
his double functions too heavy, and retaining the ministry of
war resigned that of finance in 1708, Desmarets succeeded him.
The situation was exceedingly grave. The ordinary revenues of
the year 1708 amounted to 81,977,007 livres, of which 57,833,233
livres had already been spent by anticipation, and the expenses
to meet were 200,251,447 livres. In 1709 a famine reduced still
more the returns from taxes. Yet Desmarets's reputation re-
newed the credit of the state, and financiers consented to advance
money they had refused to the king. The emission of paper
money, and a reform in the collection of taxes, enabled him to
tide over the years 1709 and 1710. Then Desmarets decided upon
an "extreme and violent remedy," to use his own expression,
an income tax. His " tenth " was based on Vauban's plan; but
the privileged classes managed to avoid it, and it proved no better
than other expedients. Nevertheless Louis XIV. managed to
meet the most urgent expenses, and the deficit of 1715, about
350,000,000 livres, was much less than it would have been had
it not been for Desmarets's reforms. The honourable peace which
Louis was enabled to conclude at Utrecht with his enemies was cer-
tainly due to the resources which Desmarets procured for him.
After the death of Louis XIV. Desmarets was dismissed by
the regent along with all the other ministers. He withdrew to
9 8
DES MOINES DESMOND, EARL OF
his estates. To justify his ministry he addressed to the regent
a Compte rendu, which showed clearly the difficulties he had
to meet. His enemies even, like Saint Simon, had to recognize
his honesty and his talent. He was' certainly, after Colbert, the
greatest finance minister of Louis XIV.
See Forbonnais, Recherches et considerations sur les finances de la
France (2 vols., Basel, 1758); Montyon, Particidarites et observations
sur les ministres des finances de la France (Paris, 1812) ; De Boislisle,
Correspondence des controleurs-generaux des finances (3 vols., Paris,
1873-1897) ; and the same author's " Desmarets et 1'affaire des pieces
de quatre sols " in the appendix to the seventh volume of his edition
of the Memoires de Saint-Simon. (E. Es.)
DES MOINES, the capital and the largest city of Iowa, U.S.A.,
and the county-seat of Polk county, in the south central part of
the state, at the confluence of the Raccoon with the Des Moines
river. Pop. (1890) 50,093; (1900) 62,139, of whom 7946 were
foreign-born, including 1907 from Sweden and 1432 from
Germany; (1910 census) 86,368. Des Moines is served by the
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & North-Western,
the Chicago Great Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul,
the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Wabash, the Minneapolis
& St Louis, and the Des Moines, Iowa Falls & Northern railways;
also by several interurban electric lines. The chief building
in Des Moines is the State Capitol, erected at a cost of about
$3,000,000; other important buildings are the public library
(containing, in 1908, 40,415 volumes), the court house, the post
office, the Iowa State Historical building, a large auditorium
and two hospitals. As a manufacturing centre the city has
considerable importance. Among the leading products are
those of the furnaces, foundries and machine shops, flour and
grist mills, planing mills, creameries, bridge and iron works,
publishing houses and a packing house; and brick, tile, pottery,
patent medicines, furniture, caskets, tombstones, carriages,
farm machinery, Portland cement, glue, gloves and' hosiery. The
value of the factory product in 1905 was $15,084,958, an increase
of 79- 7 % in five years. The city is in one of the most productive
coal regions of the state, has a large jobbing trade, and is an
important centre for the insurance business. The Iowa state fair
is held here annually. In 1908 this city had a park system of
750 acres. Des Moines is the seat of Des Moines College, a
Baptist institution, co-educational, founded in 1865 (enrolment,
1907-1908, 214); of Drake University (co-educational; founded
in 1881 by the Disciples of Christ; now non-sectarian), with
colleges of liberal arts, law, medicine, dental surgery and of the
Bible, a conservatory of music, and a normal school, in which
are departments of oratory and commercial training, and having
ir\ 1907-1908 1764 students, of whom 520 were in the summer
school only; of the Highland Park College, founded in 1890;
of Grand View College (Danish Lutheran), founded in 1895; and
of the Capital City commercial college (founded 1884). A new
city charter, embodying what has become known as the " Des
Moines Plan " of municipal government, was adopted in 1907.
It centralizes power in a council of five (mayor and four council-
men), nominated at a non-partisan primary and voted for on
a non-partisan ticket by the electors of the entire city, ward
divisions having been abolished. Elections are biennial. Other
city officers are chosen by the council, and city employees are
selected by a civil service commission of three members, ap-
pointed by the council. The mayor is superintendent of the
department of public affairs, and each of the other adminis-
trative departments (accounts and finances, public safety,
streets and public improvements, and parks and public
property) is under the charge of one of the councilmen. After
petition signed by a number of voters not less than 25% of the
number voting at the preceding municipal election, any member
of the council may be removed by popular vote, to which all
public franchises must be submitted, and by which the council
may be compelled to pass any law or ordinance.
A fort called Fort Des Moines was established on the site of the
city in 1843 to protect the rights of the Sacs and Foxes. In 1843
the site was opened to settlement by the whites; in 1851 Des
Moines was incorporated as a town; in 1857 it was first chartered
as a city, and, for the purpose of a more central location, the seat
of government was removed hither from Iowa City. A fort was
re-established here by act of Congress in 1900 and named Fort
Des Moines. It is occupied by a full regiment of cavalry. The
name of the city was taken from that of the river, which in turn
is supposed to represent a corruption by the French of the
original Indian name, Moingona, the French at first using
the abbreviation " moin," and calling the river " la riviere des
mains " and then, the name having become associated with the
Trappist monks, changing it into " la rivitre des moines."
DESMOND, GERALD FITZGERALD, I S TH EARL OF (d. 1583),
Irish leader, was son of James, I4th earl, by his second wife More
O'Carroll. His father had agreed in January 1541, as one of the
terms of his submission to Henry VIII., to send young Gerald
to be educated in England. At the accession of Edward VI.
proposals to this effect, were renewed; Gerald was to be the
companion of the young king. Unfortunately for the subsequent
peace of Munster these projects were not carried out. The
Desmond estates were held by a doubtful title, and claims on
them were made by the Butlers, the hereditary enemies of the
Geraldines, the gth earl of Ormonde having married Lady Joan
Fitzgerald, daughter and heiress-general of the nth earl of
Desmond. On Ormonde's death she proposed to many Gerald
Fitzgerald, and eventually did so, after the death of her second
husband, Sir Francis Bryan. The effect of this- marriage was a
temporary cessation of open hostility between the Desmonds and
her son, Thomas Butler, loth earl of Ormonde.
Gerald succeeded to the earldom in 1558; he was knighted by
the lord deputy Sussex, and did homage at Waterford. He soon
established close relations with his namesake Gerald Fitzgerald,
nth earl of Kildare (1525-1585), and with Shane O'Neill. In
spite of an award made by Sussex in August 1560 regulating
the matters in dispute between Ormonde and the Fitzgeralds,
the Geraldine outlaws were still plundering their neighbours.
Desmond neglected a summons to appear at Elizabeth's court
for some time on the plea that he was at war with his uncle
Maurice. When he did appear in London in May 1562 his
insolent conduct before the privy council resulted in a short
imprisonment in the Tower. He was detained in England until
1564, and soon after his return his wife's death set him free from
such restraint as was provided by her Butler connexion. He now
raided Thomond, and in Waterford he sought to enforce his feudal
rights on Sir Maurice Fitzgerald of Decies, who invoked the help
of Ormonde. The two ncbles thereupon resorted to open war,
fighting a battle at Affane on the Blackwater, where Desmond
was defeated and taken prisoner. Ormonde and Desmond were
bound over in London to keep the peace, being allowed to return
early in 1566 to Ireland, where a royal commission was appointed
to settle the matters in dispute between them. Desmond and
his brother Sir John of Desmond were sent over to England,
where they surrendered their lands to the queen after a short
experience of the Tower. In the meanwhile Desmond's cousin,
James Fitzmaurice Fitzgerald, caused himself to be acclaimed
captain of Desmond in defiance of Sidney, and in the evident
expectation of usurping the earldom. He sought to give the
movement an ultra-Catholic character, with the idea of gaining
foreign assistance, and allied himself with John Burke, son of
the earl of Clanricarde, with Connor O'Brien, earl of Thomond,
and even secured Ormonde's brother, Sir Edmund Butler, whom
Sidney had offended. Piers and Edward Butler also joined the
rebellion, but the appearance of Sidney and Ormonde in the
south-west was rapidly followed by the submission of the Butlers.
Most of the Geraldines were subjugated by Humphrey Gilbert,
but Fitzmaurice remained in arms, and in 1571 Sir John Perrot
undertook to reduce him. Perrot hunted him down, and at last
on the 23rd of February 1573 he made formal submission at
Kilmallock, lying prostrate on the floor of the church by way of
proving his sincerity.
Against the advice of the queen's Irish counsellors Desmond
was allowed to return to Ireland in 1573, the earl promising not
to exercise palatinate jurisdiction in Kerry until his rights to
it were proved. He was detained for six months in Dublin, but
in November slipped through the hands of the government, and
DESMOND DESMOULINS
99
within a very short time had reduced to a state of anarchy the
province which Perrot thought to have pacified by his severities.
Edward Fitzgerald, brother of the earl of Kildare, and lieutenant
of the queen's pensioners in London, was sent to remonstrate with
Desmond, but accomplished nothing. Desmond asserted that
none but Brehon law should be observed between Geraldines;
and Fitzmaurice seized Captain George Bourchier, one of
Elizabeth's officers in the west. Essex met the earl near Water-
ford in July, and Bourchier was surrendered, but Desmond
refused the other demands made in the queen's name. A
document offering 500 for his head, and 1000 to any one
who would take him alive, was drawn up but was vetoed by two
members of the council. On the i8th of July 1574 the Geraldine
chiefs signed the " Combination " promising to support the earl
unconditionally; shortly afterwards Ormonde and the lord
deputy, Sir William Fitzwilliam, marched on Munster, and put
Desmond's garrison at Derrinlaur Castle to the sword. Desmond
submitted at Cork on the 2nd of September, handing over his
estates to trustees. Sir Henry Sidney visited Munster in 1575,
and affairs seemed to promise an early restoration of order. But
Fitzmaurice had fled to Brittany in company with other leading
Geraldines, John Fitzgerald, seneschal of Imokilly, who had held
Ballymartyr against Sidney in 1567, and Edmund Fitzgibbon,
the son of the White Knight who had been attainted in 1571.
He intrigued at the French and Spanish courts for a foreign
invasion of Ireland, and at Rome met the adventurer Stucley,
with whom he projected an expedition which was to make
a nephew of Gregory XIII. king of Ireland. In 1579 he landed
in Smerwick Bay, where he was joined later by some Spanish
soldiers at the Fort del Ore. His ships were captured on the
29th of July and he himself was slain in a skirmish while on his
way to Tipperary. Nicholas Sanders, the papal legate who had
accompanied Fitzmaurice, worked on Desmond's weakness, and
sought to draw him into open rebellion. Desmond had perhaps
been restrained before by jealousy of Fitzmaurice; his inde-
cisions ceased when on the ist of November Sir William Pelham
proclaimed him a traitor. The sack of Youghal and Kinsale by
the Geraldines was speedily followed by the successes of Ormonde
and Pelham acting in concert with Admiral Winter. In June
1581 Desmond had to take to the woods, but he maintained a
considerable following for some time, which, however, in June
1583, when Ormonde set a price on his head, was reduced to four
persons. Five months later, on the nth of November, he was
seized and murdered by a small party of soldiers. His brother
Sir John of Desmond had been caught and killed in December
1581, and the seneschal of Imokilly had surrendered on the i4th
of June 1383. After his submission the seneschal acted loyally,
but his lands excited envy; he was arrested in 1587, and died
in Dublin Castle two days later.
By his second marriage with Eleanor Butler, the isth earl left
two sons, the elder of whom, James, i6th earl (1570-1601), spent
most of his life in prison. After an unsuccessful attempt in
1600-1601 to recover his inheritance he returned to England,
where he died, the title becoming extinct.
See G. E. C(okayne,) Complete Peerage; R. Bagwell, Ireland under
the Tudor s (1885-1890); Annals of Ireland by the Four Masters
(ed. J. O'Donovan, 1851); and the article FITZGERALD.
DESMOND (Des-Mumha), an ancient territorial division of
Ireland, covering the eastern part of the modern Co. Kerry and
the western part of Co. Cork. Its creation as a kingdom is placed
in the year 248, when Oliol Olum, king of Munster, divided his
territory between his two sons, giving Desmond to Eoghan, and
Thomond or North Munster to Cormac. In 1329 Maurice
Fitzthomas or Fitzgerald (d. 1356), lord of Decies and Desmond,
was created ist earl of Desmond by Edward III.; like other
earls created about that time he ruled his territory as a palatinate,
and his family acquired enormous powers and a large measure
of independence. Meanwhile native kings continued to reign in
a restricted territory until 1596. In 1583 came the attainder of
Gerald Fitzgerald, isth earl of Desmond (q.v.), and in 1586 an act
of parliament declared the forfeiture of the Desmond estates to
the crown. In 1571 a commission provided for the formation of
Desmond into a county, and it was regarded as such for a few
years, but by the beginning of the i7th century it was joined to
Co. Kerry.
In 1619 the title of earl of Desmond was conferred on Richard
Preston, Lord Dingwall, at whose death in 1628 it again became
extinct. It was then bestowed on George Feilding, second son
of William, earl of Denbigh, who had held the reversion of the
earldom from 1622. His son William Feilding succeeded as earl
of Denbigh in 1675, and thenceforward the title of Desmond was
held in conjunction with that honour.
DESMOSCOLECIDA, a group of minute marine worm-like
creatures. The body tapers towards each end and is marked by
a number of well-defined ridges. These
ridges resemble on a small scale those
which surround the body of a Poro-
cephalus (Linguatulida), and like them
have no segmental significance. Their
number varies in the different species.
The head bears four setae, and some of
the ridges bear a pair either dorsally
or ventrally. The setae are movable.
Two pigment spots between the fourth
and fifth ridges are regarded as eyes.
The Desmoscolecida move by looping
their bodies like geometrid caterpillars
or leeches, as well as by creeping on their
setae. The mouth is terminal, and
leads into a muscular oesophagus which
opens into a straight intestine terminat-
ing in an anus, which is said to be
dorsal in position. The sexes are dis-
tinct. The testis is single, and its duct
opens into the intestine and is provided
with two chitinous spicules. The ovary
is also single, opening independently
and anterior to the anus. The nervous
system is as yet unknown.
There are several species. D. minutus
Clap, has been met with in the English
Channel. Others are D. nematoides
Greef , D. adelphus Greef , D. chaetogasler
Greef, D. elongatus Panceri, D. lanugi-
nosa Panceri. Trichoderma oxycaudatum
Greef is 0-3 mm. long, and is also a
" ringed creature with long hair-like
bristles." The male has two spicules,
and there is some doubt as to whether
it should be placed with the Desmos-
colecida or with the Nematoda. With regard to the systematic
position of the group, it certainly comes nearest especially in
the structure of its reproductive organs to the Nematoda. We
still, however, are very ignorant of the internal anatomy of these
forms, and until we know more it is impossible to arrive at a
very definite conclusion as to their position in the animal
kingdom.
See Panceri, AM Ace. Napoli. vii. (1878); Greef, Arch. Naturg.
35 (i.) (1869), p. 112. (A. E. S.)
DESMOULINS, LUCIE SIMPLICE CAMILLE BENOIST (1760-
1794), French journalist and politician, who played an important
part in the French Revolution, was born at Guise, in Picardy, on
the 2nd of March 1760. His father was lieutenant-general of the
bailliage of Guise, and through the efforts of a friend obtained
a bourse for his son, who at the age of fourteen left home for Paris,
and entered the college of Louis le Grand. In this school, in
which Robespierre was also a bursar and a distinguished student,
Camille Desmoulins laid the solid foundation of his learning.
Destined by his father for the law, at the completion of his legal
studies he was admitted an advocate of the parlement of Paris
in 1785. His professional success was not great; his manner was
violent, his appearance unattractive, and his speech impaired by
a painful stammer. He indulged, however, his love for litera-
ture, was closely obseivant of public affairs, and thus gradually
From Cambridge Natural
History, vol. ii., "Worms,"
&c., by permission of Mac-
millan & Co. Ltd.
Female Desmoscolex
elongatus Panceri, vent-
ral view, X 260. a, Ovary.
(From Panceri.)
100
DESMOULINS
prepared himself for the main duties of his life those of a
political litterateur.
In March 1 789 Desmoulins began his political career. Having
been nominated deputy from the batiliage of Guise, he appeared
at Laon as one of the commissioners for the election of deputies
to the States-General summoned by royal edict of January 24th.
Camille heralded its meeting by his Ode to the States-General. It
is, moreover, highly probable that he was the author of a radical
pamphlet entitled La Philosophic au peuple fran^ais, published
in 1788, the text of which is not known. His hopes of pro-
fessional success were now scattered, and he was living in Paris
in extreme poverty. He, however, shared to the full the excite-
ment which attended the meeting of the States- General. As
appears from his letters to his father, he watched with exultation
the procession of deputies at Versailles, and with violent indigna-
tion the events of the latter part of June which followed the
closing of the Salle des Menus to the deputies who had named
themselves the National Assembly. It is further evident that
Desmoulins was already sympathizing, not only with the enthusi-
asm, but also with the fury and cruelty, of the Parisian crowds.
The sudden dismissal of Necker by Louis XVI. was the event
which brought Desmoulins to fame. On the i2th of July 1789
Camille, leaping upon a table outside one of the cafes in
the garden of the Palais Royal, announced to the crowd
the dismissal of their favourite. Losing, in his violent excite-
ment, his stammer, he inflamed the passions of the mob by his
burning words and his call " To arms! " " This dismissal,"
he said, " is the tocsin of the St Bartholomew of the patriots."
Drawing, at last, two pistols from under his coat, he declared that
he would not fall alive into the hands of the police who were
watching his movements. He descended amid the embraces of
the crowd, and his cry " To arms! " resounded on all sides.
This scene was the beginning of the actual events of the
Revolution. Following Desmoulins the crowd surged through
Paris, procuring arms by force; and on the I3th it was partly
organized as the Parisian militia which was afterwards to be the
National Guard. On the i4th the Bastille was taken.
Desmoulins may be said to have begun on the following day
that public literary career which lasted till his death. In May
and June 1789 he had written La France libre, which, to his
chagrin, his publisher refused to print. The taking of the Bastille,
however, and the events by which it was preceded, were a sign
that the times had changed; and on the i8th of July Desmoulins's
work was issued. Considerably in advance of public opinion,
it already pronounced in favour of a republic. By its erudite,
brilliant and courageous examination of the rights of king, of
nobles, of clergy and of people, it attained a wide and sudden
popularity; it secured for the author the friendship and pro-
tection of Mirabeau, and the studied abuse of numerous royalist
pamphleteers. Shortly afterwards, with his vanity and love of
popularity inflamed, he pandered to the passions of the lower
orders by the publication of his Discours de la lanterne aux
Parisians which, with an almost fiendish reference to the excesses
of the mob, he headed by a quotation from St John, Qui male
agit odit lucent. Camille was dubbed " Procureur-general de
la lanterne."
In November 1789 Desmoulins began his career as a journalist
by the issue of the first number of a weekly publication, Les
Revolutions de France et de Brabant. The title of the publication
changed after the 73rd number. It ceased to appear at the end
of July I79I. 1
Success attended the Revolutions from its first to its last
number, Camille was everywhere famous, and his poverty was
relieved. These numbers are valuable as an exhibition not so
much of events as of the feelings of the Parisian people; they
are adorned, moreover, by the erudition, the wit and the genius
of the author, but they are disfigured, not only by the most biting
personalities and the defence and even advocacy of the excesses
of the mob, but by the entire absence of the forgiveness and pity
for which the writer was afterwards so eloquently to plead.
1 In April 1792 Desmoulins founded with Stanislas Freron a new
journal, La Tribune des patriotes, but only four numbers appeared.
Desmoulins was powerfully swayed by the influence of more
vigorous minds; and for some time before the death of Mirabeau,
in April 1791, he had begun to be led by Danton, with whom
he remained associated during the rest of his life. In July 1791
Camille appeared before the municipality of Paris as head of
a deputation of petitioners for the deposition of the king. In
that month, however, such a request was dangerous; there was
excitement in the city over the presentation of the petition, and
the private attacks to which Desmoulins had often been subject
were now followed by a warrant for the arrest of himself and
Danton. Danton left Paris for a little; Desmoulins, however,
remained there, appearing occasionally at the Jacobin club.
Upon the failure of this attempt of his opponents, Desmoulins
published a pamphlet, Jean Pierre Brissot demasque, which
abounded in the most violent personalities. This pamphlet,
which had its origin in a petty squabble, was followed in 1793
by a Fragment de I'histoire secrete de la Revolution, in which the
party of the Gironde, and specially Brissot, were most mercilessly
attacked. Desmoulins took an active part on the icth of August
and became secretary to Danton, when the latter became
minister of justice. On the 8th of September he was elected one of
the deputies for Paris to the National Convention, where, however,
he was not successful as an orator. He was of the party of the
" Mountain, "and voted for the abolition of royalty and the death
of the king. With Robespierre he was now more than ever
associated, and the Histoire des Brissotins, the fragment above
alluded to, was inspired by the arch-revolutionist. The success
of the brochure, so terrible as to send the leaders of the Gironde
to the guillotine, alarmed Danton and the author. Yet the role
of Desmoulins during the Convention was of but secondary
importance.
In December 1793 was issued the first number of the Vieux
Cordelier, which was at first directed against the Hebertists and
approved of by Robespierre, but which soon formulated Danton's
idea of a committee of clemency. Then Robespierre turned
against Desmoulins and took advantage of the popular indigna-
tion roused against the H6bertists to send them to death. The
time had come, however, when Saint Just and he were to turn
their attention not only to les enragts, but to les indulgents
the powerful faction of the Dantonists. On the 7th of January
1 794 Robespierre, who on a former occasion had defended Camille
when in danger at the hands of the National Convention, in
addressing the Jacobin club counselled not the expulsion of
Desmoulins, but the burning of certain numbers of the Vieux
Cordelier. Camille sharply replied that he would answer with
Rousseau, " burning is not answering," and a bitter quarrel
thereupon ensued. By the end of March not only were Hebert
and the leaders of the extreme party guillotined, but their
opponents, Danton, Desmoulins and the best of the moderates,
were arrested. On the 3ist the warrant of arrest was signed and
executed, and on the 3rd, 4th and 5th of April the trial took place
before the Revolutionary Tribunal. It was a scene of terror not
only to the accused but to judges and to jury. The retorts of the
prisoners were notable. Camille on being asked his age, replied,
" I am thirty-three, the age of the sans-culotte Jesus, a critical age
for every patriot." This was false; he was thirty-four. 2 The
accused were prevented from defending themselves; a decree of
the Convention denied them the right of speech. Armed with
this and the false report of a spy, who charged the wife of
Desmoulins with conspiring for the escape of her husband and the
ruin of the republic, Fouquier-Tinville by threats and entreaties
obtained from the jury a sentence of death. It was passed in
absence of the accused, and their execution was appointed for
the same day.
Since his arrest the courage of Camille had miserably failed.
He had exhibited in the numbers of the Vieux Cordelier almost
a disregard of the death which he must have known hovered over
him. He had with consummate ability exposed the terrors of
s This is borne out by the register of his birth and baptism, and by
words in his last letter to his wife, " I die at thirty-four." The
dates (1762-1794) given in so many biographies of Desmoulins are
certainly inaccurate.
DESNOYERS DESPENSER
101
the Revolution, and had adorned his pages with illustrations from
Tacitus, the force of which the commonest reader could feel. In
his last number, the seventh, which his publisher refused to print,
he had dared to attack even Robespierre, but at his trial it was
found that he was devoid of physical courage. He had to be torn
from his seat ere he was removed to prison, and as he sat next to
Danton in the tumbrel which conveyed them to the guillotine,
the calmness of the great leader failed to impress him. In his
violence, bound as he was, he tore his clothes into shreds, and
his bare shoulders and breast were exposed to the gaze of the
surging crowd. Of the fifteen guillotined together, including
among them Marie Jean Herault de Sechelles, Frangois Joseph
Westermann and Pierre Philippeaux, Desmoulins died third;
Danton, the greatest, died last.
On the 29th of December 1790 Camille had married Lucile
Duplessis, and among the witnesses of the ceremony are observed
the names of Brissot, Petion and Robespierre. The only child
of the marriage, Horace Camille, was born on the 6th of July
1792. Two days afterwards Desmoulins brought it into notice
by appearing with it before the municipality of Paris to demand
" the formal statement of the civil estate of his son." The boy
was afterwards pensioned by the French government, and died
in Haiti in 1825. Lucile, Desmoulins's accomplished and affec-
tionate wife, was, a few days after her husband, and on a false
charge, condemned to the guillotine. She astonished allonlookers
by the calmness with which she braved death (April 13, 1794).
See J. Claretie, CEuvres de Camille Desmoulins avec une etude
biographique . . . &c. (Paris, 1874), an d Camille Desmoulins, Lucile
Desmoulins, etude sur les Dantonistes (Paris, 1875; Eng. trans.,
London, 1876) ; F. A. Aulard, Les Orateurs de la Legislative et de la
Convention (Paris, 1905, 2nd ed.) : G. Lenfitre, " La Maisonde Camille
Desmoulins " (Le Temps, March 25, 1899).
DESNOYERS, JULES PIERRE FRANCOIS STANISLAS (1800-
1887), French geologist and archaeologist, was born at Nogent-le-
Rotrou, in the department of Eure-et-Loir, on the 8th of October
1800. Becoming interested in geology at an early age, he was one
of the founders of the Societe Geologique de France in 1830.
In 1834 he was appointed librarian of the Museum of Natural
History in Paris. His contributions to geological science com-
prise memoirs on the Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary Strata
of the Paris Basin and of Northern France, and other papers
relating to the antiquity of man, and to the question of his
co-existence with extinct mammalia. His separate books were
Sur la Craie et sur les terrains tertiaires du Cotentin (1825),
Recherches geologiques et historiques sur les cavernes (1845). He
died in 1887.
DESOR, PIERRE JEAN EDOUARD (1811-1882), Swiss
geologist, was born at Friedrichsdorf, near Frankfort-on-Main,
on the i3th of February 1811. Associated in early years with
Agassiz he studied palaeontology and glacial phenomena, and
in company with J. D. Forbes ascended the Jungfrau in 1841.
Desor afterwards became professor of geology in the academy
at Neuchatel, continued his studies on the structure of glaciers,
but gave special attention to the study of Jurassic Echinoderms.
He also investigated the old lake-habitations of Switzerland,
and made important observations on the physical features of
the Sahara. Having inherited considerable property he retired
to Combe Varin in Val Travers. He died at Nizza on the 23rd
of February 1882. His chief publications were: Synopsis des
Echinides fossiles (1858)', Aus Sahara (1865), Der Gebirgsbau
der Alpen (1865), Die Pfahlbauten des Neuenburger Sees (1866),
Echinologie hehetique (2 vols., 1868-1873, with P. de Loriol).
DE SOTO, a city of Jefferson county, Missouri, U.S.A., on
Joachim Creek, 42 m. S.S.W. of St Louis. Pop. (1890) 3960;
(1900) 561 1 (332 being foreign-born and 364 negroes); (1910) 4721.
It is served by the St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern railway,
which has extensive repair shops here. About 2\ m. from De Soto
is the Bochert mineral spring. In De Sotoare Mount St Clement's
College (Roman Catholic, 1900), a theological seminary of the
Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer under the charge of the
Redemptorist Fathers, and a Young Men's Christian Associa-
tion building. De Soto is in a good agricultural and fruit-growing
region, which produces Indian corn, apples, plums, pears and
small fruit. Lead and zinc are mined in the vicinity and shipped
from the city in considerable quantities; and among the city's
manufactures are shoes, flour and agricultural implements. The
municipality owns the water-works, the water supply of which is
furnished by artesian wells. De Soto was laid out in 1855 and
was incorporated in 1869.
DESPARD, EDWARD MARCUS (1751-1803), Irish conspirator,
was born in Queen's Co., Ireland, in 1751. In 1766 he entered
the British navy, was promoted lieutenant in 1772, and stationed
at Jamaica, where he soon proved himself to have considerable
engineering talent. He served in the West Indies with credit,
being promoted captain after the San Juan expedition (1779),
then made governor of the Mosquito Shore and the Bay of
Honduras, and in 1782 commander of a successful expedition
against the Spanish possessions on the Black river. In 1784
he took over the administration of Yucatan. Upon frivolous
charges he was suspended by Lord Grenville, and recalled to
England. From 1790 to 1792 these charges were held over him,
and when dismissed no compensation was forthcoming. His
complaints caused him to be arrested in 1798, and with a short
interval he remained in gaol until 1800. By that time Despard
was desperate, and engaged in a plot to seize the Tower of
London and Bank of England and assassinate George III. The
whole idea was patently preposterous, but Despard was arrested,
tried before a special commission, found guilty of high treason,
and, with six of his fellow-conspirators, sentenced in 1803 to be
hanged, drawn and quartered. These were the last men to be
so sentenced in England. Despard was executed on the 2ist of
February 1803.
His eldest brother, JOHN DESPARD (1745-1829), had a long and
distinguished career in the British army; gazetted an ensign in
1760, he was promoted through the various intermediate grades
and became general in 1814. His most active service was in the
American War of Independence, during which he was twice
made prisoner.
DESPENSER, HUGH LE (d. 1265), chief justiciar of England,
first plays an important part in 1258, when he was prominent on
the baronial side in the Mad Parliament of Oxford. In 1260 the
barons chose him to succeed Hugh Bigod as justiciar, and in 1 263
the king was further compelled to put the Tower of London in
his hands. On the outbreak of civil war he joined the party of
Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, and led the Londoners when
they sacked the manor-house of Isleworth, belonging to Richard,
earl of Cornwall, king of the Romans. Having fought at Lewes
(1264) he was made governor of six castles after the battle, and
was then appointed one of the four arbitrators to mediate
between Simon de Montfort and Gilbert de Clare, earl of
Gloucester. He was summoned to Simon de Montfort's parlia-
ment in 1264, and acted as justiciar throughout the earl's
dictatorship. Despenser was killed at Evesham in August 1265.
See C. Bemont, Simon de Montfort (Paris, 1884); T. F. Tout in
Owens College Historical Essays, pp. 76 ff. (Manchester, 1902).
DESPENSER, HUGH LE (1262-1326), English courtier, was
a son of the English justiciar who died at Evesham. He fought
for Edward I. in Wales, France and Scotland, and in 1295 was
summoned to parliament as a baron. Ten years later he was
sent by the king to Pope Clement V. to secure Edward's release
from the oaths he had taken to observe the charters in 1297.
Almost alone Hugh spoke out for Edward II. 's favourite, Piers
Gaveston, in 1308; but after Gaveston's death in 1312 he himself
became the king's chief adviser, holding power and influence
until Edward's defeat at Bannockburn in 1314. Then, hated
by the barons, and especially by Earl Thomas of Lancaster, as
a deserter from their party, he was driven from the council, but
was quickly restored to favour and loaded with lands and honours,
being made earl of Winchester in 1322. Before this time Hugh's
son, the younger Hugh le Despenser, had become associated with
his father, and having been appointed the king's chamberlain
was enjoying a still larger share of the royal favour. About 1306
this baron had married Eleanor (d. 1337), one of the sisters and
heiresses of Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester, who was slain at
102
DBS PERIERS DESPORTES
Bannockburn; and after a division of the immense Clare lands
had been made in 1317 violent quarrels broke out between the
Despensers and the husbands of the other heiresses, Roger of
Amory and Hugh of Audley. Interwoven with this dispute was
another between the younger Despenser and the Mowbrays, who
were supported by Humphrey Bohun, earl of Hereford, about
some lands in Glamorganshire. Fighting having begun in Wales
and on the Welsh borders, the English barons showed themselves
decidedly hostile to the Despensers, and in 1321 Edward II. was
obliged to consent to their banishment. While the elder Hugh
left England the younger one remained; soon the king persuaded
the clergy to annul the sentence against them, and father and
son were again at court. They fought against the rebellious
barons at Boroughbridge, and after Lancaster's death in 1322
they were practically responsible for the government of the
country, which they attempted to rule in a moderate and con-
stitutional fashion. But their next enemy, Queen Isabella, was
more formidable, or more fortunate, than Lancaster. Returning
to England after a sojourn in France in 1326 the queen directed
her arms against her husband's favourites. The elder Despenser
was seized at Bristol, where he was hanged on the 27th of
October 1326, and the younger was taken with the king at
Llantrisant and hanged at Hereford on the 24th of November
following. The attainder against the Despensers was reversed
in 1398. The intense hatred with which the barons regarded the
Despensers was due to the enormous wealth which had passed
into their hands, and to the arrogance and rapacity of the
younger Hugh.
The younger Despenser left two sons, Hugh (1308-1349), and
Edward, who was killed at Vannes in 1342.
The latter's son EDWARD LE DESPENSER (d. 1375) fought at
the battle of Poitiers, and then in Italy for Pope Urban V.; he
was a patron of Froissart, who calls him le grand sire Despensier.
His son, THOMAS LE DESPENSER (1373-1400), the husband of
Constance (d. 1416), daughter of Edmund of Langley, duke of
York, supported Richard II. against Thomas of Woodstock, duke
of Gloucester, and the other lords appellant in 1397, when he
himself was created earl of Gloucester, but he deserted the king
in 1399. Then, degraded from his earldom for participating in
Gloucester's death, Despenser joined the conspiracy against
Henry IV., but he was seized and was executed by a mob at
Bristol in January 1400.
The elder Edward le Despenser left another son, HENRY
(c. 1341-1406), who became bishop of Norwich in 1370. In
early life Henry had been a soldier, and when the peasants
revolted in 1381 he took readily to the field, defeated the insur-
gents at North Walsham, and suppressed the rising in Norfolk
with some severity. More famous, however, was the militant
bishop's enterprise on behalf of Pope Urban VI., who in 1382
employed him to lead a crusade in Flanders against the supporters
of the anti-pope Clement VII. He was very successful in captur-
ing towns until he came before Ypres, where he was checked,
his humiliation being completed when his army was defeated by
the French and decimated by a pestilence. Having returned
to England the bishop was impeached in parliament and was
deprived of his lands; Richard II., however, stood by him, and
he soon regained an influential place in the royal council, and
was employed to defend his country on the seas. Almost alone
among his peers Henry remained true to Richard in 1399; he was
then imprisoned, but was quickly released and reconciled with
the new king, Henry IV. He died on the 23rd of August 1406.
Despenser was an active enemy of the Lollards, whose leader,
John Wycliffe, had fiercely denounced his crusade in Flanders.
The barony of Despenser, called out of abeyance in 1604, was
held by the Fanes, earls of Westmorland, from 1626 to 1762;
by the notorious Sir Francis Dashwood from 1763 to 1781;
and by the Stapletons from 1788 to 1891. In 1891 it was
inherited, through his mother, by the 7th Viscount Falmouth.
DBS PfiRIERS, BONAVENTURE (c. 1500-1544), French
author, was born of a noble family at Arnay-le-duc in Burgundy
at the end of the isth century. The circumstances of his educa-
tion are uncertain, but he became a good classical scholar, and
was attached to various noble houses in the capacity of tutor.
In 1533 or 1534 Des Periers visited Lyons, then the most en-
lightened town of France, and a refuge for many liberal scholars
who might elsewhere have had to suffer for their opinions. He
gave some assistance to Robert Olivetan and Lefevre d'Etaples
in the preparation of the vernacular version of the Old Testament,
and to Etienne Dolet in the Commentarii linguae latinae. In
1536 he put himself under the protection of Marguerite
d'Angouleme, queen of Navarre, who made him her valet-de-
chambre. He acted as the queen's secretary, and transcribed the
Heptamiron for her. It is probable that his duties extended
beyond those of a mere copyist, and some writers have gone so
far as to say that the Heptamiron was his work. The free
discussions permitted at Marguerite's court encouraged a licence
of thought as displeasing to the Calvinists as to the Catholics.
This free inquiry became scepticism in Bonaventure's Cymbalum
Mundi . . . (1537), and the queen of Navarre thought it prudent
to disavow the author, though she continued to help him privately
until 1541. The book consisted of four dialogues in imitation of
Lucian. Its allegorical form did not conceal its real meaning,
and, when it was printed by Morin, probably early in 1538, the
Sorbonne secured the suppression of the edition before it was
offered for sale. The dedication provides a key to the author's
intention: Thomas duClevier (or Clenier)dson ami Pierre Tryocan
was recognized by 19th-century editors to be an anagram for
Thomas I'lncridide a son ami Pierre Croyant. The book was
reprinted in Paris in the same year. It made many bitter enemies
for the author. Henri Estienne called it detestable, and Etienne
Pasquier said it deserved to be thrown into the fire with its author
if he were still living. Des Periers prudently left Paris, and after
some wanderings settled at Lyons, where he lived in poverty,
until in 1544 he put an end to his existence by falling on his
sword. In 1544 his collected works were printed at Lyons.
The volume, Recueil des (euvres de feu Bonavenlure des Periers,
included his poems, which are of small merit, the Traite des
qualre verlus cardinales apres Seneque, and a translation of the
Lysis of Plato. In 1558 appeared at Lyons the collection of
stories and fables entitled the Nouvelles recreations etjoyeux devis.
It is on this work that the claim put forward for Des Periers as
one of the early masters of French prose rests. Some of the tales
are attributed to the editors, Nicholas Denisot and Jacques
Pelletier, but their share is certainly limited to the later ones.
The book leaves something to be desired on the score of morality,
but the stories never lack point and are models of simple, direct
narration in the vigorous and picturesque French of the i6th
century.
His CEuvres franfaises were published by Louis Lacour (Paris,
2 vols., 1856). See also the preface to the Cymbalum Mundi . . .
(ed. F. Franck, 1874) ; A. Cheneviere, Bonaventure Desperiers, sa vie,
ses poesies (1885); and P. Toldo, Contribute alto studio delta novella
francese del XV. e XVI. secolo (Rome, 1895).
DESPORTES, PHILIPPE (1546-1606), French poet, was born
at Chartres in 1546. As secretary to the bishop of Le Puy
he visited Italy, where he gained a knowledge of Italian poetry
afterwards turned to good account. On his return to France he
attached himself to the duke of Anjou, and followed him to
Warsaw on his election as king of Poland. Nine months in
Poland satisfied the civilized Desportes, but in 1574 his patron
became king of France as Henry III. He showered favours on
the poet, who received, in reward for the skill with which he
wrote occasional poems at the royal request, the abbey of Tiron
and four other valuable benefices. A good example of the light
and dainty verse in which Desportes excelled is furnished by
the well-known mllanelle with the refrain " Qui premier s'en
repentira," which was on the lips of Henry, duke of Guise, just
before his tragic death. Desportes was above all an imitator.
He imitated Petrarch, Ariosto, Sannazaro, and still more closely
the minor Italian poets, and in 1604 a number of his plagiarisms
were exposed in the Rencontres des Muses de France et d'ltalie.
As a sonneteer he showed much grace and sweetness, and English
poets borrowed freely from him. In his old age Desportes
acknowledged his ecclesiastical preferment by a translation of
DESPOT DESSAU
103
the Psalms remembered chiefly for the brutal mot of Malherbe:
" Votre potage vaut mteux que vos psaumes." Desportes died on
the 5th of October 1606. He had published in 1573 an edition
of his works including Diane, Les Amours d'Hippolyte, Elegies,
Bergeries, (Entires chretiennes, &c.
An edition of his (Euvres, by Alfred Michiels, appeared in 1858.
DESPOT (Gr. 57iranjs, lord or master; the origin of the first
part of the Gr. word is unknown, the second part is cognate with
iroats, husband, Lat. potens, powerful), in Greek usage the master
of a household, hence the ruler of slaves. It was also used by
the Greeks of their gods, as was the feminine form 8&nmu>a. It
was, however, principally applied by the Greeks to the absolute
monarchs of the eastern empires with which they came in contact;
and it is in this sense that the word, like its equivalent " tyrant,"
is in current usage for an absolute sovereign whose rule is not
restricted by any constitution. In the Roman empire of the
East " despot " was early used as a title of honour or address of
the emperor, and was given by Alexius I. (1081-1 118) to the sons,
brothers and sons-in-law of the emperor (Gibbon, Decline and
Fall, ed. Bury, vol. vi. 80). It does not seem that the title was
confined to the heir-apparent by Alexius II. (see Selden, Titles of
Honour, part ii. chap. i. s. vi.). Later still it was adopted by
the vassal princes of the empire. This gave rise to the name
" despotats " as applied to these tributary states, which survived
the break-up of the empire in the independent " despotats " of
Epirus, Cyprus, Trebizond, &c. Under Ottoman rule the title
was preserved by the despots of Servia and of the Morea, &c.
The early use of the term as a title of address for ecclesiastical
dignitaries survives in its use in the Greek Church as the formal
mode of addressing a bishop.
DBS PRES, JOSQUIN (c. 1445-1521), also called DEPRES or
DESPREZ, and by a latinized form of his name, JODOCUS
PRATENSIS or A PRATO, French musical composer, was born,
probably in Conde in the Hennegau, about 1445. He was a
pupil of Ockenheim, and himself one of the most learned
musicians of his time. In spite of his great fame, the accounts of
his life are vague and the dates contradictory. Fetis contributed
greatly towards elucidating the doubtful points in his Biographic
universelle. In his early youth Josquin seems to have been a
member of the choir of the collegiate church at St Quentin; when
his voice changed he went (about 1455) to Ockenheim to take
lessons in counterpoint; afterwards he again lived at his birth-
place for some years, till Pope Sixtus IV. invited him to Rome
to teach his art to the musicians of Italy, where musical know-
ledge at that time was at a low ebb. In Rome Des Pres lived
till the death of his protector (1484), and it was there that many
of his works were written. His reputation grew rapidly, and he
was considered by his contemporaries to be the greatest master
of his age. Luther, who was a good judge, is credited with the
saying that " other musicians do with notes what they can,
Josquin what he likes. " The composer's journey to Rome marks
in a manner the transference of the art from its Gallo-Belgian
birthplace to Italy, which for the next two centuries remained
the centre of the musical world. To Des Pres and his pupils
Arcadelt, Mouton and others, much that is characteristic in
modern music owes its rise, particularly in their influence upon
Italian developments under Palestrina. After leaving Rome
Des Pres went for a time to Ferrara, where the duke Hercules I.
offered him a home; but before long he accepted an invitation
of King Louis XII. of France to become the chief singer of the
royal chapel. According to another account, he was for a time
at least in the service of the emperor Maximilian I. The date
of his death has by some writers been placed as early as 1501.
But this is sufficiently disproved by the fact of one of his finest
compositions, A Dirge (Deploration) for Five Voices, being
written to commemorate the death of his master Ockenheim,
which took place after 1512. The real date of Josquin's decease
has since been settled as the 27th of August 1521. He was at
that time a canon of the cathedral of Conde (see Victor Delzant's
Sepultures de Flandre, No. 118).
The most complete list of his compositions consisting of masses,
motets, psalms and other pieces of sacred music will be found in
Fetis. The largest collection of his MS. works, containing no less
than twenty masses, is in the possession of the papal chapel in Rome.
In his lifetime Des Pres was honoured as an eminent composer, and
the musicians of the i6th century are loud in his praise. During the '
i?th and i8th centuries his value was ignored, nor does his work
appear in the collections 'of Martini and Paolucci. Burney was the
first to recover him from oblivion, and Forkel continued the task of
rehabilitation. Ambros furnishes the most exhaustive account of
his achievements. An admirable account of Josquin's art, from the
rare point of view of a modern critic who knows how to allow for
modern difficulties, will be found in the article " Josquin," in Grove's
Dictionary of Music and Musicians, new ed. vol. ii. The Repertoire
des chanteurs de St Gervais contains an excellent modern edition of
Josquin's Miserere.
DESPRES, SUZANNE (1875- ), French actress, was born
at Verdun, and trained at the Paris Conservatoire, where in 1897
she obtained the first prize for comedy, and the second for
tragedy. She then became associated with, and subsequently
married, Aurelien Lugne-Poe (b. 1870), the actor-manager, who
had founded a new school of modern drama, L'fEuvre, and she
had a brilliant success in several plays produced by him. In
succeeding years she played at the Gymnase and at the Porte
Saint-Martin, and in 1902 made her debut at the Comedie
Franchise, appearing in Phedre and other important parts.
DESRUES, ANTOINE FRANCOIS (1744-1777), French
poisoner, was born at Chartres in 1744, of humble parents. He
went to Paris to seek his fortune, and started in business as a
grocer. He was known as a man of great piety and devotion,
and his business was reputed to be a flourishing one, but when,
in 1773, h< gave up his shop, his finances, owing to personal
extravagance, were in a deplorable condition. Nevertheless he
entered into negotiations with a Madame de la Mothe for the
purchase from her of a country estate, and, when the time came
for the payment of the purchase money, invited her to stay with
him in Paris pending the transfer. While she was still his guest,
he poisoned first her and then her son, a youth of sixteen. Then,
having forged a receipt for the purchase money, he endeavoured
to obtain possession of the property. But by this time the dis-
appearance of Madame de la Mothe and her son had aroused
suspicion. Desrues was arrested, the bodies of his victims were
discovered, and the crime was brought home to him. He was
tried, found guilty and condemned to be torn asunder alive and
burned. The sentence was carried out (1777), Desrues repeating
hypocritical protestations of his innocence to the last. The
whole affair created a great sensation at the time, and as late as
1828 a dramatic version of it was performed in Paris.
DESSAIX, JOSEPH MARIE, COUNT (1764-1834), French
general, was born at Thonon in Savoy on the 24th of September
1764. He studied medicine, took his degree at Turin, and then
went to Paris, where in 1789 he joined the National Guard. In
1791 he tried without success to raise an emeute in Savoy, in 1792
he organized the " Legion of the Allobroges," and in the follow- .
ing years he served at the siege of Toulon, in the Army of the
Eastern Pyrenees, and in the Army of Italy. He was captured
at Rivoli, but was soon exchanged. In the spring of 1 798 Dessaix
was elected a member of the Council of Five Hundred. He was
one of the few in that body who opposed the coup d'etat of the
i8th Brumaire (November 9, 1799). In 1803 he was promoted
general of brigade, and soon afterwards commander of the
Legion of Honour. He distinguished himself greatly at the
battle of Wagram (1809), and was about this time promoted
general of division and named grand officer of the Legion of
Honour, and in 1810 was made a count. He took part in the
expedition to Russia, and was twice wounded. For several
months he was commandant of Berlin, and afterwards delivered
the department of Mont Blanc from the Austrians. After the
first restoration Dessaix held a command under the Bourbons.
He nevertheless joined Napoleon in the Hundred Days, and in
1816 he was imprisoned for five months. The rest of his life
was spent in retirement. He died on the 26th of October 1834.
See Le General Dessaix, sa vie politique et militaire, by his nephew
Joseph Dessaix (Paris, 1879).
DESSAU, a town of Germany, capital of the duchy of Anhalt,
on the left bank of the Mulde, 2 m. from its confluence with the
DESSEWFFY DESTRUCTORS
Elbe, 67 m. S.W. from Berlin and at the junction of lines to
Cothen and Zerbst. Pop. (1905) 55,134- Apart from the old
quarter lying on the Mulde, the town is well built, is surrounded
by pleasant gardens and contains many handsome streets and
spacious squares. Among the latter is the Grosse Markt with
a statue of Prince Leopold I. of Anhalt-Dessau, " the old
Dessauer." Of the six churches, the Schlosskirche, adorned with
paintings by Lucas Cranach, in one of which (" The Last Supper ")
are portraits of several reformers, is the most interesting. The
ducal palace, standing in extensive grounds, contains a collection
of historical curiosities and a gallery of pictures, which includes
works by Cimabue, Lippi,Rubens,Titian and Van Dyck. Among
other buildings are the town hall (built 1899-1900), the palace
of the hereditary prince, the theatre, the administration offices,
the law courts, the Amalienstift, with a picture gallery, several
high-grade schools, a library of 30,000 volumes and an excellently
appointed hospital. There are monuments to the philosopher
Moses Mendelssohn (born here in 1729), to the poet Wilhelm
Miiller, father of Professor Max Miiller, also a native of the place,
to the emperor William I., and an obelisk commemorating the
war of 1870-71. The industries of Dessau include the pro-
duction of sugar, which is the chief manufacture, woollen, linen
and cotton goods, carpets, hats, leather, tobacco and musical
instruments. There is also a considerable trade hi corn and
garden produce. In the environs are the ducal villas of Georgium
and Luisium, the gardens of which, as well as those of the
neighbouring town of Worlitz, are much admired.
Dessau was probably founded by Albert the Bear; it had
attained civic rights as early as 1213. It first began to grow into
importance at the close of the I7th century, in consequence of
the religious emancipation of the Jews in 1686, and of the
Lutherans in 1697.
See Wiirdig, Chronik der Stadt Dessau (Dessau, 1876).
DESSEWFFY, AUREL, COUNT (1808-1842), Hungarian
journalist and politician, eldest son of Count J6zsef Dessewffy
and Eleonora Sztaray,was born at Nagy-Mihaly,countyZemplen,
Hungary. Carefully educated at his father's house, he was
accustomed to the best society of his day. While still a child he
could declaim most of the Iliad in Greek without a book, and
read and quoted Tacitus with enthusiasm. Under the noble
influence of Ferencz Kazinczy he became acquainted with the
chief masterpieces of European literature in their original tongues.
He was particularly fond of the English, and one of his early
idols was Jeremy Bentham. He regularly accompanied his father
to the diets of which he was a member, followed the course of
the debates, of which he kept a journal, and made the acquaint-
ance of the great Szechenyi, who encouraged his aspirations. On
leaving college, he entered the royal aulic chancellery, and in
1832 was appointed secretary of the royal stadtholder at Buda.
The same year he turned his attention to politics and was
regarded as one of the most promising young orators of the day,
especially during the sessions of the diet of 1832-1836, when he
had the courage to oppose Kossuth. At the Pressburg diet in
1840 Dessewffy was already the leading orator of the more
enlightened and progressive Conservatives, but incurred great
unpopularity for not going far enough, with the result that he
was twice defeated at the polls. But his reputation in court
circles was increasing; he was appointed a member of the com-
mittee for the reform of the criminal law in 1840; and, the same
year with a letter of recommendation from Metternich in his
pocket, visited England and France, Holland and Belgium, made
the acquaintance of Thiers and Heine in Paris, and returned home
with an immense and precious store of practical information.
He at once proceeded to put fresh life into the despondent and
irresolute Conservative party, and the Magyar aristocracy, by
gallantly combating in the Vtfdg the opinions of Kossuth's paper,
the Pesti Hirlap. But the multiplicity of his labours was too
much for his feeble physique, and he died on the gth of February
1842, at the very time when his talents seemed most indispensable.
See Aus den Papieren des Graf en Aurel Dessewffy (Pest, 1843) ;
Memorial Wreath to Count Aurel Dessewffy (Hung.), (Budapest,
1 857) ; Collected Works of Count Dessewffy, with a Biography (Hung.) ,
(Budapest, 1887). (R. N. B.)
DESSOIR, LUDWIG (1810-1874), German actor, whose name
was originally Leopold Dessauer, was born on the isth of
December 1810 at Posen, the son of a Jewish tradesman. He
made his first appearance on the stage there in 1824 in a small
part. After some experience at the theatre in Posen and on
tour, he was engaged at Leipzig from 1834 to 1836. Then he
was attached to the municipal theatre of Breslau, and in 1837
appeared at Prague, Briinn, Vienna and Budapest, where he
accepted an engagement which lasted until 1839. He succeeded
Karl Devrient at Karlsruhe, and went in 1847 to Berlin, where he
acted Othello and Hamlet with such extraordinary success that
he received a permanent engagement at the Hof-theater. From
1849 to 1872, when he retired on a pension, he played no parts,
frequently on tour, and in 1853 acting in London. He died on
the 3oth of December 1874 in Berlin. Dessoir was twice married ;
his first wife, Theresa, a popular actress (1810-1866), was
separated from him a year after marriage; his second wife went
mad on the death of her child. By his first wife Dessoir had one
son, the actor Ferdinand Dessoir (1836-1892). In spite of certain
physical disabilities Ludwig Dessoir's genius raised him to the
first rank of actors, especially as interpreter of Shakespeare's
characters. G. H. Lewes placed Dessoir's Othello above that of
Kean, and the Athenaeum preferred him in this part to Brooks
or Macready.
DESTOUCHES, PHILIPPE (1680-1754), French dramatist,
whose real name was Nericault, was born at Tours in April 1680.
When he was nineteen years of age he became secretary to
M. de Puysieux, the French ambassador in Switzerland. In 1716
he was attached to the French embassy in London, where he
remained for six years under the abbe Dubois. He contracted
with a Lancashire lady, Dorothea Johnston, a marriage which
was not avowed for some years. He drew a picture later of his
own domestic circumstances in Le Philosophe marie (1726). On his
return to France (1723) he was elected to the Academy, and in
1727 he acquired considerable estates, the possession of which
conferred the privileges of nobility. He spent his later years at
his chateau of Fortoiseau near Melun, dying on the 4th of July
1754. His early comedies were: Le Curieux Impertinent (1710),
L'Ingral (iii2),L'Irresolu (1713) and Le Medisant (1715). The
best of these is L'lrresolu, in which Dorante, after hesitating
throughout the play between Julie and Celimene, marries Julie,
but concludes the play with the reflection:
" J'aurais mieux fait, je crois, d'epouser Celimene."
After eleven years of diplomatic service Destouches returned
to the stage with the Philosophe marie (1727), followed in 1732
by his masterpiece Le Glorieux, a picture of the struggle then
beginning between the old nobility and the wealthy parvenus who
found their opportunity in the poverty of France. Destouches
wished to revive the comedy of character as understood by
Moliere, but he thought it desirable that the moral should be
directly expressed. This moralizing tendency spoilt his later
comedies. Among them may be mentioned: Le Tambour
nocturne (1736), La Force du naturel (1750) and Le Dissipateur
(1736).
His works were issued in collected form in 1755, 1757, '811 and,
in a limited edition (6 vols.), 1822.
DESTRUCTORS. The name destructors is applied by English
municipal engineers to furnaces, or combinations of furnaces,
commonly called " garbage furnaces " in the United States, con-
structed for the purpose of disposing by burning of town refuse,
which is a heterogeneous mass of material, including, besides
general household and ash-bin refuse, small quantities of garden
refuse, trade refuse, market refuse and often street sweepings.
The mere disposal of this material is not, however, by any means
the only consideration in dealing with it upon the destructor
system. For many years past scientific experts, municipal
engineers and public authorities have been directing careful
attention to the utilization of refuse as fuel for steam production,
and such progress in this direction has been made that in many
towns its calorific value is now being utilized daily for motive-
power purposes. On the other hand, that proper degree of
caution which is obtained only by actual experience must be
DESTRUCTORS
exercised in the application of refuse fuel to steam-raising.
When its value as a low-class fuel was first recognized, the idea
was disseminated that the refuse of a given population was of
itself sufficient to develop the necessary steam-power for supply-
ing that population with the electric light. The economical
importance of a combined destructor and electric undertaking
of this character naturally presented a somewhat fascinating
stimulus to public authorities, and possibly had much to do
with the development both of the adoption of the principle of
dealing with refuse by fire, and of lighting towns by electricity.
However true this phase of the question may be as the statement
of a theoretical scientific fact, experience so far does not show
it to be a basis upon which engineers may venture to calculate,
although, as will be seen later, under certain circumstances of
equalized load, which must be considered upon their merits
in each case, a well-designed destructor plant can be made
to perform valuable commercial service to an electric or other
power-using undertaking. Further, when a system, thermal or
otherwise, for the storage of energy can be introduced and applied
in a trustworthy and economical manner, the degree of advantage
to be derived from the utilization of the waste heat from
destructors will be materially enhanced.
The composition of house refuse, which must obviously affect
its calorific value, varies considerably in different localities,
Compost- according to the condition, habits and pursuits of the
tion and people. Towns situated in coal-producing districts
quantity invariably yield a refuse richer in unconsumed carbon
ise ' than those remote therefrom. It is also often found
that the refuse from different parts of the same town varies
considerably that from the poorest quarters frequently proving
of greater calorific value than that from those parts occupied by
the rich and middle classes. This has been attributed to the more
extravagant habits of the working classes in neglecting to sift
the ashes from their fires before disposing of them in the ash-bin.
In Bermondsey, for example, the refuse has been found to possess
an unusually high calorific value, and this experience is confirmed
in other parts of the metropolis. Average refuse consists of
breeze (cinder and ashes), coal and coke, fine dust, vegetable and
animal matters, straw, shavings, cardboard, bottles, tins, iron,
bones, broken crockery and other matters in very variable pro-
portions according to the character of the district from which it
is collected. In London the quantity of house refuse amounts
approximately to i j million tons per annum, which is equivalent
to from 4 cwt. to 5 cwt. per head per annum, or to from 200 to 250
tons per 1000 of the population per annum. Statistics, however,
vary widely in different districts. In the vicinity of the metropolis
the amount varies from 2-5 cwt. per head per annum at Ley ton to
3-5 cwt. at Hornsey, and to as much as 7 cwt. at Ealing. In the
north of England the total house refuse collected, exclusive of
street sweepings, amounts on the average to 8 cwt. per head per
annum. Speaking generally, throughout the country an amount
of from 5 cwt. to 10 cwt. per head per annum should be allowed
for. A cubic yard of ordinary house refuse weighs from i2j to
15 cwt. Shop refuse is lighter, frequently containing a large pro-
portion of paper, straw and other light wastes. It sometimes
weighs as little as 75 cwt. per cubic yard. A load, by which
refuse is often estimated, varies in weight from 15 cwt. to 15 tons.
The question how a town's refuse shall be disposed of must be
considered both from a commercial and a sanitary point of view.
Refuse Various methods have been practised. Sometimes the
disposal, household ashes, &c., are mixed with pail excreta, or
with sludge from a sewage farm, or with lime, and
disposed of for agricultural purposes, and sometimes they are
conveyed in carts or by canal to outlying and country districts,
where they are shot on waste ground or used to fill up hollows and
raise the level of marshland. Such plans are economical when
suitable outlets are available. To take the refuse out to sea in
hopper barges and sink it in deep water is usually expensive and
frequently unsatisfactory. At Bermondsey, for instance, the
cost of barging is about 2s. gd. a ton, while the material may
be destroyed by fire at a cost of from icd. to is. a ton, exclusive
of interest and sinking fund on the cost of the works. In other
cases, as at Chelsea and various dust contractors' yards, the
refuse is sorted and its ingredients are sold; the fine dust may be
utilized in connexion with manure manufactories, the pots and
pans employed in forming the foundations of roads, and the
cinders and vegetable refuse burnt to generate steam. In the
Arnold system, carried out in Philadelphia and other American
towns, the refuse is sterilized by steam under pressure, the grease
and fertilizing substances being extracted at the same time;
while in other systems, such as those of Weil and Porno, and
of Defosse, distillation in closed vessels is practised. But the
destructor system, in which the refuse is burned to an innocuous
clinker in specially constructed furnaces, is that which must
finally be resorted to, especially in districts which have become
well built up and thickly populated.
Various types of furnaces and apparatus have from time
to time been designed, and the subject has been one of much
experiment and many failures. The principal towns in
England which took the lead in the adoption of the
refuse destructor system were Manchester, Birming- tors.
ham, Leeds, Heckmondwike, Warrington, Blackburn,
Bradford, Bury, Bolton, Hull, Nottingham, Salford, Ealing and
London. Ordinary furnaces, built mostly by dust contractors,
began to come into use in London and in the north of England
in the second half of the igt h century, but they were not scientific-
ally adapted to the purpose, and necessitated the admixture of
coal or other fuel with the refuse to ensure its cremation. The
Manchester corporation erected a furnace of this description
about the year 1873, and Messrs Mead & Co. made an unsatis-
factory attempt in 1870 to burn house refuse in closed furnaces
at Paddington. In 1876 Alfred Fryer erected his destructor at
Manchester, and several other towns adopted this furnace
shortly afterwards. Other furnaces were from time to time
brought before the public, among which may be mentioned those
of Pearce and Lupton, Pickard, Healey, Thwaite, Young,
Wilkinson, Burton, Hardie, Jacobs and Odgen. In addition to
these the " Beehive " and the " Nelson " destructors became
well known. The former was introduced by Stafford and Pearson
FIG. i. Fryer's Destructor.
of Burnley, and one was erected in 1884 in the parish yard at
Richmond, Surrey, but the results being unsatisfactory, it was
closed during the following year. The " Nelson " furnace,
patented in 1885 by Messrs Richmond and Birtwistle, was
erected at Nelson-in-Marsden, Lancashire, but being very costly
in working was abandoned. The principal types of destructors
now in use are those of Fryer, Whiley, Horsfall, Warner,
Meldrum, Beaman and Deas, Heenan and Froude, and the
" Sterling " destructor erected by Messrs Hughes and Stirling.
The general arrangement of the destructor patented ' by Alfred
Fryer in 1876 is illustrated in fig. i. An installation upon this
principle consists of a number of furnaces or cells, usu- fryer's
ally arranged in pairs back to back, and enclosed in a
rectangular block of brickwork having a flat top, upon which the
house refuse is tipped from the carts.
1 Patent No. 3125 (1876).
io6
DESTRUCTORS
A large main flue, which also forms the dust chamber, is placed
underneath the furnace hearths. The Fryer furnace ordinarily burns
from 4 to 6 tons of refuse per cell per 24 hours. It will be observed
that the outlets for the products of combustion are placed at the back
near the refuse feed opening, an arrangement which is imperfect in
design, inasmuch as while a charge of refuse is burning upon the
furnace bars the charge which is to follow lies on the dead hearth near
the outlet flue. Here it undergoes drying and partial decomposition,
giving off offensive empyreumatic vapours which pass into the flue
without being exposed to sufficient heat to render them entirely
FIG. 2. Horsfall's improved Destructor.
inoffensive. The serious nuisances thus produced in some instances
led to the introduction of a second furnace, or " cremator," patented
by C. Jones of Ealing in 1885, which was placed in the main flue
leading to the chimney-shaft, for the purpose of resolving the organic
matters present in the vapour, but the greatly increased cost of
burning due to this device led to its abandonment in many cases.
This type of cell was largely used during the early period of the
history of destructors, but has to a considerable extent given place to
furnaces of more modern design.
A furnace * patented in 1891 by Mr Henry Whiley, superintendent
of the scavenging department of the Manchester corporation, is
f automatic in its action and was designed primarily with a
alley s. v ; ew j o saving labour the cells being fed, stoked and
clinkered automatically. There is no drying hearth, and the refuse
carts tip direct into a shoot or hopper at the back which conducts the
material directly on to movable eccentric grate bars. These auto-
matically traverse the material forward into the furnace, and finally
push it against a flap-door which opens and allows it to fall out.
This apparatus is adapted for dealing with screened rather than
unscreened refuse, since it suffers from the objection that the motion
of the bars tends to allow fine particles to drop through unburnt.
Some difficulty has been experienced from the refuse sticking in the
Tipping plat form
FIG. 3. Meldrum's Destructor at Darwen.
hopper, and exception may also be taken to the continual flapping of
the door when the clinker passes out, as cold air is thereby admitted
into the furnace. As in the Fryer cell, the outlet for the products of
combustion into the main flue is close to the point where the crude
refuse is fed into the furnace, and the escape of unburnt vapours is
thus facilitated. Forced draught is applied by means of a Roots
blower. The Manchester corporation has 28 cells of this type in use,
and the approximate amount of refuse burnt per cell per 24 hours is
from 6 to 8 tons at a cost per ton for labour of 3-47 pence.
Horsfall's destructor 5 (fig. 2) is a high-temperature furnace of
modern type which has been adopted largely in Great Britain and on
the continent of Europe. In it some of the general features
Hors fairs. of the p ryer ce u are retained, but the details differ con-
siderably from those of the furnaces already described. Important
points in the design are the arrangement of the flues and flue outlets
for the products of combustion,. and the introduction of a blast duct
through which air is forced into a closed ash-pit. The feeding-hole is
situated at the back of and above the furnace, while the flue opening
for the emission of the gaseous products is placed at the front of the
furnace over the dead plate; thus the gases distilled from the raw
refuse are caused to pass on their way to the main flue over the
hottest part of the furnace and through the flue opening in the red-
hot reverberatory arch. The steam jet, which plays an important
part in the Horsfall furnace, forces air into the closed ash-pit at a
pressure of about f to I in. of water, and in this way a temperature
varying from 1500 to 2000 F., as tested by a thermo-electric
pyrometer, is maintained in the main flue. In a battery of cells the
gases from each are delivered into one main flue, so that a uniform
temperature is maintained therein sufficiently high to prevent
noxious vapours from reaching the chimney. The cells being charged
and clinkered in rotation, when the fire in one is green, in the others
it is at its hottest, and the products of combustion do not reach the
boiler surfaces until after they have been mixed in the main flue.
The cast iron boxes which are provided at the sides of the furnaces,
and through which the blast air is conveyed on its way to the grate,
prevent the adhesion of clinker to the side walls of the cells, and very
materially preserve the brickwork, which otherwise becomes damaged
by the tools used to remove the clinker. The wide clinkering doors
are suspended by counterbalance weights and open vertically. The
rate of working of these cells varies from 8 tons per cell per 24 hours
at Oldham to 10 tons per cell at Bradford, where the furnaces are of
a later type. The cost of labour in stoking and clinkering is about 6d.
per ton of the refuse treated at Bradford, and gd. per ton at Oldham,
where the rate of wages is higher. Well-constructed and properly-
worked plants of this type should give rise to no nuisance, and may
be located in populous neighbourhoods without danger to the public
health or comfort. Installations were put down at Fulham (1901),
Hammerton Street, Bradford (1900), West Hartlepool (1904), and
other places, and the surplus power generated is employed in the pro-
duction of electric energy.
Warner's destructor, 3 known as the " Perfectus," is, in general
arrangement, similar to Fryer's, but differs in being provided with
special charging hoppers, dampers in flues, dust-catching
arrangements, rocking grate bars and other improvements. " arae
The refuse is tipped into feeding-hoppers, consisting of rectangular
cast iron boxes over which plates are placed to prevent the escape of
smoke and fumes. At the lower portion of the feeding-hopper is a
flap-door working on an axis and controlled by an iron lever from the
tipping platform. When refuse is to be fed into the furnace the lever
is thrown over, the contents of the hopper drop on to the sloping
firebrick hearth beneath, and the door is at once closed again. The
door should be kept open as short a time as possible in order to prevent
the admission of cold air into the furnace at the back end, since this
leads to the lowering of the
temperature of the cells and
main flue, and also to paper
and other light refuse being
carried into the flues and chim-
ney. The flues of each furnace
are provided with dampers,
which are closed during the
process of clinkering in order to
keep up the heat. The cells are
each 5 ft. wide and 1 1 ft. deep,
the rearmost portion consisting
of a firebrick drying hearth,
and the front of rocking grate
bars upon which the combus-
tion takes place. The crown of
each cell is formed of a rever-
beratory firebrick arch having
openings for the emission of the
products of combustion. The
flap dampers which are fitted
to these openings are operated
by horizontal spindles passing
through the brickwork to the
1 Patent No. 8271 (1891).
Patents No. 8999 (1887) ; No. 14,709 (1888) ; No. 22,531 (1891).
front of the cell, where they are provided with levers or handles;
thus each cell can be worked independently of the others. With the
view of increasing the steam-raising capabilities of the furnace, forced
draught is sometimes applied and a tubular boiler is placed close to
the cells. The amount of refuse consumed varies from 5 tons to 8 tons
per cell per 24 hours. At Hornsey, where 12 cells of this type are
in use, the cost of labour for burning the refuse is 9jd. per ton.
The Meldurm " Simplex " destructor (fig. 3), a type of furnace
which yields good steam-raising results, is in successful operation
at Rochdale, Hereford, Darwen, Nelson, Plumstead and . . ,
Woolwich, at each of which towns the production of steam
is an important consideration. Cells have also been laid down at
Burton, Hunstanton, Blackburn and Shipley, and more recently at
Burnley, Cleckheaton, Lancaster, Nelson, Sheernessand Weymouth.
In general arrangement the destructor differs considerably from
3 Patent No. 18,719 (1888).
DESTRUCTORS
107
those previously described. The grates are placed side by side
without separation except by dead plates, but, in order to localize
the forced draught, the ash-pit is divided into parts corresponding
with the different grate areas. Each ash-pit is closed air-tight by a
cast iron plate, and is provided with an air-tight door for removing
the fine ash. Two patent Meldrum steam-jet blowers are provided
for each furnace, supplying any required pressure of blast up to
6 in. water column, though that usually employed does not exceed
1 1 in. The furnaces are designed for hand-feeding from the front,
but hopper-feeding can be applied if desirable. The products of
combustion either pass away from the back of each fire-grate into
a common flue leading to boilers and the chimney-shaft, or are con-
veyed sideways over the various grates and a common fire-bridge
to the boilers or chimney. The heat in the gases, after passing the
boilers, is still further utilized to heat the air supplied to the furnaces,
the gases being passed through an air heater or continuous
regenerator consisting of a number of cast iron pipes from which the
air is delivered through the Meldrum " blowers at a temperature of
about 300 F. That a high percentage (15 to 18 %) of CO 2 isobtained
in the furnaces proves a small excess of free oxygen, and no doubt
explains the high fuel efficiency obtained by this type of destructor.
High-pressure boilers of ample capacity are provided for the accumu-
lation during periods of light load of a reserve of steam, the storage
being obtained by utilizing the difference between the highest and
lowest water-levels and the difference between the maximum and
working steam-pressure. Patent locking fire-bars, to prevent lifting
when clinkering, are used in the furnace and have a good life. At
Rochdale the Meldrum furnaces consume from 53lb to 66 lb of refuse
per square foot of grate area per hour, as compared with 22-4 lb per
square foot in a low-temperature destructor burning 6 tons per cell
per 24 hours with a grate area of 25 sq.ft. The evaporative efficiency
of the Rochdale furnaces varies from 1-39 lb to 1-87 ft of water
(actual) per I lb of refuse burned, and an average steam-pressure of
about 114 lb per square inch is maintained. The cost of labour and
Fig. 4. Beaman and Deas Destructor at Leyton.
supervision amounts to lod. per ton of refuse dealt with. A
Lancashire boiler (22 ft. by 6 ft. 6 in.) at the Sewage Outfall Works,
Hereford, evaporates with refuse fuel 2980 lb of water per hour,
equal to 149 indicated horse-power. About 54 ft of refuse are burnt
per square foot of grate area per hour with an evaporation of 1-82 ft
of water per pound of refuse.
The Beaman and Deas destructor 1 (fig. 4) has attracted much
attention from public authorities, and successful installations
are in operation at Warrington, Dewsbury, Leyton,
Canterbury, Llandudno, Colne, Streatham, Rptherhithe,
ia * Wimbledon, Bolton and elsewhere. Its essential features
include a level-fire grate with ordinary type bars, a high-temperature
combustion chamber at the back of the cells, a closed ash-pit with
forced draught, provision for the admission of a secondary air-supply
at the fire-bridge, and a firebrick hearth sloping at an angle of about
52. From the refuse storage platform the material is fed into a
hopper mouth about 18 in. square, and slides down the firebrick
hearth, supported by T-irons, to the grate bars, over which it is
raked and spread with the assistance of long rods manipulated through
clinkering doors placed at the sides of the cells. A secondary door
in the rear of the cell facilitates the operation. The fire-bars, spaced
only fa in. apart, are of the ordinary stationary type. Vertically,
under the fire-bridge, is an air-conduit, from the top of which lead
air blast pipes 12 in. in diameter discharging into a hermetically
closed ash-pit under the grate area. The air is supplied from fans
(Schiele's patent) at a pressure of from i| to 2 in. of water, and is con-
trolled by means of baffle valves worked by handles on either side
of the furnace, conveniently placed for the attendant. The forced
draught tends to keep the bars cool and lessen wear and tear. The
fumes from the charge drying on the hearth pass through the fire
and over the red-hot fire-bridge, which is perforated longitudinally
with air-passages connected with a small flue leading from a grated
opening on the face of the brickwork outside ; in this way an auxiliary
supply of heated oxygen is fed into the combustion chamber. This
1 Patents No. 15,598 (1893) and 23,712 (1893); also Beaman and
Deas Sludge Furnace, Patent No. 13,029 (1894).
chamber, in which a temperature approaching 2000 F. is attained,
is fitted with large iron doors, sliding with balance weights, which
allow the introduction of infected articles, bad meat, &c., and also
give access for the periodical removal of fine ash f om the flues.
The high temperatures attained are utilized by install 'ng one boiler,
preferably of the Babcock & Wilcox water-tube type, for each pair
of cells, so that the gases, on their way from the combustion chamber
to the main flue, pass three times between the boiler tubes. A
secondary furnace is provided under the boiler for raising steam by
coal, if required, when the cells are out of use. The grate area of each
cell is 25 sq. ft., and the consumption varies from 16 up to 20 tons of
refuse per cell per 24 hours. In a 24-hours' test made by the super-
intendent of the cleansing department, Leeds, at the Warrington
installation, the quantity of water evaporated per pound of refuse was
1-14 ft, the average temperature in the combustion chamber 2000
F. by copper-wire test, and the average air pressure with forced
draught 2} in. (water-gauge). At Leyton, which has a population
of over 100,000, an 8-cell plant of this type is successfully dealing
with house refuse and filter press cakes of sewage sludge from the
sewage disposal works adjoining, and even with material of this low
calorific value the total steam-power produced is considerable. Each
cell burns about 16 tons of the mixture in 24 hours and develops
about 35 indicated horse-power continuously, at an average steam-
pressure in the boilers of 105 ft. The cost of labour at Leyton for
burning the mixed refuse is about is. 7d. per ton; at Llandudno,
where four cells were laid down, in connexion with the electric-light
station in 1898, it is is. 3Jd., and at Warrington 9jd. per ton of refuse
consumed. Combustion is complete, and the destructor may be
installed in populous districts without nuisance to the inhabitants.
Further patents (Wilkie's improvements) have been obtained by
Meldrum Brothers (Manchester) in connexion with this destructor.
The Heenan furnaces are in operation at Farnworth, Gloucester,
Barrow-in-Furness, Northampton, Mansfield, Wakefield, Blackburn,
Levenshulme, Kings Norton, Worthing, Birmingham and .
other places, and are now dealing with over 1200 tons of
refuse per day. The general arrangement of this destructor some-
what resembles that of the Meldrum type. The cells intercommuni-
cate, and the mechanical mixture of the gases arising from the
furnace grates of the various cells is sought by the introduction of
a special design of reverberatpry arch overlying the grates. The
standard arrangement of this destructor embodies all modern
arrangements for high-temperature refuse destruction and steam-
power generation.
Destructors of the " Sterling " type, combined with electric-
power generating stations, are installed at Hackney (1901),
Bermondsey (1902) and Frederiksberg (1903) the first- , rf .
named plant being probably the most powerful com-
bined destructor and electricity station yet erected. In these
modern stations the recognized requirements of an up-to-date refuse-
destruction plant have been well considered and good calorific results
are also obtained.
In addition to the above-described destructors, other forms have
been introduced from time to time, but adopted to a less degree;
amongst these may be mentioned Baker's destructor, Willshear's,
Hanson's Utilizer, Mason's Gasifier, the Bennett-Phythian,
Cracknell's (Melbourne, Victoria), Coltman's (Loughborough),
Willoughby's, and Healey's improved destructors. On the continent
of Europe systems for the treatment of refuse have also been devised.
Among these may be mentioned those of M. Defosse and M. Helouis.
The former has endeavoured to burn the refuse in large quantities by
using a forced draught and only washing the smoke. 2 Helouis has
extended the operation by using the heat from the combustion of the
refuse for drying and distilling the material which is brought gradu-
ally on to the grate.
Boulnois and Brodie's improved charging tank is a labour-saving
apparatus consisting of a wrought iron truck, 5 ft. wide by 3 ft. deep,
and of sufficient length to hold not less than 12 hours' Destructor
supply for the two cells which it serves. The truck, fcces .
which moves along a pair of rails across the top of the sor fcs.
destructor, may be worked by one man. It is divided into
compartments holding a charge of refuse in each, and is provided
with a pair of doors in the bottom, opening downwards, which are
supported by a series of small wheels running on a central rail. A
special feeding opening in the reverberatpry arch of the cell of the
width of the truck, situated over the drying hearth, is formed by a
firebrick arch fitted into a frame capable of being moved backwards
and forwards by means of a lever. The charging truck, when empty,
is brought under the tipping platform, and the carts tip directly into
it. When one of the cells has to be fed, the truck is moved along, so
that one of the divisions is immediately over the feeding opening, and
the wheel holding up the bottom doors rests upon the central rail,
which is continued over the movable covering arch. Then the
movable arch is rolled back, the doors are released, and the contents
are discharged into the cell, so that no handling of the refuse is
required from tipping to feeding. This apparatus is in operation at
Liverpool, Shoreditch, Cambridge and elsewhere.
Various forms of patent movable fire-bars have been employed
2 Compte Rendu des Travaux de la SocM6 des IngSnieurs Cimls de
France, folio 775 (June 1897).
io8
DESTRUCTORS
in destructor furnaces. Among these may be mentioned Settle's, 1
Vicar's, 2 Riddle's rocking bars,' Horsfall's self-feeding apparatus, 4
and Healey's movable bars; * but complicated movable arrangements
are not to be recommended, and experience greatly favours the use
of a simple stationary type of fire-bar.
A dust-catching apparatus has been designed and erected at
Edinburgh, by the Horsfall Furnace Syndicate, in order to over-
come difficulties in regard to the escape of flue dust, &c., from the
destructor chimney. Externally, it appears a large circular block
of brickwork, 18 ft. in diameter and 13 ft. 7 in. high, connected with
the main flue, and situated between the destructor cells and the
boiler. Internally it consists of a spiral flue traversing the entire
circumference and winding upwards to the top of the chamber.
There is an interior well or chamber 6 ft. diameter by 12 ft. high,
having a domed top, and communicating with the outer spiral flue
by four ports at the top of the chamber. Dust traps, baffle walls
Other accessory plant in use at most modern destructor stations
includes machinery for the removal, crushing and various means
of utilization of the residual clinker, stoking tools, air heaters or
regenerators for the production of hot-air blast to the furnaces,
superheaters and thermal storage arrangements for equalizing the
output of power from the station during the 24-hours' day.
The general arrangement of a battery of refuse cells at a
destructor station is illustrated by fig. 5. The cells are arranged
either side by side, with a common main flue in the
rear, or back to back with the main flue placed in the w rki ag
centre and leading to a tall chimney-shaft. The heated
gases on leaving the cells pass through the combustion
chamber into the main flue, and thence go forward to the boilers,
where their heat is absorbed and utilized. Forced draught, or
ol de-
structors.
/>. if*, ipf.- ,<->-..* , ,f.>_.,rx It*----
f 'f ..-$ -*' x-| l - *H;4- - **%* * .--*...
~n--H f,-~n; ~ i :n-- "n i "V- ir-TiTT n n -w ,-,-.
FIG. 5. Leyton Destructor. Block Plan,
and cleaning doors are also provided for the retention and subsequent
weekly _ removal of the flue dust. The apparatus forms a large
reservoir of heat maintained at a steady temperature of from 1500
to 1800 F., and is useful in keeping up steam in the boiler at an
equable pressure for a long period. It requires no attention, and has
proved successful for its purpose.
Travelling cranes for transporting refuse and feeding cells are
sometimes employed at destructor stations, as, for example, at
Hamburg. Here the transportation of the refuse is effected by
means of specially constructed water-tight iron wagons, containing
detachable boxes provided with two double-flap doors at the top for
loading, and one flap-door at the back for unloading. There are
thirty-six_ furnaces of the Horsfall type placed in two ranks, each
arranged in three blocks of six in the large furnace hall. An electric
crane running above each rank lifts the boxes off the wagons and
carries them to the feeding-hole of each well. Here the box is tipped
up by an electric pulley and emptied on to the furnace platform.
When the travelling crane is used, the carts (four-wheeled) bringing
the refuse may be constructed so that the body of the carriage can be
taken off the wheels, lifted up and tipped direct over the furnace
as required, and returned again to its frame. The adoption of the
travelling crane admits of the reduction in size of the main building,
as less platform space for unloading refuse carts is required; the
inclined road way_ may also be dispensed with. Where a destructor
site will not admit of an inclined roadway and platform, the refuse
may be discharged from the collecting carts into a lift, and thence
elevated into the feeding-bins.
1 Patent No. 15,482 (1885).
Patents No. 1955 (1867) and No. 378 (1879).
1 Patent No. 4896 (1891).
4 Patent No. 20,207 (1892).
6 Patents No. 18,398 (1892) and No. 12,990 (1892).
showing general arrangement of the Works.
in many cases, hot blast, is supplied from fans through a conduit
commanding the whole of the cells. An inclined roadway, of
as easy gradient as circumstances will admit, is provided for the
conveyance of the refuse to the tipping platform, from which it
is fed through feed-holes into the furnaces. In the installation
of a destructor, the choice of suitable plant and the general design
of the works must be largely dependent upon local requirements,
and should be entrusted to an engineer experienced in these
matters. The following primary considerations, however, may
be enumerated as materially affecting the design of such works:
(a) The plant must be simple, easily worked without stoppages,
and without mechanical complications upon which stokers may lay
the blame for bad results, (b) It must be strong, must withstand
variations of temperature, must not be liable to get out of order, and
should admit of being readily repaired, (c) It must be such as can be
easily understood by stokers or firemen of average intelligence, so
that the continuous working of the plant may not be disorganized by
change of workmen, (d) A sufficiently high temperature must be
attained in the cells to reduce the refuse to an entirely innocuous
clinker, and all fumes or gases should pass either through an adjoining
red-hot cell or through a chamber whose temperature is maintained
by the ordinary working of the destructor itself at a degree sufficient
to exclude the possibility of the escape of any unconsumed gases,
vapours or particles. The temperature may vary between 1 500 a nd
2000. (e) The plant must be so worked that while some of the cells
are being recharged, others are at a glowing red heat, in order that a
high temperature may be uniformly maintained. (/) The design of
the furnaces must admit of clinkering and recharging being easily and
quickly performed, the furnace doors being open for a minimum of
time so as to obviate the inrush of cold air to lower the temperature
DESTRUCTORS
109
in main flues, &c. (g) The chimney draught must he assisted with
forced draught from fans or steam jet to a pressure of I J in. to 2 in.
under grates by water-gauge, (h) Where a destructor is required to
work without risk of nuisance to the neighbouring inhabitants, its
efficiency as a refuse destructor plant must be primarily kept in view
in designing the works, steam-raising being regarded as a secondary
consideration. Boilers should not be placed immediately over a
furnace so as to present a large cooling surface, whereby the
temperature of the gases is reduced before the organic matter has
been thoroughly burned. () Where steam-power and a high fuel
efficiency are desired a large percentage of CO 2 should be sought in
the furnaces with as little excess of air as possible, and the flue gases
should be utilized in heating the air-supply to the grates, and the
feed-water to the boilers, (j) Ample boiler capacity and hot-water
storage feed-tanks should be included in the design where steam-
power is required.
As to the initial cost of the erection of refuse destructors, few
trustworthy data can be given. The outlay necessarily depends,
amongst other things, upon the difficulty of preparing
the site, upon the nature of the foundations required, the
height of the chimney-shaft, the length of the inclined or approach
roadway, and the varying prices of labour and materials in different
localities. As an example may be mentioned the case of Bristol,
where, in 1892, the total cost of constructing a l6-cell Fryer de-
structor was 11,418, of which 2909 was expended on foundations,
and 1689 on the chimney-shaft; the cost of the destructor proper,
buildings and approach road was therefore 6820, or about 426 per
cell. The cost per ton of burning refuse in destructors depends
mainly upon (a) The price of labour in the locality, and the number
of " shifts " or changes of workmen per day; (6) the type of furnace
adopted; (c) the nature of the material to be consumed; (d) the
interest on and repayment of capital outlay. The cost of burning
ton for ton consumed, in high-temperature furnaces, including labour
and repairs, is not greater than in slow-combustion destructors. The
average cost of burning refuse at twenty-four different towns through-
out England, exclusive of interest on the cost of the works, is is. I Jd.
per ton burned ; the minimum cost is 6d. per ton at Bradford, and
the maximum cost 2s. lod. per ton at Battersea. At Shoreditch the
coSt per ton for the year ending on the 25th of March 1899, including
labour, supervision, stores, repairs, &c. (but exclusive of interest on
cost of works), was 2s. 6-9d. The quantity of refuse burned per cell
per day of 24 hours varies from about 4 tons up to 20 tons. The
ordinary low-temperature destructor, with 25 sq. ft. grate area, burns
about 2olb of refuse per square foot of grate area per hour, or between
5 and 6 tons per cell per 24 hours. The Meldrum destructor furnaces
at Rochdale burn as much as 66 Ib per square foot of grate area per
hour, and the Beaman and Deas destructor at Llandudno 71-7 Ib
per square foot per hour. The amount, however, always depends
materially on the care observed in stoking, the nature of the material,
the frequency of removal of clinker, and on the question whether the
whole of the refuse passed into the furnace is thoroughly cremated.
The amount of residue in the shape of clinker and fine ash varies
from 22 to 37 % of the bulk dealt with. From 25 to 30% is a very
usual amount. At Shoreditch, where the refuse consists
Residues; o f a b out g% of straw, paper, shavings, &c., the residue
contains about 29% clinker, 2-7% fine ash, -5% flue dust, and -6%
old tins, making a total residue of 32-8 %. As the residuum amounts
to from one-fourth to one-third of the total bulk of the refuse dealt
with, it is a question of the utmost importance that some profitable, or
at least inexpensive, means should be devised for its regular disposal.
Among other purposes, it has been used for bottoming for macadam-
ized roads, for the manufacture of concrete, for making paving slabs,
for forming suburban footpaths or cinder f ootwalks, and for the manu-
facture of mortar. The last is a very general, and in many places
profitable, mode of disposal. An entirely new outlet has also arisen
for the disposal of good well-vitrified destructor clinker in connexion
with the construction of bacteria beds for sewage disposal, and in
many districts its value has, by this means, become greatly enhanced.
Through defects in the design and management of many of the
early destructors complaints of nuisance frequently arose, and these
have, to some extent, brought destructor installations into disrepute.
Although some of the older furnaces were decided offenders in this
respect, that is by no means the case with the modern improved type
of high-temperature furnace; and often, were it not for the great
prominence in the landscape of a tall chimney-shaft, the existence of
a refuse destructor in a neighbourhood would not be generally known
to the inhabitants. A modern furnace, properly designed and
worked, will give rise to no nuisance, and may be safely erected in the
midst of a populous neighbourhood. To ensure the perfect crema-
tion of the refuse and of the gases given off, forced draught is essential.
_ This is supplied either as air draught delivered from a
rorcea ra pidly revolving fan, or as steam blast, as in the Horsfall
steam jet or the Meldrum blower. With a forced blast less
air is required to obtain complete combustion than by chimney
draught. The forced draught grate requires little more than the
quantity theoretically necessary, while with chimney draught more
than double the theoretical amount of air must be supplied. With
forced draught, too, a much higher temperature is attained, and if
it is properly worked, little or no cold air will enter the furnaces during
stoking operations. As far as possible a balance of pressure in the
cells during clinkering should be maintained just sufficient to pre-
vent an inrush of cold air through the flues. The forced draught
pressure should not exceed 2 in. water-gauge. The efficiency of the
combustion in the furnace is conveniently measured by the
" Econometer," which registers continuously and automatically the
proportion of COj passing away in the waste gases; the higher the
percentage of CO 2 the more efficient the furnace, provided there is no
formation of CO, the presence of which would indicate incomplete
combustion. The theoretical maximum of CO 2 for refuse burning is
about 20%; and, by maintaining an even clean fire, by admitting
secondary air over the fire, and by regulating the dampers or the air-
pressure m the ash-pit, an amount approximating to this percentage
may be attained in a well-designed furnace if properly worked. If
the proportion of free oxygen (i.e. excess of air) is large, more air is
passed through the furnace than is required for complete combustion,
and the heating of this excess is clearly a waste of heat. The position
of the econometer in testing should be as near the furnace as possible,
as there may be considerable air leakage through the brickwork of the
flues.
The air supply to modern furnaces is usually delivered hot, the
inlet air being first passed through an air-heater the temperature of
which is maintained by the waste gases in the main flue.
The modern high-temperature destructor, to render the refuse and
gases perfectly innocuous and harmless, is worked at a temperature
varying from 1250 to 2000 F., and the maintenance of
such temperatures has very naturally suggested the possi-
bility of utilizing this heat-energy for the production of *"*'"
steam-power. Experience shows that a considerable amount of
energy may be derived from steam-raising destructor stations, amply
justifying a reasonable increase of expenditure on plant and labour.
The actual calorific value of the refuse material necessarily varies,
but, as a general average, with suitably designed and properly
managed plant, an evaporation of I Ib of water per pound of refuse
burned is a result which may be readily attained, and affords a basis
of calculation which engineers may safely adopt in practice. Many
destructor steam-raising plants, however, give considerably higher
results, evaporations approaching 2 Ib of water per pound of refuse
being often met with under favourable conditions.
From actual experience it may be accepted, therefore, that the
calorific value of unscreened house refuse varies from I to 2 Ib of
water evaporated per pound of refuse burned, the exact proportion
depending upon the quality and condition of the material dealt with.
Taking the evaporative power of coal at 10 ft of water per pound of
coal, this gives for domestic house refuse a value of from t"o to i tnat f
coal ; or, with coal at 2os. per ton, refuse has a commercial value of
from 2s. to 43. per ton. In London the quantity of house refuse
amounts to about I \ million tons per annum, which is equivalent to
from 4 cwt. to 5 cwt. per head per annum. If it be burned in furnaces
giving an evaporation of I Ib of water per pound of refuse, it would
yield a total power annually of about 138 million brake horse-power
hours, and equivalent cost of coal at 2Os. per ton for this amount of
power even when calculated upon the very low estimate of 2 ib * of
coal per brake horse-power hour, works out at over 123,000. On the
same basis, the refuse of a medium-sized town, with, say, a population
of 70,000 yielding refuse at the rate of 5 cwt. per head per annum,
would afford 112 indicated horse-power per ton burned, and the
total indicated horse-power hours per annum would be
70,000X5 cwt. x j I2 = Ii960i000 J.H.P. hours annually.
If this were applied to the production of electric energy, the electrical
horse-power hours would be (with a dynamo efficiency of 90 %)
1.960.000X90 = Ii764i ooo E.H.P. hours per annum;
and the watt-hours per annum at the central station would be
i ,764,000 X 746 = i ,31 5,944.000.
Allowing for a loss of 10% in distribution, this would give
1,184,349,600 watt-hours available in lamps, or with 8-candle-power
lamps taking 30 watts of current per lamp, we should have
1.184.349.600 watt-hours = 820 8< p lamp . hours ^ annum;
that is,
^
39.47 .3
=563 8-c.p.' lamp-hours per annum per
' K
70,000 population - head of population.
Taking the loss due to the storage which would be necessary at 20%
on three-quarters of the total or 15% upon the whole, there would
be 478 8-c.p. lamp-hours per annum per head of the population:
i.e. if the power developed from the refuse were fully utilized, it
would supply electric light at the rate of one 8-c.p. lamp per head of
the population for about I J hours for every night of the year.
In actual practice, when the electric.energy is for the purposes of
lighting only, difficulty has been experienced in fully utilizing the
thermal energy from a destructor plant owing to the want
of adequate means of storage either of the thermal or of
the electric energy. A destructor station usually yields a
fairly definite amount of thermal energy uniformly throughout the 24
hours, while the consumption of electric-lighting current is extremely
1 With medium-sized steam plants, a consumption of 4ft of coal
per brake horse-power per" hour is a very usual performance.
atltles.
no
DE TABLEY DETAILLE
irregular, the maximum demand being about four times the mean
demand. The period during which the demand exceeds the mean is
comparatively short, and does not exceed about 6 hours out of the
24, while for a portion of the time the demand may not exceed jVth
of the maximum. This difficulty, at first regarded as somewhat
grave, is substantially minimized by the provision of ample boiler
capacity, or by the introduction of feed thermal storage vessels in
which hot feed-water may be stored during the hours of light load
(say 1 8 out of the 24), so that at the time of maximum load the boiler
may be filled directly from these vessels, which work at the same
pressure and temperature as the boiler. Further, the difficulty
above mentioned will disappear entirely at stations where there is a
fair day load which practically ceases at about the hour when the
illuminating load comes on, thus equalizing the demand upon both
destructor and electric plant throughout the 24 hours. This arises
in cases where current is consumed during the day for motors, fans,
lifts, electric tramways, and other like purposes, and, as the employ-
ment of electric energy for these services is rapidly becoming general,
no difficulty need be anticipated in the successful working of com-
bined destructor and electric plants where these conditions prevail.
The more uniform the electrical demand becomes, the more fully
1 may the power from a destructor station be utilized.
In addition to combination with electric-lighting works, refuse
destructors are now very commonly installed in conjunction with
various other classes of power-using undertakings, including tram-
ways, water-works, sewage-pumping, artificial slab-making and
clinker-crushing works and others; and the increasingly large sums
which are being yearly expended in combined undertakings of this
character is perhaps the strongest evidence of the practical value
of such combinations where these several classes of work must be
carried on.
For further information on the subject, reference should be made
to William H. Maxwell, Removal and Disposal of Town Refuse, with
an exhaustive treatment of Refuse Destructor Plants (London, 1899),
with a special Supplement embodying later results (London, 1905).
See also the Proceedings of the Incorporated Association of Municipal
and County Engineers, vols. xiii. p. 216, xxii. p. 211, xxiv. p. 214
and xxv. p. 138; also the Proceedings of the Institution of Civti
Engineers, vols. cxxii. p. 443, cxxiv. p. 469, cxxxi. p. 413, cxxxviii.
p. 508, cxxix. p. 434, cxxx. pp. 213 and 347, cxxiii. pp. 369 and 498,
cxxviii. p. 293 and cxxxv. p. 300. (W. H. MA.)
DE TABLEY, JOHN BYRNE LEICESTER WARREN, 3 RD
BARON (1835-1895), English poet, eldest son of George Fleming
Leicester (afterwards Warren) , 2nd Baron De Tabley, was born on
the 26th of April 1835. HewaseducatedatEtonand Christ Church,
Oxford, where he took his degree in 1856 with second classes in
classics and in law and modern history. In the autumn of 1858
he went to Turkey as unpaid attache toLord Stratford de Redcliffe,
and two years later was called to the bar. He became an officer in
theCheshireYeomanry,andunsuccessfullycontestedMid-Cheshire
in 1868 as a Liberal. After his father's second marriage in 1871
he removed to London, where he became a close friend of
Tennyson for several years. From 1877 till his succession to the
title in 1887 he was lost to his friends, assuming the life of a
recluse. It was not till 1892 that he returned to London life,
and enjoyed a sort of renaissance of reputation and friendship.
During the later years of his life Lord De Tabley made many new
friends, besides reopening old associations, and he almost seemed
to be gathering around him a small literary company when his
health broke, and he died on the 22nd of November 1895 at Ryde,
in his sixty-first year. He was buried at Little Peover in Cheshire.
Although his reputation will live almost exclusively as that of a
poet, De Tabley was a man of many studious tastes. He was at
one time an authority on numismatics; he wrote two novels;
published A Guide to the Study of Book Plates (1880); and the
fruit of his careful researches in botany was printed posthumously
in his elaborate Flora of Cheshire (1899). Poetry, however, was
his first and last passion, and to that he devoted the best energies
of his life. De Tabley's first impulse towards poetry came from
his friend George Fortescue, with whom he shared a close com-
panionship during his Oxford days, and whom he lost, as Tennyson
lost Hallam, within a few years of their taking their degrees.
Fortescue was killed by faUing from the mast of Lord Drogheda's
yacht in November 1859, and this gloomy event plunged De
Tabley into deep depression. Between 1859 and 1862 De Tabley
issued four little volumes of pseudonymous verse (by G. F.
Preston), in the production of which he had been greatly stimu-
lated by the sympathy of Fortescue. Once more he assumed a
pseudonym his Praeterila (1863) bearing the name of William
Lancaster. In the next year he published Eclogues and Mono-
dramas, followed in 1865 by Studies in Verse. These volumes all
displayed technical grace and much natural beauty; but it was
not till the publication of Philocteles in 1866 that De Tabley met
with any wide recognition. Philoctetes bore the initials " M.A.,"
which, to the author's dismay, were interpreted as meaning
Matthew Arnold. He at once disclosed his identity, and received
the congratulations of his friends, among whom were Tennyson,
Browning and Gladstone. In 1867 he published Orestes, in 1870
Rehearsals and in 1873 Searching the Net. These last two
bore his own name, John Leicester Warren. He was somewhat
disappointed by their lukewarm reception, and when in 1876
The Soldier of Fortune, a drama on which he had bestowed much
careful labour, proved a complete failure, he retired altogether
from the literary arena. It was not until 1893 that he was
persuaded to return, and the immediate success in that year of
his Poems, Dramatic and Lyrical, encouraged him to publish a
second series in 1895, the year of his death. The genuine interest
with which these volumes were welcomed did much to lighten
the last years of a somewhat sombre and solitary life. His
posthumous poems were collected in 1902. The characteristics
of De Tabley's poetry are pre-eminently magnificence of style,
derived from close study of Milton, sonority, dignity, weight and
colour. His passion for detail was both a strength and a weak-
ness: it lent a loving fidelity to his description of natural objects,
but it sometimes involved him in a loss of simple effect from
over-elaboration of treatment. He was always a student of the
classic poets, and drew much of his inspiration directly from them.
He was a true and a whole-hearted artist, who, as a brother poet
well said, " still climbed the clear cold altitudes of song." His
ambition was always for the heights, a region naturally ice-bound
at periods, but always a country of clear atmosphere and bright,
vivid outlines.
See an excellent sketch by E. Gosse in his Critical Kit-Kats (1896).
(A. WA.)
DETAILLE, JEAN BAPTISTE EDOUARD (1848- ),
French painter, was born in Paris on the sth of October 1848.
After working as a pupil of Meissonier's, he first exhibited, in the
Salon of 1867, a picture representing " A Corner of Meissonier's
Studio." Military life was from the first a principal attraction
to the young painter, and he gained his reputation by depicting
the scenes of a soldier's life with every detail truthfully rendered.
He exhibited " A Halt " (1868); " Soldiers at rest, during the
Manoeuvres at the Camp of Saint Maur " (1869) ; " Engagement
between Cossacks and the Imperial Guard, 1814 " (1870). The
war of 1870-71 furnished him with a series of subjects which
gained him repeated successes. Among his more important
pictures may be named "The Conquerors" (1872); "The
Retreat " (1873) ; " The Charge of the gth Regiment of Cuirassiers
in the Village of Morsbronn, 6th August 1870" (1874); "The
Marching Regiment, Paris, December 1874" (1875); "A
Reconnaissance" (1876); "Hail to the Wounded!" (1877);
" Bonaparte in Egypt V (1878); the " Inauguration of the New
Opera House " a water-colour; the " Defence of Champigny
by Faron's Division " (1879). He also worked with Alphonse de
Neuville on the panorama of Rezonville. In 1884 he exhibited
at the Salon the " Evening at Rezonville," a panoramic study,
and "The Dream" (1888), now in the Luxemburg. Detaille
recorded other events in the military history of his country:
the " Sortie of the Garrison of Huningue " (now in the Luxem-
burg), the " Vincendon Brigade," and " Bizerte," reminiscences
of the expedition to Tunis. After a visit to Russia, Detaille
exhibited " The Cossacks of the Ataman " and " The Hereditary
Grand Duke at the Head of the Hussars of the Guard." Other
important works are: " Victims to Duty," " The Prince of
Wales and the Duke of Connaught " and " Pasteur's Funeral."
In his picture of" Chalons, gth October 1896," exhibited in the
Salon, 1898, Detaille painted the emperor and empress of
Russia at a review, with M. Felix Faure. Detaille became a
member of the French Institute in 1898.
See Marius Vachon, Detaille (Paris, 1898) ; Frederic Masson,
Edouard Detaille and his work (Paris and London, 1891) ; J. Claretie,
Peintres et sculfiteurs contemporains (Paris, 1876); G. Goetschy,
Les Jeunes peintres militaires (Paris, 1878).
DETAINER DETERMINANT
in
DETAINER (from detain, Lat. detinere), in law, the act of
keeping a person against his will, or the wrongful keeping of a
person's goods, or other real or personal property. A writ of
detainer was a form for the beginning of a personal action
against a person already lodged within the walls of a prison;
it was superseded by the Judgment Act 1838.
DETERMINANT, in mathematics, a function which presents
itself in the solution of a system of simple equations.
i . Considering the equations
ax -\-by -$-cz =d ,
a'x+b'y+c'z=d' ,
a"x+b"y+c"z=d",
and proceeding to solve them by the so-called method of cross
multiplication, we multiply the equations by factors selected in
such a manner that upon adding the results the whole coefficient
of y becomes = o, and the whole coefficient of z becomes = o;
the factors in question are b'c" b"c' , b"c be", bc'b'c (values
which, as at once seen, have the desired property); we thus
obtain an equation which contains on the left-hand side only a
multiple of x, and on the right-hand side a constant term; the
coefficient of x has the value
a(b'c"-b"c')+a'(b"c-bc")+a'(bc'-b'c),
and this function, represented in the form
a , b , c
a' ,b',c'
a', b', c'
is said to be a determinant; or, the number of elements being 3 2 ,
it is called a determinant of the third order. It is to be noticed
that the resulting equation is
a , b , c \x d ,b ,c
a',b',c' d',b',c'
a', b", c" I d", b", c'
where the expression on the right-hand side is the like function
with d, d', d" in place of a, a', a" respectively, and is of course also
a determinant. Moreover, the functions b'c" b'c', b'c be",
be' b'c used in the process are themselves the determinants of
the second order
b',c'
b'.c"
b", c" I
b ,c \
We have herein the suggestion of the rule for the derivation
of the determinants of the orders i, 2, 3, 4, &c., each from the
preceding one, viz. we have
'
-am.
+a
"\b,c],
\b',c'\
" ,c" ,d" \+a"\b",c",d"\-a"\b ,c ,d \,
",c",d"\ \b ,c ,d y>',c',d'\
,c ,d \ W ,c' ,d' V>",c",d"\
and so on, the terms being all + for a determinant of an odd
order, but alternately + and for a determinant of an even order.
2. It is easy, by induction, to arrive at the general results:
A determinant of the order n is the sum of the 1.2.3. ..n pro-
ducts which can be formed with n elements out of 2 elements
arranged in the form of a square, no two of the n elements being
in the same line or in the same column, and each such product
having the coefficient unity.
The products in question may be obtained by permuting in
every possible manner the columns (or the lines) of the determin-
ant, and then taking for the factors the elements in the dexter
diagonal. And we thence derive the rule for the signs, viz. con-
sidering the primitive arrangement of the columns as positive,
then an arrangement obtained therefrom by a single interchange
(inversion, or derangement) of two columns is regarded as nega-
tive; and so in general an arrangement is positive or negative
according as it is derived from the primitive arrangement by an
even or an odd number of interchanges. iThis implies the theorem
that a given arrangement can be derived from the primitive
arrangement only by an odd number, or else only by an even
number of interchanges, a theorem the verification of which
may be easily obtained from the theorem (in fact a particular
case of the general one), an arrangement can be derived from
itself only by an even number of interchanges.] And this being so,
each product has the sign belonging to the corresponding arrange-
ment of the columns; in particular, a determinant contains with
the sign + the product of the elements in its dexter diagonal. It
is to be observed that the rule gives as many positive as negative
arrangements, the number of each being = 1 1.2. ..n.
The rule of signs may be expressed in a different form. Giving
to the columns in the primitive arrangement the numbers
i, 2, 3. . . n, to obtain the sign belonging to any other arrangement
we take, as often as a lower number succeeds a higher one, the
sign , and, compounding together all these minus signs, obtain
the proper sign, + or as the case may be.
Thus, for three columns, it appears by either rule that 123,
231, 312 are positive; 213, 321, 132 are negative; and the
developed expression of the foregoing determinant of the third
order is
=ab'c'-ab*c'+a'b"c-a'bc"-a"bc'-a"b'c.
3. It further appears that a determinant is a linear function 1
of the elements of each column thereof, and also a linear function
of the elements of each line thereof; moreover, that the de-
terminant retains the same value, only its sign being altered,
when any two columns are interchanged, or when any two
lines are interchanged; more generally, when the columns are
permuted in any manner, or when the lines are permuted in
any manner, the determinant retains its original value, with
the sign + or according as the new arrangement (considered
as derived from the primitive arrangement) is positive or negative
according to the foregoing rule of signs. It at once follows that,
if two columns are identical, or if two lines are identical, the
value of the determinant is = o. It may be added, that if the
lines are converted into columns, and the columns into lines, in
such a way as to leave the dexter diagonal unaltered, the value
of the determinant is unaltered; the determinant is in this case
said to be transposed.
4. By what precedes it appears that there exists a function of
the 2 elements, linear as regards the terms of each column (or
say, for shortness, linear as to each column), and such that only
the sign is altered when any two columns are interchanged;
these properties completely determine the function, except as to
a common factor which may multiply all the terms. If, to get
rid of this arbitrary common factor, we assume that the product
of -the elements in the dexter diagonal has the coefficient -f- i, we
have a complete definition of the determinant, and it is interesting
to show how from these properties, assumed for the definition
of the determinant, it at once appears that the determinant is a
function serving for the solution of a system of linear equations.
Observe that the properties show at once that if any column is
= o (that is, if the elements in the column are each= o), then
the determinant is = o; and further, that if any two columns
are identical, then the determinant is = o.
5. Reverting to the system of linear equations written down
at the beginning of this article, consider the determinant
ax +by +cz d , b , c
a'x+b'y+c'z-d l ,b',c'
a'x+b'y+c'z-d", b", c"
1
it appears that this is
=x\a , b , c
\a', b',c'
k, b", c'
+y
b ,b ,c
b\b',c'
b", b', c"
+4
1
". , b , c ,
',b',c',
-", b", c',
-M , b , c
W,b',c'
V", b", c"
viz. the second and third terms ei
=x\ a , b , c
', b',c'
\ a", b', c"
LCt
vanishin
d ,b ,c
d',b',c'
d', b", c'
?, it is
But if the linear equations hold good, then the first column of the
1 The expression, a linear function, is here used in its narrowest
sense, a linear function without constant term; what is meant is
that the determinant is in regard to the elements a, a', a", . . of
any column or line thereof, a function of the form Aa+A'a'+A"a"+
.... without any term independent of a, a', a" . . .
112
DETERMINANT
original determinant is = o, and therefore the determinant itself
is = o; that is, the linear equations give
a , b , c
a',b',c'
a", b", c"
d ,b ,c
d',b',c'
d', b', c"
which is the result obtained above.
We might in a similar way find the values of y and z, but there
is a more symmetrical process. Join to the original equations the
new equation
ax+fiy + 73 = 8;
a like process shows that, the equations being satisfied, we have
=o;
a", b', c", d'
or, as this may be written,
-I
a , b , c
a', b',c'
a', b", c"
= or
a , b , c , d
a',b',c',d'
a', b', c', d'
which, considering 5 as standing herein for its value ax+fty+yz,
is a consequence of the original equations only: we have thus an
expression for ax+fty+yz, an arbitrary linear function of the
unknown quantities x, y, z; and by comparing the coefficients of
a, ft, 7 on the two sides respectively, we have the values of *, y, z;
in fact, these quantities, each multiplied by
a , b , c
a',b',c'
a', b", c*
are in the first instance obtained in the forms
a , b , c , d
a'. b',c',d'
a", b", c', d"
a , b , c , d
a',b',c''d'
a", b', c", d"
but these are
b ,c A
c , d , a
b',c',d'
b", c", d"
c',d',a'
c',d",a"
a , b , c , d
a' , b' , c' , d'
a", b", c", d"
d a ,b
d' a', b'
d' a", b"
a ,b ,d
a',b' d'
a",b'd"
or, what is the same thing,
b ,c , d , c ,a , d
b',c',d' c',a',d'
b",c",d" c",a",d"
respectively.
6. Multiplication of two Determinants of the same Order. The
theorem is obtained very easily from the last preceding definition
of a determinant. It is most simply expressed thus
a. ,
b ,
C
w
a",
,
y
a',
b',
c'
a',
0',
-/'
a-",
b",
c"
If
a t
y,
7"
(a , b , c )
(a',b',c')l
(a", b', c')
where the expression on the left side stands for a determinant,
the terms of the first line being (a, b, c)(a, a', a"), that is, aa+fto'+
ca", (a, b, c)(ft, ft', ft"), that is, aft+bft'+cft", (a, b, c)(y,y',y"),
thatisa7+&7'+c7"; and similarly the terms in the second and
third lines are the life functions with (a 1 , b', c') and (a", b", c")
respectively.
There is an apparently arbitrary transposition of lines and
columns; the result would hold good if on the left-hand side we
had written (a, ft, 7), (a', ft', 7'), (a", ft", y"), or what is the same
thing, if on the right-hand side we had transposed the second
determinant; and either of these changes would, it might be
thought, increase the elegance of the form, but, for a reason which
need not be explained, 1 the form actually adopted is the pre-
ferable one.
To indicate the method of proof, observe that the determinant
on the left-hand side, qua linear function of its columns, may be
1 The reason is the connexion with the corresponding theorem for
the multiplication of two matrices.
broken up into a sum of (3" = ) 27 determinants, each of which is
either of some such form as
a , a , b
a',a',b'
a", a", b"
where the term afty' is not a term of the Oj87-determinant, and its
coefficient(as a determinant with two identical columns)vanishes;
or else it is of a form such as
a , b , c
a',b',c'
a", b", c"
that is, every term which does not vanish contains as a factor the
a&c-determinant last written down ; the sum of all other factors
=^aft'y" is the a/fy-determinant of the formula; and the final
result then is, that the determinant on the left-hand side is equal
to the product on the right-hand side of the formula.
7. Decomposition of a Determinant into complementary Deter-
minants. Consider, for simplicity, a determinant of the fifth
order, 5=2+3, and let the top two lines be
a , b , c . d , e
a', b', c', d', e'
then, if we consider how these elements enter into the deter-
minant, it is at once seen that they enter only through the
determinants of the second order c /' j/ I , &c., which can be
formed by selecting any two columns at pleasure. Moreover,
representing the remaining three lines by
a" , b" , c" , d" , e"
a", b", c"', d", e"
a", b", c", d", e"
it is further seen that the factor which multiplies the determinant
formed with any two columns of the first set is the determinant
of the third order formed with the complementary three columns
of the second set; and it thus appears that the determinant of
the fifth order is a sum of all the products of the form
\a,b
\ a', b"
c" ,d" , e"
c",d",e"
c"", d", e"
the sign =*= being in each case such that the sign of the term
ab'.c"d'"e"" obtained from the diagonal elements of the com-
ponent determinants may be the actual sign of this term in the
determinant of the fifth order; for the product written down
the sign is obviously +.
Observe that for a determinant of the -th order, taking the
decomposition to be i + (n i), we fallback upon the equations
given at the commencement, in order to show the genesis of a
determinant.
8. Any determinant "/' 6 / formed out of the elements of '
the original determinant, by selecting the lines and columns at
pleasure, is termed a minor of the original determinant; and
when the number of lines and columns, or order of the deter-
minant, is ni, then such determinant is called a. first minor; the
number of the first minors is = w 2 , the first minors, in fact, corre-
sponding to the several elements of the determinant that is,
the coefficient therein of any term whatever is the corresponding
first minor. The first minors, each divided by the determinant
itself, form a system of elements inverse to the elements of the
determinant.
A determinant is symmetrical when every two elements
symmetrically situated in regard to the dexter diagonal are equal
to each other; if they are equal and opposite (that is, if the sum
of the two elements be = o), this relation not extending to the
diagonal elements themselves, which remain arbitrary, then the
determinant is skew; but if the relation does extend to the
diagonal terms (that is, if these are each = o), then the deter-
minant is skew symmetrical; thus the determinants
a, h, g
h, b, f
, /- c
o, v, n
v, O, X
It, X, O
are respectively symmetrical, skew and skew symmetrical:
DETERMINISM DETROIT
The theory admits of very extensive algebraic developments,
and applications in algebraical geometry and other parts of
mathematics. Foi further developments of the theory of deter-
minants see ALGEBRAIC FORMS. (A. CA.)
9. History. These functions were originally known as " re-
sultants," a name applied to them by Pierre Simon Laplace, but
now replaced by the title " determinants," a name first applied
to certain forms of them by Carl Friedrich Gauss. The germ of the
theory of determinants is to be found in the writings of Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibnitz (1693), who incidentally discovered certain
properties when reducing the eliminant of a system of linear equa-
tions. Gabriel Cramer, in a note to his Analyse des lignes courbes
algebriques (1750), gave the rule which establishes the sign of a product
as plus or minus according as the number of displacements from the
typical form has been even or odd. Determinants were also em-
ployed by Etienne Bezout in 1764, but the first connected account of
these functions was published in 1772 by Charles Auguste Vander-
monde. Laplace developed a theorem of Vandermonde for the
expansion of a determinant, and in 1773 Joseph Louis Lagrange, in
his memoir on Pyramids, used determinants of the third order, and
proved that the square of a determinant was also a determinant.
Although he obtained results now identified with determinants,
Lagrange did not discuss these functions systematically. In 1801
Gauss published his Disquisitiones arithmetical, which, although
written in an obscure form, gave a new impetus to investigations on
this and kindred subjects. To Gauss is due the establishment of the
important theorem, that the product of two determinants both of
the second and third orders is a determinant. The formulation of
the general theory is due to Augustin Louis Cauchy, whose work was
the forerunner of the brilliant discoveries made in the following
decades by Hoene-Wronski and J. Binet in France, Carl Gustav
Jacobi in Germany, and James Joseph Sylvester and Arthur Cayley
in England. Jacobi's researches were published in Crelle's Journal
(1826-1841). In these papers the subject was recast and enriched
by new and important theorems, through which the name of Jacob!
is indissolubly associated with this branch of science. The far-
reaching discoveries of Sylvester and Cayley rank as one of the most
important developments of pure mathematics. Numerous new
fields were opened up, and have been diligently explored by many
mathematicians. Skew-determinants were studied by Cayley;
axisymmetric-determinants by Jacob!, V. A. Lebesque, Sylvester
and O. Hesse, and centre-symmetric determinants by W. R. F. Scott
and G. Zehfuss. Continuants have been discussed by Sylvester;
alternants by Cauchy, Jacobi, N. Trudi, H. Nagelbach and
G. Garbieri ; circulants by E. Catalan, W. Spottiswoode and J. W. L.
Glaisher, and Wronskians by E. B. Christoffel and G. Frobenius.
Determinants composed of binomial coefficients have been studied
by V. von Zeipel ; the expression of definite integrals as determinants
by A. Tissot and A. Enneper, and the expression of continued
fractions as determinants by Jacobi, V. Nachreiner, S. Giinther and
E. Fiirstenau. (See T. Muir, Theory of Determinants, 1906).
DETERMINISM (Lat. determinare, to prescribe or limit), in
ethics, the name given to the theory that all moral choice, so
called, is the determined or necessary result of psychological and
other conditions. It is opposed to the various doctrines of Free-
Will, known as voluntarism, libertarianism, indeterminism, and
is from the ethical standpoint more or less akin to necessitarianism
and fatalism. There are various degrees of determinism. It
may be held that every action is causally connected not only
externally with the sum of the agent's environment, but also
internally with his motives and impulses. In other words, if
we could know exactly all these conditions, we should be able
to forecast with mathematical certainty the course which the
agent would pursue. In this theory the agent cannot be held
responsible for his action in any sense. It is the extreme
antithesis of Indeterminism or Indifferentism, the doctrine that a
man is absolutely free to choose between alternative courses (the
liberum arbitrium indijferentiat) . Since, however, the evidence
of ordinary consciousness almost always goes to prove that the
individual, especially in relation to future acts, regards himself
as being free within certain limitations to make his own choice
of alternatives, many determinists go so far as to admit that
there may be in any action which is neither reflex nor determined
by external causes solely an element of freedom. This view is
corroborated by the phenomenon of remorse, in which the agent
feels that he ought to, and could, have chosen a different course
of action. These two kinds of determinism are sometimes
distinguished as " hard " and " soft " determinism. The con-
troversy between determinism and libertarianism hinges largely
on the significance of the word " motive "; indeed in no other
philosophical controversy has so much difficulty been caused
by purely verbal disputation and ambiguity of expression. How
far, and in what sense, can action which is determined by motives
be said to be free? For a long time the advocates of free-will,
in their eagerness to preserve moral responsibility, went so far
as to deny all motives as influencing moral action. Such a
contention, however, clearly defeats its own object by reducing
all action to chance. On the other hand, the scientific doctrine
of evolution has gone far towards obliterating the distinction
between external and internal compulsion, e.g. motives, character
and the like. In so far as man can be shown to be the product
of, and a link in, a long chain of causal development, so far does
it become impossible to regard him as self-determined. Even in
his motives and his impulses, in his mental attitude towards
outward surroundings, in his appetites and aversions, inherited
tendency and environment have been found to play a very large
part; indeed many thinkers hold that the whole of a man's
development, mental as well as physical, is determined by
external conditions.
In the Bible the philosophical-religious problem is nowhere
discussed, but Christian ethics as set forth in the New Testament
assumes throughout the freedom of the human will. It has been
argued by theologians that the doctrine of divine fore-knowledge,
coupled with that of the divine origin of all things, necessarily
implies that all human action was fore-ordained from the
beginning of the world. Such an inference is, however, clearly
at variance with the whole doctrine of sin, repentance and the
atonement, as also with that of eternal reward and punishment,
which postulates a real measure of human responsibility.
For the history of the free-will controversy see the articles,
WILL, PREDESTINATION (for the theological problems), ETHICS.
DETINUE (O. Fr. delcnue, from detenir, to hold back), in law,
an action whereby one who has an absolute or a special property
in goods seeks to recover from another who is in actual possession
and refuses to redeliver them. If the plaintiff succeeds in an
action of detinue, the judgment is that he recover the chattel or,
if it cannot be had, its value, which is assessed by the judge and
jury, and also certain damages for detaining the same. An order
for the restitution of the specific goods may be enforced by
a special writ of execution, called a writ of delivery. (See
CONTRACT; TROVER.)
DETMOLD, a town of Germany, capital of the principality
of Lippe-Detmold, beautifully situated on the east slope of the
Teutoburger Wald, 25 m. S. of Minden, on the Herford-Alten-
beken line of the Prussian state railways. Pop. (1905) 13,164.
The residential chateau of the princes of Lippe-Detmold (1550),
in the Renaissance style, is an imposing building, lying with its
pretty gardens nearly in the centre of the town; whilst at
the entrance to the large park on the south is the New Palace
(1708-1718), enlarged in 1850, used as the dower-house. Detmold
possesses a natural history museum theatre, high school, library,
the house in which the poet Ferdinand Freiligrath (1810-1876) was
born, and that in which the dramatist Christian Dietrich Grabbe
(1801-1836), also a native, died. The leading industries are linen-
weaving, tanning, brewing, horse-dealing and the quarrying of
marble and gypsum. About 3 m. to the south-west of the town
is the Grotenburg, with Ernst von Bandel's colossal statue of
Hermann or Arminius, the leader of the Cherusci. Detmold
(Thiatmelli) was in 783 the scene of a conflict between tke
Saxons and the troops of Charlemagne.
DETROIT, the largest city of Michigan, U.S.A., and the
county-seat of Wayne county, on the Detroit river opposite
Windsor, Canada, about 4 m. W. from the outlet of Lake St
Clair and 18 m. above Lake Erie. Pop. (1880) 116,340; (1890)
205,876; (1900) 285,704, of whom 96,503 were foreign-born and
4111 were negroes; (1910 census) 465,766. Of the foreign-
born in 1900, 32,027 were Germans and 10,703 were German
Poles, 25,403 were English Canadians and 3541 French Canadians,
6347 were English and 6412 were Irish. Detroit is served by
the Michigan Central, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the
Wabash, the Grand Trunk, the Pere Marquette, the Detroit &
Toledo Shore Line, the Detroit, Toledo & Ironton and the
Canadian Pacific railways. Two belt lines, one 2 m. to 3 m., and
DETROIT
the other 6 m. from the centre of the city, connect the factory
districts with the main railway lines. Trains are ferried across the
river to Windsor, and steamboats make daily trips to Cleveland,
Wyandotte, Mount Clemens, Port Huron, to less important
places between, and to several Canadian ports. Detroit is also
the S. terminus for several lines to more remote lake ports, and
electric lines extend from here to Port Huron, Flint, Pontiac,
Jackson, Toledo and Grand Rapids.
The city extended in 1907 over about 41 sq. m., an increase
from 29 sq. m. in 1900 and 36 sq. m. in 1905. Its area in pro-
portion to its population is much greater than that of most of the
larger cities of the United States. Baltimore, for example, had
in 1904 nearly 70% more inhabitants (estimated), while its area
at that time was a little less and in 1907 was nearly one-quarter
less than that of Detroit. The ground within the city limits as
well as that for several miles farther back is quite level, but rises
gradually from the river bank, which is only a few feet in height.
The Detroit river, along which the city extends for about 10 m.,
is here % m. wide and 30 ft. to 40 ft. deep; its current is quite
rapid; its water, a beautiful clear blue; at its mouth it has a
width of about 10 m., and in the river there are a number of
islands, which during the summer are popular resorts. The city
has a 3 m. frontage on the river Rouge, an estuary of the
Detroit, with a 16 ft. channel. Before the fire by which the city
was destroyed in 1805, the streets were only 12 ft. wide and were
unpaved and extremely dirty. But when the rebuilding began,
several avenues from 100 ft. to 200 ft. wide were through the
influence of Augustus B. Woodward (c. 1775-1827), one of the
territorial judges at the time and an admirer of the plan of the
city of Washington made to radiate from two central points.
From a half circle called the Grand Circus there radiate avenues
1 20 ft. and 200 ft. wide. About J m. toward the river from this
was established another focal point called the Campus Martius,
600 ft. long and 400 ft. wide, at which commence radiating
or cross streets 80 ft. and 100 ft. wide. Running north from
the river through the Campus Martius and the Grand Circus
is Woodward Avenue, 1 20 ft. wide, dividing the present city, as
it did the old town, into nearly equal parts. Parallel with the
river is Jefferson Avenue, also 120 ft. wide. The first of these
avenues is the principal retail street along its lower portion,
and is a residence avenue for 4 m. beyond this. Jefferson is the
principal wholesale street at the lower end, and a fine residence
avenue E. of this. Many of the other residence streets are 80 ft.
wide. The setting of shade trees was early encouraged, and
large elms and maples abound. The intersections of the diagonal
streets left a number of small, triangular parks, which, as well
as the larger ones, are well shaded. The streets are paved mostly
with asphalt and brick, though cedar and stone have been much
used, and kreodone block to some extent. In few, if any, other
American cities of equal size are the streets and avenues kept so
clean. The Grand Boulevard, 1 50 ft. to 200 ft. in width and 1 2 m.
in length, has been constructed around the city except along the
river front. A very large proportion of the inhabitants of Detroit
own their homes: there are no large congested tenement-house
districts; and many streets in various parts of the city are faced
with rows of low and humble cottages often having a garden
plot in front.
Of the public buildings the city hall (erected 1868-1871),
overlooking the Campus Martius, is in Renaissance style, in
three storeys; the flagstaff from the top of the tower reaches
a height of 200 ft. On the four corners above the first section
of the tower are four figures, each 14 ft. in height, to represent
Justice, Industry, Art and Commerce, and on the same level
with these is a clock weighing 7670 Ib one of the largest in the
world. In front of the building stands the Soldiers' and Sailors'
monument, 60 ft. high, designed by Randolph Rogers (1825-1892)
and unveiled in 1872. At each of the four comers in each of
three sections rising one above the other are bronze eagles and
figures representing the United States Infantry, Marine, Cavalry
and Artillery, also Victory, Union, Emancipation and History;
the figure by which the monument is surmounted was designed
to symbolize Michigan. A larger and more massive and stately
building than the city hall is the county court house, facing
Cadillac Square, with a lofty tower surmounted by a gilded
dome. The Federal building is a massive granite structure, finely
decorated in the interior. Among the churches of greatest
architectural beauty are the First Congregational, with a fine
Byzantine interior, St John's Episcopal, the Woodward Avenue
Baptist and the First Presbyterian, all on Woodward Avenue,
and St. Anne's and Sacred Heart of Mary, both Roman Catholic.
The municipal museum of art, in Jefferson Avenue, contains
some unusually interesting Egyptian and Japanese collections,
the Scripps' collection of old masters,other valuable paintings, and
a small library: free lectures on art are given here through the
winter. The public library had 228,500 volumes in 1908, includ-
ing one of the best collections of state and town histories in the
country. A large private collection, owned by C. M. Burton and
relating principally to the history of Detroit, is also open to the
public. The city is not rich in outdoor works of art. The
principal ones are the Merrill fountain and the soldiers' monu-
ment on the Campus Martius, and a statue of Mayor Pingree in
West Grand Circus Park.
The parks of Detroit are numerous and their total area is about
1 200 acres. By far the most attractive is Belle Isle, an island in
the river at the E. end of the city, purchased in 1879 and having
an area of more than 700 acres. The Grand Circus Park of
45 acres, with its trees, flowers and fountains, affords a pleasant
resting place in the busiest quarter of the city. Six miles farther
out on Woodward Avenue is Palmer Park of about 140 acres,
given to the city in 1894 and named in honour of the donor.
Clark Park (28 acres) is in the W. part of the city, and there are
various smaller parks. The principal cemeteries are Elmwood
(Protestant) and Mount Elliott (Catholic), which lie adjoining in
the E. part of the city; Woodmere in the W. and Woodlawn in
the N. part of the city.
Charity and Education. Among the charitable institutions are
the general hospitals (Harper, Grace and St Mary's) ; the Detroit
Emergency, the Children's Free and the United States Marine
hospitals; St Luke's hospital, church home, and orphanage;
the House of Providence (a maternity hospital and infant
asylum); the Woman's hospital and foundling's home; the
Home for convalescent children, &c. In 1894 the mayor, Hazen
Senter Pingree (1842-1901), instituted the practice of preparing,
through municipal aid and supervision, large tracts of vacant
land in and about the city for the growing of potatoes and other
vegetables and then, in conjunction with the board of poor
commissioners, assigning it in small lots to families of the un-
employed, and furnishing them with seed for planting. This plan
served an admirable purpose through three years of industrial
depression, and was copied in other cities; it was abandoned
when, with the renewal of industrial activity, the necessity for
it ceased. The leading penal institution of the city is the Detroit
House of Correction, noted for its efficient reformatory work;
the inmates are employed ten hours a day, chiefly in making
furniture. The house of correction pays the city a profit of
$35,000 to $40,000 a year. The educational institutions, in
addition to those of the general public school system, include
several parochial schools, schools of art and of music, and
commercial colleges; Detroit College (Catholic), opened in 1877;
the Detroit College of Medicine, opened in 1885; the Michigan
College of Medicine and Surgery, opened in 1888; the Detroit
College of law, founded in 1891, and a city normal school.
Commerce. Detroit's location gives to the city's shipping
and shipbuilding interests a high importance. All the enormous
traffic between the upper and lower lakes passes through the
Detroit river. Ini9O7 thenumberof vessels recorded was 34, 149,
with registered tonnage of 53,959,769, carrying 71,226,895 tons
of freight, valued at $697,311,302. This includes vessels which
delivered part or all of their cargo at Detroit. The largest item
in the freights is iron ore on vessels bound down. The next is
coal on vessels up bound. Grain and lumber are the next largest
items. Detroit is a port of entry, and its foreign commerce,
chiefly with Canada, is of growing importance. The city's
exports increased from $11,325,807 in 1896 to $37,085,027 in
DETROIT
1909.
1909.
The imports were $3,153,609 in 1896 and $7,10x2,659 in
As a manufacturing city, Detroit holds high rank. The total
number of manufacturing establishments in 1890 was 1746, with
a product for the year valued at $77,351,546; in 1900 there were
2847 establishments with a product for the year valued at
$100,892,838, or an increase of 30-4 % in the decade. In 1900 the
establishments under the factory system, omitting the hand
trades and neighbourhood industries, numbered 1259 and pro-
duced goods valued at $88,365,924; in 1904 establishments
under the factory system numbered 1363 and the product had
increased 45-7% to $128,761,658. In the district subsequently
annexed the product in 1904 was about $12,000,000, making
a total of $140,000,000. The output for 1906 was estimated at
$180,000,000. The state factory inspectors in 1905 visited 1721
factories having 83,231 employees. In 1906 they inspected 1790
factories with 93,071 employees. Detroit is the leading city in
the country in the manufacture of automobiles. In 1904 the
value of its product was one-fifth that for the whole country. In
1906 the city had twenty automobile factories, with an out-
put of 11,000 cars, valued at $12,000,000. Detroit is probably
the largest manufacturer in the country of freight cars, stoves,
pharmaceutical preparations, varnish, soda ash and similar
alkaline products. Other important manufactures are ships,
paints, foundry and machine shop products, brass goods,
furniture, boots and shoes, clothing, matches, cigars, malt
liquors and fur goods; and slaughtering and meat packing
is an important industry.
The Detroit Board of Commerce, organized in 1903, brought
into one association the members of three former bodies, making
a compact organization with civic as well as commercial aims.
The board has brought into active co-operation nearly all the
leading business men of the city and many of the professional
men. Their united efforts have brought many new industries to
the city, have improved industrial conditions, and have exerted
a beneficial influence upon the municipal administration. Other
business organizations are the Board of Trade, devoted to the
grain trade and kindred lines, the Employers' Association, which
seeks to maintain satisfactory relations between employer and
employed, the Builders' & Traders' Exchange, and the Credit
Men's Association.
Administration. Although the city received its first charter
in 1806, and another in 181 5, the real power rested in the hands of
the governor and judges of the territory until 1824; the charters
of 1824 and 1827 centred the government in a council and made
the list of elective officers long; the charter of 1827 was revised
in 1857 and again in 1859 and the present charter dates from
1883. Under this charter only three administrative officers are
elected, the mayor, the city clerk and the city treasurer,
elections being biennial. The administration of the city depart-
ments is largely in the hands of commissions. There is one
commissioner each, appointed by the mayor, for the parks and
boulevards, police and public works departments. The four
members of the health board are nominated by the governor
and confirmed by the state senate. The school board is an
independent body, consisting of one elected member from each
ward holding office for four years, but the mayor has the veto
power over its proceedings as well as those of the common council.
In each case a two-thirds vote overrules his veto. The other
principal officers and commissions, appointed by the mayor
and confirmed by the council, are controller, corporation counsel,
board of three assessors, fire commission (four members), public
lighting commission (six members), water commission (five
members), poor commission (four members), and inspectors of
the house of correction (four in number) . The members of the
public library commission, six in number, are elected by the board
of education. Itemized estimates of expenses for the next fiscal
year are furnished by the different departments to the controller
in February. He transmits them to the common council with
his recommendations. The council has four weeks in which to
consider them. It may reduce or increase the amounts asked,
and may add new items. The budget then goes to the board of
estimates, which has a month for its consideration. This body
consists of two members elected from each ward and five elected
at large. The mayor and heads of departments are advisory
members, and may speak but not vote. The members of the
board of estimates can hold no other office and they have no
appointing power, the intention being to keep them as free as
possible from all political motives and influences. They may
reduce or cut out any estimates submitted, but cannot increase
any or add new ones. No bonds can be issued without the assent
of the board of estimates. The budget is apportioned among
twelve committees which have almost invariably given close and
conscientious examination to the actual needs of the departments.
A reduction of $1,000,000 to $1,500,000, without impairing the
service, has been a not unusual result of their deliberations.
Prudent management under this system has placed the city in
the highest rank financially. Its debt limit is 2 % on the assessed
valuation, and even that low maximum is not often reached.
The debt in 1907 was only about $5,500,000, a smaller per capita
debt than that of any other city of over 100,000 inhabitants in
the country; the assessed valuation was $330,000,000; the city
tax, $14.70 on the thousand dollars of assessed valuation.
Both the council and the estimators arc- hampered in their work
by legislative interference. Nearly all the large salaries and
many of those of the second grade are made mandatory by the
legislature, which has also determined many affairs of f purely
administrative character.
Detroit has made three experiments with municipal ownership.
On account of inadequate and unsatisfactory service by a private
company, the city bought the water-works as long ago as 1836.
The works have been twice moved and enlargements have been
made in advance of the needs of the city. In 1907 there were six
engines in the works with a pumping capacity of 152,000,000
gallons daily. The daily average of water used during the pre-
ceding year was 61,357,000 gallons. The water is pumped from
Lake St Clair and js of exceptional purity. The city began its
own public lighting in April 1895, having a large plant on the
river near the centre of the city. It lights the streets and public
buildings, but makes no provision for commercial business. The
lighting is excellent, and the cost is probably less than could be
obtained from a private company. The street lighting is done
partly from pole and arm lights, but largely from steel towers
from 100 ft. to 180 ft. in height, with strong reflected lights at the
top. The city also owns two portable asphalt plants, and thus
makes a saving in the cost of street repairing and resurfacing.
With a view of effecting the reduction of street car fares to three
cents, the state legislature in 1899 passed an act for purchasing
or leasing the street railways of the city, but the Supreme Court
pronounced this act unconstitutional on the ground that, as
the constitution prohibited the state from engaging in a work
of internal improvement, the state could not empower a munici-
pality to do so. Certain test votes indicated an almost even
division on the question of municipal ownership of the railways.
History. Detroit was founded in 1701 by Antoine Laumet
de la Mothe Cadillac (c. 1661-1730), who had pointed out the
importance of the place as a strategic point for determining the
control of the fur trade and the possession of the North-west and
had received assistance from the French government soon after
Robert Livingston (1654-1725), the secretary of the Board of
Indian Commissioners in New York, had urged the English
government to establish a fort at the same place. Cadillac
arrived on the 24th of July with about 100 followers. They at
once built a palisade fort about 200 ft. square S. of what is now
Jefferson Avenue and between Griswold and Shelby streets, and
named it Fort Pontchartrain in honour of the French colonial
minister. Indians at once came to the place in large numbers,
but they soon complained of the high price of French goods;
there was serious contention between Cadillac and the French
Canadian Fur Company, to which a monopoly of the trade had
been granted, as well as bitter rivalry between him and the
Jesuits. After the several parties had begun to complain to the
home government the monopoly of the fur trade was transferred
to Cadillac and he was exhorted to cease quarrelling with the
n6
DETTINGEN DEUS, J. DE
Jesuits. Although the inhabitants then increased to 200 or
more, dissatisfaction with the paternal rule of the founder
increased until 1710, when he was made governor of Louisiana.
The year before, the soldiers had been withdrawn; by the
second year after there was serious trouble with the Indians, and
for several years following the population was greatly reduced
and the post threatened with extinction. But in 1722, when the
Mississippi country was opened, the population once more in-
creased, and again in 1748, when the settlement of the Ohio
Valley began, the governor-general of Canada offered special
inducements to Frenchmen to settle at Detroit, with the result
that the population was soon more than 1000 and the culti-
vation of farms in the vicinity was begun. In 1760, however,
the place was taken by the British under Colonel Robert Rogers
and an English element was introduced into the population which
up to this time had been almost exclusively French. Three years
later, during the conspiracy of Pontiac, the fort first narrowly
escaped capture and then suffered from a siege lasting from the
9th of May until the I2th of October. Under English rule it
continued from this time on as a military post with its population
usually reduced to less than 500. In 1778 a new fort was built
and named Fort Lernault, and during the War of Independence
the British sent forth from here several Indian expeditions to
ravage the frontiers. With the ratification of the treaty which
concluded that war the title to the post passed to the United
States in 1783, but the post itself was not surrendered until the
nth of January 1796, in accordance with Jay's Treaty of 1794.
It was then named Fort Shelby; but in 1802 it was incorporated
as a town and received its present name. In 1805 all except one
or two buildings were destroyed by fire. General William Hull
(1753-1825), a veteran of the War of American Independence,
governor of Michigan territory in 1805-1812, as commander of
the north-western army in 1812 occupied the city. Failing to
hear immediately of the declaration of war between the United
States and Great Britain, he was cut off from his supplies shipped
by Lake Erie. He made from Detroit on the 1 2th of July an
awkwardandfutile advance into Canada, which, if more vigorous,
might have resulted in the capture of Maiden and the estab-
lishment of American troops in Canada, and then retired to
his fortifications. On the i6th of August 1812, without any
resistance and without consulting his officers, he surrendered the
city to General Brock, for reasons of humanity, and afterwards
attempted to justify himself by criticism of the War Department
in general and in particular of General Henry Dearborn's
armistice with Prevost, which had not included in its terms Hull,
whom Dearborn had been sent out to reinforce. 1 After Perry's
victory on the i4th of September on Lake Erie, Detroit on the
zgth of September was again occupied by the forces of the United
States. Its growth was rather slow until 1830, but since then
its progress has been unimpeded. Detroit was the capital of
Michigan from 1805 to 1847.
AUTHORITIES. Silas Farmer, The History of Detroit and Michigan
(Detroit, 1884 and 1889), and " Detroit, the Queen City," in L. P.
Powell's Historic Towns of the Western States (New York and London,
1901); D. F. Wilcox, " Municipal Government in Michigan and
Ohio," in Columbia University Studies (New York, 1896); C. M.
Burton, " Cadillac's Village or Detroit under Cadillac (Detroit,
1896) ; Francis Parkman, A Half Century of Conflict (Boston, 1897) ;
and The Conspiracy of Pontiac (Boston, 1898) ; and the annual
Reports of the Detroit Board of Commerce (1904 sqq.).
DETTINGEN, a village of Germany in the kingdom of Bavaria,
on the Main, and on the Frankfort-on-Main-Aschaffenburg rail-
way, 10 m. N.W. of Aschaffenburg. It is memorable as the scene
of a decisive battle on the 27th of June 1743, when the English,
Hanoverians and Austrians (the " Pragmatic army "), 42,000
men under the command of George II. of England, routed -the
numerically superior French forces under the due de Noailles.
It was in memory of this victory that Handel composed his
Dettingen Te Deum.
1 Hull was tried at Albany in i8l4by court martial, General Dearborn
presiding, was found guilty of treason, cowardice, neglect of duty and
unofficerlike conduct, and was sentenced to be shot; the president
remitted the sentence because of Hull's services in the Revolution.
DEUCALION, in Greek legend, son of Prometheus, king of
Phthia in Thessaly, husband of Pyrrha, and father of Hellen, the
mythical ancestor of the Hellenic race. When Zeus had resolved
to destroy all mankind by a flood, Deucalion constructed a boat
or ark, in which, after drifting nine days and nights, he landed
on Mount Parnassus (according to others, Othrys, Aetna or
Athos) with his wife. Having offered sacrifice and inquired how
to renew the human race, they were ordered to cast behind them
the " bones of the great mother," that is, the stones from the hill-
side. The stones thrown by Deucalion became men, those thrown
by Pyrrha, women.
See Apollodorus i. 7, 2; Ovid, Metam. i. 243-415; Apollonius
Rhodius iii. 1085 ff. ; H. Usener, Die Sintflutsagen (1899).
DEUCE (a corruption of the Fr. deux, two), a term applied to
the " two " of any suit of cards, or of dice. It is also a term used
in tennis when both sides have each scored three points in a game,
or five games in a set; to win the game or set two points or games
must then be won consecutively. The earliest instances in
English of the use of the slang expression " the deuce," in
exclamations and the like, date from the middle of the i7th
century. The meaning was similar to that of " plague " or
" mischief " in such phrases as " plague on you," " mischief take
you " and the like. The use of the word as an euphemism for
" the devil " is later. According to the New English Dictionary
the most probable derivation is from a Low German das dans, i.e.
the " deuce " in dice, the lowest and therefore the most unlucky
throw. The personification, with a consequent change of gender,
to der daus, came later. The word has also been identified with
the name of a giant or goblin in Teutonic mythology.
DEUS, JOAO DE (1830-1896), the greatest Portuguese poet
of his generation, was born at San Bartholomeu de Messines in
the province of Algarve on the 8th of March 1830. Matriculating
in the faculty of law at the university of Coimbra, he did not
proceed to his degree but settled in the city, dedicating himself
wholly to the composition of verses, which circulated among
professors and undergraduates in manuscript copies. In the
volume of his art, as in the conduct of life, he practised a rigorous
self-control. He printed nothing previous to 1855, and the first
of his poems to appear in a separate form was La Lata, in 1860.
In 1862 he left Coimbra for Beja, where he was appointed editor
of Bejense, the chief newspaper in the province of Alemtejo,
and four years later he edited the Folha do Sul. As the pungent
satirical verses entitled Eleifdes prove, he was not an ardent
politician, and, though he was returned as Liberal deputy for
the constituency of Silves in 1869, he acted independently of
all political parties and promptly resigned his mandate. The
renunciation implied in the act, which cut him off from all
advancement, is in accord with nearly all that is known of his
lofty character. In the year of his election as deputy, his friend
Jose Antonio Garcia Blanco collected from local journals the series
of poems., Flares do campo, which is supplemented by the Ramo
de flores (1869). This is Joao de Deus's masterpiece. Pires de
Marmalada (1869) is an improvisation of no great merit. The
four theatrical pieces Amemos o nosso proximo, Ser apresentado,
Ensaio de Casamento, and A Viuva inconsolavel are prose
translations from Mery, cleverly done, but not worth the doing.
Horacio e Lydia (1872), a translation from Ronsard, is a good
example of artifice in manipulating that dangerously monotonous
measure, the Portuguese couplet. As an indication of a strong
spiritual reaction three prose fragments (1873) Anna, Mae de
Maria, A Virgem Maria and A Mulher do Levita de Ephrain
translated from Darboy's Femmes de la Bible, are full of signific-
ance. The Folhas soltas (1876) is a collection of verse in the
manner of Flores do campo, brilliantly effective and exquisitely
refined. Within the next few years the writer turned his atten-
tion to educational problems, and in his Cartilha maternal (1876)
first expressed the conclusions to which his study of Pestalozzi
and Frobel had led him. This patriotic, pedagogical apostolate
was a misfortune for Portuguese literature; his educational
mission absorbed Joao de Deus completely, and is responsible
for numerous controversial letters, for a translation of Theodore-
Henri Barrau's treatise, Des devoirs des enfants envers leurs
DEUTERONOMY
117
parents, for a prosodic dictionary and for many other publications
of no literary value. A copy of verses in Antonio Vieira's
Grinalda de Maria (1877), the Loos a Virgem (1878) and the
Proverbios de Salomao are evidence of a complete return to
orthodoxy during the poet's last years. By a lamentable error
of judgment some worthless pornographic verses entitled
Cryptinas have been inserted in the completest edition of Joao
de Deus's poems Campo de Flares (Lisbon, 1893). He died at
Lisbon on the i ith of January 1896, was accorded a public funeral
and was buried in the National Pantheon, the Jeronymite church
at Belem, where repose the remains of Camoens, Herculano and
Garrett. His scattered minor prose writings and correspondence
have been posthumously published by Dr TheophiJo Braga
(Lisbon, 1898).
Next to Camoens and perhaps Garrett, no Portuguese poet has
been more widely read, more profoundly admired than Joao de
Deus; yet no poet in any country has been more indifferent to
public opinion and more deliberately careless of personal fame.
He is not responsible for any single edition of his poems, which
were put together by pious but ill-informed enthusiasts, who
ascribed to him verses that he had not written; he kept no copies
of his compositions, seldom troubled to write them himself, and
was content for the most part to dictate them to others. He has
no great intellectual force, no philosophic doctrine, is limited in
theme as in outlook, is curiously uncertain in his touch, often
marring a fine poem with a slovenly rhyme or with a misplaced
accent; and, on the only occasion when he was induced to revise
a set of proofs, his alterations were nearly all for the worse. And
yet, though he never appealed to the patriotic spirit, though
he wrote nothing at all comparable in force or majesty to the
restrained splendour of Os Lusiadas, the popular instinct which
links his name with that of his great predecessor is eminently
just. For Camoens was his model; not the Camoens of the epic,
but the Camoens of the lyrics and the sonnets, where the passion
of tenderness finds its supreme utterance. Braga has noted five
stages of development in Joao de Deus's artistic life the imita-
tive, the idyllic, the lyric, the pessimistic and the devout phases.
Under each of these divisions is included much that is of extreme
interest, especially to contemporaries who have passed through
the same succession of emotional experience, and it is highly
probable that Caturras and Caspar, pieces as witty as anything
in Bocage but free from Bocage's coarse impiety, will always
interest literary students. But it is as the singer of love that Joao
de Deus will delight posterity as he delighted his own generation.
The elegiac music of Rachel and of Marina, the melancholy of
Adeus and of Remoinho, the tenderness and sincerity of Meu
casto lirio, of Lagrima celeste, of Descalfa, and a score more songs
are distinguished by the large, vital simplicity which withstands
time. It is precisely in the quality of unstudied simplicity that
Joao de Deus is incomparably strong. The temptations to a dis-
play of virtuosity are almost irresistible for a Portuguese poet;
he has the tradition of virtuosity in his blood, he has before him
the example of all contemporaries, and he has at hand an in-
strument of wonderful sonority and compass. Yet not once is
Joao de Deus clamorous or rhetorical, not once does he indulge
in idle ornament. His prevailing note is that of exquisite sweet-
ness and of reverent purity; yet with all his caressing softness he
is never sentimental, and, though he has not the strength for a
long fight, emotion has seldom been set to more delicate music.
Had he included among his other gifts the gift of selection,
had he continued the poetic discipline of his youth instead of
dedicating his powers to a task which, well as he performed
it, might have been done no less well by a much lesser man,
there is scarcely any height to which he might not have risen.
See also Maxime Formont, Le Mouvement poetique conlemporain
en Portugal (Lyon, 1892). (J. F.-K.)
DEUTERONOMY, the name of one of the books of the Old
Testament. This book was long the storm-centre of Pentateuchal
criticism, orthodox scholars boldly asserting that any who
questioned its Mosaic authorship reduced it to the level of a
pious fraud. But Biblical facts have at last triumphed over
tradition, and the non-Mosaic authorship of Deuteronomy is now
a commonplace of criticism. It is still instructive, however, to
note the successive phases through which scholarly opinion
regarding the composition and ;date of his book has passed.
In the 1 7th century. the characteristics which so clearly mark
off Deuteronomy from the other four books of the Pentateuch
were frankly recognized, but the most advanced critics of that
age were inclined to pronounce it the earliest and most authentic
of the five. In the beginning of the igth century de Wette
startled the religious world by declaring that Deuteronomy, so
far from being Mosaic, was not known till the time of Josiah.
This theory he founded on 2 Kings xxii.; and ever since, this
chapter has been one of the recognized foci of Biblical criticism.
The only other single chapter of the Bible which is responsible
for having brought about a somewhat similar revolution in
critical opinion is Ezek. xliv. From this chapter, some seventy
years after de Wette's discovery, Wellhausen with equal acumen
inferred tnat Leviticus was not known to Ezekiel, the priest, and
therefore could not have been in existence in his day; for had
Leviticus been the recognized Law-book of his nation Ezekiel
could not have represented as a degradation the very position
which that Law-book described as a special honour conferred
on the Levites by Yahweh himself. Hence Leviticus, so far
from belonging to an earlier stratum of the Pentateuch than
Deuteronomy, as de Wette thought, must belong to a much
later stratum, and be at least exilic, if not post-exilic.
The title " Deuteronomy " is due to a mistranslation by the
Septuagint of the clause in chap. xvii. 18, rendered " and he shall
write out for himself this Deuteronomy." The Hebrew really
means " and he [the king] shall write out for himself a copy of
this law," where there is not the slightest suggestion that the
author intended to describe <: this law " delivered on the plains
of Moab as a second code in contradistinction to the first code
given on Sinai thirty-eight years earlier. Moreover the phrase
" this law " is so ambiguous as to raise a much greater diffi-
culty than that caused by the Greek mistranslation of the Hebrew
word for " copy." How much does " this law " include? It was
long supposed to mean the whole of our present Deuteronomy;
indeed, it is on that supposition that the traditional view of the
Mosaic authorship is based. But the context alone can determine
the question; and that is often so ambiguous that a sure infer-
ence is impossible. We may safely assert, however, that nowhere
need " this law " mean the whole book. In fact, it invariably
means very much less, and sometimes, as in xxvii. 3, 8, so little
that it could all be engraved in large letters on a few plastered
stones set up beside an altar.
Deuteronomy is not the work of any single writer but the
result of a long process of development. The fact that it is
legislative as well as hortatory is enough to prove this, for most
of the laws it contains are found elsewhere in the Pentateuch,
sometimes in less developed, sometimes in more developed forms,
a fact which is conclusive proof of prolonged historical develop-
ment. According to the all-pervading law of evolution, the less
complex form must have preceded the more complex. Still, the
book does bear the stamp of one master-mind. Its style is as
easily recognized as that of Deutero-Isaiah, being as remarkable
for its copious diction as for its depths of moral and religious
feeling.
The original Deuteronomy, D, read to King Josiah, cannot
have been so large as our present book, for not only could it be
read at a single sitting, but it could be easily read twice in one
day. On the day it was found, Shaphan first read it himself, and
then went to the king and read it aloud to him. But perhaps the
most conclusive proof of its brevity is that it was read publicly
to the assembled people immediately before they, as well as their
king, pledged themselves to obey it; and not a word is said as
to the task of reading it aloud, so as to be heard by such a great
multitude, being long or difficult.
The legislative part of D consists of fifteen chapters (xii.-xxvi.),
which, however, contain many later insertions. But the impression
made upon Josiah by what he heard was far too deep to have
been produced by the legislative part alone. The king must have
listened to the curses as well as the blessings in chap, xxviii., and
n8
DEUTERONOMY
no doubt also to the exhortations in chaps, v.-xi. Hence we may
conclude that the original book consisted of a central mass of
religious, civil and social laws, preceded by a hortatory intro-
duction and followed by an effective peroration. The book read
to Josiah must therefore have comprised most of what is found
in Deut. v.-xxvi., xxvii. 9, 10 and xxviii. But something like
two centuries elapsed before the book reached its present form,
for in the closing chapter, as well as elsewhere, e.g. i. 41-43 (where
1 the joining is not so deftly done as usual) and xxxii. 48-52, there
are undoubted traces of the Priestly Code, P, which is generally
acknowledged to be post-exilic.
The following is an analysis of the main divisions of the book
as we now have it. There are two introductions, the first i.-iv.
44, more historical than hortatory; the second v.-xi., more
hortatory than historical. These may at first have been prefixed
to separate editions of the legislative portion, but were eventu-
ally combined. Then, before D was united to P, five appendices
of very various dates and embracing poetry as well as prose, were
added so as to give a fuller account of the last days of Moses and
thus lead up to the narrative of his death with which the book
closes, (i) Chap, xxvii., where the elders of Israel are introduced
for the first time as acting along with Moses (xxvii. i) and then
the priests, the Levites (xxvii. 9). Some of the curses refer to
laws given not in D but in Lev. xxx., so that the date of this
chapter must be later than Leviticus or at any rate than the
laws codified in the Law of Holiness (Lev. xvii.-xxvi.). (2) The
second appendix, chaps, xxix.-xxxi. 29, xxxii. 45-47, gives us
the farewell address of Moses and is certainly later than D.
Moses is represented as speaking not with any hope of preventing
Israel's apostasy but because he knows that the people will
eventually prove apostate (xxxi. 29), a point of view very
different from D's. (3) The Song of Moses, chap, xxxii. That
this didactic poem must have been written late in the nation's
history, and not at its very beginning, is evident from v. 7:
" Remember the days of old, Consider the years of many genera-
tions." Such words cannot be interpreted so as to fit the lips of
Moses. It must have been composed in a time of natural gloom
and depression, after Yahweh's anger had been provoked by
" a very froward generation," certainly not before the Assyrian
Empire had loomed up against the political horizon, aggressive
and menacing. Some critics bring the date down even to the
time of Jeremiah and Ezekiel. (4) The Blessing of Moses,
chap, xxxiii. The first line proves that this poem is not by D,
who speaks invariably of Horeb, never of Sinai. The situation
depicted is in striking contrast with that of the Song. Everything
is bright because of promises fulfilled, and the future bids fair
to be brighter still. Bruston maintains with reason that the
Blessing, strictly so called, consists only of w. 6-25, and has
been inserted in a Psalm celebrating the goodness of Jehovah to
his people on their entrance into Canaan (vv. 1-5, 26-29). The
special prominence given to Joseph (Ephraim and Manasseh) in
w. 13-17 has led many critics to assign this poem to the time
of the greatest warrior-king of Northern Israel, Jeroboam II.
(5) The account of Moses' death, chap, xxxiv. This appendix,
containing, as it does, manifest traces of P, proves that even
Deuteronomy was not put into its present form until after the
exile.
From the many coincidences between D and the Book of the
Covenant (Ex. xx.-xxiii.) it is clear that D was acquainted with E,
the prophetic narrative of the Northern kingdom; but it is not
quite clear whether D knew E as an independent work, or after
its combination with J, the somewhat earlier prophetic narrative
of the Southern kingdom, the combined form of which is now
indicated by the symbol JE. Kittel certainly puts it too strongly
when he asserts that D quotes always from E and never from J,
for some of the passages alluded to in D may just as readily be
ascribed to J as to E, cf. Deut. i. 7 and Gen. xv. 18; Deut. x. 14
and Ex. xxxiv. 1-4. Consequently D must have been written
certainly after E and possibly after E was combined with J.
In Amos, Hosea and Isaiah there are no traces of D's ideas,
whereas in Jeremiah and Ezekiel their influence is everywhere
manifest. Hence this school of thought arose between the age of
Isaiah and that of Jeremiah; but how long D itself may have
been in existence before it was read in 622 to Josiah cannot be
determined with certainty. Many argue that D was written
immediately before it was found and that, in fact, it was put into
the temple for the purpose of being " found." This theory gives
some plausibility to the charge that the book is a. pious fraud.
But the narrative in 2 Kings xxii. warrants no such inference.
The more natural explanation is that it was written not in the
early years of Josiah's reign, and with the cognizance of the
temple priests then in office, but some time during the long reign
of Manasseh, probably when his policy was most reactionary
and when he favoured the worship of the " host of heaven " and
set up altars to strange gods in Jerusalem itself. This explains
why the author did not publish his work immediately, but placed
it where he hoped it would be safely preserved till opportunity
should arise for its publication. One need not suppose that he
actually foresaw how favourable that opportunity would prove,
and that, as soon as discovered, his work would be promulgated
as law by the king and willingly accepted by the people. The
author believed that everything he wrote was in full accordance
with the mind of Moses, and would contribute to the national
weal of Yahweh's covenant people, and therefore he did not
scruple to represent Moses as the speaker. It is not to be
expected that modern scholars should be able to fix the exact
year or even decade in which such a book was written. It is
enough to determine with something like probability the century
or half-century which best fits its historical data; and these
appear to point to the reign of Manasseh.
Between D and P there are no verbal parallels; but in the
historical resumes JE is followed closely, whole clauses and even
verses being copied practically verbatim. As Dr Driver points
out in his careful analysis, there are only three facts in D which
are not also found in JE, viz. the number of the spies, the number
of souls that went down into Egypt with Jacob, and the ark
being made of acacia wood. But even these may have been in
J or E originally, and left out when JE was combined with P.
Steuernagel divides the legal as well as the hortatory parts of D
between two authors, one of whom uses the 2nd person plural
when addressing Israel, and the other the 2nd person singular;
but as a similar alternation is constantly found in writings
universally acknowledged to be by the same author, this clue
seems anything but trustworthy, depending as it does on the
presence or absence of a single Hebrew letter, and resulting, as it
frequently does, in the division of verses which otherwise seem
to be from the same pen (cf. xx. 2). The inference as to diversity
of authorship is much more conclusive when difference of stand-
point can be proved, cf. v. 3, xi. 2 ff. with viii. 2. The first two
passages represent Moses as addressing the generation that was
alive at Horeb, whereas the last represents him as speaking to
those who were about to pass over Jordan a full generation later;
and it may well be that the one author may, in the historical and
hortatory parts, have preferred the 2nd plural and the other
the 2nd singular; without the further inference being justified
that every law in which the 2nd singular is used must be assigned
to the latter, and every law in which the 2nd plural occurs must
be due to the former.
The law of the Single Sanctuary, one of D's outstanding
characteristics, is, for him, an innovation, but an innovation
towards which events had long been tending. 2 Kings xxiii. 9
shows that even the zeal of Josiah could not carry out the
instructions laid down in D xviii. 6-8. Josiah's acceptance of
D made it the first canonical book of scripture. Thus the religion
of Judah became henceforward a religion which enabled its
adherents to learn from a book exactly what was required of
them. D requires the destruction not only of the high places and
the idols, but of the Asheras (wooden posts) and the Mazzebas
(stone pillars) often set up beside the altar of Jehovah (xvi. 21).
These reforms made too heavy demands upon the people, as was
proved by the reaction which set in at Josiah's death. Indeed
the country people would look on the destruction of the high
places with their Asheras and Mazzebas as sacrilege and would
consider Josiah's death in battle as a divine punishment for his
DEUTSCH DEUX-SEVRES
119
sacrilegious deeds. On the other hand, the destruction of
Jerusalem and the exile of the people would appear to those who
had obeyed D's instructions as a well-merited punishment for
national apostasy.
Moreover, D regarded religion as of the utmost moment to each
individual Israelite; and it is certainly not by accident that the
declaration of the individual's duty towards God immediately
follows the emphatic intimation to Israel of Yahweh's unity.
" Hear, O Israel, Yahweh is our God, Yahweh is one: and thou
shall love Yahweh thy God with all thine heart and with all thy
soul and with all thy strength " (vi. 4, 5).
In estimating the religious value of Deuteronomy it should
never be forgotten that upon this passage the greatest eulogy
ever pronounced on any scripture was pronounced by Christ
himself, when he said " on these words hang all the law and the
prophets," and it is also well to remember that when tempted in
the wilderness he repelled each suggestion of the Tempter by a
quotation from Deuteronomy.
Nevertheless even such a writer as D could not escape the
influence of the age and atmosphere in which he lived; and
despite the spirit of love which breathes so strongly throughout
the book, especially for the poor, the widow and the fatherless,
the stranger and the homeless Levite (xxiv. 10-22), and the
humanity shown towards both beasts and birds (xxii. i, 4, 6 f.,
xxv. 4), there are elements in D which go far to explain the
intense exclusiveness and the religious intolerance characteristic
of Judaism. Should a man's son or friend dear to him as his own
soul seek to tempt him from the faith of his fathers, D's pitiless
order to that man is " Thou shall surely kill. him; thine hand
shall be first upon him to put him lo dealh." From Ihis single
instance we see nol only how far mankind has travelled along the
path of religious toleration since Deuteronomy was wrillen, bul
also how very far the criticism implied in Christ's melhod of
deah'ng wilh whal " was said to them of old time " may be
legilimately carried. (J- A. P.*)
DEUTSCH, IMMANUEL OSCAR MENAHEM (1829-1873),
German orienlal scholar, was born on the 28th of October 1829,
at Neisse in Prussian Silesia, of Jewish extraction. On reaching
his sixteenlh year he began his sludies at the university of Berlin,
paying special allenlion to theology and the Talmud. He also
mastered ihe English language and sludied English lileralure.
In 1855 Deulsch was appointed assislanl in Ihe library of Ihe
British Museum. He worked intensely on the Talmud and
conlribuled no less lhan 100 papers to Chambers' s Encyclopaedia,
in addition to essays in Kitlo's and Smith's Biblical Dictionaries,
and articles in periodicals. In October 1867 his article on " The
Talmud," published in the Quarterly Renew, made him known.
Il was translated into French, German, Russian, Swedish, Dutch
and Danish. He died al Alexandria on the I2th of May 1873.
His Literary Remains, edited by Lady Strangford, were published
in 1874, consisting ot nineteen papers on such subjects as " The
Talmud," " Islam," " Semitic Culture," " Egypt, Ancient and
Modern," " Semitic Languages," " The Targums," " The Samaritan
Pentateuch," and " Arabic Poetry."
DEUTSCHKRONE, a town of Germany, kingdom of Prussia,
between the two lakes of Arens and Radau, 15 rn. N.W. of
Schneidemiihl, a railway junction 60 m. north of Posen. Pop.
(1905) 7282. Il is the seal of Ihe public offices for Ihe dislricl,
possesses an Evangelical and a Roman Calholic church, a
synagogue, and a gymnasium established in the old Jesuil
college, and has manufaclures of machinery, woollens, dies,
brandy and beer.
DEUTZ (anc. Divitio), formerly an independenl town of
Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, on the right bank of
the Rhine, opposite to Cologne, wilh which il has been incorpor-
ated since 1888. It contains Ihe church of Si Heribert, buill in
Ihe i7lh cenlury, cavalry barracks, artillery magazines, and gas,
porcelain, machine and carriage faclories. Ic has a handsome
railway slalion on Ihe banks of the Rhine, negotiating Ihe local
Iraffic wilh Elberfeld and Konigswinler. The forlificalions of
Ihe lown form parl of Ihe defences of Cologne. To the easl is the
manufacturing suburb of Kalk.
The old castle in Deutz was in 1002 made a Benedictine
monastery by Heribert, archbishop of Cologne. Permission to
fortify ihe lown was in 1 230 granted lo Ihe citizens by the arch-
bishop of Cologne, between whom and Ihe counls of Berg it was
in 1240 divided. Il was burnl in 1376, 1445 and 1583; and
in 1678, afler Ihe peace of Nijmwegen, Ihe fortifications were
dismantled; rebuilt in 1816, they were again razed in 1888.
DEUX-SEVRES, an inland department of western France,
formed in 1 790 mainly of Ihe Ihree districts of Poilou, Thouarsais,
Gatine and Niorlais, added lo a small portion of Sainlonge and
a still smaller portion of Aunis. Area, 2337 sq. m. Pop. (1906)
339,466. It is bounded N. by Maine-et-Loire, E. by Vienne,
S.E. by Charente, S. by Charente-Inferieure and W. by Vendee.
The department takes its name from two rivers the Sevre of
Niort which Iraverses the southern portion, and the Sevre of
Nanles (an affluenl of Ihe Loire) which drains Ihe north-west.
There are three regions the Gatine, occupying the north and
centre of the departmenl, the Plaine in Ihe soulh and the Marais,
distinguished by Iheir geological character and their general
physical appearance. The Gatine, formed of primitive rocks
(granite and schists), is the continuation of the " Bocage " of
Vendee and Maine-et-Loire. Ils surface is irregular and covered
wilh hedges and clumps of wood or forests. The systematic
application of lime has much improved Ihe soil, which is nalurally
poor. The Plaine, resting on oolite limestone, is treeless bul
fertile. The Marais, a low-lying dislrict in the extreme soulh-
wesl, consisls of alluvial clays which also are extremely pro-
ductive when properly drained. The highesl points, several of
which exceed 700 f I., are found in a line of hills which begins in ihe
cenlre of the departmenl, lo Ihe soulh of Parthenay, and stretches
north-west into the neighbouring departmenl of Vendee. It
divides Ihe region drained by Ihe Sevre Nanlaise and the Thouet
(both affluenls of Ihe Loire) in Ihe north from the basins of the
Sevre Niortaise and the Charente in Ihe south. The climate is
mild, the annual lemperalure al Niort being 54 Fahr., and the
rainfall nearly 25 in. The winters are colder in the Gatine, Ihe
summers warmer in Ihe Plaine.
Three-quarters of the entire area of Deux-Sevres, which is
primarily an agricullural deparlment, consisls of arable land.
Wheal and oals are Ihe main cereals. Polaloes and mangold-
wurzels are the chief root-crops. Niort is a centre for the growing
of vegetables (onions, asparagus, artichokes, &c.) and of angelica.
Considerable quantities of beetrool are raised lo supply the
distilleries of Melle. Colza, hemp, rape and flax are also culti-
vated. Vineyards are numerous in the neighbourhood of
Bressuire in the north, and of Niort and Melle in the south. The
deparlmenl is well known for the Parthenay breed of caltle and
the Poitou breed of horses; and Ihe mules reared in Ihe soulhern
arrondissemenls are much soughl afler bolh in France and in
Spain. The system of co-operative dairying is practised in some
localities. The apple-trees of Ihe Gatine and ihe walnul-lrees of
Ihe Plaine bring a good relurn. Coal is mined, and Ihe deparl-
menl produces building-slone and lime. A leading induslry is
themanufactureof textiles (serges, druggets, linen, handkerchiefs,
flannels, swan-skins and knilled goods). Tanning and lealher-
dressing are carried on at Niorl and olher places, and gloves are
made al Niorl. Wool and collon spinning, hat and shoe making,
distilling, brewing, flour-milling and oil-refining are also main
industries. The deparlmenl exports cattle and sheep to Paris
and Poitiers; also cereals, oils, wines, vegetables and ils induslrial
producls.
The Sevre Niorlaise and ils Iribulary Ihe Mignon furnish 19 m.
of navigable waterway. The department is served by the Ouesl-
Etat railway. Il contains a large proportion of Proleslanls,
especially in Ihe soulh-easl. The four arrondissemenls are Niorl,
Bressuire, Melle and Parthenay; the cantons number 31, and
the communes 356. Deux-Sevres is part of the region of the
IX. army corps, and of the diocese and the academic (educational
circumscription) of Poitiers, where also is its courl of appeal.
Niorl (ihe capital), Bressuire, Melle, Parthenay, St Maixent,
Thouars and Oiron are Ihe principal places in Ihe deparlment.
Several olher towns contain fealures of inlerest. Among these
120
DEVA DEVENTER
are Airvault, where there is a church of the i2th and i4th
centuries which once belonged to the abbey of St Pierre, and an
ancient bridge built by the monks; Celles-sur-Belle, where there
is an old church rebuilt by Louis XI., and again in the i7th
century; and St Jouin-de-Marnes, with a fine Romanesque
church with Gothic restoration, which belonged to one of the
most ancient abbeys of Gaul.
DEVA (Sanskrit " heavenly "), in Hindu and Buddhist
mythology, spirits of the light and air, and minor deities
generally beneficent. In Persian mythology, however, the
word is used for evil spirits or demons. According to Zoroaster
the devas were created by Ahriman.
DEVA (mod. Chester), a Roman legionary fortress in Britain
on the Dee. It was occupied by Roman troops about A.D. 48 and
held probably till the end of the Roman dominion. Its garrison
was the Legio XX. Valeria Victrix, with which another legion
(II. Adjutrix) was associated for a few years, about A.D. 75-85.
It never developed, like many Roman legionary fortresses, into
a town, but remained military throughout. Parts of its north
and east walls (from Morgan's Mount to Peppergate) and
numerous inscriptions remain to indicate its character and area.
See F. J. Haverfield, Catalogue of the Grosvenor Museum, Chester
(Chester, 1900), Introduction.
DEVADATTA, the son of Suklodana, who was younger
brother to the father of the Buddha (Mahavastu, iii. 76). Both
he and his brother Ananda, who were considerably younger
than the Buddha, joined the brotherhood in the twentieth year
of the Buddha's ministry. Four other cousins of theirs, chiefs of
the Sakiya clan, and a barber named Upali, were admitted to the
order at the same time; and at their own request the barber was
admitted first, so that as their senior in the order he should
take precedence of them ( Vinaya Texts, iii. 228). All the others
continued loyal disciples, but Devadatta, fifteen years afterwards,
having gained over the crown prince of Magadha, Ajalasallu, to
his side, made a formal proposition, at the meeting of the order,
that the Buddha should retire, and hand over the leadership to
him, Devadatta (Vinaya Texts, iii. 238; Jataka, i. 142). This
proposal was rejected, and Devadatta is said in the tradition
to have successfully instigated the prince to the execution of his
aged father and to have made three abortive attempts to bring
about the death of the Buddha (Vinaya Texts, iii. 241-250;
Jataka, vi. 131), shortly afterwards, relying upon the feeling of
the people in favour of asceticism, he brought forward four
propositions for ascetic rules to be imposed on the order. These
being refused, he appealed to the people, started an order of
his own, and gained over 500 of the Buddha's community
to join in the secession. We hear nothing further about the
success or otherwise of the new order, but it may possibly be
referred to under the name of the Gotamakas, in the Anguttara
(see Dialogues of the Buddha 1.222), for Devadatta 's family name
was Gotama. But his community was certainly still in existence
in the 4th century A.D., for it is especially mentioned by Fa Hien,
the Chinese pilgrim (Legge's translation, p. 62). And it possibly
lasted till the 7th century, for Hsiian Tsang mentions that in a
monastery in Bengal the monks then followed a certain regulation
of Devadatta's (T. Walters, On Yuan Chwang, ii. 191). There
is no mention in the canon as to how or when Devadatta died';
but the commentary on the Jataka, written in the 5th century A.D.,
has preserved a tradition that he was swallowed up by the earth
near Savatthi, when on his way to ask pardon of the Buddha
(Jataka, iv. 158). The spot where this occurred was shown to
both the pilgrims just mentioned (Fa Hien, loc. cit. p. 60; and
T. Walters, On Yuan Chwang, i. 390). It is a striking example
of Ihe way in which such legends grow, that it is only the latest
of these aulhorities, Hsiian Tsang, who says that, though
ostensibly approaching the Buddha with a view lo reconcilialion,
Devadalta had concealed poison in his nail with the object of
murdering the Buddha.
AUTHORITIES. Vinaya Texts, translated by Rhys Davids and
H. Oldenberg (3 vols., Oxford, 1881-1885); The Jataka, edited by
V. Fausboll (7 vols., London, 1877-1897); T. Walters, On Yuan
Chwang (ed. Rhys Davids and Bushel!, 2 vols., London, 1904-1905) ;
Fa Hian, translated by J. Legge (Oxford, 1886); Mahavastu (ed.
Tenant, 3 vols., Paris, 1882-1897). (T. W. R. D.)
DEVAPRAYAG (DEOpRAYAG).a village in Tehri Slale of the
United Provinces, India. It is situaled at the spot where the
rivers Alaknanda and Bhagirathi unile and form the Ganges,
and as one of the five sacred confluences in Ihe hills is a great
place of pilgrimage for devout Hindus. Devaprayag stands at
an elevation of 2265 ft. on the side of a hill which rises above it
800 ft. On a terrace in Ihe upper part of the village is the temple
of Raghunath, built of huge uncemenled stones, pyramidical in
form and capped by a while cupola.
DEVEKS, CHARLES (1820-1891), American lawyer and jurist,
was born in Charleslown, Massachusells, on Ihe 4lh of April 1820.
He gradualed al Harvard College in 1838, and al Ihe Harvard
law school in 1840, and was admilled lo Ihe bar in Franklin
counly, Mass., where he praclised from 1841 to 1849. In
the year 1848 he was a Whig member of the stale senale, and
from 1849 to 1853 was Uniled Slates marshal for Massachuselts,
in which capacity he was called upon in 1851 to remand the
fugilive slave, Thomas Sims, to slavery. This he felt constrained
lo do, much againsl his personal desire; and subsequenlly he
altempted in vain to purchase Sims's freedom, and many years
later appointed him to a position in the deparlmenl of juslice at
Washington. Devens praclised law al Worcesler from 1853 unlil
1 86 1, and Ihroughoul Ihe Civil War served in Ihe Federal army,
becoming colonel of volunteers in July 1861 and brigadier-
general of volunteers in April 1862. At the batlle of Ball's Bluff
(1861) he was severely wounded; he was again wounded al
Fair Oaks (1862) .and al Chancellorsville (1863), where he com-
manded a division. He later dislinguished himself at Cold
Harbor, and commanded a division in Granl's final campaign in
Virginia (1864-65), his Iroops being Ihe firsl to occupy Richmond
after its fall. Breveled major-general in 1865, he remained in
Ihe army for a year as commander of the military district of
Charleston, Soulh Carolina. He was a judge of the Massachusetls
superior court from 1867 to 1873, and was an associate juslice of
the supreme court of Ihe state from 1873 to 1877, and again from
1881 lo 1891. From 1877 to 1881 he was attorney-general of the
United States in the cabinet of President Hayes. He died at
Boston, Mass., on the 7th of January 1891.
See his Orations and Addresses, with a memoir by John Codman
Ropes (Boston, 1891).
DEVENTER, a town in the province of Overysel, Holland, on
Ihe righl bank of Ihe Ysel, al Ihe confluence of the Schipbeek,
and a junction slation 10 m. N. of Zutphen by rail. It is also
connected by steam Iramway S.E. wilh Brokulo. Pop. (1900)
26,212. Devenler is a neal and prosperous town silualed in the
midst of pretlily wooded environs, and conlaining many curious
old buildings. There are Ihree churches of special interest: the
Groote Kerk (St Lebuinus), which dates from 1334, and occupies
Ihe sile of an older slruclure of which the nlh-cenlury crypl
remains; Ihe Roman Calholic Broederkerk, or Brolhers' Church,
conlaining among ils relics three ancient gospels said lo have
been written by St Lebuinus (Lebwin), Ihe English apostle of
Ihe Frisians and Weslphalians (d. c. 773); and the Bergkerk,
dedicated in 1 206, which has two late Romanesque lowers. The
lown hall (1693) conlains a remarkable painling of Ihe town
council by Terburg. In Ihe fine square called Ihe Brink is the old
weigh-house, nowaschool (gymnasium), builtiu I528,wilhalarge
exlernal staircase (1644). The gymnasium is descended from the
Latin school of which Ihe celebrated Alexander Hegius was
masler in Ihe Ihird quarler of Ihe i5lh cenlury, when Ihe young
Erasmus was senl lo it, and al which Adrian Floreizoon, after-
wards Pope Adrian VI., is said to have been a pupil about the
same time. Anolher famous educalional inslilulion was the
" Alhenaeum " or high school, founded in 1630, al which Henri
Renery (d. 1639) laughl philosophy, while Johann Friedrich
Gronov (Gronovius) (1611-1671) laughl rhetoric and history in
Ihe middle of the same century. The " Alhenaeum " disap-
pered in 1876. In modern limes Deventer possessed a famous
teacher in Dr Burgersdyk (d. 1900), the Dutch translator of
Shakespeare. The lown library, also called Ihe library of tnt
DE VERB DEVIL
121
Athenaeum, includes many MSS. and incunabula, and a 13th-
century copy of Reynard the Fox. The archives of the town are
of considerable value. Besides a considerable agricultural trade,
Deventer has important iron foundries and carpet factories (the
royal manufactory of Smyrna carpets being especially famous) ;
while cotton-printing, rope-making and the weaving of woollens
and silks are also carried on. A public official is appointed to
supervise the proper making of a form of gingerbread known as
" Deventer Koek," which has a reputation throughout Holland.
In the church of Bathmen, a village 5 m. E. of Deventer, some
14th-century frescoes were discovered in 1870.
In the I4th century Deventer was the centre of the famous
religious and educational movement associated with the name
of Gerhard Groot (q.v.), who was a native of the town (see
BROTHERS or COMMON LIFE).
DE VERB, AUBREY THOMAS (1814-1002), Irish poet and
critic, was born at Curragh Chase, Co. Limerick, on the loth of
January 1814, being the third son of Sir Aubrey de Vere Hunt
(1788-1846). In 1832 his father dropped the final name by royal
licence. Sir Aubrey was himself a poet. Wordsworth called his
sonnets the " most perfect of the age." These and his drama,
Mary Tudor, were published by his son in 1875 and 1884. Aubrey
de Vere was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and in his
twenty-eighth year published The Waldenses, which he followed
up in the next year by The Search after Proserpine. Thence-
forward he was continually engaged, till his death on the 2oth of
January 1902, in the production of poetry and criticism. His
best-known works are: in verse, The Sisters (1861); The Infant
Bridal (1864); Irish Odes (1869); Legends of St Patrick (1872);
and Legends of the Saxon Saints (1879); and in prose, Essays
chiefly on Poetry (1887); and Essays chiefly Literary and Ethical
(1889). He also wrote a picturesque volume of travel-sketches,
and two dramas in verse, Alexander the Great (1874); and St
Thomas of Canterbury (1876); both of which, though they
contain fine passages, suffer from diffuseness and a lack of
dramatic spirit. The characteristics of Aubrey de Vere's poetry
are " high seriousness " and a fine religious enthusiasm. His
research in questions of faith led him to the Roman Church; and
in many of his poems, notably in the volume of sonnets called
St Peter's Chains (1888), he made rich additions to devotional
verse. He was a disciple of Wordsworth, whose calm meditative
serenity he often echoed with great felicity; and his affection for
Greek poetry, truly felt and understood, gave dignity and weight
to his own versions of mythological idylls. But perhaps he will
be chiefly remembered for the impulse which he gave to the study
of Celtic legend and literature. In this direction he has had many
followers, who have sometimes assumed the appearance of
pioneers; but after Matthew Arnold's fine lecture on " Celtic
Literature," nothing perhaps did more to help the Celtic revival
than Aubrey de Vere's tender insight into the Irish character,
and his stirring reproductions of the early Irish epic poetry.
A volume of Selections from his poems was edited in 1894 (New
York and London) by G. E. Woodberry.
DEVICE, a scheme, plan, simple mechanical contrivance; also
a pattern or design, particularly an heraldic design or emblem,
often combined with a motto or legend. " Device " and its
doublet " devise " come from the two Old French forms devis
and devise of the Latin divisa, things divided, from dividere, to
separate, used in the sense of to arrange, set out, apportion.
" Devise," as a substantive, is now only used as a legal term
for a disposition of property by will, by a modern convention
restricted to a disposition of real property, the term " bequest "
being used of personalty (see WILL). This use is directly due
to the Medieval Latin meaning of dividere = testamenlo disponere.
In its verbal form, " devise " is used not only in the legal sense,
but also in the sense of to plan, arrange, scheme.
DEVIL (Gr. &a/3o\os, "slanderer," from SiatfdXW, to
slander), the generic name for a spirit of evil, especially the
supreme spirit of evil, the foe of God and man. The word is used,
for minor evil spirits in much the same sense as " demon." From
the various characteristics associated with this idea, the term has
come to be applied by analogy in many different senses. From
the idea of evil as degraded, contemptible and doomed to failure,
the term is applied to persons in evil plight, or of slight considera-
tion. In English legal phraseology " devil " and " devilling "
are used of barristers who act as substitutes for others. Any
remuneration which the legal " devil " may receive is purely a
matter of private arrangement between them. In the chancery
division such remuneration is generally in the proportion of
one half of the fee which the client pays; " in the king's bench
division remuneration for ' devilling ' of briefs or assisting in
drafting and opinions is not common " (see Annual Practice, 1907,
p. 717). In a similar sense an author may have his materials
collected and arranged by a literary hack or " devil." The term
" printer's devil " for the errand boy in a printing office probably
combines this idea with that of his being black with ink. The
common notions of the devil as black, ill-favoured, malicious,
destructive and the like, have occasioned the application of the
term to certain animals (the Tasmanian devil, the devil-fish, the
coot), to mechanical contrivances (for tearing up cloth or separat-
ing wool), to pungent, highly seasoned dishes, broiled or fried.
In this article we are concerned with the primary sense of the
word, as used in mythology and religion.
The primitive philosophy of animism involves the ascription
of all phenomena to personal agencies. As phenomena are good
or evil, produce pleasure or pain, cause weal or woe, a distinction
in the character of these agencies is gradually recognized; the
agents of good become gods, those of evil, demons. A tendency
towards the simplification and organization of the evil as of the
good forces, leads towards belief in outstanding leaders among
the forces of evil. When the divine is most completely conceived
as unity, the demonic is also so conceived; and over against God
stands Satan, or the devil.
Although it is in connexion with Hebrew and Christian mono-
theism that this belief in the devil has been most fully developed,
yet there are approaches to the doctrine in other religions. In
Babylonian mythology " the old serpent goddess ' the lady Nina '
was transformed into the embodiment of all that was hostile to
the powers of heaven " (Sayce's Hibbert Lectures, p. 283) , and was
confounded with the dragon Tiamat, " a terrible monster, reap-
pearing in the Old Testament writings as Rahab and Leviathan,
the principle of chaos, the enemy of God and man " (Tennant's
The Fall and Original Sin, p. 43), and according to Gunkel
(Schopfung und Chaos, p. 383) " the original of the ' old serpent '
of Rev. xii. 9." In Egyptian mythology the serpent Apap with
an army of monsters strives daily to arrest the course of the boat
of the luminous gods. While the Greek mythology described
the Titans as " enchained once for all in their dark dungeons "
yet Prometheus' threat remained to disturb the tranquillity of the
Olympian Zeus. In the German mythology the army of darkness
is led by Hel, the personification of twilight, sunk to the goddess
who enchains the dead and terrifies the living, and Loki, originally
the god of fire, but afterwards " looked upon as the father of the
evil powers, who strips the goddess of earth of her adornments,
who robs Thor of his fertilizing hammer, and causes the death of
Balder the beneficent sun." In Hindu mythology the Maruts,
Indra, Agni and Vishnu wage war with the serpent Ahi to deliver
the celestial cows or spouses, the waters held captive in the
caverns of the clouds. In the Trimurti, Brahma (the impersonal)
is manifested as Brahma (the personal creator), Vishnu (the
preserver), and Siva (the destroyer). In Siva is perpetuated the
belief in the god of Vedic times Rudra, who is represented as
" the wild hunter who storms over the earth with his bands, and
lays low with arrows the men who displease him " (Chantepie de
la Saussaye's Religionsgeschichte, 2nd ed., vol. ii. p. 25). The evil
character of Siva is reflected in his wife, who as Kali (the black)
is the wild and cruel goddess of destruction and death. The
opposition of good and evil is most fully carried out in
Zoroastrianism. Opposed to Ormuzd, the author of all good, is
Ahriman, the source of all evil; and the opposition runs through
the whole universe (D'Alviella's Hibbert Lectures, pp. 158-164).
The conception of Satan (Heb. v&t, the adversary, Gr.
~2o.TO.vas, or "Zarav, 2 Cor. xii. 7) belongs to the post -exilic period
of Hebrew development, and probably shows traces of the
122
DEVIL
influence of Persian on Jewish thought, but it has also its roots
in much older beliefs. An " evil spirit " possesses Saul (i Sam.
xvi. 14), but it is " from the Lord." The same agency produces
discord between Abimelech and the Shechcmites (Judges ix. 23).
" A lying spirit in the mouth of all his prophets " as Yah\veh's
messenger entices Ahab to his doom (i Kings xxii. 22). Growing
human corruption is traced to the fleshy union of angels and
women (Gen. vi. 1-4). But generally evil, whether as misfortune
or as sin, is assigned to divine causality (i Sara, xviii. 10; 2 Sam.
xxiv. i; i Kings xxii. 20: Isa. vi. 10, Ixiii. 17). After the Exile
there is a tendency to protect the divine transcendence by the
introduction of mediating angelic agency, and to separate all
evil from God by ascribing its origin to Satan, the enemy of
God and man. In the prophecy of Zechariah (iii. 1-2) he stands
as the adversary of Joshua, the high priest, and is rebuked by
Yahweh for desiring that Jerusalem should be further punished.
In the book of Job he presents himself before the Lord among the
sons of God (ii. i), yet he is represented both as accuser and
tempter. He disbelieves in Job's integrity, and desires him to be
so tried that he may fall into sin. While, according to 2 Sam.
xxiv. i, God himself tests David in regard to the numbering of
the people, according to i Chron. xxi, i it is Satan who tempts
him.
The development of the conception continued in later Judaism,
which was probably more strongly influenced by Persian dualism.
It is doubtful, however, whether the Asmodeus (q.v.) of the book
of Tobit is the same as the Aeshma Daewa of the Bundahesh.
He is the evil spirit who slew the seven husbands of Sara (iii. 8),
and the name probably means "Destroyer." In the book of
Enoch Satan is represented as the ruler of a rival kingdom of evil,
but here are also mentioned Satans, who are distinguished from
the fallen angels and who have a threefold function, to tempt, to
accuse and to punish. Satan possesses the ungodly (Ecclesi-
asticus xxi. 27), is identified with the serpent of Gen. iii. (Wisdom
ii. 24), and is probably also represented by Asmodeus, to whom
lustful qualities are assigned (Tobit vi. 14) ; Gen. iii. is probably
referred to in Psalms of Solomon xvii. 49, " a serpent speaking
with the words of transgressors, words of deceit to pervert
wisdom." The Book of the Secrets of Enoch not only identifies
Satan with the Serpent, but also describes his revolt against God,
and expulsion from heaven. In the Jewish Targums Sammael,
" the highest angel that stands before God's throne, caused the
serpent to seduce the woman "; he coalesces with Satan, and has
inferior Satans as his servants. The birth of Cain is ascribed to a
union of Satan with Eve. As accuser affecting man's standing
before God he is greatly feared.
This doctrine, stripped of much of its grossness, is reproduced
in the New Testament. Satan is the 5id/3oXos (Matt. xiii. 39;
John xiii. 2; Eph. iv. 27; Heb. ii. 14; Rev. ii. 10), slanderer
or accuser, the irapaf wv (Matt. iv. 3; iThess. iii. 5), the tempter,
the iroJTjpos (Matt. v. 37; John xvii. 15; Eph. vi. 16), the evil
one, and the k\&pte (Matt. xiii. 39), the enemy. He is apparently
identified with Beelzebub (or Beelzebul) in Matt. xii. 26, 27.
Jesus appears to recognize the existence of demons belonging to
a kingdom of evil under the leadership of Satan " the prince of
demons " (Matt. xii. 24, 26, 27), whose works in demonic posses-
sions it is his function to destroy (Mark i. 34, iii. 1 1, vi. 7 ; Luke x.
17-20). But he himself conquers Satan in resisting his tempta-
tions (Matt. iv. i-n). Simon is warned against him, and Judas
yields to him as tempter (Luke xxii. 31; John xiii. 27). Jesus's
cures are represented as a triumph over Satan (Luke x. 18).
This Jewish doctrine is found in Paul's letters also. Satan rules
over a world of evil, supernatural agencies, whose dwelling is in
the lower heavens (Eph. vi. 12): hence he is the "prince of
the power of the air " (ii. 2). He is the tempter (i Thess. iii. 5;
i Cor. vii. 5), the destroyer (x. 10), to whom the offender is to be
handed over for bodily destruction (v. 5), identified with the
serpent (Rom. xvi. 20; 2 Cor. xi. 3), and probably with Beliar or
Belial (vi. 15); and the surrender of man to him brought death
into the world (Rom. v. 17). Paul's own " stake in the flesh "
is Satan's messenger (2 Cor. xii. 7). According to Hebrews
Satan's power over death Jesus destroys by dying (ii. 14). Revela-
tion describes the war in heaven between God with his angels and
Satan or the dragon, the " old serpent," the deceiver of the
whole world (xii. 9), with his hosts of darkness. After the over-
throw of the Beast and the kings of the earth, Satan is imprisoned
in the bottomless pit a thousand years (xx. 2\. Again loosed to
deceive the nations, he is finally cast into the lake of fire and
brimstone (xx. 10; cf. Enoch liv. 5, 6; 2 Peter ii. 4). In John's
Gospel and Epistles Satan is opposed to Christ. Sinner and
murderer from the beginning (i John iii. 8) and liar by nature
(John viii. 44), he enslaves men to sin (viii. 34), causes death
(verse 44), rules the present world (xiv. 30), but has no power
over Christ or those who are his (xiv. 30, xvi. n; i John v. 18).
He will be destroyed by Christ with all his works. (John xvi. 33;
i John iii. 8).
In the common faith of the Gentile churches after the Apostolic
Age " the present dominion of evil demons, or of one evil demon,
was just as generally presupposed as man's need of redemption,
which was regarded as a result of that dominion. The tenacity
of this belief may be explained among other things by the living
impression of the polytheism that surrounded the communities
on every side. By means of this assumption too, humanity
seemed to be unburdened, and the presupposed capacity for
redemption could, therefore, be justified in its widest range "
(Harnack's History of Dogma, i. p. 181). While Christ's First
Advent delivered believers from Satan's bondage, his overthrow
would be completed only by the Second Advent. The Gnostics
held that " the present world sprang from a fall of man, or from
an undertaking hostile to God, and is, therefore, the product of
an evil or intermediate being " (p. 257). Some taught that while
the future had been assigned by God to Christ, the devil had
received the present age (p. 309). The fathers traced all doctrines
not held by the Catholic Church to the devil, and the virtues of
heretics were regarded as an instance of the devil transforming
himself into an angel of light (ii. 91). Irenaeus ascribes Satan's
fall to " pride and arrogance and envy of God's creation "; and
traces man's deliverance from Satan to Christ's victory in re-
sisting his temptations; but also, guided by certain Pauline
passages, represents the death of Christ " as a ransom paid to the
' apostasy ' for men who had fallen into captivity " (ii. 290). He
does not admit that Satan has any lawful claim on man, or that
God practised a deceit on him, as later fathers taught. This
theory of the atonement was formulated by Origen. " By his
successful temptation the devil acquired a right over men. God
offered Christ's soul for that of men. But the devil was duped,
as Christ overcame both him and death " (p. 367). It' was held
by Gregory of Nyssa, Ambrose, who uses the phrase pia fraus,
Augustine, Leo I., and Gregory I., who expresses it in its worst
form. " The humanity of Christ was the bait; the fish, the
devil, snapped at it, and was left hanging on the invisible hook,
Christ's divinity" (iii. 307). In Athanasius the relation of the
work of Christ to Satan retires into the background, Gregory of
Nazianzus and John of Damascus felt scruples about this view.
It is expressly repudiated by Anselm and Abelard. Peter the
Lombard asserted it, disregarding these objections. Bernard
represents man's bondage to Satan " as righteously permitted
as a just retribution for sin," he being " the executioner of the
divine justice." ^Another theory of Origen 's found less accept-
ance. The devil, as a being resulting from God's will, cannot
always remain a devil. The possibility of his redemption,
however, was in the sth century branded as a heresy. Persian
dualism was brought into contact with Christian thought in the
doctrine of Mani; and it is permissible to believe that the gloomy
views of Augustine regarding man's condition are due in some
measure to this influence. Mani taught that Satan with his
demons, sprung from the kingdom of darkness, attacked the
realm of light, the earth, defeated man sent against him by the
God of light, but was overthrown by the God of light, who then
delivered the primeval man (iii. 324). " During the middle
ages," says Tulloch, " the belief in the devil was absorbing
saints conceived themselves and others to be in constant conflict
with him." This superstition, perhaps at its strongest in the
I3th to the i sth century, passed into Protestantism. Luther
DEVIZES
123
was always conscious of the presence and opposition of Satan.
" As I found he was about to begin again," says Luther, " I
gathered together my books, and got into bed. Another time in
the night I heard him above my cell walking on the cloister, but
as I knew it was the devil I paid no attention to him and went to
sleep." He held that this world will pass away with its pleasures,
as there can be no real improvement in it, for the devil continues
in it to ply his daring and seductive devices (vii. 191). I. A.
Dorner (Christian Doctrine, iii. p. 93) sums up Protestant doctrine
as follows: " He is brought into relation with natural sinfulness,
and the impulse to evil thoughts and deeds is ascribed to him.
The dominion of evil over men is also represented as a slavery
to Satan, and this as punishment. He has his full power in the
extra-Christian world. But his power is broken by Christ, and
by his word victory over him is to be won. The power of creating
anything is also denied the devil, and only the power of corrupting
substances is conceded to him. But it is only at the Last Judg-
ment that his power is wholly annihilated; he is himself delivered
up to eternal punishment." This belief in the devil was specially
strong in Scotland among both clergy and laity in the I7th
century. " The devil was always and literally at hand," says
Buckle, " he was haunting them, speaking to them, and tempting
them. Go where they would he was there."
In more recent times a great variety of opinions has been
expressed on this subject. J. S. Semler denied the reality of
demonic possession, and held that Christ in his language accom-
modated himself to the views of the sick whom he was seeking to
cure. Kant regarded the devil as a personification of the radical
evil in man. Daub in his Jitdas Ishcarioth argued that a finite
evil presupposes an absolute evil, and the absolute evil as real
must be in a person. Schelling regarded the devil as, not a
person, but a real principle, a spirit let loose by the freedom of
man. Schleiermacher was an uncompromising opponent of the
common belief. " The problem remains to seek evil rather in
self than in Satan, Satan only showing the limits of our self-
knowledge." Dorner has formulated a theory which explains
the development of the conception of Satan in the Holy Scriptures
as in correspondence with an evolution in the character of
Satan. " Satan appears in Scripture under four leading char-
acters: first as the tempter of freedom, who desires to bring to
decision, secondly as the accuser, who by virtue of the law retorts
criminality on man; thirdly as the instrument of the Divine,
which brings evil and death upon men; fourthly and lastly he
is described, especially in the New Testament, as the enemy of
God and man." He supposes " a change in Satan in the course
of the history of the divine revelation, in conflict with which he
came step by step to be a sworn enemy of God and man, especially
in the New Testament times, in which, on the other hand, his
power is broken at the root by Christ." He argues that " the
world-order, being in process as a moral order, permits breaches
everywhere into which Satan can obtain entrance " (pp. 99, 102).
H. L. Martensen gives even freer rein to speculation. " The evil
principle," he says, " has in itself no personality, but attains
a progressively universal personality in its kingdom; it has no
individual personality, save only in individual creatures, who in
an especial manner make themselves its organs; but among
these is one creature in whom the principle is so hypostasized
that he has become the centre and head of the kingdom of evil "
(Dogmatics, p. 199). A. Ritschl gives no place in his construc-
tive doctrine to the belief in the devil; but recognizes that the
mutual action of individual sinners on one another constitutes a
kingdom of sin, opposed to the Kingdom of God (A. E. Garvie,
The Ritschlian Theology, p. 304) . Kaftan affirms that a " doctrine
about Satan can as little be established as about angels, as faith
can say nothing about it, and nothing is gained by it for the
dogmatic explanation of evil. This whole province must be left
to the immediate world-view of the pious. The idea of Satan will
on account of the Scriptures not disappear from it, and it would
be arrogant to wish to set it aside. Only let everyone keep the
thought that Satan also stands under the commission of the
Almighty God, and that no one must suppose that by leading
back his sins to a Satanic temptation he can get rid of his own
guilt. To transgress these limits is to assail faith " (Dogmatik,
p. 348). In the book entitled Evil and Evolution there is " an
attempt to turn the light of modern science on to the ancient
mystery of evil." The author contends that the existence of evil
is best explained by assuming that God is confronted with Satan,
who in the process of evolution interferes with the divine designs,
an interference which the instability of such an evolving process
makes not incredible. Satan is, however, held to be a creature
who has by abuse of his freedom been estranged from, and
opposed to his Creator, and who at last will be conquered by
moralmeans. W. M. Alexander in his book on demonic possession
maintains that " the confession of Jesus as the Messiah or Son
of God is the classical criterion of genuine demonic possession "
(p. 150), and argues that as " the Incarnation indicated the
establishment of the kingdom of heaven upon earth," there took
place " a counter movement among the powers of darkness," of
which " genuine demonic possession was one of the manifesta-
tions " (p. 249).
Interesting as these speculations are, it may be confidently
affirmed that belief in Satan is not now generally regarded as an
essential article of the Christian faith, nor is it found to be an
indispensable element of Christian experience. On the one hand
science has so explained many of the processes of outer nature
and of the inner life of man as to leave no room for Satanic agency.
On the other hand the modern view of the inspiration of the
Scriptures does not necessitate the acceptance of the doctrine of
the Scriptures on this subject as finally and absolutely authori-
tative. The teaching of Jesus even in this matter may be ac-
counted for as either an accommodation to the views of those
with whom he was dealing, or more probably as a proof of the
limitation of knowledge which was a necessary condition of the
Incarnation, for it cannot be contended that as revealer of God
and redeemer of men it was imperative that he should either
correct or confirm men's beliefs in this respect. The possibility
of the existence of evil spirits, organized under one leader Satan
to tempt man and oppose God, cannot be denied; the sufficiency
of the evidence for such evil agency may, however, be doubted ;
the necessity of any such belief for Christian thought and
life cannot, therefore, be affirmed. (See also DEMONOLOGY;
POSSESSION.) (A. E. G.*)
DEVIZES, a market town and municipal borough in the
Devizes parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 86 m. W.
by S. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901)
6532. Its castle was built on a tongue of land flanked by two
deep ravines, and behind this the tov/n grew up in a semicircle
on a stretch of bare and exposed tableland. Its main streets, in
which a few ancient timbered houses are left, radiate from the
market place, where stands a Gothic cross, the gift of Lord
Sidmouth in 1814. The Kennet and Avon Canal skirts the town
on the N., passing over the high ground through a chain of thirty-
nine locks. St John's church, one of the most interesting in
Wiltshire, is cruciform, with a massive central tower, based upon
two round and two pointed arches. It was originally Norman of
the 1 2th century, arid the chancel arch and low vaulted chancel,
in this style, are very fine. In the interior several ancient
monuments of the Suttons and Heathcotes are preserved,
besides some beautiful carved stone work, and two rich ceilings of
oak over the chapels. St Mary's, a smaller church, is partly
Norman, but was rebuilt in the i5th and again in the igth cen-
tury. Its lofty clerestoried nave has an elaborately carved timber
roof, and the south porch, though repaired in 1612, preserves
its Norman mouldings. The woollen industries of Devizes have
lost their prosperity; but there is a large grain trade, with
engineering works, breweries, and manufactures of silk, snuff,
tobacco and agricultural implements. The town is governed
by a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors. Area, 906
acres.
Devizes (Dimsis, la Devise, De Vies) does not appear in any
historical document prior to the reign of Henry I., when the
construction of a castle of exceptional magnificence by Roger,
bishop of Salisbury, at once constituted the town an important
political centre, and led to its speedy development. After the
124
DEVOLUTION, WAR OF DEVONIAN SYSTEM
disgrace of Roger in 1139 the castle was seized by the Crown;
in the i4th century it formed part of the dowry of the queens of
England, and figured prominently in history until its capture and
demolition by Cromwell in the Civil War of the lyth century.
Devizes became a borough by prescription, and the first charter
from Matilda, confirmed by successive later sovereigns, merely
grants exemption from certain tolls and the enjoyment of un-
disturbed peace. Edward III. added a clause conferring on the
town the liberties of Marlborough, and Richard II. instituted a
coroner. A gild merchant was granted by Edward I., Edward II.
and Edward III., and in 1614 was divided into the three companies
of drapers, mercers and leathersellers. The present governing
charters were issued by James I. and Charles I., the latter being
little more than a confirmation of the former, which instituted a
common council consisting of a mayor, a town clerk and thirty-six
capital burgesses. These charters were surrendered to Charles II. ,
and a new one was conferred by James II., but abandoned three
years later in favour of the original grant. Devizes returned two
members to parliament from 1295, until deprived of one member
by the Representation of the People Act of 1867, and of the other
by the Redistribution Act of 1 885. The woollen manufacture was
the staple industry of the town from the reign of Edward III.
until the middle of the i8th century, when complaints as to the
decay of trade began to be prevalent. In the reign of Elizabeth
the market was held on Monday, and there were two annual fairs
at the feasts of the Purification of the Virgin and the Decollation
of John the Baptist. The market was transferred to Thursday
in the next reign, and the fairs in the i8th century had become
seven in number.
See Victoria County History, Wiltshire; History of Devizes
(Devizes, 1859).
DEVOLUTION, WAR OF (1667-68), the name applied to
the war which arose out of Louis XIV. 's claims to certain
Spanish territories in right of his wife Maria Theresa, upon
whom the ownership was alleged to have " devolved." (See, for
the military operations, DUTCH WARS.) The war was ended by
the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1668.
DEVON, EARLS OF. From the family of De Redvers (De
Ripuariis; Riviers), who had been earls of Devon from about
noo, this title passed to Hugh de Courtenay (c. 1275-1340),
the representative of a prominent family in the county (see
Gibbon's " digression " in chap. Ixi. of the Decline and Fall, ed.
Bury), but was subsequently forfeited by Thomas Courtenay
(1432-1462), a Lancastrian who was beheaded after the battle
of Towton. It was revived in 1485 in favour of Edward
Courtenay (d. 1509), whose son Sir William (d. 1511) married
Catherine, daughter of Edward IV. Too great proximity to the
throne led to his attainder, but his son Henry (c. 1498-1539) was
restored in blood in 1517 as earl of Devon, and in 1525 was created
marquess of Exeter; his second wife was a daughter of William
Blount, 4th Lord Mountjoy. The title again suffered forfeiture
on Henry's execution, but in 1553 it was recreated for his son
Edward (1526-1556). At the latter's death it became dormant
in the Courtenay family, till in 1831 a claim by a collateral branch
was allowed by the House of Lords, and the earldom of Devon
was restored to the peerage, still being held by the head of
the Courtenays. The earlier earls of Devon were referred to
occasionally as earls of Devonshire, but the former variant has
prevailed, and the latter is now solely used for the earldom and
dukedom held by the Cavendishes (see DEVONSHIRE, EARLS AND
DUKES OF, and also the article COURTENAY).
DEVONIAN SYSTEM, in geology, the name applied to series
of stratified fossiliferous and igneous rocks that were formed
during the Devonian period, that is, in the interval of time
between the close of the Silurian period and the beginning of the
Carboniferous; it includes the marine Devonian and an estuarine
Old Red Sandstone series of strata. The name " Devonian " was
introduced in 1829 by Sir R. Murchison and A. Sedgwick to
describe the older rocks of Cornwall and Devon which W. Lonsdale
had shown, from an examination of the fossils, to be intermediate
between the Silurian and Carboniferous. The same two workers
also carried on further researches upon the same rocks of the
European continent, where already several others, F. Roemer,
H. E. Beyrich, &c., were endeavouring to elucidate the succession
of strata in this portion of the " Transition Series." The labours
of these earlier workers, including in addition to those already
mentioned, the brothers F. and G. von Sandberger, A. Dumont,
J. Gosselet, E. J. A. d'Archiac, E. P. de Verneuil and H. von
Distribution of
Devonian Rocks
J Areas in which the Earlier Devonian Jlocka an found
I Additional areas In which Mia. Devonian flocks en found
J Devon/an Rocks absent or unknown
Suggested limits of Land & Sea In Earlier Devonian time
- Modifications introduced about the middle of Devonian time
. .-.jattr Modifications
Dechen, although somewhat modified by later students, formed
the foundation upon which the modern classification of the
Devonian rocks is based.
Stratigraphy of the Devonian Fades.
Notwithstanding the fact that it was in Devonshire and Cornwall
that the Devonian rocks were first distinguished, it is in central
Europe that the succession of strata is most clearly made out, and
here, too, their geological position was first indicated by the founders
of the system, Sedgwick and Murchison.
Continental Europe. Devonian rocks occupy a large area in the
centre of Europe, extending from the Ardennes through the south
of Belgium across Rhenish Prussia to Darmstadt. They are best
known from the picturesque gorges which have been cut through
them by the Rhine below Bingen and by the Moselle below Treves.
They reappear from under younger formations in Brittany, in the
Harz and Thuringia, and are exposed in Franconia, Saxony, Silesia,
North Moravia and eastern Galicia. The principal subdivisions of
the system in the more typical areas are indicated in Table I.
This threefold subdivision, with a central mass of calcareous strata,
is traceable westwards through Belgium (where the Calcaire de Givet
represents the Stringocephalus limestone of the Eifel) and eastwards
into the Harz. The rocks reappear with local petrographical
modifications, but with a remarkable persistence of general palaeonto-
logical characters, in Eastern Thuringia, Franconia, Saxony, Silesia,
the north of Moravia and East Galicia. Devonian rocks have been
detected among the crumpled rocks of the Styrian Alps by means of
the evidence of abundant corals, cephalopods, gasteropods, lamelli-
branchs and other organic remains. Perhaps in other tracts of the
Alps, as well as in the Carpathian range, similar shales, limestones
and dolomites, though as yet unfossiliferous, but containing ores of
silver, lead, mercury, zinc, cobalt and other metals, may be referable
to the Devonian system.
In the centre of Europe, therefore, the Devonian rocks consist of
a vast thickness of dark-grey sandy and shaly rocks, with occasional
seams of limestone, and in particular with one thick central calcareous
zone. These rocks are characterized in the lower zones by numerous
broad-winged spirifers and by peculiar trilobites (Phacops, Homa-
lonotus, &c.) which, though generically like those of the Silurian
system, are specifically distinct. The central calcareous zone abounds
in corals and crinoids as well as in numerous brachiopods. In the
highest bands a profusion of coiled cephalopods (Clymenia) occurs in
some of the limestones, while the shales are crowded with a small
but characteristic ostracod crustacean (Cypridina). Here and there
traces of fishes have been found, more especially in the Eifel, but
seldom in such a state of preservation as to warrant their being
assigned to any definite place in the zoological scale. Subsequently,
however, E. Beyrich has described from Gerplstein in the Eifel an
undoubted species of Pterichthys, which, as it cannot be certainly
identified with any known form, he names P. Rhenanus. A Coccosteus
has been described by F. A. Roemer from the Harz, and still
later one has been cited from Bicken near Herborn by V. Koenen;
but, as Beyrich points out, there may be some doubt as to whether the
latter is not a Pterichthys. A Ctenacanlhus, seemingly undistinguish-
able from the C. Bohemicus of Barrande's Etage G, has also been
DEVONIAN SYSTEM
125
obtained from the Lower Devonian " Nereitenschichten " of
Thuringia. The characteristic Holoptychius nobilissimus has been
detected in the Psammite de Condroz, which in Belgium forms
a characteristic sandy portion of the Upper Devonian rocks.
These are interesting facts, as helping to link the Devonian and Old
Red Sandstone types together. But they are as yet too few and
unsupported to warrant any large deduction as to the correlations
between these types.
It is in the north-east of Europe that the Devonian and Old Red
Sandstone appear to be united into one system, where the limestones
and marine organisms of the one are interstratified with the fish-
bearing sandstones and shales of the other. In Russia, as was
of the Silurian rocks on which they rest, for they are found gradually
to overlap Upper and Lower Silurian formations.
The chief interest of the Russian rocks of this age lies in the fact,
first signalized by Murchison and his associates, that they unite
within themselves the characters of the Devonian and the Old Red
Sandstone types. In some districts they consist largely of lime-
stones, in others of red sandstones and marls. In the former they
present molluscs and other marine organisms of known Devonian
species; in the latter they afford remains of fishes, some of which
are specifically identical with those of the Old Red Sandstone of
Scotland. The distribution of these two palaeontological types in
Russia is traced by Murchison to the lithological characters of the
TABLE I.
Stages.
Ardennes.
Rhineland.
Brittany and
Normandy.
Bohemia.
Harz.
Famennien
(Clymenia
beds).
Limestone of Etrceungt
Psammites of Condroz
(sandy series).
Slates of Famenne
(shaly series).
Cypridina slates.
Pon sandstone (Sauerland).
Crumbly limestone (Kramen-
zelkalk) with Clymenia.
Neheim slates in Sauerland,
and diabases, tuffs, &c., in
Dillmulde, &c.
Slates of Rostellec.
Cypridina slates. t
Clymenia limestone
and limestone of
Altenau.
Frasnien
(Intumes-
cens beds)
Slates of Matagne.
Limestones, marls and
shale of Frasne, and
red marble of Flan-
ders.
Adorf limestone of Waldeck
and shales with Goniatites
(Eifel and Aix) = Budes-
heimer shales.
Marls, limestone and dolomite
with Rhynchonella cuboides
(Flinz in part).
Iberg limestone of Dillmulde.
Limestone of Cop-
Choux and green
slates of Travuliors.
Iberg limestone and
Winterberg lime-
stone ; also Adorf
limestone and shales
(Budesheim).
Givetien
(Stringo-
cephalus
beds).
Limestone of Givet.
Stringocephalus limestone,
ironstone of Brilon and
Lahnmulde.
Jpper Lenne shales, crinoidal
limestone of Eifel, red sand-
stones of Aix.
Tuffs and diabases of Brilon
and Lahnmulde.
Red conglomerate of Aix.
Limestones of Cha-
lonnes, Montjean
and I'Ecoch&re.
H 2 (of Barrande)
dark plant-
bearing shales.
a.
Stringocephalus shales
with Flaser and
Knollenkalk.
Wissenbach slates.
Eif61ien
(Calceola
beds).
Calceola slates and
limestones of Couvin.
Greywacke with Spir-
ifer cultrijugatus.
Calceola beds, Wissenbach
slates, Lower Lenne beds,
Giintroder limestone and
clay slate of Lahnmulde,
Dillmulde, Wildungen, Grie-
fenstein limestone, Bailers-
bach limestone.
Slates of Porsguen,
greywacke of Fret.
G 3 Cephalopod
limestone.
Gi Tentaculite
limestone.
GI Knollenkalk
and mottled
Mnenian lime-
stone.
Calceola beds.
Nereite slates, slates
of Wieda and lime-
stones of Hasselfeld.
Coblentzien.
Greywacke of Hierges.
Shales and conglomer-
ate of Burnot with
quartzite, of Bierl6
and red siates of
Vireux, greywacke
of Vireux, greywacke
of Montigny, sand-
stone of Anor.
Upper Coblentz slates.
Red sandstone of Eifel, Cob-
lentz quartzite, lower Cob-
lentz slates.
Hunsriick and Siegener grey-
wacke and slates.
Taunus quartzite and grey-
wacke.
Limestones of Er-
bray, Brulon, Vird
and N6hou, grey-
wacke of Faou,
sandstone of Ga-
hard.
F 2 of Barrande.
White Konje-
prus limestone
with Hercyn-
ian fauna.
Haupt quartzite (of
Lessen) = Rammels-
berg slates, Schalker
slates = Kahleberg
sandstone.
Hercynian slates and
limestones.
Geclinnien.
Slates of St Hubert and
Fooz, slates of Mon-
drepuits, arkose of
Weismes, conglomer-
ate of Fepin.
Slates of G6dinne.
Slates and quartzites
of Plougastel.
a
Q
B
Q1
o
shown in the great work Russia and the Ural Mountains by M urchison,
De Verneuil and Keyserling, rocks intermediate between the Upper
Silurian and Carboniferous Limestone formations cover an extent
of surface larger than the British Islands. This wide development
arises not from the thickness but from the undisturbed horizontal
character of the strata. Like the Silurian formations described else-
where, they remain to this day nearly as flat and unaltered as they
were originally laid down. Judged by mere vertical depth, they
present but a meagre representative of the massive Devonian grey-
wacke and limestone of Germany, or of the Old Red Sandstone of
Britain. Yet vast though the area is over which they form the
surface rock, it is probably only a small portion of their total extent ;
for they are found turned up from under the newer formations along
the flank of the Ural chain. It would thus seem that they spread
continuously across the whole breadth of Russia in Europe. Though
almost everywhere undisturbed, they afford evidence of some
terrestrial oscillation between the time of their formation and that
rocks, and consequent original diversities of physical conditions,
rather than to differences of age. Indeed cases occur where in the
same band of rock Devonian shells and Old Red Sandstone fishes lie
commingled. In the belt of the formation which extends south-
wards from Archangel and the White Sea, the strata consist of sands
and marls, and contain only fish remains. Traced through the
Baltic provinces, they are found to pass into red and green marls,
clays, thin limestones and sandstones, with beds of gypsum. In
some of the calcareous bands such fossils occur as Orthis striatula,
Spiriferina prisca, Leptaena productoides, Spirifercalcaratus, Spirorbis
omphaloides and Orthoceras subfusiforme. In the higher beds
Holoptychius and other well-known fishes of the Old Red Sandstone
occur. Followed still farther to the south, as far as the watershed
between Orel and Voronezh, the Devonian rocks lose their red
colour and sandy character, and become thin-bedded yellow lime-
stones, and dolomites with soft green and blue marls. Traces of salt
deposits are indicated by occasional saline springs. It is evident
126
DEVONIAN SYSTEM
that the geographical conditions of the Russian area during the
Devonian period must have closely resembled those of the Rhine
basin and central England during the Triassic period. The Russian
Devonian rocks have been classified in Table II. There is an
unquestionable passage of the uppermost Devonian rocks of Russia
into the base of the Carboniferous system.
The Lower Devonian of the Harz contains a fauna which is very
different from that of the Rhenish region; to this facies the name
The fossil evidence clearly shows the close agreement of the
Rhenish and south Devonshire areas. In north Devonshire the
Devonian rocks pass upward without break into the Culm.
North America. In North America the Devonian rocks are
extensively developed; they have been studied most closely in the
New York region, where they are classified according to Table IV.
The classification below is not capable of application over the
states generally and further details are required from many of the
TABLE II.
LOWER. MIDDLE. UPPER.
I * \ r * \ "" -*
North-West Russia.
Central Russia.
Petchoraland.
Ural Region.
Red sandstone (Old Limestones with Spir-
Red). ifer Verneuili and
Sp. Archiaci.
Limestones with Area
oreliana.
Limestones with Sp.
Verneuili and Sp.
Archiaci.
Domanik slates and
limestones with Sp.
Verneuili.
Cypridina slates, Cly-
menia limestones (Fa-
mennien).
Limestones with Gephy-
oceras intumescens and
Rhynchonella cuboides
(Frasnien).
Dolomites and limestones
with
Spirifer Anossofi.
Lower sandstone
Marl with
Spirifer Anossofi
and corals.
(Old Red).
Limestones and slates
with Sp. Anossofi (Giv-
6tien).
Limestones and slates
with Pentamerus basch-
kiricus (Eifelien).
Absent.
Limestones and slates of
the Yuresan and Ufa
rivers, slate and quartz-
ite, marble of Byelaya
and of Bogoslovsk,
phyllitic schists and
quartzite.
" Hercynian " has been applied, and the correlation of the strata
has been a source of prolonged discussion among continental
geologists. A similar fauna appears in Lower Devonian of Bohemia,
in Brittany (limestone of Erbray) and in the Urals. The Upper
Devonian of the Harz passes up into the Culm.
In the eastern Thuringian Fichtelgebirge the upper division is
represented by Clymenia limestone and Cypridina slates with Adorf
limestone, diabase and Planschwitzer tuff in the lower part. The
middle division has diabases and tuffs at the top with Tentaculite
and Nereite shales and limestones below. The upper part of the
Lower Devonian, the sandy shale of Steinach, rests unconformably
upon Silurian rocks. In the Carnic Alps are coral reef limestones,
the equivalents of the Iberg limestone, which attain an enormous
thickness; these are underlain by coral limestones with fossils
similar to those of the Konjeprus limestone of Bohemia; below
these are shales and nodular limestones with goniatites. The
Devonian rocks of Poland are sandy in the lower, and more calcareous
in the upper parts. They are of interest because while the upper
portions agree closely with the Rhenish facies, from the top of the
Coblentzien upwards, in the sandy beds near the base Old Red
Sandstone fishes (Coccosteus, &c.) are found. In France Devonian
rocks are found well developed in Brittany, as indicated in the table,
also in Normandy and Maine; in the Boulonnais district only the
middle and upper divisions are known. In south France in the
neighbourhood of Cabrieres, about Montpellier and in the Montagne
Noire, all three divisions are found in a highly calcareous condition.
Devonian rocks are recognized, though frequently much meta-
morphosed, on both the northern and southern flanks of the
Pyrenees; while on the Spanish peninsula they are extensively
developed. In Asturias they are no less than 3280 ft. thick, all three
divisions and most of the central European subdivisions are present.
In general, the Lower Devonian fossils of Spain bear a marked
resemblance to those of Brittany.
Asia. From the Ural Mountains eastward, Devonian rocks have
been traced from point to point right across Asia. In the Altai
Mountains they are represented by limestones of Coblentzien age
with a fauna possessing Hercynian features. The same features are
observed in the Devonian of the Kougnetsk basin, and in Turkestan.
Well-developed quartzites with slates and diabases are found south
of Yarkand and Khotan. Middle and Upper Devonian strata are
widespread in China. Upper Devonian rocks are recorded from
Persia, and from the Hindu Kush on the right bank of the Chitral
river.
England. In England the original Devonian rocks are developed
in Devon and Cornwall and west Somerset. In north Devonshire
these rocks consist of sandstones, grits and slates, while in south
Devon there are, in addition, thick beds of massive limestone, and
intercalations of lavas and tuffs. The interpretation of the strati-
graphy in this region is a difficult matter, partly on account of the
absence of good exposures with fossils, and partly through the
disturbed condition of the rocks. The system has been subdivided
as shown in Table III.
regions where Devonian rocks have been recognized, but every-
where the broad threefold division seems to obtain. In Maryland
the following arrangement has been adopted (i) Helderberg =
Coeymans; (2) Oriskany; (3) Romney = Erian; (4) Jennings =
Genesee and Portage; (5) Hampshire = Catskill in part. In the
TABLE III.
LOWER. MIDDLE. UPPER.
[
North Devon and West
Somerset.
South Devon.
Pilton group. Grits, slates
and thin limestones.
Baggy group. Sandstones
and slates.
Pickwell Down group. Dark
slates and grits.
Morte slates (?).
Ashburton slates.
Livaton slates.
Red and green Entomis slates
(Famennien).
Red and grey slates with
tuffs.
Chudleigh goniatite limestone
Petherwyn beds (Frasnien).
Ilfracombe slates with len-
ticles of limestone.
Combe Martin grits and
slates.
Torquay and Plymouth lime-
stones and Ashprington
volcanic series. (Giv6tien
and Eife'lien.)
Slates and limestones of
Hope's Nose.
Hangman grits and slates.
Lynton group, grits and cal-
careous slates.
Foreland grits and slates.
Looe beds (Cornwall).
Meadfoot, Cockington and
Warberry series of slates
and greywackes. (Coblent-
zien and G&linnien.)
interior the Helderbergian is missing and the system commences
with (i) Oriskany, (2) Onondaga, (3) Hamilton, (4) Portage (and
Genesee), (5) Chemung.
The Helderbergian series is mainly confined to the eastern part
of the continent; there is a northern development in Maine, and
in Canada (Gasp6, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Montreal);
an Appalachian belt, and a lower Mississippian region. The series
as a whole is mainly calcareous (2000 ft. in Gasp6), and thins
out towards the west. The fauna has Hercynian affinities. The
Oriskany formation consists largely of coarse sandstones; it is thin
in New York, but in Maryland and Virginia it is several hundred feet
thick. It is more widespread than the underlying Helderbergian.
The Lower Devonian appears to be thick in northern Maine and in
Gasp6, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, but neither the palaeon-
tology nor the stratigraphy has been completely worked out.
DEVONIAN SYSTEM
127
In the Middle Devonian the thin clastic deposits at the base,
Esopus and Schoharie grits, have not been differentiated west of the
Appalachian region ; but the Onondaga limestones are much more
extensive. The Brian series is often described as the Hamilton series
outside the New York district, where the Marcellus shales are grouped
together with the Hamilton shales, and numerous local subdivisions
are included, as in Ohio, Kentucky and Tennessee. The rocks are
mostly shales or slates, but limestones predominate in the western
development. In Pennsylvania the Hamilton series is from 1500 ft.
to 5000 ft. thick, but in the more calcareous western extension it is
much thinner. The Marcellus shales are bituminous in places.
The Senecan series is composed of shallow- water deposits; the
Tully limestone, a local bed in New York, thins out in places into a
layer of pyrites which contains a remarkable dwarfed fauna. The
bituminous Genesee shales are thickest in Pennsylvania (300 ft.) ;
25 ft. on Lake Erie. The shales and sandstones of the Portage
formation reach 1000 ft. to 1400 ft. in western New York. In the
Chautauquan series the Chemung formation is not always clearly
separable from the Portage beds, it is a sandstone and conglomerate
TABLE IV.
Probable
Groups.
Formations.
European
Equivalent.
Chautauquan.
Chemung beds with Catskill
Famennien.
f
as a local fades.
f
Portage beds (Naples, Ithaca
EH
and Oneonla shales as local
51
Senecan. 1
facies).
D
1
Genesee shales.
^
I
Tully limestone.
Frasnien.
sf
Erian. (
Hamilton shale.
Marcellus shale.
Giv6tien.
\\
f
Onondaga (Corniferous)
s l
s
Ulsterian.
limestone.
Schoharie grit.
Eifdlien.
i
I
Esopus grit (Caudagalligrit).
. r
Oriskanian.
Oriskany sandstone.
Coblentzien.
\
f
Kingston beds.
H
SI
Helderbergian 1
Becraft limestone.
New Scotland beds.
G6dinnien.
J I
I
Coeymans limestone.
formation which reaches its maximum thickness (8000 ft.) in
Pennsylvania, but thins rapidly towards the west. In the Catskill
region the Upper Devonian has an Old Red facies red shales and
sandstones with a freshwater and brackish fauna.
Although the correlation of the strata has only advanced a short
distance, there is no doubt as to the presence of undifferentiated
Devonian rocks in many parts of th continent. In the Great Plains
this system appears to be absent, but it is represented in Colorado,
Utah, Nevada, Wyoming, Montana, California and Arizona ; Devon-
ian rocks occur between the Sierras and the Rocky Mountains,
in the Arbuckle Mountains of Oklahoma and in Texas. In the
western interior limestones predominate; 6000 ft. of limestone are
found at Eureka, Nevada, beneath 2000 ft. of shale. On the Pacific
coast metamorphism of the rocks is common, and lava-flows and
tuffs occur in them.
In Canada, besides the occurrences previously mentioned in the
eastern region, Devonian strata are found in considerable force along
the course of the Mackenzie river and the Canadian Rockies, whence
they stretch out into Alaska. It is probable, however, that much
that is now classed as Devonian in Canada will prove on fossil
evidence to be Carboniferous.
South America, Africa, Australia, &fc. In South America the
Devonian is well developed; in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Peru
and the Falkland Islands, the palaeontological horizon is about
the junction of the Lower and Middle divisions, and the fauna has
affinities with the Hamilton shales of North America. Nearly allied
to the South American Devonian is that of South Africa, where they
are represented by the Bokkeveld beds in the Cape system. In
Australia we find Lower Devonian consisting of coarse littoral
deposits with volcanic rocks; and a Middle division with coral
limestones in Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland ; an Upper
division has also been observed. In New Zealand the Devonian is
well exposed in the Reefton mining field ; and it has been suggested
that much of the highly metamorphosed rock may belong to this
system.
Stratigraphy of the Old Red Sandstone Facies.
The Old Red Sandstone of Britain, according to Sir Archibald
Geikie, " consists of two subdivisions, the lower of which passes down
conformably into the Upper Silurian deposits, the upper shading off
in the same manner into the base of the Carboniferous system, while
they are separated from each other by an unconformability." The
Old Red strata appear to have been deposited in a number of
elongated lakes or lagoons, approximately parallel to one another,
with a general alignment in a N.E.-S.W. direction. To these areas
of deposit Sir A. Geikie has assigned convenient distinctive names.
In Scotland the two divisions of the system are sharply separated
by a pronounced unconformability which is probably indicative
of a prolonged interval of erosion. In the central valley between
the base of the Highlands and the southern uplands lay " Lake
Caledonia." Here the lower division is made up of some 20,000 ft.
of shallow-water deposits, reddish-brown, yellow and grey sand-
stones and conglomerates, with occasional " cornstones, and thin
limestones. The grey flagstones with shales are almost confined to
Forfarshire, and are known as the " Arbroath flags." Interbedded
volcanic rocks, andesites, dacites, diabases, with agglomerates and
tuffs constitute an important feature, and attain a thickness of
6000 ft. in the Pentland and Ochil hills. A line of old volcanic vents
may be traced in a direction roughly parallel to the trend of the
great central valley. On the northern side of the Highlands was
' Lake Orcadie," presumably much larger than the foregoing lake,
though its boundaries are not determmable. It lay over Moray
Firth and the east of Ross and Sutherland, and extended from
Caithness to the Orkney Islands and S. Shetlands. It may even have
stretched across to Norway, where similar rocks are found in Sognefjord
and Dalsfjord, and may have had communications with some parts
of northern Russia. Very characteristic of this area are the Caithness
flags, dark grey and bituminous, which, with the red sandstones and
conglomerates at their base, probably attain a thickness of 16,000 ft.
The somewhat peculiar fauna of this series led Murchison to class
the flags as Middle Devonian. In the Shetland Islands contempo-
raneous volcanic rocks have been observed. Over the west of Argyll-
shire lay " Lake Lprne " ; here the volcanic rocks predominate, they
are intercalated with shallow-water deposits. A similar set of rocks
occupy the Cheviot district.
The upper division of the Old Red Sandstone is represented in
Shropshire and South Wales by a great series of red rocks, shales,
sandstones and marls, some 10,000 ft. thick. They contain few
fossils, and no break has yet been found in the series. In Scotland
this series was deposited in basins which correspond only partially
with those of the earlier period. They are well developed in central
Scotland over the lowlands bordering the Moray Firth. Inter-
bedded lavas and tuffs are found in the island of Hoy. An interesting
feature of this series is the occurrence of great crowds of fossil fishes
in some localities, notably at Dura Den in Fife. In the north of
England this series rests unconformably upon the Lower Old Red
and the Silurian.
Flanking the Silurian high ground of Cumberland and Westmor-
land, and also in the Lammermuir hills and in Flint and Anglesey,
a brecciated conglomerate, presenting many of the characters of a
glacial deposit in places, has often been classed with the Old Red
Sandstone, but in parts, at least, it is more likely to belong to the
base of the Carboniferous system. In Ireland the lower division
appears to be represented by the Dingle beds and Glengariff grits,
while the Kerry rocks and the Kiltorcan beds of Cork are the
equivalents of the upper division. Rocks of Old Red type, both
lower and upper, are found in Spitzbergen and in Bear Island. In
New Brunswick and Nova Scotia the Old Red facies is extensively
developed. The Gasp6 sandstones have been estimated at 7036 ft.
thick. _ In parts of western Russia Old Red Sandstone fossils are
found in beds intercalated with others containing marine fauna of
the Devonian facies.
Devonian and Old Red Sandstone Faunas.
The two types of sediment formed during this period the marine
Devonian and the lagoonal Old Red Sandstone representing as they
do two different but essentially contemporaneous phases of physical
condition, are occupied by two strikingly dissimilar faunas. Doubt-
less at all times there were regions of the earth that were marked off
no less clearly from the normal marine conditions of which we have
records; but this period is the earliest in which these variations of
environment are made obvious. In some respects the faunal break
between the older Silurian below and the younger Carboniferous
above is not strongly marked; and in certain areas a very close
relationship can be shown to exist between the older Devonian and
the former, and the younger Devonian and the latter. Nevertheless,
taken as a whole, the life of this period bears a distinct stamp of
individuality.
The two most prominent features of the Devonian seas are pre-
sented by corals and brachiopods. The corals were abundant
individually and varied in form ; and they are so distinctive of the
period that no Devonian species has yet been found either in the
Silurian or in the Carboniferous. They built reefs, as in the present
day, and contributed to the formation of limestone masses in
Devonshire, on the continent of Europe and in North America.
Rugose and tabulate forms prevailed; among the former the
cyathophyllids ' (Cyathophyllum) were important, Phillipsastraea,
Zaphrentis, Acervularia and the curious Calceola (sanaalina), an
pperculate genus which has given palaeontologists much trouble in
its diagnosis, for it has been regarded as a pelecypod (hippurite) and
128
DEVONIAN SYSTEM
a brachiopod. The tabulate corals were represented by Favosites,
Michelinia, Pleurodictyum, Fistulipora, Pachypora and others.
Heliolites and Plasmopora represent the alcyonarians. Stromato-
poroids were important reef builders. A well-known fossil is
Receptaculites, a genus to which it has been difficult to assign a
definite place; it has been thought to be a sponge, it may be a
calcareous alga, or a curious representative of the foraminifera.
In the Devonian period the brachiopods reached the climax of
their development : they compose three-quarters of the known
fauna, and more than noo species have been described.
Changes were taking place from the beginning of the period in the
relative importance of genera; several Silurian forms dropped out,
and new types were coming in. A noticeable feature was the
development of broad-winged shells in the genus Spirifer. other
spiriferids were Ambocoelia, Uncites, Verneuilia. Orthids and
pentamerids were waning in importance, while the productids
(Productella, Chonetes, Strophalosia) were increasing. The stroph-
omenids were still flourishing, represented by the genera Leptaena,
Stropfaodonta, Kayserella, and others. The ancient Lingula, along
with Crania and Orbiculoidea, occur among the inarticulate forms.
Another long-lived and wide-ranging species is A try pa reticularis.
The athyrids were very numerous(Athyns, Retzia, Merista, Meristella,
Kayserina, &c.) ; and the rhynchonellids were well represented
by Pugnax, Hypothyris, and several other genera. The important
group of terebratulids appears in this system; amongst them
Stringocephalus is an eminently characteristic Devonian brachiopod ;
others are Dielasma, CryptoneUa, Rensselaeria and Oriskania.
The pelecypod molluscs were represented by Pterinea, abundant
in the lower members along with other large-winged forms, and by
CuculleUa, Buchiola and Curtonotus in the upper members of the
system. Other genera are Actinodesma, Cardipta, Nucula, Megalodon,
Aviculopecten, &c. Gasteropods were becoming more important, but
the simple capulid forms prevailed: Platyceras (Capulus), Strapar-
ottus, Pleurotomaria, Murchisonia, Macrocheilina, Euomphalus.
Among the pteropods, Tentaculites was very abundant in some
quarters; others were Conularia and Styliolina. In the Devonian
period the cephalopods began to make a distinct advance in numbers,
and in development. The goniatites appear with the genera
Anarcestes, Agoniatites, Tornoceras, Bactrites and others; and in the
upper strata the clymenoids, forerunners of the later ammonoids,
began to take definite shape. While several new nautiloids (Homa-
loceras, Ryticeras, &c.) made their appearance several cf the older
genera still lived on (Orthocetas, Potenoceras, Actinoceras).
Crinoids were very abundant in some parts of the Devonian
sea, though they were relatively scarce in others; they include the
genera Melocrinus, Haplocrinus, Cupressocrinus, Calceocrinus and
Eleuthrocrinus. The cystideans were falling off (Protr.ocystis,
Tiaracrinus), but blastoids were in the ascendant (Nucleocrinus,
Cadaster, &c.). Both brittle-stars, Ophiura, Palaeophiura, Eugaster,
and true starfishes, Palaeasler, Aspidosoma, were present, as well as
urchins (Lepidocentras).
When we turn to the crustaceans we have to deal with two distinct
assemblages, one purely marine, trilobitic, the other mainly lacustrine
or lagoonal with a eurypteridian fades. The trilobites had already
begun to decline in importance, and as happens not infrequently with
degenerating races of beasts and men, they began to develop strange
eccentricities of ornamentation in some of their genera. A number
of Silurian genera lived on into the Devonian period, and some
gradually developed into new and distinctive forms; such were
Proetus, Harpes, Cheirurus, Bronteus and others. Distinct species of
Phacops mark the Lower and Upper Devonian respectively, while the
genus Dalmania (Odontochile) was represented by species with an
almost world-wide range. The Ostracpd Entomis (Cypridina) was
extremely abundant in places Cypridinen-Schiefer while the true
Cypridina was also present along with Beyrichia, Leperditia, &c.
The Phyllocarids, Echinocaris, Eleuthrocaris, Tropidocaris, are
common in the United States. It is in the Old Red Sandstone that
the eurypterids are best preserved; foremost among these was
Pterygotus; P. anglicus has been found in Scotland with a length of
nearly 6 ft. ; Eurypttrus, Slimonia, Stylonurus were other genera.
Insects appear well developed, including both orthopterous and
neuropterous forms, in the New Brunswick rocks. Mr Scudder
believed he had obtained a specimen of Orthoptera in which a
stridulating organ was present. A species of Ephemera, allied to the
modern may-fly, had a spread of wing extending to 5 in. In the
Scottish Old Red Sandstone myriapods, Kampecaris andArchidesmus,
have been described ; they are somewhat simpler than more recent
forms, each segment being separate, and supplied with only one pair
of walking legs. Spiders and scorpions also lived upon the land.
The great number of fish remains in the Devonian and Old Red
strata, coupled with the truly remarkable characters possessed
by some of the forms, has caused the period to be described as the
"age of fishes." As in the case of the crustaceans, referred to above,we
find one assemblage more or less peculiar to the freshwater orbrackish
conditions of the Old Red, and another characteristic of the marine
Devonian ; on the whole the former is the richer in variety, but there
seems little doubt that quite a number of genera were capable of
living in either environment, whatever may have been the real
condition of the Old Red waters. Foremost in interest are the curious
ostracoderms, a remarkable group of creatures possessing many of
the characteristics of fishes, but more probably belonging to a
distinct class of organisms, which appears to link the vertebrates with
the arthropods. They had come into existence late in Silurian
times ; but it is in the Old Red strata that their remains are most fully
preserved. They were abundant in the fresh or brackish waters of
Scotland, England, Wales, Russia and Canada, and are represented
by such forms as Pteraspis, Cephalaspis, Cyathaspis, Tremataspis,
Bothriolepis and Pterichthys.
In the lower members of the Old Red series Dipterus, and in the
upper members Phaneropleuron, represented the dipnoid lung-fishes;
and it is of extreme interest to note that a few of these curious forms
still survive in the African Protopterus, the Australian Ceratodus and
the South American Lepidosiren, all freshwater fishes. Distantly
related to the lung-fishes were the singular arthrodirans, a group
possessing the unusual faculty of moving the head in a vertical plane.
These comprise the wide-ranging Coccosteus with Homosleus and
Dinichthys, the largest fish of the period. The latter probably
reached 20 ft. in length; it was armed with exceedingly powerful
jaws provided with turtle-like beaks. Sharks were fairly prominent
depizens of the sea ; some were armed with cutting teeth, others with
crushing dental plates ; and although they were on the whole marine
fishes, they were evidently able to live in fresher waters, like some
of their modern representatives, for their remains, mostly teeth
and large dermal spines, are found both in the Devonian and Old
Red rocks. Mesacanthus, Diplacanthus, Climatius, Cheiracanthus are
characteristic genera. The crossopterygians, ganoids with a scaly
lobe in the centre of the fins, were represented by Holoptychius and
Glypwpomus in the Upper Old Red, and by such genera asDiplopterus,
Osteolepis, Gyroptychius in the lower division. The Polypterus of the
Nile and Calamoichthys of South Africa are the modern exemplars of
this group. Cheirolepis, found in the Old Red of Scotland and
Canada, is the only Devonian representative of the actinopterygian
fishes. The cyclostome fishes have, so far, been discovered only in
Scotland, in the tiny Palaeospondylus. Amphibian remains have
been found in the Devonian of Belgium ; and footprints supposed to
belong to a creature of the same class (Thinopus antiquus) have been
described by Professor Marsh from the Chemung formation of
Pennsylvania.
Plant Life. In the lacustrine deposits of the Old Red Sandstone
we find the earliest well-defined assemblage of terrestrial plants. In
some regions so abundant are the vegetable remains that in places
they form thin seams of veritable coal. These plants evidently
flourished around the shores of the lakes and lagoons in which their
remains were buried along with the other forms of life. Lycopods
and ferns were the predominant types; and it is important to notice
that both groups were already highly developed. The ferns include
the genera Sphenopteris, Megalopteris, Archaeopteris, Neuropteris.
Among the Lycopods are Lycopodites, Psilophyton, Lepidodendron.
Modern horsetails are represented by Calamocladus, Asterocalamites,
Anmdaria. Of great interest are the genera Cordaites, Araucari-
oxylon, &c., which were synthetic types, uniting in some degree the
Coniferae and the Cycadofilicales. With the exception of obscure
markings, aquatic plants are not so well represented as might have
been expected; Parka, a common fossil, has been regarded' as a
water plant with a creeping stem and two kinds of sporangia in
sessile sporocarps.
Physical Conditions, &c. Perhaps the most striking fact that
is brought out by a study of the Devonian rocks and their fossils
is the gradual transgression of the sea over the land, which took
place quietly in every quarter of the globe shortly after the
beginning of the period. While in most places the Lower
Devonian sediments succeed the Silurian formations in a perfectly
conformable manner, the Middle and Upper divisions, on account
of this encroachment of the sea, rest unconformably upon the
older rocks, the Lower division being unrepresented. This is
true over the greater part of South America, so far as our limited
knowledge goes, in much of the western side of North America,
in western Russia, in Thuringia and other parts of central Europe.
Of the distribution of land and sea and the position of the coast
lines in Devonian times we can state nothing with precision. The
known deposits all point to shallow waters of epicontinental seas;
no abyssal formations have been recognized. E. Kayser has
pointed out the probability of a Eurasian sea province extending
through Europe towards the east, across north and central Asia
towards Manitoba in Canada, and an American sea province
embracing the United States, South America and South Africa.
At the same time there existed a great North Atlantic land area
caused partly by the uplift of the Caledonian range just before
the beginning of the period, which stretched across north Europe
to eastern Canada; on the fringe of this land the Old Red
Sandstone was formed.
In the European area C. Barrois has indicated the existence
of three zones of deposition: (i) A northern, Old Red, region,
DEVONPORT
129
including Great Britain, Scandinavia, European Russia and
Spitzbergen; here the land was close at hand; great brackish
lagoons prevailed, which communicated more or less directly with
the open sea. In European Russia, during its general advance,
the sea occasionally gained access to wide areas, only to be driven
off again, during pauses in the relative subsidence of the land,
when the continued terrigenous sedimentation once more
established the lagoonal conditions. These alternating phases
were frequently repeated. (2) A middle region, covering
Devonshire and Cornwall, the Ardennes, the northern part of
the lower Rhenish mountains, and the upper Harz to the Polish
Mittelgebirge; here we find evidence of a shallow sea, clastic
deposits and a sublittoral fauna. (3) A southern region reaching
from Brittany to the south of the Rhenish mountains, lower
Harz, Thuringia and Bohemia; here was a deeper sea with a
more pelagic fauna. It must be borne in mind that the above-
mentioned regions are intended to refer to the time when the
extension of the Devonian sea was near its maximum. In the
case of North America it has been shown that in early and
middle Devonian time more or less distinct faunas invaded
the continent from five different centres, viz. the Helderberg,
the Oriskany, the Onondaga, the southern Hamilton and the
north-western Hamilton; these reached the interior approxi-
mately in the order given.
Towards the close of the period, when the various local faunas
had mingled one with another and a more generalized life
assemblage had been evolved, we find many forms with a very
wide range, indicating great uniformity of conditions. Thus
we find identical species of brachiopods inhabiting the Devonian
seas of England, France, Belgium, Germany, Russia, southern
Asia and China; such are, Hypothyris (Rhynchonella) cuboides,
Spirifer disjunctus and others. The fauna of the Calceola shales
can be traced from western Europe to Armenia and Siberia; the
Stringoceplwlus limestones are represented in Belgium, England,
the Urals and Canada; and the (Gephyroceras) inlumescens
shales are found in western Europe and in Manitoba.
The Devonian period was one of comparative quietude; no
violent crustal movements seem to have taken place, and while
some changes of level occurred towards its close in Great Britain,
Bohemia and Russia, generally the passage from Devonian to
Carboniferous conditions was quite gradual. In later periods
these rocks have suffered considerable movement and meta-
morphism, as in the Harz, Devonshire and Cornwall, and in the
Belgian coalfields, where they have frequently been thrust over
the younger Carboniferous rocks. Volcanic activity was fairly
widespread, particularly during the middle portion of the period.
In the Old Red rocks of Scotland there is a great thickness
(6000 ft.) of igneous rocks, including diabases and andesitic lavas
with agglomerates and tuffs. In Devonshire diabases and tuffs
are found in the middle division. In west central Europe volcanic
rocks are found at many horizons, the most common rocks are
diabases and diabase tuffs, schalstein. Felsitic lavas and tuffs
occur in the Middle Devonian of Australia. Contemporaneous
igneous rocks are generally absent in the American Devonian,
but in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick there appear to be
some.
There is little evidence as to the climate of this period, but it
is interesting to observe that local glacial conditions may have
existed in places, as is suggested by the coarse conglomerate with
striated boulders in the upper Old Red of Scotland. On the other
hand, the prevalence of reef-building corals points to moderately
warm temperatures in the Middle Devonian seas.
The economic products of Devonian rocks are of some import-
ance: in many of the metamorphosed regions veins of tin, lead,
copper, iron are exploited, as in Cornwall, Devon, the Harz; in
New Zealand, gold veins occur. Anthracite of Devonian age is
found in China and a little coal in Germany, while the Upper
Devonian is the chief source of oil and gas of western Pennsylvania
and south-western New York. In Ontario the middle division is
oil-bearing. Black phosphates are worked in central Tennessee,
and in England the marls of the " Old Red " are employed for
brick-making,
vni. 5
REFERENCES. The literature of the Devonian rocks and fossils is
very extensive; important papers have been contributed by the
following geologists: J. Barrande, C. Barrois, F. Beclard, E. W.
Benecke, L. Beushausen, A. Champernowne, J. M. Clarke, Sir J. W.
Dawson, A. Denckmann, J. S. Diller, E. Dupont, F. Freeh, J.Fournet,
Sir A. Geikie, G. Gurich, R. Hoernes, E. Kayser, C. and M. Koch,
A. von Koenen, Hugh Miller, D. P. Oehlert, C. S. Prosser, P. de
Rouville, C. Schuchert, T. Tschernyschew, E. O. Ulrich, W. A. E.
Ussher, P. N. Wenjukoff, G. F. Whidbprne, J. T. Whiteaves and
H. S. Williams. Sedgwick and Murchison's original description
appeared in the Trans. Geol. Spc. (2nd series, vol. v., 1839). Good
general accounts will be found in Sir A. Geikie's Text-Book of Geology
(vol. ii., 4th ed., 1903), in E. Kayser's Lehrbuch der Geologic (vol. ii.,
2nd ed., 1902), and, for North America, in Chamberlin and Salisbury's
Geology (vol. ii., 1906). See the Index to the Geological Magazine
(1864-1903), and insubsequent annual volumes ; Geological Literature
added to the Geological Society's Library (London), annually since
1893; and the Neues Jahrbuch fur Min., Geologic und Paldontologie
(Stuttgart, 2 annual volumes). The U.S. Geological Survey publishes
at intervals a Bibliography and Index of North American Geology, &fc. ,
and this (e.g. Bulletin 301, the Bibliog. and Index for 1901-1905)
contains numerous references for the Devonian system in North
America. (J. A. H.)
DEVONPORT, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough
of Devonshire, England, contiguous to East Stonehouse and.
Plymouth, the seat of one of the royal dockyards, and an im-
portant naval and military station. Pop. (1901) 70,437. It is
situated immediately above the N.W. angle of Plymouth Sound,
occupying a triangular peninsula formed by Stonehouse Pool on
the E. and the Hamoaze on the W. It is served by the Great
Western and the London & South Western railways. The town
proper was formerly enclosed by a line of ramparts and a
ditch excavated out of the limestone, but these are in great
part demolished. Adjoining Devonport are East Stonehouse
(an urban district, pop. 15,111), Stoke and Morice Town, the
two last being suburbs of Devonport. The town hall, erected
in 1821-1822 partly after the design of the Parthenon, is
distinguished by a Doric portico; while near it are the public
library, in Egyptian style, and a conspicuous Doric column built
of Devonshire granite. This monument, which is 100 ft. high,
was raised in commemoration of the naming of the town in 1824.
Other institutions are the Naval Engineering College, Keyham
(1880); the municipal technical schools, opened in 1899, the
majority of the students being connected with the dockyard;
the naval barracks, Keyham (1885); the Raglan barracks and
the naval and military hospitals. On Mount Wise, which was
formerly defended by a battery (now a naval signalling station),
stands the military residence, or Government House, occupied by
the commander of the Plymouth Coast Defences; and near at
hand is the principal naval residence, the naval commander-in-
chief 's house. The prospect from Mount Wise over the Hamoaze
to Mount Edgecumbe on the opposite shore is one of the finest in
the south of England. The most noteworthy feature of Devon-
port, however, is the royal dockyard, originally established by
William III. in 1689 and until 1824 known as Plymouth Dock.
It is situated within the old town boundary and contains four
docks. To this in 1853 was added Keyham steamyard, situated
higher up the Hamoaze beyond the old boundary and connected
with the Devonport yard by a tunnel. In 1896 further extensions
were begun at the Keyham yard, which became known as
Devonport North yard. Before these were begun the yard
comprised two basins, the northern one being 9 acres and the
southern 7 acres in area, and three docks, having floor-lengths of
2 95> 347 an d 4 J 3 ft-i together with iron and brass foundries,
machinery shops, engineer students' shop, &c. The new ex-'
tensions, opened by the Prince of Wales on the 2ist of February
1907, cover a total area of 118 acres lying to the northward in
front of the Naval Barracks, and involved the reclamation of
77 acres of mudflats lying below high- water mark. The scheme
presented three leading features a tidal basin, a group of three
graving docks with entrance lock, and a large enclosed basin with
a coaling dep6t at the north end. The tidal basin, close to the
old Keyham north basin, is 740 ft. long with a mean width of
590 ft., and has an area of 10 acres, the depth being 32 ft. at low
water of spring tides. It affords access to two graving docks, one
with a floor-length of 745 ft. and 20^ ft. of water over the sill, and
130
DEVONPORT DEVONSHIRE, DUKES OF
the other with a length of 741 ft. and 32 ft. of water over the sill.
Each of these can be subdivided by means of an intermediate
caisson, and (when unoccupied) may serve as an entrance to the
closed basin. The lock which leads from the tidal to the closed
basin is 730 ft. long, and if necessary can be used as a dock. The
closed basin, out of which opens a third graving dock, 660 ft.
long, measures 1550 ft. by jooo ft. and has an area of 355 acres,
with a depth of 32 ft. at low- water springs; it has a direct
entrance from the Hamoaze, closed by a caisson. The founda-
tions of the walls are carried down to the rock, which in some
places lies covered with mud 100 ft. or more below coping level.
Compressed air is used to work the sliding caissons which close
the entrances of the docks and closed basin. A ropery at
Devonport produces half the hempen ropes used in the navy.
By the Reform Act of 1832 Devonport was erected into a
parliamentary borough including East Stonehouse and returning
two members. The ground on which it stands is for the most
part the property of the St Aubyn family (Barons St Levan),
whose steward holds a court leet and a court baron annually.
The town is governed by a mayor, sixteen aldermen and forty-
eight councillors. Area, 3044 acres.
DEVONPORT, EAST and WEST, a town of Devon county,
Tasmania, situated on both sides of the mouth of the river
Mersey, 193 m. by rail N.W. of Hobart. Pop. (1901), East
Devonport, 673, West Devonport, 2101. There is regular com-
munication from this port to Melbourne and Sydney, and it
ranks as the third port in Tasmania. ' A celebrated regatta is held
on the Mersey annually on New Year's day.
DEVONSHIRE, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The Devonshire
title, now in the Cavendish family, had previously been held by
Charles Blount (1563-1606), 8th Lord Mountjoy, great-grandson
of the 4th Lord Mountjoy (d. 1534), the pupil of Erasmus; he
was created earl of Devonshire in 1603 for his services in Ireland,
where he became famous in subduing the rebellion between 1600
and 1603; but the title became extinct at his death. In the
Cavendish line the ist earl of Devonshire was William (d. 1626),
second son of Sir William Cavendish (<?..), and of Elizabeth
Hardwick, who afterwards married the 6th earl of Shrewsbury.
He was created earl of Devonshire in 1618 by James I., and was
succeeded by William, 2nd earl (1591-1628), and the latter by
his son William (1617-1684), a prominent royalist, and one of
the original members of the Royal Society, who married a
daughter of the 2nd earl of Salisbury.
WILLIAM CAVENDISH, ist duke of Devonshire (1640-1707),
English statesman, eldest son of the earl of Devonshire last
mentioned, was born on the 25th of January 1640. After com-
pleting his education he made the tour of Europe according to the
custom of young men of his rank, being accompanied on his travels
by Dr Killigrew. On his return he obtained, in 1661, a seat in
parliament for Derbyshire, and soon became conspicuous as one
of the most determined and daring opponents of the general
policy of the court. In 1678 he was one of the committee
appointed to draw up articles of impeachment against the lord
treasurer Danby. In 1679 he was re-elected for Derby, and made
a privy councillor by Charles II.; but he soon withdrew from
the board with his friend Lord Russell, when he found that the
Roman Catholic interest uniformly prevailed. He carried up to
the House of Lords the articles of impeachment against Lord
Chief-Justice Scroggs, for his arbitrary and illegal proceedings
in the court of King's bench; and when the king declared his
resolution not to sign the bill for excluding the duke of York,
afterwards James II., he moved in the House of Commons
that a bill might be brought in for the association of all his
majesty's Protestant subjects. He also openly denounced the
king's counsellors, and voted for an address to remove them. He
appeared in defence of Lord Russell at his trial, at a time when
it was scarcely more criminal to be an accomplice than a witness.
After the condemnation he gave the utmost possible proof of his
attachment by offering to exchange clothes with Lord Russell
in the prison, remain in his place, and so allow him to effect his
escape. In Novembr 1684 he succeeded to the earldom on the
death of his father. He opposed arbitrary government under
James II. with the same consistency and high spirit as during the
previous reign. He was withdrawn from public life for a time,
however, in consequence of a hasty and imprudent act of which
his enemies knew how to avail themselves. Fancying that he
had received an insulting look in the presence chamber from
Colonel Colepepper, a swaggerer whose attendance at court the
king encouraged, he immediately avenged the affront by challeng-
ing the colonel, and, on the challenge being refused, striking him
with his cane. This offence was punished by a fine of 30,000,
which was an enormous sum even to one of the earl's princely
fortune. Not being able to pay he was imprisoned in the king's
bench, from which he was released only on signing a bond for
the whole amount. This was afterwards cancelled by King
William. After his discharge the earl went for a time to
Chatsworth, where he occupied himself with the erection of a
new mansion, designed by William Talman, with decorations by
Verrio, Thornhill and Grinling Gibbons. The Revolution again
brought him into prominence. He was one of the seven who
signed the original paper inviting the prince of Orange from
Holland, and was the first nobleman who appeared in arms to
receive him at his landing. He received the order of the Garter
on the occasion of the coronation, and was made lord high
steward of the new court. In 1690 he accompanied King William
on his visit to Holland. He was created marquis of Hartington
and duke of Devonshire in 1694 by William and Mary, on the
same day on which the head of the house of Russell was created
duke of Bedford. Thus, to quote Macaulay, " the two great
houses of Russell and Cavendish, which had long been closely
connected by friendship and by marriage, by common opinions,
common sufferings and common triumphs, received on the same
day the highest honour which it is in the power of the crown to
confer." His last public service was assisting to conclude the
union with Scotland, for negotiating which he and his eldest son,
the marquis of Hartington, had been appointed among the
commissioners by Queen Anne. He died on the i8th of August
1707, and ordered the following inscription to be put on his
monument:
Willielmus Dux Devon,
Bonorum Principum Fidelis Subditus,
Iniraicus et Invisus Tyrannis.
He had married in 1661 the daughter of James, duke of
Ormonde, and he was succeeded by his eldest son William as
2nd duke, and by the latter's son William as 3rd duke (viceroy
of Ireland, 1737-1744). The latter's son William (1720-1764)
succeeded in 1755 as 4th duke; he married the daughter and
heiress of Richard Boyle, earl of Burlington and Cork, who
brought Lismore Castle and the Irish estates into the family; and
from November 1756 to May 1757 he was prime minister, mainly
in order that Pitt, who would not then serve under the duke of
Newcastle, should be in power. His son William (1748-1811),
5th duke, is memorable as the husband of the beautiful Georgiana
Spencer, duchess of Devonshire (1757-1806), and of the intellec-
tual Elizabeth Foster, duchess of Devonshire (1758-1824), both
of whom Gainsborough painted. His son William, 6th duke
(1790-1858), who died unmarried, was sent on a special mission
to the coronation of the tsar Nicholas at Moscow in 1826, and
became famous for his expenditure on that occasion; and it was
he who employed Sir Joseph Paxton at Chatsworth. The title
passed in 1858 to his cousin William (1808-1891), 2nd earl of
Burlington, as 7th duke, a man who, without playing a prominent-
part in public affairs, exercised great influence, not only by his
position but by his distinguished abilities. At Cambridge in 1 8 29
he was second wrangler, first Smith's prizeman, and eighth classic,
and subsequently he became chancellor of the university.
SPENCER COMPTON CAVENDISH, 8th duke (1833-1908), born
on the 23rd of July 1833, was the son of the 7th duke (then earl of
Burlington) and his wife Lady Blanche Howard (sister of the earl
of Carlisle). In 1854 Lord Cavendish, as he then was, took his
degree at Trinity College, Cambridge; in 1856 he was attached to
the special mission to Russia for the new tsar's accession ; and in
1857 he was returned to parliament as Liberal member for North
Lancashire. At the opening of the new parliament of 1859 the
DEVONSHIRE, DUKES OF
marquis of Hartington (as he had now become) moved the amend-
ment to the address which overthrew the government of Lord
Derby. In 1863 he became first a lord of the admiralty, and then
under-secretary for war, and on the formation of the Russell-
Gladstone administration at the death of Lord Palmerston he
entered it as war secretary. He retired with his colleagues in
July 1866; but upon Mr Gladstone's return to power in 1868 he
became postmaster-general, an office which he exchanged in 1871
for that of secretary for Ireland. When Mr Gladstone, after his
defeat and resignation in 1874, temporarily withdrew from the
leadership of the Liberal party in January 1875, Lord Hartington
was chosen Liberal leader in the House of Commons, Lord
Granville being leader in the Lords. Mr W. E. Forster, who
had taken a much more prominent part in public life, was the
only other possible nominee, but he declined to stand. Lord
Hartington's rank no doubt told in his favour, and Mr Forster's
education bill had offended the Nonconformist members, who
would probably have withheld their support. Lord Hartington's
prudent management in difficult circumstances laid his followers
under great obligations, since not only was the opposite party
in the ascendant, but his own former chief was indulging in
the freedom of independence. After the complete defeat of
the Conservatives in the general election of 1880, a large pro-
portion of the party would have rejoiced if Lord Hartington
could have taken the Premiership instead of Mr Gladstone,
and the queen, in strict conformity with constitutional usage
(though Gladstone himself thought Lord Granville should have
had the preference), sent for him as leader of the Opposition.
Mr Gladstone, however, was clearly master of the situation: no
cabinet could be formed without him, nor could he reasonably be
expected to accept a subordinate post. Lord Hartington, there-
fore, gracefully abdicated the leadership, and became secretary
of state for India, from which office, in December 1882, he passed
to the war office. His administration was memorable for the
expeditions of General Gordon and Lord Wolseley to Khartum,
and a considerable number of the Conservative party long held
him chiefly responsible for the " betrayal of Gordon." His
lethargic manner, apart from his position as war minister, helped
to associate him in their minds with a disaster which emphasized
the fact that the government acted " too late " ; but Gladstone and
Lord Granville were no less responsible than he. In June 1885 he
resigned along with his colleagues, and in December was elected
for the Ressendale Division of Lancashire, created by the new
reform bill. Immediately afterwards the great political oppor-
tunity of Lord Hartington's life came to him in Mr Gladstone's
conversion to home rule for Ireland. Lord Hartington's refusal
to follow his leader in this course inevitably made him the chief
of the new Liberal Unionist party, composed of a large and
influential section of the old Liberals. In this capacity he moved
the first resolution at the famous public meeting at the opera
house, and also, in the House of Commons, moved the rejection of
MrGladstone's Billon thesecondreading. During the memorable
electoral contest which followed, no election excited more interest
than Lord Hartington's for the Ros^endale division, where he
was returned by a majority of nearly 1500 votes. In the new
parliament he held a position much resembling that which Sir
Robert Peel had occupied after his fall from power, the leader
of a small, compact party, the standing and ability of whose
members were out of all proportion to their numbers, generally
esteemed and trusted beyond any other man in the country, yet
in his own opinion forbidden to think of office. Lord Salisbury's
offers to serve under him as prime minister (both after the general
election, and again when Lord Randolph Churchill resigned) were
declined, and Lord Hartington continued to discharge the delicate
duties of the leader of a middle party with no less judgment than
he had shown when leading the Liberals during the interregnum
of 1875-1880. It was not until 1895, when the differences
between Conservatives and Liberal Unionists had become almost
obliterated by changed circumstances, and the habit of acting
together, that the duke of Devonshire, as he had become by the
death of his father in 1891, consented to enter Lord Salisbury's
third ministry as president of the council. The duke thus was
the nominal representative of education in the cabinet at a time
when educational questions were rapidly becoming of great
importance; and his own technical knowledge of this difficult
and intricate question being admittedly superficial, a good deal of
criticism from time to time resulted. He had however by this
time an established position in public life, and a reputation for
weight of character, which procured for him universal respect
and confidence, and exemoted him from bitter attack, even from
his most determined political opponents. Wealth and rank
combined with character to place him in a measure above party;
and his succession to his father as chancellor of the university of
Cambridge in 1892 indicated his eminence in the life of the
country. In the same year he had married the widow of the
7th duke of Manchester.
He continued to hold the office of lord president of the council
till the 3rd of October 1903, when he resigned on account of
differences with Mr Balfour (q.v.) over the latter's attitude towards
free trade. As Mr Chamberlain had retired from the cabinet,
and the duke had not thought it necessary to join Lord George
Hamilton and Mr Ritchie in resigning a fortnight earlier, the
defection was unanticipated and was sharply criticized by Mr
Balfour, who, in the rearrangement of his ministry, had only
just appointed the duke's nephew and heir, Mr Victor Cavendish,
to be secretary to the treasury. But the duke had come to the
conclusion that while he himself was substantially a free-trader, 1
Mr Balfour did not mean the same thing by the term. He
necessarily became the leader of the Free Trade Unionists who
were neither Balfourites nor Chamberlainites, and his weight was
thrown into the scale against any association of Unionism with the
constructive policy of tariff reform, which he identified with sheer
Protection . A struggle at once began within the Liberal Unionist
organization between those who followed the duke and those who
followed Mr Chamberlain (q.v.); but the latter were in the
majority and a reorganization in the Liberal Unionist Association
took place, the Unionist free-traders seceding and becoming a
separate body. The duke then became president of the new
organizations, the Unionist Free Food League and the Unionist
Free Trade Club. In the subsequent developments the duke
played a dignified but somewhat silent part, and the Unionist
rout in 1906 was not unaffected by his open hostility to any taint
of compromise with the tariff reform movement. But' in the
autumn of 1907 his health gave way, and grave symptoms of
cardiac weakness necessitated his abstaining from public effort
and spending the winter abroad. He died, rather suddenly, at
Cannes on the 24th of March 1908.
The head of an old and powerful family, a wealthy territorial
magnate, and an Englishman with thoroughly national tastes
for sport, his weighty and disinterested character made him a
statesman of the first rank in his time, in spite of the absence of
showy or brilliant qualities. He had no self-seeking ambitions,
and on three occasions preferred not to become prime minister.
Though his speeches were direct and forcible, he was not an orator,
nor " clever "; and he lacked all subtlety of intellect; but he
was conspicuous for solidity of mind and straightforwardness
of action, and for conscientious application as an administrator,
whether in his public or private life. The fact that he once
yawned in the middle of a speech of his own was commonly
quoted as characteristic; but he combined a great fund of
common sense and knowledge of the average opinion with a
patriotic sense of duty towards the state. Throughout his career
he remained an old-fashioned Liberal, or rather Whig, of a type
which in his later years was becoming gradually more and more
rare.
There was no issue of his marriage, and he was succeeded as
9th duke by his nephew VICTOR CHRISTIAN CAVENDISH (b. 1868),
who had been Liberal Unionist member for West Derbyshire
since 1891, and was treasurer of the household (1900 to 1903) and
1 His own words to Mr Balfour at the time were: " I believe that
our present system of free imports is on the whole the most advan-
tageous to the country, though I do not contend that the principles on
which it rests possess any such authority or sanctity as to forbid any
departure from it, for sufficient reasons."
132
DEVONSHIRE
financial secretary to the treasury (1903 to 1905); in 1892 he
married a daughter of the marquess of Lansdowne, by whom he
had two sons. (H. CH.)
DEVONSHIRE (DEVON), a south-western county of England,
bounded N.W. and N. by the Bristol Channel, N.E. by Somerset
and Dorset, S.E. and S. by the English Channel, and W. by
Cornwall. The area, 2604-9 sq. m., is exceeded only by those of
Yorkshire and Lincolnshire among the English counties. Nearly
the whole of the surface is uneven and hilly. The county contains
the highest land in England south of Derbyshire (excepting points
on the south Welsh border) ; and the scenery, much varied, is in
most parts striking and picturesque. The heather-clad uplands
of Exmoor, though chiefly within the borders of Somerset, extend
into North Devon, and are still the haunt of red deer, and of the
small hardy ponies called after the district. Here, as on Dart-
moor, the streams are rich in trout. Dartmoor, the principal
physical feature of the county, is a broad and lofty expanse of
moorland which rises in the southern part. Its highest point,
2039 ft., is found in the north-western portion. Its rough wastes
contrast finely with the wild but wooded region which immediately
surrounds the granite of which it is composed, and with the rich
cultivated country lying beyond. Especially noteworthy in this
fertile tract are the South Hams, a fruitful district of apple
orchards, lying between the Ernie and the Dart; the rich
meadow-land around Crediton, in the vale of Exeter; and the
red rocks near Sidmouth. Two features which lend a character-
istic charm to the Devonshire landscape are the number of
picturesque old cottages roofed with thatch; and the deep lanes,
sunk below the common level of the ground, bordered by tall
hedges, and overshadowed by an arch of boughs. The north and
south coasts of the county differ much in character, but both have
grand cliff and rock scenery, not surpassed by any in England
or Wales, resembling the Mediterranean seaboard in its range of
colour. As a rule the long combes or glens down which the rivers
flow seaward are densely wooded, and the country immediately
inland is of great beauty. Apart from the Tamar, which consti-
tutes the boundary between Devon and Cornwall, and flows into
the English Channel, after forming in its estuary the harbours of
Devonport and Plymouth, the principal rivers rise on Dartmoor.
These include the Teign, Dart, Plym and Tavy, falling into the
English Channel, and the Taw flowing north towards Bideford
Bay. The river Torridge, also discharging northward, receives
part of its waters from Dartmoor through the Okement, but
itself rises in the angle of high land near Hartland point on the
north coast, and makes a wide sweep southward. The lesser
Dartmoor streams are the Avon, the Erme and the Vealm, all
running south. The Exe rises on Exmoor in Somersetshire; but
the main part of its course is through Devonshire (where it gives
name to Exeter), and it is joined on its way to the English
Channel by the lesser streams of the Culm, the Greedy and the
Clyst. The Otter, rising on the Blackdown Hills, also runs south,
and the Axe, for part of its course, divides the counties of Devon
and Dorset. These eastern streams are comparatively slow;
while the rivers of Dartmoor have a shorter and more rapid
course.
Geology. The greatest area occupied by any one group of rocks
in Devonshire is that covered by the Culm, a series of slates, grits and
greywackes, with some impure limestones and occasional radiolarian
cherts as at Codden Hill; beds of " culm," an impure variety of coal,
are found at Bideford and elsewhere. This series of rocks occurs at
Bampton, Exeter and Chudleigh and extends thence to the western
boundary. North and south ofthe Culm an older series of slates, grits
and limestones appears; it was considered so characteristic of the
county that it was called the Devonian system (?..), the marine
equivalent of the Old Red Sandstone of Hereford and Scotland. It
lies in the form of a trough with its axis running east and west. In
the central hollow the Culm reposes, while the northern and southern
rims rise to the surface respectively north of the latitude of Barn-
staple and South Molton and south of the latitude of Tavistock.
These Devonian rocks have been subdivided into upper, middle and
lower divisions, but the stratigraphy is difficult to follow as the beds
have suffered much crumpling; fine examples of contorted strata
may be seen almost anywhere on the north coast, and in the south,
at Bolt Head and Start Point they have undergone severe meta-
morphism. Limestones are only poorly developed in the north, but
in the south important masses occur, in the middle and at the base
of the upper subdivisions, about Plymouth. Torquay, Brixham and
between Newton Abbot and Totnes. Fossil corals abound in these
limestones, which are largely quarried and when polished are known
as Devonshire marbles.
On the eastern side of the county is found an entirely different set
of rocks which cover the older series and dip away from them gently
towards the east. The lower and most westerly situated members of
the younger rocks is a series of breccias, conglomerates, sandstones
and marls which are probably of lower Bunter age, but by some
geologists have been classed as Permian. These red rocks are
beautifully exposed on the coast by Dawlish and Teignmouth, and
they extend inland, producing a red soil, past Exeter and Tivertoji.
A long narrow strip of the same formation reaches out westward on
the top of the Culm as far as Jacobstow. Farther east, the Bunter
pebble beds are represented by the well-known pebble deposit of
Budleigh Salterton, whence they are traceable inland towards
Rockbeare. These are succeeded by the Keuper marls and sand-
stones, well exposed at Sidmouth, where the upper Greensand
plateau is clearly seen to overlie them. The Greensand covers
al! the high ground northward from Sidmouth as far as the Black-
down Hills. At Beer Head and Axmouth the Chalk is seen, and at
the latter place is a famous landslip on the coast, caused by the
springs which issue from the Greensand below the Chalk. The
Lower Chalk at Beer has been mined for building stone and was
formerly in considerable demand. At the extreme east of the county,
Rhaetic and Lias beds make their appearance, the former with a
" bone " bed bearing the remains of saurians and fish.
Dartmoor is a mass of granite that was intruded into the Culm
and Devonian strata in post-Carboniferous times and subsequently
exposed by denudation. Evidences of Devonian volcanic activity
are abundant in the masses of diabase, dolerite, &c., at Bradford and
Trusham, south of Exeter, around Plymouth and at Ashprington.
Perhaps the most interesting is the Carboniferous volcano of Brent
Tor near Tavistock. An Eocene deposit, the product of the denuda-
tion of the Dartmoor Hills, lies in a small basin at Bovey Tracey (see
BOVEY BEDS) ; it yields beds of lignite and valuable clays.
Raised beaches occur at Hope's Nose and the Thatcher Stone near
Torquay and at other points, and a submerged forest lies in the bay
south of the same place. The caves and fissures in the Devonian
limestone at Kent's Hole near Torquay, Brixham and Oreston are
famous for the remains of extinct mammals; bones of the elephant,
rhinoceros, bear and hyaena have been found as well as flint
implements of early man.
Minerals. Silver-lead was formerly worked at Combe Martin near
the north coast, and elsewhere. Tin has been worked on Dartmoor
(in stream works) from an unknown period. Copper was not much
worked before the end of the 1 8th century. Tin occurs in the granite
of Dartmoor, and along its borders, but rather where the Devonian
than where the Carboniferous rocks border the granite. It is found
most plentifully in the district which surrounds Tavistock, which,
for tin and other ores, is in effect the great mining district of the
county. Here, about 4 m. from Tavistock, are the Devon Great
Consols mines, which from 1843 to 1871 were among the richest
copper mines in the world, and by far the largest and most profitable
in the kingdom. The divided profits during this period amounted
to 1,192,960. But the mining interests of Devonshire are affected
by the same causes, and in the same way, as those of Cornwall.
The quantity of ore has greatly diminished, and the cost of raising
it from the deep mines prevents competition with foreign markets.
In many mines tin underlies the general depth of the copper,
and is worked when the latter has been exhausted. The mineral
products of the Tavistock district are various, and besides tin
and copper, ores of zinc and iron are largely distributed. Great
quantities of refined arsenic have been produced at the Devon Great
Consols mine, by elimination from the iron pyrites contained in the
various lodes. Manganese occurs in the neighbourhood of Exeter,
in the valley of the Teign and in N. Devon; but the most profitable
mines, which are shallow, are, like those of tin and copper, in the
Tavistock district.
The other mineral productions of the county consist of marbles,
building stones, slates and potters' clay. Among building stones,
the granite of Dartmoor holds the foremost place. It is much quarried
near Princetown, near Moreton Hampstead on the N.E. of Dartmoor
and elsewhere. The annual export is considerable. Hard traps,
which occur in many places, are also much used, as are the lime-
stones of Buckfastleigh and of Plymouth. The Robprough stone,
used from an early period in Devonshire churches, is found near
Tavistock, and is a hard, porphyritic elvan, taking a fine polish.
Excellent roofing slates occur in the Devonian series round the
southern part of Dartmoor. The chief quarries are near Ashburton
and Plymouth (Cann quarry)- Potters clay is worked at King's
Teignton, whence it is largely exported; at Bpvey Tracey; and at
Watcombe near Torquay. The Watcombe clay is of the finest quality.
China clay or kaolin is found on the southern side of Dartmoor,
at Lee Moor, and near Trowlesworthy. There is a large deposit of
umber close to Ashburton.
Climate and Agriculture. The climate varies greatly in
different parts of the county, but everywhere it is more humid
DEVONSHIRE
than that of the eastern or south-eastern parts of England. The
mean annual temperature somewhat exceeds that of the mid-
lands, but the average summer heat is rather less than that of the
southern counties to the east. The air of the Dartmoor highlands
is sharp and bracing. Mists are frequent, and snow often lies
long. On the south coast frost is little known, and many half
hardy plants, such as hydrangeas, myrtles, geraniums and helio-
tropes, live through the winter without protection. The climate
of Sidmouth, Teignmouth, Torquay and other watering places
on this coast is very equable, the mean temperature in January
being 43-6 at Plymouth. The north coast, exposed to the
storms and swell of the Atlantic, is more bracing; although
there also, in the more sheltered nooks (as at Combe Martin),
myrtles of great size and age flower freely, and produce their
annual crop of berries.
Rather less than three-quarters of the total area of the county
is under cultivation; the cultivated area falling a little below
the average of the- English counties. There are, however, about
160,000 acres of hill pasture in addition to the area in permanent
pasture, which is more than one-half that of the cultivated area.
The Devon breed of cattle is well adapted both for fattening and
for dairy purposes; while sheep are kept in great numbers on
the hill pastures. Devonshire is one of the chief cattle-farming
and sheep-farming counties. It is specially famous for two
products of the dairy the clotted cream to which it gives its
name, and junket. Of the area under grain crops, oats occupy
about three times the acreage under wheat or barley. The bulk
of the acreage under green crops is occupied by turnips, swedes
and mangold. Orchards occupy a large acreage, and consist
chiefly of apple-trees, nearly every farm maintaining one for the
manufacture of cider.
Fisheries. Though the fisheries of Devon are less valuable
than those of Cornwall, large quantities of the pilchard and
herrings caught in Cornish waters are landed at Plymouth. Much
of the fishing is carried on within the three-mile limit; and it
may be asserted that trawling is the main feature of the Devon-
shire industry, whereas seining and driving characterize that
of Cornwall. Pilchard, cod, sprats, brill, plaice, soles, turbot,
shrimps, lobsters, oysters and mussels are met with, besides
herring and mackerel, which are fairly plentiful. After Ply-
mouth, the principal fishing station is at Brixham, but there are
lesser stations in every bay and estuary.
Other Industries. The principal industrial works in the county
are the various Government establishments at Plymouth and
Devonport. Among other industries may be noted the lace-
works at Tiverton; the manufacture of pillow-lace for which
Honiton and its neighbourhood has long been famous; and the
potteries and terra-cotta works of Bovey Tracey and Watcombe.
Woollen goods and serges are made at Buckfastleigh and
Ashburton, and boots and shoes at Crediton. Convict labour is
employed in the direction of agriculture, quarrying, &c., in the
great prison of Dartmoor.
Communications. The main line of the Great Western railway,
entering the county in the east from Taunton, runs to Exeter,
skirts the coast as far as Teignmouth, and continues a short
distance inland by Newton Abbot to Plymouth, after which it
crosses the estuary of the Tamar by a great bridge to Saltash
in Cornwall. Branches serve Torquay and other seaside resorts
of the south coast; and among other branches are those from
Taunton to Barnstaple and from Plymouth northward to
Tavistock and Launceston. The main line of the London &
South- Western railway between Exeter and Plymouth skirts the
north and west of Dartmoor by Okehampton and Tavistock. A
branch from Yeoford serves Barnstaple, Ilfracombe, Bideford and
Torrington, while the Lynton & Barnstaple and the Bideford,
Westward Ho & Appledore lines serve the districts indicated
by their names. The branch line to Princetown from the
Plymouth-Tavistock line of the Great Western company in part
follows the line of a very early railway that constructed to
connect Plymouth with the Dartmoor prison in 1810-1825,
which was worked with horse cars. The only waterways of any
importance are the Tamar, which is navigable up to Gunnislake
(3 m. S.W. of Tavistock), and the Exeter ship canal, noteworthy
as one of the oldest in England, for it was originally cut in the
reign of Elizabeth.
Population and Administration. Theareaof theancient county
is 1,667,154 acres, with a population in 1891 of 631,808, and 1901
of 661,314. The area of the administrative county is 1,671,168
acres. The county contains 33 hundreds. The municipal
boroughs are Barnstaple (pop. 14,137), Bideford (8754), Dart-
mouth (6579), Devonport, a county borough (70,437), Exeter, a
city and county borough (47,185), Torrington, officially Great
Torrington(324i),Honiton(327i),Okehampton(2569), Plymouth,
a county borough (107,636), South Molton (2848), Tiverton
(10,382), Torquay (33,625), Totnes (4035). The other urban
districts are Ashburton (2628), Bampton (1657), Brixham (8092),
Buckfastleigh (2520), Budleigh Salterton (1883), Crediton (3974),
Dawlish (4003), East Stonehouse (15,111), Exmouth (10,485),
Heavitree (7529), Holsworthy (1371), Ilfracombe (8557), Ivy-
bridge (1575), Kingsbridge (3025), Lynton (1641), Newton Abbot
(12,517), Northam (5355), Ottery St Mary (3495), Paignton
(8385), Salcombe (1710), Seaton (1325), Sidmouth (4201),
Tavistock (4728), Teignmouth (8636). The county is in the
western circuit, and assizes are held at Exeter. It has one
court of quarter sessions, and is divided into twenty-four petty
sessional divisions. The boroughs of Barnstaple, Bideford,
Devonport, Exeter, Plymouth, South Molton, and Tiverton have
separate commissions of the peace and courts of quarter sessions,
and those of Dartmouth, Great Torrington, Torquay and Totnes
have commissions of the peace only. There are 46 1 civil parishes.
Devonshire is in the diocese of Exeter, with the exception of
small parts in those of Salisbury and Truro; and there are 516
ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part within the
county. The parliamentary divisions are the Eastern or Honiton,
North-eastern or Tiverton, Northern or South Molton, North-
western or Barnstaple, Western or Tavistock, Southern or Totnes,
Torquay, and Mid or Ashburton, each returning one member;
and the county also contains the parliamentary boroughs of
Devonport and Plymouth, each returning two members, and
that of Exeter, returning one member.
History. The Saxon conquest of Devonshire must have begun
some time before the 8th century, for in 700 there existed at
Exeter a famous Saxon school. By this time, however, the
Saxons had become Christians, and established their supremacy,
not by destructive inroads, but by a gradual process of coloniza-
tion, settling among the native Welsh and allowing them to hold
lands under equal laws. The final incorporation of the district
which is now Devonshire with the kingdom of Wessex must
have taken place about 766, but the county, and even Exeter,
remained partly Welsh until the time of ./Ethelstan. At the
beginning of the gth century Wessex was divided into definite
pagi, probably corresponding to the later shires, and the Saxon
Chronicle mentions Devonshire by name in 823, when a battle
was fought between the Welsh in Cornwall and the people of
Devonshire at Camelford. During the Danish invasions of the
oth century aldermen of Devon are frequently mentioned. In
851 the invaders were defeated by the fyrd and aldermen of
Devon, and in 878, when the Danes under Hubba were harrying
the coast with a squadron of twenty-three ships, they were again
defeated with great slaughter by the fyrd. The modern hundreds
of Devonshire correspond in position very nearly with those given
in the Domesday Survey, though the names have in many cases
been changed, owing generally to alterations in their places of
meeting. The hundred of Bampton formerly included estates
west of the Exe, now transferred to the hundred of Witheridge.
Ten of the modern hundreds have been formed by the union of
two or more Domesday hundreds, while the Domesday hundred
of Listen has had the new hundred of Tavistock severed from
it since 1114. Many of the hundreds were separated by tracts
of waste and forest land, of which Devonshire contained a vast
extent, until in 1204 the inhabitants paid 5000 marks to have the
county disafforested, with the exception only of Dartmoor and
Exmoor.
Devonshire in the 7th century formed part of the vast bishopric
134
DEVRIENT
of Dorchester-on-Thames. In 705 it was attached to the newly
created diocese of Sherborne, and in 910 Archbishop Plegmund
constituted Devonshire a separate diocese, and placed the see at
Crediton. About 1030 the dioceses of Devonshire and Cornwall
were united, and in 1049 the see was fixed at Exeter. The arch-
deaconries of Exeter, Barnstaple and Totnes are all mentioned in
the 1 2th century and formerly comprised twenty-four deaneries.
The deaneries of Three Towns, Collumpton and Ottery have
been created since the i6th century, while those of Tamerton,
Dunkeswell, Dunsford and Plymptre have been abolished, bring-
ing the present number to twenty-three.
At the time of the Norman invasion Devonshire showed an
active hostility to Harold, and the easy submission which it
rendered to the Conqueror accounts for the exceptionally large
number of Englishmen who are found retaining lands after the
Conquest. The many vast fiefs held by Norman barons were
known as honours, chief among them being Plympton, Oke-
hampton, Barnstaple, Harberton and Totnes. The honour of
Plympton was bestowed in the izth century on the Redvers
family, together with the earldom of Devon; in the i3th century
it passed to the Courtenay family, who had already become
possessed of the honour of Okehamoton, and who in 1335
obtained the earldom. The dukedom of Exeter was bestowed in
the I4th century on the Holland family, which became extinct
in the reign of Edward IV. The ancestors of Sir Walter Raleigh,
who was born at Budleigh, had long held considerable estates in
the county.
Devonshire had an independent sheriff, the appointment being
at first hereditary, but afterwards held for one year only. In 1 3 20
complaint was made that all the hundreds of Devonshire were in
the hands of the great lords, who did not appoint a sufficiency
of bailiffs for their proper government. The miners of Devon
had independent courts, known as stannary courts, for the
regulation of mining affairs, the four stannary towns being
Tavistock, Ashburton, Chagford, and Plympton. The ancient
miners' parliament was held in the open air at Crockern's Tor.
The castles of Exeter and Plympton were held against Stephen
by Baldwin de Redvers, and in the I4th and i,sth centuries the
French made frequent attacks on the Devonshire coast, being
repulsed in 1404 by the people of Dartmouth. In the Wars of the
Roses the county was much divided, and frequent skirmishes took
place between the earl of Devon and Lord Bonville, the respective
champions of the Lancastrian and Yorkist parties. Great dis-
turbances in the county followed the Reformation of the i6th
century and in 1549 a priest was compelled to say mass at
Sampford Courtney. On the outbreak of the Civil War the county
as a whole favoured the parliament, but the prevailing desire
was for peace, and in 1643 a treaty for the cessation of hostilities
in Devonshire and Cornwall was agreed upon. Skirmishes,
however, continued until the capture of Dartmouth and Exeter
in 1646 put an end to the struggle. In 1688 the prince of Orange
landed.at Torbay and was entertained for several days at Ford
and at Exeter.
The tin mines of Devon have been worked from time im-
memorial, and in the i4th century mines of tin, copper, lead, gold
and silver are mentioned. Agriculturally the county was always
poor, and before the disafforestation rendered especially so
through the ravages committed by the herds of wild deer. At
the time of the Domesday Survey the salt industry was important,
and there were ninety-nine mills in the county and thirteen
fisheries. From an early period the chief manufacture was that
of woollen cloth, and a statute 4 Ed. IV. permitted the manu-
facture of cloths of a distinct make in certain parts of Devonshire.
About 1505 Anthony Bonvis, an Italian, introduced an improved
method of spinning into the county, and cider-making is
mentioned in the i6th century. In 1680 the lace industry was
already flourishing at Colyton and Ottery St Mary, and flax,
hemp and malt were largely produced in the i7th and i8th
centuries.
Devonshire returned two members to parliament in 1290,
and in 1 295 Barnstaple, Exeter, Plympton, Tavistock, Torrington
and Totnes were also represented. In 1831 the county with its
boroughs returned a total of twenty-six members, but under the
Reform Act of 1832 it returned four members in two divisions,
and with ten boroughs was represented by a total of eighteen
members. Under the act of 1868 the county returned six
members in three divisions, and four of the boroughs were dis-
franchised, making a total of seventeen members.
Antiquities. In primeval antiquities Devonshire is not so rich
as Cornwall; but Dartmoor abounds in remains of the highest
interest, the most peculiar of which are the long parallel align-
ments of upright stones, which, on a small scale, resemble those
of Carnac in Brittany. On Dartmoor the lines are invariably
straight, and are found in direct connexion with cairns, and
with circles which are probably sepulchral. These stone
avenues are very numerous. Of the so-called sacred circles the
best examples are the " Longstones " on Scorhill Down, and
the " Grey Wethers " under Sittaford Tor. By far the finest
cromlech is the " Spinster's Rock " at Drewsteignton, a three-
pillared cromlech which may well be compared with those of
Cornwall. There are numerous menhirs or single upright stones;
a large dolmen or holed stone lies in the bed of the Teign, near the
Scorhill circle; and rock basins occur on the summit of nearly
every tor on Dartmoor (the largest are on Kestor, and on Heltor,
above the Teign). It is, however, tolerably evident that these
have been produced by the gradual disintegration of the granite,
and that the dolmen in the Teign is due to the action of the
river. Clusters of hut foundations, circular, and formed of
rude granite blocks, are frequent; the best example of such
a primitive village is at Bat worthy, near Chagford; the type
resembles that of East Cornwall. Walled enclosures, or pounds,
occur in many places; Grimspound is the most remarkable.
Boundary lines, also called trackways, run across Dartmoor in
many directions; and the rude bridges, formed of great slabs
of granite, deserve notice. All these remains are on Dartmoor.
Scattered over the county are numerous large hill castles and
camps, all earthworks, and all apparently of the British period.
Roman relics have been found from time to time at Exeter (Isca
Damnoniorum) , the only large Roman station in the county.
The churches are for the most part of the Perpendicular period,
dating from the middle of the I4th to the end of the i5th century.
Exeter cathedral is of course an exception, the whole (except
the Norman towers) being very beautiful Decorated work. The
special features of Devonshire churches, however, are the richly
carved pulpits and chancel screens of wood, in which this county
exceeded every other in England, with the exception of Norfolk
and Suffolk. The designs are rich and varied, and the skill dis-
played often very great. Granite crosses are frequent, the finest
and earliest being that of Coplestone, near Crediton. Monastic
remains are scanty; the principal are those at Tor, Buckfast,
Tavistock and Buckland Abbeys. Among domestic buildings
the houses of Wear Gifford, Bradley and Darlington of the
15th century; Bradfield and Holcombe Rogus (Elizabethan),
and Forde (Jacobean), deserve notice. The ruined castles of
Okehampton (Edward I.), Exeter, with its vast British earth-
works, Berry Pomeroy (Henry III., with ruins of a large Tudor
mansion), Totnes (Henry III.) and Compton (early 1 5th century),
are all interesting and picturesque.
AUTHORITIES. T. Westcote, Survey of Devon, written about 1630,
and first printed in 1845; J. Prince, Worthies of Devon (Exeter,
1701); Sir W. Pole, Collections towards a History of the County of
Devon (London, 1791); R. Polwhele, History of Devonshire (3 vols.
Exeter, 1797, 1798-1800); T. Moore, History of Devon from the
Earliest Period, to the Present Time (vols. i., ii., London, 18291831);
G. Olivet, Historic Collections relating to the Monasteries in Devon
(Exeter, 1820) ; D. and S. Lysons, Magna Britannia (vol. vi.,
London, 1822); Ecclesiastical Antiquities tn_ Devon (Exeter, 1844);
Mrs Bray, Traditions of Devonshire, in a series ot letters to Robert
Southey (London, 1838); G. C. Boase, Devonshire Bibliography
(London, 1883); Sir W. R. Drake, Devonshire Notes and Notelets
(London, 1888); S. Hewett, Peasant Speech of Devon (London, 1892);
R. N. Worth, History of Devonshire (London, 1886, new edition,
1895); C. Worthy, Devonshire Parishes (Exeter, 1887); Devonshire
Wills (London, 1896); Victoria County History, Devonshire.
DEVRIENT, the name of a family of German actors.
LUDWIG DEVRIENT (1784-1832), born in Berlin on the isth
of December 1784, was the son of a silk merchant. He was
DEW
apprenticed to an upholsterer, but, suddenly leaving his employ-
ment, joined a travelling theatrical company, and made his first
appearance on the stage at Gera in 1804 as the messenger in
Schiller's Braut von Messina. By the interest of Count Bruhl,
he appeared at Rudolstadt as Franz Moor in Schiller's Rauber,
so successfully that he obtained a permanent engagement at the
ducal theatre in Dessau, where he played until 1809. He then
received a call to Breslau, where he remained for six years. So
brilliant was his success in the title-parts of several of Shake-
speare's plays, that Iffland began to fear for his own reputation;
yet that great artist was generous enough to recommend the
young actor as his only possible successor. On Iffland's death
Devrient was summoned to Berlin, where he was for fifteen
years the popular idol. He died there on the 3oth of December
1832. Ludwig Devrient was equally great in comedy and tragedy.
Falstaff, Franz Moor, Shylock, King Lear and Richard II. were
among his best parts. Karl von Holtei in his Reminiscences has
given a graphic picture of him and the " demoniac fascination "
of bis acting.
See Z. Funck, Aus dem Leben zweier Schauspieler, Ifflands und
Devrients (Leipzig, 1838); H. Smidt in Devrient- Novellen (3rd ed.,
Berlin, 1882); R. Springer in the novel Devrient und Hoffmann
(Berlin, 1873), and Eduard Devrient's Geschichte der deutschen
Schauspielkunst (Leipzig, 1861).
Three of the nephews of Ludwig Devrient, sons of his brother,
a merchant, were also connected with the stage. KARL AUGUST
DEVRIENT (1797-1872) was born at Berlin on the sth of April
1797. After being for a short time in business, he entered a
cavalry regiment as volunteer and fought at Waterloo. He then
joined the stage, making his first appearance on the stage in 1819
at Brunswick. In 1821 he received an engagement at the court
theatre in Dresden, where, in 1823, he married Wilhelmine
Schroder (see SCHRODER-DEVRIENT). In 1835 he joined the
company at Karlsruhe, and in 1839 that at Hanover. His
best parts were Wallenstein and King Lear. He died on the
Sth of April 1872. His brother PHILIPP EDUARD DEVRIENT
(1801-1877), born at Berlin on the nth of August 1801, was for
a time an opera singer. Turning his attention to theatrical
management, he was from 1844 to 1846 director of the court
theatre in Dresden. Appointed to Karlsruhe in 1852, he began
a thorough reorganization of the theatre, and in the course of
seventeen years of assiduous labour, not only raised it to a high
position, but enriched its repertory by many noteworthy librettos,
among which Die Gunst des Augenblicks and Verirrungen are the
best known. But his chief work is his history of the German
stage Geschichte der deutschen Schauspielkunst (Leipzig, 1848-
1874). Hediedon the 4th of October 1877. A complete edition
of his works Dramatische und dramaturgische Schriften was
published in ten volumes (Leipzig, 1846-1873).
The youngest and the most famous of the three nephews of
Ludwig Devrient was GUSTAV EMIL DEVRIENT (1803-1872), born
in B erlin on the 4th of September 1 803 . He made his first appear-
ance on the stage in 1821, at Brunswick, as Raoul in Schiller's
Jungfrau von Orleans. After a short engagement in Leipzig, he
received in 1829 a call to Hamburg, but after two years accepted
a permanent appointment at the court theatre in Dresden, to
which he belonged until his retirement in 1868. His chief
characters were Hamlet, Uriel Acosta (in Karl Gutzkow's play),
Marquis Posa (in Schiller's Don Carlos), and Goethe's Torquato
Tasso. He acted several times in London, where his Hamlet was
considered finer than Kemble's or Edmund Kean's. He died on
the 7th of August 1872.
OTTO DEVRIENT (1838-1894), another actor, born in Berlin on
the 3rd of October 1838, was the son of Philipp Eduard Devrient.
He joined the stage in 1856 at Karlsruhe, and acted successively
in Stuttgart, Berlin and Leipzig, until he received a fixed
appointment at Karlsruhe, in 1863. In 1873 he became stage
manager at Weimar, where he gained great praise for his mise en
scene of Goethe's Faust. After being manager of the theatres in
Mannheim and Frankfort he retired to Jena, where in 1883 he
was given the honorary degree of doctor of philosophy. In 1884
he was appointed director of the court theatre in Oldenburg, and
in 1889 director of dramatic plays in Berlin. He died at Stettin
on the 23rd of June 1894.
DEW. The word "dew" (O.E. deaw ; cf. Ger. Tau) is a
very ancient one and its meaning must therefore be defined on
historical principles. According to the New English Dictionary,
it means " the moisture deposited in minute drops upon any cool
surface by condensation of the vapour of the atmosphere; formed
after a hot day, during or towards night and plentiful in the early
morning." Huxley in his Physiography makes the addition
" without production of mist." The formation of mist is not
necessary for the formation of dew, nor does it necessarily
prevent it. If the deposit of moisture is in the form of ice instead
of water it is called hoarfrost. The researches of Aitken suggest
that the words " by condensation of the vapour in the atmo-
sphere " might be omitted from the definition. He has given
reasons for believing that the large dewdrops on the leaves of
plants, the most characteristic of all the phenomena of dew, are
to be accounted for, in large measure at least, by the exuding of
drops of water from the plant through the pores of the leaves
themselves. The formation of dewdrops in such cases is the con-
tinuation of the irrigation process of the plant for supplying the
leaves with water from the soil. The process is set up in full
vigour in the daytime to maintain tolerable thermal conditions
at the surface of the leaf in the hot sun, and continued after the
sun has gone.
On the other hand, the most typical physical experiment illus-
trating the formation of dew is the production of a deposit oi
moisture, in minute drops, upon the exterior surface of a glass
or polished metal vessel by the cooling of a liquid contained in the
vessel. If the liquid is water, it can be cooled by pieces of ice;
if volatile like ether, by bubbling air through it. No deposit is
formed by this process until the temperature is reduced to a point
which, from that circumstance, has received a special name,
although it depends upon the state of the air round the vessel.
So generally accepted is the physical analogy between the natural
formation of dew and its artificial production in the manner
described, that the point below which the temperature of a
surface must be reduced in order to obtain the deposit is known
as the " dew-point."
In the view of physicists the dew-point is the temperature at
which, by being cooled without change of pressure, the air becomes
saturated with water vapour, not on account of any increase of
supply of that compound, but by the diminution of the capacity
of the air for holding it in the gaseous condition. Thus, when
the dew-point temperature has been determined, the pressure of
water vapour in the atmosphere at the time of the deposit is given
by reference to a taole of saturation pressures of water vapour
at different temperatures. As it is a well-established proposition
that the pressure of the water vapour in the air does not vary
while the air is being cooled without change of its total external
pressure, the saturation pressure at the dew-point gives the
pressure of water vapour in the air when the cooling commenced.
Thus the artificial formation of dew and consequent determination
of the dew-point is a recognized method of measuring the pressure,
and thence the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere. The
dew-point method is indeed in some ways a fundamental method
of hygrometry.
The dew-point is a matter of really vital consequence in the
question of the oppressiveness of the atmosphere or its reverse.
So long as the dew-point is low, high temperature does not matter,
but when the dew-point begins to approach the normal tempera-
ture of the human body the atmosphere becomes insupportable.
The physical explanation of the formation of dew consists
practically in determining the process or processes by which
leaves, blades of grass, stones, and other objects in the open air
upon which dew may be observed, become cooled " below the
dew-point."
Formerly, from the time of Aristotle at least, dew was supposed
to " fall." That view of the process was not extinct at the time
of Wordsworth and poets might even now use the figure without
reproach. To Dr Charles Wells of London belongs the credit of
bringing to a focus the ideas which originated with the study of
136
DEW
radiation at the beginning of the loth century, and which are
expressed by saying that the cooling necessary to produce dew
on exposed surfaces is to be attributed to the radiation from the
surfaces to a clear sky. He gave an account of the theory of
automatic cooling by radiation, which has found a place in
all text-books of physics, in his first Essay on Dew published
in 1818. The theory is supported in that and in a second essay
by a number of well-planned observations, and the essays are
indeed models of scientific method. The process of the formation
of dew as represented by Wells is a simple one. It starts from the
point of view that all bodies are constantly radiating heat, and
cool automatically unless they receive a corresponding amount
of heat from other bodies by radiation or conduction. Good
radiators, which are at the same time bad conductors of heat,
such as blades of grass, lose heat rapidly on a clear night by
radiation to the sky and become cooled below the dew-point of
the atmosphere.
The question was very fully studied by Mellon! and others, but
little more was added to the explanation given by Wells until
1885, when John Aitken of Falkirk called attention to the question
whether the water of dewdrops on plants or stones came from the
air or the earth, and described a number of experiments to show
that under the conditions of observation in Scotland, it was the
earth from which the moisture was probably obtained, either by
the operation of the vascular system of plants in the formation
of exuded dewdrops, or by evaporation and subsequent condensa-
tion in the lowest layer of the atmosphere. Some controversy
was excited by the publication of Aitken's views, and it is inter-
esting to revert to it because it illustrates a proposition which is of
general application in meteorological questions, namely, that the
physical processes operative in the evolution of meteorological
phenomena are generally complex. It is not radiation alone that
is necessary to produce dew, nor even radiation from a body
which does not conduct heat. The body must be surrounded
by an atmosphere so fully supplied with moisture that the dew-
point can be passed by the cooling due to radiation. Thus the
conditions favourable for the formation of dew are (i) a good
radiating surf ace, (2) a still atmosphere, (3) aclearsky, (4) thermal
insulation of the radiating surface, (5) warm moist ground or
some other provision to produce a supply of moisture in the
surface layers of air.
Aitken's contribution to the theory of dew shows that in
considering the supply of moisture we must take into con-
sideration the ground as well as the air and concern ourselves
with the temperature of both. Of the five conditions mentioned,
the first four may be considered necessary, but the fifth is very
important for securing a copious deposit. It can hardly be
maintained that no dew could form unless there were a supply
of water by evaporation from warm ground, but, when such a
supply is forthcoming, it is evident that in place of the limited
process of condensation which deprives the air of its moisture
and is therefore soon terminable, we have the process of
distillation which goes on as long as conditions are maintained.
This distinction is of some practical importance for it indicates
the protecting power of wet soil in favour of young plants as
against night frost. If distillation between the ground and the
leaves is set up, the temperature of the leaves cannot fall much
below the original dew-point because the supply of water for
condensation is kept up; but if the compensation for loss of
heat by radiation is dependent simply on the condensation of
water from the atmosphere, without renewal of the supply, the
dew-point will gradually -get lower as the moisture is deposited
and the process of cooling will go on.
In these questions we have to deal with comparatively large
changes taking place within a small range of level. It is with
the layer a few inches thick on either side of the surface that we are
principally concerned, and for an adequate comprehension of the
conditions close consideration is required. To illustrate this point
reference may be made to figs, i and 2, which represent the
condition of affairs at 10-40 P.M. on about the aoth of October
1885, according to observations by Aitken. Vertical distances
represent heights in feet, while the temperatures of the air and
Soil
/
1
If
1
I
Grour
rfl
evel
Earth 1
em per* t
ur?i
3
>* M
FIG. i
> y.
Grass
the dew-point are represented by horizontal distances and their
variations with height by the curved lines of the diagram. The
line marked o is the ground level itself, a rather indefinite
quantity when the surface is grass. The whole vertical distance
represented is from 4 ft. above ground to i ft. below ground, and
the special phenomena
which we are consider-
ing take place in the
layer which represents
the rapid transition be-
tween the temperature
of the ground 3 in.
below the surface and
that of the air a few
inches above ground.
The point of interest
is to determine where
the dew-point curve and
dry-bulb curve will cut.
If they cut above the
surface, mist will result; if they cut at the surface, dew will be
formed. Below the surface, it may be assumed that the air is
saturated with moisture and any difference in temperature of the
dew-point is accompanied by distillation. It may be remarked,
by the way, that such distillation between soil layers of different
temperatures must be productive of the transference of large
quantities of water between different levels in the soil either
upward or downward according to the time of year.
These diagrams illustrate the importance of the warmth and
moisture of the ground in the phenomena which have been con-
sidered. From the surface there is a continual loss of heat going
on by radiation and a continual supply of warmth and moisture
from below. But while the heat can escape, the moisture cannot.
Thus the dry-bulb line is deflected to the left as it approaches
the surface, the dew-point line to the right. Thus the effect of the
moisture of the ground is to cause the lines to approach. In the
case of grass, fig. 2, the deviation of the dry-bulb line to the left
to form a sharp minimum of temperature at the surface is well
shown. The dew-point line is also shown diverted to the left to
the same point as the dry-bulb; but that could only happen if
there were so copious a condensation from the atmosphere as
actually to make the air drier at the surface than up above. In
diagram i, for soil, the effect on air temperature and moisture
is shown; the two lines converge to cut at the surface where a
dew deposit will be formed. Along the underground line there
must be a gradual creeping of heat and moisture towards the
surface by distillation, the more rapid the greater the temperature
gradient.
The amount of dew deposited is considerable, and, in tropical
countries, is sometimes sufficiently heavy to be collected by
gutters and spouts, but it is not generally regarded as a large
percentage of the total rainfall. Loesche estimates the amount
of dew for a single night on the Loango coast at 3 mm., but the
estimate seems a high one. Measurements go to show that the
depth of water corresponding with the aggregate annual deposit
of dew is i in. to 1-5 in. near London (G. Dines), 1-2 in. at Munich
(Wollny), 0-3 in. at Montpellier (Crova), 1-6 in. at Tenbury,
Worcestershire (Badgley).
With the question of the amount of water collected as dew, that
of the maintenance of " dew ponds " is intimately associated.
The name is given to certain isolated ponds on the upper levels
of the chalk downs of the south of England and elsewhere. Some
of these ponds are very ancient, as the title of a work on Neolithic
Dewponds by A. J. and G. Hubbard indicates. Their name
seems to imply the hypothesis that they depend upon dew and
not entirely upon rain for their maintenance as a source of water
supply for cattle, for which they are used. The question has been
discussed a good deal, but not settled; the balance of evidence
seems to be against the view that dew deposits make any
important contribution to the supply of water. The construction
of dew ponds is, however, still practised on traditional lines, and
it is said that a new dew pond has first to be filled artificially.
DEWAN D'EWES
137
It does not come into existence by the gradual accumulation of
water in an impervious basin.
AUTHORITIES. For Dew, see the two essays by Dr Charles Wells
(London, 1818), also " An Essay on Dew," edited by Casella
(London, 1866), Longmans', with additions by Strachan; Melloni,
Pogg. Ann. Ixxi. pp. 416, 424 and Ixxiii. p. 467; Jamin, " Comple-
ments 4 la theone de la ros6e," Journal de physique, viii. p. 41 ;
J. Aitken, on " Dew," Trans. Roy. Soc. of Edinburgh, xxxiii., part i.
2, and " Nature," vol. xxxiii. p. 256; C. Tomlinson, " Remarks on
a new Theory of Dew," Phil. Mag. (1886), 5th series, vol. 21,
p. 483 and vol. 22, p. 270; Russell, Nature, vol. 47, p. 210; also
Met. Zeit. (1893), p. 390; Hpmen, Bodenphysikalische und meteoro-
logische Beobachtungen (Berlin, 1894), iii. ; Taubildung, p. 88, &c. ;
Rubenson, " Die Temperatur- und Feuchtigkeitsverhaltnisse in den
unteren Luftschichten bei der Taubildung," Met. Zeit. xi. (1876),
p. 65 ; H. E. Hamberg, " Temperature et humidite de 1'air differ-
entes hauteurs a Upsal," Soc. R. des sciences d'Upsal (1876) ; review
in Met. Zeit. xii. (1877), p. 105.
For Dew Ponds, see Stephen Hales, Statical Essays, vol. i., experi-
ment xix., pp. 52-57 (2nd ed., London, 1731) ; Gilbert White, Natural
History and Antiquities of Selborne, letter xxix. (London, 1789) ; Dr C.
Wells, An Essay on Dew (London, 1818, 1821 and 1866) ; Rev. J. C.
Clutterbuck, " Prize Essay on Water Supply," Journ. Roy. Agric.
Soc., 2nd series, vol. i. pp. 271-287 (1865); Field and Symons,
" Evaporation from the Surface of Water," Brit.Assoc. Rep. (1869),
sect., pp. 25, 26; J. Lucas, " Hydrogeology : One of the Develop-
ments of Modern Practical Geology, Trans. Inst. Surveyors, vol.
ix. pp. 153-232 (1877); H. P. Slade, "A Short Practical Treatise
on Dew Ponds" (London, 1877); Clement Reid, "The Natural
History of Isolated Ponds," Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists'
Society, vol. v. pp. 272-286 (1892); Professor G. S. Brady, On the
Nature and Origin of Freshwater Faunas (1899) ; Professor L. C. M jail,
" Dew Ponds," Reports of the British Association (Bradford Meeting,
1900), pp. 579-585; A. J. and G. Hubbard, " Neolithic Dewponds
and Cattle-Ways " (London, 1904, 1907). (W. N. S.)
DEWAN or DIWAN, an Oriental term for finance minister.
The word is derived from the Arabian diwan, and is commonly
used in India to denote a minister of the Mogul government, or
in modern days the prime minister of a native state. It was in
the former sense that the grant of the dewanny to the East India
Company in 1765 became the foundation of the British empire
in India.
DEWAR, SIR JAMES (1842- ), British chemist and
physicist, was born at Kincardine-on-Forth, Scotland, on the
zoth of September 1842. He was educated at Dollar Academy
and Edinburgh University, being at the latter first a pupil, and
afterwards the assistant, of Lord Playfair, then professor of
chemistry; he also studied under Kekule at Ghent. In 1875
he was elected Jacksonian professor of natural experimental
philosophy at Cambridge, becoming a fellow of Peterhouse, and
in 1877 he succeeded Dr J. H. Gladstone as Fullerian professor of
chemistry in the Royal Institution, London. He was president
of the Chemical Society in 1897, and of the British Association
in 1902, served on the Balfour Commission on London Water
Supply (1893-1894), and as a member of the Committee
on Explosives (1888-1891) invented cordite jointly with Sir
Frederick Abel. His scientific work covers a wide field. Of his
earlier papers, some deal with questions of organic chemistry,
others with Graham's hydrogenium and its physical constants,
others with high temperatures, e.g. the temperature of the sun
and of the electric spark, others again with electro-photometry
and the chemistry of the electric arc. With Professor J. G.
M'Kendrick, of Glasgow, he investigated the physiological
action of light, and examined the changes which take place in
the electrical condition of the retina under its influence. With
Professor G. D. Liveing, one of his colleagues at Cambridge, he
began in 1878 a long series of spectroscopic observations, the later
of which were devoted to the spectroscopic examination of
various gaseous constituents separated from atmospheric air by
the aid of low temperatures; and he was joined by Professor
J. A. Fleming, of University College, London, in the investigation
of the electrical behaviour of substances cooled to very low
temperatures. His name is most widely known in connexion
with his work on the liquefaction of the so-called permanent
gases and his researches at temperatures approaching the zero
of absolute temperature. His interest in this branch of inquiry
dates back at least as far as 1874, when he discussed the " Latent
Heat of Liquid Gases " before the British Association. In 1878
he devoted a Friday evening lecture at the Royal Institution to
the then recent work of L. P. Cailletet and R. P. Pictet, and
exhibited for the first time in Great Britain the working of the
Cailletet apparatus. Six years later, in the same place, he
described the researches of Z. F. Wroblewski and K. S. Olszewski,
and illustrated for the first time in public the liquefaction of
oxygen and air, by means of apparatus specially designed for
optical projection so that the actions taking place might be
visible to the audience. Soon afterwards he constructed a
machine from which the liquefied gas could be drawn off through
a valve for use as a cooling agent, and he showed its employment
for this purpose in connexion with some researches on meteorites ;
about the same time he also obtained oxygen in the solid state.
By 1891 he had designed and erected at the Royal Institution an
apparatus which yielded liquid oxygen by the pint, and towards
the end of that year he showed that both liquid oxygen and liquid
ozone are strongly attracted by a magnet. About 1892 the idea
occurred to him of using vacuum-jacketed vessels for the storage
of liquid gases, and so efficient did this device prove in preventing
the influx of external heat that it is found possible not only to
preserve the liquids for comparatively long periods, but also to
keep them so free from ebullition that examination of their optical
properties becomes possible. He next experimented with a high-
pressure hydrogen jet by which low temperatures were realized
through the Thomson- Joule effect, and the successful results thus
obtained led him to build at the Royal Institution the large
refrigerating machine by which in 1898 hydrogen was for the
first time collected in the liquid state, its solidification following
in 1809. Later he investigated the gas-absorbing powers of
charcoal when cooled to low temperatures, and applied them to
the production of high vacua and to gas analysis (see LIQUID
GASES). The Royal Society in 1894 bestowed the Rumford
medal upon him for his work in the production of low tempera-
tures, and in 1899 he became the first recipient of the Hodgkins
gold medal of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, for his
contributions to our knowledge of the nature and properties of
atmospheric air. In 1904 he was the first British subject to
receive the Lavoisier medal of the French Academy of Sciences,
and in 1906 he was the first to be awarded the Matteucci medal
of the Italian Society of Sciences. He was knighted in 1904,
and in 1908 he was awarded the Albert medal of the Society of
Arts.
DEWAS, two native states of India, in the Malwa Political
Charge of Central India, founded in the first half of the i8th
century by two brothers, Punwar Mahrattas, who came into
Malwa with the peshwa, Baji Rao, in 1728. Their descendants
are known as the senior and junior branches of the family, and
since 1841 each has ruled his own portion as a separate state,
though the lands belonging to each are so intimately entangled,
that even in Dewas, the capital town, the two sides of the main
street are under different administrations and have different
arrangements for water supply and lighting. The senior branch
has an area of 446 sq. m. and a population of 62,312, while the
area of the junior branch is 440 sq. m. and its population 54,904.
DEWBERRY, Rubus caesius, a trailing plant, allied to the
bramble, of the natural order Rosaceae. It is common in woods,
hedges and the borders of fields in England and other countries
of Europe. The leaves have three leaflets, are hairy beneath,
and of a dusky green; the flowers which appear in June and July
are white, or pale rose-coloured. The fruit is large, and closely
embraced by the calyx, and consists of a few drupules, which are
black, with a glaucous bloom; it has an agreeable acid taste.
DEW-CLAW, the rudimentary toes, two in number, or the
"false hoof" of the deer, sometimes also called the "nails."
In dogs the dew-claw is the rudimentary toe or hallux (corre-
sponding to the big toe in man) hanging loosely attached to the
skin, low down on the hinder part of the leg. The origin of the
word is unknown, but it has been fancifully suggested that, while
the other toes touch the ground in walking, the dew-claw merely
brushes the dew from the grass.
D'EWES, SIR SIMONDS, Bart. (1602- t6so), English anti-
quarian, eldest son of Paul D'Ewes of Milden, Suffolk, and of
DE WET DE WETTE
Cecilia, daughter and heir of Richard Simonds, of Coaxdon or
Coxden, Dorsetshire, was born on the i8th of December 1602,
and educated at the grammar school of Bury St Edmunds, and
at St John's College, Cambridge. He had been admitted to
the Middle Temple in 1611, and was called to the bar in 1623,
when he immediately began his collections of material and his
studies in history and antiquities. In 1626 he married Anne,
daughter and heir of Sir William Clopton, of Luton's Hall in
Suffolk, through whom he obtained a large addition to his already
considerable fortune. On the 6th of December he was knighted.
He took an active part as a strong Puritan and member of the
moderate party in the opposition to the king's arbitrary govern-
ment in the Long Parliament of 1640, in which he sat as member
for Sudbury. On the isth of July he was created a baronet by
the king, but nevertheless adhered to the parliamentary party
when war broke out, and in 1643 took the Covenant. He was
one of the members expelled by Pride's Purge in 1648, and died
on the i8th of April 1650. He had married secondly Elizabeth,
daughter of Sir Henry Willoughby, Bart., of Risley in Derbyshire,
by whom he had a son, who succeeded to his estates and title,
the latter becoming extinct on the failure of male issue in 1731.
D'Ewes appears to have projected a work of very ambitious
scope, no less than the whole history of England based on original
documents. But though excelling as a collector of materials,
and as a laborious, conscientious and accurate transcriber, he had
little power of generalization or construction, and died without
publishing anything except an uninteresting tract, The Primitive
Practice for Preserving Truth (1645), an d some speeches. His
Journals of all the Parliaments during the Reign of Queen
Elizabeth, however, a valuable work, was published in 1682. His
large collections, including transcripts from ancient records, many
of the originals of which are now dispersed or destroyed, are in
the Harleian collection in the British Museum. His unprinted
Diaries from 1621-1624 and from 1643-1647, the latter valuable
for the notes of proceedings in parliament, are often the only
authority for incidents and speeches during that period, and are
amusing from the glimpses the diarist affords of his own character,
his good estimation of himself and his little jealousies; some are
in a cipher and some in Latin.
Extracts from his Autobiography and Correspondence from the
MSS. in the British Museum were published by J. O. Halliwell-
Phillips in 1845, by Hearne in the appendix to his Historic, vitae et
regni Ricardi II. (1729), and in the Bibliotheca topographica Britan-
nica, No. xv. vol. vi. (1783); and from a Diary of later date, College
Life in the Time of James I. (1851). His Diaries have been extensively
drawn upon by Forster, Gardiner, and by Sanford in his Studies of
the Great Rebellion. Some of his speeches have been reprinted in the
Harleian Miscellany and in the Somers Tracts.
DE WET, CHRISTIAN (1854- ), Boer general and poli-
tician, was born on the 7th of October 1854 at Leeuwkop,
Smithfield district (Orange Free State), and later resided at
Dewetsdorp. He served in the first Anglo-Boer War of 1880-81
as a field cornet, and from 1881 to 1896 he lived on his farm,
becoming in 1897 member of the Volksraad. He took part in the
earlier battles of the Boer War of 1899 in Natal as a commandant
and later, as a general, he went to serve under Cronje in the west.
His first successful action was the surprise of Sanna's Post near
Bloemfontein, which was followed by the victory of Reddersburg
a little later. Thenceforward he came to be regarded more and
more as the most formidable leader of the Boers in their guerrilla
warfare. Sometimes severely handled by the British, sometimes
escaping only by the narrowest margin of safety from the columns
which attempted to surround him, and falling upon and annihilat-
ing isolated British posts, De Wet continued to the end of the war
his successful career, striking heavily where he could do so and
skilfully evading every attempt to bring him to bay. He took an
active part in the peace negotiations of 1902, and at the conclusion
of the war he visited Europe with the other Boer generals. While
in England the generals sought, unavailingly, a modification
of the terms of peace concluded at Pretoria. De Wet wrote an
account of his campaigns, an English version of which appeared in
November 1902 under the title Three Years' War. In November,
1907 he was elected a member of the first parliament of the
Orange River Colony and was appointed minister of agriculture.
In 1908-9 he was a delegate to the Closer Union Convention.
DE WETTE, WILHELM MARTIN LEBERECHT (1780-1849),
German theologian, was born on the I2th of January 1780, at
Ulla, near Weimar, where his father was pastor. He was sent
to the gymnasium at Weimar, then at the height of its literary
glory. Here he was much influenced by intercourse with Johann
Gottfried Herder, who frequently examined at the school. In
1799 he entered on his theological studies at Jena, his principal
teachers being J. J. Griesbach and H. E. G. Pauius, from the
latter of whom he derived his tendency to free critical inquiry.
Both in methods and in results, however, he occupied an almost
solitary position among German theologians. Having taken his
doctor's degree, he became privat-docent at Jena; in 1807
professor of theology at Heidelberg, where he came under the
influence of J. F. Fries (1773-1843); and in 1810 was transferred
to a similar chair in the newly founded university of Berlin, where
he enjoyed the friendship of Schleiermacher. He was, however,
dismissed from Berlin in 1819 on account of his having written a
letter of consolation to the mother of Karl Ludwig Sand, the
murderer of Kotzebue. A petition in his favour presented by the
senate of the university was unsuccessful, and a decree was issued
not only depriving him of the chair, but banishing him from the
Prussian kingdom. He retired for a time to Weimar, where he
occupied his leisure in the preparation of his edition of Luther,
and in writing the romance Theodor oder die Weihe des Ziveiflers
(Berlin, 1822), in which he describes the education of an evan-
gelical pastor. During this period he made his first essay in
preaching, and proved himself to be possessed of very popular
gifts. But in 1822 he accepted the chair of theology in the
university of Basel, which had been reorganized four years before.
Though his appointment had been strongly opposed by the
orthodox party, De Wette soon won for himself great influence
both in the university and among the people generally. He was
admitted a citizen, and became rector of the university, which
owed to him much of its recovered strength, particularly in
the theological faculty. He died on the i6th of June 1849.
De Wette has been described by Julius Wellhausen as " the
epoch-making opener of the historical criticism of the Penta-
teuch." He prepared the way for the Supplement-theory. But
he also made valuable contributions to other branches of theology.
He had, moreover, considerable poetic faculty, and wrote a drama
in three acts, entitled Die Entsagung (Berlin, 1823). He had an
intelligent interest in art, and studied ecclesiastical music and
architecture. As a Biblical critic he is sometimes classed with
the destructive school, but, as Otto Pfleiderer says (Development
of Theology, p. 102), he " occupied as free a position as the
Rationalists with regard to the literal authority of the creeds
of the church, but that he sought to give their due value to the
religious feelings, which the Rationalists had not done, and, with
a more unfettered mind towards history, to maintain the con-
nexion of the present life of the church with the past." His works
are marked by exegetical skill, unusual power of condensation
and uniform fairness. Accordingly they possess value which is
little affected by the progress of criticism.
The most important of his works are: Beitrage zur Einleitung
in das Alte Testament (2 vols., 1806-1807); Kommentar uber die
Psalmen (1811), which has passed through several editions, and is
still regarded as of high authority ; Lehrbuch der hebraisch-jiidischen
Archdologie (1814); Uber Religion und Theologie (1815); a work of
great importance as showing its author's general theological position ;
Lehrbuch der christlichen Dogmatik (1813-1816); Lehrbuch der
historisch-kritischen Einleitung in die Bibel (1817); Christliche
Sittenlehre (1819-1821); Einleitung in das Neue Testament (1826);
Religion, ihr Wesen, ihre Erscheinungsform, und ihr Einfluss auf das
Leben (1827); Das Wesen des christlichen Glaubens (1846); and
Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum Neuen Testament (1836-
1848). De Wette also edited Luther's works (5 vols., 1825-1828).
See K. R. Hagenbach in Herzog's Realencyklopiidie; G. C. F.
Lucke's W. M. L. De Wette, zur freundschaftlicher Erinnerung (1850) ;
and D. SchenkePs W. M. L. De Wette und die Bedeutung seiner
Theologie fur unsere Ze.it (1849). Rudolf Stahelin, De Wette nach
seiner theol. Wirksamkeit und Bedeutung (1880) ; F. Lichtenberger,
History of German Theology in the Nineteenth Century (1889) ; Otto
Pfleiderer, Development of Theology (1890), pp. 97 ft.; T. K. Cheyne,
Founders of the Old Testament Criticism, pp. 31 ff.
DEWEY DE WINTER
139
DEWEY, DAVIS RICH (1858- ), American economist and
statistician, was born at Burlington, Vermont, U.S.A., on the 7th
of April 1858. He was educated at the university of Vermont and
at Johns Hopkins University, and afterwards became professor
of economics and statistics at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology. He was chairman of the state board on the question
of the unemployed (1895), member of the Massachusetts com-
mission on public, charitable and reformatory interests (1897),
special expert agent on wages for the 12th census, and member of
a state commission (1904) on industrial relations. He wrote an
excellent Syllabus on Political History since 1815 (1887), a
Financial History of the U.S. ( 1 902) , and National Problems ( 1 907 ) .
DEWEY, GEORGE (1837- ), American naval officer, was
born at Montpelier, Vermont, on the 26th of December 1837.
He studied at Norwich University, then at Norwich, Vermont,
and graduated at the United States Naval Academy in 1858.
He was commissioned lieutenant in April 1861, and in the Civil
War served on the steamsloop " Mississippi " (1861-1863) during
Farragut's passage of the forts below New Orleans in April 1862,
and at Port Hudson in March 1863; took part in the fighting
below Donaldsonville, Louisiana, in July 1863; and in 1864-1865
served on the steam-gunboat " Agawam " with the North
Atlantic blockading squadron and took part in the attacks on
Fort Fisher in December 1864 and January 1865. In March 1865
he became a lieutenant-commander. He was with the European
squadron in 1866-1867; was an instructor in the United States
Naval Academy in 1868-1869; was in command of the " Nar-
ragansett " in 1870-1871 and 1872-1875, being commissioned
commander in 1872; was light-house inspector in 1876-1877;
and was secretary of the light-house board in 1877-1882. In
1884 he became a captain; in 1889-1893 was chief of the bureau
of equipment and recruiting; in 1893-1895 was a member of the
light-house board; and in 1895-1897 was president of the board
of inspection and survey, being promoted to the rank of com-
modore in February 1896. In November 1897 he was assigned,
at his own request, to sea service, and sent to Asiatic waters. In
April 1898, while with his fleet at Hong Kong, he was notified by
cable that war had begun between the United States and Spain,
and was ordered to " capture or destroy the Spanish fleet " then
in Philippine waters. On the ist of May he overwhelmingly
defeated the Spanish fleet under Admiral Montojo in Manila Bay,
a victory won without the loss of a man on the American ships
(see SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR). Congress, in a joint resolution,
tendered its thanks to Commodore Dewey, and to the officers and
men under his command, and authorized " the secretary of the
navy to present a sword of honor to Commodore George Dewey,
and cause to be struck bronze medals commemorating the battle
of Manila Bay, and to distribute such medals to the officers and
men of the ships of the Asiatic squadron of the United States."
He was promoted rear-admiral on the loth of May 1898. On
the 1 8th of August his squadron assisted in the capture of the
city of Manila. After remaining in the Philippines under orders
from his government to maintain control, Dewey received the
rank of admiral (March 3, 1899) that title, formerly borne only
by Farragut and Porter, having been revived by act of Congress
(March 2, 1899), and returned home, arriving in New York
City, where, on the 3rd of October 1899, he received a great
ovation. He was a member (1899) of the Schurman Philippine
Commission, and in 1899 and 1900 was spoken of as a possible
Democratic candidate for the presidency. He acted as president
of the Schley court of inquiry in 1901, and submitted a minority
report on a few details.
DEWEY, MELVIL (1851- ), American librarian, was born
at Adams Center, New York, on the loth of December 1851. He
graduated in 1874 at Amherst College, where he was assistant
librarian from 1874 to 1877. In 1877 he removed to Boston,
where he founded and became editor of The Library Journal,
which became an influential factor in the development of
libraries in America, and in the reform of their administration.
He was also one of the founders of the American Library Associa-
tion, of which he was secretary from 1876 to 1891, and president
in 1891 and 1893. In 1883 he became librarian of Columbia
College, and in the following year founded there the School of
Library Economy, the first institution for the instruction of
librarians ever organized. This school, which was very successful,
was removed to Albany in 1890, where it was re-established as the
State Library School under his direction; from 1888 to 1906 he
was director of the New York State Library and from 1888 to
1900 was secretary of the University of the State of New York,
completely reorganizing the state library, which he made one of
the most efficient in America, and establishing the system of
state travelling libraries and picture collections. His " Decimal
System of Classification " for library cataloguing, first proposed
in 1876, is extensively used.
DEWING, THOMAS WILMER (1851- ), American figure
painter, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 4th of May
1851. He was a pupil of Jules Lefebvre in Paris from 1876 to
1879; was elected a full member of the National Academy of
Design in 1888; was a member of the society of Ten American
Painters, New York; and received medals at the Paris Exhibition
(1889), at Chicago (1893), at Buffalo (1901) and at St Louis
(1904). His decorative genre pictures are notable for delicacy
and finish. Among his portraits are those of Mrs Stanford White
and of his own wife. Mrs Dewing (b, 1855), nee Maria Oakey, a
figure and flower painter, was a pupil of John La Farge in New
York, and of Couture in Paris.
DE WINT, PETER (1784-1849), English landscape painter,
of Dutch extraction, son of an English physician, was born at
Stone, Staffordshire, on the 2ist of January 1784. He studied
art in London, and in 1809 entered the Academy schools. In
1812 he became a member of the Society of Painters in Water-
colours, where he exhibited largely for many years, as well as at
the Academy. He married in 1810 the sister of William Hilton,
R.A. He died in London on the 30th of January 1849. DeWint's
life was devoted to art; he painted admirably in oils, and he ranks
as one of the chief English water-colourists. A number of his
pictures are in the National Gallery and the Victoria and Albert
Museum.
DE WINTER, JAN WILLEM (1750-1812), Dutch admiral, was
born at Kampen, and in 1761 entered the naval service at the
age of twelve years. He distinguished himself by his zeal and
courage, and at the revolution of 1787 he had reached the rank of
lieutenant. The overthrow of the " patriot " party forced him
to fly for his safety to France. Here he threw himself heart and
soul into the cause of the Revolution, and took part under
Dumouriez and Pichegru in the campaigns of 1792 and 1793, and
was soon promoted to the rank of brigadier-general. When
Pichegru in 1795 overran Holland, De Winter returned with the
French army to his native country. The states-general now uti-
lized the experience he had gained as a naval officer by giving him
the post of adjunct-general for the reorganization of the Dutch
navy. In 1796 he was appointed vice-admiral and commander-
in-chief of the fleet. He spared no efforts to strengthen it
and improve its condition, and on the nth of October 1797 he
ventured upon an encounter off Camperdown with the British
fleet under Admiral Duncan. After an obstinate struggle the
Dutch were defeated, and De Winter himself was taken prisoner.
He remained in England until December, when he was liberated
by exchange. His conduct in the battle of Camperdown was
declared by a court-martial to have nobly maintained the honour
of the Dutch flag.
From 1798 to 1802 De Winter filled the post of ambassador
to the French republic, and was then once more appointed com-
mander of the fleet. He was sent with a strong squadron to the
Mediterranean to repress the Tripoli piracies, and negotiated a
treaty of peace with the Tripolitan government. He enjoyed the
confidence of Louis Bonaparte, when king of Holland, and, after
the incorporation of the Netherlands in the French empire, in an
equal degree of the emperor Napoleon. By the former he was
created marshal and count of Huessen, and given the command of
the armed forces both by sea and land. Napoleon gave him the
grand cross of the Legion of Honour and appointed him inspector-
general of the northern coasts, and in 1811 he placed him at the
head of the fleet he had collected at the Texel. Soon afterwards
140
DE WITT DEWLAP
De Winter was seized with illness and compelled to betake himself
to Paris, where he died on the 2nd of June 1812. He had a
splendid public funeral and was buried in the Pantheon. His
heart was enclosed in an urn and placed in the Nicolaas Kerk
at Kampen.
DE WITT, CORNELIUS (1623-1672), brother of John de Witt
(q.v.), was born at Dort in 1623. In 1650 he became burgo-
master of Dort and member of the states of Holland and West
Friesland. He was afterwards appointed to the important post
of ruwaard or governor of the land of Putten and bailiff of
Beierland. He associated himself closely with his greater
brother, the grand pensionary, and supported him throughout
his career with great ability and vigour. In 1667 he was the
deputy chosen by the states of Holland to accompany Admiral
de Ruyter in his famous expedition to Chatham. Cornelius
de Witt on this occasion distinguished himself greatly by his
coolness and intrepidity. He again accompanied De Ruyter in
1672 and took an honourable part in the great naval fight at
Sole Bay against the united English and French fleets. Compelled
by illness to leave the fleet, he found on his return to Dort that
the Orange party were in the ascendant, and he and his brother
were the objects of popular suspicion and hatred. An account
of his imprisonment, trial and death, is given below.
DE WITT, JOHN (1625-1672), Dutch statesman, was born at
Dort, on the 24th of September 1625. He was a member of one
of the old burgher-regent families of his native town. His father,
Jacob de Witt, was six times burgomaster of Dort, and for many
years sat as a representative of the town in the states of Holland.
He was a strenuous adherent of the repubh'can or oligarchical
states-right party in opposition to the princes of the house of
Orange, who represented the federal principle and had the support
of the masses of the people. John was educated at Leiden, and
early displayed remarkable talents, more especially in mathe-
matics and jurisprudence. In 1645 he and his elder brother
Cornelius visited France, Italy, Switzerland and England, and on
his return he took up his residence at the Hague, as an advocate.
In 1650 he was appointed pensionary of Dort, an office which
made him the leader and spokesman of the town's deputation in
the state of Holland. In this same year the states of Holland
found themselves engaged in a struggle for provincial supremacy,
on the question of the disbanding of troops, with the youthful
prince of Orange, William II. William, with the support of the
states-general and the army, seized five of the leaders of the
states-right party and imprisoned them in Loevestein castle;
among these was Jacob de Witt. The sudden death of William,
at the moment when he had crushed opposition, led to a reaction.
He left only a posthumous child, afterwards William III. of
Orange, and the principles advocated by Jacob de Witt triumphed,
and the authority of the states of Holland became predominant
in the repubh'c.
At this time of constitutional crisis such were the eloquence,
sagacity and business talents exhibited by the youthful
pensionary of Dort that on the 23rd of July 1653 he was
appointed to the office of grand pensionary (Raadpensionaris) of
Holland at the age of twenty-eight. He was re-elected in 1658,
1663 and 1668, and held office until his death in 1672. During
this period of nineteen years the general conduct of public affairs
and administration, and especially of foreign affairs, such was
the confidence inspired by his talents and industry, was largely
placed in his hands. He found in 1653 his country brought to
the brink of ruin through the war with England, which had been
caused by the keen commercial rivalry of the two maritime states.
The Dutch were unprepared, and suffered severely through the
loss of their carrying trade, and De Witt resolved to bring about
peace as soon as possible. The first demands of Cromwell were
impossible, for they aimed at the absorption of the two republics
into a single state, but at last in the autumn of 1654 peace was
concluded, by which the Dutch made large concessions and agreed
to the striking of the flag to English ships in the narrow seas. The
treaty included a secret article, which the states-general refused
to entertain, but which De Witt succeeded in inducing the states
of Holland to accept, by which the provinces of Holland pledged
themselves not to elect a stadtholder or a captain-general of the
union. This Act of Seclusion, as it was called, was aimed at the
young prince of Orange, whose close relationship to the Stuarts
made him an object of suspicion to the Protector. De Witt was
personally favourable to this exclusion of William III. from his
ancestral dignities, but there is no truth in the suggestion that
he prompted the action of Cromwell in this matter.
The policy of De Witt after the peace of 1654 was eminently
successful. He restored the finances of the state, and extended
its commercial supremacy in the East Indies. In 1658-59 he
sustained Denmark against Sweden, and in 1662 concluded an
advantageous peace with Portugal. The accession of Charles II.
to the English throne led to the rescinding of the Act of Seclusion;
nevertheless De Witt steadily refused to allow the prince of
Orange to be appointed stadtholder or captain-general. This led
to ill-will between the English and Dutch governments, and to
a renewal of the old grievances about maritime and commercial
rights, and war broke out in 1665. The zeal, industry and
courage displayed by the grand pensionary during the course of
this fiercely contested naval struggle could scarcely have been
surpassed. He himself on more than one occasion went to sea
with the fleet, and inspired all with whom he came in contact by
the example he set of calmness in danger, energy in action and
inflexible strength of will. It was due to his exertions as an
organizer and a diplomatist quite as much as to the brilliant
seamanship of Admiral de Ruyter, that the terms of the treaty
of peace signed at Breda (July 31, 1667), on the principle of
uti possidetis, were so honourable to the United Provinces. A
still greater triumph of diplomatic skill was the conclusion of the
Triple Alliance (January 17, 1668) between the Dutch Republic,
England and Sweden, which checked the attempt of Louis XIV.
to take possession of the Spanish Netherlands in the name of his
wife, the infanta Maria Theresa. The check, however, was but
temporary, and the French king only bided his time to take
vengeance for the rebuff he had suffered. Meanwhile William III.
was growing to manhood, and his numerous adherents throughout
the country spared no efforts to undermine the authority of De
Witt, and secure for the young prince of Orange the dignities and
authority of his ancestors.
In 1672 Louis XIV. suddenly declared war, and invaded
the United Provinces at the head of a splendid army. Practically
no resistance was possible. The unanimous voice of the people
called William III. to the head of affairs, and there were violent
demonstrations against John de Witt. His brother Cornelius
was (July 24) arrested on a charge of conspiring against the
prince. On the 4th of August John de Witt resigned the post
of grand pensionary that he had held so long and with such
distinction. Cornelius was put to the torture, and on the igth of
August he was sentenced to deprivation of his offices and banish-
ment. He was confined in the Gevangenpoort, and his brother
came to visit him in the prison. A vast crowd on hearing this
collected outside, and finally burst into the prison, seized the two
brothers and literally tore them to pieces. Their mangled remains
were hung up by the feet to a lamp-post. Thus perished, by the
savage act of an infuriated mob, one of the greatest statesmen of
his age.
John de Witt married Wendela Bicker, daughter of an influ-
ential burgomaster of Amsterdam, in 1655, by whom he had two
sons and three daughters.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. J. Geddes, History of the Administration of John
de Witt, (vol. i. only, London, 1879); A. Lefevre-Pontalis, Jean de
Witt, grand pensionnaire de Hollande (2 vols. , Paris, 1 884) ; P. Simons,
Johan de Witt en zijn tijd (3 vols., Amsterdam, 1832-1842); W. C.
Knottenbelt, Geschiedenis der Staatkunde van J. de Witt (Amsterdam,
1862); J. de Witt, Brieven . . . gewisselt tusschen den Heer Johan
de Witt . . . ende de gevolgmaghtigden v. d. staedt d. Vereen. Neder-
landen so in Vranckryck, Engelandt, Sweden, Denemarken, Poolen,
enz. 1652-69 (6 vols., The Hague, 1723-1725); Brieven . . . 1650-
1657 (1658) eerste deel bewerkt den R. Fruin uitgegeven d., C. W.
Kernkamp (Amsterdam, 1906).
DEWLAP (from the O.E. Iceppa, a lappet, or hanging fold;
the first syllable is of doubtful origin and the popular explana-
tion that the word means " the fold which brushes the dew "
is not borne out, according to the New English Dictionary, by the
DEWSBURY DHAMMAPALA
141
equivalent words such as the Danish doglaeb, in Scandinavian
languages), the loose fold of skin hanging from the neck of cattle,
also applied to similar folds in the necks of other animals and
fowls, as the dog, turkey, &c. The American practice of branding
cattle by making a cut in the neck is known as a " dewlap brand."
The skin of the neck in human beings often becomes pendulous
with age, and is sometimes referred to humorously by the same
name.
DEWSBURY, a market town and municipal and parliamentary
borough in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, on the river
Calder, 8 m. S.S.W. of Leeds, on the Great Northern, London
& North-Western, and Lancashire & Yorkshire railways. Pop.
(1901) 28,060. The parish church of All Saints was for the most
part rebuilt in the latter half of the i8th century; the portions
still preserved of the original structure are mainly Early English.
The chief industries are the making of blankets, carpets, druggets
and worsted yarn ; and there are iron foundries and machinery
works. Coal is worked in the neighbourhood. The parliamentary
borough includes the adjacent municipal borough of Batley, and
returns one member. The municipal borough, incorporated in
1862, is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area,
1471 acres. Paulinus, first archbishop of York, about the year
627 preached in the district of Dewsbury, where Edwin, king
of Northumbria, whom he converted to Christianity, had a royal
mansion. At Kirklees, in the parish, are remains of a Cistercian
convent of the i2th century, in an extensive park, where tradition
relates that Robin Hood died and was buried.
DEXIPPUS, PUBLIUS HERENNIUS (c. A.D. 210-273), Greek
historian, statesman and general, was an hereditary priest of the
Eleusinian family of the Kerykes, and held the offices of archon
basileus and eponymus in Athens. When the Heruli overran
Greece and captured Athens (269), Dexippus showed great
personal courage and revived the spirit of patriotism among
his degenerate fellow-countrymen. A statue was set up in
his honour, the base of which, with an inscription recording
his services, has been preserved (Corpus Inscrr. Alticarum, iii.
No. 716). It is remarkable that the inscription is silent as to
his military achievements. Photius (cod. 82) mentions three
historical works by Dexippus, of which considerable fragments
remain: (i) Ta per' 'AMt-avSpov, an epitome of a similarly
named work by Arrian; (2) SKuSucd, a history of the wars
of Rome with the Goths (or Scythians) in the 3rd century;
(3) Xpwuo) iaropia, a chronological history from the earliest
times to the emperor Claudius Gothicus (270), frequently referred
to by the writers of the Augustan history. The work was
continued by Eunapius of Sardis down to 404. Photius speaks
very highly of the style of Dexippus, whom he places on a
level with Thucydides, an opinion by no means confirmed by the
fragments (C. W. Muller, F.H.G. iii. 666-687).
DEXTER, HENRY MARTYN (1821-1890), American clergy-
man and author, was born in Plympton, Massachusetts, on the
I3th of August 1821. He graduated at Yale in 1840 and at
the Andover Theological Seminary in 1844; was pastor of a
Congregational church in Manchester, New Hampshire, in
1844-1849, and of the Berkeley Street Congregational church,
Boston, in 1849-1867; was an editor of the Congregalionalist
in 1851-1866, of the Congregational Quarterly in 1859-1866,
and of the Congregationalist, with which the Recorder was
merged, from 1867 until his death in New Bedford, Mass., on the
i3th of November 1890. He was an authority on the history of
Congregationalism and was lecturer on that subject at the
Andover Theological Seminary in 1877-1879 ; he left his fine
library on the Puritans in America to Yale University. Among
his works are: Congregationalism, What it is, Whence it is,
How it works, Why it is better than any other Form of Church
Government, and its consequent Demands (1865), The Church
Polity of the Puritans the Polity of the New Testament (1870),
As to Roger Williams and His " Banishment" from the Massa-
chusetts Colony (1876), Congregationalism of the Last Three
Hundred Years, as seen in its Literature (1880), his most
important work, A Handbook of Congregationalism (1880), The
True Story of John Smyth, the "Se-Baptisl " (1881), Common Sense
as to Woman Suffrage (1885), and many reprints of pamphlets
bearing on early church history in New England, especially
Baptist controversies. His The England and Holland of the
Pilgrims was completed by his son, Morton Dexter (b. 1846),
and published in 1905.
DEXTER, TIMOTHY (1747-1806), American merchant, re-
markable for his eccen tricities, was born at Maiden , Massachu setts ,
on the 22nd of February 1747. He acquired considerable wealth
by buying up quantities of the depreciated continental currency,
which was ultimately redeemed by the Federal government at
par. He assumed the title of Lord Dexter and built extraordinary
houses at Newburyport, Mass., and Chester, New Hampshire.
He maintained a poet laureate and collected inferior pictures,
besides erecting in one of his gardens some forty colossal statues
carved in wood to represent famous men. A statue of him-
self was included in the collection, and had for an inscription
" I am the first in the East, the first in the West, and the greatest
philosopher in the Western World." He wrote a book entitled
Pickle for the Knowing Ones. It was wholly without punctuation
marks, and as this aroused comment, he published a second
edition, at the end of which was a page displaying nothing but
commas and stops, from which the readers were invited to " peper
and solt it as they plese." He beat his wife for not weeping
enough at the rehearsal of his funeral, which he himself carried
out in a very elaborate manner. He died at Newburyport on the
26th of October 1806.
DEXTRINE (BRITISH GUM, STARCH GUM, LEIOCOME),
(CHtoO|)*, a substance produced from starch by the action of
dilute acids, or by roasting it at a temperature between 170
and 240 C. It is manufactured by spraying starch with 2 % nitric
acid, drying in air, and then heating to about 110. Different
modifications are known, e.g. amylodextrine, erythrodextrine and
achroodextrine. Its name has reference to its powerful dextro-
rotatory action on polarized light. Pure dextrine is an insipid,
odourless, white substance; commercial dextrine is sometimes
yellowish, and contains burnt or unchanged starch. It dissolves
in water and dilute alcohol; by strong alcohol it is precipitated
from its solutions as the hydrated compound, C 6 H 10 O 5 -H 2 O.
Diastase converts it eventually into maltose, CuHstOu; and by
boiling with dilute acids (sulphuric, hydrochloric, acetic) it is
transformed into dextrose, or ordinary glucose, CeH^Oe. It
does not ferment in contact with yeast, and does not reduce
Fehling's solution. If heated with strong nitric acid it gives
oxalic, and not mucic acid. Dextrine much resembles gum
arabic, for which it is generally substituted. It is employed for
sizing paper, for stiffening cotton goods, and for thickening
colours in calico printing, also in the making of lozenges, adhesive
stamps and labels, and surgical bandages.
See Otto Lueger, Lexikon der gesamten Technik.
DEY (an adaptation of the Turk, ddi, a maternal uncle), an
honorary title formerly bestowed by the Turks on elderly men,
and appropriated by the janissaries as the designation of their
commanding officers. In Algeria the deys of the janissaries
became in the I7th century rulers of that country (see ALGERIA:
History). From the middle of the i6th century to the end of the
1 7th century the ruler of Tunisia was also called dey, a title
frequently used during the same period by the sovereigns of
Tripoli.
DHAMMAPALA, the name of one of the early disciples of
the Buddha, and therefore constantly chosen as their name in
religion by Buddhist novices on their entering the brotherhood.
The most famous of the Bhikshus so named was the great
commentator who lived in the latter half of the sth century A.D.
at the Badara Tittha Vihara, near the east coast of India, just a
little south of where Madras now stands. It is to him we owe the
commentaries on seven of the shorter canonical books, consisting
almost entirely of verses, and also the commentary on the Netti,
perhaps the oldest Pali work outside the canon. Extracts from
the latter work, and the whole of three out of the seven others,
have been published by the Pali Text Society. These works
show great learning, exegetical skill and sound judgment. But
as Dhammapala confines himself rigidly either to questions of
142
DHANIS DHARAMPUR
the meaning of words, or to discussions of the ethical import of
his texts, very little can be gathered from his writings of value
for the social history of his time. For the right interpretation of
the difficult texts on which he comments, they are indispensable.
Though in all probability a Tamil by birth, he declares, in the
opening lines of those of his works that have been edited, that he
followed the tradition of the Great Minster at Anuradhapura in
Ceylon, and the works themselves confirm this in every respect.
Hsiian Tsang, the famous Chinese pilgrim, tells a quaint story
of a Dhammapala of Kanchipura (the modern Konjevaram).
He was a son of a high official, and betrothed to a daughter of the
king, but escaped on the eve of the wedding feast, entered the
order, and attained to reverence and distinction. It is most
likely that this story, whether legendary or not (and Hsiian
Tsang heard the story at Kanchipura nearly two centuries after
the date of Dhammapala), referred to this author. But it may
also refer, as Hsiian Tsang refers it, to another author of the same
name. Other unpublished works, besides those mentioned above,
have been ascribed to Dhammapala, but it is very doubtful
whether they are really by him.
AUTHORITIES. T.Watters, On Yuan Chwang (ed. Rhys Davidsand
Bushell, London, 1905), ii. 169, 228; Edmund Hardy in Zeitschrift
der deutschen morgenldndischen Gesellschaft (1898), pp. 97 foil.; Netti
(ed. E. Hardy, London, Pali Text Society, 1902), especially the
Introduction, passim', Then Gathd Commentary, Peta Vctthu
Commentary, and Vimdna Vatthu Commentary, all three published
by the Pali Text Society. (T. W. R. D.)
DHANIS, FRANCIS, BARON (1861-1909), Belgian adminis-
trator, was born in London in 1861 and passed the first fourteen
years of his life at Greenock, where he received his early educa-
tion. He was the son of a Belgian merchant and of an Irish lady
named Maher. The name Dhanis is supposed to be a varia-
tion of D'Anvers. Having completed his education at the Ecole
Militaire he entered the Belgian army, joining the regiment of
grenadiers, in which he rose to the rank of major. As soon as he
reached the rank of lieutenant he volunteered for service on the
Congo, and in 1887 he went out for a first term. He did so well
in founding new stations north of the Congo that, when the
government decided to put an end to the Arab domination on the
Upper Congo, he was selected to command the chief expedition
sent against the slave dealers. The campaign began in April
1892, and it was not brought to a successful conclusion till
January 1894. The story of this war has been told in detail by
Dr Sydney Hinde, who took part in it, in his book The Fall of
the Congo Arabs. The principal achievements of the campaign
were the captures in succession of the three Arab strongholds at
Nyangwe, Kassongo and Kabambari. For his services Dhanis
was raised to the rank of baron, and in 1895 was made vice-
governor of the Congo State. In 1896 he took command of an
expedition to the Upper Nile. His troops, largely composed
of the Batetela tribes who had only been recently enlisted,
and who had been irritated by the execution of some of their
chiefs for indulging their cannibal proclivities, mutinied and
murdered many of their white officers. Dhanis found himself
confronted with a more formidable adversary than even the Arabs
in these well-armed and half-disciplined mercenaries. During
two years (1897-1898) he was constantly engaged in a life-and-
death struggle with them. Eventually he succeeded in breaking
up the several bands formed out of his mutinous soldiers.
Although the incidents of the Batetela operations were less
striking than those of the Arab war, many students of both
think that the Belgian leader displayed the greater ability and
fortitude in bringing them to a successful issue. In 1899
Baron Dhanis returned to Belgium with the honorary rank of
vice governor-general. He died on the i4th of November 1909.
DHAR, a native state of India, in the Bhopawar agency,
Central India. It includes many Rajput and Bhil feudatories,
and has an area of 1775 sq. m. The raja is a Punwar Mahratta.
The founder of the present ruling family was Anand Rao Punwar,
a descendant of the great Paramara clan of Rajputs who from
the gth to the i3th century, when they were driven out by the
Mahommedans, had ruled over Malwa from their capital at Dhar.
In 1742 Anand Rao received Dhar as a fief from Baji Rao, the
peshwa, the victory of the Mahrattas thus restoring the sovereign
power to the family whkh seven centuries before had been
expelled from this very city and country. Towards the close of
the 1 8th and in the early part of the igth century, the state was
subject to a series of spoliations by Sindia and Hoikar, and was
only preserved from destruction by the talents and courage of the
adoptive mother of the fifth raja. By a treaty of 1819 Dhar
passed under British protection, and bound itself to act in sub-
ordinate co-operation. The state was confiscated for rebellion
in 1857, but in 1860 was restored to Raja Anand Rao Punwar,
then a minor, with the exception of the detached district of
Bairusia, which was granted to the begum of Bhopal. Anand
Rao, who received the personal title Maharaja and the K.C.S.I. in
1877, died in 1898, and was succeeded by Udaji Rao Punwar.
In 1901 the population was 142,115. The state includes the
ruins of Mandu, or Mandogarh, the Mahommedan capital of
Malwa.
The TOWN OF DHAR is 33 m. W. of Mhow, 908 ft. above the sea.
Pop. (1901) 17,792. It is picturesquely situated among lakes
and trees surrounded by barren hills, and possesses, besides its
old walls, many interesting buildings, Hindu and Mahommedan,
some of them containing records of a great historical importance.
The Lat Masjid, or Pillar Mosque, was built by Dilawar Khan in
1405 out of the remains of Jain temples. It derives its name from
an iron pillar, supposed to have been originally set up at the
beginning of the i3th century in commemoration of a victory, and
bearing a later inscription recording the seven days' visit to the
town of the emperor Akbar in 1598. The pillar, which was 43 ft.
high, is now overthrown and broken. The Kamal Maula is an
enclosure containing four tombs, the most notable being that of
Shaikh Kamal Maulvi (Kamal-ud-din), a follower of the famous
13th-century Mussulman saint Nizam-ud-din Auliya. 1 The
mosque known as Raja Bhoj's school was built out of Hindu
remains in the I4th or i$th century: its name is derived from the
slabs, covered with inscriptions giving rules of Sanskrit grammar,
with which it is paved. On a small hill to the north of the town
stands the fort, a conspicuous pile of red sandstone, said to
have been built by Mahommed ben Tughlak of Delhi in the
1 4th century. It contains the palace of the raja. Of modern
institutions may be mentioned the high school, public library,
hospital, and the chapel, school and hospital of the Canadian
Presbyterian mission. There is also a government opium depot
for the payment of duty, the town being a considerable centre
for the trade in opium as well as in grain.
The town, the name of which is usually derived from Dhara Nagari
(the city of sword blades), is of great antiquity, and was made the
capital of the Paramara chiefs of Malwa by Vairisinha II., who trans-
ferred his headquarters hither from Ujjain at the close of the 9th
century. During the rule of the Paramara dynasty Dhar was famous
throughout India as a centre of culture and learning; but, after
suffering various vicissitudes, it was finally conquered by the
Mussulmans at the beginning of the lAthcentury. At the close of the
century Dilawar Khan, the builder of the Lat Masjid, who had been
appointed governor in 1399, practically established his independence,
his son Hoshang Shah being the first Mahommedan king of Malwa.
Under this dynasty Dhar was second in importance to the capital
Mandu. Subsequently, in the time of Akbar, Dhar fell under the
dominion of the Moguls, in whose hands it remained till 1730, when
it was conquered by the Mahrattas.
See Imperial Gazetteer of India (Oxford, 1908).
DHARAMPUR, a native state of India, in the Surat political
agency division of Bombay, with an area of 704 sq. m. The
population in 1901 was 100,430, being a decrease of 17% during
the decade ; the estimated gross revenue is 25,412 ; and the
tribute 600. Its chief is a Sesodia Rajput. The state has been
surveyed for land revenue on the Bombay system. It contains
one town, Dharampur (pop. in 1901, 63,449), and 272 villages.
Only a small part of the state, the climate of which is very
unhealthy, Is capable of cultivation ; the rest is covered with
rocky hills, forest and brushwood.
1 Nizam-ud-din, whose beautiful marble tomb is at Indarpat near
Delhi, was, according to some authorities, an assassin of the secret
society of Khorasan. By some modern authorities he is supposed
to have been the founder of Thuggism, the Thugs having a special
reverence for his memory.
DHARMSALA DHOW
DHARMSALA, a hill-station and sanatorium of the Punjab,
India, situated on a spur of the Dhaola Dhar, 16 m. N.E. of
Kangra town, at an elevation of some 6000 ft. Pop. (1901) 6971.
The scenery of Dharmsala is of peculiar grandeur. The spur on
which it stands is thickly wooded with oak and other trees;
behind it the pine-clad slopes of the mountain tower towards the
jagged peaks of the higher range, snow-clad for half the year;
while below stretches the luxuriant cultivation of the Kangra
valley. In 1855 Dharmsala was made the headquarters of the
Kangra district of the Punjab in place of Kangra, and became the
centre of a European settlement and cantonment, largely occupied
by Gurkha regiments. The station was destroyed by the earth-
quake of April 1905, in which 1625 persons, including 25
Europeans and 112 of the Gurkha garrison, perished (Imperial
Gazetteer of India, 1908).
DHARWAR, a town and district of British India, in the
southern division of Bombay. The town has a station on the
Southern Mahratta railway. The population in 1901 was 31,279.
It has several ginning factories and a cotton-mill; two high
schools, one maintained by the Government and the other by
the Basel German Mission.
The DISTRICT or DHARWAR has an area of 4602 sq. m. In the
north and north-east are great plains of black .soil, favourable to
cotton-growing; in the south and west are successive ranges of
low hills, with flat fertile valleys between them. The whole
district lies high and has no large rivers.
In 1901 the population was 1,113,298, showing an increase of
6% in the decade. The most influential classes of the community
are Brahmans and Lingayats. The Lingayats number 436,968,
or 46% of the Hindu population; they worship the symbol of
Siva, and males and females both carry this emblem about their
person, in a silver case. The principal crops are millets, pulse and
cotton. The centres of the cotton trade are Hubli and Gadag,
junctions on the Southern Mahratta railway, which traverses the
district in several directions.
The early history of the territory comprised within the district
of Dharwar has been to a certain extent reconstructed from the
inscription slabs and memorial stones which abound there.
From these it is clear that the country fell in turn under the sway
of the various dynasties that ruled in the Deccan, memorials of
the Chalukyan dynasty, whether temples or inscriptions, being
especially abundant. In the I4th century the district was first
overrun by the Mahommedans, after which it was annexed to the
newly established Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar, an official of
which named Dhar Rao, according to local tradition, built the
fort at Dharwar town in 1403. After the defeat of the king of
Vijayanagar at Talikot (1565), Dharwar was for a few years
practically independent under its Hindu governor; but in 1573
the fort was captured by the sultan of Bijapur, and Dharwar was
annexed to his dominions. In 1685 the fort was taken by the
emperor Aurangzeb, and Dharwar, on the break-up of the Mogul
empire, fell under the sway of the peshwa of Poona. In 1764 the
province was overrun by Hyder Ali of Mysore, who in 1778
captured the fort of Dharwar. This was retaken in 1791 by the
Mahrattas. On the final overthrow of the peshwa in 1817,
Dharwar was incorporated with the territory of the East India
Company.
DHOLPUR, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency,
with an area of 1155 sq. m. It is a crop-producing country,
without any special manufactures. All along the bank of the
river Chambal the country is deeply intersected by ravines;
low ranges of hills in the western portion of the state supply
inexhaustible quarries of fine-grained and easily-worked red
sandstone. In 1901 the population of Dholpur was 270,973,
showing a decrease of 3 % in the decade. The estimated revenue
is 83,000. The state is crossed by the Indian Midland railway
from Jhansi to Agra. In recent years it has suffered severely
from drought. In 1896-1897 the expenditure on famine relief
amounted to 8190.
The town of Dholpur is 34 m. S. of Agra by rail. Pop. (1901)
19,310. The present town, which dates from the i6th century,
stands somewhat to the north of the site of the older Hindu town
built, it is supposed, in the nth century by the Tonwar Rajput
Raja Dholan (or Dhawal) Deo, and named after him Dholdera OT
Dhawalpuri. Among the objects of interest in the town may be
mentioned the fortified sarai built in the reign of Akbar, within
which is the fine tomb of Sadik Mahommed Khan (d. 1595), one
of his generals. The town, from its position on the railway, is
growing in importance as a centre of trade.
Little is known of the early history of the country forming the
state of Dholpur. Local tradition affirms that it was ruled by
the Tonwar Rajputs, who had their seat at Delhi from the 8th
to the 1 2th century. In 1450 it had a raja of its own; but in
1 501 the fort of Dholpur was taken by the Mahommedans under
Sikandar Lodi and in 1504 was transferred to a Mussulman
governor. In 1527, after a strenuous resistance, the fort was
captured by Baber and with the surrounding country passed
under the sway of the Moguls, being included by Akbar in the
province of Agra. During the dissensions which followed the
death of Aurangzeb in 1707, Raja Kalyan Singh Bhadauria
obtained possession of Dholpur, and his family retained it till
1761, after which it was taken successively by the Jat raja,
Suraj Mai of Bharatpur, by Mirza Najaf Khan in 1775, by
Sindhia in 1782, and in 1803 by the British. It was restored
to Sindhia by the treaty of Sarji Anjangaon, but in consequence
of new arrangements was again occupied by the British. Finally,
in 1806, the territories of Dholpur, Bari and Rajakhera were
handed over to the maharaj rana Kirat Singh, ancestor of the
present chiefs of Dholpur, in exchange for his state of Gohad,
which was ceded to Sindhia.
The maharaj rana of Dholpur belongs to the clan of Bamraolia
Jats, who are believed to have formed a portion of the Indo-
Scythian wave of invasion which swept over northern India
about A.D. 100. An ancestor of the family appears to have held
certain territories at Bamraoli near Agra c. 1195. His descendant
in 1505, Singhan Deo, having distinguished himself in an expedi-
tion against the freebooters of the Deccan, was rewarded by the
sovereignty of the small territory of Gohad, with the title of rana.
In 1779 the rana of Gohad joined the British forces against
Sindhia, under a treaty which stipulated that, at the conclusion
of peace between the English and Mahrattas, all the territories
then in his possession should be guaranteed to him, and protected
from invasion by Sindhia. This protection was subsequently
withdrawn, the rana having been guilty of treachery, and in
1783 Sindhia succeeded in recapturing the fortress of Gwalior,
and crushed his Jat opponent by seizing the whole of Gohad. In
1804, however, the family were restored to Gohad by the British
government; but, owing to the opposition of Sindhia, the rana
agreed in 1805 to exchange Gohad for his present territory of
Dholpur, which was taken under British protection, the chief
binding himself to act in subordinate co-operation with the para-
mount power, and to refer all disputes with neighbouring princes
to the British government. Kirat Singh, the first maharaj rana
of Dholpur, was succeeded in 1836 by his son Bhagwant Singh,
who showed great loyalty during the Mutiny of 1857, was created
a K.C.S.I., and G.C.S.I. in 1869. He was succeeded in 1873 by
his grandson Nihal Singh, who received the C.B. and frontier
medal for services in the Tirah campaign. He died in 1901, and
was succeeded by his eldest son Ram Singh (b. 1883).
See Imperial Gazetteer of India (Oxford, 1908) and authorities
there given.
DHOW, the name given to a type of vessel used throughout
the Arabian Sea. The language to which the word belongs is
unknown. According to the New English Dictionary the place
of origin may be the Persian Gulf, assuming that the word is
identical with the lava mentioned by Athanasius Nikitin (India
in the i^th Century, Hakluyt Society, 1858). Though the word
is used generally of any craft along the East African coast, it is
usually applied to the vessel of about 1 50 to 200 tons burden with
a stem rising with a long slope from the water; dhows generally
have one mast with a lateen sail, the yard being of enormous
length. Much of the coasting trade of the Red Sea and Persian
Gulf is carried on by these vessels. They were the regular vessels
employed in the slave trade from the east coast of Africa.
144
DHRANGADRA DIABASE
OHRANGADRA, a native state of India, in the Gujarat
division of Bombay, situated in the north of the peninsula of
Kathiawar. Its area is 1156 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 70,880. The
estimated gross revenue is 38,000 and the tribute 3000. A
state railway on the metre gauge from Wadhwan to the town of
Dhrangadra, a distance of 21 m., was opened for traffic in 1898.
Some cotton is grown, although the soil is as a whole poor;
the manufactures include salt, metal vessels and stone hand-
mills. The chief town, Dhrangadra, has a population (1901) of
14,77-
The chief of Dhrangadra, who bears the title of Raj Sahib, with
the predicate of His Highness, is head of the ancient clan of Jhala
Rajputs, who are said to have entered Kathiawar from Sind in
the 8th century. Raj Sahib Sir Mansinghji Ranmalsinghji
(b. 1837), who succeeded his father in 1869, was distinguished
for the enlightened character of his administration, especially in
the matter of establishing schools and internal communications.
He was created a K.C.S.I. in 1877. He died in 1900, and was
succeeded by his grandson Ajitsinghji Jaswatsinghji (b. 1872).
DHULEEP SINGH (1837-1893), maharaja of Lahore, was born
in February 1837, and was proclaimed maharaja on the i8th of
September 1843, under the regency of his mother the rani Jindan,
a woman of great capacity and strong will, but extremely inimical
to the British. He was acknowledged by Ranjit Singh and
recognized by the British government. After six years of peace
the Sikhs invaded British territory in 1845, but were defeated in
four battles, and terms were imposed upon them at Lahore, the
capital of the Punjab. Dhuleep Singh retained his territory, but
it was administered to a great extent by the British government
in his name. This arrangement increased the regent's dislike of
the British, and a fresh outbreak occurred in 1848-49. In spite
of the valour of the Sikhs, they were utterly routed at Gujarat,
and in March 1849 Dhuleep Singh was deposed, a pension of
40,000 a year being granted to him and his dependants. He
became a Christian and elected to live in England. On coming
of age he made an arrangement with the British government
by which his income was reduced to 25,000 in consideration of
advances for the purchase of an estate, and he finally settled at
Elvedon in Suffolk. While passing through Alexandria in 1864
he met Miss Bamba Miiller, the daughter of a German merchant
who had married an Abyssinian. The maharaja had been
interested in mission work by Sir John Login, and he met Miss
Miiller at one of the missionary schools where she was teaching.
She became his wife on the 7th of June 1864, and six children were
the issue of the marriage. In the year after her death in 1890 the
maharaja married at Paris, as his second wife, an English lady,'
Miss Ada Douglas Wetherill, who survived him. The maharaja
was passionately fond of sport, and his shooting parties were
celebrated, while he himself became a persona grata in English
society. The result, however, was financial difficulty, and in
1882 he appealed to the government for assistance, making,
various claims based upon the alleged possession of private
estates in the Punjab, and upon the surrender of the Koh-i-nor
diamond to the British Crown. His demand was rejected, where-
upon he started for India, after drawing up a proclamation to his
former subjects. But as it was deemed inadvisable to allow him
to visit the Punjab, he remained for some time as a guest at the
residency at Aden, and was allowed to receive some of his
relatives to witness his abjuration of Christianity, which actually
took place within the residency itself. As the climate began to
affect his health, the maharaja at length left Aden and returned
to Europe. He stayed for some time in Russia, hoping that his
claim against England would be taken up by the Russians; but
when that expectation proved futile he proceeded to Paris, where
he lived for the rest of his life on the pension allowed him by the
Indian government. His death from an attack of apoplexy took
place at Paris on the 22nd of October 1893. The maharaja's
eldest son, Prince Victor Albert Jay Dhuleep Singh (b. 1866), was
educated at Trinity and Downing Colleges, Cambridge. In 1888
he obtained a commission in the ist Royal Dragoon Guards. In
1898 he married Lady Anne Coventry, youngest daughter of the
earl of Coventry. (G. F. B.)
DHULIA, a town of British India, administrative headquarters
of West Khandesh district in Bombay, on the right bank of the
Panjhra river. Pop. (1901) 24,726. Considerable trade is done
in cotton and oil-seeds, and weaving of cotton. A railway
connects Dhulia with Chalisgaon, on the main line of the Great
Indian Peninsula railway.
DIABASE, in petrology, a rock which is a weathered form of
dolerite. It was long widely accepted that the pre-Tertiary rocks
of this group differed from their Tertiary and Recent representa-
tives in certain essential respects, but this is now admitted to be
untenable, and the differences are known to be merely the result
of the longer exposure to decomposition, pressure and shearing,
which the older rocks have experienced. Their olivine tends
to become serpentinized; their augite changes to chlorite and
uralite; their felspars are clouded by formation of zeolites, calcite,
sericite and epidote. The rocks acquire a green colour (from the
development of chlorite, uralite and epidote); hence the older
name of " greenstones," which is now little used. Many of them
become somewhat schistose from pressure (" greenstone-schists,"
meta-diabase, &c.). Although the original definition of the group
can no longer be justified, thename is so well established in current
usage that it can hardly be discarded. The terms diabase and
dolerite are employed really to designate distinct facies of the
same set of rocks.
The minerals of diabase are the same as those of dolerite, viz.
olivine, augite, and plagioclase felspar, with subordinate quantities
of hornblende, biotite, iron oxides and apatite.
There are olivine-diabases and diabases without olivine; quartz-
diabases, analcite-diabases (or teschenites) and hornblende diabases
(or proterobases). Hypersthene (or bronzite) is characteristic of
another group. Many of them are ophitic, especially those which
contain olivine, but others are intersertal, like the intersertal
dolerites. The last include most quartz-diabases, hypersthene-
diabases and the rocks which have been described as tholeites.
Porphyritic structure appears in the diabase-porphyrites, some of
which are highly vesicular and contain remains of an abundant
fine-grained or partly glassy ground-mass (diabas-mandelstein,
amygdaloidal diabase). The somewhat ill-defined spilites are re-
garded by many as modifications of diabase-porphyrite. In the
intersertal and porphyrite diabases, fresh or devitrified glassy base
is not infrequent. It is especially conspicuous in some tholeites
(hyalo-tholeites) and in weisselbergites. These rocks consist of
augite and plagioclase, with little or no olivine, on a brown,
vitreous, interstitial matrix. Devitrified forms of tachylyte (sor-
dawilite, &c.) occur at the rapidly chilled margins of dolerite sills
and dikes, and fine-grained spotted rocks with large spherulites of
grey or greenish felspar, and branching growths of brownish-green
augite (variolites).
To nearly every variety in composition and structure presented
by the diabases, a counterpart can be found among the Tertiary
dolerites. In the older rocks, however, certain minerals are more
common than in the newer. Hornblende, mostly of pale green colours
and somewhat fibrous habit, is very frequent in diabase; it is in
most cases secondary after pyroxene, and is then known as uralite ;
often it forms pseudomorphs which retain the shape of the original
augite. Where diabases have been crushed or sheared, hornblende
readily develops at the expense of pyroxene, sometimes replacing it
completely. In the later stages of alteration the amphibole becomes
compact and well crystallized; the rocks consist of green horn-
blende and plagioclase felspar, and are then generally known as
epidiorites or amphibolites. At the same time a schistose structure
is produced. But transition forms are very common, having more
or less of the augite remaining, surrounded by newly formed horn-
blende which at first is rather fibrous and tends to spread outwards
through the surrounding felspar. Chlorite also is abundant both
in sheared and unsheared diabases, and with it calcite may make its
appearance, or the lime set free from the augite may combine with
the titanium of the iron oxide and with silica to form incrustations or
borders of sphene around the original crystals of ilmenite. Epidote
is another secondary lime-bearing mineral which results from the
decomposition of the soda lime felspars and the pyroxenes. Many
diabases, especially those of the teschenite sub-group, are filled with
zeolites.
Diabases are exceedingly abundant among the older rocks of
all parts of the globe. Popular names for them are " whinstone,"
" greenstone," " loadstone ' and " trap." They form excellent road-
mending stones and are much quarried for this purpose, being tough,
durable and resistant to wear, so long as they are not extremely
decomposed. Many of them are to be preferred to the fresher
dolerites as being less brittle. The'quality of the Cornish greenstones
appears to have been distinctly improved by a smaller amount of
recrystallization where they have been heated by contact with
intrusive masses of granite. (J. S. F.)
DIABETES
DIABETES (from Gr. 8ia, through, and @alveu>, to pass), a
constitutional disease characterized by a habitually excessive
discharge of urine. Two forms of this complaint are described,
viz. Diabetes Mellitus, or Glycosuria, where the urine is not only
increased in quantity, but persistently contains a greater or less
amount of sugar, and Diabetes Insipidus, or Polyuria, where the
urine is simply increased in quantity, and contains no abnormal
ingredient. This latter, however, must be distinguished from the
polyuria due to chronic granular kidney, lardaceous disease of the
kidney, and also occurring in certain cases of hysteria.
Diabetes mellitus is the disease to which the term is most
commonly applied, and is by far the more serious and important
ailment. It is one of the diseases due to altered metabolism
(see METABOLIC DISEASES) . It is markedly hereditary, much more
prevalent in towns and especially modern city life than in more
primitive rustic communities, and most common among the Jews.
The excessive use of sugar as a food is usually considered one
cause of the disease, and obesity is supposed to favour its
occurrence, but many observers consider that the obesity so
often met with among diabetics is due to the same cause as the
disease itself. No age is exempt, but it occurs most commonly
in the fifth decade of life. It attacks males twice as frequently
as females, and fair more frequently than dark people.
The symptoms are usually gradual in their onset, and the
patient may suffer for a length of time before he thinksi it
necessary to apply for medical aid. The first symptoms which
attract attention are failure of strength, and emaciation, along
with great thirst and an increased amount and frequent passage
of urine. From the normal quantity of from 2 to 3 pints in the
24 hours it may be increased to 10, 20 or 30 pints, or even more.
It is usually of pale colour, and of thicker consistence than normal
urine, possesses a decidedly sweet taste, and is of high specific
gravity (1030 to 1050). It frequently gives rise to considerable
irritation of the urinary passages.
By simple evaporation crystals of sugar may be obtained from
diabetic urine, which also yields the characteristic chemical tests
of sugar, while the amount of this substance can be accurately
estimated by certain analytical processes. The quantity of sugar
passed may vary from a few ounces to two or more pounds per
diem, and it is found to be markedly increased after saccharine
or starchy food has been taken. Sugar may also be found in
the blood, saliva, tears, and in almost all the excretions of persons
suffering from this disease. One of the most distressing symptoms
is intense thirst, which the patient is constantly seeking to allay,
the quantity of liquid consumed being in general enormous, and
there is usually, but not invariably, a voracious appetite. The
mouth is always parched, and a faint, sweetish odour may be
evolved from the breath. The effect of the disease upon the
general health is very marked, and the patient becomes more and
more emaciated. He suffers from increasing muscular weakness,
the temperature of his body is lowered, and the skin is dry and
harsh. There is often a peculiar flush on the face, not limited to
the malar eminences, but extending up to the roots of the hair.
The teeth are loosened or decay, there is a tendency to bleeding
from the gums, while dyspeptic symptoms, constipation and
loss of sexual power are common accompaniments. There is in
general great mental depression or irritability.
Diabetes as a rule advances comparatively slowly except in
the case of young persons, in whom its progress is apt to be
rapid. The complications of the disease are many and serious.
It may cause impaired vision by weakening the muscles of
accommodation, or by lessening the sensitiveness of the retina to
light. Also cataract is very common. Skin affections of all kinds
may occur and prove very intractable. Boils, carbuncles,
cellulitis and gangrene are all apt to occur as life advances,
though gangrene is much more frequent in men than in women.
Diabetics are especially liable to phthisis and pneumonia, and
gangrene of the lungs may set in if the patient survives the crisis
in the latter disease. Digestive troubles of all kinds, kidney
diseases and heart failure due to fatty heart are all of common
occurrence. Also patients seem curiously susceptible to the
poison of enteric fever, though the attack usually runs a mild
course. The sugar temporarily disappears during the fever. But
the most serious complication of all is known as diabetic coma,
which is very commonly the final cause of death. The onset is
often insidious, but may be indicated by loss of appetite, a rapid
fall in the quantity of both urine and sugar, and by either consti-
pation or diarrhoea. More rarely there is most acute abdominal
pain. At first the condition is rather that of collapse than true
coma, though later the patient is absolutely comatose. The
patient suffers from a peculiar kind of dyspnoea, and the breath
and skin have a sweet ethereal odour. The condition may last
from twenty-four hours to three days, but is almost invariably
the precursor of death.
Diabetes is a very fatal form of disease, recovery being ex-
ceedingly rare. Over 50% die of coma, another 25 % of phthisis
or pneumonia, and the remainder of Bright's disease, cerebral
haemorrhage, gangrene, &c. The most favourable cases are those
in which the patient is advanced in years, those in which it is
associated with obesity or gout, and where the social conditions
are favourable. A few cures have been recorded in which the
disease supervened after some acute illness. The unfavourable
cases are those in which there is a family history of the disease
and in which the patient is young. Nevertheless much may be
done by appropriate treatment to mitigate the severity of the
symptoms and to prolong life.
There are two distinct lines of treatment, that of diet and that
of drugs, but each must be modified and determined entirely by
the idiosyncrasy of the patient, which varies in this condition
between very wide limits. That of diet is of primary importance
inasmuch as it has been proved beyond question that certain
kinds of food have a powerful influence in aggravating the disease,
more particularly those consisting largely of saccharine and
starchy matter; and it may be stated generally that the various
methods of treatment proposed aim at the elimination as far as
possible of these constituents from the diet. Hence it is recom-
mended that such articles as bread, potatoes and all farinaceous
foods, turnips, carrots, parsnips and most fruits should be
avoided; while animal food and soups, green vegetables, cream,
cheese, eggs, butter, and tea and coffee without sugar, may be
taken with advantage. As a substitute for ordinary bread,
which most persons find it difficult to do without for any length of
time, bran bread, gluten bread and almond biscuits. A patient
must never pass suddenly from an ordinary to a carbohydrate-
free diet. Any such sudden transition is extremely liable to
bring on diabetic coma, and the change must be made quite
gradually, one form of carbohydrate after another being taken
out of the diet, whilst the effect on the quantity of sugar passed
is being carefully noted meanwhile. The treatment may be
begun by excluding potatoes, sugar and fruit, and only after
several days is the bread to be replaced by some diabetic substi-
tute. When the sugar excretion has been reduced to its lowest
point, and maintained there for some time, a certain amount of
carbohydrate may be cautiously allowed, the consequent effect
on the glycosuria being estimated. The best diet can only be
worked out experimentally for each individual patient. But in
every case, if drowsiness or any symptom suggesting coma 1
supervene, all restrictions must be withdrawn, and carbohydrate
freely allowed. The question of alcohol is one which must be
largely determined by the previous history of the patient, but a
small quantity will help to make up the deficiencies of a diet poor
in carbohydrate. Scotch and Irish whisky, and Hollands gin,
are usually free from sugar, and some of the light Bordeaux wines
contain very little. Fat is beneficial, and can be given as cream,
fat of meat and cod-liver oil. Green vegetables are harmless,
but the white stalks of cabbages and lettuces and also celery and
endive yield sugar. Laevulose can be assimilated up to ij ozs.
daily without increasing the glycosuria, and hence apples, cooked
or raw, are allowable, as the sugar they contain is in this form.
The question of milk is somewhat disputed; but it is usual to
exclude it from the rigid diet, allowing a certain quantity when
the diet is being extended. Thirst is relieved by anything that
relieves the polyuria. But hypodermic injections of pilocarpine
stimulate the flow of saliva, and thus relieve the dryness of the
146
DIABOLO DIAGRAM
mouth. Constipation appears to increase the thirst, and must
always be carefully guarded against. The best remedies are the
aperient mineral waters.
Numerous medicinal substances have been employed in
diabetes, but few of them are worthy of mention as possessed
of any efficacy. Opium is often found of great service, its ad-
ministration being followed by marked amelioration in all the
symptoms. Morphia and codeia have a similar action. In the
severest cases, however, these drugs appear to be of little or no
use, and they certainly increase the constipation. Heroin hydro-
chloride has been tried in their place, but this seems to have more
power over slight than over severe cases. Salicylate of sodium
and aspirin are both very beneficial, causing a diminution in the
sugar excretion without counterbalancing bad effects.
In diabetes insipidus there is constant thirst and an excessive
flow of urine, which, however,is not found to contain any abnormal
constituent. Its effects upon the system are often similar to
those of diabetes mellitus, except that they are much less marked,
the disease being in general very slow in its progress. In some
cases the health appears to suffer very slightly. It is rarely
a direct cause of death, but from its debilitating effects may
predispose to serious and fatal complications. It is best treated
by tonics and generous diet. Valerian has been found beneficial,
the powdered root being given in 5-grain doses.
DIABOLO, a game played with a sort of top in the shape of
two cones joined at their apices, which is spun, thrown, and caught
by means of a cord strung to two sticks. The idea of the game
appears originally to have come from China, where a top (Kouen-
gen), made of two hollow pierced cylinders of metal or wood,
joined by a rod and often of immense size, was made by
rotation to hum with a loud noise, and was used by pedlars to
attract customers. From China it was introduced by missionaries
to Europe; and a form of the game, known as " the devil on two
sticks," appears to have been known in England towards the
end of the i8th century, and Lord Macartney is credited with
improvements in it. But its principal vogue was in France in
1812, where the top was called " le diable." Amusing old prints
exist (see Fry's Magazine, March and December 1907), depicting
examples of the popular craze in France at the time. The diable
of those days resembled a globular wooden dumb-bell with a
short waist, and the sonorous hum when spinning the bruit du
diable was a pronounced feature. At intervals during the
century occasional attempts to revive the game of spinning a top
of this sort on a string were made, but it was not till 1906 that
the sensation of 1812 began to be repeated. A French engineer,
Gustave Phillipart, discovering some old implements of the game,
had experimented for some time with new forms of top with a
view to bringing it again into popularity; and having devised the
double-cone shape, and added a miniature bicycle tire of rubber
round the rims of the two ends of the double-cone, with other
improvements, he named it " diabolo." The use of celluloid in
preference to metal or wood as its material appears to have been
due to a suggestion of Mr C. B. Fry, who was consulted by the
inventor on the subject. The game of spinning, throwing and
catching the diabolo was rapidly elaborated in various directions,
both as an exercise of skill in doing tricks, and in " diabolo tennis "
and other ways as an athletic pastime. From Paris, Ostend and
the chief French seaside resorts, where it became popular in 1906,
its vogue spread in 1907 so that in France and England it became
the fashionable " rage " among both children and adults.
The mechanics of the diabolo were worked out by Professor
C. V. Boys in the Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), Nov. 1907.
DIACONICON, in the Greek Church, the name given to a cham-
ber on the south side of the central apse, where the sacred utensils,
vessels, &c., of the church were kept. In the reign of Justin II.
(565-574), owing to a change in the liturgy, the diaconicon and
protheses were located in apses at the east end of the aisles.
Before that time there was only one apse. In the churches in cen-
tral Syria of slightly earlier date, the diaconicon is rectangular,
the side apses at Kalat-Seman having been added at a later date.
DIADOCHI (Gr. Siadixtatiai, to receive from another), i.e.
" Successors," the name given to the Macedonian generals who
fought for the empire of Alexander after his death in 323 B.C.
The name includes Antigonus and his son Demetrius Poliorcetes,
Antipater and his son Cassander, Seleucus, Ptolemy, Eumenes
and Lysimachus. The kingdoms into which the Macedonian
empire was divided under these rulers are known as Hellenistic.
The chief were Asia Minor and Syria under the Seleucid Dynasty
(q.v.), Egypt under the Ptolemies (q.v.), Macedonia under the
successors of Antigonus Gonatas, Pergamum (q.v.) under the
Attalid dynasty. Gradually these kingdoms were merged in the
Roman empire. (See MACEDONIAN EMPIRE.)
DIAGONAL ( Gr. 5ia, through^cocia, a corner) , in geometry, a line
joining the intersections of two pairs of sides of a rectilinear figure.
DIAGORAS, of Melos, surnamed the Atheist, poet and sophist,
flourished in the second half of the 5th century B.C. Religious
in his youth and a writer of hymns and dithyrambs, he became
an atheist because a great wrong done to him was left unpunished
by the gods. In consequence of his blasphemous speeches, and
especially his criticism of the Mysteries, he was condemned
to death at Athens, and a price set upon his head (Aristoph.
Clouds, 830; Birds, 1073 and Schol.). He fled to Corinth, where
he is said to have died. His work on the Mysteries was called
4>/>{ryioi \6yoi or 'AirmvpylgovTts, in which he probably attacked
the Phrygian divinities.
DIAGRAM (Gr. Sto/ypajujun, from 5<.a.ypa<t>tu>, to mark out by
lines, a figure drawn in such a manner that the geometrical
relations between the parts of the figure illustrate relations
between other objects. They may be classed according to the
manner in which they are intended to be used, and also according
to the kind of analogy which we recognize between the diagram
and the thing represented. The diagrams in mathematical
treatises are intended to help the reader to follow the mathe-
matical reasoning. The construction of the figure is defined in
words so that even if no figure were drawn the reader could draw
one for himself. The diagram is a good one if those features
which form the subject of the proposition are clearly represented.
Diagrams are also employed in an entirely different way
namely, for purposes of measurement. The plans and designs
drawn by architects and engineers are used to determine the value
of certain real magnitudes by measuring certain distances on the
diagram. For such purposes it is essential that the drawing be as
accurate as possible. We therefore class diagrams as diagrams of
illustration, which merely suggest certain relations to the mind
of the spectator, and diagrams drawn to scale, from which
measurements are intended to be made. There are some dia-
grams or schemes, however, in which the form of the parts is of
no importance, provided their connexions are ,:>roperly shown.
Of this kind are the diagrams of electrical connexions, and those
belonging to that department of geometry which treats of the
degrees of cyclosis, periphraxy, linkedness and knottedness.
Diagrams purely Graphic and mixed Symbolic and Graphic.
Diagrams may also be classed either as purely graphical diagrams,
in which no symbols are employed except letters or other marks
to distinguish particular points of the diagrams, and mixed
diagrams, in which certain magnitudes are represented, not by
the magnitudes of parts of the diagram, but by symbols, such as
numbers written on the diagram. Thus in a map the height of
places above the level of the sea is often indicated by marking
the number of feet above the sea at the corresponding places
on the map. There is another method in which a line called a
contour line is drawn through all the places in the map whose
height above the sea is a certain number of feet, and the number
of feet is written at some point or points of this line. By the use
of a series of contour lines, the height of a great number of places
can be indicated on a map by means of a small number of written
symbols. Still this method is not a purely graphical method,
but a partly symbolical method of expressing the third dimension
of objects on a diagram in two dimensions.
In order to express completely by a purely graphical method
the relations of magnitudes involving more than two variables,
we must use more than one diagram. Thus in the arts of con-
struction we use plans and elevations and sections through
different planes, to specify the form of objects having three
DIAGRAM
dimensions. In such systems of diagrams we have to indicate
that a point in one diagram corresponds to a point in another
diagram. This is generally done by marking the corresponding
points in the different diagrams with the same letter. If the
diagrams are drawn on the same piece of paper we may indicate
corresponding points by drawing a line from one to the other,
taking care that this line of correspondence is so drawn that it
cannot be mistaken for a real line in either diagram. (See
GEOMETRY: Descriptive.)
In the stereoscope the two diagrams, by the combined use of
which the form of bodies in three dimensions is recognized, are
projections of the bodies taken from two points so near each
other that, by viewing the two diagrams simultaneously, one
with each eye, we identify the corresponding points intuitively.
The method in which we simultaneously contemplate two figures,
and recognize a correspondence between certain points in the one
figure and certain points in the other, is one of the most poweiful
and fertile methods hitherto known in science. Thus in pure
geometry the theories of similar, reciprocal and inverse figures
have led to many extensions of the science. It is sometimes
spoken of as the method or principle of Duality. (See GEOMETRY
Projective.)
DIAGRAMS IN MECHANICS
The study of the motion of a material system is much assisted by
the use of a series of diagrams representing the configuration, dis-
placement and acceleration of the parts of the system.
Diagram of Configuration. In considering a material system it is
often convenient to suppose that we have a record of its position at
any given instant in the form of a diagram of configuration. The
position of any particle of the system is defined by drawing a straight
line or vector from the origin, or point of reference, to the given
particle. The position of the particle with respect to the origin is
determined by the magnitude and direction of this vector. If in the
diagram we draw from the origin (which need not be the same point
of space as the origin for the material system) a vector equal and
parallel to the vector which determines the position of the particle,
the end of this vector will indicate the position of the particle in the
diagram of configuration. If this is done for all the particles we shall
have a system of points in the diagram of configuration, each of
which corresponds to a particle of the material system, and the
relative positions of any pair of these points will be the same as the
relative positions of the material particles which correspond to them.
We have hitherto spoken of two origins or points from which the
vectors are supposed to be drawn one for the material system, the
other for the diagram. These points, however, and the vectors drawn
from them, may now be omitted, so that we have on the one hand
the material system and on the other a set of points, each point
corresponding to a particle of the system, and the whole representing
the configuration of the system at a given instant.
This is called a diagram of configuration.
Diagram of Displacement. Let us next consider two diagrams of
configuration of the same system, corresponding to two different
instants. We call the first the initial configuration and the second
the final configuration, and the passage from the one configuration
to the other we call the displacement of the system. We do not at
present consider the length of time during which the displacement
was effected, nor the intermediate stages through which it passed,
but only the final result a change of configuration. To study this
change we construct a diagram of displacement.
Let A, B, C be the points -in the initial diagram of configuration,
and A', B', C' be the corresponding points in the final diagram of
configuration. From o, the origin of the diagram of displacement,
draw a vector oa equal and parallel to AA', ob equal and parallel to
BB', oc to CC', and so on. The points a, b, c, &c., will be such that
the vector ab indicates the displacement of B relative to A, and so
on. The diagram containing the points a, b, c, &c., is therefore called
the diagram of displacement.
In constructing the diagram of displacement we have hitherto
assumed that we know the absolute displacements of the points of
the system. For we are required to draw a line equal and parallel to
AA', which we cannot dp unless we know the absolute final position
of A, with respect to its initial position. In this diagram of displace-
ment there is therefore, besides the points a, b, c, &c., an origin, o,
which represents a point absolutely fixed in space. This is necessary
because the two configurations do not exist at the same time ; and
therefore to express their relative position we require to know a
point which remains the same at the beginning and end of the time.
But we may construct the diagram in another way which does not
assume a knowledge of absolute displacement or of a point fixed in
space. Assuming any point and calling it a, draw ak parallel and
equal to BA in the initial configuration, and from k draw kb parallel
and equal to A'B' in the final configuration. It is easy to see that the
position of the point b relative to a will be the same by this construc-
tion as by the former construction, only we must observe that in this
second construction we use only vectors such as AB, A'B', which
represent the relative position of points both of which exist simul-
taneously, instead of vectors such as AA', BB', which express the
position of a point at one instant relative to its position at a foriher
instant, and which therefore cannot be determined by observation,
because the two ends of the vector do not exist simultaneously.
It appears therefore that the diagram of displacements, when
drawn by the first construction, includes an origin o, which indicates
that we have assumed a knowledge of absolute displacements. But
no such point occurs in the second construction, because we use
such vectors only as we can actually observe. Hence the diagram of
displacements without an origin represents neither more nor less than
all we can ever know about the dispjacement of the material system.
Diagram of Velocity. If the relative velocities of the points of the
system are constant, then the diagram of displacement corresponding
to an interval of a unit of time between the initial and the final
configuration is called a diagram of relative velocity. If the relative
velocities are not constant, we suppose another system in which the
velocities are equal to the velocities of the given system at the given
instant and continue constant for a unit of time. The diagram of
displacements for this imaginary system is the required diagram of
relative velocities of the actual system at the given instant. It is easy
to see that the diagram gives the velocity of any one point relative to
any other, but cannot give the absolute velocity of any of them.
Diagram of Acceleration. By the same process by which we formed
the diagram of displacements .from the two diagrams of initial and
final configuration, we may form a diagram of changes of relative
velocity from the two diagrams of initial and final velocities. This
diagram may be called that of total accelerations in a finite interval
of time. And by the same process by which we deduced the diagram
of velocities from that of displacements we may deduce the diagram
of rates of acceleration from that of total acceleration.
We have mentioned this system of diagrams in elementary kine-
matics because they are found to be of use epsecially when we have
to deal with material systems containing a great number of parts,
as in the kinetic theory of gases. The diagram of configuration then
appears as a region of space swarming with points representing
molecules, and the only way in which we can investigate it is by
considering the number of such points in unit of volume in different
parts of that region, and calling this the density of the gas.
In like manner the diagram of velocities appears as a region con-
taining points equal in number but distributed in a different manner,
and the number of points in any given portion of the region expresses
the number of molecules whose velocities lie within given limits. We
may speak of this as the velocity-density.
Diagrams of Stress. Graphical methods are peculiarly applicable
to statical questions, because the state of the system is constant,
so that we do not need to construct a series of diagrams corre-
sponding to the successive states of the system. The most useful
of these applications, collectively termed Graphic Statics, relates
to the equilibrium of plane framed structures familiarly represented
in bridges and roof-trusses. Two diagrams are used, one called the
diagram of the frame and the other called the diagram of stress.
The structure itself consists of a number of separable pieces or links
jointed together at their extremities. In practice these joints have
friction, or may be made purposely stiff, so that the force acting at
the extremity of a piece may not pass exactly through the axis of
the joint; but as it is unsafe to make the stability of the structure
depend in any degree upon the stiffness of joints, we assume in our
calculations that all the joints are perfectly smooth, and therefore
that the force acting on the end of any link passes through the axis
of the joint.
The axes of the joints of the structure are represented by points
in the diagram of the frame. The link which connects two joints in
the actual structure may be of any shape, but in the diagram of the
frame it is represented by a straight line joining the points repre-
senting the two joints. If no force acts on the link except the two
forces acting through the centres of the joints, these two forces must
be equal and opposite, and their direction must coincide with the
straight line joining the centres of the joints. If the force acting on
either extremity of the link is directed towards the other extremity,
the stress on the link is called pressure and the link is called a " strut."
If it is directed away from the other extremity, the stress on the link
is called tension and the link is called a " tie." In this case, there-
fore, the only stress acting in a link is a pressure or a tension in the
direction of the straight line which represents it in the diagram of the
frame, and all tha,t we have to do is to find the magnitude of this
stress. In the actual structure gravity acts on every part of the link,
but in the diagram we substitute for the actual weight ot the different
parts of the link two weights which have the same resultant acting
at the extremities of the link.
We may now treat the diagram of the frame as composed of links
without weight, but loaded at each joint with a weight made up of
portions of the weights of all the links which meet in that joint. If
any link has more than two joints we may substitute for it in the
diagram an imaginary stiff frame, consisting of links, each of which
has only two joints. The diagram of the frame is now reduced to a
system of points, certain pairs of which are joined by straight lines,
and each point is in general acted on by a weight or other force
acting between it and some point external to the system. To complete
148
DIAGRAM
the diagram we may represent these external forces as links, that is
to say, straight lines joining the points of the frame to points external
to the frame. Thus each weight may be represented by a link joining
the point of application of the weight with the centre of the earth.
But we can always construct an imaginary frame having its joints
in the lines of action of these external forces, and this frame, together
with the real frame and the links representing external forces, which
join points in the one frame to points in the other frame, make up
together a complete self-strained system in equilibrium, consisting of
points connected by links acting by pressure or tension. We may
in this way reduce any real structure to the case of a system of points
with attractive or repulsive forces acting between certain pairs of
these points, and keeping them in equilibrium. The direction of each
of these forces is sufficiently indicated by that of the line joining the
points, so that we have only to determine its magnitude. We might
do this by calculation, and then write down on each link the pressure
or the tension which acts in it.
We should in this way obtain a mixed diagram in which the stresses
are represented graphically as regards direction and position, but
symbolically as regards magnitude. But we know that a force may be
represented in a purely graphical manner by a straight line in the
direction of the force containing as many units of jength as there are
units of force in the force. The end of this line is marked with an
arrow head to show in which direction the force acts. According to
this method each force is drawn in its proper position in the diagram
of configuration of the frame. Such a diagram might be useful as
a record of the result of calculation of the magnitude of the forces,
but it would be of no use in enabling us to test the correctness of
the calculation.
But we have a graphical method of testing the equilibrium of any
set of forces acting at a point. We draw in series a set of lines parallel
and proportional to these forces. If these lines form a closed polygon
the forces are in equilibrium. (See MECHANICS.) We might in this
way form a series of polygons of forces, one for each joint of the frame.
But in so doing we give up the principle of drawing the line represent-
ing a force from the point of application of the force, for all the sides
of the polygon cannot pass through the same point, as the forces do.
We also represent every stress twice over, for it appears as a side of
both the polygons corresponding to the two joints between which
it acts. But if we can arrange the polygons in such a way that the
sides of any two polygons which represent the same stress coincide
with each other, we may form a diagram in which every stress is
represented in direction and magnitude, though not in position, by
a single line which is the common boundary of the two polygons
which represent the joints at the extremities of the corresponding
piece of the frame.
We have thus obtained a pure diagram of stress in which no attempt
is made to represent the configuration of the material system, and in
which every force is not only represented in direction and magnitude
by a straight line, but the equilibrium of the forces at any joint is
manifest by inspection, for we have only to examine whether the
corresponding polygon is closed or not.
The relations between the diagram of the frame and the diagram
of stress are as follows: To every link in the frame corresponds a
straight line in the diagram of stress which represents in magnitude
and direction the stress acting in that link; and to every joint of the
frame corresponds a closed polygon in the diagram, and the forces
acting at that joint are represented by the sides of the polygon taken
in a certain cyclical order, the cyclical order of the sides of the two
adjacent polygons being such that their common side is traced in
opposite directions in going round the two polygons.
The direction in which any side of a polygon is traced is the direction
of the force acting on that joint of the frame which corresponds to the
polygon, and due to that link of the frame which corresponds to the
side. This determines whether the stress of the link is a pressure or a
tension. If we know whether the stress of any one link is a pressure
or a tension, this determines the cyclical order of the sides of the two
polygons corresponding to the ends of the links, and therefore the
cyclical order of all the polygons, and the nature of the stress in every
link of the frame.
Reciprocal Diagrams. When to every point of concourse of the lines
in the diagram of stress corresponds a closed polygon in the skeleton
of the frame, the two diagrams are said to be reciprocal.
The first extensions of the method of diagrams of forces to other
cases than that of the funicular polygon were given by Rankine in
his Applied Mechanics (1857). The method was independently
applied to a large number of cases by W. P. Taylor, a practical
draughtsman in the office of J. B. Cochrane, and by Professor Clerk
Maxwell in his lectures in King's College, London. In the Phil. Mag.
for 1864 the latter pointed out the reciprocal properties of the two
diagrams, and in a paper on " Reciprocal Figures. Frames and
Diagrams of Forces," Trans. R.S. Edin. vol. xxvi., 1870, he showed
the relation of the method to Airy's function of stress and to other
mathematical methods. Professor Fleeming Jenkin has given a
number of applications of the method to practice (Trans. R.S. Edin.
vol. xxv.).
L. Cremona (Le Figure reciproche nella statica grafica, 1872) deduced
the construction of reciprocal figures from the theory of the two
components of a wrench as developed by Mobius. Karl Culmann, in
his Graphische Statik (isted. 1864-1866, 2nd ed. 1875), madepreat use
of diagrams of forces, some of which, however, are not reciprocal.
Maurice Levy in his Statique graphique (1874) has treated the whole
subject in an elementary but copious manner, and R. H. Bow, in his
The Economics of Construction in Relation to Framed Structures (1873),
materially simplified the process of drawing a diagram of stress
reciprocal to a given frame acted on by a system of equilibrating
external forces.
Instead of lettering the joints of the frame, as is usually done, or
the links of the frame, as was the custom of Clerk Maxwell, Bow
places a letter in each of the polygonal areas enclosed by the links of
the frame, and also in each of the divisions of surrounding space as
FlG. I. Diagram of Configuration.
separated by the lines of action of the external forces. When one
link of the frame crosses another, the point of apparent intersection
of the links is treated as if it were a real joint, and the stresses of each
of the intersecting links are represented twice in the diagram of
stress, as the opposite sides^of the parallelogram which corresponds
to the point of intersection.*
This method is followed in the lettering of the diagram of configura-
tion (fig. i), and the diagram of stress (fig. 2) of the linkwork which
Professor Sylvester has called a quadruplane.
In fig. I the real joints are distinguished from the places where one
link appears to cross another by the little circles O, P, Q, R, S, T, V.
The four links RSTV form a " contraparallelogram " in which
RS = TV and RV = ST. The triangles ROS, RPV, TQS are similar
:o each other. A fourth triangle (TNV), not drawn in the figure,
would complete the quadruplane. The four points O, P, N, Q form
a parallelogram whose angle POQ is constant and equal to v SOR.
The product of the distances OP and OQ is constant. The linkwork
may be fixed at O. If any figure is traced by P, Q will trace the
FIG. 2. Diagram of Stress.
inverse figure, but turned round O through the constant angle POQ.
In the diagram forces Pp, Qq are balanced by the force Co at the
fixed point. The forces Pp and Qq are necessarily inversely as OP
and OQ, and make equal angles with those lines.
Every closed area formed by the links or the external forces in the
diagram of configuration is marked by a letter which corresponds
to a point of concourse of lines in the diagram of stress. The stress
in the link which is the common boundary of two areas is represented
in the diagram of stress by the line joining the points corresponding
to those areas. When a link is divided into two or more parts by
lines crossing it, the stress in each part is represented by a different
line for each part, but as the stress is the same throughout the link
these lines are all equal and parallel. Thus in the figure the stress
in RV is represented by the four equal and parallel lines HI, FG, DE
and AB. If two areas have no part of their boundary in common
the letters corresponding to them in the diagram of stress are not
joined by a straight line. If, however, a straight line were drawn
between them, it would represent in direction and magnitude the
resultant of all the stresses in the links which are cut by any line,
straight or curved, joining the two areas. For instance the areas
F ana C in fig. I have no common boundary, and the points F and C
in fig. 2 are not joined by a straight line. But every path from the
area F to the area C in fig. I passes through a series of other areas, and
each passage from one area into a contiguous area corresponds to a
line drawn in the diagram of stress. Hence the whole path from F
DIAL
149
to C in fig. i corresponds to a path formed of lines in fig. 2 and
extending from F to C, and the resultant of all the stresses in the
links cut by the path is represented by FC in fig. 2.
Many examples of stress diagrams are given in the article on
bridges (q.v.).
A utomatic Description of Diagrams.
' There are many other kinds of diagrams in which the two co-ordin-
ates of a point in a plane are employed to indicate the simultaneous
values of two related quantities. If a sheet of paper is made to move,
say horizontally, with a constant known velocity, while a tracing
point is made to move in a vertical straight line, the height varying
as the value of any given physical quantity, the point will trace out
a curve on the paper from which the value of that quantity at any
given time may be determined. This principle is applied to the
automatic registration of phenomena of all kinds, from those of
meteorology and terrestrial magnetism to the velocity of cannon-
shot, the vibrations of sounding bodies, the motions of animals,
voluntary and involuntary, and the currents in electric telegraphs.
In Watt's indicator for steam engines the paper does not move
with a constant velocity, but its displacement is proportional to
that of the piston of the engine, while that of the tracing point is
proportional to the pressure of the steam. Hence the co-ordinates of
a point of the curve traced on the diagram represent the volume and
the pressure of the steam in the cylinder. The indicator-diagram not
only supplies a record of the pressure of the steam at each stage of
the stroke of the engine, but indicates the work done by the steam
in each stroke by the area enclosed by the curve traced on the
diagram. 0- C. M.)
DIAL and DIALLING. Dialling, sometimes called gnomonics,
is a branch of applied mathematics which treats of the construc-
tion of sun-dials, that is, of those instruments, either fixed or
portable, which determine the divisions of the day (Lat. dies) by
the motion of the shadow of some object on which the sun's rays
fall. It must have been one of the earliest applications of a
knowledge of the apparent motion of the sun; though for a long
time men would probably be satisfied with the division into
morning and afternoon as marked by sun-rise, sun-set and the
greatest elevation.
History. The earliest mention of a sun-dial is found in
Isaiah xxxviii. 8: " Behold, I will bring again the shadow of the
degrees which is gone down in the sun-dial of Ahaz ten degrees
backward." The date of this would be about 700 years before
the Christian era, but we know nothing of the character or con-
struction of the instrument. The earliest of all sun-dials of which
we have any certain knowledge was the hemicycle, or hemisphere,
of the Chaldaean astronomer Berossus, who probably lived about
300 B.C. It consisted of a hollow hemisphere placed with its
rim perfectly horizontal, and having a bead, or globule, fixed in
any way at the centre. So long as the sun remained above the
horizon the shadow of the bead would fall on the inside of the
hemisphere, and the path of the shadow during the day would
be approximately a circular arc. This arc, divided into twelve
equal parts, determined twelve equal intervals of time for that
day. Now, supposing this were done at the time of the solstices
and equinoxes, and on as many intermediate days as might be
considered sufficient, and then curve lines drawn through the
corresponding points of division of the different arcs, the shadow
of the bead falling on one of these curve lines would mark a
division of time for that day, and thus we should have a sun-dial
which would divide each period of daylight into twelve equal
parts. These equal parts were called temporary hours; and, since
the duration of daylight varies from day to day, the temporary
hours of one day would differ from those of another ; but this
inequality would probably be disregarded at that time, and
especially in countries where the variation between the longest
summer day and the shortest winter day is much less than in our
climates.
The dial of Berossus remained in use for centuries. The
Arabians, as appears from the work of Albategnius, still followed
the same construction about the year A.D. 900. Four of these dials
have in modern times been found in Italy. One, discovered at
Tivoli in 1746, is supposed to have belonged to Cicero, who, in
one of his letters, says that he had sent a dial of this kind to his
villa near Tusculum. The second and third were found in 1751
one at Castel-Nuovo and the other at Rignano; and a fourth was
found in 1762 at Pompeii. G. H. Martini in his Abhandlungen
von den Sonnenuhren der Allen (Leipzig, 1777), says that thi:
dial was made for the latitude of Memphis; it may therefore
je the work of Egyptians, perhaps constructed in the school of
Alexandria.
Herodotus recorded, that the Greeks derived from the Baby-
onians the use of the gnomon, but the great progress made by
the Greeks in geometry enabled them in later times to construct
dials of great complexity, some of which remain to us, and are
jroof not only of extensive knowledge but also of great ingenuity.
Ptolemy's Almagest treats of the construction of dials by
means of his analemma, an instrument which solved a variety of
astronomical problems. The constructions given by him were
sufficient for regular dials, that is, horizontal dials, or vertical
dials facing east, west, north or south, and these are the only ones
tie treats of. It is certain, however, that the ancients were able
to construct declining dials, as is shown by that most interesting
monument of ancient gnomics the Tower of the Winds at
Athens. This is a regular octagon, on the faces of which the eight
principal winds are represented, and over them eight different
dials four facing the cardinal points and the other four facing
the intermediate directions. The date of the dials is long subse-
quent to that of the tower; for Vitruvius, who describes the tower
in the sixth chapter of his first book, says nothing about the dials,
and as he has described all the dials known in his time, we must
believe that the dials of the tower did not then exist. The hours
are still the temporary hours or, as the Greeks called them,
hectemoria.
The first sun-dial erected at Rome was in the year 290 B.C., and
this Papirius Cursor had taken from the Samnites. A dial which
Valerius Messalla had brought from Catania, the latitude of which
is five degrees less than that of Rome, was placed in the forum
in the year 261 B.C. The first dial actually constructed at Rome
was in the year 164 B.C., by order of Q. Marcius Philippus, but
as no other Roman has written on gnomonics, this was perhaps
the work of a foreign artist. If, too, we remember that the dial
found at Pompeii was made for the latitude of Memphis, and
consequently less adapted to its position than that of Catania
to Rome, we may infer that mathematical knowledge was not
cultivated in Italy.
The Arabians were much more successful. They attached
great importance to gnomonics, the principles of which they had
learned from the Greeks, but they greatly simplified and diversified
the Greek constructions. One of their writers, Abu'l Hassan, who
lived about the beginning of the i3th century, taught them how
to trace dials on cylindrical, conical and other surfaces. He
even introduced equal or equinoctial hours, but the idea was not
supported, and the temporary hours alone continued in use.
Where or when the great and important step already conceived
by Abu'l Hassan, and perhaps by others, of reckoning by equal
hours was generally adopted cannot now be determined. The
history of gnomonics from the i3th to the beginning of the
1 6th century is almost a blank, and during that time the change
took place. We can see, however, that the change would neces-
sarily follow the introduction of clocks and other mechanical
methods of measuring time; for, however imperfect these were,
the hours they marked would be of the same length in summer and
in winter, and the discrepancy between these equal hours and the
temporary hours of the sun-dial would soon be too important
to be overlooked. Now, we know that a balance clock was put up
in the palace of Charles V. of France about the year 1370, and
we may reasonably suppose that the new sun-dials came into
general use during the I4th and isth centuries.
Among the earliest of the modern writers on gnomonics was
Sebastian Minister (q.v.), who published his Horologiographia
at Basel in 1531. He gives a number of correct rules, but with-
out demonstrations. Among his inventions was a moon-dial, 1
but this does not admit of much accuracy.
During the I7th century dialling was discussed at great length
by many writers on astronomy. Clavius devotes a quarto
1 In one of the courts of Queens' College, Cambridge, there is an
elaborate sun-dial dating from the end of the 1 7th or beginning of
the 1 8th century, and around it a series of numbers which make it
available as a moon-dial when the moon's age is known.
DIAL
volume of 800 pages entirely to the subject. This was published
in 1612, and may be considered to contain all that was known at
that time.
In the 1 8th century clocks and watches began to supersede
sun-dials, and these have gradually fallen into disuse except as
an additional ornament to a garden, or in remote country districts
where the old dial on the church tower still serves as an occasional
check on the modern clock by its side. The art of constructing
dials may now be looked upon as little more than a mathematical
recreation.
General Principles. The diurnal and the annual motions of the
earth are the elementary astronomical facts on which dialling is
founded. That the earth turns upon its axis uniformly from west
to east in twenty-four hours, and that it is carried round the sun in
one year at a nearly uniform rate, is the correct way of expressing
these facts. But the effect will be precisely the same, and it will suit
our purpose better, and make our explanations easier, if we adopt the
ideas of the ancients, of which our senses furnish apparent confirma-
tion, and assume the earth to be fixed. Then, the sun and stars
revolve round the earth's axis uniformly from east to west once a
day the sun lagging a little behind the stars, making its day some
four minutes longer so that at the end of the year it finds itself again
in the same place, having made a complete revolution of the heavens
relatively to the stars from west to east.
The fixed axis about which all these bodies revolve daily is a line
through the earth's centre; but the radius of the earth is so small,
compared with the enormous distance of the sun, that, if we draw a
parallel axis through any point of the earth's surface, we may safely
look on that as being the axis of the celestial motions. The error in
the case of the sun would not, at its maximum, that is, at 6 A.M. and
6 P.M., exceed half a second of time, and at noon would vanish. An
axis so drawn is in the plane of the meridian, and points to the pole,
its elevation being equal to tl.<; latitude of the place.
The diurnal motion of the stars is strictly uniform, and so would
that of the sun be if the daily retardation of about four minutes,
spoken of above, were always the same. But this is constantly alter-
ing, so that the time, as measured by the sun's motion, and also
consequently as measured by a sun-dial, does not move on at a
strictly uniform pace. This irregularity, which is slight, would be
of little consequence in the ordinary affairs of life, but clocks and
watches being mechanical measures of time could not, except by
extreme complication, be made to follow this irregularity, even
if desirable.
The clock is constructed to mark uniform time in such wise that the
length of the clock day shall be the average of all the solar days in the
year. Four times a year the clock and the sun-dial agree exactly;
but the sun-dial, now going a little slower, now a little faster, will be
sometimes behind, sometimes before the clock the greatest accumu-
lated difference being about sixteen minutes for a few days in
November, but on the average much less. The four days on which
the two agree are April 15, June 15, September I and December 24.
Clock-time is called mean time, that marked by the sun-dial iscalled
apparent time, and the difference between them is the equation of
time. It is given in most calendars and almanacs, frequently under
the heading ' clock slow," " clock fast." When the time by the sun-
dial is known, the equation of time will at once enable us to obtain the
corresponding clock-time, or vice versa.
Atmospheric refraction introduces another error by altering the
apparent position of the sun; but the effect is too small to need
consideration in the construction of an instrument which, with the
best workmanship, does not after all admit of very great accuracy.
The general principles of dialling will now be readily understood.
The probjem before us is the following : A rod, or style, as it is
called, being firmly fixed in a direction parallel to the earth's axis,
we have to find how and where points or lines of reference must be
traced on some fixed surface behind the style, so that when the
shadow of the style falls on a certain one of these lines, we may know
that at that moment it is solar noon, that is, that the plane through
the style and through the sun then coincides with the meridian;
again, that when the shadow reaches the next line of reference, it is
I o'clock by solar time, or, which comes to the same thing, that the
above plane through the style and through the sun has just turned
through the twenty-fourth part of a complete revolution ; and so on
for_the subsequent hours, the hours before noon being indicated in
a similar manner. The style and the surface on which these lines
are traced together constitute the dial.
The position of an intended sun-dial having been selected
whether on church tower, south front of farmstead or garden wall
the surface must be prepared, if necessary, to receive the hour-lines.
The chief, and in fact the only practical difficulty will be the
accurate fixing of the style, for on its accuracy the value of the instru-
ment depends. It must be in the meridian plane, and must make an
angle with the horizon equal to the latitude of the place. The latter
condition will offer no difficulty, but the exact determination of the
meridian plane which passes through the point where the style is
faxed to the surface is not so simple. At present we shall assume that
the style has been fixed in its true position. The style itself will be
usually a stout metal wire, and when we speak of the shadow cast by
the style it must always be understood that the middle line of the
thin band of shade is meant.
The point where the style meets the dial is called the centre of the
dial. It is the centre from which all the hour-lines radiate.
The position of the XII o'clock line is the most important to
determine accurately, since all the others are usually made to depend
on this one. We cannot trace it correctly on the dial until the style
has been itself accurately fixed in its proper place. When that is done
the XII o'clock line will be found by the intersection of the dial
surface with the vertical plane which contains the style; and the
most simple way of drawing it on the dial will be by suspending a
plummet from some point of the style whence it may hang freely,
and waiting until the shadows of both style and plumb-line coincide
on the dial. This single shadow will be the XII o'clock line.
In one class of dials, namely, all the vertical ones, the XII o'clock
line is simply the vertical line from the centre; it can, therefore, at
once be traced on the dial face by using a fine plumb-line.
The XII o'clock line being traced, the easiest and most accurate
method of tracing the other hour-lines would, at the present day when
good watches are common, be by marking where the shadow of the
style falls when I, 2, 3, &c., hours have elapsed since noon, and the
next morning by the same means the forenoon hour-lines could be
traced ; and m the same manner the hours might be subdivided into
halves and quarters, or even into minutes.
But formerly, when watches did not exist, the tracing of the I, II,
III, &c., o'clock lines was done by calculating the angle which each of
these lines would make with the XI I o'clock line. Now, except in the
simple cases of a horizontal dial or of a vertical dial facing a cardinal
point, this would require long and intricate calculations, or elabo-
rate geometrical constructions, implying considerable mathematical
knowledge, but also introducing increased chances of error. The
chief source of error would lie in the uncertainty of the data; for the
position of the dial-plane would have to be found before the calcula-
tions began, that is, it would be necessary to know exactly by how
many degrees it declined from the south towards the east or west,
and by how many degrees it inclined from the vertical. The ancients,
with the means at their disposal, could obtain these results only very
roughly.
Dials received different names according to their position :
Horizontal dials, when traced on a horizontal plane ;
Vertical dials, when on a vertical plane facing one of the cardinal
points ;
Vertical declining dials, on a vertical plane not facing a cardinal
point;
Inclining dials, when traced on planes neither vertical nor hori-
zontal (these were further distinguished as reclining when leaning
backwards from an observer, proclining when leaning forwards) ;
Equinoctial dials, when the plane is at right angles to the earth's
axis, &c. &c.
Dial Construction. A very correct view of the problem of dial
construction may be obtained as follows:
FIG. i.
Conceive a transparent cylinder (fig. I) having an axis AB parallel
to the axis of the earth. On the surface of the cynnder let equidistant
generating lines be traced 15 apart, one of them XII . . .XII being
in the meridian plane through AB, and the others I ... I, II ... II,
&c., following in the order of the sun's motion.
Then the shadow of the line AB will obviously fall on the line
XII . . . XII at apparent noon, on the line I . . . I at one hour after
noon, on II ... II at two hours after noon, and so on. If now the
cylinder be cut by any plane MN representing the plane on which the
dial is to be traced, the shadow of AB will be intercepted by this plane
and fall on the lines AXII AI, All, &c.
The construction of the dial consists in determining the angles made
DIAL
by AI, All, &c. with AXII ; the line AXII itself, being in the vertical
plane through AB, may be supposed known.
For the purposesof actual calculation, perhaps a transparent sphere
will, with advantage, replace the cylinder, and we shall here apply it
to calculate the angles made by the hour-line with the XII o'clock line
in the two cases of a horizontal dial and of a vertical south dial.
Horizontal Dial. Let PEp (fig. 2), the axis of the supposed trans-
parent sphere, be directed towards the north and south poles of the
heavens. Draw the two great circles, HMA, QMa, the former
FIG. 2.
horizontal, the other perpendicular to the axis Pp, and therefore
coinciding with the plane of the equator. Let EZ be vertical, then
the circle QZP will be the meridian, and by its intersection A with
the horizontal circle will determine the XII o'clock line EA. Next
divide the equatorial circle QMa into 24 equal parts ab, be, cd, &c. . . .
of 15 each, beginning from the meridian Pa, and through the
various points of division and the poles draw the great circles Pbp,
Pep, &c. . . . These will exactly correspond to the equidistant
generating lines on the cylinder in the previous construction, and the
shadow of the style will fall on these circles after successive intervals
of i, 2, 3, &c., hours from noon. If they meet the horizontal circle
in the points B, C, D, &c., then EB, EC, ED, &c will be the
I, II, III, &c., hour-lines required; and the problem of the horizontal
dial consists in calculating the angles which these lines make with
the XII o'clock line EA, whose position is known. The spherical
triangles PAB, PAC, &c., enable us to do this readily. They are all
right-angled at A, the side PA is the latitude of the place, and the
angles APB, APC, &c., are respectively 15", 30, &c., then
tan AB = tan 15 sin latitude,
tan AC =tan 30 sin latitude,
&c. &c.
These determine the sides AB, AC, &c.,that is, the angles AEB, AEC,
&c., required.
The I o'clock hour-line EB must make an angle with the meridian
EA of 11 51' on a London dial, of 12 31' at Edinburgh, of 11 23'
at Paris, 12 o' at Berlin, 9 55' at New York and 9 19' at San
Francisco. In the same way may be found the angles made by the
other hour-lines.
The calculations of these angles must extend throughout one
quadrant from noon to VI o'clock, but need not be carried further,
because all the other hour-lines can at once be deduced from these.
In the first place the dial is symmetrically divided by the meridian,
and therefore two times equidistant from noon will have their hour-
lines equidistant from the meridian ; thus the XI o'clock line and the
I o'clock line must make the same angles with it, the X o'clock the
same as the II o'clock, and so on. And next, the 24 great circles,
which were drawn to determine these lines, are in reality only 12;
for clearly the great circle which gives I o'clock after midnight, and
that which gives I o'clock after noon, are one and the same, and so
also for the other hours. Therefore the hour-lines between VI in
the evening and VI the next morning are the prolongations of the
remaining twelve.
Let us now remove the imaginary sphere with all its circles, and
retain only the style EP and the plane HMA with the lines traced on
it, and we shall have the horizontal dial.
On the longest day in London the sun rises a little before 4 o'clock,
and sets a little after 8 o'clock; there is therefore no necessity for
extending a London dial beyond those hours. At Edinburgh^ the
limits wnl be a little longer, while at Hammerfest, which is within
the Arctic circle, the whole circuit will be required.
Instead of a wire style it is often more convenient to use a metal
plate from one quarter to half an inch in thickness. This plate,
which is sometimes in the form of a right-angled triangle, must have
an acute angle equal to the latitude of the place, and, when properly
fixed in a vertical position on the dial, its two faces must coincide
with the meridian plane, and the sloping edges formed by the thick-
ness of the plate must point to the pole and form two parallel styles.
Since there are two styles, there must be two dials, or rather two half
dials, because a little consideration will show that, owing to the
thickness of the plate, these styles will only one at a time cast a
shadow. Thus the eastern edge will give the shadow for all hours
before 6 o'clock in the morning. From 6 o'clock until noon the
western edge will be used. At noon it will change again to the
eastern edge until 6 o'clock in the evening, and finally the western
edge for the remaining hours of daylight.
The centres of the two dials will be at the points where the styles
meet the dial face; but, in drawing the hour-lines, we must be
careful to draw only those
lines for which the corre-
sponding style is able to give
a shadow as explained above.
The dial will thus have the
appearance of a single dial
plate, and there will be no
confusion (see fig. 3).
The line of demarcation
between the shadow and the
light will be better defined
than when a wire style is
used ; but the indications by
this double dial will always
be one minute too fast in the
morning and one minute too
slow in the afternoon. This FIG. 3.
is owing to the magnitude
of the sun, whose angular breadth is half a degree. The well-defined
shadows are given, not by the centre of the sun, as we should require
them, but by the forward limb in the morning and by the backward
one in the afternoon; and the sun takes just about a minute to
advance through a space equal to its half-breadth.
Dials of this description are frequently met with. The dial plate
is of metal as well as the vertical piece upon it, and they may be
purchased ready for placing on the pedestal, the dial with all the
hour-lines traced on it and the style plate firmly fastened in its
proper position, if not even cast in the same piece with the dial plate.
When placing it on the pedestal care must be taken that the dial
be perfectly horizontal and accurately oriented. The levelling wilt
be done with a spirit-level, and the orientation will be best effected
either in the forenoon or in the afternoon, by turning the dial plate
till the time given by the shadow (making the one minute correction
mentioned above) agrees with a good watch whose error on solar time
is known. It is, however, important to bear in mind that a dial, so
built up beforehand, will have the angle at the base equal to the
latitude of some selected place, such as London, and the hour-lines
will be drawn in directions calculated for the same latitude. Such a
dial can therefore not be used near Edinburgh or Glasgow, although
it would, without appreciable error, be adapted to any place whose
latitude did not differ more than 20 or 30 m. from that of London,
and it would be safe to employ it in Essex, Kent or Wiltshire.
If a series of such dials were constructed, differing by 30 m. in
latitude, then an intending purchaser could select one adapted to a
place whose latitude was within 15 m. of his own, and the error of
time would never exceed a small fraction of a minute. The following
table will enable us to check the accuracy of the hour-lines and of the
angle of the style, all angles on the dial being readily measured with
an ordinary protractor. It extends from 50 lat. to 59^ lat., and
therefore includes the whole of Great Britain and Ireland :
LAT.
XI. A.M.
I. P.M.
X. A.M.
II. P.M.
IX. A.M.
III. P.M.
VIII. A.M.
IIII. P.M.
VII. A.M.
V. P.M.
VI. A. M.
VI. P.M
50 o'
11 36'
23 51'
37 27'
53 o'
70 43'
90 o'
50 30
II 41
24 I
37 39
53 12
70 51
90 o
5i o
II 46
24 10
37 51
53 23
7<> 59
90 o
5i 3
II 51
24 19
3 3
53 35
71 6
90 o
52 o
ii 55
24 28
38 14
53 46
71 13
90 o
52 3
12
24 37
38 25
53 57
71 20
90 o
53 o
12 5
24 45
38 37
54 8
71 27
90 o
53 3
12 9
24 54
38 48
54 19
71 34
90 o
54 o
12 14
25 2
38 58
54 29
71 40
90 o
54 3
12 18
25 10
39 9
54 39
71 47
90 o
55 o
12 23
25 19
39 19
54 49
71 53
90 o
55 30
12 27
25 27
39 3
54 59
71 59
90 o
56 o
12 31
25 35
39 4
55 9
72 5
90 o
56 3
12 36
25 43
39 5
55 18
.72 ii
90 o
57 o
12 40
25 50
39 59
55 27
72 17
90 o
57 3
12 44
25 58
40 9
55 36
72 22
90 o
58 o
12 48
26 5
40 18
55 45
72 28
90 o
58 30
12 52
26 13
40 27
55 54
72 33
90 o
59 o
12 56
26 20
40 36
56 2
72 39
90 o
59 30
13 o
26 27
45 45
56 II
72 44
90 o
Vertical South Dial. Let us take again our imaginary transparent
sphere QZPA (fig. 4), whose axis PEp is parallel to the earth's axis.
Let Z be the zenith, and, consequently, the great circle QZP the
152
DIAL
meridian. Through E, the centre of the sphere, draw a vertical plane
facing south. This wijl cut the sphere in the great circle ZMA,
which, being vertical, will pass through the zenith, and, facing south,
will be at right angles to the meridian. Let QMa be the equatorial
circle, obtained by drawing a plane through E at right angles to the
axis PEp. The lower portion Ep of the axis will be the style, the
vertical line EA in the meridian plane will be the XII o'clock line,
and the line EM, which is obviously horizontal, since M is the inter-
section of two great circles ZM , QM , each at right angles to the vertical
plane QZP, will be the VI o'clock line. Now, as in the previous
problem, divide the equatorial circle into 24 equal arcs of 15 each,
beginning at a, viz. ab, be, &c., each quadrant aM, MQ, &c., con-
taining 6, then through each point of division and through the
7.
FIG. 4.
axis Pp draw a plane cutting the sphere in 24 equidistant great circles.
As the sun revolves round the axis the shadow of the axis will suc-
cessively fall on these circles at intervals of one hour, and if these
circles cross the vertical circle ZMA in the points A, B, C, &c., the
shadow of the lower portion Ep of the axis will fall on the lines EA,
EB, EC, &c., which will therefore be the required hour-lines on the
vertical dial, Ep being the style.
There is no necessity for going beyond the VI o'clock hour-line on
each side of noon ; for, in the winter months the sun sets earlier than
6 o'clock, and in the summer months it passes behind the plane of the
dial before that time, and is no longer available.
It remains to show how the angles AEB, AEC, &c., may be calcu-
lated.
The spherical triangles pAB, pAC, &c., will give us a simple rule.
These triangles are all right-angled at A, the side pA, equal to ZP, is
the co-latitude of the place, that is, the difference between the latitude
and 90; and the successive angles ApB, ApC, &c., are 15, 30, &c.,
respectively. Then
tan AB = tan 15 sin co-latitude;
or more simply,
tan AB=tan 15 cos latitude,
tan AC = tan 30 cos latitude,
&c. &c.
and the arcs AB, AC so found are the measure of the angles AEB,
AEC, &c., required.
In this case the angles diminish as the latitudes increase, the
opposite result to that of the horizontal dial.
Inclining, Reclining, &c., Dials. We shall not enter into the
calculation of these cases. Our imaginary sphere being, as before
supposed, constructed with its centre at the centre of the dial, and
all the hour-circles traced upon it, the intersection of these hour-
circles with the plane of the dial will determine the hour-lines just as
in the previous cases ; but the triangles will no longer be right-angled,
and the simplicity of the calculation will be lost, the chances of error
being greatly increased by the difficulty of drawing the dial plane in
its true position on the sphere, since that true position will have to be
found from observations which can be only roughly performed.
In all these cases, and in cases where the dial surface is nota plane,
and the hour-lines, consequently, are not straight lines, the only safe
practical way is to mark rapidly on the dial a few points (one is
sufficient when the dial face is plane) of the shadow at the moment
when a good watch shows that the hour has arrived, and afterwards
connect these points with the centre by a continuous line. Of course
the style must have been accurately fixed in its true position before
we begin.
Equatorial Dial. The name equatorial dial is given to one whose
plane is at right angles to the style, and therefore parallel to the
equator. It is the simplest of all dials. A circle (fig. 5) divided into
24 equal arcs is placed at right angles to the style, and hour divisions
are marked upon it. Then if care be taken that the style point
accurately to the pole, and that the noon division coincide with
the meridian plane, the shadow of the style will fall on the other
divisions, each at its proper time. The divisions must be marked
FIG.
on both sides of the dial, because the sun will shine on opposite
sides in .the summer and in the winter months, changing at each
equinox.
To find the Meridian Plane. We have, so far, assumed the meridian
plane to be accurately known ; we shall proceed to describe some of
the methods by which it may be found.
The mariner's compass may be employed as a first rough approxi-
mation. It is well known that the needle of the compass, when free
to move horizontally, oscillates upon its
pivot and settles in a direction termed
the magnetic meridian. This does not
coincide with the true north and south
line, but the difference between them is
generally known with tolerable accur-
acy, and is called the variation of the
compass. The variation differs widely
at different parts of the surface of the
earth, and is not stationary at any
particular place, though the change is
slow; and there is even a small daily
oscillation which takes place about the
mean position, but too small to need
notice here (see MAGNETISM, TERRES-
TRIAL).
With all these elements of uncertainty, it is obvious that the
compass can only give a rough approximation to the position of the
meridian, but it will serve to fix the style so that only a small further
alteration will be necessary when a more perfect determination has
been made.
A very simple practical method is the following :
Place a table (fig. 6), or other plane surface, in such a position that
it may receive the sun's raysbothinthemorningandintheafternoon.
Then carefully level the surface by means of a spirit-level. This must
be done very accurately, and the table in that position made perfectly
secure, so that there be no danger of its shifting during the day.
Next, suspend a plummet SH from a point S, which must be
rigidly fixed. The extremity H, where the plummet just meets the
surface, should be somewhere near the middle of one end of the table.
With H for centre, describe any number of concentric arcs of circles,
AB, CD, EF.&c.
A bead P, kept in its place by friction, is threaded on the plummet
line at some convenient height above H.
Everything being thus prepared, let us follow the shadow of the
bead P as it moves along the surface of the table during the day. It
will be found to describe
a curve ACE . . . FOB,
approaching the point
H as the sun advances
towards noon, and reced-
ing from it afterwards.
(The curve is a conic
section an hyperbola
in these regions.) At the
moment when it crosses
the arc AB, mark the
point A; AP is then the
direction of the sun, and,
as AH is horizontal, the
angle PAH is the alti-
tude of the sun. In the
afternoon mark the
point B where it crosses
the same arc; then the
angle PBH is the alti-
tude. But the right-
angled triangles PHA,
PHB are obviously
equal; and the sun has
therefore the same alti-
FIG. 6.
tudes at those two instants, the one before, the other after noon.
It follows that, if the sun has not changed its declination during the
interval, the two positions will be symmetrically placed one on each
side of the meridian. Therefore, drawing the chord AB, and bisecting
it in M, HM will be the meridian line.
Each of the other concentric arcs, CD, EF, &c., will furnish its
meridian line. Of course these should all coincide, but if not, the
mean of the positions thus found must be taken.
The proviso mentioned above, that the sun has not changed its
declination, is scarcely ever realized; but the change is slight, and
may be neglected, except perhaps about the time of the equinoxes,
at the end of March and at the end of September. Throughout the
remainder of the year the change of decimation is so slow that we
may safely neglect it. The most favourable times are at the end
of June and at the end of December, when the sun's declination is
almost stationary. If the line HM be produced both ways to the
edges of the table, then the two points on the ground vertically below
those on the edges may be found by a plummet, and, if permanent
marks be made there, the meridian plane, which is the vertical plane
passing through these two points, will have its position perfectly
secured.
DIAL
To place the Style of a Dial in its True Position. Before giving any
other method of finding the meridian plane, we shall complete the
construction of the dial, by showing how the style may now be
accurately placed in its true position. The angle which the style
makes with a hanging plumb-line, being the co-latitude of the place,
is known, and the north and south direction is also roughly given by
the mariner's compass. The style may therefore be already adjusted
approximately correctly, indeed, as to its inclination but prob-
ably requiring a little horizontal motion east or west. Suspend a
fine plumb-line from some point of the style, then the style will be
properly adjusted if, at the very instant of noon, its shadow falls
exactly on the plumb-line, or, which is the same thing, if both
shadows coincide on the dial.
This instant of noon will be given very simply, by the meridian
plane, whose position we have secured by the two permanent marks
on the ground. Stretch a cord from the one mark to the other. This
will not generally be horizontal, but the cord will be wholly in the
meridian plane, and that is the only necessary condition. Next,
suspend a plummet over the mark which is nearer to the sun, and,
when the shadow of the plumb-line falls on the stretched cord, it is
noon. A signal from the observer there to the observer at the dial
enables the latter to adjust the style as directed above.
Other Methods of finding the Meridian Plane. We have dwelt at
some length on these practical operations because they are simple and
tolerably accurate, and because they want neither watch, nor sextant,
nor telescope nothing more, in fact, than the careful observation of
shadow lines.
The Pole star, or Ursae Minoris, may also be employed for finding
the meridian plane without other apparatus than plumb-lines. This
star is now only about I 14' from the pole ; if therefore a plumb-line
be suspended, at a few feet from the observer, and if he shift his
position till the star is exactly hidden by the line, then the plane
through his eye and the plumb-line will never be far from the meridian
plane. Twice in the course of the twenty-four hours the planes would
be strictly coincident. This would be when the star crosses the
meridian above the pole, and again when it crosses it below. If we
wished to employ the method of determining the meridian, the times
of the stars crossing would have to be calculated from the data in the
Nautical Almanac, and a watch would be necessary to know when
the instant arrived. The watch need not, however, be very accurate,
because the motion of the star is so slow that an error of ten minutes
in the time would not give an error of one-eighth of a degree in the
azimuth.
The following accidental circumstance enables us to dispense with
both calculation and watch. The right ascension of the star i; Ursae
Majoris, that star in the tail of the Great Bear which is farthest from
the " pointers," happens to differ by a little more than 12 hours from
the right ascension of the Pole star. The great circle which joins the
two stars passes therefore close to the pole. When the Pole star, at
a distance of about I 14' from the pole, is crossing the meridian above
the pole, the star ij Ursae Majoris, whose polar distance is about 40,
has not yet reached the meridian below the pole.
When jj Ursae Majoris reaches the meridian, which will be within
half an hour later, the Pole star will have left the meridian ; but its
slow motion will have carried it only a very little distance away. Now
at some instant between these two times much nearer the latter
than the former -the great circle joining the two stars will be exactly
vertical; and at this instant, which the observer determines by
seeing that the plumb-line hides the two stars simultaneously, neither
of the stars is strictly in the meridian ; but the deviation from it is so
small that it may be neglected, and the plane through the eye and the
plumb-line taken for meridian plane.
In all these cases it will be convenient, instead of fixing the plane
by means of the eye and one fixed plummet, to have a second plummet
at a short distance in front of the eye ; this second plummet, being
suspended so as to allow of lateral shifting, must be moved so as
always to be between the eye and the fixed plummet. The meridian
plane will be secured by placing two permanent marks on the ground,
one under each plummet.
This method, by means of the two stars, is only available for the
upper transit of Polaris; for, at the lower transit, the other star i\
Ursae Majoris would pass close to or beyond the zenith, and the
observation could not be made. Also the stars will not be visible
when the upper transit takes place in the daytime, so that one-half
of the year is lost to this method.
Neither could it be employed in lower latitudes than 40 N., for
there the star would be below the horizon at its lower transit; we
may even say not lower than 45 N., for the star must be at least 5
above the horizon before it becomes distinctly visible.
There are other pairs of stars which could be similarly employed,
but none so convenient as these two, on account of Polaris with its
very slow motion being one of the pair.
To place the Style in its True Position without previous Determination
of the Meridian Plane. The various methods given above for finding
the meridian plane have for ultimate object the determination of the
plane, not on its own account, but as an element for fixing the instant
of noon, whereby the style may be properly placed.
We shall dispense, therefore, with all this preliminary work if we
determine noon by astronomical observation. For this we shall want
a good watch, or pocket chronometer, and a sextant or other instru-
ment for taking altitudes. The local time at any moment may be
determined in a variety of ways by observation of the celestial bodies.
The simplest and most practically useful methods will be found
described and investigated in any work on astronomy.
For our present purpose a single altitude of the sun taken in the
forenoon will be most suitable. At some time in the morning, when
the sun is high enough to be free from the mists and uncertain
refractions of the horizon but to ensure accuracy, while the rate of
increase of the altitude is still tolerably rapid, and, therefore, not later
than 10 o'clock take an altitude of the sun, an assistant, at the same
moment, marking the time shown by the watch. The altitude so
observed being properly corrected for refraction, parallax, &c., will,
together with the latitude of the place, and the sun's declination,
taken from the Nautical Almanac, enable us to calculate the time.
This will be the solar or apparent time, that is, the very time we
require. Comparing the time so found with the time shown by the
watch, we see at once by how much the watch is fast or slow of solar
time; we know, therefore, exactly what time the watch must mark
when solar noon arrives, and waiting for that instant we can fix the
style in its proper position as explained before.
We can dispense with the sextant and with all calculation and
observation if, by means of the pocket chronometer, we bring the
time from some observatory where the work is done ; and, allowing
for the change of longitude, and also for the equation of time, if the
time we have brought is clock time, we shall have the exact instant
of solar noon as in the previous case.
In former times the fancy of dialists seems to have run riot in
devising elaborate surfaces on which the dial was to be traced. Some-
times the shadow was received on a cone, sometimes on a cylinder,
or on a sphere, or on a combination of these. A universal dial was
constructed of a figure in the shape of a cross; another universal dial
showed the hours by a globe and by several gnomons. These
universal dials required adjusting before use, and for this a mariner's
compass and a spirit-level were necessary. But it would be tedious
and useless to enumerate the various forms designed, and, as a rule,
the more complex the less accurate.
Another class of useless dials consisted of those with variable
centres. They were drawn on fixed horizontal planes, and each day
the style had to be shifted to a new position. Instead of hour-lines
they had hour-points ; and the style, instead of being parallel to the
axis of the earth, might make any chosen angle with the horizon.
There was no practical advantage in their use, but rather the reverse ;
and they can only be considered as furnishing material for new
mathematical problems.
Portable Dials. The dials so far described have been fixed dials,
for even the fanciful ones to which reference was just now made were
to be fixed before using. There were, however, other dials, made
generally of a small size, so as to be carried in the pocket; and
these, so long as the sun shone, roughly answered the purpose of a
watch.
The description of the portable dial has generally been mixed up
with that of the fixed dial, as if it had been merely a special case, and
the same principle had been the basis of both; whereas there are
essential points of difference between them, besides those which are
at once apparent.
In the fixed dial the result depends on the uniform angular motion
of the sun round the fixed style ; and a small error in the assumed
position of the sun, whether due to the imperfection of the instru-
ment, or to some small neglected correction, has only a trifling effect
on the time. This is owing to the angular displacement of the sun
being so rapid a quarter of a degree every minute that for the
ordinary affairs of life greater accuracy is not required, as a displace-
ment of a quarter of a degree, or at any rate of one degree, can be
readily seen by nearly every person. But with a portable dial this
is no longer the case. The uniform angular motion is not now avail-
able, because we have no determined fixed plane to which we may
refer it. In the new position, to which the observer has gone, the
zenith is the only point of the heavens he can at once practically find ;
and the basis for the determination of the time is the constantly but
very irregularly varying zenith distance of the sun.
At sea the observation of the altitude of a celestial body is the only
method available for finding local time ; but the perfection which has
been attained in the construction of the sextant enables the sailor
to reckon on an accuracy of seconds. Certain precautions have,
however, to be taken. The observations must not be made within a
couple of hours of noon, on account of the slow rate of change at that
time, nor too near the horizon, on account of the uncertain refractions
there ; and the same restrictions must be observed in using a portable
dial.
_To compare roughly the accuracy of the fixed and the portable
dials, let us take a mean position in Great Britain, say 54 lat., and a
mean declination when the sun is in the equator. It will rise at
6 o'clock, and at noon have an altitude of 36, that is, the portable
dial will indicate an average change of one-tenth of a degree in each
minute, or two and a half times slower than the fixed dial. The
vertical motion of the sun increases, however, nearer the horizon,
but even there it will be only one-eighth of a degree each minute, or
half the rate of the fixed dial, which goes on at nearly the same speed
throughout the day.
Portable dials are also much more restricted in the range of latitude
154
DIAL
o
**
1 /
for which they are available, and they should not be used more than
4 or 5 m. north or south of the place for which they were constructed.
We shall briefly describe two portable dials which were in actual
use.
Dial on a Cylinder. A hollow cylinder of metal (fig. 7), 4 or 5 in.
high, and about an inch in diameter, has a lid which admits of toler-
ably easy rotation. A hole in
the lid receives the style
shaped somewhat like a
bayonet; and the straight
part of the style, which, on
account of the two bends, is
lower than the lid, projects
horizontally out from the
cylinder to a distance of I or
l% in. When not in use the
style would be taken out and
placed inside the cylinder.
A horizontal circle is traced
on the cylinder opposite the
projecting style, and this
circle is divided into 36
approximately equidistant
intervals. 1 These intervals
represent spaces of time, and
to each division is assigned
a date, so that each month
has three dates marked as
follows: January 10, 20,
31; February 10, 20, 28;
March 10, 20, 31; April 10,
20, 30, and so on, always
the loth, the 2Oth, and the
last day of each month
J
FlG. 7.
Through each point of division a vertical line parallel to the axis
of the cylinder is drawn from top to bottom. Now it will be readily
understood that if, upon one of these days, the lid be turned, so as
to bring the style exactly opposite the date, and if the dial be then
placed on a horizontal table so as to receive sunlight, and turned
round bodily until the shadow of the style falls exactly on the vertical
line below it, the shadow will terminate at some definite point of this
line, the position of which point will depend on the length of the
style that is, the distance of its end from the surface of the cylinder
and on the altitude of the sun at that instant. Suppose that the
observations are continued all day, the cylinder being very gradually
turned so that the style may always face the sun, and suppose that
marks are made on the vertical line to show the extremity of the
shadow at each exact hour from sunrise to sunset these times being
taken from a good fixed sun-dial, then it is obvious that the next
year, on the same date, the sun's declination being about the same,
and the observer in about the same latitude, the marks made the
previous year will serve to tell the time all that day.
What we have said above was merely to make the principle of the
instrument clear, for it is evident that this mode of marking, which
would require a whole year's sunshine and hourly observation,
cannot be the method employed.
The positions of the marks are, in fact, obtained by calculation.
Corresponding to a given date, the declination of the sun is taken
from the almanac, and this, together with the latitude of the place
and the length of the style, will constitute the necessary data for
computing the length of the shadow, that is, the distance of the mark
below the style for each successive hour.
We have assumed above that the declination of the sun is the same
at the same date in different years. This is not quite correct, but, if
the dates be taken for the second year after leap year, the results will
be sufficiently approximate.
When all the hour-marks have been placed opposite to their
respective dates, then a continuous curve, joining the corresponding
hour-points, will serve to find the time for a day intermediate to
those set down, the lid being turned till the style occupy a proper
position between the two divisions. The horizontality of the surface
on which the instrument rests is a very necessary condition, especially
in summer, when, the shadow of the style being long, the extreme
end will shift rapidly for a small deviation from the vertical, and
render the reading uncertain. The dial can also be used by holding
it up by a small ring in the top of the lid, and probably the vertically
is better ensured in that way.
Portable Dial on a Card. This neat and very ingenious dial is
attributed by Ozanam to a Jesuit Father, De Saint Rigaud, and
probably dates from the early part of the i?th century. Ozanam
says that it was sometimes called the capuchin, from some fancied
resemblance to a cowl thrown back.
Construction. Draw a straight line ACB parallel to the top of the
1 Strict equaKty is not necessary, as the observations made are on
the vertical line through each division-point, without reference to
the others. It is not even requisite that the divisions should go
completely and exactly round the cylinder, although they were
always so drawn, and both these conditions were insisted upon in
the directions for the construction.
card (fig. 8) and another DCE at right angles to it ; with C as centre,
and any convenient radius CA, describe the semicircle AEB below
the horizontal. Divide the whole arc AEB into 12 equal parts at the
points r, s, t. &c., and through these points draw perpendiculars to
the diameter ACB; these lines will be the hour-lines, viz. the line
through r will be the XI . . . I line, the line through s the X ... II
line, and so on ; the hour-line of noon will be the point A itself ; by
subdivision of the small arcs Ar, rs, st, &c., we may draw the hour-
lines corresponding to halves and quarters, but this only where it
can be done without confusion.
Draw ASD making with AC an angle equal to the latitude of the
place, and let it meet EC in D, through which point draw FDG at
right angles to AD.
With centre A, and any convenient radius AS, describe an arc of
circle RST, and graduate this arc by marking degree divisions on
FIG. 8.
it, extending from o at S to 23$ on each side at R and T. Next
determine the points on the straight line FDG where radii drawn
from A to the degree divisions on the arc would cross it, and carefully
mark these crossings.
The divisions of RST are to correspond to the sun's declination,
south declinations on RS and north declinations on ST. In the
other hemisphere of the earth this would be reversed; the north
declinations would be on the upper half.
Now, taking a second year after leap year (because the declinations
of that year are about the mean of each set of four years), find the
days of the month when the sun has these different declinations, and
place these dates, or so many of them as can be shown without
confusion, opposite the corresponding marks on FDG. Draw the
sun-line at the top of the card parallel to the line ACB ; and, near the
extremity, to the right, draw any small figure intended to form, as
it were, a door of which a b shall be the hinge. Care must be taken
that this hinge is exactly at right angles to the sun-line. Make a fine
open slit r. d right through the carr 1 -\nd extending from the hinge to
a short distance on the door, the centre line of this slit coinciding
accurately with the sun-line. Now, cut the door completely through
the card ; except, of course, along the hinge, which, when the card
is thick, should be partly cut through at the back, to facilitate the
opening. Cut the card right through along the line FDG, and pass a
thread carrying a little plummet W and a very small bead P ; the
bead having sufficient friction with the thread to retain any position
when acted on only by its own weight, but sliding easily along the
thread when moved by the hand. At the back of the card the thread
terminates in a knot to hinder it from being drawn through; or
better, because giving more friction and a better hold, it passes
through the centre of a small disk of card a fraction of an inch in
diameter and, by a knot, is made fast at the back of the disk.
To complete the construction, with the centres F and G, and
DIALECT
155
radii FA and GA, draw the two arcs AY and AZ which will limit the
hour-lines; for in an observation the bead will always be found
between them. The forenoon and afternoon hours may then
be marked as indicated in the figure. The dial does not of itself
discriminate between forenoon and afternoon; but extraneous
circumstances, as, for instance, whether the sun is rising or falling,
will settle that point, except when close to noon, where it will always
be uncertain.
To rectify the dial (usingthe old expression, which means to prepare
the dial for an observation), open the small door, by turning it
about its hinge, till it stands well out in front. Next, set the thread
in the line FG opposite the day of the month, and stretching it over
the point A, slide the bead P along till it exactly coincide with A.
To find the hour of the day, hold the dial in a vertical position in
such a way that its-plane may pass through the sun. The vertically
is ensured by seeing that the bead rests against the card without
pressing. Now gradually tilt the dial (without altering its vertical
plane), until the central line of sunshine, passing through the open
slit of the door, just falls along the sun-line. The hour-line against
which the bead P then rests indicates the time.
The sun-line drawn above has always, so far as we know, been used
as a shadow-line. The upper edge of the rectangular door was the
prolongation of the line, and, the door being opened, the dial was
gradually tilted until the shadow cast by the upper edge exactly
coincided with it. But this shadow tilts the card one-quarter of a
degree more than the sun-line, because it is given by that portion of
the sun which just appears above the edge, that is, by the upper limb
of the sun, which is one-quarter of a degree higher than the centre.
Now, even at some distance from noon, the sun will sometimes take a
considerable time to rise one-quarter of a degree, and by so much
time will the indication of the dial be in error.
The central line of light which comes through the open slit will be
free from this error, because it is given by light from the centre of the
sun.
The card-dial deserves to be looked upon as something more than
a mere toy. Its ingenuity and scientific accuracy give it an educa-
tional value which is not to be measured by the roughness of the
results obtained.
The theory of this instrument is as follows : Let H (fig. 9) be the
point of suspension of the plummet at the time of observation, so that
the angle DAHis the north declination of the sun, P, the bead, resting
against the hour-line VX. Join CX, then the angle ACX is the hour-
angle from noon given by the bead, and we have to prove that this
hour-angle is the correct one corresponding to a north latitude DAC.
a north declination DAH and an altitude equal to the angle which the
sun-line, or its parallel AC, makes with the horizontal. The angle
PHQ will be equal to the altitude, if HQ be drawn parallel to DC,
for the pair of lines HQ, HP will be respectively at right angles to
the sun-line and the horizontal.
Draw PQ and HM parallel to AC, and let them meet DCE in M and
N respectively.
Let HP and its equal HA be represented by a. Then the following
values will be readily deduced from the figure :
AD =a cos ded. DH =a sin decl. PQ = o sin alt.
CX= AC = AD cos lat. =a cos decl. cos lat.
PN= CV = CXcos ACX = o cos dec/, cos to. cos ACX.
NQ = MH = DH sin MDH = a sin decl. sin lat.
(.-. the angle MDH = DAC = latitude.)
And since PQ = NQ + PN,
we have, by simple substitution,
a sin alt. = a sin decl. sin lat. +a cos decl. cos lat. cos ACX ; or, dividing
by a throughout,
sin alt. =sin decl. sin lat.+cos decl. cos lat. cos ACX . . . (i)
which equation determines the hour-angle ACX shown by the bead.
To determine the hour-angle of the sun at the same moment, let
fig. 10 represent the celestial sphere, HR the horizon, P the pole,
Z the zenith and S the sun.
From the spherical triangle PZS, we have
cos ZS = cos PS cos ZP+sin PS sin ZP cos ZPS
but ZS = zenith distance =90 "-altitude
ZP =90- PR =90- latitude
PS = polar distance =90- declination,
therefore, by substitution
sin alt. =sin decl. sin lat.+cos decl. cos lat. cos ZPS ... (2)
and ZPS is the hour-angle of the sun.
A comparison of the two formulae (i) and (2) shows that the hour-
angle given by the bead will be the same as that given by the sun, and
proves the theoretical accuracy of the card-dial. Just at sun-rise or
at sun-set the amount of refraction slightly exceeds half a degree.
If, then, a little cross m (see fig. 8) be made just below the sun-line, at
a distance from it which would subtend half a degree at c, the time
of sun-set would be found corrected for refraction, if the central line
of light were made to fall on cm.
LITERATURE. The following list includes the principal writers on
dialling whose works have come down to us, and to these we must
refer for descriptions of
the various constructions,
some simple and direct,
others fanciful and intricate,
which have been at different
times employed : Ptolemy,
Analemma, restored by
Commandine; Vitruvius,
Architecture ; Sebastian
Munster, Horolegiographia ;
Orontius Fineus, De horo-
logiis solaribus; Mutio
Oddi da Urbino, Horologi
solari; Dryander, De horo-
logierum compositione ;
Conrad Gesner, Pandectae;
Andreas Schoner, Gnomo-
nicae; F. Commandine,
Horologiorum descriptio ;
FIG. 10.
Joan. Bapt. Benedictus, De gnomonum usu; Georgius Schomberg,
Exegesis fundamentorum gnomonicorum; Joan. Solomon de Caus,
Horologes solaires; Joan. Bapt. Trolta, Praxis horologiorum;
Desargues, Maniere universelle pour poser I'essieu, &c. ; Ath.
Kircher, Ars magna lucis et Umbrae; Hallum, Explicatio horologii
in horto regie Londini ; Joan. Mark, Tractatus horologiorum; Clavius,
Gnomonices de horologiis. Also among more modern writers,
Deschales, Ozanam, Schottus, Wolfius, Picard, Lahire, Walper; in
German, Paterson, Michael, Miiller; in English, Foster, Wells, Collins,
Leadbetter, Jones, Leybourn, Emerson and Ferguson. See also
Hans Loschner, Uber Sonnenuhren (2nd ed., Graz, 1906). (H. G.)
DIALECT (from Gr. 5tdXe/CTOJ, conversation, manner of
speaking, diaXtyeaOai, to converse), a particular or characteristic
manner of speech, and hence any variety of a language. In its
widest sense languages which are branches of a common or parent
language may be said to be " dialects " of that language; thus
Attic, Ionic, Aeolic and Doric are dialects of Greek, though there
may never have at any time been a separate language of which
they were variations; so the various Romance languages, Italian,
French, Spanish, &c., were dialects of Latin. Again, where there
have existed side by side, as in England, various branches of a
language, such as the languages of the Angles, the Jutes or the
Saxons, and the descendant of one particular language, from many
causes, has obtained the predominance, the traces of the other
languages remain in the " dialects " of the districts where once
the original language prevailed. Thus it may be incorrect, from
the historical point of view, to say that " dialect " varieties of
a language represent degradations of the standard language. A
" literary " accepted language, such as modern English, repre-
sents the original language spoken in the Midlands, with accretions
i 5 6
DIALECTIC DIALOGUE
of Norman, French, and later literary and scientific additions from
classical and other sources, while the present-day " dialects "
preserve, in inflections, pronunciation and particular words,
traces of the original variety of the language not incorporated
in the standard language of the country. See the various articles
on languages (English, French, &c.).
DIALECTIC, or DIALECTICS (from Gr. StdXe/CTos, discourse,
debate; ft 5ia\em/ci7, sc. rtyyv, the art of debate), a logical
term, generally used in common parlance in a contemptuous sense
for verbal or purely abstract disputation devoid of practical value.
According to Aristotle, Zeno of Elea " invented " dialectic, the art
of disputation by question and answer, while Plato developed it
metaphysically in connexion with his doctrine of " Ideas " as
the art of analysing ideas in themselves and in relation to the
ultimate idea of the Good (Repub. vii.). The special function of
the so-called " Socratic dialectic " was to show the inadequacy of
popular beliefs. Aristotle himself used " dialectic," as opposed to
" science," for that department of mental activity which examines
the presuppositions lying at the back of all the particular sciences.
Each particular science has its own subject matter and special
principles (Iditu apxai) on which the superstructure of its special
discoveries is based. The Aristotelian dialectic, however, deals
with the universal laws (Koi.va.1 apxai) of reasoning, which can
be applied to the particular arguments of all the sciences. The
sciences, for example, all seek to define their own species;
dialectic, on the other hand, sets forth the conditions which all
definitions must satisfy whatever their subject matter. Again,
the sciences all seek to educe general laws; dialectic investigates
the nature of such laws, and the kind and degree of necessity to
which they can attain. To this general subject matter Aristotle
gives the name " Topics " (TOKOI, loci, communes loci). " Dia-
lectic " in this sense is the equivalent of " logic." Aristotle also
uses the term for the science of probable reasoning as opposed
to demonstrative reasoning (awodtiKriK-ij) . The Stoics divided
\oyiKrj (logic) into rhetoric and dialectic, and from their time till
the end of the middle ages dialectic was either synonymous with,
or a part of, logic.
In modern philosophy the word has received certain special
meanings. In Kantian terminology Dialektik is the name of that
portion of the Kritik d. reinen Vernunft in which Kant discusses
the impossibility of applying to " things-in-themselves " the
principles which are found to govern phenomena. In the system
of Hegel the word resumes its original Socratic sense, as the name
of that intellectual process whereby the inadequacy of popular
conceptions is exposed. Throughout its history, therefore,
" dialectic " has been connected with that which is remote
from, or alien to, unsystematic thought, with the a priori, or
transcendental, rather than with the facts of common experience
and material things.
DIALLAGE, an important mineral of the pyroxene group, dis-
tinguished by its thin foliated structure and bronzy lustre. The
chemical composition is the same as diopside, Ca Mg (SiOa)!, but
it sometimes contains the molecules (Mg, Fe") (Al, Fe"")2 SiOs
and Na Fe" (SiOa)2 in addition, when it approaches to
augite in composition. Diallage is in fact an altered form of
these varieties of pyroxene; the particular kind of alteration
which they have undergone being known as "schillerization."
This, as described by Prof. J. W. Judd, consists in the develop-
ment of a fine lamellar structure or parting due to secondary
twinning and the separation of secondary products along these
and other planes of chemical weakness (" solution planes ") in
the crystal. The secondary products'consist of mixtures of vari-
ous hydrated oxides opal, gothite, limonite, &c. and appear
as microscopic inclusions filling or partly filling cavities, which
have definite outlines with respect to the enclosing crystal and
are known as negative crystals. It is to the reflection and inter-
ference of light from these minute inclusions that the peculiar
bronzy sheen or " schiller " of the mineral is due. The most
pronounced lamination is that parallel to the orthopinacoid;
another, less distinct, is parallel to the basal plane, and a third
parallel to the plane of symmetry; these planes of secondary
parting are in addition to the ordinary prismatic cleavage of all
pyroxenes. Frequently the material is interlaminated with a
rhombic pyroxene (bronzite) or with an amphibole (smaragdite
or uralite), the latter being an alteration product of the diallage.
Diallage is usually greyish-green or dark green, sometimes
brown, in colour, and has a pearly to metallic lustre or schiller
on the laminated surfaces. The hardness is 4, and the specific
gravity 3-2 to 3-35. It does not occur in distinct crystals with
definite outlines, but only as lamellar masses in deep-seated
igneous rocks, principally gabbro, of which it is an essential con-
stituent. It occurs also in some peridotites and serpentines, and
rarely in volcanic rocks (basalt) and crystalline schists. Masses
of considerable size are found in the coarse-grained gabbros of the
Island of Skye, Le Prese near Bornio in Valtellina, Lombardy,
Prato near Florence, and many other localities.
The name diallage, from 5taXXo7^, " difference," in allusion
to the dissimilar cleavages and planes of fracture, as originally
applied by R. J. Haiiy in 1801, included other minerals (the
orthorhombic pyroxenes hypersthene, bronzite and bastite, and
the smaragdite variety of hornblende) which exhibit the same
peculiarities of schiller structure; it is now limited to the
monoclinic pyroxenes with this structure. Like the minerals
of similar appearance just mentioned, it is sometimes cut and
polished for ornamental purposes. (L. J. S.)
DIALOGUE, properly the conversation between two or more
persons, reported in writing, a form of literature invented by the
Greeks for purposes of rhetorical entertainment and instruction,
and scarcely modified since the days of its invention. A dialogue
is in reality a little drama without a theatre, and with scarcely
any change of scene. It should be illuminated with those
qualities which La Fontaine applauded in the dialogue of Plato,
namely vivacity, fidelity of tone, and accuracy in the opposition
of opinions. It has always been a favourite with those writers
who have something to censure or to impart, but who love to
stand outside the pulpit, and to encourage others to pursue a
train of thought which the author does not seem to do more than
indicate. The dialogue is so spontaneous a mode of expressing
and noting down the undulations of human thought that it
almost escapes analysis. All that is recorded, in any literature,
of what pretend to be the actual words spoken by living or
imaginary people is of the nature of dialogue. One branch of
letters, the drama, is entirely founded upon it. But in its
technical sense the word is used to describe what the Greek
philosophers invented, and what the noblest of them lifted to the
extreme refinement of an art.
The systematic use of dialogue as an independent literary form
is commonly supposed to have been introduced by Plato, whose
earliest experiment in it is believed to survive in the Laches. The
Platonic dialogue, however, was founded on the mime, which
had been cultivated half a century earlier by the Sicilian poets,
Sophron and Epicharmus. The works of these writers, which
Plato admired and imitated, are lost, but it is believed that they
were little plays, usually with only two performers. The recently
discovered mimes of Herodas (Herondas) give us some idea of
their scope. Plato further simplified the form, and reduced it
to pure argumentative conversation, while leaving intact the
amusing element of character-drawing. He must have begun this
about the year 405, and by 399 he had brought the dialogue to
its highest perfection, especially in the cycle directly inspired by
the death of Socrates. All his philosophical writings, except the
Apology, are cast in this form. As the greatest of all masters of
Greek prose style, Plato lifteti his favourite instrument, the
dialogue, to its highest splendour, and to this day he remains by
far its most distinguished proficient. In the 2nd century A.D.
Lucian of Samosata achieved a brilliant success with his ironic
dialogues " Of the Gods," " Of the Dead," " Of Love " and " Of
the Courtesans." In some of them he attacks superstition and
philosophical error with the sharpness of his wit; in others he
merely paints scenes of modern life. The title of Lucian's most
famous collection was borrowed in the 1 7th century by two French
writers of eminence, each of whom prepared Dialogues des marts.
These were Fontenelle (1683) and Fenelon (1712). In English
non-dramatic literature the dialogue had not been extensively
DIALYSIS DIAMETER
employed until Berkeley used it, in 1713, for his Platonic treatise,
Hylas and Philonous. Lander's Imaginary Conversations (1821-
1828) is the most famous example of it in the loth century,
although the dialogues of Sir Arthur Helps claim attention. In
Germany, Wieland adopted this form for several important
satirical works published between 1780 and 1799. In Spanish
literature, the Dialogues of Valdes (1528) and those on Painting
(1633) by Vincenzo Carducci, are celebrated. In Italian, collec-
tions of dialogues, on the model of Plato, have been composed by
Torquato Tasso (1586), by Galileo (1632), by Galiani (1770), by
Leopardi (1825), and by a host of lesser writers. Inourownday,
the French have returned to the original application of dialogue,
and the inventions of " Gyp," of Henri Lavedan and of others,
in which a mundane anecdote is wittily and maliciously told
in conversation, would probably present a close analogy to the
lost mimes of the early Sicilian poets, if we could meet with
them. This kind of dialogue has been employed in English,
and with conspicuous cleverness by Mr Anstey Guthrie, but
it does not seem so easily appreciated by English as by French
readers. (E.G.)
DIALYSIS (from the Gr. 8ta, through, \vtiv, to loosen), in
chemistry, a process invented by Thomas Graham for separating
colloidal and crystalline substances. He found that solutions
could be divided into two classes according to their action upon
a porous diaphragm such as parchment. If a solution, say of salt,
be placed in a drum provided with a parchment bottom, termed
a " dialyser," and the drum and its contents placed in a larger
vessel of water, the salt will pass through the membrane. If the
salt solution be replaced by one of glue, gelatin or gum, it will
be found that the membrane is impermeable to these solutes.
To the first class Graham gave the name " crystalloids," and to
the second " colloids." This method is particularly effective in
the preparation of silicic acid. By adding hydrochloric acid to a
dilute solution of an alkaline silicate, no precipitate will fall and
the solution will contain hydrochloric acid, an alkaline chloride,
and silicic acid. If the solution be transferred to a dialyser, the
hydrochloric acid and alkaline chloride will pass through the
parchment, while the silicic acid will be retained.
DIAMAGNETISM. Substances which, like iron, are attracted
by the pole of an ordinary magnet are commonly spoken of as
magnetic, all others being regarded as non-magnetic. It was
noticed by A. C. Becquerel in 1827 that a number of so-called
non-magnetic bodies, such as wood and gum lac, were influenced
by a very powerful magnet, and he appears to have formed the
opinion that the influence was of the same nature as that exerted
upon iron, though much feebler, and that all matter was more
or less magnetic. Faraday showed in 1845 (Experimental Re-
searches, vol. iii.) that while practically all natural substances are
indeed acted upon by a sufficiently strong magnetic pole, it is only
a comparatively small number that are attracted like iron, the
great majority being repelled. Bodies of the latter class were
termed by Faraday diamagnetics. The strongest diamagnetic
substance known is bismuth, its susceptibility being 0-000014,
and its permeability 0-9998. The diamagnetic quality of this
metal can be detected by means of a good permanent magnet,
and its repulsion by a magnetic pole had been more than once
recognized before the date of Faraday's experiments. The
metals gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, antimony and mercury are
all diamagnetic; tin, aluminium and platinum are attracted by
a very strong pole. (See MAGNETISM.)
DIAMANTE, FRA, Italian fresco painter, was born at Prato
about 1 400. He was a Carmelite friar, a member of the Florentine
community of that order, and was the friend and assistant of
Filippo Lippi. The Carmelite convent of Prato which he adorned
with many works in fresco has been suppressed, and the buildings
have been altered to a degree involving the destruction of the
paintings. He was the principal assistant of Fra Filippo in
the grand frescoes which may still be seen at the east end of the
cathedral of Prato. In the midst of the work he was recalled to
Florence by his conventual superior, and a minute of proceedings
of the commune of Prato is still extant, in which it is determined
to petition the metropolitan of Florence to obtain his return to
Prato, a proof that his share in the work was so important that
his recall involved the suspension of it. Subsequently he assisted
Fra Filippo in the execution of the frescoes still to be seen in the
cathedral of Spoleto, which Fra Diamante completed in 1470 after
his master's death in 1469. Fra Filippo left a son ten years old
to the care of Diamante, who, having received 200 ducats from
the commune of Spoleto, as the balance due for the work done in
the cathedral, returned with the child to Florence, and, as Vasari
says, bought land for himself with the money, giving but a small
portion to the child. The accusation of wrong-doing, however,
would depend upon the share of the work executed by Fra
Diamante, and the terms of his agreement with Fra Filippo.
Fra Diamante must have been nearly seventy when he com-
pleted the frescoes at Spoleto, but the exact year of his death is
not known.
DIAMANTE, JUAN BAUTISTA (i6 4 o?-i684?), Spanish
dramatist, was born at Castillo about 1640, entered the army, and
began writing for the stage in 1657. He became a knight of
Santiago in 1660; the date of his death is unknown, but no
reference to him as a living author occurs after 1684. Like many
other Spanish dramatists of his time, Diamante is deficient in
originality, and his style is riddled with affectations; La Des-
graciada Raquel, which was long considered to be his best play,
is really Mira de Amescua's Judia de Toledo under another title;
and the earliest of Diamante's surviving pieces, El Honrador de
su padre (1658), is little more than a free translation of Corneille's
Cid. Diamante is historically interesting as the introducer of
French dramatic methods into Spain.
DIAMANTINA (formerly called Tejuco), a mining town of the
state of Minas Geraes, Brazil, in the N.E. part of the state, 3710 ft.
above sea-level. Pop. (1890) 17,980. Diamantina is built partly
on a steep hillside overlooking a small tributary of the Rio
Jequitinhonha (where diamond- washing was once carried on),
and partly on the level plain above. The town is roughly but
substantially built, with broad streets and large squares. It is
the seat of a bishopric, with an episcopal seminary, and has many
churches. Its public buildings are inconspicuous; they include
a theatre, military barracks, hospitals, a lunatic asylum and
a secondary school. There are several small manufactures,
including cotton-weaving, and diamond-cutting is carried on.
The surrounding region, lying on the eastern slopes of one of the
lateral ranges of the Serra do Espinhago, is rough and barren, but
rich in minerals, principally gold and diamonds. Diamantina is
the commercial centre of an extensive region, and has long been
noted for its wealth. The date of the discovery of diamonds,
upon which its wealth and importance chiefly depend, is uncertain,
but the official announcement was made in 1729, and in the
following year the mines were declared crown property, with a
crown reservation, known as the " forbidden district," 42 leagues
in circumference and 8 to 16 leagues in diameter. Gold-mining
was forbidden within its limits and diamond-washing was
placed under severe restrictions. There are no trustworthy
returns of the value of the output, but in 1849 the total was
estimated up to that date at 300,000,000 francs (see DIAMOND).
The present name of the town was assumed (instead of Tejuco)
in 1838, when it was made a cidade.
DIAMANTINO, a small town of the state of Matto Grosso,
Brazil, near the Diamantino river, about 6 m. above its junction
with the Paraguay, in 14 24' 33* S., 56 8' 30' W. Pop. (1890)
of the municipality 2147, mostly Indians. It stands in a broken
sterile region 1837 ft. above sea-level and at the foot of the 1 great
Matto Grosso plateau. The first mining settlement dates from
1730, when gold was found in the vicinity. On the discovery of
diamonds in 1746 the settlement drew a large population and
for a time was very prosperous. The mines failed to meet
expectations, however, and the population has steadily declined.
Ipecacuanha and vanilla beans are now the principal articles of
export.
DIAMETER (from the Gr. 8ia, through, fifrpov, measure), in
geometry, a line passing through the centre of a circle or conic
section and terminated by the curve; the "principal diameters"
of the ellipse and hyperbola coincide with the "axes" and are at
i S 8
DIAMOND
right angles; " conjugate diameters " are such that each bisects
chords parallel to the other. The diameter of a quadric surface
is a line at the extremities of which the tangent planes are parallel.
Newton defined the diameter of a curve of any order as the locus
of the centres of the mean distances of the points of intersection
of a system of parallel chords with the curve; this locus may
be shown to be a straight line. The word is also used as a uniU
of linear measurement of the magnifying power of a lens or
microscope.
In architecture, the term is used to express the measure of the
lower part of the shaft of a column. It is employed by Vitruvius
(iii. 2) to determine the height of a column, which should vary
from eight to ten diameters according to the intercolumniation:
and it is generally the custom to fix the lower diameter of the
shaft by the height required and the Order employed. Thus
the diameter of the Roman Doric should be about one-eighth of
the height, that of the Ionic one-ninth, and of the Corinthian
one-tenth (see ORDER).
DIAMOND, a mineral universally recognized as chief among
precious stones; it is the hardest, the most imperishable, and
also the most brilliant of minerals. 1 These qualities alone
have made it supreme as a jewel since early times, and yet the
real brilliancy of the stone is not displayed until it has been
faceted by the art of the lapidary (?..); and this was scarcely
developed before the year 1746. The consummate hardness of
the diamond, in spite of its high price, has made it most useful
for purposes of grinding, polishing and drilling. Numerous
attempts have been made to manufacture the diamond by arti-
ficial means, and these attempts have a high scientific interest on
account of the mystery which surrounds the natural origin of this
remarkable mineral. Its physical and chemical properties have
been the subject of much study, and have a special interest
in view of the extraordinary difference between the physical
characters of the diamond and those of graphite (blacklead) or
charcoal, with which it is chemically identical, and into which it
can be converted by the action of heat or electricity. Again, on
account of the great value of the diamond, much of the romance
of precious stones has centred round this mineral; and the
history of some of the great diamonds of historic times has been
traced through many extraordinary vicissitudes.
The name 'ASd^as, " the invincible," was probably applied by
the Greeks to hard metals, and thence to corundum (emery) and
other hard stones. According to Charles William King, the first
undoubted application of the name to the diamond is found
in Manilius (A.D. 16), Sic Adamas, punctumlapidis, pretiosior
auro, and Pliny (A.D. 100) speaks of the rarity of the stone,
" the most valuable of gems, known only to kings." Pliny de-
scribed six varieties, among which the Indian, having six pointed
angles, and also resembling two pyramids (turbines, whip-tops)
placed base to base, may probably be identified as the ordinary
octahedral crystal (fig. i). The " diamond " (Yahalom) in the
breastplate of the high priest (Ex. xxxix. n) was certainly some
other stone, for it bore the name of a tribe, and methods of
engraving the true diamond cannot have been known so early.
The stone can hardly have become familiar to the Romans until
introduced from India, where it was probably mined at a very
early period. But one or other of the remaining varieties
mentioned by Pliny (the Macedonian, the Arabian, the Cyprian,
&c.) may be the true diamond, which was in great request for
the tool of the gem-engraver. Later Roman authors mentioned
various rivers in India as yielding the Adamas among their sands.
The name Adamas became corrupted into the forms adamant,
diamaunt, diamant, diamond; but the same word, owing to
a medieval misinterpretation which derived it from adamare
(compare the French word aimant), was also applied to the
lodestone.
Like all the precious stones, the diamond was credited with
many marvellous virtues; among others the power of averting
insanity, and of rendering poison harmless; and in the middle
1 Diamonds are invariably weighed in carats and in \, \, J, -fa, fa, j"j
of a carat. One (English) carat = 3-i7 grains = -2O54 gram. One
ounce = 1513 carats. (See CARAT.)
ages it was known as the " pietra della reconciliazione," as the
peacemaker between husband and wife.
Scientific Characters. The majority of minerals are found most
eotnmonly in masses which can with difficulty be recognized as
(Aggregates of crystalline grains, and occur comparatively seldom
/as distinct crystals; but the diamond is almost always found
in single crystals, which show no signs of previous attachment to
any matrix; the stones were, until the discovery of the South
African mines, almost entirely derived from sands or gravels,
but owing to the hardness of the mineral it is rarely, if ever,
water-worn, and the crystals are often very perfect. The crystals
belong to the cubic system, generally assuming the form of the
octahedron (fig. i), but they may, in accordance with the prin-
ciples of crystallography, also occur in other forms symmetric-
ally derived from the octahedron, for example, the cube, the
i2-faced figure known as the rhombic dodecahedron (fig. 2), or
the 48-faced figure known as the hexakis-octahedron (fig. 3), or
in combinations of these. The octahedron faces are usually
smooth; most of the other faces are rounded (fig. 4). The cube
FIG. i.
FIG. 2.
FIG. 3.
FIG. 4.
FIG. 5.
faces are rough with protruding points. The cube is sometimes
found in Brazil, but is very rare among the S. African stones;
and the dodecahedron is perhaps more ..
common in Brazil than elsewhere.
There is often a furrow running along
the edges of the octahedron, or across
the edges of the cube, and this indicates
that the apparently simple crystal may
really consist of eight individuals meet-
ing at the centre; or, what comes to the i:'..
same thing, of two individuals inter-
penetrating and projecting through
each other. If this be so the form of the diamond is really the
tetrahedron (and the various figures derived symmetrically from
it) and not the octadehron. Fig. 5 shows
how the octahedron with furrowed edge
may be constructed from two interpene-
trating tetrahedra (shown in dotted lines).
If the grooves be left out of account, the
large faces which have replaced each tetra-
hedron corner then make up a figure which
has the aspect of a simple octahedron.
Such regular interpenetrations are known
in crystallography as " twins." There are also twins of dia-
mond in which two octahedra (fig. 6) are united by contact along
a surface parallel to an octahedron face without interpenetra-
tion. On account of their resemblance to
the twins of the mineral spinel (which
crystallizes in octahedra) these are
known as " spinel twins." They are gen-
erally flattened along the plane of union.
The crystals often display triangular
markings, either elevations or pits, upon
the octahedron faces; the latter are
particularly well defined and have the form
of equilateral triangles (fig. 7). They are
similar to the " etched figures " produced
FIG. 7.
by moistening an octahedron of alum, and have probably been
produced, like them, by the action of some solvent. Similar, but
somewhat different markings are produced by the combustion
of diamond in oxygen, unaccompanied by any rounding of the
edgesV"
Diamond possesses a brilliant " adamantine" lustre, but this
tends to be greasy on the surface of the natural stones and gives
DIAMOND
the rounded crystals somewhat the appearance of drops of gum.
Absolutely colourless stones are not so common as cloudy and
faintly coloured specimens; the usual tints are grey, brown,
yellow or white; and as rarities, red, green, blue and black
stones have been found. The colour can sometimes be removed
or changed at a high temperature, but generally returns on
cooling. It is therefore more probably due to metallic oxides than
to hydrocarbons. Sir William Crookes has, however, changed
a pale yellow diamond to a bluish-green colour by keeping it
embedded in radium bromide for eleven weeks. The black
coloration upon the surface produced by this process, as also by
the electric bombardment in a vacuum tube, appears to be due
to a conversion of the surface film into graphite. Diamond may
break with a conchoidal fracture, but the crystals always cleave
readily along planes parallel to the octahedron faces: of this
property the diamond cutters avail themselves when reducing
the stone to the most convenient form for cutting; a sawing
process, has, however, now been introduced, which is preferable
to that of cleavage. It is the hardest known substance (though
tantalum, or an alloy of tantalum now competes with it) and is
chosen as 10 in the mineralogist's scale of hardness; but the
difference in hardness between diamond (10) and corundum (9)
is really greater than that between corundum (9) and talc (i);
there is a difference in the hardness of the different faces; the
Borneo stones are also said to be harder than those of Australia,
and the Australian harder than the African, but this is by no
means certain. The specific gravity ranges from 3-56 to 3-50,
generallyabout3'S2. The coefficient of expansion increases very
rapidly above 750, and diminishes very rapidly allow temper-
atures; the maximum density is attained about -42 C.
.The very high refractive power (index = 2-417 for sodium light)
gives the stone its extraordinary brilliancy; for light incident
within a diamond at a greater angle than 245 is reflected back
into the stone instead of passing through it; the corresponding
angle for glass is 40?. The very high dispersion (index for red
light = 2-402, for blue light = 2-460) givesit the wonderful" fire "
or display of spectral colours. Certain absorption bands at the
blue end of the spectrum are supposed to be due to rare elements
such as samarium. Unlike other cubic crystals, diamond
experiences a diminution of refractive index with increase of
temperature. It is very transparent for Rontgen rays, whereas
paste imitations are opaque. It is a good conductor of heat, and
therefore feels colder to the touch than glass and imitation stones.
The diamond has also a somewhat greasy feel. The specific heat
increases rapidly with rising temperature up to 60 C., and then
more slowly. Crystals belonging to the cubic system should not
be birefringent unless strained; diamond often displays double
refraction particularly in the neighbourhood of inclusions, both
liquid and solid; this is probably due to strain, and the
spontaneous explosion of diamonds has often been observed.
Diamond differs from graphite in being a bad conductor of
electricity: it becomes positively electrified by friction. The
electrical resistance is about that of ordinary glass, and is
diminished by one-half during exposure by Rontgen rays; the
dielectric constant (16) is greater than that which should
correspond to the specific gravity.
The phosphorescence produced by friction has been known
since the time of Robert Boyle (1663); the diamond becomes
luminous in a dark room after exposure to sunlight or in the
presence of radium; and many stones phosphoresce beautifully
(generally with a pale green light) when subjected to the electric
discharge in a vacuum tube. Some diamonds are more phosphor-
escent than others, and different faces of a crystal may display
different tints./The combustibility of the diamond was pre-
dicted by Syr Isaac Newton on account of its high refractive
power; it was first established experimentally by the Florentine
Academicians in 1694. In oxygen or air diamond burns at about
850, and only continues to do so if maintained at a high temper-
ature; but in the absence of oxidising agents it may be raised
to a much higher temperature. It is, however, infusible at
the temperature of the electric arc, but becomes converted
superficially into graphite. Experiments on the combustion of
diamond were made by Smithson Tennant (1797) and Sir
Humphry Davy (1816), with the object of proving that it is pure
carbon; they showed that burnt in oxygen it yields exactly the
same amount of carbon dioxide as that produced by burning the
same weight of carbon. Still more convincing experiments were
made by A. Krause in 1890. Similarly Guyton de Morveau
showed that, like charcoal, diamond converts soft iron into steel.
Diamond is insoluble in acid and alkalis, but is oxidised on
heating with potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid.
j-. Bort (or Boart) is the name given to impure crystals or frag-
ments useless for jewels; it is also applied to the rounded
crystalline aggregates, which generally have a grey colour,
a rough surface, often a radial structure, and are devoid of
good cleavage. / They are sometimes spherical (" shot bort ").
Carbonado or " black diamond," found in Bahia (also recently
in Minas Geraes), is a black material with a minutely crystalline
structure somewhat porous, opaaue, resembling charcoal in
appearance, devoid of cleavage/rather harder than diamond,
but of less specific gravity; it Sometimes displays a rude cubic
crystalline form. The largest specimen found (1895) weighed
3078 carats. Both bort and carbonado seem to be really aggre-
gates of crystallized diamond, but the carbonado is so nearly
structureless that it was till recently regarded as an amorphous
modification of carbon.
Uses of the Diamond. The use of the diamond for other
purposes than jewelry depends upon its extreme hardness: it
has always been the only material used for cutting or engraving
the diamond itself. The employment of powdered bort and
the lapidary's wheel for faceting diamonds was introduced by
L. von Berquen of Bruges in 1476. Diamonds are now employed
not only for faceting precious stones, but also for cutting and
drilling glass, porcelain, &c,; for fine engraving such as scales;
in dentistry for drilling; as a turning tool for electric-light
carbons, hard rubber, &c. ; and occasionally for finishing accurate
turning work such as the axle of a transit instrument. For these
tools the stone is actually shaped to the best form: it is now
electroplated before being set in its metal mount in order to
secure a firm fastening. It is also used for bearings in watches
and electric meters. The best glaziers' diamonds are chosen from
crystals such that a natural curved edge can be used. For rock
drills, and revolving saws for stone cutting, either diamond, bort
or carbonado is employed, set in steel tubes, disks or bands. Rock
drilling is the most important industrial application; and for
this, owing to its freedom from cleavage, the carbonado is more
highly prized than diamond; it is broken into fragments about
3 carats in weight; and in 1905 the value of carbonado was no
less than from 10 to 14 a carat. It has been found that the
" carbons " in drills can safely be subjected to a pressure of over
60 kilograms per square millimetre, and a speed of 25 metres
per second. A recent application of the diamond is for wire
drawing; a hole tapering towards the centre is drilled through
a diamond, and the metal is drawn through this. No other tool
is so endurable, or gives such uniform thickness of wire.
Distribution and Mining. The most important localities for
diamonds have been: (i) India, where they were mined from
the earliest times till the close of the igth century; (2) South
America, where they have been mined since the middle of the
i8th century; and (3) South Africa, to which almost the whole
of the diamond-mining industry has been transferred since 1870.
India. The diamond is here found in ancient sandstones and con-
glomerates, and in the river gravels and sands derived from them.
The sandstones and conglomerates belong to the Vindhyan formation
and overlie the old crystalline rocks: the diamantiferous beds are
well defined, often not more than I ft. in thickness, and contain
pebbles of quartzite, jasper, sandstone, slate, &c. The mines fall
into five groups situated on the eastern side of the Deccan plateau
about the following places (beginning from the south), the first three
being in Madras, (i) Chennur near Cuddapah on the river Pennar.
(2) Kurnool near Baneganapalle between the rivers Pennar and
Kistna. (3) Kollar near Bezwada on the river Kistna. (4) Sambalpur
on the river Mahanadi in the Central Provinces. (5) Panna near
Allahabad, in Bundelkhand. The mining has always been carried
on by natives of low caste, and by primitive methods which do not
differ much from those described by the French merchant Jean
Baptiste Tavernier (1605-1689), who paid a prolonged visit to most
i6o
DIAMOND
of the mines between 1638 and 1665 as a dealer in precious stones.
According to his description shallow pits were sunk, and the gravel
excavated was gathered into a walled enclosure where it was crushed
and water was pouVed over it, and it was finally sifted in baskets and
sorted by hand. The buying and selling was at that period conducted
by young children. In more modern times there has been the same
excavation of shallow pits, and sluicing, sifting and sorting, by hand
labour, the only machinery used being chain pumps made of earthen
bowls to remove the water from the deeper pits._
At some of the Indian localities spasmodic mining has been carried
on at different periods for centuries, at some the work which had been
long abandoned was revived in recent times, at others it has long been
abandoned altogether. Many of the large stones of antiquity were
probably found in the Kollar group, where Tavernier found 60,000
workers in 1645 (?), the mines having, according to native accounts,
been discovered about loo years previously. Golconda was the
fortress and the market for the diamond industry at this group of
mines, and so gave its name to them. The old mines have now been
completely abandoned, but in 1891 about 1000 carats were being
raised annually in the neighbourhood of Hyderabad. The Sambalpur
group appear to have been the most ancient mines of all, but they
were not worked later than 1850. The Panna group were the most
productive during the igth century. India was no doubt the source
of all the large stones of antiquity; a stone of 67! carats was found
at Wajra Karur in the Chennur group in 1881, and one of 210$
carats at Hira Khund in 1809. Other Indian localities besides those
mentioned above are Simla, in the N.W. Provinces, where a few
stones have been found, and a district on the Gouel and the Sunk
rivers in Bengal, which V. Ball has identified with the Soumelpour
mentioned by Tavernier. The mines of Golconda and Kurnool were
described as early as 1677 in the twelfth volume of the Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society. At the present time very few
Indian diamonds find their way out of the country, and, so far as
the world's supply is concerned, Indian mining of diamonds may be
considered extinct. The first blow to this industry was the discovery
of the Brazilian mines in Minas Geraes and Bahia.
Brazil. Diamonds were found about 1725 at Tejuco (now Dia-
mantina) in Minas Geraes, and the mining became important about
1740. The chief districts in Minas Geraes are (i) Bagagem on the W.
side of the Serra da Mata da Corda; (2) Rio Abaete on the E. side of
the same range; these two districts being among the head waters of
the Rio de San Francisco and its tributaries ; (3) Diamantina, on and
about the watershed separating the Rio de San Francisco from the
Rio Jequitinhonha ; and (4) Grao Mogul, nearly 200 m. to the N.E.
of Diamantina on the latter river.
The Rio Abaete district was worked on a considerable scale between
1785 and 1807, but is now abandoned. Diamantina is at present the
most important district; it occupies a mountainous plateau, and
the diamonds are found both on the plateau and in the river valleys
below it. The mountains consist here of an ancient laminated
micaceous quartzite, which is in parts a flexible sandstone known as
itacolumite, and in parts a conglomerate; it is interbedded with
clay-slate, mica-schist, hornblende-schist and haematite-schist, and
intersected by veins of quartz. This series is overlain unconformably
by a younger quartzite of similar character, and itself rests upon the
crystalline schists. The diamond is found under three conditions:
( i ) in the 'gravels of the present rivers, embedded in a ferruginous clay-
cemented conglomerate known as cascalho ; (2) in terraces (gupiarras)
in a similar conglomerate occupying higher levels in the present
valleys; (3) in plateau deposits in a coarse surface conglomerate
known as gurgulho, the diamond and other heavy minerals being
embedded in the red clay which cements the larger blocks. Under
all these three conditions the diamond is associated with fragments
of the rocks of the country and the minerals derived from them,
especially quartz, hornstone, jasper, the polymorphous oxide of
titanium (rutile, anatase and brookite), oxides and hydrates of iron
(magnetite, ilmenite, haematite, limonite), oxide of tin, iron pyrites,
tourmaline, garnet, xenotime, monazite, kyanite, diaspore, sphene,
topaz, and several phosphates, and also gold. Since the heavy
minerals of the cascalho in the river beds are more worn than those of
the terraces, it is highly probable that they have been derived by the
cutting down of the older river gravels represented by the terraces ;
and since in both deposits the heavy minerals are more abundant
near the heads of the valleys in the plateau, it is also highly probable
that both have really been derived from the plateau deposit. In the
latter, especially at Sao Joao da Chapada, the minerals accompany-
ing the diamond are scarcely worn at all ; in the terraces and the river
beds they are more worn and more abundant ; the terraces, therefore,
are to be regarded as a first concentration of the plateau material by
the old rivers; and the cascalho as a second concentration by the
modern rivers. The mining is carried on by negroes under the super-
vision of overseers; the cascalho is dug out in the dry season and
removed to a higher level, and is afterwards washed out by hand in
running water in shallow wooden basins (bateas). The terraces can
be worked at all seasons, and the material is partly washed out
by leading streams on to it. The washing of the plateau material is
effected in reservoirs of rain water.
It is difficult to obtain an estimate of the actual production of the
Minas Geraes mines, for no official returns have been published, but
in recent years it has certainly been rivalled by the yield in Bahia.
The diamond here occurs in river gravels and sands associated with
the same minerals as in Minas Geraes; since 1844 the richest mines
have been worked in the Serra de Cincora, where the mountains are
intersected by the river Paraguassu and its tributaries; it is said
that there were as many as 20,000 miners working here in 1845, and
it was estimated that 54,000 carats were produced in Bahia in 1858.
The earlier workings were in the Serra de Chapada to the N.W. of
the mines just mentioned. In 1901 there were about 5000 negroes
employed in the Buhia mines; methods were still primitive; the
cascalho was dug out from the river beds or tunnelled out from the
valley side, and washed once a week in sluices of running water,
where it was turned over with the hoe, and finally washed in wooden
basins and picked over by hand ; sometimes also the diamantiferous
material is scooped out of the bed of the shallow rivers by divers, and
by men working under water in caissons. It is almost exclusively in
the mines of Bahia, and in particular in the Cincora district, that the
valuable carbonado is found. The carbonado and the diamond have
been traced to an extensive hard conglomerate which occurs in the
middle of the sandstone formation. Diamonds are also mined at
Salobro on the river Pardo not far inland from the port of Canavieras
in the S.E. corner of Bahia. The enormous development of the South
AfricanmineSjWhichsuppliedin 1906, about9O%of the world's produce,
has thrown into the shade the Brazilian production ; but the Bulletin
for Feb. 1909 of the International Bureau of American Republics gave
a very confident account of its future, under improved methods.
South Africa. The first discovery was made in 1867 by Dr W. G.
Atherstone, who identified as diamond a pebble obtained from a
child in a farm on the banks of the Orange river and brought by a
trader to Grahamstown ; it was bought for 500 and displayed in the
Paris Exhibition of that year. In 1869 a stone weighing 83^ carats
was found near the Orange river; this was purchased by the earl
of Dudley for 25,000 and became famous as the " Star of South
Africa." A rush of prospectors at once took place to the banks of
the Orange and Vaal rivers, and resulted in considerable discoveries, so
that in 1870 there was a mining camp of no less than 10,000 persons
on the " River Diggings." In the River Diggings the mining was
carried on in the coarse river gravels, and by the methods of the
Brazilian negroes and of gold placer-miners. A diggers' committee
limited the size of claims to 30 ft. square, with free access to the river
bank; the gravel and sand were washed in cradles provided with
screens of perforated metal, and the concentrates were sorted by
hand on tables by means of an iron scraper.
But towards the close of 1870 stones were found at Jagersfontein
and at Dutoitspan, far from the Vaal river, and led to a second great
rush of prospectors, especially to Dutoitspan, and in 1871 to what
is now the Kimberley mine in the neighbourhood of the latter. At
each of these spots the diamantiferous area was a roughly circular
patch of considerable size, and in some occupied the position of
one of those depressions or " pans " so frequent in S. Africa. These
" dry diggings " were therefore at first supposed to be alluvial in origin
like the river gravels; but it was soon discovered that, below the red
surface soil and the underlying calcareous deposit, diamonds were also
found in a layer of yellowish clay about 50 ft. thick known as " yellow
ground." Below this again was a hard bluish-green serpentinous rock
which was at first supposed to be barren bed-rock; but this also
contained the precious stone, and has become famous, under the
name of " blue ground," as the matrix of the S. African diamonds.
The yellow ground is merely decomposed blue ground. In the
Kimberley district five of these round patches of blue ground were
found within an area little more than 3 m. in diameter; that at
Kimberley occupying 10 acres, that at Dutoitspan 23 acres. There
were soon 50,000 workers on this field, the canvas camp was replaced
by a town of brick and iron surrounded by the wooden huts of the
natives, and Kimberley became an important centre.
It was soon found that each mine was in reality a huge vertical
funnel or crater descending to an unknown depth, and filled with
diamantiferous blue ground. At first each claim was an independent
pit 31 ft. square sunk into the blue ground; the diamantiferous rock
was hoisted by bucket and windlass, and roadways were left across
the pit to provide access to the claims. But the roadways soon fell
in, and ultimately haulage from the claims could only be provided by
means of a vast system of wire ropee extending from a triple staging
of windlasses erected round the entire edge of the mine, which had by
this time become a huge open pit ; .the ropes from the upper wind-
lasses extended to the centre, and those from the lower tier to the
sides of the pit; covering the whole mass like a gigantic cobweb.
(See Plate II. fig. 12.) The buckets of blue ground were hauled up
these ropes by means of horse whims, and in 1875 steam winding
engines began to be employed. By this time also improved methods
in the treatment of the blue ground were introduced. It was carried
off in carts to open spaces, where an exposure of some weeks to the air
was found to pulverize the hard rock far more efficiently than the
old method of crushing with mallets. The placer-miner's cradle and
rocking-trough were replaced by puddling troughs stirred by a
revolving comb worked by horse power; reservoirs were constructed
for the scanty water-supply, bucket elevators were introduced to
carry away the tailings ; and the natives were confined in compounds.
For these improvements co-operation was necessary; the better
claims, which in 1872 had risen from jfioo to more than 4000 in
value, began to be consolidated, and a Mining Board was introduced.
DIAMOND
PLATE I.
FIG. 9.- DE BEERS MINE, 1874.
FIG. io KIMBERLEY MINE, 1874.
FIG. ii. DE BEERS MINE, 1873.
(From photographs by C. Evans.)
VIII. 160.
\
PLATE II.
DIAMOND
FIG. I2.-KIMBERLEY MINE, 1874.
:>-/, ~r
FIG. 13. KIMBERLEY MINE, 1902.
(From Photographs by C. Evans.)
DIAMOND
161
In a very few years, however, the open pit mining was rendered
impossible by the mud rushes, by the falls of the masses of barren
rock known as " reef," which were left standing in the mine, and by
landslips from the sides, so that in 1883, when the pit had reached a
depth of about 400 ft., mining in the Kimberley crater had become
almost impossible. By 1889, in the wholegroupof mines, Kimberley,
Dutoitspan, De Beers and Bultfpntein, open pit working was practi-
cally abandoned. Meanwhile mining below the bottom of the pits by
means of shafts and underground tunnels had been commenced ; but
the full development of modern methods dates from the year 1889
when Cecil Rhodes and Alfred Beit, who had already secured control
of the De Beers mine, acquired also the control of the Kimberley mine,
and shortly afterwards consolidated the entire group in the hands of
the De Beers Company. (See KIMBERLEY.)
The scene of native mining was now transferred from the open pit
to underground tunnels; the vast network of wire ropes (Plate II.
fig. 12) with their ascending and descending buckets disappeared, and
with it the cosmopolitan crowd of busy miners working like ants at
the bottom of the pit. In place of all this, the visitor to Kimberley
encounters at the edge of the town only a huge crater,
silent and apparently deserted, with no visible sign of the
great mining operations which are conducted nearly half
a mile below the surface. The aspect of the Kimberley
pit in 1906 is shown in fig. 13 of Plate II., which may
be compared with the section of fig. 8.
Infig.l3, Plate II. .thesequenceof thebasalt, shale and
melaphyre is clearly visible on the sides of the pit ; and
fig. 8 shows how the crater or " pipe "of blue ground has
penetrated these rocks and also the underlyingquartzite.
The workings at De Beers had extended into the still
more deeply seated granite in 1906. Figure 9, Plate I.,
shows the top of the De Beers' crater with basalt over-
lying the shale. Figure 8 also explains the modern
system of mining introduced by Gardner Williams. A
vertical shaft is sunk in the vicinity of the mine, and from
this horizontal tunnels are driven into the pipe at dif-
ferent levels separated by intervals of 40 ft. Through the
blue ground itself on each level a series of parallel tunnels
about 120 ft. apart are driven to the opposite side of the
pipe, and at right angles to these, and 36 ft. apart,
another series of tunnels. When the tunnels reach the
side of the mine they are opened upwards and sideways
so as to form a large chamber, and the overlying mass of
blue ground and debris is allowed to settle down and fill
up the gallery. On each level this process is carried
somewhat farther back than on the level below (fig. 8) ;
material is thus continually withdrawn from one side of
the mine and extracted by means of the rock shaft on the
opposite side, while the superincumbent debris is contin-
ually sinking, and is allowed to fall deeper on the side
farthest from the shaft as the blue ground is withdrawn
from beneath it. In 1905 the main shaft had been sunk
to a depth of 2600 ft. at the Kimberley mine.
For the extraction and treatment of the blue ground
the De Beers Company in its great winding and washing plant em-
ploys labour-saving machinery on a gigantic scale. The ground is
transferred in trucks to the shaft where it is automatically tipped into
skips holding 96 cubic ft. (six truck loads) ; these are rapidly hoisted
to the surface, where their contents are automatically dumped into
side-tipping trucks, and these in turn are drawn away in a continual
procession by an endless wire rope along the tram lines leading to the
vast "distributing floors." These are open tracts upon which the blue
ground is spread out and left exposed to sun and rain until it crumbles
and disintegrates, the process being hastened by harrowing with
steam ploughs ; this may require a period of three or six months, or
even a year. The stock of blue ground on the floors at one time in
1905 was nearly 4,500,000 loads. The disintegrated ground is then
brought back in the trucks and fed through perforated cylinders into
the washing pans; .the hard blue which has resisted disintegration
on the floors, and the lumps which are too big to pass the cylindrical
sieves, are crushed before going to the pans. These are shallow
cylindrical troughs containing muddy water in which the diamonds
and other heavy minerals (concentrates) are swept to the rim by
revolving toothed arms, while the lighter stuff escapes near the centre
of the pan. The concentrates are then passed over sloping tables
(pulsator) and shaken to and fro underastream of waterwhicn effects
a second concentration of the heaviest material.
Until recently the final separation of the diamond from the con-
centrates was made by hand picking, but even this has now been
replaced by machinery, owing to the remarkable discovery that a
greased surface will hold a diamond while allowing the other heavy
minerals to pass over it. The concentrates are washed down a sloping
table of corrugated iron which is smeared with grease, and it is found
that .practically all the diamonds adhere to the table, and the other
minerals are washed away ./At the large and important Premier mine
in the Transvaal the Elmwe process, used in British Columbia and
in Wales for the separation of metallic ores, has been also introduced.
In the Elmore process oil is employed to float off the materials which
adhere to it, while the other materials remain in the water, the oil
being separated from the water by centrifugal action. The other
VHI. 6
minerals found in the concentrates are pebbles and fragments of
pyrope, zircon, cyanite, chrome-diopside, enstatite, a green pyroxene,
mica, ilmenite,_ magnetrte, chromite, hornblende, olivine, barytes,
calcite and pyrites.
In all the S. African mines the diamonds are not only crystals of
various weights from fractions of a carat to 150 carats, but also occur
as microscopic crystals disseminated through the blue ground. In
spite of this, however, the average yield in the profitable mines is
only from 0-2 carat to 0-6 carat per load of 1600 ID, or on an average
about i J grs. per ton. The annual output of diamonds from the De
Beers mines was valued in 1906 at nearly 5,000,000; the value per
carat ranging from about 353. to 703.
Pipes similar to those which surround Kimberley have been found
in other parts of S. Africa. One of the best known is that of Jagers-
fontein, which was really the first of the dry diggings (discovered in
1870). This large mine is near Fauresmith and 80 m. to the south
of Kimberley. In 1905 the year's production from the Orange River
Colony mines was more than 320,000 carats, valued at 938,000. But
by far the largest of all the pipes hitherto discovered is the Premier
SECTJOMOF KIMBERtEY MINE
LOOKING EAST
100 tf iro MO tro MO -n> H, '
From Gardner Williams's Diamond Mines of South Africa.
FIG. 8.
mine in the Transvaal, about 300 m. to the east of Kimberley. This
was discovered in 1902 and occupies an area of about 75 acres. In
1906 it was being worked as a shallow open mine ; but the description
of the Kimberley methods given above is applicable to the washing
plant at that time being introduced into the Premier mine upon a very
large scale. Comparatively few of the pipes which have been dis-
covered are at all rich in diamonds, and many are quite barren ; some
are filled with " hard blue " which even if diamantiferous may be
too expensive to work.
The most competent S. African geologists believe all these remark-
able pipes to be connected with volcanic outbursts which occurred
over the whole of S. Africa during the Cretaceous period (after the
deposition of the Stormberg beds), and drilled these enormous craters
through all the later formations. With the true pipes are associated
dykes and fissures also filled with diamantiferous blue ground. It
is only in the more northerly part of the country that the pipes
are filled with blue ground (or " kimberlite "), and that they are
diamantiferous; but over a great part of Cape Colony have been
discovered what are probably similar pipes filled with agglomerates,
breccias and tuffs, and some with basic lavas; one, in particular, in
the Riversdale Division near the southern coast, being occupied by a
melilite-basalt. It is quite clear that the occurrence of the diamond
in the S. African pipes is quite different from the occurrences in
alluvial deposits which have been described above. The question of
the origin of the diamond in S. Africa and elsewhere is discussed
below.
The River Diggings on the Vaaj river are still worked upon a small
scale, but the production from this source is so limited that they are
of little account in comparison with the mines in the blue ground.
The stones, however, are good ; since they differ somewhat from the
Kimberley crystals it is probable that they were not derived from
the present pipes. Another S. African locality must be mentioned ;
considerable finds were reported in 1905 and 1906 from gravels
at Somabula near Gwelo in Rhodesia where the diamond is associ-
ated with chrysoberyl, corundum (both sapphire and ruby), topaz,
garnet, ilmenite, staurolite, rutile, with pebbles of quartz, granite,
DIAMOND
chlorite-schist, &c. Diamond has also been reported from kimberlite
" pipes " in Rhodesia.
Other Localities. In addition to the South American localities
mentioned above, small diamonds have also been mined since their
discovery in 1890 on the river Mazaruni in British Guiana, and
finds have been reported in the gold washings of Dutch Guiana.
Borneo has possessed a diamond industry since the island was first
settled by the Malays ; the references in the works of Garcia de Orta,
Linschoten, De Boot, De Laet and others, to Malacca as a locality
relate to Borneo. The large Borneo stone, over 360 carats in weight,
known as the Matan, is in all probability not a diamond. The chief
mines are situated on the river Kapuas in the west and near
Bandjarmassin in the south-east of the island, and the alluvial
deposits in which they occur are worked by a small number of Chinese
and Malays. Australia has yielded diamonds in alluvial deposits
near Bathurst (where the first discovery was made in 1851) and
Mudgee in New South Wales, and also near Bingara and Inverell
in the north of the colony. At Mount Werong a stone weighing
29 carats was found in 1905. At Ruby Hill near Bingara they were
found in a breccia filling a volcanic pipe. At Ballina, in New England,
diamonds have been found in the sea sand. Other Australian
localities are Echunga in South Australia; Beechworth, Arena and
Melbourne in Victoria; Freemantle and Nullagine in Western
Australia ; the Palmer and Gilbert rivers in Queensland. These have
been for the most part discoveries in alluvial deposits of the gold-
fields, and the stones were small. In Tasmania also diamonds have
been found in the Corinna goldfields. Europe has produced few
diamonds. Humboldt searched for them in the Urals on account of
the similarity of the gold and platinum deposits to those of Brazil,
and small diamonds were ultimately found (1829) in the gold washings
of Bissersk, and later at Ekaterinburg and other spots in the Urals.
In Lapland they have been found in the sands of the Pasevig river.
Siberia has yielded isolated diamonds from the gold washings of
Yenisei. In North America a few small stones have been found in
alluvial deposits, mostly auriferous, in Georgia, N. and S. Carolina,
Kentucky, Virginia, Tennessee, Wisconsin, California, Oregon and
Indiana. A crystal weighing 23} carats was found in Virginia in
1855, and one of 21} carats in Wisconsin in 1886. In 1906 a number
of small diamonds were discovered in an altered peridotite some-
what resembling the S. African blue ground, at Murfreesboro, Pike
county, Arkansas. Considerable interest attaches to the diamonds
found in Wisconsin, Michigan and Ohio near the Great Lakes, for they
are here found inthe terminal moraines of the great glacial sheet which
is supposed to have spread southwards from the region of Hudson
Bay; several of the drift minerals of the diamantiferous region of
Indiana have been identified as probably of Canadian origin; no
diamonds have however yet been found in the intervening country of
Ontario. A rock similar to the blue ground of Kimberley has been
found in the states of Kentucky and New York. The occurrence of
diamond in meteorites is described below.
Origin of the Diamond in Nature. It appears from the foregoing
account that at most localities the diamond is found in alluvial de-
posits probably far from the place where it originated. The minerals
associated with it do not afford much clue to tne original conditions ;
they are mostly heavy minerals derived from the neighbouring rocks,
in which the diamond itself has not been observed. Among the
commonest associates of the diamond are quartz, topaz, tourmaline,
rutile, zircon, magnetite, garnet, spinel and other minerals which are
common accessory constituents of granite, gneiss and the crystalline
schists. Gold (also platinum) is a not infrequent associate, but this
may only mean that the sands in which the diamond is found have
been searched because they were known to be auriferous ; also that
both gold and diamond are among the most durable of minerals and
may have survived from ancient rocks of which other traces have been
lost.
The localities at which the diamond has been supposed to occur
in its original matrix are the following: at Wajra Karur, in the
Cuddapah district, India, M. Chaper found diamond with corundum
in a decomposed red pegmatite vein in gneiss. At Sao Joao da
Chapada, in Minas Geraes, diamonds occur in a clay interstratified
with the itacolumite, and are accompanied by sharp crystals of rutile
and haematite in the neighbourhood of decomposed quartz veins
which intersect the itacolumite. It has been suggested that these
three minerals were originally formed in the quartz veins. In both
these occurrences the evidence is certainly not sufficient to establish
the presence of an original matrix. At Inverell in New South Wales
a diamond (1906) has been found embedded in a hornblende diabase
which is described as a dyke intersecting the granite. Finally there is
the remarkable occurrence in the blue ground of the African pipes.
There has been much controversy concerning the nature and origin
of the blue ground itself; and even grantea that (as is generally
believed) the blue ground is a much serpentinized volcanic breccia
consisting originally of an olivine-bronzite-biotite rock (the so-called
kimberlite), it contains so many rounded and angular fragments of
various rocks and minerals that it is difficult to say which of them
may have belonged to the original rock, and whether any were formed
in situ, or were brought up from below as inclusions. Carvill Lewis
believed the blue ground to be true eruptive rock, and the carbon to
have been derived from the bituminous shales of which it contains
fragments. The Kimberley shales, which are penetrated by the De
Beers group of pipes, were, however, certainly not the source of the
carbon at the Premier (Transvaal) mine, for at this locality the shales
do not exist. The view that the diamond may have crystallized out
from solution in its present matrix receives some support from the
experiments of W. Luzi, who found that it can be corroded by the
solvent action of fused blue ground; from the experiments of
J. Friedlander, who obtained diamond by dissolving graphite in fused
olivine ; and still more from the experiments of R. von Hasslinger
and J. Wolff, who have obtained it by dissolving graphite in a fused
mixture of silicates having approximately the composition of the
blue ground. E Cohen, who regarded the pipes as of the nature of a
mud volcano, and the blue ground as a kimberlite breccia altered by
hydrothermal action, thought that the diamond and accompanying
minerals had been brought up from deep-seated crystalline schists.
Other authors have sought the origin of the diamond in the action
of the hydrated magnesian silicates on hydrocarbons derived from
bituminous schists, or in the decomposition of metallic carbides.
Of great scientific interest in this connexion is the discovery of
small diamonds in certain meteorites, both stones and irons; for
example, in the stone which fell at Novo-Urei in Penza, Russia, in
1886, in a stone found at Carcote in Chile, and in the iron found at
Canon Diablo in Arizona. Graphitic carbon in cubic form (cliftonite)
has also been found in certain meteoric " irons," for example in those
from Magura in Szepes county, Hungary, and Youndegin near York
in Western Australia. The latter is now generally believed to be
altered diamond. The fact that H. Moissan has produced the
diamond artificially, by allowing dissolved carbon to crystallize out
at a hign temperature and pressure from molten iron, coupled with
the occurrence in meteoric iron, has led Sir William Crookes and others
to conclude that the mineral may have been derived from deep-seated
iron containing carbon in solution (see the article GEM, ARTIFICIAL).
Adolf Knop suggested that this may have first yielded hydrocarbons
by contact with water, and that from these the crystalline diamond
has been formed. The meteoric occurrence has even suggested the
fanciful notion that all diamonds were originally derived from
meteorites. The meteoric iron of Arizona, some of which contains
diamond, is actually found in and about a huge crater which is
supposed by some to have been formed by an immense meteorite
penetrating the earth's crust.
It is, at any rate, established that carbon can crystallize as diamond
from solution in iron, and other metals; and it seems that high
temperature and pressure and the absence of oxidizing agents are
necessary conditions. The presence of sulphur, nickel, &c., in the
iron appears to favour the production of the diamond. On the other
hand, the occurrence in meteoric stones, and the experiments
mentioned above, show that the diamond may also crystallize from
a basic magmo, capable of yielding some of the metallic oxides and
ferro-magnesian silicates; a magma, therefore, which is not devoid
of oxygen. This is still more forcibly suggested by the remarkable
eclogite boulder found in the blue ground of the Newlands mine, not
far from the Vaal river, and described by T. G. Bonney. The boulder
is a crystalline rock consisting of pyroxene (chrome-diopside), garnet,
and a little olivine, and is studded with diamond crystals; a portion
of it is preserved in the British Museum (Natural History). In
another eclogite boulder, diamond was found partly embedded in
pyrope. Similar boulders have also been found in the blue ground
elsewhere. Specimens of pyrope with attached or embedded diamond
had previously been found in the blue ground of the De Beers mines.
In the Newlands boulder the diamonds have the appearance of being
an original constituent of the eclogite. It seems therefore that a holo-
crystalline pyroxene-garnet rock may be one source of the diamond
found in blue ground. On the other hand many tons of the somewhat
similar eclogite in the De Beers mine have been crushed and have not
yielded diamond. Further, the ilmenite, which is the most character-
istic associate of the diamond in blue ground, and other of the
accompanying minerals, may have come from basic rocks of a
different nature.
The Inverell occurrence may_ prove to be another example of
diamond crystallized from a basic rock.
In both occurrences, however, there is still the possibility that the
eclogite or the basalt is not the original matrix, but may have caught
up the already formed diamond from some other matrix. Some
regard the eclogite boulders as derived from deep-seated crystalline
rocks, others as concretions in the blue ground.
None of the inclusions in the diamond gives any clue to its origin ;
diamond itself has been found as an inclusion, as have also black
specks of some carbonaceous materials. Other black specks have been
identified as haematite and ilmenite; gold has also been found;
other included minerals recorded are rutile, topaz, quartz, pyrites,
apophyllite, and green scales of chlorite (?). Some of these are of very
doubtful identification; others (e.g. apophyllite and chlorite) may
have been introduced along cracks. Some of the fibrous inclusions
were identified by H. R. Goppert as vegetable structures and were
supposed to point to an organic origin, but this view is no longer held.
Liquid inclusions, some of which are certainly carbon dioxide, have
also been observed.
Finally, then, both experiment and the natural occurrence in rocks
and meteorites suggest that diamond may crystallize not only from
iron but also from a basic silicate magma, possibly from various rocks
consisting of basic silicates. The blue ground of S. Africa may be
DIAMOND
163
the result of the serpentinization of several such rocks, and although
now both brecciated and serpentinized some of these may have been
the original matrix. A circumstance often mentioned in support of
this view is the fact that the diamonds in one pipe generally differ
somewhat in character from those of another, even though they be
near neighbours,
History. All the famous diamonds of antiquity must have been
Indian stones. The first author who described the Indian mines
at all fully was the Portuguese, Garcia de Orta (1565), who was
physician to the viceroy of Goa. Before that time there were
only legendary accounts like that of Sindbad's " Valley of
the Diamonds," or the tale of the stones found in the brains of
serpents. V. Ball thinks that the former legend originated in the
Indian practice of sacrificing cattle to the evil spirits when a new
mine is opened; birds of prey would naturally carry off the flesh,
and might give rise to the tale of the eagles carrying diamonds
adhering to the meat.
The following are some of the most famous diamonds of the
world:
A large stone found in the Golconda mines and said to have
weighed 787 carats in the rough, before being cut by a Venetian
lapidary, was seen in the treasury of Aurangzeb in 1665 by
Tavernier, who estimated its weight after cutting as 280 (?)
carats, and described it as a rounded icse-cut-stone, tall on one
side. The name Great Mogul has been frequently applied to this
stone. Tavernier states that it was the famous stone given to
Shah Jahan by the emir Jumla. The Orlojf, stolen by a French
soldier from the eye of an idol in a Brahmin temple, stolen again
from him by a ship's captain, was bought by Prince Orloff for
90,000, and given to the empress Catharine II. It weighs
194! carats, is of a somewhat yellow tinge, and is among the
Russian crown jewels. The Koh-i-nor, which was in 1739 in the
possession of Nadir Shah, the Persian conqueror, and in 1813 in
that of the raja of Lahore, passed into the hands of the East
India Company and was by them presented to Queen Victoria
in 1850. It then weighed i86^V carats, but was recut in London
by Amsterdam workmen, and now weighs io6iV carats. There
has been much discussion concerning the possibility of this stone
and the Orloff being both fragments of the Great Mogul. The
Mogul Baber in his memoirs (1526) relates how in his conquest of
India he captured at Agra the great stone weighing 8 mishkals,
or 320 ratis, which may be equivalent to about 187 carats. The
Koh-i-nor has been identified by some authors with this stone and
by others with the stone seen by Tavernier. Tavernier, however,
subsequently described and sketched the diamond which he saw
as shaped like a bisected egg, quite different therefore from the
Koh-i-nor. Nevil Story Maskelyne has shown reason for believ-
ing that the stone which Tavernier saw was really the Koh-i-nor
and that it is identical with the great diamond of Baber; and
that the 280 carats of Tavernier is a misinterpretation on his part
of the Indian weights. He suggests that the other and larger
diamond of antiquity which was given to Shah Jahan may
be one which is now in the treasury of Teheran, and that this is
the true Great Mogul which was confused by Tavernier with the
one he saw. (See Ball, Appendix I. to Tavernier's Travels (1889) ;
and Maskelyne, Nature, 1891, 44, p. 555.).
The Regent or Pitt diamond is a magnificent stone found in
either India or Borneo; it weighed 410 carats and was bought for
20,400 by Pitt, the governor of Madras; it was subsequently,
in 1717, bought for 80,000 (or, according to some authorities,
135,000) by the duke of Orleans, regent of France; it was re-
duced by cutting to 136}-^ carats; was stolen with the other crown
jewels during the Revolution, but was recovered and is still in
France. The A kbar Shah was originally a stone of 1 1 6 carats with
Arabic inscriptions engraved upon it; after being cut down to
71 carats it was bought by the gaikwar of Baroda for 33,000.
The Nizam, now in the possession of the nizam of Hyderabad, is
supposed to weigh 277 carats; but it is only a portion of a stone
which is said to have weighed 440 carats before it was broken.
The Great Table, a rectangular stone seen by Tavernier in 1642
at Golconda, was found by him to weigh 242^ carats; Maskelyne
regards it as identical with the Darya-i-nur, which is also a
rectangular stone weighing about 186 carats in the possession of
the shah of Persia. Another stone, the Taj-e-mah, belonging to
the shah, is a pale rose pear-shaped stone and is said to weigh
146 carats.
Other famous Indian'diamonds are the following: The Sancy,
weighing 53^$ carats, which is said to have been successively the
property of Charles the Bold, de Sancy, Queen Elizabeth,
Henrietta Maria, Cardinal Mazarin, Louis XIV. ; to have been
stolen with the Pitt during the French Revolution; and subse-
quently to have been the property of the king of Spain, Prince
Demidoff and an Indian prince. The Nassak, 78$ carats, the
property of the duke of Westminster. The Empress Eugenie,
51 carats, the property of the gaikwar of Baroda. The Pigolt,
49 carats (?). which cannot now be traced. The Pasha, 40 carats.
The White Saxon, 48$ carats. The Star of Este, 2sM carats.
Coloured Indian diamonds of large size are rare; the most
famous are : a beautiful blue brilliant, 67^ carats, cut from a
stone weighing 112-^- carats brought to Europe by Tavernier.
It was stolen from the French crown jewels with the Regent and
was never recovered. The Hope, 44^ carats, has the same colour
and is probably a portion of the missing stone: it was so-called
as forming part of the collection of H. T. Hope bought for
18,000), and was sold again in 1906 (resold 1909). Two other
blue diamonds are known, weighing 13! and if carats, which may
also be portions of the French diamond. The Dresden Green, one
of the Saxon crown jewels, 40 carats, has a fine apple-green
colour. The Florentine, 133^ carats, one of the Austrian crown
jewels, is a very pale yellow.
The most famous Brazilian stones are: The Star of the South,
found in 1853, when it weighed 254^ carats and was sold for
40,000; when cut it weighed 125 carats and was bought by the
gaikwar of Baroda for 80,000. Also a diamond belonging to
Mr Dresden, 119 carats before, and 76^ carats after cutting.
Many large stones have been found in South Africa; some are
yellow but some are as colourless as the best Indian or Brazilian
stones. The most famous are the following: the Star of South
Africa, or Dudley, mentioned above, 83^ carats rough, 46^ carats
cut. The Stewart, 288f carats rough, 1 20 carats cut. Both these
were found in the river diggings. The Porter Rhodes from
Kimberley, of the finest water, weighed about 150 carats. The
Victoria, 180 carats, was cut from an octahedron weighing 457^
carats, and was sold to the nizam of Hyderabad for 400,000.
The Tiffany, a magnificent orange-yellow stone, weighs 125^
carats cut. A yellowish octahedron found at De Beers weighed
428^ carats, and yielded a brilliant of 288^ carats. Some of the
finest and largest stones have come from the Jagersfontein mine;
one, the Jubilee, found in 1895, weighed 640 carats in the rough
and 239 carats when cut. Until 1905 the largest known diamond
in the world was the Excelsior, found in 1893 at Jagersfontein by
a native while loading a truck. It weighed 971 carats, and was
ultimately cut into ten stones weighing from 68 to 13 carats.
But all previous records were surpassed in 1905 by a magnificent
stone more than three times the size of any known diamond,
which was found in the yellow ground at the newly discovered
Premier mine in the Transvaal. This extraordinary diamond
weighed 3025$ carats (ij Ib) and was clear and water white; the
largest of its surfaces appeared to be a cleavage plane, so that it
might be only a portion of a much larger stone. It was known
as the Cullinan Diamond. This stone was purchased by the
Transvaal government in 1907 and presented to King Edward VII.
It was sent to Amsterdam to be cut, and in 1908 was divided into
nine large stones and a number of small brilliants. The four
largest stones weigh 516! carats, 309^ carats, 92 carats and 62
carats respectively. Of these the first and second are the largest
brilliants in existence. All the stones are flawless and of the
finest quality.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Boetius de Boot, Gemmarum et lapidum
historia (1609); D. Jeffries, A Treatise on Diamonds and Pearls
(1757) ; J- Mawe, Travels in the Interior of Brazil (1812) ; Treatise on
Diamonds and Precious Stones (1813); Finder, De adamante (1829);
Murray, Memoir on the Nature of the Diamond (1831) ; C. Zerenner
De adamante dissertatio (1850); H. Emanuel, Diamonds and
Precious Stones (1865) ; A. Schrauf, Edelsteinkunde (1869) ; N. Jacobs
and N. Chatnan, Monographie du diamant (1880) ; V. Ball, Geology
of India (1881) ; C. W. King, The Natural History of Precious Stones
164
DIAMOND NECKLACE
and Precious Metals (1883); M. E. Boutan, Le Diamant (1886);
S. M. Burnham, Precious Stones in Nature, Art and Literature (1887) ;
P. Groth, Grundriss der Edelsteinkunde (1887); A. Liversidge, The
Minerals of New South Wales (1888); Tavernier's Travels in, India,
translated by V. Ball (1889); E. W. Streeter, The. Great Diamonds
of the World (1896) ; H. C. Lewis, The Genesis and Matrix of the
Diamond (1897); L. de Launay, Les Diamants du Cap (1897);
C. Hintze, Handbuch der Mineralogie (1898); E. W. Streeter,
Precious Stones and Gems (6th ed., 1898); Dana, System of Miner-
alogy (1899) ; Kunz and others, The Production oj Precious Stones (in
annual, Mineral Resources of the United States); M. Bauer, Precious
Stones (trans. L. J. Spencer, 1904); A. W. Rogers, An Introduction
to the Geology of Cape Colony (1905); Gardner F. Williams, The
Diamond Mines of South Africa (revised edition, 1906); George F.
Kunz, " Diamonds, a study of their occurrence in the United States,
with descriptions and comparisons of those from all known localities"
(U.S. Geol. Survey, 1909); P. A. Wagner, Die Diamantfiihrenden
Gesteine Sudafrikas (1909).
Among papers in scientific periodicals may be mentioned articles
by Adler, Ball, Baumhauer, Beck, Bonney, Brewster, Chaper, Cohen,
Crookes, Daubree, Derby, Des Cloizeaux, Doelter, Dunn, Flight,
Friedel, Gorceix, Gurich, Goeppert, Harger, Hudleston, Hussak,
Tannettaz, Jeremejew, de Launay, Lewis, Maskelyne, Meunier,
Moissan, Molengraaff, Moulle, Rose, Sadebeck, Scheibe, Stelzner,
Stow. See generally Hintze's Handbuch der Mineralogie.
(H. A. Mi.)
DIAMOND NECKLACE, THE AFFAIR OF THE, a mysterious
incident at the court of Louis XVI. of France, which involved
the queen Marie Antoinette. The Parisian jewellers Boehmer and
Bassenge had spent some years collecting stones for a necklace
which they hoped to sell to Madame Du Barry, the favourite of
Louis XV., and after his death to Marie Antoinette. In 1778
Louis XVI. proposed to the queen to make her a present of
the necklace, which cost 1,600,000 livres. But the queen is
said to have refused it, saying that the money would be better
spent equipping a man-of-war. According to others, Louis XVI.
himself changed his mind. After having vainly tried to place the
necklace outside of France, the jewellers attempted again in 1781
to sell it to Marie Antoinette after the birth of the dauphin. It
was again refused, but it was evident that the queen regretted
not being able to acquire it.
At that time there was a personage at the court whom Marie
Antoinette particularly detested. It was the cardinal Louis de
Rohan, formerly ambassador at Vienna, whence he had been
recalled in 1774, having incurred the queen's displeasure by
revealing to the empress Maria Theresa the frivolous actions of
her daughter, a disclosure which brought a maternal reprimand,
and for having spoken lightly of Maria Theresa in a letter of
which Marie Antoinette learned the contents. After his return
to France the cardinal was anxious to regain the favour of the
queen in order to obtain the position of prime minister. In March
1784 he entered into relations with a certain Jeanne de St Remy
de Valois, a descendant of a bastard of Henry II., who after many
adventures had married a soi-disant comte de Lamotte, and lived
on a small pension which the king granted her. This adventuress
soon gained the greatest ascendancy over the cardinal, with whom
she had intimate relations. She persuaded him that she had been
received by the queen and enjoyed her favour; and Rohan
resolved to use her to regain the queen's good will. The comtesse
de Lamotte assured the cardinal that she was making efforts on
his behalf, and soon announced to him that he might send his
justification to Marie Antoinette. This was the beginning of a
pretended correspondence between Rohan and the queen, the
adventuress duly returning replies to Rohan's notes, which she
affirmed to come from the queen. The tone of the letters became
very warm, and the cardinal, convinced that Marie Antoinette
was in love with him, became ardently enamoured of her. He
begged the countess to obtain a secret interview for him with the
queen, and a meeting took place in August 1784 in a grove in
the garden at Versailles between him and a lady whom the
cardinal believed to be the queen herself. Rohan offered her
a rose, and she promised him that she would forget the past.
Later a certain Marie Lejay (renamed by the comtesse " Baronne
Gay d'Oliva," the last word being apparently an anagram of
Valoi), who resembled Marie Antoinette, stated that she had
been engaged to play the role of queen in this comedy. In any
case the countess profited by the cardinal's conviction to borrow
from him sums of money destined ostensibly for the queen's
works of charity. Enriched by these, the countess was able to
take an honourable place in society, and many persons believed
her relations with Marie Antoinette, of which she boasted openly
and unreservedly, to be genuine. It is still an unsettled question
whether she simply mystified people, or whether she was really
employed by the queen for some unknown purpose, perhaps
to ruin the cardinal. In any case the jewellers believed in
the relations of the countess with the queen, and they resolved
to use her to sell their necklace. She at first refused their
commission, then accepted it. On the zist of January 1785
she announced that the queen would buy the necklace, but
that not wishing to treat directly, she left the affair to a high
personage. A little while later Rohan came to negotiate the
purchase of the famous necklace for the 1,600,000 livres, payable
in instalments. He said that he was authorized by the queen,
and showed the jeweUers the conditions of the bargain approved
in the handwriting of Marie Antoinette. The necklace was
given up. Rohan took it to the countess's house, where a man,
in whom Rohan believed he recognized a valet of the queen,
came to fetch it. Madame de Lamotte had told the cardinal
that Marie Antoinette would make him a sign to indicate her
thanks, and Rohan believed that she did make him a sign.
Whether it was so, or merely chance or illusion, no one knows.
But it is certain that the cardinal, convinced that he was acting
for the queen, had engaged the jewellers to thank her; that
Boehmer and Bassenge, before the sale, in order to be doubly sure,
had sent word to the queen of the negotiations in her name; that
Marie Antoinette had allowed the bargain to be concluded, and
that after she had received a letter of thanks from Boehmer, she
had burned it. Meanwhile the " comte de Lamotte " appears to
have started at once for London, it is said with the necklace,
which he broke up in order to sell the stones.
When the time came to pay, the comtesse de Lamotte pre-
sented the cardinal's notes; but these were insufficient, and
Boehmer complained to the queen, who told him that she had
received no necklace and had never ordered it. She had the
story of the negotiations repeated for her. Then followed a coup
de theatre. On the I5th of August 1785, Assumption day, when
the whole court was awaiting the king and queen in order to go to
the chapel, the cardinal de Rohan, who was preparing to officiate,
was arrested and taken to the Bastille. He was able, however, to
destroy the correspondence exchanged, as he thought, with the
queen, and it is not known whether there was any connivance of
the officials, who did not prevent this, or not. The comtesse de
Lamotte was not arrested until the i8th of August, after having
destroyed her papers. The police set to work to find all her
accomplices, and arrested the girl Oliva and a certain Reteaux
de Villette, a friend of the countess, who confessed that he had
written the letters given to Rohan in the queen's name, and
had imitated her signature on the conditions of the bargain. The
famous charlatan Cagliostro was also arrested, but it was recog-
nized that he had taken no part in the affair. The cardinal de
Rohan accepted the parlement of Paris as judges. A sensational
trial resulted (May 31, 1786) in the acquittal of the cardinal, of
the girl Oliva and of Cagliostro. The comtesse de Lamotte was
condemned to be whipped, branded and shut up in the
Salpetriere. Her husband was condemned, in his absence, to the
galleys for life. Villette was banished.
Public opinion was much excited by this trial. It is generally
believed that Marie Antoinette was stainless in the matter, that
Rohan was an innocent dupe, and that the Lamottes deceived
both for their own ends. People, however, persisted in the belief
that the queen had used the countess as an instrument to satisfy
her hatred of the cardinal de Rohan. Various circumstances
fortified this belief, which contributed to render Marie Antoinette
very unpopular her disappointment at Rohan's acquittal, the
fact that he was deprived of his charges and exiled to the abbey of
la Chaise-Dieu, and finally the escape of the comtesse de Lamotte
frcm the Salpetriere, with the connivance, as people believed,
o* the court. The adventuress, having taken refuge abroad,
published Mtmoires in which she accused the queen. Her
DIANA DIAPASON
165
husband also wrote Memoires, and lived until 1831, after having,
it is said, received subsidies from Louis XVIII.
See M. Tourneux, Marie Antoinette, devant I'histoire: Essai biblio-
graphique (2nd ed., Paris, 1901) ; Emile Campardon, Marie Antoinette
et le proces du collier (Paris, 1863) ; P. Audebert, L 'Affaire du collier
de la reine, d'apres la corrsspondance inedite du chevalier de Pujol
(Rouen, 1901) ; F. d'Albini, Marie Antoinette and the Diamond Neck-
lace from another Point of View (London, 1900) ; Funck-Brentano,
L' Affaire du collier (1903); A. Lang, Historical Mysteries (1904).
Carlyle's essay on The Diamond Necklace (first published in 1837 in
Fraser's Magazine) is of historical literary interest.
DIANA, in Roman mythology, an old Italian goddess, in later
times identified with the Greek Artemis (<?..). That she was
originally an independent Italian deity is shown by her name,
which is the feminine form of Janus ( = Dianus). She is essentially
the goddess of the moon and light generally, and presides over
wood, plain and water, the chase and war. As the goddess of
childbirth, she was known, like Juno, by the name of Lucina, the
" bringer to light." As the moon-goddess she was also identified
with Hecate, and invoked as " three-formed " in reference to the
phases of the moon. Her most celebrated shrine was in a grove
at Aricia (whence her title of Nemorensis) near the modern lake of
Nemi. Here she was worshipped side by side with a male deity
Virbius, a god of the forest and the chase. This Virbius was
subsequently identified with Hippoly tus, the favourite of Artemis,
who was said to have been brought to life by Aesculapius and
conducted by Diana to Aricia (Ovid, Fasti, iii. 263, vi. 731,
Metam. xv. 497; Virgil, Aencid, vii. 761). A barbarous custom,
perhaps reminiscent of human sacrifice once offered to her,
prevailed in connexion with her ritual here ; her priest, called
Rex Nemorensis, who was a runaway slave, was obliged to qualify
for office by slaying his predecessor in single combat (Strabo v.
p. 239 ; Suetonius, Caligula, 35). This led to the identification of
Diana with the Tauric Artemis, whose image was said to have been
removed by Orestes to the grove of Aricia (see ARICINI).
After the destruction of AlbaLongathis grove was for a long time
the united sanctuary of the neighbouring La tin and Rutuliancities,
until at last it was extinguished beneath the supremacy of Rome.
The festival of the goddess was on the ides (i3th) of August,' the
full moon of the hot season. She was worshipped with torches,
her aid was sought by women seeking a happy deliverance in
childbirth, and many votive offerings have been found on the site.
The worship of Diana was brought to Rome by Latin plebeians,
and hence she was regarded as the protectress of the lower
classes, and especially of slaves. In accordance with this, her
most important temple was that on the Aventine, the chief seat
of the plebeians, founded by Servius Tullius, originally as a
sanctuary of the Latin league (Dion. Halic. iv. 26). No man was
allowed to enter the temple, and on the day of its dedication
(August 13) the slaves kept holiday (Plutarch, Quaest. Rom. 100).
This Diana was identified with the sister of Apollo, and at the
secular games she was worshipped simply as Artemis. Another
celebrated sanctuary of Diana was that on the slopes of Mount
Tifata near Capua (where she was worshipped under the name of
Tifatina), a sanctuary specially favoured by Sulla and Vespasian.
As Noctiluca (" giving light by night ") she had a sanctuary on
the Palatine which was kept illuminated throughout the night
(Varro, L.L. v. 68). On the Nemi priesthood see J. b G. Frazer,
Golden Bough.
DIANA MONKEY, a West African representative of the
guenon monkeys taking its name, Cercopithecus diana, from the
presence of a white crescent on the forehead ; another character-
istic feature being the pointed white beard. The general colour
of the fur is greyish, with a deep tinge of chestnut from the
middle of the back to the root of the tail. Together with
C. neglectus of East and Central Africa, C. ignitus of Libeiia, and
C. roloway of the Gold Coast, the diana represents the special
subgenus of guenons known as Pogonocebus. Although the diana
monkey is commonly seen in menageries, little is known of its
habits in the wild state.
DIANE DE FRANCE (1538-1619), duchess of Montmorency
and AngoulSme, was the natural daughter of Henry II. of France
and a young Piedmontese, Filippe Due. The constable de
Montmorency went so far as to assert that of all the children of
Henry II. Diane was the only one who resembled him. Catherine
de' Medici was greatly incensed at this affront, and took her
revenge by having the constable disgraced on the death of Henry
II. Brantdme is loud in praise of Diane. She was a perfect horse-
woman and dancer, played several musical instruments, knew
Spanish and Italian, and " estoit tres belle de visage et de taille."
Legitimated in 1547, she was married in 1553 to Horace Farnese,
second son of the duke of Parma, but her husband was killed soon
afterwards at the siege of Hesdin. In order to assure his position,
the constable de Montmorency wished to marry her to his eldest
son, Francis. This was a romantic adventure, for Francis had
clandestinely married Mademoiselle de Piennes. The constable
dissolved this union, and after lengthy negotiations obtained the
dispensation of the pope. On the 3rd of May 1559 Francis
married Diane. A wise and moderate woman, Diane undoubtedly
helped to make Francis de Montmorency one of the leaders of the
party of the politiques. Again a widow in 1579, she had some
influence at the court of Henry III., and negotiated his recon-
ciliation with Henry of Navarre (i 588) . She retained her influence
in the reign of Henry IV., conveyed the bodies of Catherine
de' Medici and Henry III. to St Denis, and died in 1619 at her
h&tel of AngouMme.
See Brant6me, ed. by Lalanne, in the Coll de la societe d'histoire
de France, vol. viii. (1875); J. de Thou, Historia sui temporis . . .
(!733); Matthieu de Morgues, Oraison funebre de Diane de France
(Paris, 1619).
DIANE DE POITIERS (1499-1566), duchess of Valentinois,
and mistress of Henry II. of France, was the daughter of Jean
de Poitiers, seigneur de St Vallier, who came of an old family of
Dauphine. In 1515 she married Louis de Br6ze, grand seneschal
of Normandy, by whom she had two daughters. She became a
widow in 1533, but soon replaced her husband by a more illustri-
ous lover, the king's second son, Henry, who became dauphin
in 1536. Although he was ten years younger than Diane, she
inspired the young prince with a profound passion, which lasted
until his death. The accession of Henry II. in 1547 was also the
accession of Diane: she was virtual queen, while Henry's lawful
wife, Catherine de' Medici, lived in comparative obscurity. The
part Diane played, however, must not be exaggerated. More
rapacious than ambitious, she concerned herself little with
government, but devoted her energies chiefly to augmenting her
income, and providing for her family and friends. Henry was
the most prodigal of lovers, and gave her all rights over the
duchy of Valentinois. Although she showed great tact in her
dealings with the queen, Catherine drove her from the court
after Henry's death, and forced her to restore the crown jewels
and to accept Chaumont in exchange for Chenonceaux. Diane
retired to her chateau at Anet, where she died in 1566.
Several historians relate that she had been the mistress of
Francis I. before she became the dauphin's mistress, and that she
gave herself to the king in order to obtain the pardon of her
father, who had been condemned to death as an accomplice of the
constable de Bourbon. This rumour, however, has no serious
foundation. Men vied with each other in celebrating Diane's
beauty, which, if we may judge from her portraits, has been
slightly exaggerated. She was a healthy, vigorous woman, and,
by dint of great pains, succeeded in retaining her beauty late into
life. It is said that even on the coldest mornings she would wash
her face with well water. Diane was a patroness of the arts.
She entrusted to Philibert de 1'Orme the building of her chateau
at Anet, and it was for her that Jean Goujon executed his master-
piece, the statue of Diana, now in the Louvre.
See G. Guiffrey, Leltres inedites de Diane de Poytitrs (Paris, 1866)
and Proces crirmnel de Jehan de Poytiers (Paris, 1867); Capefigue,
Diane de Poitiers (Paris, 1860); Hay, Madame Dianne de Poytiers
(London, 1900).
DIAPASON (Gr. 5to iraa&v, through all), a term in music,
originally for an interval of an octave. The Greek is an abbrevia-
tion of ri 8ia ircuruv \opbCiv ffvn<t>ciivia, a consonance
through all the tones of the scale. In this sense it is only
used now, loosely, for the compass of an instrument or voice,
or for a harmonious melody. The name is given to the two
i66
DIAPER DIAPHRAGM
foundation stops of an organ, the open and the stopped diapason
(see ORGAN), and to a standard of musical pitch, as in the French
diapason normal (see PITCH, MUSICAL).
DIAPER (derived through the Fr. from the Gr. Sia, through,
and acrTrpos, white; the derivation from the town of Ypres,
" d'Ypres," in Belgium is unhistorical, as diapers were known
for centuries before its existence), the name given to a textile
fabric, formerly of a rich and costly nature with embroidered
ornament, but now of linen or cotton, with a simple woven
pattern; and particularly restricted to small napkins. In
architecture, the term " diaper " is given to any small pattern of
a conventional nature repeated continuously and uniformly
over a surface; the designs may be purely geometrical, or based
on floral forms, and in early examples were regulated by the pro-
cess of their textile origin. Subsequently, similar patterns were
employed in the middle ages for the surface decoration of stone,
as in Westminster Abbey and Bayeux cathedral in the spandrils
of the arcades of the choir and nave; also in mural painting,
stained glass, incised brasses, encaustic tiles, &c. Probably in
most cases the pattern was copied, so far as the general design
is concerned, from the tissues and stuffs of Byzantine manu-
facture, which came over to Europe and were highly prized as
ecclesiastical vestments.
In its textile use, the term diaper was originally applied to silk
patterns of a geometrical pattern ; it is now almost exclusively used
for diamond patterns made from linen or cotton yarns. An illustra-
tion of two patterns of this nature is shown in the figure. The floats
of the warp and the weft are mostly in three; indeed the patterns
are made from a base weave which is composed entirely of
floats of this number. It will be seen that both designs are formed
of .what may be termed concentric figures alternately black and
white. Pattern B differs from pattern A only in that more of these
concentric figures are used for the complete figure. If pattern B,
which shows only one unit, were extended, the effect would be similar
to A, except for the size of the unit. In A there are four complete
units, and hence the pattern appears more striking. Again, the
repeating of B would cause the four corner pieces to join and to form
a diamond similar to the one in the centre. The two diamonds in B
would then alternate diagonally to left and right. Special names are
given to certain kinds of diapers, e.g. " bird's-eye," " pheasant's-
eye"; these terms indicate, to a certain extent, the size of the
complete diamond in the cloth the smaller kind taking the name
" bird's-eye." The size of the pattern on paper has little connexion
with the size of the pattern in the cloth, for it is clearly the number
of threads and picks per inch which determine the size of the pattern
in the cloth from any given design. Although A is larger than what
is usually termed the " bird's-eye " pattern, it is evident that it may
be made to appear as such, provided that the cloth is fine enough.
These designs, although adapted mostly for cloths such as nursery-
diapers, for pinafores, &c., are sometimes used in the production of
towels and table-cloths. In the figure, the first pick in A is identical
with the first pick in B, and the part C shows how each interweaves
with the twenty-four threads.
DIAPHORETICS (from Gr. diafoptiv, to carry through),
the name given to those remedies which promote perspiration.
In health there is constantly taking place an exhalation of
watery vapour from the skin, by which not only are many of the
effete products of nutrition eliminated, but the body is kept cool.
Under exertion or in a heated atmosphere this natural function
of the skin is increased, sweating more or less profuse follows,
and, evaporation going on rapidly over the whole surface, little
or no rise in the temperature of the body takes place. In many
forms of disease, such as fevers and inflammatory affections, the
action of the skin is arrested, and the surface of the body feels
harsh and dry, while the temperature is greatly elevated. The
occurrence of perspiration not unfrequently marks a crisis in such
diseases, and is in general regarded as a favourable event. In
some chronic diseases, such as diabetes and some cases of
Bright's disease, the absence of perspiration is a marked feature;
while, on the other hand, in rnany wasting diseases, such as
phthisis, the action of the skin is increased, and copious exhaust-
ing sweating occurs. Many means can be used to induce perspira-
tion, among the best known being baths, either in the form of hot
vapour or hot water baths, or in that part of the process of
the Turkish bath which consists in exposing the body to a dry and
hot atmosphere. Such measures, particularly if followed by the
drinking of hot liquids and the wrapping of the body in warm
clothing, seldom fail to excite copious perspiration. Numerous
medicinal substances have the same effect.
DIAPHRAGM (Gr. Sid^paT/m, a partition). The dia-
phragm or midriff (Anglo-Saxon, mid, middle, hrif, belly) in
human anatomy is a large fibro-muscular partition between the
cavities of the thorax and abdomen; it is convex toward the
thorax, concave toward the abdomen, and consists of a central
tendon and a muscular margin. The central tendon(q, fig. i)is trefoil
in shape, its leaflets being right, left and anterior; of these the right
is the largest and the left the smallest. The fleshy fibres rise, in
front from the back of the xiphoid cartilage of the sternum (d) ,
laterally by six serrations, from the inner surfaces of the lower six
ribs, interdigitating with the transversalis, posteriorly from the
arcuate ligaments, of which there are five, a pair of external, a
pair of internal, and a single median one. The external arcuate
ligament (h) stretches from the tip of the twelfth rib (b) to the
costal process of the first lumbar vertebra in front of the quad-
ratus lumborum muscle (o), the internal and middle are continua-
tions of the crura which rise from the ventro-lateral aspects of
the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae, the right (e) coming from
three, the left (/) from two. On reaching the level of the twelfth
thoracic vertebra each crus spreads out into a fan-shaped mass of
fibres, of which the innermost join their fellows from the opposite
crus, in front of the aortic opening (k), to form the middle arcuate
FIG. I. Abdominal Surface of the Diaphragm.
ligament; the outer ones (g) arch in front of the psoas muscle (n)
to the tip of the costal process of the first lumbar vertebra to
form the internal arcuate ligament, while the intermediate ones
pass to the central tendon. There are three large openings in the
diaphragm; the aortic (k) is behind the middle arcuate ligament
and transmits the aorta, the vena azygos major, and the thoracic
duct. In the right leaflet is an opening (sometimes called the
hiatus quadratus) for the inferior vena cava and a branch of the
right phrenic nerve (m), while in front and a little to the left of
the aortic opening is one for the oesophagus and the two pneumo-
gastric nerves (/), the left being in front and the right behind.
DIARBEKR DIARRHOEA
167
The fleshy fibres on each side of this opening act as a sphincter.
Passing between the xiphoid and costal origins in front are the
superior epigastric arteries, while the other terminal branches of
the internal mammaries, the musculo-phrenics, pass through
between two costal origins.
Through the crura pass the splanchnic nerves, and in addition
to these the left crus is pierced by the vena azygos minor. The
sympathetic nerves usually enter the abdomen behind the internal
arcuate ligaments. The phrenic nerves, which are the main
supply of the diaphragm, divide before reaching the muscle and
pierce it in a number of places to enter its abdominal surface, but
some of the lower intercostal nerves assist in the supply. The last
thoracic or subcostal nerves pass behind the external arcuate
ligament.
For the action of the diaphragm see RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.
Embryology. The diaphragm is at first developed intheneckregion
of the embryo, and this accounts for the phrenic nerves, which supply
it, rising from the fourth and fifth cervical. From the mesoderm on
the caudal side of the pericardium isdevelopedtheseptumtransversum,
and in this the central tendon is formed. The fleshy portion is
developed on each side in two parts, an anterior or sterno-costal
which is derived from the longitudinal neck musculature, probably
the same layer from which the sternothyroid comes, and a spinal part
which is a derivative of the transversalis sheet of the trunk. Between
these two parts is at one time a gap, the spino-costal hiatus, and this
isobliterated by the growth of the pleuro-peritoneal membrane, which
may occasionally fail to close ana so may form the site of a phrenic
hernia. With the growth of the body and the development of the
lungs the diaphragm shifts its position until it becomes the septum
between the thoracic and abdominal cavities. (See A. Keith, "On the
Development of the Diaphragm," Jour, of Anal, and Phys. vol. 39.)
A. Paterson has recorded cases in which the left half of the diaphragm
is wanting (Proceedings of the Anatomical Society of Gt. Britain,
June 1900; Jour, of Anal, and Phys. vol. 34), and occasionally
deficiencies are found elsewhere, especially in the sternal portion.
For further details see Quain's Anatomy, vol. i. (London, 1908).
Comparative Anatomy. A complete diaphragm, separating the
thoracic from the abdominal parts of the coelom, is characteristic of
the Mammalia; it usually has the human structure and relations
exceptthat belowthe Anthropoids it is separated from the pericardium
by the azygous lobe of the lung. In some Mammals, e.g. Echidna
and Phocoena.it is entirely muscular. In theCetacea it is remarkable
for its obliquity; its vertebral attachment is much nearer the tail
than its sternal or ventral one ; this allows a much larger lung space
in the dorsal than in the ventral part of the thorax, and may be
concerned with the equipoise of the animal. (Otto Mtiller, " Unter-
suchungen iiber die Veranderung, welche die Respirationsorgane der
Saugetiere durch die Anpassung an das Leben im Wasser erlitten
haben," Jen. Zeitschr.f. Naturwiss., 1898, p. 93.) In the Ungulata
only one crus is found (Windle and Parsons, " Muscles of the
Ungulata," Proc. Zoo/. Soc., 1903, p. 287). Below the Mammals
incomplete partitions between the pleural and peritoneal .cavities
are found in Chelonians, Crocodiles and Birds, and also inAmphibians
(Xenopus and Pipa). (F. G. P.)
DIARBEKR 1 (Kara Amid or Black Amid; the Roman
Amida), the chief town of a vilayet of Asiatic Turkey, situated
on a basaltic plateau on the right bank of the Tigris, which here
flows in a deep open valley. The town is still surrounded by the
masonry walls of black basalt which give it the name of Kara
or Black Amid; they are well built and imposing on the west
facing the open country, but almost in ruins where they overlook
the river. A mass of gardens and orchards cover the slope down
to the river on the S.W., but there are no suburbs outside the
walls. The houses are rather crowded but only partially fill
the walled area. The population numbers 38,000, nearly half
being Christian, comprising Turks, Kurds, Arabs, Turkomans,
Armenians, Chaldeans, Jacobites and a few Greeks. The streets
are 10 ft to 15 ft. wide, badly paved and dirty; the houses and
shops are low, mostly of stone, and some of stone and mud.
The bazaar is a good one, and gold and silver filigree work is
made, peculiar in character and design. The cotton industry is
declining, but manufacture of silk is increasing. Fruit is good and
abundant as the rich volcanic soil is well watered from the town
springs. The size of the melons is specially famous. To the
south, the walls are some 40 ft. high, faced with large cut stone
blocks of very solid construction, with towers and square bastions
rising to 500 ft. There are four gates: on the north the Kharput
gate, on the west the Rum, on the south the Mardin, and on the
1 From Dior, land, and Bekr (i.e. Abu Bekr, the caliph).
east the Yeni Kapu or new gate. A citadel enclosure stands
at the N. E. corner and is now partly in ruins, but the interior
space is occupied by the government konak. The summer
climate in the confined space within the town is excessively hot
and unhealthy. Epidemics of typhus are not unknown, as well
as ophthalmia. The Diarbekr boil is like the " Aleppo button,"
lasting a long time and leaving a deep scar. Winters are fre-
quently severe but do not last long. Snow sometimes lies, and
ice is stored for summer use. Scorpions noted for the virulence of
their poison abound as well as horse leeches in the tanks. The
town is supplied with water both by springs inside the town
and by aqueducts from fountains at Ali Punar and Hamervat.
The principal exports are wool, mohair and copper ore, and
imports are cotton and woollen goods, indigo, coffee, sugar,
petroleum, &c.
The Great Mosque, Ulu Jami, formerly a Christian church,
occupies the site of a Sassanian palace and was built with
materials from an older palace, probably that of Tigranes II.
The remains consist of the facades of two palaces 400 ft. apart,
each formed by a row of Corinthian columns surmounted by an
equal number of a Byzantine type. Kufic inscriptions run across
the fronts under the entablature. The court of the mosque
is entered by a gateway on which lions and other animals are
sculptured. The churches of greatest interest are those of SS.
Cosmas and Damian (Jacobite) and the church of St James
(Greek). In the igth century Diarbekr was one of the largest
and most flourishing cities of Asia, and as a commercial centre it
now stands at the meeting-point of several important routes. It
is at the head of the navigation of the Tigris, which is traversed
down stream by keleks or rafts supported by inflated skins.
There is a good road to Aleppo and Alexandretta on the Mediter-
ranean, and to Samsun on the Black Sea by Kharput, Malatia
and Sivas. There are also routes to Mosul and Bitlis.
Diarbekr became a Roman colony in A.D. 230 under the name
of Amida, and received a Christian bishop in A.D. 325. It was
enlarged and strengthened by Constantius II., in whose reign it
was taken after a long siege by Shapur (Sapor) II., king of Persia.
The historian Ammianus Marcellinus, who took part in the
defence, gives a detailed account of it. In the later wars between
the Persians and Romans it more than once changed hands.
Though ceded by Jovian to the Persians it again became annexed
to the Roman empire, and in the reign of Anastasius (A.D. 502)
was once more taken by the Persians, when 80,000 of its in-
habitants were slain. It was taken c. 638 by the Arabs, and
afterwards passed into the hands of the Seljuks and Persians,
from whom it was finally captured by Selim I. in 1515; and
since that date it has remained under Ottoman rule. About 2 m.
below the town is a masonry bridge over the Tigris; the older
portion being probably Roman, and the western part, which bears
a Kufic inscription, being Arab.
The vilayet of Diarbekr extends south from Palu on the
Euphrates toMardin and Nisibin on the edge of the Mesopotamian
plain, and is divided into three sanjaks Arghana, Diarbekr and
Mardin. The headwaters of the main arm of the Tigris have
their source in the vilayet.
Cereals, cotton, tobacco, rice and silk are produced, but most of
the fertile lands have been abandoned to semi-nomads, who raise
large quantities of live stock. The richest portion of the vilayet
lies east of the capital in the rolling plains watered by tributaries
of the Tigris. An exceptionally rich copper mine exists at
Arghana Maden, but it is very imperfectly worked; galena
mineral oil and silicious sand are also found.
(C. W. W.; F. R. M.)
DIARRHOEA (from Gr. 5tA, through, fcu, flow), an exces-
sive looseness of the bowels, a symptom of irritation which
may be due to various causes, or may be associated with
some specific disease. The treatment in such latter cases
necessarily varies, since the symptom itself may be remedial,
but in ordinary cases depends on the removal of the cause of
irritation by the use of aperients, various sedatives being also
prescribed. In chronic diarrhoea careful attention to the diet is
necessary.
i68
DIARY DIASPORE
DIARY, the Lat. diarium (from dies, a day), the book in which
are preserved the daily memoranda regarding events and actions
which come under the writer's personal observation, or are
related to him by others. The person who keeps this record is
called a diarist. It is not necessary that the entries in a diary
should be made each day, since every life, however full, must
contain absolutely empty intervals. But it is essential that the
entry should be made during the course of the day to which it
refers. When this has evidently not been done, as in the case of
Evelyn's diary, there is nevertheless an effort made to give the
memoranda the effect of being so recorded, and in point of fact,
even in a case like that of Evelyn, it is probable that what we
now read is an enlargement of brief notes jotted down on the day
cited. When this is not approximately the case, the diary is a
fraud, for its whole value depends on its instantaneous transcript
of impressions.
In its primitive form, the diary must always have existed; as
soon as writing was invented, men and women must have wished
to note down, in some almanac or journal, memoranda respect-
ing their business, their engagements or their adventures. But
the literary value of these would be extremely insignificant until
the spirit of individualism had crept in, and human beings began
to be interesting to other human beings for their own sake. It
is not, therefore, until the close of the Renaissance that we find
diaries beginning to have literary value, although, as the study of
sociology extends, every scrap of genuine and unaffected record
of early history possesses an ethical interest. In the 1 7th century,
diaries began to be largly written in England, although in most
cases without any idea of even eventual publication. Sir William
Dugdale (1605-1686) had certainly no expectation that his slight
diary would ever see the light. There is no surviving record of
a journal kept by Clarendon, Richard Baxter, Lucy Hutchinson
and other autobiographical writers of the middle of the century,
but we may take it for granted that they possessed some such
record, kept from day to day. Bulstrode Whitelocke (1605-
1675), whose Memorials of the English Affairs covers the ground
from 1625 to 1660, was a genuine diarist. So was the elder George
Fox (1624-1690), who kept not merely " a great journal," but
" the little journal books," and whose work was published in
1694. The famous diary of John Evelyn (1620-1706) professes
to be the record of seventy years, and, although large tracts of it
are covered in a very perfunctory manner, while in others many of
the entries have the air of having been written in long after the
event, this is a very interesting and amusing work; it was not
published until 1818. In spite of all its imperfections there is a
great charm about the diary of Evelyn, and it would hold a still
higher position in the history of literature than it does if it were
not overshadowed by what is unquestionably the most illustrious
of the diaries of the world, that of Samuel Pepys (1633-1703).
This was begun on the ist of January 1660 and was carried on
until the 2gth of May 1669. The extraordinary value of Pepys'
diary consists in its fidelity to the portraiture of its author's
character. He feigns nothing, conceals nothing, sets nothing
down in malice or insincerity. He wrote in a form of shorthand
intelligible to no one but himself, and not a phrase betrays the
smallest expectation that any eye but his own would ever
investigate the pages of his confession. The importance of this
wonderful document, in fact, lay unsuspected until 1819, when
the Rev. John Smith of Baldock began to decipher the MS. in
Magdalene College, Cambridge. It was not until 1825 that Lord
Braybrooke published part of what was only fully edited, under
the care of Mr Wheatley, in 1893-1896. In the age which suc-
ceeded that of Pepys, a diary of extraordinary emotional interest
was kept by Swift from 1710 to 1713, and was sent to Ireland in
the form of a " Journal to Stella "; it is a surprising amalgam
of ambition, affection, wit and freakishness. John Byrom
(1692-1763), the Manchester poet, kept a journal, which was
published in 1854. The diary of the celebrated dissenting divine,
Philip Doddridge (1702-1751), was printed in 1829. Of far
greater interest are the admirably composed and vigorously
written journals of John Wesley (1703-1791). But the most
celebrated work of this kind produced in the latter half of the i8th
century was the diary of Fanny Burney (Madame D'Arblay),
published in 1842-1846. It will be perceived that, without
exception, these works were posthumously published, and the
whole conception of the diary has been that it should be written
for the writer alone, or, if for the public, for the public when all
prejudice shall have passed away and all passion cooled down.
Thus, and thus only, can the diary be written so as to impress
upon its eventual readers a sense of its author's perfect sincerity
and courage.
Many of the diaries described above were first published in the
opening years of the igth century, and it is unquestionable that
the interest which they awakened in the public led to their
imitation. Diaries ceased to be rare, but as a rule the specimens
which have hitherto appeared have not presented much literary
interest. Exception must be made in favour of the journals of
two minor politicians, Charles Greville (1794-1865) and Thomas
Creevey (1768-1838), whose indiscretions have added much to the
gaiety of nations; the papers of the former appeared in 1874-
1887, those of the latter in 1903. The diary of Henry Crabb
Robinson (1775-1867), printed in 1869, contains excellent
biographical material. Tom Moore's journal, published in 1856
by Lord John Russell, disappointed its readers. But it is
probable, if we reason by the analogy of the past, that the most
curious and original diaries of the igth century are still unknown
to us, and lie jealously guarded under lock and key by the
descendants of those who compiled them.
It was natural that the form of the diary should appeal to a
people so sensitive to social peculiarities and so keen in the
observation of them as the French. A medieval document of
immense value is the diary kept by an anonymous curi during
the reigns of Charles VI. and Charles VII. This Journal d'un
bourgeois de Paris was kept from 1409 to 1431, and was continued
by another hand down to 1449. The marquis de Dangeau
(1638-1720) kept a diary from 1684 till the year of his death;
this although dull, and as Saint-Simon said " of an insipidity to
make you sick," is an inexhaustible storehouse of facts about
the reign of Louis XIV. Saint-Simon's own brilliant memoirs,
written from 1691 to 1723, may be considered as a sort of diary.
The lawyer, Edmond Barbier (1689-1771), wrote ajournalof the
anecdotes and little facts which came to his knowledge from
1 7 18 to 1762. The studious care which he took to be correct, and
his manifest candour, give a singular value to Barbier's record ;
his diary was not printed at all until 1847. nor, in its entirety,
until 1857. The song-writer, Charles Colle (1700-1783), kept a
journal histor ique from 175810 1782; it is full of vivacity, but very
scandalous and spiteful. It saw the light in 1805, and surprised
those to whom Colle, in his lifetime, had seemed the most placid
and good-natured of men. Petit de Bachaumont (1690-1770)
had access to remarkable sources of information, and his
Memoires secrets (a diary the publication of which began in
1762 and was continued after Bachaumont's death, until 1787,
by other persons) contains a valuable mass of documents. The
marquis d'Argenson (1694-1757) kept a diary, of which a com-
paratively full textwas first published in 1 8 59. In recent times the
posthumous publication of the diaries of the Russian artist, Marie
Bashkirtseff (1860-1884), produced a great sensation in 1887, and
revealed a most remarkable temperament. The brothers Jules
and Edmond de Goncourt kept a very minute diary of all that
occurred around them in artistic and literary Paris; after
the death of Jules, in 1870, this was continued by Edmond, who
published the three first volumes in 1 888. The publication of this
work was continued, and it produced no little scandal. It is
excessively ill-natured in parts, but of its vivid picturesqueness,
and of its general accuracy as a transcript of conversation, there
can be no two opinions. (E. G.)
DIASPORE, a native aluminium hydroxide, AIO(OH), crystal-
lizing in the orthorhombic system and isomorphous with gothite
and manganite. It occurs sometimes as flattened crystals, but
usually as lamellar or scaly masses, the flattened surface being a
direction of perfect cleavage on which the lustre is markedly
pearly in character. It is colourless or greyish- white, yellowish,
sometimes violet in colour, and varies from translucent to
DIASTYLE DIATOMACEAE
169
transparent. It may be readily distinguished from other colour-
less transparent minerals, with a perfect cleavage and pearly
lustre mica, talc, brucite, gypsum by its greater hardness
of 65-7. The specific gravity is 3-4. When heated before the
blowpipe it decrepitates violently, breaking up into white pearly
scales; it was because of this property that the mineral was
named diaspore by R. J. Hatty in 1801, from Siaavdpew, " to
scatter." The mineral occurs as an alteration product of
corundum or emery, and is found in granular limestone and
other crystalline rocks. Well-developed crystals are found in the
emery deposits of the Urals and at Chester, Massachusetts, and
in kaolin at Schemnitz in Hungary. If obtainable in large
quantity it would be of economic importance as a source of
alumina. (L. J. S.)
DIASTYLE (from Gr. Sid, through, and orDXos, column), in
architecture, a term used to designate an intercolumniation of
three or four diameters.
DIATOMACEAE. For the knowledge we possess of these
beautiful plants, so minute as to be undiscernible by our unaided
vision, we are indebted to the assistance of the microscope. It
was not till towards the close of the i8th century that the first
known forms of this group were discovered by O. F. Miiller. And
so slow was the process of discovery in this field of scientific re-
search that in the course of half a century, when Agardh published
his Systema algarum in 1824, only forty-nine species included
under eight genera had been described. Since that time, however,
with modern microscopes and microscopic methods, eminent
botanists in all parts of the civilized world have studied these
minute plants, with the result that the number of known genera
and species has been greatly increased. Over 10,000 species of
diatoms have been described, and about 1200 species and
numerous varieties occur in the fresh waters and on the coasts
of Great Britain and Ireland. Rabenhorst, in the index to his
Flora Europaea algarum (1864) enumerated about 4000 forms
which had up to that time been discovered throughout the
continent of Europe.
The diatoms are more commonly known among systematic
botanists as the Bacillarieae, particularly on the continent of
Europe, and although such an immense number of very diverse
forms are included in it, the group as a whole exhibits a remark-
able uniformity of structure. The Bacillarieae is one of the
large groups of Algae, placed by some in close proximity to the
FIG. i.
A and B, Melosira arenaria.
E, showing formation of auxospore.
C-E, Melosira varians.
All X45.
Conjugatae and by others as an order of the Brown Algae (or
Phaeophyceae) ; but their characters are so distinctive and their
structure is so uniform as to warrant the separation of the diatoms
as a distinct class. The affinities of the group are doubtful.
.-. niNNiiMijiiNjii The diatoms exhibit great
'"'"' ""* variety of form. While some
FIG. 2.Synedra Ulna. Xaoo. species are circular and more
or less disk-shaped, others are oval in outline. Some are
linear, as Synedra Ulna (fig. 2); others more or less cres-
F IG ; 3- Podo-
centic; others again are cuneate, as Podosphenia Lyngbyii
(fig. 3); some few have a sigmoid outline, as Pleuro-
sigma balticum (fig. 4); but the prevailing
forms are naviculoid, as in the large family
Naviculaceae, of which the genus Navicula
embraces upwards of 1000 species. They vary
also in their modes of growth, some being
free-floating, others attached to foreign bodies
by simple or branched gelatinous stalks, which
in some species are short and thick, while in
others they are long and slender. In some
genera the forms are simple, while in others the
frustules are connected together in ribbon-like
filaments, or form, as in other cases, zigzag
chains. In some genera the individuals are
naked, while in many others they are enclosed in a more or less
definite gelatinous investment. The conditions necessary to
their growth are
moisture and
light. Wherever
these circum-
stances coexist, -
diatomaceous FIG. 4 .-Pferoga Ja/teum. Xzoo.
forms will almost invariably be found. They occur mixed
with other organisms on the surface of moist rocks; in
streamlets and pools, they form a brownish stratum on
the surface of the mud, or cover the stems and leaves of
water plants or floating twigs with a furry investment.
Marine forms are usually attached to various sea-weeds, and
many are found in the stomachs of molluscs, holothurians,
ascidians and other denizens of the ocean. The fresh-water
forms are specifically distinct from those incidental to salt or
brackish water, fresh-water species, however, are sometimes
FIG. 5.
A-C, Tetracyclus lacustris. D and E, Tabellaria fenestrata.
F and G, Tabellaria flocculosa. All X5OO.
carried some distance into the sea by the force of the current, and
in tidal rivers marine forms are carried up by the force of the tide.
Some notion may be formed of the extreme minuteness of these
forms from the fact that one the length of which is TJ J^th of an
inch may be considered as beyond the medium size. Some few,
indeed, are much larger, but by far the greater proportion are of
very much smaller dimensions.
Diatoms are unicellular plants distinguished from kindred
forms by the fact of having their soft vegetative part covered by
a siliceous case. Each individual is known as a frustule, and the
cell-wall consists of two similar valves nearly parallel to each
other, each valve being furnished with a rim (or connecting-band)
projecting from it at a right angle.
One of these valves with its rim is slightly smaller than the
IJO
DIATOMACEAE
other, the smaller fitting into the larger pretty much as a pill-box
fits into its cover. This peculiarity of structure affords ample
scope for the growth of the protoplasmic cell-contents, for as the
latter increase in volume the siliceous valves are pushed out, and
their corresponding siliceous rims become broader. The con-
necting-bands although closely fitting their respective valves are
distinct from them, and together the two bands form the girdle.
An individual diatom is usually described from two aspects,
one in which the surface of the valve is exposed to view the
valve view, and one in which the girdle side is exposed the
girdle view. The valves are thin and transparent, convex on the
outside, and generally ornamented with a variety of sculptured
markings. These sculptures often present the aspect of striae
across the face of the valve, and the best lenses have shown them
to consist of a series of small cavities within the siliceous wall of
the cell. The valves of some of the marine genera exhibit a
beautiful areolated structure due to the presence of larger
chambers within the siliceous cell-wall. Many diatoms possess
thickenings of the cell-wall, visible in the valve view, in the
centre of the valve and at each extremity. These thickenings
are known as the nodules, and they are generally connected by a
long median line, the raphe, which is a cleft in the siliceous valve,
extending at least some part of its length.
The protoplasmic contents of this siliceous box-like unicell are
very similar to the contents of many other algal cells. There is a
living protoplasmic layer or primordial utricle, connected either
by two broad bands or by a number of anastomosing threads with
a central mass of protoplasm in which the nucleus is embedded.
The greater part of the cavity of the cell is occupied by one
or several fluid vacuoles. The characteristic brown colour of
diatoms is due to the presence of chromatophores embedded in
the lining layer of protoplasm. In number and form these
chromatophores are variable. They contain chlorophyll, but the
green colour is masked by the presence of diatomin, a brown
pigment which resembles that which occurs in the Brown Algae
or Phaeophyceae. The chromatophores contain a variable
number of pyrenoids, colourless proteid bodies of a crystalloidal
character.
One of the first phenomena which comes under the notice of
the observer is the extraordinary power of motion with which
the frustules are endowed. Some species move slowly backwards
and forwards in pretty much the same line, but in the case of
Bacillaria paradoxa the motion is very rapid, the frustules darting
through the water in a zigzag course. To account for this motion
various theories have been suggested, none of which appear to be
altogether satisfactory. There is little doubt that the movements
are connected with the raphe, and in some diatoms there is much
evidence to prove that they are due to an exudation of mucilage.
Classification. The most natural system of classification of the
Bacillarieae is the one put forward by Schutt (1896), and since
generally followed by systematists. He separates them into two
primary divisions, the ' Centricae ' and the ' Pennatae.' The
former includes all those diatoms which in the valve view possess
a radial symmetry around a central point, and which are destitute
of a raphe (or a pseudoraphe). The latter includes those which
are zygomorphic or otherwise irregular, and in which the valve
view is generally boat-shaped or needle-shaped, with the mark-
ings arranged in a sagittal manner on each side of a raphe or
pseudoraphe.
Reprodwtion. In the Diatomaceae, as well as in the Desmidieae,
the ordinary mode of increase is by simple cell-division. The
cell-contents within the enclosure of the siliceous case separate
into two distinct masses. As these two daughter-masses become
more and more developed, the valves of the mother-cell are pushed
more and more widely apart. A new siliceous valve is secreted by
each of the two masses on the side opposite to the original valve,
the new valves being situated within the girdle of the original
frustule. When this process has been completed the girdle of
the mother frustule gives way, and two distinct frustules are
formed, the siliceous valves in each of these new frustules being
one of the valves of the mother-cell, and a newly formed valve
similar and more or less parallel to it.
During the life of the plant this process of self-division is
continued with an almost incredible rapidity. On this subject
the observation of Professor William Smith, writing in 1853, is
worthy of special notice: " I have been unable to ascertain the
time occupied in a single act of self -division, but supposing it to be
completed in twenty-four hours we should have, as the progeny of
a single frustule, the amazing number of 1,000,000,000 in a single
month, a circumstance which will in some degree explain the
sudden, or. at least rapid, appearance of these organisms in
localities where they were a
short time previously either
unrecognized or sparingly dif-
fused " (British Diatomaceae,
vol. i. p. 25).
Individual diatoms when
once produced by cell-division
are incapable of any increase
in size owing to the rigidity of
their siliceous cell-walls, and
since the new valves are always
formed within the girdle of the
old ones, it would follow that
every succeeding generation is
reduced in size by the thickness
of the girdle. In some diatoms,
however, this is not strictly
true as daughter-cells are some-
times produced of larger size
than the parent-cells. Thus,
the reduction in size of the
individuals is not always
proportionate to the number
of cell-divisions.
On the diminution in size
having reached a limit in any
species, the maximum size is
regained by the formation of
an auxospore. There are five
known methods of reproduction by auxospores, but it is unneces-
sary here to enter into details of these methods. Suffice it to
say that a normal auxospore is produced by the conjugation
of two parent-cells, its distinguishing feature being a rejuven-
escence accompanied by a marked increase in size. These
auxospores formed without conjugation are parthenogenetic.
Mode of Preparation. The Diatomaceae are usually gathered
in small bottles, and special care should be taken to collect them
as free as possible from extraneous matter. A small portion having
been examined under the microscope, should the gathering be
thought worthy of preservation, some of the material is boiled in
acid for the purpose of cleaning it. The acids usually employed
are hydrochloric, nitric or sulphuric, according as circumstances
require. When the operator considers that by this process all
foreign matter has been eliminated, the residuum is put into a
precipitating jar of a conical shape, broader at the bottom than
at the top, and covered to the brim with filtered or distilled water.
When the diatoms have settled in the bottom of the jar, the
supernatant fluid is carefully removed by a syringe or some
similar instrument, so that the sediment be not disturbed. The
jar is again filled with water, and the process repeated till the acid
has been completely removed. It is desirable afterwards to boil
the sediment for a short time with supercarbonate of soda, the
alkali being removed in the same manner as the acid. A small
portion may then be placed with a pipette upon a slip of glass,
and, when the moisture has been thoroughly evaporated, the film
that remains should be covered with dilute Canada balsam, and,
a thin glass cover having been gently laid over the balsam, the
preparation should be laid aside for a short time to harden, and
then is ready for observation.
General Remarks. Diatoms are most abundant in cold
latitudes, having a general preference for cold water. In the
pelagic waters of lakes and of the oceans they are often very
abundant, and in the cold waters of the Arctic and Antarctic
FIG. 6. Formation of
Auxospores.
A. Navicula limosa.
B. Achnanlhes flexella
C. Navicula Amphisbaena.
D. Navicula viridis.
A-C, X45o; D, X.'350.
DIAULOS DIAZ, NARCISSE
171
Oceans they exist in prodigious numbers. They thus form a large
proportion of both the marine and the fresh-water plankton.
Large numbers of fossil diatoms are known. Not only are
these minute plants assisting at the present time in the accumula-
tion of oceanic and lake deposits, but in former ages they have
been sufficiently active to give rise to considerable deposits of
diatomaceous earths. When the plant has fulfilled its natural
course the siliceous covering sinks to the bottom of the water in
which it had lived, and there forms part of the sediment. When
in the process of ages, as it has often happened, the accumulated
sediment has been hardened into solid rock, the siliceous frustules
of the diatoms remain unaltered, and, if the rock be disintegrated
by natural or artificial means, may be removed from the
enveloping matrix and subjected to examination under the
microscope. The forms found may from their character help in
some degree to illustrate the conditions under which the stratum
of rock had been originally deposited. These earths are generally
of a white or grey colour. Some of them are hard, but most
are soft and friable. Many of them are of economic importance,
being used as polishing powders (" Tripoli "), as absorbents for
nitroglycerin in the manufacture of dynamite (" Kieselguhr "),
as a dentifrice, and more recently they have been used to a large
extent in the manufacture of non-conducting and sound-proof
materials. Most of these diatomaceous earths are associated
with rocks of Tertiary formations, although it is generally
regarded that the earliest appearance of diatoms is in the Upper
Cretaceous (chalk).
Vast deposits of Diatomaceous earths have been discovered in
various parts of the world, some the deposit of fresh, others of
salt water. Of these deposits the most remarkable for extent,
as well as for the number and beauty of the species contained in it,
is that of Richmond, in Virginia, one of the United States of
America. It extends for many miles, and is in some places at
least 40 ft. deep. It is a remarkable fact that though the genera-
tions of a diatom in the space of a few months far exceed in
number the generation of man during the period usually assigned
to the existence of the race, the fossil genera and species are
in most respects to the most minute details identical with the
numerous living representatives of their class.
(E.O'M.jG.S.W.*)
DIAULOS (from Gr. 5i-, double, and auXos, pipe), in archi-
tecture, the peristyle round the great court of the palaestra,
described by Vitruvius (v. n), which measured two stadia
(1200 ft.) in length; on the south side this peristyle had two
rows of columns, so that in stormy weather the rain might not
be driven into the inner part. The word was also used in ancient
Greece for a foot-race of twice the usual length.
DIAVOLO, FRA (1771-1806), the popular name given to a
famous Italian brigand associated with the political revolutions
of southern Italy at the time of the French invasion. His real
name was Michele Pezza, and he was born of low parentage
at Itri; he had committed many murders and robberies in the
Terra di Lavoro, but by good luck combined with audacity he
always escaped capture, whence his name of Fra Diavolo, popular
superstition having invested him with the characters of a monk
and a demon, and it seems that at one time he actually was a
monk. When the kingdom of Naples was overrun by the French
and the Parthenopaean Republic established (1799), Cardinal
. Ruffo, acting on behalf of the Bourbon king Ferdinand IV., who
had fled to Sicily, undertook the reconquest of the country, and
for this purpose he raised bands of peasants, gaol-birds, brigands,
&.C., under the name of Sanfedisti or bande delta Santa Fede
(" bands of the Holy Faith ") Fra Diavolo was made leader
of one of them, and waged untiring war against the French troops,
cutting off isolated detachments and murdering stragglers and
couriers. Owing to his unrivalled knowledge of the country, he
succeeded in interrupting the enemy's communications between
Rome and Naples. But although, like his fellow-brigands under
Ruffo, he styled himself " the faithful servant and subject of His
Sicilian Majesty," wore a military uniform and held military rank,
and was even created duke of Cassano, his atrocities were worthy
of a bandit chief. On one occasion he threw some of his prisoners,
men, women and children, over a precipice, and on another he
had a party of seventy shot. His excesses while at Albano were
such that the Neapolitan general Naselli had him arrested and
imprisoned in the castle of St Angelo, but he was liberated soon
after. When Joseph Bonaparte was made king of Naples, extra-
ordinary tribunals were established to suppress brigandage, and
a price was put on Fra Diavolo 's head. After spreading terror
through Calabria, he crossed over to Sicily, where he concerted
further attacks on the French. He returned to the mainland at
the head of 200 convicts, and committed further excesses in
the Terra di Lavoro; but the French troops were everywhere
on the alert to capture him and he had to take refuge in the woods
of Lenola. For two months he evaded his pursuers, but at
length, hungry and ill, he went in disguise to the village of
Baronissi, where he was recognized and arrested, tried by an
extraordinary tribunal, condemned to death and shot. In his
last moments he cursed both the Bourbons and Admiral Sir
Sidney Smith for having induced him to engage in this reckless
adventure (1806). Although his cruelty was abominable, he
was not altogether without generosity, and by his courage and
audacity he acquired a certain romantic popularity. His name
has gained a world-wide celebrity as the title of a famous opera
by Auber.
The best known account of Fra Diavolo is in Pietro Colletta's
Storia del reame di Napoli (2nd ed., Florence, 1848); B. Amante's
Fra Diavolo a il suo tempo (Florence, 1904) is an attempted rehabiji-
tation; but A. Luzio, whose account in Profili e bozzetti storici
(Milan, 1906) gives the latest information on the subject, has de-
molished Amante's arguments. (L. V.*)
DIAZ, NARCISSE VIRGIL10 (1808-1876), French painter, was
born in Bordeaux of Spanish parents, on the 25th of August 1808.
At first a figure-painter who indulged in strong colour, in his later
life Diaz became a painter of the forest and a " tone artist " of
the first order. He spent much time at Barbizon; and although
he is the least exalted of the half-dozen great artists who are
usually grouped round that name, he sometimes produced works
of the highest quality. At the age of ten Diaz became an orphan,
and misfortune dogged his earlier years. His foot was bitten by a
reptile in Meudon wood, near Sevres, where he had been taken to
live with some friends of his mother. The bite was badly dressed,
and ultimately it cost him his leg. Afterwards his wooden stump
became famous. At fifteen he entered the studios at Sevres,
where the decoration of porcelain occupied him; but tiring of the
restraint of fixed hours, he took to painting Eastern figures
dressed in richly coloured garments. Turks and Oriental scenes
attracted him, and many brilliant gems remain of this period.
About 1831 Diaz encountered Theodore Rousseau, for whom he
entertained a great veneration, although Rousseau was four years
his junior; but it was not until ten years later that the remark-
able incident took place of Rousseau teaching Diaz to paint trees.
At Fontainebleau Diaz found Rousseau painting his wonderful
forest pictures, and determined to paint in the same way if
possible. Rousseau, then in poor health, worried at home, and
embittered against the world, was difficult to approach. Diaz
followed him surreptitiously to the forest, wooden leg not
hindering, and he dodged round after the painter, trying to
observe his method of work. After a time Diaz found a way
to become friendly with Rousseau, and revealed his anxiety
to understand his painting. Rousseau was touched with the
passionate words of admiration, and finally taught Diaz all he
knew. Diaz exhibited many pictures at the Paris Salon, and was
decorated in 1851. During the Franco-German War he went to
Brussels. After 1871 he became fashionable, his works gradually
rose in the estimation of collectors, and he worked constantly and
successfully. In 1876 he caught cold at his son's grave, and on
the i8th of November of that year he died at Mentone, whither
he had gone to recruit his health. Diaz's finest pictures are his
forest scenes and storms, and it is on these, and not on his pretty
figures, that his fame is likely to rest. There are several fairly
good examples of the master in the Louvre, and three small figure
pictures in the Wallace collection, Hertford House. Perhaps the
most notable of Diaz's works are " La Fee aux Perles " (1857),
in the Louvre; " Sunset in the Forest " (1868); " The Storm,"
172
DIAZ, PORFIRIO DIAZ DE NOVAES
and " The Forest of Fontainebleau " (1870) at Leeds. Diaz
had no well-known pupils, but Leon Richet followed markedly
his methods of tree-painting, and J. F. Millet at one period
painted small figures in avowed imitation of Diaz's then
popular subjects.
See A. Hustin, Les Artistes celebres: Diaz (Paris); D. Croal
Thomson, The Barbizon School of Painters (London, 1890) ;
J. W. Mollett, Diaz (London, 1890) ; J. Claretie, Peintres et sculpteurs
contemporains : Diaz (Paris, 1882); Albert Wolff, La Capitale de
I' art: Narcisse Diaz (Paris, 1886); Ph. Burty, Mattres et petit-
mattres: N. Diaz (Paris, 1877). (D. C.T.)
DIAZ, PORFIRIO (1830-^), president of the republic of
Mexico (q.v.), was born in the southern state of Oaxaca, on the
i sth of September 1830. His father was an innkeeper in the little
capital of that province, and died three years after the birth of
Porfirio, leaving a family of seven children. The boy, who had
Indian blood in his veins, was educated for the Catholic Church,
a body having immense influence in the country at that time and
ordering and controlling revolutions by the strength of their filled
coffers. Arrived at the age of sixteen Porfirio Diaz threw off the
authority of the priests. Fired with enthusiasm by stories told by
the revolutionary soldiers continually passing through Oaxaca,
and hearing about the war with the United States, a year later
he determined to set out for Mexico city and join the National
Guard. There being no trains, and he being too poor to ride, he
walked the greater part of the 250 m., but arrived there too late,
as the treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo (1848) had been already
signed, and Texas finally ceded to the United States. Thus
his entering the army was for the time defeated. Thereupon he
returned to his native town and began studying law. He took
pupils in order to pay his own fees at the Law Institute, and help
his mother. At this time he came under the notice and influence
of Don Marcos Perez and Benito Juarez, the first a judge, the
second a governor of the state of Oaxaca, and soon to become
famous as the deliverer of Mexico fiom the priesthood (War of
Reform). Diaz continued in his native town until 1854, when,
refusing to vote for the dictator, Santa Anna, he was stung by a
taunt of cowardice, and hastily pushing his way to the voting
place, he recorded his vote in favour of Alvarez and the revolu-
tionists. Orders were given for his arrest, but seizing a rifle and
mounting a horse he placed himself at the head of a few revolting
peasants, and from that moment became one of the leading
spirits in that long struggle for reform, known as the War of
Reform, which, under the leadership of Juarez, followed the over-
throw of Santa Anna. Promotion succeeded promotion, as Diaz
led his troops from victory to victory, amid great privations and
difficulties. He was made captain (1856), lieutenant-colonel and
colonel (1859), brigadier-general (1861), and general of division
for the army (1863) . Closely following on civil war, political strife,
open rebellion and the great War of Reform, came the French
invasion of 1862, and the landing of the emperor Maximilian in
1864. From the moment the French disclosed their intentions of
settling in Mexico in 1862, Diaz took a prominent part against the
foreign invasion. He was twice seriously wounded, imprisoned on
three different occasions, had two hairbreadth escapes, and took
part in many daring engagements. So important a personage did
he become that both Marshal Bazaine and theemperor'Maximilian
made overtures to him. At the time of Maximilian's death (with
which Diaz personally had nothing to do) he was carrying on the
siege of Mexico city, which ended in the surrender of the town
two days after the emperor was shot at Queretaro between his
two leading generals. Diaz at once set to work to pay up arrears
due to his soldiers, proclaimed death as the penalty of plunder
and theft, and in the few weeks that followed showed his great
administrative powers, the officers as well as the rank and file
receiving arrears of pay. On the very day that he occupied
Mexico city, the great commander of the army of the east, to
everyone's surprise, sent in his resignation. He was, indeed,
appointed to the command of the second division of the army by
President Juarez in his military reorganization, but Diaz, seeing
men who had given great and loyal service to the state dismissed
from their positions in the government, and disgusted at this
course, retired to the little city of Oaxaca; there he lived, helping
in the reorganization of the army but taking no active part in the
government until 1871.
On Juarez' death Lerdo succeeded as president, in 1872. His
term of office again brought discord, and when it was known that
he was attempting to be re-elected in 1876, the storm broke.
Diaz came from retirement, took up the leadership against Lerdo,
and after desperate struggles and a daring escape finally made a
triumphal entry into Mexico city on the 24th of November 1876,
as provisional president, quickly followed by the full president-
ship. His term of office marks a prominent change in the history
of Mexico; from that date he at once forged ahead with financial
and political reform, the scrupulous settlement of all national
debts, the welding together of the peoples and tribes (there are
150 different Indian tribes) of his country, the establishment
of railroads and telegraphs, and all this in a land which had
been upheaved for a century with revolutions and bloodshed,
and which had had fifty-two dictators, presidents and rulers
in fifty -nine years. In 1880 Diaz was succeeded by Gonzalez,
the former minister of war, for four years (owing to the limit
of the presidential office), but in 1884 he was unanimously
re-elected. The government having set aside the above-
mentioned limitation, Diaz was continually re-elected to the
presidency. He married twice and had a son and two daughters.
His gifted second wife (Carmelita), very popular in Mexico, was
many years younger than himself. King Edward VII. made him
an honorary grand commander of the Bath in June 1906, in
recognition of his wonderful administration as perpetual presi-
dent for over a quarter of a century.
See also Mrs Alec Tweedie, Porfirio Diaz, Seven Times President of
Mexico (1906), and Mexico as I saw it (1901) ; Dr Noll, From Empire
to Republic^ (1890); Lieut. Seaton Schroeder, Fall of Maximilian's
Empire (New York, 1887); R. de Z. Enriquez, P. Diaz (1908);
and an article by Percy Martin in Quarterly Review for October
1909- (E. A. T.)
DIAZ DE NOVAES, BARTHOLOMEU (fl. 1481-1500),
Portuguese explorer, discoverer of the Cape of Good Hope, was
probably a kinsman of Joao Diaz, one of the first Portuguese to
round Cape Bojador (1434), and of Diniz Diaz, the discoverer
of Cape Verde (1445)- In 1478 a Bartholomeu Diaz, probably
identical with the discoverer, was exempted from certain
customary payments on ivory brought from the Guinea coast.
In 1481 he commanded one of the vessels sent by King John II.
under Diogo d'Azambuja to the Gold Coast. In 1486 he seems to
have been a cavalier of the king's household, and superintendent
of the royal warehouses; on the loth of October in this year he
received an annuity of 6000 reis from King John for " services
to come "; and some time after this (probably about July or
August 1487, rather than July 1486, the traditional date) he left
Lisbon with three ships to carry on the work of African explora-
tion so greatly advanced by Diogo Cao (1482-1486). Passing
Cao's farthest point near Cape Cross (in the modern German
South-west Africa and) in 21 50' S., he erected a pillar on what is
now known as Diaz Point, south of Angra Pequena or Luderitz
Bay, in 26 38' S.; of this fragments still exist. From this point
(according to De Barros) Diaz ran thirteen days southwards
before strong winds, which freshened to dangerous stormy
weather, in a comparatively high southern latitude, considerably
south of the Cape. When the storm subsided the Portuguese
stood east; and failing, after several days' search, to find land,
turned north, and so struck the south coast of Cape Colony at
Mossel Bay (Diaz' Bahia dos Vaqueiros), half way between the
Cape of Good Hope and Port Elizabeth (February 3,1488). Thence
they coasted eastward, passing Algoa Bay (Diaz' Bahia da Roca),
erecting pillars (or perhaps wooden crosses) , it is said, on one of the
islands in this bay and at or near Cape Padrone farther east; of
these no traces remain. The officers and men now began to insist
on return, and Diaz could only persuade them to go as far as the
estuary of the Great Fish River (Diaz' Rio do Iffante, so named
from his colleague, Captain Joao Iffante). Here, however, half way
between Port Elizabeth and East London (and indeed from
Cape Padrone), the north-easterly trend of the coast became
unmistakable: the way round Africa had been laid open. On
his return Diaz perhaps named Cape Agulhas after St B randan;
DIAZO COMPOUNDS
while on the southernmost projection of the modern Cape
peninsula, whose remarkable highlands (Table Mountain, &
doubtless impressed him as the practical termination of the
continent, he bestowed, says De Barros, the name of Cape of
Storms (Cabo Tormentoso) in memory of the storms he hac
experienced in these far southern waters; this name (in the
ordinary tradition) was changed by King John to that of Gooc
Hope (Cabo da Boa EsperanQa). Some excellent authorities,
however, make Diaz himself give the Cape its present name.
Hard by this " so many ages unknown promontory " the ex-
plorer probably erected his last pillar. After touching at the
Ilha do Principe (Prince's Island, south-west of the Cameroons)
as well as at the Gold Coast, he appeared at Lisbon in December
1488. He had discovered 1260 m. of hitherto unknown coast;
and his voyage, taken with the letters soon afterwards received
from Pero de Covilhao (who by way of Cairo and Aden had
reached Malabar on one side and the " Zanzibar coast " on the
other as far south as Sofala, in 1487-1488) was rightly considered
to have solved the question of an ocean route round Africa to the
Indies and other lands of South and East Asia.
No record has yet been found of any adequate reward for Diaz:
on the contrary, when the great Indian expedition was being
prepared (for Vasco da Gama's future leadership) Bartolomeu
only superintended the building and outfit of the ships; when
the fleet sailed in 1497, he only accompanied da Gama to the Cape
Verde Islands, and after this was ordered to El Mina OR the Gold
Coast. On Cabral's voyage of 1500 he was indeed permitted
to take part in the discovery of Brazil (April 22), and thence
should have helped to guide the fleet to India; but he perished
in a great storm off his own Cabo Tormentoso. Like Moses, as
Galvano says, he was allowed to see the Promised Land, but not
to enter in.
See Joao de Barros, Asia, Dec. I. bk. iii. ch. 4; Duarte Pacheco
Pereira, Esmeraldo de situ orbis, esp. pp. 15, 90, 92, 04 and Raphael
Bastos's introduction to the edition of 1892 (Pacheco met Diaz,
returning from his great voyage, at the Ilha do Principe) ; a marginal
note, probably by Christopher Columbus himself, on fol. 13 of a copy
of Pierre d'Ailly's Imago mundi, now in the Colombina at Seville
(the writer of this note fixes Diaz's return to Lisbon, December 1488,
and says he was present at Diaz's interview with the king of Portugal,
when the explorer described his voyage and showed his route upon
the chart he had kept) ; a similar but briefer note in a copy of Pope
Pius II. 's Historic rerum ubique gestarum, from the same hand; the
Roteiro of Vasco da Gama's First Voyage (Journal of the First Voyage
of ... Da Gama, Hakluyt Soc., ed. E. G. Ravenstein (1898), pp. 9,
14); Ramusio, Navigationi ford ed.), vol. i. fol. 144; Castanheda,
Historia, bk. i. ch. i ; Galvano, Descobrimentos (Discoveries of the
World), Hakluyt Spc. (1862), p. 77 ; E. G. Ravenstein, " Voyages of ...
Cao and . . . Dias," in Geog. Journ. (London, December 1900), vol. xvi.
pp. 638-655), an excellent critical summary in the light of the most
recent investigations of all the material. The fragments of Diaz's
only remaining pillar (from Diaz Point) are now partly at the Cape
Museum, partly at Lisbon: the latter are photographed in Raven-
stein's paper in Geog. Journ. (December 1900, p. 642). (C. R. B.)
DIAZO COMPOUNDS, in organic chemistry, compounds of the
type R-N-2-X (where R = a hydrocarbon radical, and X = an
acid radical or a hydro xyl group). These compounds may be
divided into two classes, namely, the true diazo compounds,
characterized by the grouping N = N , and the diazonium
compounds, characterized by the grouping N;N<.
The diazonium compounds were first discovered by P. Griess
(Ann., 1858, 106, pp. 123 et seq.), and may be prepared by the
action of nitrous fumes on a well-cooled solution of a salt of a
primary amine,
C 6 H 6 NHj-HN0 3 + HNO 2 = C 6 H 6 N2.NO 3 + 2H 2 0,
or, as is more usually the case (since the diazonium salts
themselves are generally used only in aqueous solution) by the
addition of a well-cooled solution of potassium or sodium nitrite
to a well-cooled dilute acid solution of the primary amine. In
order to isolate the anhydrous diazonium salts, the method of
E. Knoevenagel (Ber., 1890, 23, p. 2094) may be employed. In
this process the amine salt is dissolved in absolute alcohol and
diazotized by the addition of amyl nitrite; a crystalline pre-
cipitate of the diazonium salt is formed on standing, or on the
addition. of a small quantity of ether. The diazonium salts are
also formed by the action of zinc-dust and acids on the nitrates
of primary amines (R. Mohlau, Ber., 1883, 16, p. 3080), and by the
action of hydroxylamine on nitrosobenzenes. They are colourless
crystalline solids which turn brown on exposure. They dissolve
easily in water, but only to a slight extent in alcohol and ether.
They are very unstable, exploding violently when heated or
rubbed. Benzene diazonium nitrate, C6H 6 N(NO 3 ):N, crystal-
lizes in long silky needles. The sulphate and chloride are similar,
but they are not quite so unstable as the nitrate. The bromide
may be prepared by the addition of bromine to an ethereal
solution of diazo-amino-benzene (tribromaniline remaining in
solution). By the addition of potassium bromide and bromine
water to diazonium salts they are converted into a perbromide,
e.g. C6H 6 N 2 Br 3 , which crystallizes in yellow plates.
The diazonium salts are characterized by their great reactivity and
consequently are important reagents in synthetical processes, since by
their agency the amino group in a primary amine may be exchanged
for other elements or radicals. The chief reactions are as follows :
1. Replacement of-NH, by -OH: The amine is diazotized and
the aqueous solution of the diazonium salt is heated, nitrogen being
eliminated and a phenol formed.
2. Replacement of- NH t by halogens and by the - CN and - CNO
groups: The diazonium salt is warmed with an acid solution of the
corresponding cuprous salt (T. Sandmeyer, Ber., 1884, 17, p. 2650), or
with copper powder (L. Gattermann, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 1218; 1892,
25, p. 1074). In the case of iodine, the substitution is effected by
adding a warm solution of potassium iodide to the diazonium
solution, no copper or cuprous salt being necessary; whilst for
the production of nitriles a solution of potassium cuprous cyanide is
used. This reaction (the so-called " Sandmeyer " reaction) has been
investigated by A. Hantzsch and J. W. Blagden (Ber., 1900,33^.2544),
who consider that three simultaneous reactions occur, namely, the
formation of labile double salts which decompose in such a fashion
that the radical attached to the copper atom wanders to the aromatic
nucleus; a catalytic action, in which nitrogen is eliminated and the
acid radical attaches itself to the aromatic nucleus; and finally, the
formation of azo compounds.
3. Replacement of -NHt by -NO 2 : A well -cooled concen-
trated solution of potassium mercuric nitrate is added to a cooled
solution of benzene diazonium nitrate, when the crystalline salt
2C 6 H 6 N 2 -NO3, Hg(NO 2 ) 2 is precipitated. On warming this with
copper powder, it gives a quantitative yield of nitrobenzene (A.
Hantzsch, Ber., 1900, 33, p. 2551).
4. Replacement of - NH 2 by hydrogen : This exchange is brought
about, m some cases, by boiling the diazonium salt with alcohol;
but I. Remsen and his pupils (Amer. Chem. Journ., 1888, 9, pp. 389
et seq.) have shown that the main product of this reaction is usually
a phenolic ether. This reaction has also been investigated by
A. Hantzsch and E. Jochem (Ber., 1901, 34, p. 3337), who arrived at
the conclusion that the normal decomposition of diazonium salts
by alcohols results in the formation of phenolic ethers, but that an
increase in the molecular weight of the alcohol, or the accumulation
of negative groups in the aromatic nucleus, diminishes the yield of
the ether and increases the amount of the hydrocarbon formed. The
replacement is more readily brought about by the use of sodium
stannite (P. Friedlander, Ber., 1889, 22, p. 587), or by the use of a
concentrated solution of hypophosphorous acid (J. Mai, Ber., 1902, 35,
p. 162). A. Hantzsch (Ber., 1 896,29^. 947 jlSgS, 31, p. 1253) has shown
that the chlor- and brom- diazoniumthiocyanates, when dissolved in
alcohol containing a trace of hydrochloric acid, become converted
into the isomeric thiocyanbenzene diazonium chlorides and bromides.
This change only occurs when the halogen atom is in the ortho- or
para- position to the - N 2 - group.
Metallic Diazo Derivatives. Benzene diazonium chlorid4sdecom-
posed by silver oxide in aqueous solution, with the formation of
benzene diazonium hydroxide, CeHU-NCOH); N. This hydroxide,
although possessing powerful basic properties, is unstable in the
presence of alkalis and neutralizes them, being converted first into
:he isomeric benzene-diazptic acid, the potassium salt of which is
obtained when the diazonium chloride is added to an excess of cold
concentrated potash (A. Hantzsch and W. B. Davidson, Ber., 1898,
31, p. 1612). Potassium benzene diazotate, CeH 6 N 2 'OK, crystallizes in
colourless silky needles. The free acid is not known ; by the addition
of the potassium salt to 50% acetic acid at 20 C., the acid
anhydride, benzene diazo oxide, (C 6 H 5 N 2 )2O, is obtained as a very
unstable, yellow, insoluble compound, exploding spontaneously at
C. Strong acids convert it into a diazonium salt, and potash
converts it into the diazotate. On the constitution, of these anhy-
drides see E. Bamberger, Ber., 1896, 29, p. 446, and A. Hantzsch, Ber.,
1896,29, p. 1067; 1898, 31, p. 636. By the addition of the diazonium
salts to a hot concentrated solution of a caustic alkali, C. Schraube
and C. Schmidt(5er., 1894, 27, p. 52o)obtatned an isomer of potassium
jenzene diazotate. These ise-diazotates are formed much more
readily when the aromatic nucleus in the diazonium salt contains
negative radicals. Potassium benzene iso-diazotate resembles the
lormal salt, but is more stable, and is more highly ionized. Car-
bon dioxide converts it into phenyl nitrosamine, C 6 H 5 NH-NO
174
DIAZO COMPOUNDS
(A. Hantzsch). The potassium salt of the iso-diazo hydroxide yields
on methylation a nitrogen ether, R'N(CH 3 )-NO, whilst the silver salt
yields an oxygen ether, R-N: N-OCHj. These results point to the
conclusion that the iso-diazo hydroxide is a tautomeric substance.
The same oxygen ether is formed by the methylation of the silver salt
of the normal diazo hydroxide; this points to the conclusion that the
isomeric hydroxides, corresponding with the silver derivatives, have
the same structural formulae, namely, R-N: N-OH. These oxygen
ethers contain the grouping - N : N - , since they couple very readily
with the phenols in alkaline solution to form azo compounds (q.v.)
(E. Bamberger, Ber., 180,5, 28, p. 225); they are also explosive.
By oxidizing potassium benzene iso-diazotate with alkaline
potassium ferricyanide, E. Bamberger (Ber., 1894, 27, p. 914) obtained
the diazoic acids, R-NH-NO 2 , substances which he had previously
prepared by similarly oxidizing the diazonium salts, by dehydrating
the nitrates of primary amines with acetic anhydride, and by the
action of nitric anhydride on the primary amines. Concentrated
acids convert them into the isomeric nitro-amines, the - NO 2 group
'going into the nucleus in the ortho- or para- position to the amine
nitrogen; this appears to indicate that the compounds are nitra-
mines. They behave, however, as tautomeric substances, since
their alkali salts on methylation give nitrogen ethers, whilst their
silver salts yield oxygen ethers:
> potassium salt > R'N(CH 3 ).N0 2 nitramine.
R'NH'N0 2 ^
~~* silver salt - R'N : N'O'OCH , diazoate.
Phenyl nitramine, CeH 5 NH NC>2, is a colourless crystalline solid,
which melts at 46 C. Sodium amalgam in alkaline solution reduces
it to phenylhydrazine.
Constitution of the Diazo Compounds. P. Griess (Ann., 1866, 137,
p. 39) considered thatthediazocompoundswereformedby theaddition
of complex groupings of the type Cer^Nz to the inorganic acids;
whilst A. Kekul6 (Zeit.f. Chemie, 1866, 2, p. 308), on account of their
ready condensation to form azo compounds and their easy reduction
to hydrazines, assumed that they were substances of the type
R-N: N-C1. The constitution of the diazonium group- N 2 -X, may be
inferred from the following facts: The group CeHsNj- behaves in
many respects similarly to an alkali metal, and even more so to the
ammonium group, since it is capable of forming colourless neutral
salts with mineral acids, which in dilute aqueous solution are strongly
ionized, but do not show any trace of hydrolytic dissociation
(A. Hantzsch, Ber., 1895, 28, p. 1734). Again, the diazonium chlorides
combine with platinic chloride to form difficultly soluble double
platinum salts, such as (CeHs^ClVPtCU; similar gold salts,
CeHcN^Cl-AuCls, are known. Determinations of the electrical con-
ductivity of the diazonium chloride and nitrate also show that the
diazonium radical is strictly comparable with other quaternary
ammonium ions. For these reasons, one must assume the existence
of pentavalent nitrogen in the diazonium salts, in order to account
for their basic properties.
The constitution of the isomeric diazo hydroxides has given rise
to much discussion. E. Bamberger (Ber., 1895, 28, pp.444 et seq.) and
C. W. Blomstrand (Journ. prakt.Chem., 1896, 53, pp. Ifkjetseq.) hold
that the compounds are structurally different, the normal diazo-
hydroxide being a diazonium derivative of the type R-N(;N)-OH.
The recent work of A. Hantzsch and his pupils seems to invalidate this
view (Ber., 1894, 27, pp. 1702 et seq. ; see also A. Hantzsch, DieDiazo-
verbindungen). According to Hantzsch the isomeric diazo hydroxides
are structurally identical, and the differences in behaviour are due
to stereo-chemica 1 relations, the isomerism being comparable with
that of the oximes (q.v.). On such a hypothesis, the relatively
unstable normal diazo hydroxides would be the sjTZ-compounds,
since here the nitrogen atoms would be more easily eliminated, whilst
the stable iso-diazo derivatives would be the an<z-compounds, thus:
R-N R-N
HO-N N-OH
Normal hydroxide Iso hydroxide
(Syn-cpmpound) (Anti-compound)
In support of this theory, Hantzsch has succeeded in isolating a series
of syn-andanti-diazo-cyanidesand-sulphonates(Ber.,i895,28,p.666;
1900, 33, p. 2161 ; 1901, 34, p. 4166).. By diazotizingpara-chloraniline
and adding a cold solution of potassium cyanide, a salt (melting at
29 C.) is obtained, which readily loses nitrogen, and forms para-
chlorbenzonitrile on the addition of copper powder. By dissolving
this diazocyanide in alcohol and reprecipitating it by water, it is
converted into the isomeric diazocyanide (melting at 105-106 C.),
which does not yield para-chlorbenzonitrile when treated with copper
powder. Similar results have been obtained by using diazotized
para-anisidine, a syn- and an anti- compound being formed, as well
as a third isomeric cyanide, obtained by evaporating para-methoxy-
benzenediazonium hydroxide in the presence of an excess of hydro-
cyanic acid at ordinary temperatures. This salt is a colourless
crystalline substance of composition CH3O-C 6 H4-N 2 -CN-HCN-2H 2 O,
and has the properties of a metallic salt ; it is very soluble in water
and its solution is an electrolyte, whereas the solutions of the syn-
and anti- compounds are not electrolytes. The isolation of these
compounds is a powerful argument in favour of the Hantzsch
hypothesis which requires the existence of these three different types,
whilst the Bamberger-Blomstrand view only accounts for the forma-
tion of two isomeric cyanides, namely, one of the normal diazonium
type and one of the iso-diazocyanide type.
Benzene diazonium hydroxide, although a strong base, reacts with
the alkaline hydroxides to form salts with the evolution of heat, and
generally behaves as a weak acid. On mixing dilute solutions of the
diazonium hydroxide and the alkali together, it is found that the
molecular conductivity of the mixture is much less than the sum of
the two electrical conductivities of the solutions separately, from
which it follows that a portion of the ions present have changed to
the non-ionized condition. This behaviour is explained by consider-
ing the non-ionized part of the diazonium hydroxide to exist in
solution in a hydrated form, the equation of equilibrium being:
cH 6 -N- C,H S -N-OH
H 2 0+ + OH' 7 |
HO-N'H
On adding the alkaline hydroxide to the solution, this hydrate is
supposed to lose water, yielding the syn-diazo hydroxide, which then
gives rise to a certain amount of the sodium salt (A. Hantzsch, Ber.,
1898, 31, p. 1612),
C,H 6 -N-;OH
HO-N'H
C,H 5 -N
C 6 H 6 'N
J I
<- HO-N <r- NaO'N
This assumption also shows the relationship of the diazonium
hydroxides to other quaternary ammonium compounds, for most of
the quaternary ammonium hydroxides (except such as have the
nitrogen atom attached to four saturated hydrocarbon radicals) are
unstable, and readily pass over intocompounds in which the hydroxyl
group is no longer attached to the amine nitrogen ; thus the syn-diazo
hydroxides are to be regarded as pseudo-diazonium derivatives.
(A. Hantzsch, Ber., 1899, 32, p. 3109; 1900,33^.278.) It isgenerally
accepted that the iso-diazo hydroxides possess the oxime structure
R-N: N-OH.
Hantzsch explains the characteristic reactions of the diazonium
compounds by the assumption that an addition compound is first
formed, which breaks down with the elimination of the hydride of
the acid radical, and the formation of an unstable syn-diazo com-
pound, which, in its turn, decomposes with evolution of nitrogen
(Ber., 1897, 30, p. 2548; 1898, 31, p. 2053).
"D "V" T) V T> "V"
>N;N+|-> >N;N< -> | | +HC1 ->R'X+N 2 .
Cl H Cl ^H N = N
J. Cain (Jour. Ghent. Soc., 1907, 91, p. 1049) suggested a quinonoid
formula for diazonium salts, which has been combated by Hantzsch
(Ber., 1908,41, pp. 3532 et seq.). G.T. Morgan and F. M. G. Mickle-
thwaite (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1908, 93, p. 617; 1909, 95, p. 1319) have
pointed out that the salts may possess a dynamic formula, Cain's
representing the middle stage, thus:
Diazoamines. The diazoamines, R-N 2 -NHR, maybe prepared by
the action of the primary and secondary amines on the diazonium
salts, or by the action of nitrous acid on the free primary amine. I n the
latter reaction it is assumed that the isodiazohydroxide first formed
is immediately attacked by a second molecule of the amine. They
are yellow crystalline solids, which do not unite with acids. Nitrous
acid converts them, in acid solution, into diazonium salts.
They are readily converted into the isomeric aminoazo compounds,
either by standing in alcoholic solution, or by warming with a
mixture of the parent base and its hydrochloride; the diazo group
preferably going into the para-position to the amino group. When
the para-position is occupied, the diazo group takes the ortho-
position. H. Goldschmidt and R. U. Reinders (Ber., 1896, 29, p. 1369,
1899) have shown that the transformation is a monomoleculaf
reaction, the velocity of transformation in moderately dilute solution
being independent of the concentration, but proportional to the
amount of the catalyst present (amine hydrochloride) and to the
temperature. It has also been shown that when different salts of the
amine are used, their catalytic influence varies in amount and is
almost proportional to their degree of ionization in aqueous solution.
Diazoaminobenzene, CeHsNj-NHCeHs, crystallizes in golden yellow
laminae, which melt at 96 C. and explode at a slightly higher tempera-
ture. It is readily soluble in alcohol, ether and benzene. Concen-
trated hydrochloric acid converts it into chlprbenzene, aniline and
nitrogen. Zinc dust and alcoholic acetic acid reduce it to aniline
and phenylhydrazine.
Diazoimino compounds, R-Ns, may be regarded as derivatives of
azoimide (g.f.) ; they are formed by the action of ammonia on the
diazoperbromides,orby the action of hydroxylamine on the diazonium
sulphates (J. Mai, Ber., 1892, 25, p. 372; T. Curtius, Ber., 1893, 26,
p. 1271). Diazobenzeneimide, C e H 6 N 3, is a yellowish oil of stupefying
odour. It boils at 59 C. (12 mm.), and explodes when heated.
Concentrated hydrochloric acid decomposes it with formation of
DIAZOMATA DIBDIN, T. F.
'75
chloranilines and elimination of nitrogen, whilst on boiling with
sulphuric acid it is converted into aminophenols.
Aliphatic Diazo Compounds. The esters of the aliphatic amino
acids may be diazotized in a manner similar to the primary aromatic
amines, a fact discovered by T. Curtius (Ber., 1833, 16, p. 2230). The
first aliphatic diazo compound to be isolated was diazoacetic ester,
CH-Nz-COjCjHs, which is prepared by the action of potassium nitrite
on the ethyl ester of glycocoll hydrochloride > HCl-NH2-CH2-CO 2 C2H5
+ KNO 2 = CHN2-COsC 2 H 6 +KCl+2H 2 O. It is a yellowish oil which
melts at 24 C.; it boils at 143-144 C., but cannot be distilled safely
as it decomposes violently, giving nitrogen and ethyl fumarate. It
explodes in contact with concentrated sulphuric acid. On reduction
it yields ammonia and glycocoll (aminoacetic acid). When heated
with water it forms ethyl hydroxy-acetate ; with alcohol it yields
ethyl ethoxyacetate. Halogen acids convert it into monohalogen
fatty acids, and the halogens themselves convert it into dihalogen
fatty acids. It unites with aldehydes to form esters of ketonic acids,
and with aniline yields anilido-acetic acid. It forms an addition
product with acrylic ester, which on heating loses nitrogen and leaves
trimethylene dicarboxylic ester. Concentrated ammonia converts
it into diazoacetamide, CHN 2 -CONH 2 , which crystallizes in golden
yellow plates which melt at 114 C. For other reactions see
HYDRAZINE. The constitution of the diazo fatty esters is inferred
from the fact that the two nitrogen atoms, when split off, are
replaced by two monovalent elements or groups, thus leading to
^
the formula
, for diazoacetic ester.
Diazosuccinic ester, Nj-CCCOzCzHs^, is similarly prepared by the
action of nitrous acid on the hydrochloride of aspartic ester. It is
decomposed by boiling water and yields fumaric ester.
Diazomethane, CH2N2, was first obtained in 1894 by H. v. Pech-
mann (Ber., 1894, 27, p. 1888; 1895, 28, p. 855). It is prepared by the
action of aqueous or alcoholic solutions of the caustic alkalis on
the nitroso-acidyl derivatives of methylamine (such, for example,
as nitrosomethyl urethane, NO-f^CHsVCC^CjHs, which is formed on
passing nitrous fumes into an ethereal solution of methyl urethane).
E. Bamberger (Ber., 1895, 28, p. 1682) regards it as the anhydride of
iso-diazomethane, CHj-N:N-OH, and has prepared it by a method
similar to that used for the preparation of isp-diazobenzene. By the
action of bleaching powder on methylamine hydrochloride, there
is obtained a volatile liquid (methyldichloramine, CHs-N-CU), boil-
ing at 58-60 C., which explodes violently when heated with water,
yielding hydrocyanic acid (CH 3 NCl 2 = HCN-t-2HCl). Well-dried
hydroxylamine hydrochloride is dissolved in methyl alcohol and
mixed with sodium methylate; a solution of methyldichloramine in
absolute ether is then added and an ethereal solution of diazomethane
distils over. Diazomethane is a yellow inodorous gas, very poisonous
and corrosive. It may be condensed to a liquid, which boils at about
o C. It is a powerful methylating agent, reacting with water to form
methyl alcohol, and converting acetic acid into methylacetate, hydro-
chloric acid into methyl chloride, hydrocyanic acid into acetonitrile,
and phenol into anisol, nitrogen being eliminated in each case. It is
reduced by sodium amalgam (in alcoholic solution) to methylhydrazine,
CH3'NH-NH 2 . It unites directly with acetylene to form pyrazole
(H. v. Pechmann, Ber., 1898, 31, p. 2950) and with fumaric methyl
ester it forms pyrazolin dicarboxylic ester. (F. G. P.*)
SeeG. T. Morgan, B.A . Rep., 1902 ; J. Cain, Diazo Compounds, 1908.
DIAZOMATA (Gr. 5idfco/ja, a girdle), in architecture, the
landing places and passages which were carried round the semi-
circle and separated the upper and lower tiers in a Greek theatre.
DIBDIN, CHARLES (1745-1814), British musician, dramatist,
novelist, actor and song-writer, the son of a parish clerk, was born
at Southampton on or before the 4th of March 1745, and was the
youngest of a family of eighteen. His parents designing him for
the church, he was sent to Winchester; but his love of music
early diverted his thoughts from the clerical profession. After
receiving some instruction from the organist of Winchester
cathedral, where he was a chorister from 1756 to 1759, he went
to London at the age of fifteen. Here he was placed in a music
warehouse in Cheapside, but he soon abandoned this employment
to become a singing actor at Covent Garden. On the 2 ist of May
1762 his first work, an operetta entitled The Shepherd's Artifice,
with words and music by himself, was produced at this theatre.
Other works followed, his reputation being firmly established
by the music to the play of The Padlock, produced at Drury Lane
under Garrick's management in 1 768, the composer himself taking
the part of Mungo with conspicuous success. He continued for
some years to be connected with Drury Lane, both as composer
and as actor, and produced during this period two of his best
known works, The Waterman (1774) and The Quaker (1775). A
quarrel with Garrick led to the termination of his engagement.
In The Comic Mirror he ridiculed prominent contemporary figures
through the medium of a puppet show. In 1782 he became joint
manager of the Royal circus, afterwards known as the Surrey
theatre. In three years he lost this position owing to a quarrel
with his partner. His opera Liberty Hall, containing the suc-
cessful songs " Jock Ratlin," " The Highmettled Racer," and
" The Bells of Aberdovey," was produced at Drury Lane theatre
on the 8th of February 1785. In 1788 he sailed for the East
Indies, but the vessel having put in to Torbay hi stress of weather,
he changed his mind and returned to London. In a musical
variety entertainment called The Oddities, he succeeded in win-
ning marked popularity with a number of songs that included
" 'Twas in the good ship ' Rover'," " Saturday Night at Sea," "I
sailed from the Downs in the ' Nancy,' " and the immortal " Tom
Bowling," written on the death of his eldest brother, Captain
Thomas Dibdin, at whose invitation he had planned his visit
to India. A series of monodramatic entertainments which he
gave at his theatre, Sans Souci, in Leicester Square, brought his
songs, music and recitations more prominently into notice, and
permanently established his fame as a lyric poet. It was at these
entertainments that he first introduced many of those sea-songs
which so powerfully influenced the national spirit. The words
breathe the simple loyalty and dauntless courage that are the
cardinal virtues of the British sailor, and the music was ap-
propriate and naturally melodious. Their effect in stimulating
and ennobling the spirit of the navy during the war with France
was so marked as to call for special acknowledgment. In 1803
Dibdin was rewarded by government with a pension of 200 a
year, of which he was only for a time deprived under the ad-
ministration of Lord Grenville. During this period he opened a
music shop in the Strand, but the venture was a failure. Dibdin
died of paralysis in London on the 2Sth of July 1814. Besides his
Musical Tour through England (1788), his Professional Life, an
autobiography published in 1803, a History of the Stage (1795), and
several smaller works, he wrote upwards of 1400 songs and about
thirty dramatic pieces. He also wrote the following novels:
The Devil (1785); Hannah Hewitt (1792); The Younger Brother
(1793). An edition of his songs by G. Hogarth (1843) contains
a memoir of his life. His two sons, Charles and Thomas John
Dibdin (?..), whose works are often confused with those of their
father, were also popular dramatists in their day.
DIBDIN, THOMAS FROGNALL (1776-1847), English biblio-
grapher, born at Calcutta in 1776, was the son of Thomas Dibdin,
the sailor brother of Charles Dibdin. His father and mother both
died on the way home to England in 1780, and Thomas was
brought up by a maternal uncle. He was educated at St John's
College, Oxford, and studied for a time at Lincoln's Inn. After
an unsuccessful attempt to obtain practice as a provincial counsel
at Worcester, he was ordained a clergyman at the close of 1804,
being appointed to a curacy at Kensington. It was not until
1823 that he received the living of Exning in Sussex. Soon after-
wards he was appointed by Lord Liverpool to the rectory of St
Mary's, Bryanston Square, which he held until his death on the
1 8th of November 1847. The first of his numerous bibliographical
works was his Introduction to the Knowledge of Editions of the
Classics (1802), which brought him under the notice of the
third Earl Spencer, to whom he owed much important aid in
his bibliographical pursuits. The rich library at Althorp was
thrown open to him; he spent much of his time in it, and in
1814-1815 published his Bibliotheca Spenceriana. As the library
was not open to the general public, the information given in the
Bibliotheca was found very useful, but since its author was unable
even to read the characters in which the books he described were
written, the work was marred by the errors which more or less
characterize all his productions. This fault of inaccuracy how-
ever was less obtrusive in his series of playful, discursive works in
the form of dialogues on his favourite subject, the first of which,
Bibliomania (1809), was republished with large additions in
1811, and was very popular, passing through numerous editions.
To the same class belonged the Bibliographical Decameron, a larger
work, which appeared in 181 7. In 1810 he began the publication
of a new and much extended edition of Ames's Typographical
Antiquities. The first volume was a great success, but the publica-
tion was checked by the failure of the fourth volume, and was
DIBDIN, T. J. DICE
never completed. In 1818 Dibdin was commissioned by Earl
Spencer to purchase books for him on the continent, an expedi-
tion described in his sumptuous Bibliographical, Antiquarian and
Picturesque Tour in France and Germany (1821). In 1824 he
made an ambitious venture in his Library Companion, or the
Young Man's Guide and Old Man's Comfort in the Choice of a
Library, intended to point out the best works in all departments
of literature. His culture was not broad enough, however, to
render him competent for the task, and the work was severely
criticized. For some years Dibdin gave himself up chiefly to
religious literature. He returned to bibliography in his
Bibliophobia, or Remarks on the Present Depression in the State of
Literature and the Book Trade (1832), and the same subject
furnishes the main interest of his Reminiscences of a Literary Life
(1836), and his Bibliographical, Antiquarian and Picturesque
Tour in the Northern Counties of England and Scotland (1838).
Dibdin was the originator and vice-president, Lord Spencer
being the president, cf the Roxburghe Club, founded in 1812,
the first of the numerous book clubs which have done such
service to literature.
DIBDIN, THOMAS JOHN (1771-1841), English dramatist and
song-writer, son of Charles Dibdin, the song-writer, and of Mrs
Davenet, an actress whose real name was Harriet Pitt, was born
on the 2ist of March 1771. He was apprenticed to his maternal
uncle, a London upholsterer, and later to William Rawlins,
afterwards sheriff of London. He summoned his second master
unsuccessfully for rough treatment; and after a few years of
service he ran away to join a company of country players. From
1789 to 1795 he played in all sorts of parts; he acted as scene
painter at Liverpool in 1791; and during this period he com-
posed more than 1000 songs. He made his first attempt as a
dramatic writer in Something New, followed by The Mad Guardian
in 1795. He returned to London in 1795, having married two
years before; and in the winter of 1798-1799 his Jew and the
Doctor was produced at Covent Garden. From this time he
contributed a very large number of comedies, operas, farces, &c.,
to the public entertainment. Some of these brought immense
popularity to the writer and immense profits to the theatres. It is
stated that the pantomime of Mother Goose (1807) produced more
than 20,000 for the management at Covent Garden theatre, and
the High-mettled Racer, adapted as a pantomime from his father's
play, 18,000 at Astley's. Dibdin was prompter and pantomime
writer at Drury Lane until 1816, when he took the Surrey theatre.
This venture proved disastrous and he became bankrupt. After
this he was manager of the Haymarket, but without his old
success, and his last years were passed in comparative poverty.
In 1827 he published two volumes of Reminiscences; and at the
time of his death he was preparing an edition of his father's sea
songs, for which a small sum was allowed him weekly by the lords
of the admiralty. Of his own songs " The Oak Table " and
" The Snug Little Island " are well-known examples. He died in
London on the i6th of September 1841.
DIBRA (Slav. Debra), the capital of a sanjak bearing the same
name, in the vilayet of Monastir, eastern Albania, Turkey. Pop.
(1900) about 15,000. Dibra occupies a valley enclosed by
mountains, and watered by the Tsrni Drin and Radika rivers,
which meet 3 m. S. It is a fortified city, and the only episcopal
see of the Bulgarian exarchate in Albania; most of the inhabit-
ants are Albanians, but there is a strong Bulgarian colony. The
local trade is almost entirely agricultural.
DIBRUGARH, a town of British India, in the Lakhimpur
district of eastern Bengal and Assam, of which it is the head-
quarters, situated on the Dibru river about 4 m. above its
confluence with the Brahmaputra. Pop. (1001) 11,227. It is the
terminus of steamer navigation on the Brahmaputra, and also of
a railway running to important coal-mines and petroleum wells,
which connects with the Assam-Bengal system. Large quantities
of coal and tea are exported. There are a military cantonment,
the headquarters of the volunteer corps known as the Assam
Valley Light Horse; a government high school, a training school
for masters; and an aided school for girls. In 1900 a medical
school for the province was established, out of a bequest left
by Brigade-Surgeon J. Berry-White, which is maintained by
the government, to train hospital assistants for the tea gardens.
The Williamson artisan school is entirely supported by an
endowment.
DICAEARCHUS, of Messene in Sicily, Peripatetic philosopher
and pupil of Aristotle, historian, and geographer, flourished about
320 B.C. He was a friend of Theophrastus, to whom he dedicated
the majority of his works. Of his writings, which comprised
treatises on a great variety of subjects, only the titles and a few
fragments survive. The most important of them was his
|8ios TTJS 'EXXdSos (Life in Greece), in which the moral, political
and social condition of the people was very fully discussed. In
his Tripoliticos he described the best form of government as a
mixture of monarchy, aristocracy and democracy, and illustrated
it by the example of Sparta. Among the philosophical works of
Dicaearchus may be mentioned the Lesbiaci, a dialogue in three
books, in which the author endeavours to prove that the soul is
mortal, to which he added a supplement called Corinthiaci. He
also wrote a Description of the World illustrated by maps, in
which was probably included his Measurements of Mountains.
A description of Greece (150 iambics, in C. Miiller, Frag. hist.
Grace, i. 238-243) was formerly attributed to him, but, as the
initial letters of the first twenty-three lines show, was really
the work of Dionysius, son of Calliphon. Three considerable
fragments of a prose description of Greece (Muller, i. 97-110)
are now assigned to an unknown author named Heracleides. The
De re publica of Cicero is supposed to be founded on one of
Dicaearchus's works.
The best edition of the fragments is by M. Fuhr (1841), a work of
great learning; see also a dissertation by F. G. Osann, Beitrdge zur
rom. und griech. Litteratur, ii. pp. 1-117 (1839); Pauly-Wissowa,
Realencydopddie der klass. Altertumswiss. v. pt. i (1905).
DICE (plural of die, O. Fr. de, derived from Lat. dare, to give),
small cubes of ivory, bone, wood or metal, used in gaming. The
six sides of a die are each marked with a different number of
incised dots in such a manner that the sum of the dots on any two
opposite sides shall be 7. Dice seem always to have been
employed, as is the case to-day, for gambling purposes, and they
are also used in such games as backgammon. There are many
methods of playing, from one to five dice being used, although
two or three are the ordinary numbers employed in Great Britain
and America. The dice are thrown upon a table or other smooth
surface either from the hand or from a receptacle called a dice-box,
the latter method having been in common use in Greece, Rome
and the Orient in ancient times. Dice-boxes have been made in
many shapes and of various materials, such as wood, leather,
agate, crystal, metal or paper. Many contain bars within to ensure
a proper agitation of the dice, and thus defeat trickery. Some,
formerly used in England, were employed with unmarked dice,
and allowed the cubes to fall through a kind of funnel upon a
board marked off into six equal parts numbered from i to 6.
It is a remarkable fact, that, wherever dice have been found,
whether in the tombs of ancient Egypt, of classic Greece, or of
the far East, they differ hi no material respect from those in use
to-day, the elongated ones with rounded ends found in Roman
graves having been, not dice but tali, or knucklebones. Eight-
sided dice have comparatively lately been introduced in France
as aids to children in learning the multiplication table. The
teetotum, or spinning die, used in many modern games, was
known in ancient times in China and Japan. The increased
popularity of the more elaborate forms of gaming has resulted in
the decline of dicing. The usual method is to throw three times
with three dice. If one or more sixes or fives are thrown the first
time they may be reserved, the other throws being made with the
dice that are left. The object is to throw three sixes = 18 or as
near that number as possible, the highest throw winning, or, when
drinks are to be paid for, the lowest throw losing. (For other
methods of throwing consult the Encyclopaedia of Indoor Games,
by R. F. Foster, 1903.) The most popular form of pure gambling
with dice at the present day, particularly with the lower classes in
America, is Craps, or Crap-Shooting, a simple form of Hazard, of
French origin. Two dice are used. Each player puts up a stake
DICETO
177
and the first caster may cover any or all of the bets. He then
shoots, i.e. throws the dice from his open hand upon the table
If the sum of the dice is 7 or 1 1 the throw is a nick, or natural, anc
the caster wins all stakes. If the throw is either 2, 3 or 12 it is
a crap, and the caster loses all. If any other number is thrown
it is a point, and the caster continues until he throws the same
number again, in which case he wins, or a 7, in which case he
loses. The now practically obsolete game of Hazard was much
more complicated than Craps. (Consult The Game of Hazard
Investigated, by George Lowbut.) Poker dice are marked with ace,
king, queen, jack and ten-spot. Five are used and the object is,
in three throws, to make pairs, triplets, full hands or fours and
fives of a kind, five aces being the highest hand. Straights do
not count. In throwing to decide the payment of drinks the
usual method is called horse and horse, in which the highest
throws retire, leaving the two lowest to decide the loser by the
best two in three throws. Should each player win one throw-
both are said to be horse and horse, and the next throw determines
the loser. The two last casters may also agree to sudden death, i.e.
a single throw. Loaded dice, i.e. dice weighted slightly on the side
of the lowest number, have been used by swindlers from the very
earliest times to the present day, a fact proved by countless
literary allusions. Modern dice are often rounded at the corners,
which are otherwise apt to wear off irregularly.
History. Dice were probably evolved from knucklebones.
The antiquary Thomas Hyde, in his Syntagma, records his
opinion that the game of " odd or even," played with pebbles, is
nearly coeval with the creation of man. It is almost impossible
to trace clearly the development of dice as distinguished from
knucklebones, on account of the confusing of the two games
by, the ancient writers. It is certain, however, that both were
played in times antecedent to those of which we possess any
written records. Sophocles, in a fragment, ascribed their in-
vention to Palamedes, a Greek, who taught them to his country-
men during the siege of Troy, and who, according to Pausanias
(on Corinth, xx.), made an offering of them on the altar of the
temple of Fortune. Herodotus (Clio) relates that the Lydians,
during a period of famine in the days of King Atys, invented dice,
knucklebones and indeed all other games except chess. The fact
that dice have been used throughout the Orient from time
immemorial, as has been proved by excavations from ancient
tombs, seems to point clearly to an Asiatic origin. Dicing is
mentioned as an Indian game in the Rig-veda. In its primitive
form knucklebones was essentially a game of skill, played by
women and children, while dice were used for gambling, and
it was doubtless the gambling spirit of the age which was
responsible for the derivative form of knucklebones, in which
four sides of the bones received different values, which were then
counted, like dice. Gambling with three, sometimes two, dice
(Kvffa.) was a very popular form of amusement in Greece, especially
with the upper classes, and was an almost invariable accompani-
ment to the symposium, or drinking banquet. The dice were cast
from conical beakers, and the highest throw was three sixes,
called Aphrodite, while the lowest, three aces, was called the dog.
Both in Greece and Rome different modes of counting were in
vogue. Roman dice were called tesserae from the Greek word for
four, indicative of the four sides. The Romans were passionate
gamblers, especially in the luxurious days of the Empire, and
dicing was a favourite form, though it was forbidden except
during the Saturnalia. The emperor Augustus wrote in a letter
to Suetonius concerning a game that he had played with his
friends: " Whoever threw a dog or a six paid a denarius to the
bank for every die, and whoever threw a Venus (the highest) won
everything." In the houses of the rich the dice-beakers were
of carved ivory and the dice of crystal inlaid with gold. Mark
Antony wasted his time at Alexandria with dicing, while, accord-
ing to Suetonius, the emperors Augustus, Nero and Claudius were
passionately fond of it, the last named having written a book on
the game. Caligula notoriously cheated at the game; Domitian
played it, and Commodus set apart special rooms in his palace
for it. The emperor Verus, adopted son of Antonine, is known
to have thrown dice whole nights together. Fashionable society
followed the lead of its emperors, and, in spite of the severity of
the laws, fortunes were squandered at the dicing-table. Horace
derided the youth of the period, who wasted his time amid the
dangers of dicing instead of taming his charger and giving him-
self up to the hardships of the chase. Throwing dice for money
was the cause of many special laws in Rome, according to one of
which no suit could be brought by a person who allowed gambling
in his house, even if he had been cheated or assaulted. Pro-
fessional gamblers were common, and some of their loaded dice
are preserved in museums. The common public-houses were the
resorts of gamblers, and a fresco is extant showing two quarrelling
dicers being ejected by the indignant host. Virgil, in the Copa
generally ascribed to him, characterizes the spirit of that age in
verse, which has been Englished as follows:
" What ho ! Bring dice and good wine !
Who cares for the morrow?
Live so calls grinning Death
Live, for I come to you soon!"
That the barbarians were also given to gaming, whether or
not they learned it from their Roman conquerors, is proved by
Tacitus, who states that the Germans were passionately fond
of dicing, so much so, indeed, that, having lost everything, they
would even stake their personal liberty. Centuries later, during
the middle ages, dicing became the favourite pastime of the
knights, and both dicing schools (scholae deciorum) and gilds
of dicers existed. After the downfall of feudalism the famous
German mercenaries called landsknechts established a reputation
as the most notorious dicing gamblers of their time. Many of the
dice of the period were curiously carved in the images of men and
beasts. In France both knights and ladies were given to dicing,
which repeated legislation, including interdictions on the part of
St Louis in 1254 and 1256, did not abolish. In Japan, China,
Korea, India and other Asiatic countries dice have always been
popular and are so still.
See Foster's Encyclopaedia of Indoor Games (1903); Raymond's
Illustriertes Knobelbreyier (Oramenburg, 1888) ; Les Jeux des Anciens,
by L. Becqde Fouquieres (Paris, 1869) ; Das Knochelspiel der Alien,
by Bolle (Wismar, 1886) ; Die Spiele der Griechen und Ranter, by
W. Richter (Leipzig, 1887); Raymond's Alte und neue Wurfelspiele;
Chinese Games with Dice, by Stewart Culin (Philadelphia, 1889);
Korean Games, by Stewart Culin (Philadelphia, 1895).
DICETO, RALPH DE (d. c. 1202), dean of St Paul's, London,
and chronicler, is first mentioned in 1152, when he received the
archdeaconry of Middlesex. He was probably born between
1 1 20 and 1130; of his parentage and nationality we know
nothing. The common statement that he derived his surname
from Diss in Norfolk is a mere conjecture; Dicetum may equally
well be a Latinized form of Dissai, or Dicy, or Dizy, place-names
which are found in Maine, Picardy, Burgundy and Champagne.
In 1152 Diceto was already a master of arts; presumably he had
studied at Paris. His reputation for learning and integrity stood
high; he was regarded with respect and favour by Arnulf of
Lisieux and Gilbert Foliot of Hereford (afterwards of London),
two of the most eminent bishops of their time. Quite naturally,
the archdeacon took in the Becket question the same side as his
iriends. Although his narrative is colourless, and although he
was one of those who showed some sympathy for Becket at the
council of Northampton (1164), the correspondence of Diceto
shows that he regarded the archbishop's conduct as ill-considered,
and that he gave advice to those whom Becket regarded as his
chief enemies. Diceto was selected, in 1166, as the envoy of the
English bishops when they protested against the excommunica-
tions launched by Becket. But, apart from this episode, which he
characteristically omits to record, he remained in the background.
The natural impartiality of his intellect was accentuated by a
certain timidity, which is apparent in his writings no less than
.n his life. About 1180 he became dean of St Paul's. In this
office he distinguished himself by careful management of the
estates, by restoring the discipline of the chapter, and by building
at his own expense a deanery-house. A scholar and a man of
considerable erudition, he showed a strong preference for his-
:orical studies; and about the time when he was preferred to
the deanery he began to collect materials for the history of his
i 7 8
DICEY DICKENS
own times. His friendships with Richard Fitz Nigel, who suc-
ceeded Foliot in the see of London, with William Longchamp, the
chancellor of Richard I., and with Walter of Coutances, the arch-
bishop of Rouen, gave him excellent opportunities of collecting
information. His two chief works, the Abbreviations Chronico-
rum and the Ymagines Historiarum, cover the history of the
world from the birth of Christ to the year 1202. The former,
which ends in 1147, is a work of learning and industry, but
almost entirely based upon extant sources. The latter, begin-
ning as a compilation from Robert de Monte and the letters of
Foliot, becomes an original authority about 1172, and a contem-
porary record about 1181. In precision and fulness of detail the
Ymagines are inferior to the chronicles of the so-called Benedict
and of Hoveden. Though an annalist, Diceto is careless in his
chronology; and the documents which he incorporates, while
often important, are selected on no principle. He has little sense
of style; but displays considerable insight when he ventures to
discuss a political situation. For this reason, and on account of
the details with which they supplement the more important
chronicles of the period, the Ymagines are a valuable though a
secondary source.
See W. Stubbs' edition of the Historical Works of Diceto (Rolls ed.
1876, 2 vols.), and especially the introduction. The second volume
contains minor works which are the barest compendia of facts taken
from well-known sources. Diceto's fragmentary Domesday of the
capitular estates has been edited by Archdeacon Hale in TheDomesday
of St Paul's, pp. 109 ff. (Camden Society, 1858).
DICEY, EDWARD (1832- ), English writer, son of T. E.
Dicey of Claybrook Hall, Leicestershire, was born in 1832. Edu-
cated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took mathematical
and classical honours, he became an active journalist, contribut-
ing largely to the principal reviews. He was called to the bar
in 1875, became a bencher of Gray's Inn in 1896, and was
treasurer in 190-3-1904. He was connected with the Daily
Telegraph as leader writer and then as special correspondent, and
after a short spell in 1870 as editor of the Daily News he became
editor of the Observer, a position which he held until 1889. Of
his many books on foreign affairs perhaps the most important are
his England and Egypt (1884), Bulgaria, the Peasant State (1895),
The Story of the Khedivate (1902), and The Egypt of the Future
(1907). He was created C.B. in 1886.
His brother ALBERT VENN DICEY (b. 1835), English jurist,
was educated at Balliol College, Oxford, where he took a first
class in the classical schools in 1858. He was called to the bar at
the Inner Temple in 1863. He held fellowships successively
at Balliol, Trinity and All Souls', and from 1882 to 1909 was
Vinerian professor of law. He became Q.C. in 1890. His chief
works are the Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitu-
tion (1885, 6th ed. 1902), which ranks as a standard work on
the subject; England's Case against Home Rule (1886); A Digest
of the Law of England with Reference to the Conflict of Laws (1896),
and Lectures on the Relation between Law and Public Opinion in
England during the ipth century (1905).
DICHOTOMY (Gr. bl%a, apart, refivuv, to cut), literally a
cutting asunder, the technical term for a form of logical division,
consisting in the separation of a genus into two species, one of
which has and the other has not, a certain quality or attribute.
Thus men may be thus divided into white men, and men who are
not white; each of these may be subdivided similarly. On the
principle of contradiction this division is both exhaustive and
exclusive; there can be no overlapping, and no members of the
original genus or the lower groups are omitted. This method of
classification, though formally accurate, has slight value in the
exact sciences, partly because at every step one of the two groups
is merely negatively characterized and therefore incapable of real
subdivision; it is useful, however, in setting forth clearly the
gradual descent from the most inclusive genus (summum genus)
through species to the lowest class (infima species), which is
divisible only into individual persons or things. (See further
DIVISION.) In astronomy the term is used for the aspect of the
moon or of a planet when apparently half illuminated, so that its
disk has the form of a semicircle.
DICK, ROBERT (1811-1866), Scottish geologist and botanist-
was born at Tullibody, in Clackmannanshire, in January 1811.
His father was an officer of excise. At the age of thirteen, after
receiving a good elementary education at the parish school,
Robert Dick was apprenticed to a baker, and served for three
years. In these early days he became interested in wild flowers
he made a collection of plants and gradually acquired some
knowledge of their names from an old encyclopaedia. When
his time was out he left Tullibody and gained employment as a
journeyman baker at Leith, Glasgow and Greenock. Meanwhile
his father, who in 1826 had been removed to Thurso, as super-
visor of excise, advised his son to set up a baker's shop in that
town. Thither Robert Dick went in 1830, he started in business
as a baker and worked laboriously until he died on the 24th of
December 1866. Throughout this period he zealously devoted
himself to studying and collecting the plants, mollusca and insects
of a wide area of Caithness, and his attention was directed soon
after he settled in Thurso to the rocks and fossils. In 1 83 5 he first
found remains of fossil fishes; but it was net till some years later
that his interest became greatly stirred. Then he obtained a copy
of Hugh Miller's Old Red Sandstone (published in 1841), and
he began systematically to collect with hammer and chisel the
fossils from the Caithness flags. In 1845 he found remains of
Holoptychius and forwarded specimens to Hugh Miller, and he
continued to send the best of his fossil fishes to that geologist, and
to others after the death of Miller. In this way he largely contri-
buted to the progress of geological knowledge, although he him-
self published nothing and was ever averse from publicity. His
herbarium, which consisted of about 200 folios of mosses, ferns
and flowering plants " almost unique in its completeness," is now
stored, with many of his fossils, in the museum at Thurso. Dick
had a hard struggle for existence, especially through competition
during his late years, when he was reduced almost to beggary:
but of this few, if any, of his friends were aware until it was
too late. A monument erected in the new cemetery at Thurso
testifies to the respect which his life-work created, when the
merits of this enthusiastic naturalist came to be appreciated.
See Robert Dick, Baker of Thurso, Geologist and Botanist, by
Samuel Smiles (1878).
DICK, THOMAS (1774-1857), Scottish writer on astronomy,
was born at Dundee on the 24th of November 1774. The
appearance of a brilliant meteor inspired him, when in his ninth
year, with a passion for astronomy; and at the age of sixteen he
forsook the loom, and supported himself by teaching. In 1794
he entered the university of Edinburgh, and set up a school on the
termination of his course; then, in 1801, took out a licence to
preach, and officiated for some years as probationer in the
United Presbyterian church. From about 1807 to 1817 he taught
in the secession school at Methven in Perthshire, and during the
ensuing decade in that of Perth, where he composed his first
substantive book, The Christian Philosopher (1823, 8th ed. 1842).
Its success determined his vocation as an author; he built
himself, in 1827, a cottage at Broughty Ferry, near Dundee, and
devoted himself wholly to literary and scientific pursuits. They
proved, however, owing to his unpractical turn of mind, but
slightly remunerative, and he was in 1847 relieved from actual
poverty by a crown pension of 50 a year, eked out by a> local
subscription. He died on the 2gth of July 1857. His best-known
works are: Celestial Scenery (1837), The Sidereal Heavens
(1840), and The Practical Astronomer (1845), in which is con-
tained (p. 204) a remarkable forecast of the powers and uses of
celestial photography. Written with competent knowledge, and
in an agreeable style, they obtained deserved and widespread
popularity.
See R. Charnbers's Eminent 'Scotsmen (ed. 1868); Monthly Notices
Roy. Astr. Society, xviii. 98; Athenaeum (1857). p. 1008.
(A. M. C.)
DICKENS, CHARLES JOHN HUFFAM (1812-1870), English
novelist, was born on the 7th of February 1812 at a house in
the Mile End Terrace, Commercial Road, Landport (Portsea) a
house which was opened as a Dickens Museum on 22nd July 1904.
His father John Dickens (d. 1851), a clerk in the navy-pay office
DICKENS
179
on a salary of 80 a year, and stationed for the time being at
Portsmouth, had married in 1809 Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas
Barrow, and she bore him a family of eight children, Charles
being the second. In the winter of 1814 the family moved
from Portsea in the snow, as he remembered, to London, and
lodged for a time near the Middlesex hospital. The country
of the novelist's childhood, however, was the kingdom of Kent,
where the family was established in proximity to the dockyard
at Chatham from 1816101821. He looked upon himself in later
years as a man of Kent, and his capital abode as that in Ordnance
Terrace, or 18 St Mary's Place, Chatham, amid surroundings
classified in Mr Pickwick's notes as " appearing " to be soldiers,
sailors, Jews, chalk, shrimps, officers and dockyard men. He fell
into a family the general tendency of which was to go down in
the world, during one of its easier periods (John Dickens was
now fifth clerk on 250 a year), and he always regarded himself
as belonging by right to a comfortable, genteel, lower middle-
class stratum of society. His mother taught him to read; to his
father he appeared very early in the light of a young prodigy, and
by him Charles was made to sit on a tall chair and warble popular
ballads, or even to tell stories and anecdotes for the benefit of
fellow-clerks in the office. John Dickens, however, had a small
collection of books which were kept in a little room upstairs
that led out of Charles's own, and in this attic the boy found
his true literary instructors in Roderick Random, Peregrine
Pickle, Humphry Clinker, Tom Jones, The Vicar of Wakcfield,
Don Quixote, Gil Bias and Robinson Crusoe. The story of how he
played at the characters in these books and sustained his idea of
Roderick Random for a month at a stretch is picturesquely told
in David Copperfield. Here as well as in his first and last books
and in what many regard as his best, Great Expectations, Dickens
returns with unabated fondness and mastery to the surround-
ings of his childhood. From seven to nine years he was at a
school kept in Clover Lane ; Chatham, by a Baptist minister
named William Giles, who gave him Goldsmith's Bee as a keep-
sake when the call to Somerset House necessitated the removal
of the family from Rochester to a shabby house in Bayham Street,
Camden Town. At the very moment when a consciousness of
capacity was beginning to plump his youthful ambitions, the
whole flattering dream vanished and left not a rack behind.
Happiness and Chatham had been left behind together, and
Charles was about to enter a school far sterner and also far
more instructive than that in Clover Lane. The family income
had been first decreased and then mortgaged; the creditors of
the " prodigal father " would not give him time; John Dickens
was consigned to the Marshalsea; Mrs Dickens started an
" Educational Establishment " as a forlorn hope in Upper Gower
Street; and Charles, who had helped his mother with the children,
blacked the boots, carried things to the pawnshop and done
other menial work, was now sent out to earn his own living as a
young hand in a blacking warehouse, at Old Hungerford Stairs, on
a salary of six shillings a week. He tied, trimmed and labelled
blacking pots for over a year, dining off a saveloy and a slice of
pudding, consorting with two very rough boys, Bob Fagin and
Pol Green, and sleeping in an attic in Little College Street,
Camden Town, in the house of Mrs Roylance (Pipchin), while on
Sunday he spent the day with his parents in their comfortable
prison, where they had the services of a " marchioness " imported
from the Chatham workhouse.
Already consumed by ambition, proud, sensitive and on his
dignity to an extent not uncommon among boys of talent, he felt
his position keenly, and in later years worked himself up into a
passion of self-pity in connexion with the " degradation " and
" humiliation " of this episode. The two years of childish hard-
ship which ate like iron into his soul were obviously of supreme
importance in the growth of the novelist. Recollections of the
streets and the prison and its purlieus supplied him with a store
of literary material upon which he drew through all the years of
his best activity. And the bitterness of such an experience was
not prolonged sufficiently to become sour. From 1824 to 1826,
having been rescued by a family quarrel and by a windfall in the
shape of a legacy to his father, from the warehouse, he spent two
years at an academy known as Wellington House, at the corner
of Granby Street and the Hampstead Road (the lighter traits of
which are reproduced in Salem House), and was there known as
a merry and rather mischievous boy. Fortunately he learned
nothing there to compromise the results of previous instruction.
His father had now emerged from the Marshalsea and was seeking
employment as a parliamentary reporter. A Gray's Inn solicitor
with whom he had had dealings was attracted by the bright,
clever look of Charles, and took him into his office as a boy at
a salary of thirteen and sixpence (rising to fifteen shillings) a
week. He remained in Mr Blackmore's office from May 1827 to
November 1828, but he had lost none of his eager thirst for dis-
tinction, and spent all his spare time mastering Gurney's short-
hand and reading early and late at the British Museum. A more
industrious apprentice in the lower grades of the literary profession
has never been known, and the consciousness of opportunities
used to the most splendid advantage can hardly have been absent
from the man who was shortly to take his place at the head of it
as if to the manner born. Lowten and Guppy, and Swiveller
had been observed from this office lad's stool; he was now
greatly to widen his area of study as a reporter in Doctors'
Commons and various police courts, including Bow Street,
working all day at law and much of the night at shorthand. Some
one asked John Dickens, during the first eager period of curiosity
as to the man behind " Pickwick," where his son Charles was
educated. " Well really," said the prodigal father, " he may be
said haw haw to have educated himself." He was one of
the most rapid and accurate reporters in London when, at nine-
teen years of age, in 1831, he realized his immediate ambition
and "entered the gallery" as parliamentary reporter to the
True Sun. Later he was reporter to the Mirror of Parliament
and then to the Morning Chronicle. Several of his earliest letters
are concerned with his exploits as a reporter, and allude to the
experiences he had, travelling fifteen miles an hour and being
upset in almost every description of known vehicle in various parts
of Britain between 1831 and 1836. The family was now living in
Bentwick Street, Manchester Square, but John Dickens was
still no infrequent inmate of the sponging-houses. With all the
accessories of these places of entertainment his son had grown to
be excessively familiar. Writing about 1832 to his school friend
Tom Mitton, Dickens tells him that his father has been arrested
at the suit of a wine firm, and begs him go over to Cursitcr Street
and see what can be done. On another occasion of a paternal
disappearance he observes: " I own that his absence does not
give me any great uneasiness, knowing how apt he is to get out
of the way when anything goes wrong." In yet another letter
he asks for a loan of four shillings.
In the meanwhile, however, he had commenced author in a
more creative sense by penning some sketches of contemporary
London life, such as he had attempted in his school days in imita-
tion of the sketches published in the London and other magazines
of that day. The first of these appeared in the December number
of the Old Monthly Magazine for 1833. By the following August,
when the signature " Boz " was first given, five of these sketches
had appeared. By the end of 1834 we find him settled in rooms
in Furnival's Inn, and a little later his salary on the Morning
Chronicle was raised, owing to the intervention of one of its chiefs,
George Hogarth, the father of (in addition to six sons) eight
charming daughters, to one of whom, Catherine, Charles was
engaged to be married before the year was out. Clearly as his
career now seemed designated, he was at this time or a little before
it coquetting very seriously with the stage: but circumstances
were rapidly to determine another stage in his career. A year
before Queen Victoria's accession appeared in two volumes
Sketches by Boz, Illustrative of Everyday Life and Everyday
People. The book came from a prentice hand, but like the
little tract on the Puritan abuse of the Sabbath entitled " Sunday
under three Heads " which appeared a few months later, it
contains in germ all, or almost all, the future Dickens. Glance
at the headings of the pages. Here we have the Beadle and all
connected with him, London streets, theatres, shows, the pawn-
shop, Doctors' Commons, Christmas, Newgate, coaching, the
i8o
DICKENS
river. Here comes a satirical picture of parliament, fun made of
cheap snobbery, a rap on the knuckles of sectarianism. And what
could be more prophetic than the title of the opening chapter
Our Parish? With the Parish a large one indeed Dickens
to the end concerned himself; he began with a rapid survey of
his whole field, hinting at all he might accomplish, indicating
the limits he was not to pass. This year was to be still more
momentous to Dickens, for, on the 2nd of April 1836, he was
married to George Hogarth's eldest daughter Catherine. He
seems to have fallen in love with the daughters collectively,
and, judging by subsequent events, it has been suggested that
perhaps he married the wrong one. His wife's sister Mary was
the romance of his early married life, and another sister, Georgina,
was the dearest friend of his last ten years.
A few days before the marriage, just two months after the
appearance of the Sketches, the first part of The Posthumous Papers
of the Pickwick Club was announced. One of the chief vogues of
the day was the issue of humorous, sporting or anecdotal novels
in parts, with plates, and some of the best talent of the day, repre-
sented by Ainsworth, Bulwer, Marryat, Maxwell, Egan, Hook
and Surtees, had been pressed into this kind of enterprise. The
pubh'shers of the day had not been slow to perceive Dickens's
aptitude for this species of " letterpress." A member of the
firm of Chapman & Hall called upon him at Furnival's Inn in
December 1835 with a proposal that he should write about a
Nimrod Club of amateur sportsmen, foredoomed to perpetual
ignominies, while the comic illustrations were to be etched by
Seymour, a well-known rival of Cruikshank (the illustrator of
Boz). The offer -was too tempting for Dickens to refuse, but he
changed the idea from a club of Cockney sportsmen to that of a
club of eccentric peripatetics, on the sensible grounds, first that
sporting sketches were stale, and, secondly, that he knew nothing
worth speaking of about sport. The first seven pictures appeared
with the signature of Seymour and the letterpress of Dickens.
Before the eighth picture appeared Seymour had blown his brains
out. After a brief interval of Buss, Dickens obtained the services
of Hablot K. Browne, known to all as " Phiz." Author and
illustrator were as well suited to one another and to the common
creation of a unique thing as Gilbert and Sullivan. Having early
got rid of the sporting element, Dickens found himself at once.
The subject exactly suited his knowledge, his skill in arranging
incidents nay, his very limitations too. No modern book is
so incalculable. We ccmmence laughing heartily at Pickwick
and his troupe. The laugh becomes kindlier. We are led on
through a tangle of adventure, never dreaming what is before us.
The landscape changes: Pickwick becomes the symbol of kind-
heartedness, simplicity and innocent levity. Suddenly in the Fleet
Prison a deeper note is struck. The medley of human relation-
ships, the loneliness, the mystery and sadness of human destinies
are fathomed. The tragedy of human life is revealed to us amid
its most farcical elements. The droll and laughable figure of the
hero is transfigured by the kindliness of human sympathy into
a beneficent and bespectacled angel in shorts and gaiters. By
defying accepted rules, Dickens had transcended the limited
sphere hitherto allotted to his art: he had produced a book to
be enshrined henceforth in the inmost hearts of all sorts and
conditions of his countrymen, and had definitely enlarged the
boundaries of English humour and English fiction. As for Mr
Pickwick, he is a fairy like Puck or Santa Claus, while his creator
is " the last of the mythologists and perhaps the greatest."
When The Pickwick Papers appeared in book form at the close
of 1837 Dickens's popular reputation was made. From the
appearance of Sam Weller in part v. the universal hunger for the
monthly parts had risen to a furore. The book was promptly
translated into French and German. The author had received
little assistance from press or critics, he had no influential con-
nexions, his class of subjects was such as to " expose him at the
outset to the fatal objections of vulgarity," yet in less than six
months from the appearance of the first number, as the Quarterly
Review almost ruefully admits, the whole reading world was
talking about the Pickwickians. The names of Winkle, Wardle,
Weller, Jingle, Snodgrass, Dodson & Fogg, were as familiar as
household words. Pickwick chintzes figured in the linendrapers"
windows, and Pickwick cigars in every tobacconist's; Weller
corduroys became the stock-in-trade of every breeches-maker;
Boz cabs might be seen rattling through the streets, and the
portrait of the author of Pelham and Crichton was scraped down
to make way for that of the new popular favourite on the omni-
buses. A new and original genius had suddenly sprung up, there
was no denying it, even though, as the Quarterly concluded, " it
required no gift of prophecy to foretell his fate he has risen like
a rocket and he will come down like the stick." It would have
needed a very emphatic gift of prophecy indeed to foretell that
Dickens's reputation would have gone on rising until at the
present day (after one sharp fall, which reached an extreme
about 1887) it stands higher than it has ever stood before.
Dickens's assumption of the literary purple was as amazing as
anything else about him. Accepting the homage of the luminaries
of the literary, artistic and polite worlds as if it had been his
natural due, he arranges for the settlement of his family, decrees,
like another Edmund Kean, that his son is to go to Eton, carries
on the most complicated negotiations with his publishers and
editors, presides and orates with incomparable force at innumer-
able banquets, public and private, arranges elaborate villegiatures
in the country, at the seaside, in France or in Italy, arbitrates in
public on every topic, political, ethical, artistic, social or literary,
entertains and legislates for an increasingly large domestic circle,
both juvenile and adult, rules himself and his time-table with
a rod of iron. In his letter-writing alone, Dickens did a life's
literary work. Nowadays no one thinks of writing such letters;
that is to say, letters of such length and detail, for the quality is
Dickens's own. He evidently enjoyed this use of the pen. Page
after page of Forster's Life (750 pages in the Letters edited by
his daughter and sister-in-law) is occupied with transcription from
private correspondence, and never a line of this but is thoroughly
worthy of print and preservation. ^ If he makes a tour in any
part of the British Isles, he writes a full description of all he
sees, of everything that happens, and writes it with such gusto,
such mirth, such strokes of fine picturing, as appear in no other
private letters ever given to the public. Naturally buoyant in
all circumstances, a holiday gave him the exhilaration of a school-
boy. See how he writes from Cornwall, when on a trip with two
or three friends, in 1843. " Heavens ! if you could have seen the
necks of bottles, distracting in their immense variety of shape,
peering out of the carriage pockets ! If you could have witnessed
the deep devotion of the post-boys, the maniac glee of the waiters !
If you could have followed us into the earthy old churches we
visited, and into the strange caverns on the gloomy seashore, and
down into the depths of mines, and up to the tops of giddy heights,
where the unspeakably green water was roaring, I don't know
how many hundred feet below. ... I never laughed in my life
as I did on this journey. It would have done you good to hear
me. I was choking and gasping and bursting the buckles off the
back of my stock, all the way. And Stanfield " the painter
" got into such apoplectic entanglements that, we were obliged
to beat him on the back with portmanteaus before we could
recover him."
The animation of Dickens's look would attract the attention
of any one, anywhere. His figure was not that of an Adonis, but
his brightness made him the centre and pivot of every society
he was in. The keenness and vivacity of his eye combined with
his inordinate appetite for life to give the unique quality to all
that he wrote. His instrument is that of the direct, sinewy
English of Smollett, combined with much of the humorous grace
of Goldsmith (his two favourite authors), but modernized to a
certain extent under the influence of Washington Irving, Sydney
Smith, Jeffrey, Lamb, and other writers of the London Magazine.
He taught himself to speak French and Italian, but he could have
read little in any language. His ideas were those of the inchoate
and insular liberalism of the 'thirties. His unique force in
literature he was to owe to no supreme artistic or intellectual
quality, but almost entirely to his inordinate gift of observation,
his sympathy with the humble, his power over the emotions
and his incomparable endowment of unalloyed human fun. To
DICKENS
181
contemporaries he was not so much a man as an institution, at
the very mention of whose name faces were puckered with grins
or wreathed in smiles. To many his work was a revelation, the
revelation of a new world and one far better than their own.
And his influence went further than this in the direction of
revolution or revival. It gave what were then universally referred
to as " the lower orders " a new sense of self-respect, a new
feeling of citizenship. Like the defiance of another Luther, or the
Declaration of a new Independence, it emitted a fresh ray of hope
across the firmament. He did for the whole English-speaking
race what Burns had done for Scotland he gave it a new
conceit of itself. He knew what a people wanted and he told
what he knew. He could do this better than anybody else
because his mind was theirs. He shared many of their " great
useless virtues," among which generosity ranks before justice, and
sympathy before truth, even though, true to his middle-class vein,
he exalts piety, chastity and honesty in a manner somewhat alien
to the mind of the low-bred man. This is what makes Dickens
such a demigod and his public success such a marvel, and this
also is why any exclusively literary criticism of his work is bound
to be so inadequate. It should also help us to make the necessary
allowances for the man. Dickens, even the Dickens of legend
that we know, is far from perfect. The Dickens of reality to
which Time may furnish a nearer approximation is far less
perfect. But when we consider the corroding influence of adula-
tion, and the intoxication of unbridled success, we cannot but
wonder at the relatively high level of moderation and self-control
that Dickens almost invariably observed. Mr G. K. Chesterton
remarks suggestively that Dickens had all his life the faults of
the little boy who is kept up too late at night. He is overwrought
by happiness to the verge of exasperation, and yet as a matter
of fact he does keep on the right side of the breaking point. The
specific and curative in his case was the work in which he took
such anxious pride, and such unmitigated delight. He revelled
in punctual and regular work; at his desk he was often in the
highest spirits. Behold how he pictured himself, one day at
BroadstairS, where he was writing Chuzzlewit. " In a bay-
window in a one-pair sits, from nine o'clock to one, a gentleman
with rather long hair and no neckcloth, who writes and grins, as
if he thought he was very funny indeed. At one he disappears,
presently emerges from a bathing-machine, and may be seen,
a kind of salmon-colour porpoise, splashing about in the ocean.
After that, he may be viewed in another bay-window on the
ground-floor eating a strong lunch; and after that, walking a
dozen miles or so, or lying on his back on the sand reading a book.
Nobody bothers him, unless they know he is disposed to be
talked to, and I am told he is very comfortable indeed. He's as
brown as a berry, and they do say he is as good as a small fortune
to the innkeeper, who sells beer and cold punch." Here is the
secret of such work as that of Dickens; it is done with delight
done (in a sense) easily, done with the mechanism of mind and
body in splendid order. Even so did Scott write ; though more
rapidly and with less conscious care: his chapter finished before
the world had got up to breakfast. Later, Dickens produced
novels less excellent with much more of mental strain. The
effects of age could not have shown themselves so soon, but
for the unfortunate loss of energy involved in his non-literary
labours.
While the public were still rejoicing in the first sprightly
runnings of the " new humour," the humorist set to work
desperately on the grim scenes of Oliver Twist, the story of a
parish orphan, the nucleus of which had already seen the light
in his Sketches. The early scenes are of a harrowing reality,
despite the germ of forced pathos which the observant reader may
detect in the pitiful parting between Oliver and little Dick; but
what will strike every reader at once in this book is the direct-
ness and power of the English style, so nervous and unadorned:
from its unmistakable clearness and vigour Dickens was to travel
far as time went on. But the full effect of the old simplicity is
felt in such masterpieces of description as the drive of Oliver and
Sikes to Chertsey, the condemned-cell ecstasy of Fagin, or the
unforgettable first encounter between Oliver and the Artful
Dodger. Before November 1837 had ended, Charles Dickens
entered on an engagement to write a successor to Pickwick on
similar lines of publication. Oliver Twist was then in mid-career;
a Life of Grimaldi and Barnaby Ritdge were already covenanted
for. Dickens forged ahead with the new tale of Nicholas Nickleby
and was justified by the results, for its sale far surpassed even
that of Pickwick. As a conception it is one of his weakest. An
unmistakably 18th-century character pervades it. Some of the
vignettes are among the most piquant and besetting ever written.
Large parts of it are totally unobserved conventional melo-
drama; but the Portsmouth Theatre and Dotheboys Hall and
Mrs Nickleby (based to some extent, it is thought, upon Miss
Bates in Emma, but also upon the author's Mamma) live for ever
as Dickens conceived them in the pages of Nicholas Nickleby.
Having got rid of Nicholas Nickleby and resigned his editor-
ship of Bentley's Miscellany, in which Oliver Twist originally
appeared, Dickens conceived the idea of a weekly periodical to
be issued as Master Humphrey's Clock, to comprise short stories,
essays and miscellaneous papers, after the model of Addison's
Spectator. To make the weekly numbers " go," he introduced
Mr Pickwick, Sam Weller and his father in friendly intercourse.
But the public requisitioned " a story," and in No. 4 he had
to brace himself up to give them one. Thus was commenced
The Old Curiosity Shop, which was continued with slight inter-
ruptions, and followed by Barnaby Rudge. For the first time
we find Dickens obsessed by a highly complicated plot. The
tonality achieved in The Old Curiosity Shop surpassed anything
he had attempted in this difficult vein, while the rich humour of
Dick Swiveller and the Marchioness, and the vivid portraiture
of the wandering Bohemians, attain the very highest level of
Dickensian drollery; but in the lamentable tale of Little Nell
(though Landor and Jeffrey thought the character-drawing of
this infant comparable with that of Cordelia), it is generally
admitted that he committed an indecent assault upon the
emotions by exhibiting a veritable monster of piety and long-
suffering in a child of tender years. In Barnaby Rudge he was
manifestly affected by the influence of Scott, whose achievements
he always regarded with a touching veneration. The plot, again,
is of the utmost complexity, and Edgar Allan Poe (who predicted
the conclusion) must be one of the few persons who ever really
mastered it. But few of Dickens's books are written in a more
admirable style.
Master Humphrey's Clock concluded, Dickens started in 1842
on his first visit to America an episode hitherto without parallel
in English literary history, for he was received everywhere with
popular acclamation as the representative of a grand triumph
of the English language and imagination, without regard to
distinctions of nationality. He offended the American public
grievously by a few words of frank description and a few
quotations of the advertisement columns of American papers
illustrating the essential barbarity of the old slave system
(American Notes) . Dickens was soon pining for home no English
writer is more essentially and insularly English in inspiration
and aspiration than he is. He still brooded over the perverseness
of America on the copyright question, and in his next book he
took the opportunity of uttering a few of his impressions about
the objectionable sides of American democracy, the result being
that " all Yankee-doodle-dom blazed up like one universal soda
bottle," as Carlyle said. Martin Chuzzlewit (1843-1844) is import-
ant as closing his great character period. His sew originale, as the
French would say, was by this time to a considerable extent
exhausted, and he had to depend more upon artistic elaboration,
upon satires, upon tours de force of description, upon romantic
and ingenious contrivances. But all these resources combined
proved unequal to his powers as an original observer of popular
types, until he reinforced himself by autobiographic reminiscence,
as in David Copperfield and Great Expectations, the two great
books remaining to his later career.
After these two masterpieces and the three wonderful books
with which he made his debut, we are inclined to rank Chuzzlewit.
Nothing in Dickens is more admirably seen and presented than
Todgers's, a bit of London particular cut out with a knife. Mr
182
DICKENS
Pecksniff and Mrs Gamp, Betsy Prig and " Mrs Harris " have
passed into the national language and life. The coach journey,
the windy autumn night, the stealthy trail of Jonas, the under-
tone of tragedy in the Charity and Mercy and Chuffey episodes
suggest a blending of imaginative vision and physical penetration
hardly seen elsewhere. Two things are specially notable about
this novel the exceptional care taken over it (as shown by the
interlineations in the MS.) and the caprice or nojichalance of
the purchasing public, its sales being far lower than those of
any of its monthly predecessors.
At the close of 1843, to pay outstanding debts of his now
lavish housekeeping, he wrote that pioneer of Christmas numbers,
that national benefit as Thackeray called it, A Christmas Carol.
It failed to realize his pecuniary anticipations, and Dickens
resolved upon a drastic policy of retrenchment and reform.
He would save expense by living abroad and would punish his
publishers by withdrawing his custom from them, at least for a
time. Like everything else upon which he ever determined, this
resolution was carried out with the greatest possible precision and
despatch. In June 1844 he set out for Marseilles with his now
rapidly increasing family (the journey cost him 200). In a villa
on the outskirts of Genoa he wrote The Chimes, which, during a
brief excursion to London before Christmas, he read to a select
circle of friends (the germ of his subsequent lecture-audiences),
including Forster, Carlyle, Stanfield, Dyce, Maclise and Jerrold.
He was again in London in 1845, enjoying his favourite diversion
of private theatricals; and in January 1846 he experimented
briefly as the editor of a London morning paper the Daily
News. By early spring he was back at Lausanne, writing his
customary vivid letters to his friends, craving as usual for
London streets, commencing Dombey and Son, and walking his
fourteen miles daily. The success of Dombey and Son completely
rehabilitated the master's finances, enabled him to return to
England, send his son to Eton and to begin to save money.
Artistically it is less satisfactory; it contains some of Dickens's
prime curios, such as Cuttle, Bunsby, Toots, Blimber, Pipchin,
Mrs MacStinger and young Biler; it contains also that master-
piece of sentimentality which trembles upon the borderland
of the sublime and the ridiculous, the death of Paul Dombey
(" that sweet Paul," as Jeffrey, the " critic laureate," called him),
and some grievous and unquestionable blemishes. As a narrative,
moreover, it tails off into a highly complicated and exacting plot.
It was followed by a long rest at Broadstairs before Dickens
returned to the native home of his genius, and early in 1849
" began to prepare for David Copperfield. "
" Of all my books," Dickens wrote, " I like this the best; like
many fond parents I have my favourite child, and his name is
David Copperfield." In some respects it stands to Dickens in
something of the same relation in which the contemporary
Pendennis stands to Thackeray. As in that book, too, the earlier
portions are the best. They gained in intensity by the auto-
biographical form into which they are thrown; as Thackeray
observed, there was no writing against such power. The tragedy
of Emily and the character of Rosa Dartle are stagey and unreal;
Uriah Heep is bad art; Agnes, again, is far less convincing
as a consolation than Dickens would have us believe; but these
are more than compensated by the wonderful realization
of early boyhood in the book, by the picture of Mr Creakle's
school, the Peggottys, the inimitable Mr Micawber, Betsy Trot-
wood and that monument of selfish misery, Mrs Gummidge.
At the end of March 1850 commenced the new twopenny
weekly called Household Words, which Dickens planned to form
a direct means of communication between himself and his
readers, and as a means of collecting around him and encouraging
the talents of the younger generation. No one was better quali-
fied than he for this work, whether we consider his complete
freedom from literary jealousy or his magical gift of inspiring
young authors. Following the somewhat dreary and incoherent
Bleak House of 1852, Hard Times (1854) an anti-Manchester
School tract, which Ruskin regarded as Dickens's best work was
the first long story written for Household Words. About this
time Dickens made his final home at Gad's Hill, near Rochester,
and put the finishing touch to another long novel published upon
the old plan, Little Dorrit (1855-1857). In spite of the exquisite
comedy of the master of the Marshalsea and the final tragedy
of the central figure, Little Dorrit is sadly deficient in the old
vitality, the humour is often a mock reality, and the repetition
of comic catch-words and overstrung similes and metaphors is
such as to affect the reader with nervous irritation. The plot
and characters ruin each other in this amorphous production.
The Tale of Two Cities, commenced in All the Year Round (the
successor of Household Words) in 1859, is much better: the main
characters are powerful, the story genuinely tragic, and the
atmosphere lurid; but enormous labour was everywhere ex-
pended upon the construction of stylistic ornament.
The Tale of Two Cities was followed by two finer efforts at
atmospheric delineation, the best things he ever did of this kind:
Great Expectations (1861), over which there broods the mournful
impression of the foggy marshes of the Lower Thames; and Our
Mutual Friend (1864-1865), in which the ooze and mud and
slime of Rotherhithe, its boatmen and loafers, are made to per-
vade the whole book with cumulative effect. The general effect
produced by the stories is, however, very different. In the first
case, the foreground was supplied by autobiographical material
of the most vivid interest, and the lucidity of the creative impulse
impelled .him to write upon this occasion with the old simplicity,,
though with an added power. Nothing therefore, in the whole
range of Dickens surpassed the early chapters of Great Expecta-
tions in perfection of technique or in mastery of all the resources
of the novelist's art. To have created Abel Magwitch alone is to
be a god indeed, says Mr Swinburne, among the creators of death-
less men. Pumblechook is actually better and droller and truer
to imaginative life than Pecksniff; Joe Gargery is worthy to have
been praised and loved at once by Fielding and by Sterne: Mr
Jaggers and his ch'ents, Mr Wemmick and his parent and his
bride, are such figures as Shakespeare, when dropping out of
poetry, might have created, if his lot had been cast in a later
century. " Can as much be said," Mr Swinburne boldly asks,
" for the creatures of any other man or god ? "
In November 1867 Dickens made a second expedition to
America, leaving all the writing that he was ever to complete be-
hind him. He was to make a round sum of money, enough to free
him from all embarrassments, by a long series of exhausting read-
ings, commencing at the Tremont Temple, Boston, on the 2nd of
December. The strain of Dickens's ordinary life was so tense and
so continuous that it is, perhaps, rash to assume that he broke
down eventually under this particular stress; for other reasons,
however, his persistence in these readings, subsequent to his
return, was strongly deprecated by his literary friends, led by
the arbitrary and relentless Forster. It is a long testimony to
Dickens's self-restraint, even in his most capricious and despotic
moments, that he never broke the cord of obligation which bound
him to his literary mentor, though sparring matches between them
were latterly of frequent occurrence. His farewell reading was
given on the isth of March 1870, at St James's Hall. He then
vanished from " those garish lights," as he called them, " for
evermore." Of the three brief months that remained to him,
his last book, The Mystery of Edwin Drood, was the chief occupa-
tion. It hardly promised to become a masterpiece (Longfellow's
opinion) as did Thackeray's Denis Duval, but contained much fine
descriptive technique, grouped round a scene of which Dickens
had an unrivalled sympathetic knowledge.
In March and April 1870 Dickens, as was his wont, was mixing
in the best society; he dined with the prince at Lord Houghton's
and was twice at court, once at a long deferred private interview
with the queen, who had given him a presentation copy of her
Leaves from a Journal of our Life in the Highlands with the
inscription " From one of the humblest of authors to one of the
greatest "; and who now begged him on his persistent refusal
of any other title to accept the nominal distinction of a privy
councillor. He took for four months the Milner Gibsons' house
at 5 Hyde Park Place, opposite the Marble Arch, where he gave
a brilliant reception on the 7th of April. His last public appear-
ance was made at the Royal Academy banquet early in May.
DICKENS
183
He returned to his regular methodical routine of work at Gad's
Hill on the 3oth of May, and one of the last instalments he wrote
of Edwin Drood contained an ominous speculation as to the next
two people to die at Cloisterham: " Curious to make a guess at
the two, or say at one of the two." Two letters bearing the well-
known superscription " Gad's Hill Place, Higham by Rochester,
Kent " are dated the 8th of June, and, on the same Thursday, after
a long spell of writing in the Chalet where he habitually wrote,
he collapsed suddenly at dinner. Startled by the sudden change
in the colour and expression of his face, his sister-in-law (Miss
Hogarth) asked him if he was ill; he said " Yes, very ill," but
added that he would finish dinner and go on afterwards to London.
" Come and lie down," she entreated; " Yes, on the ground,"
he said, very distinctly; these were the last words he spoke, and
he slid from her arms and fell upon the floor. He died at 6-10 P.M.
on Friday, the gth of June, and was buried privately in Poets'
Corner, Westminster Abbey, in the early morning of the i4th of
June. One of the most appealing memorials was the drawing
by his " new illustrator " Luke Fildes in the Graphic of " The
Empty Chair; Gad's Hill: ninth of June, 1870." " Statesmen,
men of science, philanthropists, the acknowledged benefactors of
their race, might pass away, and yet not leave the void which will
be caused by the death of Charles Dickens " (The Times). In
his will he enjoined his friends to erect no monument in his
honour, and directed his name and dates only to be inscribed on
his tomb, adding this proud provision, " I rest my claim to
the remembrance of my country on my published works."
Dickens had no artistic ideals worth speaking about. The
sympathy of his readers was the one thing he cared about and,
like Cobbett, he went straight for it through the avenue of the
emotions. In personality, intensity and range of creative genius
he can hardly be said to have any modern rival. His creations
live, move and have their being about us constantly, like those
of Homer, Virgil, Chaucer, Rabelais, Cervantes, Shakespeare,
Btmyan, Moliere and Sir Walter Scott. As to the books them-
selves, the backgrounds on which these mighty figures are pro-
jected, they are manifestly too vast, too chaotic and too unequal
ever to become classics. Like most of the novels constructed upon
the unreformed model of Smollett and Fielding, those of Dickens
are enormous stock-pots into which the author casts every kind
of autobiographical experience, emotion, pleasantry, anecdote,
adage or apophthegm. The fusion is necessarily very incomplete
and the hotch-potch is bound to fall to pieces with time.
Dickens's plots, it must be admitted, are strangely unintelligible,
the repetitions and stylistic decorations of his work exceed
all bounds, the form is unmanageable and insignificant. The
diffuseness of the English novel, in short, and its extravagant
didacticism cannot fail to be most prejudicial to its perpetuation.
In these circumstances there is very little fiction that will stand
concentration and condensation so well as that of Dickens.
For these reasons among others our interest in Dickens's novels
as integers has diminished and is diminishing. But, on the other
hand, our interest and pride in him as a man and as a repre-
sentative author of his age and nation has been steadily augmented
and is still mounting. Much of the old criticism of his work, that
it was not up to a sufficiently high level of art, scholarship or
gentility, that as an author he is given to caricature, redundancy
and a shameless subservience to popular caprice, must now be
discarded as irrelevant.
As regards forn T.1 excellence it is plain that Dickens labours
under the double disadvantage of writing in the least disciplined
of all literary genres ir the most lawless literary milieu of the
modern world, that of \'ictorian England. In spite of these
defects, which are those of masters such as Rabelais, Hugo and
Tolstoy, the work of Dickens is more and more instinctively felt
to be true, original and ennobling. It is already beginning to
undergo a process of automatic s. if ting, segregation and crystalliza-
tion, at the conclusion of which it will probably occupy a larger
segment in the literary conscious ness of the English-spoken race
than ever before.
Portraits of Dickens, from the ^ay and alert " Boz " of Samuel
Lawrence, and the self-consciou , rather foppish portrait by
Maclise which served as frontispiece to Nicholas Nickleby, to
the sketch of him as Bobadil by C. R. Leslie, the Drummond and
Ary Scheffer portraits of middle age and the haggard and drawn
representations of him from photographs after his shattering
experiences as a public entertainer from 1856 (the year of his
separation from his wife) onwards, are reproduced in Kitton, in
Forster and Gissing and in the other biographies. Sketches are
also given in most of the books of his successive dwelling places
at Ordnance Terrace and 18 St Mary's Place, Chatham; Bayham
Street, Camden Town; 15 FurnivaPs Inn; 48 Doughty Street;
i Devonshire Terrace, Regent's Park; Tavistock House,
Tavistock Square; and Gad's Hill Place. The manuscripts of all
the novels, with the exception of the Tale of Two Cities and
Edwin Drood, were given to Forster, and are now preserved in the
Dyce and Forster Museum at South Kensington. The work of
Dickens was a prize for which publishers naturally contended both
before and after his death. The first collective edition of his
works was begun in April 1847, and their number is now very
great. The most complete is still that of Messrs Chapman &
Hall, the original publishers of Pickwick; others of special
interest are the Harrap edition, originally edited by F. G. Kitton;
Macmillan's edition with original illustrations and introduction
by Charles Dickens the younger; and the edition in the World's
Classics with introductions by G. K. Chesterton. Of the transla-
tions the best known is that done into French by Lorain, Pichot
and others, with B.H. Gausseron's excellent Pages Choisies (1903).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. During his lifetime Dickens's biographer was
clearly indicated in his guide, philosopher and friend, John Forster,
who had known the novelist intimately since the days of his first
triumph with Pickwick, who had constituted himself a veritable
encyclopaedia of information about Dickens, and had clung to his
subject (in spite of many rebuffs which his peremptory temper found
it hard to digest) as tightly as ever Boswell had enveloped Johnson.
Two volumes of Forster's Life of Charles Dickens appeared in 1872
and a third in 1874. He relied much on Dickens's letters to himself
and produced trifl^ must always remain the authoritative work.
The first two volumes are put together with much art, the portrait
as a whole has been regarded as truthful, and the immediate success
was extraordinary. In the opinion of Carlyle, Forster's book was not
unworthy to be named after that of Boswell. A useful abridgment
was carried out in 1903 by the novelist George Gissing. Gissing also
wrote Charles Dickens: A Critical Study (1898), which ranks with
G.K.Chesterton's Charles Didkens(i<)o6)as a commentary inspired by
deep insight and adorned by great literary talent upon the genius of
the master-novelist. The names of other lives, sketches, articles and
estimates of Dickens and his works would occupy a large volume in
the mere enumeration. See R. H. Shepherd, The Bibliography of
Dickens (1880) ; James Cqoke's Bibliography of the Writings of Charles
Dickens (1879); Dickensiana, by F. G. Kitton (1886); and Biblio-
graphy by J. P. Anderson, appended to Sir F. T. Marzials's Life of
Charles Dickens (1887). Among the earlier sketches may be specially
cited the lives by I. C. Hotten and G. A. Sala (1870), the Anecdote-
Biography edited by the American R. H. Stoddard (1874), Dr A. W.
Ward in the English Men of Letters Series (1878), that by Sir Leslie
Stephen in the Dictionary of National Biography, and that by Pro-
fessor Minto in the eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica.
The Letters were first issued in two volumes edited by his daughter
and sister-in-law in 1880. For Dickens's connexion with Kent the
following books are specially valuable : ^Robert Langton's Childhood
and Youth of Charles Dickens (1883) ; Langton s Dickens and
Rochester (1880); Thomas Frost's In Kent with Charles Dickens
(1880); F. G. Kitten's The Dickens Country (1905); H. S. Ward's
The Real Dickens Land (1004) ; R. Allbut's Rambles in Dickens Land
(1899 and 1903). For Dickens's reading tours see G. Dolby's
Charles Dickens as I knew him (1884) ; J. T. Fields's In and Out of
Doors with Charles Dickens (1876); Charles Kent's Dickens as a
Reader (1872). And for other aspects of his life see M. Dickens's My
Father as I recall him (1807) ; P. H. Fitzgerald's Life of C. Dickens as
revealed in his Writings (1905), and Bozland (1895); F. G. Kitton's
Charles Dickens, his Life, Writings and Personality, a useful compen-
dium (1902); T. E. Pemberton's Charles Dickens and the Stage, and
Dickens's London (1876) ; F. Miltoun's Dickens's London (1904) ;
Kitton's Dickens and his Illustrators; W. Teignmouth Shore's Charles
Dickens and his Friends (1904 and 1909); B. W. Matz, Story of
Dickens's Life and Work (1904), and review of solutions to Edwin
Drood in The Bookman for March 1908 ; the recollections of Edmund
Yates, Trollope, James Payn, Lehmann, R. H. Home, Lockwood
and many others. The Dickensian, a magazine devoted to Dickensian
subjects, was started in 1905; it is the organ of the Dickens Fellow-
ship, and in a sense of the Boz Club. A Dickens Dictionary (by G. A.
Pierce) appeared in 1872 and 1878 ; another (by A. J. Philip) in 1909 ;
and a Dickens Concordance by Mary Williams in 1907. (T. SE.)
184
DICKINSON, A. E. DICKSON, J. R.
DICKINSON, ANNA ELIZABETH (1842- ), American
author and lecturer, was born, of Quaker parentage, at
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 28th of October 1842. She
was educated at the Friends' Free School in Philadelphia, and
was for a time a teacher. In 1861 she obtained a clerkship in the
United States mint, but was removed for criticizing General
McClellan at a public meeting. She had gradually become
widely known as an eloquent and persuasive public speaker, one
of the first of her sex to mount the platform to discuss the burning
questions of the hour. Before the Civil War she lectured on
anti-slavery topics, during the warshe toured the country on behalf
of the Sanitary Commission, and also lectured on reconstruction,
temperance and woman's rights. She wrote several plays, in-
cluding The Crown of Thorns (1876) ; Mary Tudor (1878), in which
she appeared in the title role; Aurelian (1878) ; and An American
Girl (1880), successfully acted by Fanny Davenport. She also
published a novel, Which Answer? (1868); A Paying Investment,
a Plea for Education (1876); and A Ragged Register of People,
Places and Opinions (1879).
DICKINSON, JOHN (1732-1808), American statesman and
pamphleteer, was born in Talbot county, Maryland, on the 8th
of November 1732. He removed with his father to Kent county,
Delaware, in 1740, studied under private tutors, read law, and in
1753 entered the Middle Temple, London. Returning to America
in 1757, he began the practice of law in Philadelphia, was speaker
of the Delaware assembly in 1760, and was a member of the
Pennsylvania assembly in 1762-1765 and again in I77&-I776. 1
He represented Pennsylvania in the Stamp Act Congress (1765)
and in the Continental Congress from 1774 to 1776, when he
was defeated owing to his opposition to the Declaration of
Independence. He then retired to Delaware, served for a time
as private and later as brigadier-general in the state militia, and
was again a member of the Continental Congress (from Delaware)
in 1 7 79-1 780. He was president of the executive council, or chief
executive officer, of Delaware in 1781-1782, and of Pennsylvania
in 17821783, and was a delegate from Delaware to the Annapolis
convention of 1786 and the Federal Constitutional convention
of 1787. Dickinson has aptly been called the " Penman of the
Revolution." No other writer of the day presented arguments so
numerous, so timely and so popular. He drafted the " Declara-
tion of Rights " of the Stamp Act Congress, the " Petition to the
King" and the "Address to the Inhabitants of Quebec" of the
congress of 1774, and the second "Petition to the King" 2 and
the "Articles of Confederation" of the second Congress. Most
influential of all, however, were The Letters of a Farmer in
Pennsylvania, written in 1767-1768 in condemnation of the
Townshend Acts of 1767, in which he rejected speculative
natural rights theories and appealed to the common sense of
the people through simple legal arguments. By opposing the
Declaration of Independence, he lost his popularity and was never
able entirely to regain it. As the representative of a small state,
he championed the principle of state equality in the constitu-
tional convention, but was one of the first to advocate the
compromise, which was finally adopted, providing for equal
representation, in one house and proportional representation in
the other. He was probably influenced by Delaware prejudice
against Pennsylvania when he drafted the clause which forbids
the creation of a new state by the junction of two or more states
or parts of states without the consent of the states concerned as
well as of congress. After the adjournment of the convention he
defended its work in a series of letters signed " Fabius," which
will bear comparison with- the best of the Federalist productions.
It was largely through his influence that Delaware and
Pennsylvania were the first two states to ratify the Constitution.
Dickinson's interests were not exclusively political. He helped
to found Dickinson College (named in his honour) at Carlisle,
Pennsylvania, in 1783, was the first president of its board of
1 Being under -the same proprietor and the same governor,
Pennsylvania and Delaware were so closely connected before the
Revolution that there was an interchange of public men.
* The " Declaration of the United Colonies of North America . . .
setting forth the Causes and the Necessity of their Taking up Arms "
(often erroneously attributed to Thomas Jefferson).
trustees, and was for many years its chief benefactor. He died
on the 1 4th of February 1808 and was buried in the Friends'
burial ground in Wilmington, Del.
See C. J. Stille, Life and Times of John Dickinson, and P. L. Ford
(editor), The Writings of John Dickinson, in yols. xiii. and xiv.
respectively of the Memoirs of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania
(Philadelphia, 1891 and 1895).
DICKSON, SIR ALEXANDER ( I7 7 7 -i84o), British artillerist,
entered the Royal Military Academy in 1793, passing out as
second lieutenant in the Royal Artillery in the following year.
As a subaltern he saw service in Minorca in 1798 and at Malta in
1800. As a captain he took part in the unfortunate Montevideo
Expedition of 1806-07, an d m J 8o9 he accompanied_Howorth
to the Peninsular War as brigade-major of the artillery. He soon
obtained a command in the Portuguese artillery, and as a
lieutenant-colonel of the Portuguese service took part in the
various battles of 1810-11. At the two sieges of Budazoz,
Ciudad Rodrigo, the Salamanca forts and Burgos, he was
entrusted by Wellington (who had the highest opinion of him)
with most of the detailed artillery work, and at Salamanca battle
he commanded the reserve artillery. In the end he became
commander of the whole of the artillery of the allied army, and
though still only a substantive captain in the British service he
had under his orders some 8000 men. At Vitoria, the Pyrenees
battles and Toulouse he directed the movements of the artillery
engaged, and at the end of the war received handsome presents
from the officers who had served under him, many of whom were
his seniors in the army list. He was at the disastrous affair of
New Orleans, but returned to Europe in time for the Waterloo
campaign. He was present at Quatre Bras and Waterloo on the
artillery staff of Wellington's army, and subsequently commanded
the British battering train at the sieges of the French fortresses
left behind the advancing allies. For the rest of his life he was on
home service, principally as a staff officer of artillery. He died,
a major-general and G.C.B.,'in 1840. A memorial was erected at
Woolwich in 1847. Dickson was one of the earliest fellows of the
Royal Geographical Society.
His diaries kept in the Peninsula were the main source of informa-
tion used in Duncan's History of the Royal Artillery.
DICKSON, SIR JAMES ROBERT (1832-1901), Australian
statesman, was born in Plymouth on the 3Oth of November 1832.
He was brought up in Glasgow, receiving his education at the
high school, and became a clerk in the City of Glasgow Bank.
In 1854 he emigrated to Victoria, but after some years spent
in that colony and in New South Wales, he settled in 1862 in
Queensland, where he was connected with many important
business enterprises, among them the Royal Bank of Queensland.
He entered the Queensland House of Assembly in 1872, and
became minister of works (1876), treasurer (1876-1879, and 1883-
1887), acting premier (1884), but resigned in 1887 on the question
of taxing land. In 1889 he retired from business, and spent three
years in Europe before resuming political life. He fought for
the introduction of Polynesian labour on the Queensland sugar
plantations at the general election of 1892, and wastelected to the
House of Assembly in that year and again at the elections of 1893
and 1896. He became secretary for railways in 1897, minister for
home affairs in 1898, represented Queensland in the federal
council of Australia in 1896 and at the postal conference at
Hobart in 1898, and in 1898 became premier. His energies were
now devoted to the formation of an Australian commonwealth.
He secured the reference of the question to a plebiscite, the result
of which justified his anticipations. He resigned the premiership
in November 1899, but in the ministry of Robert Philip, formed
in the next month, he was reappo-lnted to the offices of chief
secretary and vice-president of the executive council which he had
combined with the office of premier. He represented Queensland
in 1900 at the conference held in Ijondon to consider the question
of Australian unity, and on his return was appointed minister of
defence in the first government of the Australian Commonwealth.
He did not long survive the ace jmplishment of his political aims,
dying at Sydney on the toth of January 1901, in the midst of
the festivities attending the ii 'auguration of the new state.
DICOTYLEDONS DICTATOR
185
DICOTYLEDONS, in botany, the larger of the two great classes
of angiosperms, embracing most of the common flower -bearing
plants. The name expresses the most universal character of ihe
class, the importance of which was first noticed by John Ray,
namely, the presence of a pair of seed-leaves or cotyledons, in
the plantlet or embryo contained in the seed. The embryo is
generally surrounded by a larger or smaller amount of foodstuff
(endosperm) which serves to nourish it in its development to
form a seedling when the seed germinates; frequently, however,
as in pea or bean and their allies, the whole of the nourishment for
future use is stored up in the cotyledons themselves, which then
become thick and fleshy. In germination of the seed the root of
the embryo (radicle) grows out to get a holdfast for the plant;
this is generally followed by the growth of the short stem
immediately above the root, the so-called " hypocotyl," which
carries up the cotyledons above the ground, where they spread
to the light and become the first green leaves of the plant.
Protected between the cotyledons and terminating the axis of the
plant is the first stem-bud (the plumule of the embryo), by the
further growth and development of which the aerial portion of
the plant, consisting of stem, leaves and branches, is formed,
while the development of the radicle forms the root-system.
The size and manner of growth of the adult plant show a great
variety, from the small herb lasting for one season only, to the
forest tree living for centuries. The arrangement of the conduct-
ing tissue in the stem is characteristic; a transverse section of
the very young stem shows a nunber of distinct conducting
strands vascular bundles arranged in a ring round the pith;
these soon become united to form a closed ring of bast and
wood, separated by a layer of formative lissue (cambium). In
perennials the stem shows a regular increase in thickness each
year by the addition of a new ring of wood outside the old one
for details of structure see PLANTS : A natomy. A similar growth
occurs in the root. This increase in the diameter of stem and root
is correlated with the increase in leaf -area each season, due to the
continued production of new leal -bearing branches. A character-
istic of the class is afforded by the complicated network formed
by the leaf -veins, well seen in a skeleton leaf, from which the soft
parts have been removed by maceration. The parts of the
flower are most frequently arranged in fives, or multiples of fives;
for instance, a common arrangement is as follows, five sepals,
succeeded by five petals, ten stamens in two sets of five, and five
or fewer carpels; an arrangement in fours is less frequent, while
the arrangement in threes, so common in monocotyledons, is rare
in dicotyledons. In some orders the parts are numerous, chiefly
in the case of the stamens and the carpels, as in the buttercup and
other members of the order Ranunculaceae. There is a very wide
range in the general structure and arrangement of the parts of the
flower, associated with the means for ensuring the transference of
pollen; in the simplest cases the flower consists only of a few
stamens or carpels, with no enveloping sepals or petals, as in the
willow, while in the more elaborate type each series is represented,
the whole forming a complicated structure closely correlated
with the size, form and habits of the pollinating agent (see
FLOWER). The characters of the fruit and seed and the means
for ensuring the dispersal of the seeds are also very varied (see
FRUIT).
DICTATOR (from the Lat. diclarc, frequentative of dicere, to
speak). In modern usage this term is loosely used for a personal
ruler enjoying extraordinary and extra-constitutional power.
The etymological sense of one who " dictates " i.e. one whose
word (dictum) is law (from which that of one who " dictates," i.e.
speaks for some writer to record, is to be distinguished) has
been assisted by the historical use of the term, in ancient times,
for an extraordinary magistrate in the Roman commonwealth.
It is unknown precisely how the Roman word .came into use,
though an explanation of the earlier official title, magister popidi,
throws some light on the subject. That designation may mean
" head of the (infantry) host " as opposed to his subordinate, the
magister equitum, who was " head of the cavalry." If this explana-
tion be accepted, emphasis was thus laid in early times on the
military aspect of the dictatorship, and in fact the office seems to
have been instituted for the purpose of meeting a military crisis
such as might have proved too serious for the annual consuls with
their divided command. Later constitutional theory held that
the repression of civil discord was also one of the motives for the
institution of a dictatorship. Such is the view expressed by
Cicero in the De legibus (iii. 3, 9) and by the emperor Claudius
in his extant Oratio (i. 28). This function of the office, although
it may not have been contemplated at first, is attested by
the internal history of Rome. In the crisis of the agitation that
gathered round the Licinian laws (367 B.C.) a dictator was ap-
pointed, and in 314 B.C. we have the notice of a dictator created
for purposes of criminal jurisdiction (quaestionibus exercendis).
The dictator appointed to meet the dangers of war, sedition or
crime was technically described as " the administrative dictator "
(rei gerundae causa) . Minor, or merely formal, needs of the state
might lead to the creation of other types of this office. Thus we
find dictators destined to hold the elections, to make out the list
of the senate, to celebrate games, to establish festivals, and to
drive the nail into the temple of Jupiter an act of natural
magic which was believed to avert pestilence. These dictators
appointed for minor purposes were expected to retire from office
as soon as their function was completed. The " administrative
dictator " held office for at least six months.
The powers of a dictator were a temporary revival of those
of the kings; but there were some limitations to his authority.
He was never concerned with civil jurisdiction, and was
dependent on the senate for supplies of money. His military
authority was confined to Italy; and his power of life and death
over the citizens was at an early period limited by law. It was
probably the lex Valeria of 300 B.C. that made him subject to the
right of criminal appeal (provocatio) within the limits of the city.
But during his tenure of power all the magistrates of the people
were regarded as his subordinates; and it was even held that
the right of assistance (auxilium), furnished by the tribunes of the
plebs to members of the citizen body, should not be effectively
exercised when the state was under this type of martial law. The
dictator was nominated by one of the consuls. But here as else-
where the senate asserted its authority over the magistrates, and
the view was finally held that the senate should not only suggest
the need of nomination but also the name of the nominee. After
the nomination, the imperium of the dictator was confirmed by
a lex curiata (see COMITIA). To emphasize the superiority of this
imperium over that of the consuls, the dictator might be preceded
by twenty-four lictors, not by the usual twelve; and, at least in
the earlier period of the office, these lictors bore the axes, the
symbols of life and death, within the city walls.
Tradition represents the dictatorship as having a life of three
centuries in the history of the Roman state. The first dictator
is said to have been created in 501 B.C.; the last of the
" administrative " dictators belongs to the year 216 B.C. It was
an office that was incompatible both with the grov/ing spirit of
constitutionalism and with the greater security of the city; and
the epoch of the Second Punic War was marked by experiments
with the office, such as the election of Q. Fabius Maximus by the
people, and the co-dictatorship of M. Minucius with Fabius, which
heralded its disuse (see PUNIC WARS). The emergency office of
the early and middle Republic has few points of contact, except
those of the extraordinary position and almost unfettered
authority of its holder, with the dictatorship as revised by Sulla
and by Caesar. Sulla's dictatorship was the form taken by a
piovisional government. He was created " for the establishment
of the Republic." It is less certain whether the dictatorships held
by Caesar were of a consciously provisional character. Since the
office represented the only supreme Imperium in Rome, it was
the natural resort of the founder of a monarchy (see SULLA and
CAESAR) . Ostensibly to prevent its further use for such a purpose,
M. Antonius in 44 B.C. carried a law abolishing the dictatorship as
a part of the constitution.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Mommsen, Romiscfos Staatsrecht, ii. 141 foil.
(3rd ed., Leipzig, 1887); Herzog, Geschichte und System der romi-
schen Staatsverfassung, i. 718 foil. (Leipzig, 1884); Pauly-Wissowa,
Rcalcncyclopddie, v. 370 foil, (new edition, Stuttgart, 1893, &c.);
i86
DICTIONARY
Lange, Romische Alterthumer, i. 542 foil. (Berlin, 1856, &c.) ; Darem-
berg-Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquites grecques et romaines, ii. 161
foil. (1875, &c.); Haverfield, " The Abolition of the Dictatorship,"
in Classical Review, iii. 77. (A. H. J. G.)
DICTIONARY. In its proper and most usual meaning a
dictionary is a book containing a collection of the words of a
language, dialect or subject, arranged alphabetically or
Definition j n some other definite order ,and with explanations in the
"history. sameorsomeother language. When the words are few in
number, being only a small part of those belonging to
the subject, or when they are given without explanation, or some
only are explained, or the explanations are partial, the work is
called a vocabulary; and when there is merely a list of explana-
tions of the technical words and expressions in some particular
subject, a glossary. An alphabetical arrangement of the words
of some book or author with references to the places where
they occur is called an index (q.v.). When under each word
the phrases containing it are added to the references, the work is
called a concordance. Sometimes, however, these names are given
to true dictionaries; thus the great Italian dictionary of the
Accademia della Crusca, in six volumes folio, is called Vocabolario,
and Ernesti's dictionary to Cicero is called Index. When the
words are arranged according to a definite system of classification
under heads and subdivisions, according to their nature or their
meaning, the book is usually called a classed vocabulary; but
when sufficient explanations are given it is often accepted as a
dictionary, like the Onomasticon of Julius Pollux, or the native
dictionaries of Sanskrit, Manchu and many other languages.
Dictionaries were originally books of reference explaining the
words of a language or of some part of it. As the names of
things, as well as those of persons and places, are words, and
often require explanation even more than other classes of words,
they were necessarily included in dictionaries, and often to a very
great extent. In time, books were devoted to them alone, and
were limited to special subjects, and these have so multiplied,
that dictionaries of things now rival in number and variety those
of words or of languages, while they often far surpass them in bulk.
There are dictionaries of biography and history, real and fictitious,
general and special, relating to men of all countries, characters
and professions; the English Dictionary of National Biography
(see BIOGRAPHY) is a great instance of one form of these;
dictionaries of bibliography, relating to all books, or to those
of some particular kind or country; dictionaries of geography
(sometimes called gazetteers) of the whole world, of particular
countries, or of small districts, of towns and of villages, of
castles, monasteries and other buildings. There are dictionaries
of philosophy; of the Bible; of mathematics; of natural history,
zoology, botany; of birds, trees, plants and flowers; of
chemistry, geology and mineralogy; of architecture, painting
and music; of medicine, surgery, anatomy, pathology and
physiology; of diplomacy; of law, canon, civil, statutory and
criminal; of political and social sciences; of agriculture, rural
economy and gardening; of commerce, navigation, horse-
manship and the military arts; of mechanics, machines and
the manual arts. There are dictionaries of antiquities, of
chronology, of dates, of genealogy, of heraldry, of diplomatics, of
abbreviations, of useful receipts, of monograms, of adulterations
and of very many other subjects. These works are separately
referred to in the bibliographies attached to the articles on the
separate subjects. And lastly, there are dictionaries of the arts
and sciences, and their comprehensive offspring, encyclopaedias
(q.v.), which include in themselves every branch of knowledge.
Neither under the heading of dictionary nor under that of
encyclopaedia do we propose to include a mention of every work
of its class, but many of these will be referred to in the separate
articles on the subjects to which they pertain. And in this
article we confine ourselves to an account of those dictionaries
which are primarily word-books. This is practically the most
convenient distinction from the subject-book or encyclopaedia;
though the two characters are often combined in one work. Thus
the Century Dictionary has encyclopaedic features, while the
present edition of the Encyclopaedia Brilannica, restoring its
earlier tradition but carrying out the idea more systematically,
also embodies dictionary features.
Dictionarium is a word of low or modern Latinity; 1 dictio,
from which it was formed, was used in medieval Latin to mean
a word. Lexicon is a corresponding word of Greek origin,
meaning a book of or for words a dictionary. A glossary is
properly a collection of unusual or foreign words requiring
explanation. It is the name frequently given to English
dictionaries of dialects, which the Germans usually call idioticon,
and the Italians vocabolario. Worterbuch, a book of words, was
first used among the Germans, according to Grimm, by Kramer
(1719), imitated from the -Dutch woordenboek. From the Germans
the Swedes and Danes adopted ordbok, ordbog. The Icelandic
ordabdk, like the German, contains the genitive plural. The
Slavonic nations use slovar, slovnik, and the southern Slavs
ryetshnik, from slow, ryetsh, a word, formed, like dictionary
and lexicon, without composition. Many other names have been
given to dictionaries, as thesaurus, Sprachschatz, cornucopia,
gazophylacium, comprehensorium, calholicon, to indicate their
completeness ; manipulus predicantium, promptorium puerorum,
liber memorialis, hortus vocabulorum, ionia (a violet bed), alveary
(a beehive), kamoos (the sea), haft kulzum (the seven seas), tsze
tkn*(a. standard of character), onomasticon, nomenclator, biblio-
theca, elucidario, Mundart-sammlung, clavis, scala, pharetra? La
Crusca from the great Italian dictionary, and Calepino (in Spanish
and Italian) from the Latin dictionary of Calepinus.
The tendency of great dictionaries is to unite in themselves all
the peculiar features of special dictionaries. A large dictionary
is most useful when a word is to be thoroughly studied, or when
there is difficulty in making out the meaning of a word or phrase.
Special dictionaries are more useful for special purposes; for
instance, synonyms are best studied in a dictionary of synonyms.
And small dictionaries are more convenient for frequent use, as
in translating from an unfamiliar language, for words may be
found more quickly, and they present the words and their
meanings in a concentrated and compact form, instead of being
scattered over a large space, and separated by other matter.
Dictionaries of several languages, called polyglots, are of different
kinds. Some are polyglot in the vocabulary, but not in the
explanation, like Johnson's dictionary of Persian and Arabic
explained in English; some in the interpretation, but not in the
vocabulary or explanation, like Calepini ocloglotton, a Latin
dictionary of Latin, with the meanings in seven languages.
Many great dictionaries are now polyglot in this sense. Some are
polyglot in the vocabulary and interpretation, but are explained
in one language, like Jal's Glossaire nautique, a glossary of sea
terms in many languages, giving the equivalents of each word in
the other languages, but the explanation in French. Pauthier's
Annamese Dictionary is polyglot in a peculiar way. It gives
the Chinese characters with their pronunciation in Chinese and
Annamese. Special dictionaries are of many kinds. There are
technical dictionaries of etymology, foreign words, dialects,
secret languages, slang, neology, barbarous words, faults of ex-
pression, choice words, prosody, pronunciation, spelling, orators,
poets, law, music, proper names, particular authors, nouns, verbs,
participles, particles, double forms, difficulties and many others.
Pick's dictionary (Gottingen, 1868, 8vo; 1874-1876, 8vo, 4 vols.)
is a remarkable attempt to ascertain the common language of
the Indo-European nations before each of their great separations.
In the second edition of his Etymologische Forschungen (Lemgo
and Detmoldt, 1850-1873, 8vo, 7217 pages) Pott gives a
comparative lexicon of Indo-European roots, 2226 in number,
occupying 5140 pages.
1 Joannes de Garlandia (John Garland; fl. 1202-1252) gives
the following explanation in his Dictionarius, which is a classed
vocabulary: " Dictionarius dicitur libellus iste a dictionibus magis
necessariis, quas tenetur quilibet scolaris, non tantum in scrinio de
lignis facto, sed in cordis armariolo firmiter retinere." This has been
supposed to be the first use of the word.
2 An excellent dictionary of quotations, perhaps the first of the
kind; a large folio volume printed in Strassburg about 1475 is
entitled " Pharetra auctoritates et dicta doctorum, philosophorum,
et poetarum continens."
DICTIONARY
187
At no time was progress in the making of general dictionaries
so rapid as during the second half of the igth century. It is to
be seen in three things: in the perfecting of the theory of what
Methods a 8 enera ^ dictionary should be; in the elaboration
of methods of collecting and editing lexicographic
materials; and in the magnitude and improved quality of the
work which has been accomplished or planned. Each of these
can best be illustrated from English lexicography, in which the
process of development has in all directions been carried farthest.
The advance that has been made in theory began with a radical
change of opinion with regard to the chief end of the general
dictionary of a language. The older view of the matter was that
the lexicographer should furnish a standard of usage should
register only those words which are, or at some period of the
language have been, " good " from a literary point of view, with
their " proper " senses and uses, or should at least furnish the
means of determining what these are. In other words, his chief
duty was conceived to be to sift and refine, to decide authori-
tatively questions with regard to good usage, and thus to fix the
language as completely as might be possible within the limits
determined by the literary taste of his time. Thus the Accademia
della Crusca, founded near the close of the i6th century, was
established for the purpose of purifying in this way the Italian
tongue, and in 1612 the Vocabolario degli Accademici della
Crusca, long the standard of that language, was published. The
Academic Franchise, the first edition of whose dictionary
appeared in 1694, had a similar origin. In England the idea of
constructing a dictionary upon this principle arose during the
second quarter of the iSth century. It was imagined by men of
letters among them Alexander Pope that the English language
had then attained such perfection that further improvement was
hardly possible, and it was feared that if it were not fixed by
lexicographic authority deterioration would soon begin. Since
there was no English " Academy," it was necessary that the task
should fall to some one whose judgment would command respect,
and the man who undertook it was Samuel Johnson. His dic-~
tionary, the first edition of which, in two folio volumes, appeared
in 1755, was in many respects admirable, but it was inade-
quate even as a standard of the then existing literary usage.
Johnson himself did not long entertain the belief that the natural
development of a language can be arrested in that or in any
other way. His work was, however, generally accepted as a final
authority, and the ideas upon which it was founded dominated
English lexicography for more than a century. The first effective
protest in England against the supremacy of this literary view was
made by Dean (later Archbishop) Trench, in a paper on " Some
Deficiencies in Existing English Dictionaries " read before the
Philological Society in 1857. " A dictionary," he said, "accord-
ing to that idea of it which seems to me alone capable of being
logically maintained, is an inventory of the language; much more,
but this primarily. ... It is no task of the maker of it to select
the good words of the language. . . . The business which he has
undertaken is to collect and arrange all words, whether good or
bad, whether they commend themselves to his judgment or other-
wise. . . . He is an historian of [the language], not a critic."
That is, for the literary view of the chief end of the general
dictionary should be substituted the philological or scientific.
In Germany this substitution had already been effected by Jacob
and Wilhelm Grimm in their dictionary of the German language,
the first volume of which appeared in 1854. In brief, then, the
modern view is that the general dictionary of a language
should be a record of all the words current or obsolete of
that language, with all their meanings and uses, but should not
attempt to be, except secondarily or indirectly, a guide to
" good " usage. A " standard " dictionary has, in fact, been
recognized to be an impossibility, if not an absurdity.
This theoretical requirement must, of course, be modified
considerably in practice. The date at which a modern language
is to be regarded by the lexicographer as " beginning " must, as
a rule, be somewhat arbitrarily chosen; while considerable
portions of its earlier vocabulary cannot be recovered because
of the incompleteness of the literary record. Moreover, not even
the most complete dictionary can include all the words which the
records earlier and later actually contain. Many words, that
is to say, which are found in the literature of a language cannot
be regarded as, for lexicographic purposes, belonging to that
language; while many more may or may not be held to belong
to it, according to the judgment almost the whim of the
individual lexicographer. This is especially true of the English
tongue. " That vast aggregate of words and phrases which
constitutes the vocabulary of English-speaking men presents, to
the mind that endeavours to grasp it as a definite whole, the
aspect of one of those nebulous masses familiar to the astronomer,
in which a clear and unmistakable nucleus shades off on all sides,
through zones of decreasing brightness, to a dim marginal film
that seems to end nowhere, but to lose itself imperceptibly in
the surrounding darkness " (Dr J. A. H. Murray, Oxford
Diet. General Explanations, p. xvii). This " marginal film " of
words with more or less doubtful claims to recognition includes
thousands of the terms of the natural sciences (the New-Latin
classificatory names of zoology and botany, names of chemical
compounds and of minerals, and the like); half-naturalized
foreign words; dialectal words; slang terms; trade names
(many of which have passed or are passing into common use) ;
proper names and many more. Many of these even the most
complete dictionary should exclude; others it should include;
but where the line shall be drawn will always remain a vexed
question.
Another important principle upon which Trench insisted, and
which also expresses a requirement of modern scientific philology,
is that the dictionary shall be not merely a record, but also an
historical record of words and their uses. From the literary point
of view the most important thing is present usage. To that alone
the idea of a " standard " has any application. Dictionaries of
the older type, therefore, usually make the common, or " proper "
or " root " meaning of a word the starting point of its definition,
and arrange its other senses in a logical or accidental order
commonly ignoring the historical order in which the various
meanings arose. Still less do they attempt to give data from
which the vocabulary of the language at any previous period may
be determined. The philologist, however, for whom the growth,
or progressive alteration, of a language is a fact of central
importance, regards no record of a language as complete which
does not exhibit this growth in its successive stages. He desires
to know when and where each word, and each form and sense
of it, are first found in the language; if the word or sense is
obsolete, when it died; and any other fact that throws light upon
its history. He requires, accordingly, of the lexicographer that,
having ascertained these data, he shall make them the foundation
of his exposition in particular, of the division and arrangement
of his definitions, that sense being placed first which appeared
first in order of time. In other words, each article in the dictionary
should furnish an orderly biography of the word of which it
treats, each word and sense being so dated that the exact time
of its appearance and the duration of its use may as nearly as
possible be determined. This, in principle, is the method of the
new lexicography. In practice it is subject to limitations similar
to those of the vocabulary mentioned above. Incompleteness
of the early record is here an even greater obstacle; and there
are many words whose history is, for one reason or another, so
unimportant that to treat it elaborately would be a waste of
labour and space.
The adoption of the historical principle involves a further note-
worthy modification of older methods, namely, an important
extension of the use of quotations. To Dr Johnson belongs the
credit of showing how useful, when properly chosen, they may be,
not only in corroborating the lexicographer's statements, but also
in revealing special shades of meaning or variations of use which
his definitions cannot well express. No part of Johnson's work
is more valuable than this. This idea was more fully developed
and applied by Dr Charles Richardson, whose New Dictionary
of the English Language . . . Illustrated by Quotations from the
Best Authors (1835-1836) still remains a most valuable collection
of literary illustrations. Lexicographers, however, have, with
i88
DICTIONARY
few exceptions, until a recent date, employed quotations chiefly
for the ends just mentioned as instances of use or as illustra-
tions of correct usage with scarcely any recognition of their
value as historical evidence; and they have taken them almost
exclusively from the works of the " best " authors. But since all
the data upon which conclusions with regard to the history of
a word can be based must be collected from the literature of
the language, it is evident that, in so far as the lexicographer
is required to furnish evidence for an historical inference, a
quotation is the best form in which he can give it. In fact,
extracts, properly selected and grouped, are generally sufficient to
show the entire meaning and biography of a word without the aid
of elaborate definitions. The latter simply save the reader the
trouble of drawing the proper conclusions for himself. A further
rule of the new lexicography, accordingly, is that quotations
should be used, primarily, as historical evidence, and that the
history of words and meanings should be exhibited by means of
them. The earliest instance of use that can be found, and (if the
word or sense is obsolete) the latest, are as a rule to be given;
while in the case of an important word or sense, instances taken
from successive periods of its currency also should be cited.
Moreover, a quotation which contains an important bit of
historical evidence must be used, whether its source is "good,"
from the literary point of view, or not whether it is a classic
of the language or from a daily newspaper; though where choice
is possible, preference should, of course, be given to quotations
extracted from the works of the best writers. This rule does not
do away with the illustrative use of quotations, which is still
recognized as highly important, but it subordinates it to their
historical use. It is necessary to add that it implies that the
extracts must be given exactly and in tho original spelling and
capitalization, accurately dated, and furnished with a precise
reference to author, book, volume, page and edition; for
insistence upon these requirements which are obviously im-
portant, whatever the use of the quotation may be is one of the
most noteworthy of modern innovations. Johnson usually gave
simply the author's name, and often quoted from memory and
inaccurately; and many of his successors to this day have
followed altogether or to some extent his example.
The chief difficulty in the way of this use of quotations after
the difficulty of collection is that of finding space for them in a
dictionary of reasonable size. Preference must be given to those
which are essential, the number of those which are cited merely
on methodical grounds being made as small as possible, It is
hardly necessary to add that the negative evidence furnished by
quotations is generally of little value; one can seldom, that is,
be certain that the lexicographer has actually found the earliest
or the latest use, or that the word or sense has not been current
during some intermediate period from which he has no quotations.
Lastly, a much more important place in the scheme of the ideal
dictionary is now assigned to the etymology of words. This may
be attributed, in part, to the recent rapid development of ety-
mology as a science, and to the greater abundance of trustworthy
data; but it is chiefly due to the fact that from the historical
point of view the connexion between that section of the biography
of a word which lies within the language subsequent, that is,
to the time when the language may, for lexicographical purposes,
be assumed to have begun, or to the time when the word was
adopted or invented and its antecedent history has become more
vital and interesting. Etymology, in other words, is essentially
the history of the form of a word up to the time when it became
a part of the language, and is, in a measure, an extension of the
history of the development of the word in the language. More-
over, it is the only means by which the exact relations of allied
words can be ascertained, and the separation of words of the same
form but of diverse origin (homonyms) can be effected, and is
thus, for the dictionary, the foundation of all family history and
correct genealogy. In fact, the attention that has been paid to
these two points in the best recent lexicography is one of its
distinguishing and most important characteristics. Related to
the etymology of words are the changes in their form which may
have occurred while they have been in use as parts of the language
modifications of their pronunciation, corruptions by popular
etymology or false associations, and the like. The facts with
regard to these things which the wide research necessitated
by the historical method furnishes abundantly to the modern
lexicographer are often among the most novel and interesting
of his acquisitions.
It should be added that even approximate conformity to the
theoretical requirements of modern lexicography as above out-
lined is possible only under conditions similar to those under which
the Oxford New English Dictionary was undertaken (see below).
The labour demanded is too vast, and the necessary bulk of the
dictionary too great. When, however, a language is recorded
in c/ne such dictionary, those of smaller size and more modest
pretensions can rest upon it as an authority and conform to it
as a model so far as their special limitations permit.
The ideal thus developed is primarily that of the general
dictionary of the purely philological type, but it applies also to
the encyclopaedic dictionary. In so far as the latter is strictly
lexicographic deals with words as words, and not with the things
they denote it should be made after the model of the former,
and is defective to the extent in which it deviates from it. The
addition of encyclopaedic matter to the philological in no way
affects the genera! principles involved. It may, however, for
practical reasons, modify their application in various ways. For
example, the number of obsolete and dialectal words included
may be much diminished and the number of scientific terms (for
instance, new Latin botanical and zoological names) be increased;
and the relative amount of space devoted to etymologies and
quotations may be lessened. In general, since books of this kind
are designed to serve more or less as works of general reference,
the making of them must be governed by considerations of
practical utility which the compilers of a purely philological
dictionary are not obliged to regard. The encyclopaedic type
itself, although it has often been criticized as hybrid as a mixture
of two things which should be kept distinct is entirely defensible.
Between the dictionary and the encyclopaedia the dividing line
cannot sharply be drawn. There are words the meaning of which
cannot be explained fully without some description of things,
and, on the other hand, the description of things and processes
often involves the definition of names. To the combination of
the two objection cannot justly be made, so long as it is effected
in a way with a selection of material that leaves the dictionary
essentially a dictionary and not an encyclopaedia. Moreover,
the large vocabulary of the general dictionary makes it possible
to present certain kinds of encyclopaedic matter with a degree of
fulness and a convenience of arrangement which are possible in
no single work of any other class. In fact, it may be said that if
the encyclopaedic dictionary did not exist it would have to be
invented; that its justification is its indispensableness. Not
the least of its advantages is that it makes legitimate the use of
diagrams and pictorial illustrations, which, if properly selected
and executed, are often valuable aids to definition.
On its practical side the advance in lexicography has consisted
in the elaboration of methods long in use rather than in the in-
vention of new ones. The only way to collect the data upon which
the vocabulary, the definitions and the history are to be based
is, of course, to search for them in the written monuments of the
language, as all lexicographers who have not merely borrowed from
their predecessors have done. But the wider scope and special
aims of the new lexicography demand that the investigation shall
be vastly more comprehensive, systematic and precise. It is
necessary, in brief, that, as far as may be possible, the literature
(of all kinds) of every period of the language shall be examined
systematically, in order that all the words, and senses and forms
of words, which have existed during any period may be found,
and that enough excerpts (carefully verified,credited and dated) to
cover all the essential facts shall be made. The books, pamphlets,
journals, newspapers, and so on which must thus be searched will
be numbered by thousands, and the quotations selected may (as
in the case of the Oxford New English Dictionary) be counted by
millions. This task is beyond the powers of any one man, even
though he be a Johnson, or a Littr6 or a Grimm, and it is now
DICTIONARY
189
assigned to a corps of readers whose number is limited only by the
ability of the editor to obtain such assistance. The modern
method of editing the material thus accumulated the actual
work of compilation also is characterized by the application of
the principle of the division of labour. Johnson boasted that his
dictionary was written with but little assistance from the learned,
and the same was in large measure true of that of Littre. Such
attempts on the part of one man to write practically the whole of
a general dictionary are no longer possible, not merely because of
the vast labour and philological research necessitated by modern
aims, but more especially because the immense development of
the vocabulary of the special sciences renders indispensable the
assistance, in the work of definition, of persons who are expert in
those sciences. The tendency, accordingly, has been to enlarge
greatly the editorial staff of the dictionary, scores of sub-editors
and contributors being now employed where a dozen or fewer
were formerly deemed sufficient. In other words, the making of
a " complete " dictionary has become a co-operative enterprise,
to the success of which workers in all the fields of literature and
science contribute.
The most complete exemplification of these principles and
methods is the Oxford New English Dictionary, on historical
principles, founded mainly on materials collected by ihe Philo-
logical Society. This monumental work originated in the sug-
gestion of Trench that an attempt should be made, under the
direction of the Philological Society, to complete the vocabulary
of existing dictionaries and to supply the historical information
which they lacked. The suggestion was adopted, considerable
material was collected, and Mr Herbert Coleridge was appointed
general editor. He died in 1861, and was succeeded by Dr F. J.
Furnivall. Little, however, was done, beyond the collection of
quotations about 2,000,000 of which were gathered until in
1878 the expense of printing and publishing the proposed
dictionary was assumed by the Delegates of the University Press,
and the editorship was entrusted to Dr (afterwards Sir) J. A. H.
Murray. As the historical point of beginning, the middle of the
1 2th century was selected, all words that were obsolete at that
date being excluded, though the history of words that were
current both before and after that date is given in its entirety;
and it was decided that the search for quotations which, accord-
ing to the original design, was to cover the entire literature down
to the beginning of the i6th century and as much of the subse-
quent literature (especially the works of the more important
writers and works on special subjects) as might be possible
should be made more thorough. More than 800 readers, in all
parts of the world, offered their aid ; and when the preface to the
first volume appeared in 1888, the editor was able to announce
that the readers had increased to 130x5, and that 3,50x3,000 cf
quotations, taken from the writings of more than 5000 authors,
had already been amassed. The whole work was planned to be
completed in ten large volumes, each issued first in smaller parts.
The first part was issued in 1884, and by the beginning of 1910
the first part of the letter S had been reached.
The historical method of exposition, particularly by quota-
tions, is applied in the New English Dictionary, if not in all cases
with entire success, yet, on the whole, with a regularity and a
precision which leave little to be desired. A minor fault is that
excerpts from second or third rate authors have occasionally been
used where better ones from writers of the first class either must
have been at hand or could have been found. As was said above,
the literary quality of the question is highly important even
in historical lexicography, and should not be neglected un-
necessarily. Other special features of the book are the complete-
ness with which variations of pronunciation and orthography
(with dates) are given; the fulness and scientific excellence of the
etymologies, which abound in new information and corrections
of old errors; the phonetic precision with which the present
(British) pronunciation is indicated; and the elaborate sub-
division of meanings. The definitions as a whole are marked by
a high degree of accuracy, though in a certain number of cases
(not explicable by the date of the volumes) the lists of meanings
are not so good as one would expect, as compared (say) with
the Century Dictionary. Work of such magnitude and quality is
possible, practically,onlywhentheeditorof the dictionary can com-
mand not merely the aid of a very large number of scholars and
men of science, but their gratuitous aid. In this the New English
Dictionary has been singularly fortunate. The conditions under
which it originated, and its aim, have interested scholars every-
where, and led them to contribute to the perfecting of it their
knowledge and time. The long list of names of such helpers in Sir
J. A. H. Murray's preface is in curious contrast with their absence
from Dr Johnson's and the few which are given in that of Littre.
The editor's principal assistants were Dr Henry Bradley and
Dr W. A. Craigie. Of the dictionary as a whole it may be said
that it is one of the greatest achievements, whether in literature
or science, of modern English scholarship and research.
The New English Dictionary furnishes for the first time data from
which the extent of the English word-store at any given period, and
the direction and rapidity of its growth, can fairly be estimated.
For this purpose the materials furnished by the older dictionaries are
quite insufficient, on account of their incompleteness and unhistorical
character. For example 100 pages of the New English Dictionary
(from the letter H) contain 1002 words, of which, as the dated quota-
tions show, 585 were current in 1750 (though some, of course, were
very rare, some dialectal, and so on), 191 were obsolete at that date,
ana 226 have since come into use. But of the more than 700 words
current or obsolete which Johnson might thus have recorded, he
actually did record only about 300. Later dictionaries give more of
them, but they in no way show their status at the date in question.
It is worth noting that the figures given seem to indicate that not
very many more words have been added to the vocabulary of the
language during the past 150 years than had been lost by 1750. The
pages selected, however, contain comparatively few recent scientific
terms. A broader comparison would probably show that the gain
has been more than twice as great as the loss.
In the Deutsches Worterbuch of Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm
the scientific spirit, as was said above, first found expression in
general lexicography. The desirability of a complete inventory
and investigation of German words was recognized by Leibnitz
and by various 18th-century scholars, but the plan and methods
of the Grimms were the direct product of the then new scientific
philology. Their design, in brief, was to give an exhaustive
account of the words of the literary language (New High German)
from about the end of the isth century, including their earlier
etymological and later history, with references to important
dialectal words and forms; and to illustrate their use and history
abundantly by quotations. The first volume appeared in 1854.
Jacob Grimm (died 1863) edited the first, second (with his
brother, who died in 1859), third and a part of the fourth
volumes; the others have been edited by various distinguished
scholars. The scope and methods of this dictionary have been
broadened somewhat as the work has advanced. In general it
may be said that it differs from the New English Dictionary
chiefly in its omission of pronunciations and other pedagogic
matter; its irregular treatment of dates; its much less systematic
and less lucid statement of etymologies; its less systematic and
less fruitful use of quotations; and its less convenient and less
intelligible arrangement of material and typography.
These general principles lie also at the foundation of the
scholarly Dictionnaire de la langue franqaise of E. Littre, though
they are there carried out less systematically and less completely.
In the arrangement of the definitions the first place is given to
the most primitive meaning of the word instead of to the most
common one, as in the dictionary of the Academy; but the other
meanings follow in an order that is often logical rather than
historical. Quotations also are frequently used merely as literary
illustrations, or are entirely omitted; in the special paragraphs
on the history of words before the i6th century, however, they
are put to a. strictly historical use. This dictionary perhaps the
greatest ever compiled by one man was published 1863-1872.
(Supplement, 1878.)
The Thesaurus Linguae Lalinae, prepared under the auspices of
the German Academies of Berlin, Gottingen, Leipzig, Munich
and Vienna, is a notable application of the principles and
practical co-operative method of modern lexicography to the
classical tongues. The plan of the work is to collect quotations
which shall register, with its full context, every word (except
DICTIONARY
the most familiar particles) in the text of each Latin author
down to the middle of the 2nd century A.D., and to extract
all important passages from all writers of the following
centuries down to the 7th: and upon these materials to found
a complete historical dictionary of the Latin language. The
work of collecting quotations was begun in 1894, and the first
part of the first volume has been published.
In the making of all these great dictionaries (except, of course,
the last) the needs of the general pubh'c as well as those of scholars
have been kept in view. But the type to which the general
dictionary designed for popular use has tended more and more
to conform is the encyclopaedic. This combination of lexicon
and encyclopaedia is exhibited in an extreme and theoretically
objectionable form in the Grand dictionnaire universel du XIX'
siecle of Pierre Larousse. Besides common words and their
definitions, it contains a great many proper names, with a
correspondingly large number of biographical, geographical,
historical and other articles, the connexion of which with the
strictly lexicographical part is purely mechanical. Its utility,
which notwithstanding its many defects is very great, makes
it, however, a model in many respects. Fifteen volumes were
published (1866-1876), and supplements were brought out later
(1878-1890). The Nouveau Larousse illustre started publication
in 1901, and was completed in 1904 (7 vols.). This is not an
abridgment or a fresh edition of the Grand Dictionnaire of Pierre
Larousse, but a new and distinct publication.
The most notable work of this class, in English, is the Century
Dictionary, an American product, edited by Professor W. D.
Whitney, and published 1889-1891 in six volumes, containing
7046 pages (large quarto). It conforms to the philological mode
in giving with great fulness the older as well as the present
vocabulary of the language, and in the completeness of its
etymologies; but it does not attempt to give the full history
of every word within the language. Among its other more note-
worthy characteristics are the inclusion of a great number of
modern scientific and technical words, and the abundance of its
quotations. The quotations are for the most part provided with
references, but they are not dated. Even when compared with
the much larger New English Dictionary, the Century's great
merit is the excellent enumeration of meanings, and the ac-
curacy of its explanations; in this respect it is often better and
fuller than the New English. In the application of the encyclo-
paedic method this dictionary is conservative, excluding, with a
few exceptions, proper names, and restricting, for the most part,
the encyclopaedic matter to descriptive and other details which
may legitimately be added to the definitions. Its pictorial
illustrations are very numerous and well executed. In the
manner of its compilation it is a good example of modern co-
operative dictionary-making, being the joint product of a large
number of specialists. Next to the New English Dictionary it
is the most complete and scholarly of English lexicons.
Bibliography. The following list of dictionaries (from the 9th
edition of this work, with occasional corrections) is given for its
historical interest, but in recent years dictionary-making has been
so abundant that no attempt is made to be completely inclusive of
later works; the various articles on languages may be consulted
for these. The list is arranged geographically by families of
languages, or by regions. In each group the order, when not
alphabetical, is usually from north to south, extinct languages
generally coming first, and dialects being placed under their
language. Dictionaries forming parts of other works, such as
travels, histories, transactions, periodicals, reading-books, &c.,
are generally excluded. The system here adopted was chosen
as on the whole the one best calculated to keep together
dictionaries naturally associated. The languages to be considered
are too many for an alphabetical arrangement, which ignores all
relations both natural and geographical, and too few to require a
strict classification by affinities, by which the European languages,
which for many reasons should be kept together, would be
dispersed. Under either system, Arabic, Persian and Turkish,
whose dictionaries are so closely connected, would be widely
separated. A wholly geographical arrangement would be in-
convenient, especially in Europe. Any system, however, which
attempts to arrange in a consecutive series the great network of
languages by which the whole world is enclosed, must be open
to some objections; and the arrangement adopted in this list
has produced some anomalies and dispersions which might cause
inconvenience if not pointed out. The old Italic languages
are placed under Latin, all dialects of France under French
(but Provencal as a distinct language), and Wallachian among
Romanic languages. Low German and its dialects are not
separated from High German. Basque is placed after Celtic;
Albanian, Gipsy and Turkish at the end of Europe, the last being
thus separated from its dialects and congeners in Northern
and Central Asia, among which are placed the Kazan dialect of
Tatar, Samoyed and Ostiak. Accadian is placed after Assyrian
among the Semitic languages, and Maltese as a dialect of Arabic;
while the Ethiopic is among African languages as it seemed
undesirable to separate it from the other Abyssinian languages,
or these from their neighbours to the north and south. Circassian
and Ossetic are joined to the first group of Aryan languages lying
to the north-west of Persia, and containing Armenian, Georgian
and Kurd. The following is the order of the groups, some of the
more important languages, that is, of those best provided with
dictionaries, standing alone:
EUROPE: Greek, Latin, French, Romance, Teutonic (Scandi-
navian and German), Celtic, Basque, Baltic, Slavonic, Ugrian,
Gipsy, Albanian.
ASIA: Semitic, Armenian, Persian, Sanskrit, Indian, Indo-
Chinese, Malay Archipelago, Philippines, Chinese, Japanese,
Northern and Central Asia.
AFRICA: Egypt and Abyssinia, Eastern Africa, Southern,
Western, Central, Berber.
AUSTRALIA AND POLYNESIA.
AMERICA: North, Central (with Mexico), South.
EUROPE
Greek. Athenaeus quotes 35 writers of works, known or sup-
posed to be dictionaries, for, as they are all lost, it is often difficult to
decide on their nature. Of these, Anticlides, who lived after the reign
of Alexander the Great, wrote 'Erry7;TiK<h, which seems to have been a
sort of dictionary.perhaps explaining the words and phrases occurring
in ancient stories. Zenodotus, the first superintendent of the great
library of Alexandria.who lived in the reigns of Ptolemyl. andPtolemy
II., wrote rXwffo-ai, and alsoAes fffvmai, a dictionary of barbarous or
foreign phrases. Aristophanesof Byzantium, son of Apelles the painter,
who lived in the reigns of Ptolemy II. and Ptolemy III., and had the
supreme management of the Alexandrian library, wrote a number
of works, as 'AT-TKCOI Aes, A.a.Kuvuca.1 T\uiaaa.i which, from the titles,
should be dictionaries, but a fragment of his At{s printed by
Boissonade, in his edition of Herodian (London, 1869, 8vo, pp.
181-189), is not alphabetical. Artemidorus. a pupil of Aristophanes,
wrote a dictionary of technical terms used in cookery. Nicander
Colophonius, hereditary priest of Apollo Clarius, born at Claros,
near Colophon in Ionia, in reputation for 50 years, from 181 to
135, wrote rXuffcroi in at least three books. Parthenius, a pupil
of the Alexandrian grammarian Dionysius (who lived in the 1st
century before Christ), wrote on choice words used by historians.
Didymus, called \a\KkvTtfxn , who, according to Athenaeus, wrote
3500 books, and, according to Seneca, 4000, wrote lexicons of the
tragic poets (of which book 28 is quoted), of the comic poets, of
ambiguous words and of corrupt expressions. Glossaries of Attic
words were written by Crates, Philemon, Philetas and Theodorus;
of Cretan, by Hermon or Hermonax; of Phrygian, by Neoptolemus;
of Rhodian, by Moschus; of Italian, by Diodorus of Tarsus; of
foreign words, by Silenus; of synonyms, by Simaristus; of cookery,
by Heracleon; and of drinking vessels, by Apollodorus of Cyrene.
According to Suidas, the most ancient Greek lexicographer was
Apollonius the sophist, son of Archibius. According to the common
opinion, he lived in the time of Augustus at Alexandria. He com-
posed a lexicon of words used by Homer, Afs 'Oinipucal , a very
valuable and useful work, though much interpolated, edited by
Villoison, from a MS. of the loth century, Paris, 1773, 410, 2 vols.;
and by Tollius, Leiden, 1788, 8vo; ed. Bekker, Berlin, 1833, 8vo.
Erotian or Herodian, physician to Nero, wrote a lexicon on Hippo-
crates, arranged in alphabetical order, probably by some copvist,
whom Klein calls " homo sciplus." It was first published in
Greek in H. Stephani Dictionarium Medicum, Paris, 1564, 8vo; ed.
Klein, Lipsiae, 1865, 8vo, with additional fragments. Timaeus the
sophist, who, according to Ruhnken, lived in the 3rd century, wrote
a very short lexicon to Plato, which, though much interpolated, is of
great value, 1st ed. Ruhnken, Leiden, 1754; ed. locupletior, Lugd.
Bat. 1789, 8vo. Aelius Moeris, called the Atticist, lived about 190
DICTIONARY
191
A.D., and wrote an Attic lexicon, 1st ed. Hudson, Oxf. 1712, Bekker,
1833. Julius Pollux ('lo&Xios no\ufouicjs) of Naucratis, in Egypt, died,
aged fifty-eight, in the reign of Commodus (180^192), who made him
professor of rhetoric at Athens. He wrote, besides other lost works,
an Onomasticon in ten books, being a classed vocabulary, intended to
supply all the words required by each subject with the usage of the
best authors. It is of trie greatest value for the knowledge both of
language and of antiquities. First printed by Aldus, Venice, 1500,
fol.; often afterwards; ed. Lederlinus and Hemsterhuis, Amst. 1706,
2 vols. ; Dindorf, 1824, 5 vols., Bethe (1900 f.). Harpocration of
Alexandria, probably of the and century, wrote a lexicon on the ten
Attic orators, first printed by Aldus, Ven. 1503, fol.; ed. Dindorf,
Oxford, 1853, 8vo, 2 vols. from 14 MSS. Orion, a grammarian of
Thebes, in Egypt, who lived between 390 and 460, wrote an etymo-
logical dictionary, printed by Sturz, Leipzig, 1820, 4to. Helladius
a priest of Jupiter at Alexandria, when the heathen temples there
were destroyed byTheophilusin389or39i escaped toConstantinople,
where he was living in 408. He wrote an alphabetical lexicon, now
lost, chiefly of prose, called by Photius the largest (iroXvvnx&TaTov)
which he knew. Ammonius, professor of grammar at Alexandria,
and priest of the Egyptian ape, fled to Constantinople with Helladius,
jjnd wrote a dictionary of words similar in sound but different in
meaning, which has been often printed in Greek lexicons, as Aldus,
1497, Stephanus, and separately by Valckenaer, Lugd. Bat. 1739,
4to, 2 vols., and by others. Zenodotus wrote on the cries of animals,
printed in Valckenaer's Ammonius; with this may be compared
the work of Vincentio Caralucci, Lexicon vocum quae a brutis animalibus
emiltuntur, Perusia, 1779, I2mo. Hesychius of Alexandria wrote a
lexicon, important for the knowledge of the language and literature,
containing many dialectic and local expressions and quotations from
other authors, 1st ed. Aldus, Ven. 1514, fol.; the best is Alberti and
Ruhnken, Lugd. Bat. 17^6-1766, fol. 2 vols.; collated with the MS.
in St Mark's library, Venice, the only MS. existing, by Niels Iversen
Schow, Leipzig, 1792, 8vo; ed. Schmidt, Jena, 1867, 8vo. The
foundation of this lexicon is supposed to have been that of Pamphilus,
an Alexandrian grammarian, quoted by Athenaeus, which, according
to Suidas, was in 95 books from E to fl; A to A had been compiled
by Zopirion. Photius, consecrated patriarch of Constantinople, 25th
December 857, living in 886, left a lexicon, partly extant, and printed
with Zonaras, Lips. 1808, 410, 3 vols., being vol. iii. ; ed. Naber,
Leidae, 1864-1865, 8vo, 2 vols. The most celebrated of the Greek
glossaries is that of Suidas, of whom nothing is known. He probably
lived in the loth century. His lexicon is an alphabetical dictionary
of words including the names of persons and places a compilation
of extracts from Greek writers, grammarians, scholiasts and lexico-
graphers, very carelessly and unequally executed. It was first
printed by Demetrius Chalcondylas, Milan, 1499, fol.; the best
edition, Bernhardy, Halle, 1853, 4to, 2 vols. John Zonaras, a cele-
brated Byzantine historian and theologian, who lived in the 1 2th
century, compiled a lexicon, first printed by Tittmann, Lips. 1808.
4to, 2 vols. An anonymous Greek glossary, entitled 'Ervfio^oyiKov iuya,
Etymologicum magnum, has been frequently printed. The first
edition is by Musurus, Venitia, 1499, fol.; the best by Gaisford,
Oxonii, 1848, fol. It contains many grammatical remarks by famous
authorities, many passages of authors, and mythological and
historical notices. The MSS. vary so much that they IOOK like the
works of different authors. To Eudocia Augusta of Makrembolis, wife
of the emperors Cpnstantine XI. and Romanus IV. (1059 to 1071),
was ascribed a dictionary of history and mythology, 'Ia>cid(bed
of violets), first printed by D'Ansse de Villoison, Anecdota Graeca,
Venetiis, 1781, 410, vol. i. pp. 1-442. It was supposed to have been
of much value before it was published. Thomas, Magister Officiorum
under Andronicus Palaeologus, afterward called as a mpnkTheodulus,
wrote 'EicXo7<u bvonaruv '\TTIKUV, printed by Callierges, Romae,
1517, 8vo: Papias, Vocabularium, Mediolani, 1476, fol.: Craston,
an Italian Carmelite monk of Piacenza, compiled a Greek and Latin
lexicon, edited by Bonus Accursius, printed at Milan, 1478, fol. :
Aldus, Venetiis, 1497, fol.: Guarino, born about 1450 at Favora,
near Camarino, who called himself both Phavorinus and Gamers,
published his Thesaurus in 1504. Thesethreelexiconswerefrequently
reprinted. Estienne, Thesaurus, Geneyae, 1572, fol., 4 vols.; ed.
Valpy, Lond.i8i6-i826, 6 vols. fol.; Paris, 1831-1865, gvols.fol., 9902
pages: Kiwr6s, the ark, was intended to give the whole language,
ancient and modern, but vol. i., Constantinople, 1819, fol., 763 pages,
A to A, only appeared, as the publication was put an end to by the
events of 1821. ENGLISH. Jones, London, 1823, 8vo: Dunbar,
Edin. 3rd ed. 1850, 410: Liddell and Scott, 8th ed. Oxford, 1897,410.
FRENCH. Alexandra, I2th ed. Paris, 1863, 8vo; 1860-1871, 2 vols:
Chassang, ib. 1872, 8vo. ITALIAN. Cammi, Torino, 1865, 8vo, 972
pages: Miiller, ib. 1871, 8vo. SPANISH. Diccionario manual, porles
padres Esculapios, Madrid, 1859, 8vo. GERMAN. Passow, 5th ed.
Leipzig, 1841-1857, 410: Jacobitz and Seller, 4th ed. ib. 1856, 8vo:
Benseler, ib. 1859, 8yo: Pape, Braunschweig, 1870-1874, 8vo, 4 vols.
Prellwitz, Etymologisches Worterbuch der griechischen Sprache, new
edition, 1906: Herwerden, Lexicon Graecum suppletorium el dialec-
ticunt, 1902. DIALECTS. Attic: Moeris, ed. Pierson, Lugd. Bat.
i?59i 8vo. Attic Orators: Reiske, Oxon. 1828, 8vo, 2 vols. Doric:
Portus, Franckof. 1605, 8vo. Ionic: Id. ib. 1603, 8vo; 1817; 1825.
PROSODY. Morell, Etonae, 1762, 410; ed. Maltby, Lond. 1830, 4to:
Brasse, Lond. 1850, 8vo. RHETORIC. Ernesti, Lips. 1795, 8vo.
Music. Drieberg, Berlin, 1855. ETYMOLOGY. Curtius, Leipzigi
1858-1862 : Lancelot, Paris,i863, 8vo. SYNONYMS. Peucer, Dresden>
1766, 8vo: Pillon, Paris, 1847, 8vo. PROPER NAMES. Pape, ed-
Sengebusch, 1866, 8vo, 969 pages. VERBS. Veitch, 2nd ed. Oxf-
1866. TERMINATIONS. Hoogeveen, Cantab. 1810, 4to: Pape,
Berlin, 1836, 8vo. PARTICULAR AUTHORS. Aeschylus: Wellauer,
2 vols. Lips. 1830-1831, 8vo. Aristophanes: Caravella, Oxonii, 1822,
8vo. Demosthenes: Reiske, Lips. 1775, 8vo. Euripides: Beck,
Cantab. 1829, 8vo. Herodotus: Schweighauser, Strassburg, 1824, 8vo,
2 vols. Hesiod: Osoruis, Neapol. 1791, 8vo. Homer: Apollunius
Sophista, ed. Tollius, Lugd. Bat., 1788, 8vo: Schaufelberger, Zurich,
1761-1768, 8vo, 8 vols.: Crusius, Hanover, 1836, 8vo: Wittich,
London, 1843, 8vo: Doderlein, Erlangen, 8vo, 3 vols.: Eberling,
Lipsiae, 1875, 8vo: Autenrieth, Leipzig, 1873, 8vo; London, 1877,
8vo. Isocrates: Mitchell, Oxon. 1828, 8vo. Pindar: Portus,
Hanov. 1606, 8vo. Plato: Timaeus, ed. Koch, Lips. 1828, 8vo:
Mitchell, Oxon. 1832, 8vo: Ast,- Lips. 1835-1838, 8vo, 3 vols.
Plutarch: Wyttenbach, Lips. 1835, 8vo, 2 vols. Sophocles: Ellendt,
Regiomonti, 1834-1835, 8vo eci. ; Genthe, Berlin, 1872, 8vo. Thucy-
dides: Betant, Geneva, 1843-1847, 8vo, 2 vols. Xenophon: Sturtz,
Lips. 1801-1804, 8vo, 4 vols. : Cannesin (Anabasis, Gr. -Finnish), Hel-
sirgissa, 1868, 8vo: Sauppe, Lipsiae, 1869, 8vo. Septuagint: Hutter,
Noribergae, 1598, 4to: Biel, Hagae, 1779-1780, 8vo. New Testament:
Lithocomus, Colon, 1552, 8vo: Parkhurst, ed. Major, London, 1845,
8vo: Schleusner (juxta ed. Lips, quartam), Glasguae, 1824, 4to.
Medieval and Modern Greek. Meursius, Lugd. Bat. 1614, 4to:
Critopulos, Stendaliae, 1787, 8vo: Portius, Par. 1635, 4t : Du
Cange, Paris, 1682, fol., 2 vols.; Ludg. 1688, fol. ENGLISH.
Polymera, Hermopolis, 1854, 8vo: Sophocles, Cambr. Mass.
1860-1887: Contopoulos, Athens, 1867, 8vo; Smyrna, 1868-1870,
8vo, 2 parts, 1042 pages. FRENCH. Skarlatos, Athens, 1852, 4to:
Byzantius, ib. 1856, 8vo, 2 vols.: Varvati, 4th ed. ib., 1860, 8vo.
ITALIAN. Germane, Romae, 1622, 8vo: Somavera, Parigi, 1709,
fol., 2 vols.: Pericles, Hermopolis, 1857, 8yo. GERMAN. Schmidt,
Lips. 1825-1827, I2mo, 2 vols.: Petraris, Leipz. 1897. POLYGLOTS.
Kqniaz (Russian and Fr.), Moscow, 1811, 4to; Schmidt (Fr.-Germ.),
Leipzig, 1837-1840, I2mo, 3 vols.: Theocharopulas de Patras (Fr.-
Eng.), Munich, 1840, 121110.
Latin. Johannes de Janua, Catholicon or Summa, finished in
1286, printed Moguntiae 1460, fol.; Venice, 1487; and about 20
editions before 1500: Johannes, Comprehensorium, Valentia, 1475,
fol.: Nestor Dionysius, Onomasticon, Milan, 1477, fol.: Stephanus,
Paris, 1531, fol., 2 vols.: Gesner, Lips. 1749, fol., 4 vols.: Forcellini,
Patavii, 1771, fol., 4 yqls. POLYGLOT. Calepinus, Reggio, 1502, fol.
(Aldus printed 16 editions, with the Greek equivalents of the Latin
words; Venetiis, 1575, fol., added Italian, French and Spanish;
Basileae, 1590, fol., is in n languages; several editions, from 1609,
are called Octolingue; many of the latter 2 vol. editions were edited
by John Facciolati) : Verantius (Ital., Germ., Dalmatian, Hungarian),
Venetiis, 1595, 4to: Lodereckerus (Ital., Germ., Dalm., Hungar.,
Bohem., Polish), Pragae, 1605, 410. ENGLISH. Promptorium
parvulorum, compiled in 14^.0 by GalfridusGrammaticus, a Dominican
monk of Lynn Episcopi, in Norfolk, was printed by Pynson, 1499;
8 editions, 1508-1528, ed. Way, Camden Society, 1843-1865, 3 vols.
4to; Medulla grammaticis, probably by the same author, MS. written
1483; printed as Ortus vocabulorum, by Wynkyn de Worde, 1500;
13 editions 1500-1523 ; Sir Thomas Elyot, London, 1538, fol. ; 2nd ed.
'543; Bibliotheca Eliotae, ed. Cooper, ib. 1545, fol.: Huloet,
Abecedarium, London, 1552, fol.; Dictionarie, 1572, fol.: Cooper,
London,- 1565, fol. ; 4th edition, 1584, fol. : Baret, Alvearie, ib. 1575,
fol.; 1580, fol.: Fleming, ib. 1583, fol.: Ainsworth, London, 1736,
dto; ed. Morell, London, 1796, 4to, 2 vols.; ed. Beatson and Ellis,
ib. i860, 8vo: Scheller, translated by Riddle, Oxford, 1835, fol.:
Smith, London, 1855, 8vo; 1870: Lewis and Short, Oxford, 1879.
ENG.-LATIN. Levins, Manipuluspuerorum, Lond. 1570,410: Riddle,
ib. 1838, 8vo: Smith, ib. 1855, 8vo. FRENCH. Catholicon parvum,
Geneva, 1487: Estienne, Dictionnaire, Paris, 1539, fol. 675 pag^es;
enlarged 1549; ed. Huggins, Lond. 1572: Id. Dictionarium Latino-
Gallicum, Lutetiae, 1546, fol.; Paris, 1552; 1560: Id., Dictionariolum
puerorum, Paris, 1542, 410: Les Mots franc.ais, Paris, 1544, 4to; the
copy in the British Museum has the autograph of Queen Catherine
Parr: Thierry (Fr.-Lat.), Paris, 1564, fol.: Danet, Ad usum
Delphini, Pans, 1700, 4to, 2 vols.; and frequently: Quicherat, 9th
ed. Paris, 1857, 8vo: Theil, 3rd ed. Paris, 1863, 8vo: Freund, ib.
1835-1865, 410, 3 yols. GERMAN. Joh. Melber, of Gerolzhofen,
Vocabularius praedicantium, of which 26 editions are described by
Hain (Repertorium, No. 11,022, &c.), 15 undated, 7 dated 1480-1495,
4to, and 3 after 1504: Vocabularius gemma gemmarum, Antwerp,
1484,410; 1487; 12 editions, 1505-1518: Herman Torentinus, Eluci-
darius carminum, Daventri, 1501, 4to; 22 editions, 1504-1536 :Binnart,
Ant. 1649, 8vo: Id., Biglotton, ib. 1661 ; 4th ed. 1688: Faber, ed.
Gesner, flagae Com. 1735, fol., 2 vols.: Hederick, Lips. 1766, 8vo,
2 vols. : Ingerslev, Braunschweig, 1835-1855, 8yq, 2 vols. : Thesaurus
linguae Latinae, Leipzig, 1900: Walde, Lateinisches etymologisches
Worterbuch, 1906. ITALIAN. Seebar (Sicilian translation of
Lebrixa), Venet. 1525, 8vo: Venuti, 1589, 8vo: Galesini, Venez.
1605, 8vo: Bazzarini and Bellini, Torino, 1864, 4to, 2 vols. 3100
pages. SPANISH. Salmanticae, 1494, fol.; Antonio de Lebrixa,
Nebrissenis, Compluti, 1520, fol., 2 vols.: Sanchez de la Ballesta,
Salamanca, 1587, 410: Valbuena, Madrid, 1826, fol. PORTUGUESE.
192
DICTIONARY
Bluteau, Lisbon, 1712-1728, fol., 10 vols: Fonseca, ib. 1771, fol.:
Ferreira, Paris, 1834, 410; 1852. ROMANSCH. Promptuario < di voci
volgari, Valgrisii, 1565, 4to. VLACH. Divalitu, Bucuresci, 1852,
8vo. SWEDISH. Vocabula, Rostock, 1574, 8vo; Stockholm, 1579:
Lindblom, Upsala, 1790, 410. DUTCH. Binnart, Antw. 1649, 8vo:
Scheller, Lugd. Bat. 1799, 4to, 2 ypls. FLEMISH. Paludanus,
Gandavi, 1544, 4to. POLISH. Macinius, Konigsberg, 1564, fol.:
Garszynski, Breslau, 1823, 8vo, 2 vols. BOHEMIAN. Johannes
Aquensis, Pilsnae, 1511,410: Reschel, Olmucii, 1 560- 1562,41:0, 2 vols. :
Cnapius, Cracovia, 1661, fol., 3 vols. ILLYRIAN. Bellosztenecz,
Zagrab, 1740, 4to: Jambresich (also Germ, and Hungar.), Zagrab,
1742, 4to. SERVIAN. Swotlik, Budae, 1721, 8vo. HUNGARIAN.
Molnar, Frankf. a. M. 1645, 8vo: Pariz-Papai, Leutschen, 1708, 8vo;
1767. FINNISH. Rothsen, Helsingissa, 1864, 8vo. POETIC.
Epithetorum et synonymorum thesaurus, Paris, 1662, 8vo, attributed
to Chatillon ; reprinted by Paul Aler, a German Jesuit, as Gradus ad
Parnassum, Pans, 1687, 8vo; many subsequent editions : Schirach,
Hal. 1768, 8vo: Noel, Paris, 1810, 8vo; 1826: Quicherat, Paris,
1852, 8vo: Young, London, 1856, 8vo. EROTIC. Rambach,
Stuttgart, 1836, 8vo. RHETORICAL. Ernesti, Lips. 1797, 8vo.
CIVIL LAW. Dirksen, Berolini, i837,4to. SYNONYMS. Hill, Edinb.
1804, 4to: Doderlein, Lips. 1826-1828, 8vo, 6 vols. ETYMOLOGY.
Danet, Paris, 1677, 8vo: Vossius, Neap. 1762, fol., 2 vols.: Salmon,
London, 1796, 8vo, 2 vols.: Nagel, Berlin, 1869, 8vo; Latin roots,
with their French and English derivatives, explained in German:
Zehetmayr, Vindobonae, 1873, 8vo: Vanicek, Leipz. 1874, 8vo.
BARBAROUS. Marchellus, Mediol. 1753, 4to; Krebs, Frankf. a. M.
1834, 8vo; 1837. PARTICULAR AUTHORS.- Caesar: Crusius, Hanoy.
1838, 8vo. Cicero: Nizzoli, Brescia, 1535, fol.; ed. Facciolati,
Patavii, 1734, fol.; London, 1820, 8vo, 3 vols. : Ernesti, Lips. 1739,
8vo; Halle, 1831. Cornelius Nepos: Schmieder, Halle, 1798, 8yo;
1816: Billerbeck, Hanover, 1825, 8vo. Curtius Rufus: Crusius,
Hanov. 1844, 8vo. Horace: Ernesti, Berlin, 1802-1804, 8vo, 3 vols.:
Doring, Leipz. 1829, 8vo. Justin: Meinecke, Lemgo, 1793, 8vo; 2nd
ed. 1818. Livy: Ernesti, Lips. 1784, 8vo; ed Schafer, 1804. Ovid:
Gierig, Leipz. 1814: (Metamorphoses) Meinecke, 2nd ed., Lemgo, 1825,
8vo: Billerbeck (Do.), Hanover, 1831, 8vo. Phaedrus: Oertel,
Nurnberg, 1798, 8vo: Horstel, Leipz. 1803, 8vo: Billerbeck
Hanover, 1828, 8vo. Plautus: Paraeus, Franki. 1614, 8vo. Pliny:
Denso, Rostock, 1766, 8vo. Pliny, jun.: Wensch, Wittenberg, 1837-
1839, 4to. Quintilian: Bonnellus, Leipz. 1834, 8vo. Sallust:
Schneider, Leipz. 1834, 8vo: Crusius, Hanover, 1840, 8vo. Tacitus:
Botticher, Berlin, 1830, 8vo. Velleius Paterculus: Koch, Leipz.
1857, 8vo. Virgil: Clavis, London, 1742, 8vo: Braunhard, Coburg,
1834, 8vo. Vitruvius: Rode, Leipz. 1679, 410, 2 vols.: Orsini,
Perugia, 1801, 8vo.
OLD ITALIAN LANGUAGES. Fabretti, Torini, 1858, 4to. Umbrian :
Huschke, Leipz. 1860, 8vo. Oscan and Sabellian: Id. Elberfeld,
1856, 8vo.
MEDIEVAL LATIN. Du Cange, Glossarium, Paris, 1733-1736, fol.,
6 vols. ; Carpentier, Suppl., Paris, 1766, fol., 4 vols. ; ed. Adelung,
Halae, 1772-1784, 8vo, 6 vols.; ed. Henschel, Paris, i84p-;i85O, 410,
7 vols. (vol. vii. contains a glossary of Old French) : Brinckmeier,
Gotha, 1850-1863, 8vp, 2 vols.: Hildebrand (Glossarium saec. ix.),
Getting. 1854, 410: Diefenbach, Glossarium, Frankf. 1857, 4to: Id.
Gloss, novum, ib. 1867,410. ECCLESIASTICAL. Magri, Messina, 1644,
4to; 8th ed. Venezia, 1732; Latin translation, Magri Hierolexicon,
Romae, 1677, fol.; 6th ed. Bologna, 1765, 4to, 2 vols.
Romance Languages.
Romance Languages generally. Diez, Bonn, 1853, 8vo; 2nd ed.
ib. 1861-1862, 8vo, 2 vols.; 3rd ed. ib. 1869-1870, 8vo, 2 vols.;
transl. by Donkin, 1864, 8vo.
French. Ranconet, Thresor, ed. Nicot, Paris, 1606, fol.; ib.
1618, 410: Richelet, Geneve, 1680, fol., 2 vols.; ed. Gattel, Paris,
1840, 8vo, 2 vols.
The French Academy, after five years' consideration, beg?m their
dictionary, on the 7th of February 1639, by examining the letter A,
which took them nine months to go through. The word Academic was
for some time omitted by oversight. They decided, on the 8th of March
1638, not to cite authorities, and they have since always claimed the
right of making their own examples. Olivier justifies them by saying
that for eighty years all the best writers belonged to their body, and
they could not be expected to cite each other. Their design was to
raise the language to its last perfection, and to open a road to reach
the highest eloquence. Antoine Furetiere, one of their members^
compiled a dictionary which he says cost him forty years' labour for
ten hours a day, and the manuscript filled fifteen chests. He gave
words of all kinds, especially technical, names of persons and places,
and phrases. As a specimen, he published his Essai, Paris, 1684,
4to; Amst. 1685, I2mo. The Academy charged him with using the
materials they had prepared for their dictionary, and expelled him, on
the 22nd of January 1685, for plagiarism. He died on the I4th of May
1688, in the midst of the consequent controversy and law suit. His
complete work was published, with a preface by Bayle, La Haye and
Rotterdam, 1690, fol., 3 vols. ; again edited by Basnage de Beauval,
1701; La Haye, 1707, fol., 4 vols. From the edition of 1701 the
very popular so-called Dictionnaire de Trevoux, Trevoux, 1704, fol.,
2 vols., was made by the Jesuits, who excluded everything that
seemed to favour the Calvinism of Basnage. The last of its many
editions is Paris, 1771, fol., 8 vols. The Academy's dictionary was
first printed Paris, 1694, fol., 2 vols. They began the revision in 1700;
second edition 1718, fol., 2 vols.; 3rd, 1740, fol., 2 vols.; 6th, 1835,
2 vols. 410, reprinted 1855; Supplement, by F. Raymond, 1836,
4to; Complement, 1842, 410, reprinted 1856, Dictionnaire historique,
Paris, 1858-1865, 4to, 2 parts (A to Actu), 795 pages, published by the
Institut: Dochez, Paris, 1859,410: Bescherelle, 16.1844, 4to, 2 vols.;
5th ed. Paris, 1857, 410, 2 vols. ; 1865; 1887: Landais, Paris, 1835;
I2th ed. ib. 1854, 4to, 2 vols.: Littre, Paris, 1863-1873, 410, 4 vols.
7118 pages: Supplement, Paris, 1877, 410: Godefroy (with dialects
from gth to 15th cent.), Paris, 1881-1895, and Complement : Hatzfield,
Darmesteter, and Thomas, Paris, 1890-1900: Larive and Fleury,
(mots et chases, Ulustre), Paris, 1884-1891. ENGLISH. Palsgrave,
Lesdaircissement de la langue francoyse, London, 1530, 4to, 2 parts;
1852: Hollyband, London, 1533, 4to: Cotgrave, ib. 1611, fol.:
Boyer, La Have, 1702, 4to, 2 vols. ; 37th ed. Paris, 1851, 8vo, 2 vols. :
Fleming and Tibbins, Paris, 1846-1849, 410, 2 vols.; ib. 1854, 4to,
2 vols.; ib. 1870-1872, 410, 2 vols.: Tarver, London, 1853-1854,
8vo, 2 vols.; 1867-1872: Bellows, Gloucester, 1873, i6mo; ib.
1876. IDEOLOGICAL, or ANALOGICAL. Robertson, Paris, 1859, 8vo:
Boissiere, Paris, 1862, 8vo. ETYMOLOGY/ Lebon, Paris, 1571, 8vo:
Menage, ib. 1650, 410. Pougens projected a Tresor des origines, his
extracts for which, filling nearly 100 volumes folio, are in the library
of the Institut. He published a specimen, Paris, 1819, 4to. After
his death, Archeologie franc.aise, Paris, 1821, 8vo, 2 yols., was com-
piled from his MSS., which were much used by Littre: Scheler,
Bruxelles, 1862, 8vo; 1873: Brachet, 2nd ed. Paris, 1870, I2mo;
English trans. Kitchin, Oxf. 1866, 8vo. GREEK WORDS. Trippault,
Orleans. 1580, 8vo: Morin, Paris, 1809, 8vo. GERMAN WORDS.
Atzler, Cothen, 1867, 8vo. ORIENTAL WORDS. Pihan, Paris, 1847,
8vo; 1866: Devic, ib. 1876, 8vo. NEOLOGY. Desfontaines, 3rd ed.
Amst. 1728, I2mo: Mercier, Paris, 1801, 8vo, 2 vols.: Richard, ib.
1842, 8vo; 2nd ed. 1845. POETIC. Diet, des rimes (by La Noue),
Geneve, 1596, 8vo; Cologny, 1624, 8vo: Carpentier, Le Gradus
franfais, Paris, 1825, 8vo, 2 vols. EROTIC. De Landes, Bruxelles,
1861, I2mp. ORATORY. Demandreand Fontenai, Paris, 1802, 8vp:
Planche, ib. 1819-1820, 8vo, 3 vols. PRONUNCIATION. Feline, ib.
1857, 8yo. DOUBLE FORMS. Brachet, ib. 1871, 8vo. EPITHETS.
Daire, ib. 1817, 8vo. VERBS. Bescherelle, ib. 1855, 8vo, 2 vols.:
3rd ed. 1858. PARTICIPLES. Id., ib. 1861, I2mo. DIFFICULTIES.
Boiste, London, 1828, I2mo: Laveaux, Paris, 1872, 8vo, 843 pages.
SYNONYMS. Boinvilliers, Paris, 1826, 8vo: Lafaye, ib. 1858,
8vo; 1861; 1869: Guizot, ib. 1809, 8vo; 6th ed. 1863; 1873.
HOMONYMS. Zlatagorski (Germ., Russian, Eng.), Leipzig, 1862,
8vo, 664 pages. IMITATIVE WORDS. Nodier, Onomatopees, ib. 1828,
8vo. TECHNOLOGY. D'Hautel, ib. 1808, 8vo, 2vols. : Desgranges,
ib. 1821, 8vo: Tolhausen (Fr., Eng., Germ.), Leipz. 1873, 8vp, 3 vols.
FAULTS OF EXPRESSION. Roland, Gap, 1823, 8vo: Blondin, Paris,
1823, 8vo. PARTICULAR AUTHORS. Corneille: Godefroy, ib. 1862,
8vo, 2 yols.: Marty-La veaux, ib. 1868, 8vp, 2 vols. La Fontaine:
Lorin, ib. 1852, 8vo. Malherbe: Regnier, ib. 1869, 8yo. Moliere:
Genin, ib. 1846, 8vo: Marty-Laveaux, ib. 8vo. Racine: Marty-
Laveaux, ib. 1873, 8vo, 2 vols. M"" de Sevigne: Sommer, ib. 1867,
8vo, 2 vols. OLD FRENCH. La Curne de St Palaye prepared a
dictionary, of which he only published Projet d'un glossaire, Paris,
1756, 410. His MSS. in many volumes are in the National Library,
and were much used by Littre. They were printed by L. Fayre, and
fasciculi 21-30 (torn, iii.), Niort, 4to. 484 pages, were published in
February 1877. Lacombe (vieux langage), Paris, 1766, 2 vols. 4to:
Kelham (Norman and Old French), London, 1779, 8vo: Roquefort
(langue romane), Paris, 1808, 8vo; Supplement, ib. 1820, 8vo:
Pougens, Archeologie, ib. 1821, 8vo, 2 vols.: Burguy, Berlin, 1851-
1856, 8vo, 3 vols. : Laborde (Notice des emaux . . . du Louvre, part ii.),
Paris, 1853, 8vo, 564 pages: ' Cachet (rhymed chronicles), Bruxelles,
1859, 4to: Le Hericher (Norman, English and French), Paris, 1862,
3 vols. 8vo: Hippeau (l2th and I3th centuries), Paris, 1875, 8vo.
DIALECTS. Jaubert (central), Paris, 1856-1857, 8vo, 2 yols.:
Baumgarten (north and centre), Coblentz, 1870, 8vo: Azais, Idiomes
romans du midi, Montpellier, 1877. Austrasian: Francois. Metz,
1773, 8vo. Auvergne: Mege, Riom, 1861, I2mo. Beam: Lespi, Pau,
1858, 8vo. Beaucaire: Bonnet (Bouguiren), Nismes, 1840, 8vo.
Pays de Bray: Decorde, Neufchatel, 1852, 8vo. Burgundy:
Mignard, Dijon, 1870, 8vo. Pays de Castres: Couzinie, Castres,
1850,410. Dauphine: Champollion-Figeac, Paris, 1809, 8vo: Jules,
Valence, 1835, 8vo; Paris, 1840, 410. Dep. of Doubs: Tissot
(Patois des Fourg, arr. de Pontarlier) Besancon, 1865, 8vo.
Forez: Gras, Pans, 1864, 8vo; Neolas, Lyon, 1865, 8vo. Franche
Comte: Maisoiforte, 2nd ed. Besancon, 1753, 8vo. Gascony: Des-
grouais (Gasconismes corriges), Toulouse, 1766, 8vo; 1769; 1812,
I2mo, 2 vols. ; 1825, 8vo, 2 vols. Dep.ofGers: Censc-Montaut, Paris,
1863, 8vo. Geneva: Humbert, Geneve, 1820, 8vo. Languedoc: Odde,
Tolose, 1578, 8vo: Doujat, Toulouse, 1638, 8vo: De S.[auvages],
Nismes, 1756, 2 vols.; 1785; Alais, 1820: Azais, Beziers, 1876.
&c., 8vo: Hombres, Alais, 1872, 4tp: Thomas (Greek words) Mont-
pellier, 1843, 4to. Liege: Forir, Liege, 1866, 8vo, vol i. 455 pages.
Lille: Vermesse, Lille, 1861, I2mo: Debuire du Buc ib., 1867,
8vo. Limousin: Beronie, ed. Vialle (Correze), Tulle, 1823, 4to.
1 This volume was issued with a new title-page as Glossaire du
moyen Age, Paris, 1872.
DICTIONARY
'93
Lyonnais, Forez, Beaujolais: Onofrio, Lyon, 1864, 8vo. Haul
Maine: R.[aoul] de M. [ontesson], Paris, 1857; 1859, 503 pages.
Mentone: Andrews, Nice, 1877, I2mo. Dep. de la Meuse : Cordier,
Paris, 1853, 8vo. Norman: Edelestand and Alfred Dumeril, Caen,
1849, 8vo: Dubois, ib. 1857, 8vo: Le Hericher (Philologie topo-
graphique), Caen, 1863, 4to: Id. (elements scandinaves), Avranches,
1861, I2mo: Metivier (Guernsey), London, 1870, 8vo: Vasnier
(arrond de Pont Audemer), Rouen, 1861, 8vo: Delboulle (Vallee
d'Yeres), Le Havre, 1876. Picardy: Corblet, Amiens, 1851, 8vo.
Poitou, Saintonge, Aunis: Favre, Niort, 1867, 8vo. Poitou:
Beauchet-Filleau, Paris, 1864, 8yo: Levrier, Niort, 1867, 8vo:
Lalanne, Poitiers, 1868, 8vo. Saintonge: Boucherie, Angouleme,
1865, 8vo: Jonain, Royan, 1867, 8vo. Savoy: Pont (Terratzu de
la Tarantaise), Chambery, 1869, 8vo. La Suisse Romande: Bridel,
Lausanne, 1866, 8yo. Dep. of Tarn: Gary, Castre, 1845, 8vo. Dep.
of Vaucluse: Barjavel, Carpentras, 1849, 8vo. Walloon (Rouchf):
Cambresier, Liege, 1787, 8vo: Grandgagnage, ib. 1845-1850, 8vo.
2 vols. : Chav6e, Paris, 1857, i8mo: Vermesse, Doudi, 1867, 8vo.
Sigart (Montois), Bruxelles, 1870, 8vo. SLANG. Oudin, Curiositez
Frangaises, Paris, 1640, 8vo: Baudeau de Saumaise (Precieuses,
Langue de Ruelles), Paris, 1660, I2mo; ed. Livet, ib. 1856: Le
Roux, Diet. Comique, Amst. 1788, and 6 other editions: Cargme
Prenant [i.e. Taumaise], (argot reforme), Paris, 1829, 8vo: Larchey
(excentricitees du langage), Paris, 1860, I2mo; 5th ed. 1865:
Delvau (langue verte, Parisian), Paris, 1867, 8vo: Larchey, Paris,
1873, 410, 236 pages.
Provencal. Pallas, Avignon, 1723, 4to: Bastero, La Crusca Pro-
venzale, Roma, 1724, fol. vol. i. only: Raynouard, Paris, 1836-1844,
8vo, 6 vols.: Garcm, Draguignand, 1841, 8vo, 2 vols. : Honnorat,
Digne, 1846-1849, 410, 4 vols. 107,201 words: Id., Vocab.fr. prov.,
ib. 1848, I2mo, 1174 pages.
Spanish. Covarruvias Orosco, Madrid, i6n,fol.; ib. 1673-1674,
fol. 2 vols. ; Acadamia Espanola, Madrid, 1726-1739, fol. 6 vols. ; 8th
ed. 1837 : Caballero, Madrid, 1849, fol. ; 8th ed. ib. 1860, 4to, 2 vols. :
Cuesta, ib. 1872, fol. 2 vols. : Campano, Paris, 1876, i8mo, 1015 pages.
Cuervo, 1886-1894; Monlau, 1881 ; Zerola, Toro y Gomes, and Isaza,
1895; Serrano (encyclopaedic) 1876-1881. ENGLISH. Percivall,
London, 1591, 4to: Pineda, London, 1740, fol.: Connelly and
Higgins, Madrid, 1 797-1 798, 410,4 vols. : Neuman and Baretti,9th ed.
London, 1831, 8vo, 2 vols. ; 1874. FRENCH. Oudin, Paris, 1607, 4to,
1660; Gattel, Lyon, 1803, 410, 2 vols.: Dominguez, Madrid, 1846,
8vo, 6 vols. : Blanc, Paris, 1862, 8vo, 2 vols. GERMAN. Wagener,
Hamb. 1801-1805, 8vo, 4 vols.: Seckendorp, ib. 1823, 8vo, 3 vols.:
Franceson, 3rd ed. Leipzig, 1862, 8vo, 2 vols. ITALIAN. Franciosini,
Venezia, 1735, 8vo, 2 vojs. ; Cormon y Manni, Leon, 1843, i6mo,
2 vols.: Romero, Madrid, 1844, 4to. SYNONYMS. Dicctonario de
Sinonimos, Paris, 1853, 410. ETYMOLOGY. Aldrete, Madrid, 1682,
fol.: Monlau y Roca, ib. 1856, I2mo; Barcia, 1881-1883. ARABIC
WORDS. Hammer Purgstall, Wien, 1855, 8vo: Dozy and Engel-
niann, 2d ed. Leiden, 1869, 8vo. ANCIENT. Sanchez, Paris, 1842,
8vo. RHYMING. Garcia de Rengifo (consonancias) Salmantica,
1592, 4to; 1876. DON QUIXOTE. Beneke (German), Leipzig, 1800,
l6mo; 4th ed. Berlin, 1841, i6mo. DIALECTS. Aragonese: Peralta,
Zaragoza, 1836, 8vo: Borao, ib. 1859, 410. Catalan: Rocha de
Girona (Latin), Barcinone, 1561, fol.: Dictionari Catala (Lat. Fr.
Span.), Barcelona, 1642, 8vo: Lacavalleria (Cat.-Lat.), ib. 1696, fol. :
Esteve, ed. Belvitges, &c. (Catal.-Sp. Lat.), Barcelona, 1805-1835,
fol. 2 vols. : Saura (Cat.-Span.), ib. 1851, i6mp; 2nded.(Span.-Cat.),
ib. 1854; 3rd ed. (id.) ib. 1862, 8vo: Labernia, ib. 1844-1848, 8vo, 2
vols. 1864. Gattegan: Rodriguez, Coruna, 1863, 4to: Cuveira y Pifiol,
Madrid, 1877, 8vo. Majorca: Figuera, Palma, 1840, 410: Amengual,
16.1845,410. Minorca: Diccionario, Madrid, 1848, 8vo. Valencian:
Palmyreno, Valentiae, 1569: Ros, Valencia, 1764, 8vo: Fuster, ib.
1827, 8vo: Lamarca, 2nd ed. ib. 1842, i6mo. Cuba: Glossary of
Creole Words, London, 1840, 8vo: Pichardo, 1836; 2nd ed. Havana,
1849, 8vo; 3rd ed. ib. 1862, 8vo; Madrid, 1860, 410.
Portuguese. Lima, Lisbon, 1783, 410: Moraes da Silva, ib.
1789, 4to, 2 vols._; 6th ed. 1858: Academia real das Sciencas, ib.
'793> torn, i., ccvi. and 544 pages (A to Azurrar); Faria, ib. 1849,
fol. 2 vols. ; 3rd ed. ib. 1850-1857, fol. 2 vols. 2220 pages. ENGLISH.
Vieyra, London, 1773, 2 vols. 410: Lacerda, Lisboa, 1866-1871, 4to,
2 vols. FRENCH. Marquez, Lisboa, 1756-1 761, fol. 2 vols. : Roquette,
Paris, 1841, 8vo, 2 vols.; 4th ed. 1860: Marques, Lisbonne, 1875,
fol. 2 vols.: S_ouza Pinto, Paris, 1877, 32mo, 1024 pages. GERMAN.
Wagener, Leipzig, 1811-1812, 8vo, 2 vols. : Wollheim, ib. 1844, I2mo,
2 vols. : Bosche, Hamburg, 1858, 8vo, 2 vols. 1660 pages. ITALIAN.
Costa e Sa, Lisboa, 1773-1774, fol. 2 vols. 1652 pages: Prefumo,
Lisboa, 1853, 8vo, 1162 pages. ANCIENT. Joaquim de Sancta Rosa
de Viterbo, tb. 1798, fol. 2 vols. ; 1824, 8vo. ARABIC WORDS. Souza,
ib. 1789, 4to; 2nd ed. by S. Antonio Moura, ib. 1830, 224 pages.
ORIENTAL AND AFRICAN WORDS, NOT ARABIC. Sao Luiz, ib. 1837,
4to, 123 pages. FRENCH WORDS. Id., ib. 1827, 4to; 2nd ed. Rio de
Janeiro, 1835, 8v . SYNONYMS. Id., ib. 1821, 410; 2nd ed. ib.
1824-1828, 8vo. Fonseca, Paris, 1833, 8vo; 1859, i8mo, 863 pages.
HOMONYMS. De Couto, Lisboa, 1842, fol. POETIC. Luzitano (i.e.
Freire), ib. 1765, 8vo, 2 vols. ; 3rd ed. ib. 1820, 4to, 2 vols. RHYMING.
Couto Guerreiro, Lisboa, 1763, 410. NAVAL. Tiberghien, Rio de
Janeiro, 1870, 8yo. CEYLON-PORTUGUESE. Fox, Colombo, 1819,
8vo: Callaway, ib. 1823, 8vo.
Italian. Accarigi, Vocabulario, Cento, 1543, 4to: Alunno, La
VIII. 7
fabrica del mundo, Vinezia, 1548, fol. : Porccachi, Venetia, 1588, fol. :
Accademici della Crusca, Vocabulario, Venez. 1612, fol.; 4th ed.
Firenze, 1729-1738, fol. 6 vols. : Costa and Cardinali, Bologna, 1819-
1826, 4to, 7 vols.: Tommaseo and Bellini, Torino, 1861, &c., 410, 4
vols. : Petrocchi, 1884-1891. ENGLISH. Thomas, London, 1598, 4to :
Florio, London, 1598, 4to, 1611: Baretti, London, 1794, 2 vols.;
1854, 8vo, 2 vols. : Petronj and Davenport, Londra, 1828, 8vo, 3 vols. :
Grassi, Leipz. 1854, I2mo: Millhouse, Lend., 1868, 8vo, 2 vols. 1348
pages. FRENCH. Albert!, Paris, 1771, 410, 2 vols.; Milan, 1862:
Barberi, Paris, 1838, 410,2 vols. : Renzi, Paris, 1850, 8vp. GERMAN.
Libra utilissimo,Venetiis, 1499,410: Valentin!, Leipzig, 1834-1836,
410,4 vols. ETYMOLOGY. Menage, Geneva, 1685, fol.: Bolza, Vienna,
1852, 410. PROVENCAL WORDS. Nannucci, Firenze, 1840, 8vo.
SYNONYMS. Rabbi, Venezia, 1774, 410; loth ed. 1817: Tommaseo,
Firenze, 1839-1840, 410, 2 vols. : Milano, 1856, 8vo; 1867. VERBS.
Mastrofini, Roma, 1814, 410, 2 vols. SELECT WORDS AND PHRASES.
Redi, Brescia, 1769, 8vo. INCORRECT WORDS AND PHRASES.
Molassi, Parma, 1830-1841, 8vo, 854 pages. SUPPOSED GALLICISMS.
Viani, Firenze, 1858-1860, 8vo, 2 vols. ADDITIONS TO THE DICTION-
ARIES. Gherardini, Milano, 1819-1821, 8vo, 2 vols.; ib. 1852-1857,
8vo, 6 vols. RHYMING. Falco, Napoli, 1535, 410: Ruscelli, Venetia,
1563, 8vo; 1827: Stigliani, Roma, 1658, 8vo: Rosasco, Padova,
1763, 410; Palermo, 1840, 8vo. TECHNICAL. Bona villa- Aquilino,
Mil. 1819-1821, 8vo, 5 vols. ; 2nded. 1829-1831, 4to, 2 vols. :Vogtberg
(Germ.), Wein, 1831, 8vo. PARTICULAR AUTHORS. Boccaccio:
Aluno, Le ricchezze della lingua volgare, Vinegia, 1543, fol. Dante:
Blanc, Leipzig, 1852, 8vo; Firenze, 1859, 8vo. DIALECTS.
Bergamo: Gasparini, Mediol. 1565: Zappetini, Bergamo, 1859, 8vo:
Tiraboschi (anc. and mod.), Turin, 1873, 8vo. Bologna: Bumaldi,
Bologna, 1660, 121110: Ferrari, ib. 1820, 8vo; 1838, 4to. Bfescia:
Gagliardi, Brescia, 1759, 8vo: Melchiori, ib. 1817-1820, 8vo: Vocabu-
lanetto, ib. 1872, 410. Como: Monti, Milano, 1845, 8vo. Ferrara:
Manini, Ferrara, 1805, 8vo: Azzi, ib. 1857, 8vo. Friuli: Scala,
Pordenone, 1870, 8vo. Genoa: Casaccia, Gen. 1842-1851, 8vo; 1873,
&c. : Paganini, ib. 1857, 8vo. Lombardy: Margharini, Tuderti,
1870, 8vo. Mantua: Cherubini, Milano, 1827, 4to. Milan: Varon,
ib. 1606, 8vo: Cherubini, ib. 1814, 8vo, 2 vols.; 1841-1844, 8vo,
4 vols.; 1851-1861, 8vo, 5 vols.: Banfi, ib. 1857, 8vo: 1870, 8vo.
Modena: Galvani, Modena, 1868, 8vo. Naples: Galiani, Napoli,
1789, I2mo, 2 vols. Parma: Peschieri, Parma, 1828-1831, 8vo, 3
vols. 1840; Malespina, ib. 1856, 8vo, 2 vols. Pavia : Dizionario domes-
ticp pavese, Pavia, 1829, 8vo: Gambini, ib. 1850, 410, 346 pages.
Piacenza: Nicolli, Piacenza, 1832: Foresti, ib. 1837-1838, 8vo, 2 pts.
Piedmont: Pino, Torino, 1784, 410: Capello (Fr.), Turin, 1814, 8vo,
2 pts.: Zalli (Ital. Lat. Fr.), Carmagnola, 1815, 8vo, 2 vols: Sant'
Albino, Torino, 1860, 4to. Reggio: Vocabulario Reggiano, 1832.
Romagna: Morri, Fienza, 1840. Rome: Raccolto di yoci Romani e
Marchiani, Osimo, 1769, 8vo. Roveretano and Trentino: Azzolini,
Venezia, 1856, 8vo. Sardinia: Porru, Casteddu, 1832, fol.: Spano,
Cagliari, 1851-1852, fol. 3 vols. Sicily: Bono (It. Lat.), Palermo,
I75I-I754. 4to, 3 vols. ; 1783-1785, 4to, 5 vols. : Pasqualino, ib. 1785-
J795. 4to, 5 vols. : Mortillaro, 16.1853, 4to, 956 pages: Biundi, 6.i857,
I2mo, 578 pages: Traina, ib. 1870, 8vo. Siena: Barbagli, Siena,
1602, 410. Taranto: Vincentiis, Taranto, 1872, 8vo. Turin:
Somis di Chavrie, Torino, 1843, 8 vo. Tuscany: Luna, Napoli, 1536,
410: Politi, Roma, 1604, 8vo; Venezia, 1615; 1628; 1665; Paulo,
ib. 1740, 410. Vaudois: Callet, Lausanne, 1862, I2mo. Venetian:
Patriarch! (Veneziano e padevano), Padova, 1755, 4to; 1796, 1821:
Boerio, Venezia, 1829, 410; 1858-1859; 1861. Verona: Angeli,
Verona, 1821, 8vo. Vicenza: Conti, Vicenza, 1871, 8vo. LINGUA
FRANCA. Dictionnaire de la langue Franque, ou Petit Mauresque,
Marseille, 1830, i6mo, 107 pages. SLANG. Sabio (lingua Zerga),
Venetia, 1556, 8vo; 1575: Trattato degli bianti, Pisa, 1828, 8vo.
Romansh. Promptuario de voci volgari e Latine, Valgrisii,
1565, 410: Der, die, das, oder Nomenclatura (German nouns
explained in Rom.), Seoul, 1744, 8vo: Conradi, Zurich, 1820, 8vo;
1826, izmo, 2 vols.: Carisch, Chur, 1821, 8vo; 1852, l6mo.
Vlach. Lesicon Rumanese (Lat. Hung. Germ.), Budae, 1825,
4tq: Bobb (Lat. Hung.), Clus, 1822-1823, 410, 2 vols. FRENCH.
Vaillant, Boucoureshti, 1840, 8vo: Poyenar, Aaron and Hill,
Boucourest, 1840-1841, 410, 2 vols.; Jassi, 1852, i6mo, 2 vols.:
De Pontbriant, Bucuresci, 1862, 8vo: Cihac, Frankf. 1870, 8vo:
Costinescu, Bucuresci, 1870, 8vo, 724 pages: Antonescu, Bucharest,
1874, i6mo, 2 vols. 919 pages. GERMAN. Clemens, Hermanstadt,
1823, 8vo: Isser, Kronstadt, 1850: Polyzu, ib. 1857, 8vo.
TEUTONIC : (i) Scandinavian.
Icelandic. LATIN. Andreae, Havniae, 1683, 8vo: Halderson
(Lat. Danish), ib. 1814, 4to, 2 vols. ENGLISH. Cleasby-Vigfusson,
Oxford, 1874, 4*o. GERMAN. Dieterich, Stockholm, 1844, 8vo:
Mobius, Leipzig, 1866, 8vo. DANISH. Jonssen, Kjobenhavn, 1863,
8vo. NORWEGIAN. Kraft, Christiania, 1863, 8vo: Fritzner,
Kristiania, 1867, 8vo. POETIC. Egilsson (Latin), Hafniae, 1860,
8vo; 1864.
Swedish. Kindblad, Stockholm, 1840, 410: Almqvist, Orebro,
1842-1844, 8vo: Dalin, Ordbog. Stockholm, 1850-1853, 8vo, 2 vols.
1668 pages; 1867, &c. 4to (vol. i. ii., A to Fjermare, 928 pages):
Id., Handordbog, ib. 1868, I2mo, 804 pages: Svenska Academien.
Stockholm, 1870, 410 (A) pp. 187. LATIN. Stjernhjelm, Holm,
1643, 410: Verelius, Upsala, 1691, 8vo: Ihre (Suco-Gothicum),
DICTIONARY
Upsala, 1769, fol. 2 vols. ENGLISH. Serenius, Nykoping, 1757,
4to: Brisnon, Upsala, 1784, 410: Widegren, Stockholm, 1788, 410;
Brisman, Upsala, 1801, 410; 3rd ed. 1815, 2 vols. : Deleen Orebro,
1829, 8vo: Granberg, ib. 1832, 121110: Nilssen, Widmark, &c.,
Stockholm, 1875, 8vo. FRENCH. Moller, Stockholm, 1745, 4to:
Biorkengren, ib. 1795, 2 vols. : Nordforss, ib. 1805, 8vo, 2 vols. : 2nd
ed. Orebro, 1827, I2mo: West, Stockh. 1807, 8vo: Dalin, ib. 1842-
1843, 4to, 2 vols.; 1872. GERMAN. Dahnert, Holmiae, 1746, 410:
Heinrich, Christiansund, 1814, 4to, 2 vols.; 4th ed. Orebro, 1841,
'I2mo: Helms, Leipzig, 1858, 8vo; 1872. DANISH. Host,
Kjobenhavn, 1799, 4to: Welander, Stockholm, 1844, 8vo: Dalin,
ib. 1869, i6mo: Kaper, Kjobenhavn, 1876, i6mo. ETYMOLOGY.
Tamm, Upsala, 1874, &c., 8vo (A and B), 200 pages. FOREIGN
WORDS. Sahlstedt, Wasteras, 1769, 8vo: Andersson (20,000),
Stockholm, 1857, l6mo: Tullberg, ib. 1868, 8vo: Ekbohrn, ib. 1870,
I2mo: Dalin, ib. 1870, &c., 8vo. SYNONYMS. Id., ib. 1870, I2mo.
NAVAL. Ramsten, ib. 1866, 8vo. TECHNICAL. Jungberg, ib. 1873,
8vo. DIALECTS. Ihre, Upsala, 1766, 410: Rietz, Lund, 1862-1867,
4to, 859 pages. Bohusldn: Idioticon Bohusiense, Gotaborg, 1776,
410. Dalecarlia: Arborelius, Upsala, 1813, 410. Gothland: Hof
(Sven), Stockholmiae, 1772, 8vo: Raaf (Ydre), Orebro, 1859, 8vo.
Holland,: Moller, Lund, 158, 8vo. Helsingland: Lenstrom, ib.
1841, 8vo: Fornminnessallskap, Hudikswall, 1870, 8vo.
Norwegian. Jenssen, Kjobenhavn, 1646, 8vo: Pontoppidan,
Bergen, 1749, 8vo: Hanson (German), Christiania, 1840, 8vo:
Aasen, ib. 1873, 8vo, 992 pages.
Danish. Aphelen, Kopenh, 1764, 4to, 2 vols.; 1775, 4to, 3 vols.:
Molbech, Kjobenhavn, 1833, 8vo, 2 vols.: ib. 1859, 2 vols.: Videns-
kabernes Selskab, ib. 1793-1865, Kalkar. ENGLISH. Berthelson
(Eng. Dan.), 1754, 4to: Wolff, London, 1779, 410. Bay, ib. 1807,
8vo, 2 vols. ; 1824, 8vo: Hornbeck, ib. 1863, 8vo: Ferrall and Repp,
ib. 1814, i6mo; 1873, 8vo: Rosing, Copenhagen, 1869, 8vo: Ancker,
ib. 1874, 8vo. FRENCH. Aphelen, ib. 1754, 8vo: Id., ib. 1759,
4to, 2 vols.; 2nd ed. 1772-1777, vol. i. ii. GERMAN. Id., ib. 1764,
4to, 2 vols.: Gronberg, 2nd ed. Kopenh. 1836-1839, I2mo, 2 vols.;
1851, Helms, Leipzig, 1858, 8vo. SYNONYMS. Miiller, Kjobenhavn,
1853, 8vo. FOREIGN WORDS. Hansen, Christiania, 1842, I2mo.
NAVAL. Wilsoet, Copenhagen, 1830, 8vo: Fisker (French),
Kjobenhavn, 1839, 8vo. OLD DANISH. Molbech, ib. 18.57-1868,
8vo, 2 vols. DIALECTS. Id., ib. 1841, 8vo. Bornholm: Adler. ib.
1856, 8vo. South Jutland: Kok, 1867, 8vo. SLANG. Kristiansen
(Gadesproget), ib. 1866, 8vo. p. 452.
(2) Germanic.
Teutonic. COMPARATIVE. Meidinger, Frankf. a. M. 1833, 8vo,
2nd ed. 1836, 8vo.
Gothic. Junius, Dortrecht, 1665, 4to: 1671; 1684, Diefen-
bach (comparative), Franckf. a. M. 1846-1851, 2 vols. 8vo: Schulze,
Magdeburg, 1848, 410: 1867, 8vo: Skeat, London, 1868, 4to:
Balg (Comparative Glossary), Magvike, Wisconsin, 1887-1889.
ULPHILAS (editions with dictionaries). Castilionaeus, Mediol, 1829,
4to :Gabelentz and Lobe, Altenburg, 1836-1 843, 410, 2 vols. : Gaugen-
gigl, Passau, 1848, 8vo: Stamm, Paderborn, 1857: Stamm and
Heyne, ib. 1866, 8vo.
Anglo-Saxon. LATIN. Somner (Lat. Eng.), Oxonii, 1659,
fol.: Benson, ib. 1701, 8vo: Lye (A.-S. and Gothic), London, 1772,
fol. 2 vols. : Ettmuller, Quedlinburg, 1851, 8vo. 838 pages. ENGLISH.
Bosworth, London, 1838, 8vo, 721 pa^es: Id. (Compendious),
1848, 278 pages. Corson (A.-S. and Early English), New York, 1871,
8vo, 587 pages; Toller (based on Bosworth), Oxford, 1882-1898.
GERMAN. Bouterwek, Gutersloh, 1850, 8vo, 418 pages: Grein
(Poets), Gottingen, 1861-1863, 8vo, 2 vols.: Leo, Halle, 1872, 8vo.
English. Cockeram, London, 1623, 8vo: 9th ed. 1650: Blount,
ib. 1656, 8vo: Philips, The new World of Words, London, 1658, fol.:
Bailey, London, 1721, 8vo; 2nd ed. ib. 1736, fol.; 24th ed. ib. 1782,
8vo: Johnson, ib. 1755, fol. 2 vols.; ed. Todd, London, 1818,
4to, 4 vols.; ib. 1827. 410, 3 vols.; ed. Latham, ib. 1866-1874, 4to,
4 vols. (2 in 4 parts): Barclay, London, 1774, 4to; ed. Woodward,
tb. 1848: Sheridan, ib. 1780, 4to, 2 vols. : Webster, New York, 1828,
4to, 2 vols.; London, 1832, 4to, 2 vols.; ed. Goodrich and Porter,
1865, 4to: Richardson, 16. 1836, 4to, 2 vols.; Supplement, 1856:
Ogilvie, Imperial Dictionary, Glasgow, 1850-1855, 8vo, 3 vols. (the
new edition of Ogilvie by Charles Annandale, 4 vols., 1882, was an
encyclopaedic dictionary, which served to some extent as the founda-
tion of the Century Dictionary) ; Boag, Do., Edinburgh, 1852-1853,
8vo, 2 vols.: Craik, ib. 1856, 8vo: Worcester, Boston, 1863, jto.
Stormouth and Bayne, 1885; Murray and Bradley, The Oxford
English Dictionary, 1884- ; Whitney, The Century Diet., New
York, 1889-1891; Porter, Webs/er's Internal. Diet., Springfield,
Massachusetts, 1890; Funk, Standard Diet., New York, 1 894; Hunter,
The Encyclopaedic Diet., 1879-1888. ETYMOLOGY. Skinner.Londini,
1671, fol.: Junius, Oxonii, 1743, fol.: Wedgewood, London, 1859-
1865, 3 vols. ; ib. 1872, 8vo. Skeat, Oxford, 1881 ; Fennell (Anglicized
words), Camb. 1892. PRONOUNCING. Walker, London, 1774, 4to:
by Smart, 2nd ed. ib. 1846, 8vo. PRONOUNCING IN GERMAN.
Hausner, Frankf. 1793, 8vo ; 3rd ed. 1807 ; Winkelmann, Berlin, 1818,
8vo: Voigtmann, Coburg, 1835, 8vo: Albert, Leipz. 1839, 8vo:
Bassler, ib. 1840, ibmo. ANALYTICAL. Booth, Bath, 1836, 4to:
Roget, Thesaurus, London, 1852, 8vo; 6th ed. 1857; Boston, 1874.
SYNONYMS. Piozzi, London, 1794, 8vo, 2 vols.: L. [abarthe], Paris,
1803, 8vo, 2 vols.: Crabb, London, 1823, 8vo; nth ed. 1859:
C. J. Smith, ib. 1871, 8vo, 610 pages. REDUPLICATED WORDS.
Wheatley, ib. 1866, 8vo. SURNAMES. Arthur, New York, 1857,
I2mo, about 2600 names: Lower, ib. 1860, 410. PARTICLES.
Le Febure de Villebrune, Paris, 1774, 8vo. RHYMING. Levins,
Manipulus Puerorum, London, 1570, 4to; ed. Wheatley, ib. 1867,
8vo: Walker, London, 1775, 8vo; 1865, 8vo. SHAKESPEARE.
Nares, Berlin, 1822, 410; ed. Halliwell and Wright, London, 1859,
8vo: Schmidt, Berlin, 1874. OLD ENGLISH. Spelman, London
[1626], fol. (A to I only); 1664 (completed); 1687 (best ed.):
Coleridge (1250-1300), ib. 1859, 8vo: Stratmann (Early Eng.),
Krefeld, 1867, 8vo; 2nd ed. 1873, 410: Bradley (new edition of
Stratman), Oxford, 1891; Matzner and Bieling, Berlin, 1878-
OLD AND PROVINCIAL. Halliwell, London, 1844-1846, 8vo; 2nd ed.
ib. 1850, 2 vols.: 6th ed. 1904: Wright, ib. 1857, 8vo, 2 vols.; 1862.
DIALECTS. Ray, ib. 1674, I2mo: Grose, ib. 1787, 8vo; 1790:
Holloway, Lewes, 1840, 8vo; Wright, Eng. Dialect Diet., London,
1898-1905, 28 vols. Scotch: Jamieson, Edin. 1806, 410, 2 vols.;
Supplement, 1826, 2 vols.; abridged by Johnstpne, ib. 1846, 8vo:
Brown,Edin,lS45,8vo: Motherby(German), Konigsberg, 1826-1828,
8vo: (Shetland and Orkney), Edmonston, London, 1866, 8vo:
(Banff shire), Gregor, ib. 1866, 8vo. North Country: Brockett,
London, 1839, 8vo, 2 vols. Berkshire: [Lousley] ib. 1852, 8vo,
Cheshire: Wilbraham, ib. 1817, 4to; 1826, 121110: Leigh, Chester,
1877, 8vo. Cumberland: Glossary, ib. 1851, I2mo: Dickenson,
Whitehaven, 1854, I2mo; Supplement, 1867: Ferguson (Scandin-
avian Words), London, 1856, 8vo. Derbyshire: Hooson (mining),
Wrexham, 1747, 8vo: Sleigh, London, 1865, 8vo. Dorset: Barnes,
Berlin, 1863, 8vo. Durham: [Dinsdale] (Teesdale), London, 1849,
I2mo. Gloucestershire: Huntley (Cotswold), ib. 1868, 8vo. Hereford-
shire: [Sir George Cornewall Lewis,] London, 1839, I2mo. Lanca-
shire: Nodal and Milner, Manchester Literary Club, 1875, 8vo,
Morris (Furness), London, 1869, 8vo: R. B. Peacock (Lonsdale,
North and South of the Sands), ib. 1869, 8vo. Leicestershire:
A. B. Evans, ib. 1848, 8vo. Lincolnshire: Brogden, ib. 1866, I2mo:
Peacock (Manley & Corringham), ib. 1877, 8vo. Norfolk and Suffolk :
Forby, London, 1830, 8vo, 2 vols. Northamptonshire: Sternberg,
ib. 1851, 8vo: Miss Anne E. Baker, ib. 1866, 8vo, 2 vols. 868 pages.
Somersetshire: Jennings, ib. 1869, 8vo: W. P. Williams and W. A.
Tones, Taunton, 1873, 8vo. Suffolk: Moor, Woodbridge, 1823, I2mo:
Bowditch (Surnames), Boston, U.S., 1851, 8vo; 1858; 3rd ed.
London, 1861, 8vo, 784 pages. Sussex: Cooper, Brighton, 1836,
8vo: Parish, Farncombe, 1875, 8vo. Wiltshire: Akerman, London,
1842, I2mo. Yorkshire (North and East), Toone, ib. 1832, 8vo:
(Craven), Carr, 2nd ed. London, 1828, 8vo, 2 vols.: (Swaledale),
Harland, ib. 1873, 8vo: (Cleveland), Atkinson, ib. 1868, 410, 653
pages: (Whitby) [F. K. Robinson], ib. 1876, 8vo: (Mid- Yorkshire
and Lower Niddersdale), C. Clough Robinson, ib. 1876, 8vo: (Leeds),
Id., ib. 1861, I2mo: (Wakefield), Banks, ib. 1865, i6mo: (Hallam-
shire), Hunter, London, 1829, 8vo. Ireland: (Forth and Bargy, Co.
Wexford), Poole, London, 1867, 8vo. America: Pickering, Boston,
1816, 8vo: Bartlett, New York, 1848, 8vo; 3rd ed. Boston, 1860.
8vo; Dutch transl. by Keijzer, Gorinchen, 1854, I2mo; Germ,
transl. by Kohler, Leipz. 1868, 8vo. Elwyn, Philadelphia, 1859.
8vo. Negro English: Kingos, St Croix, 1770, 8vo: Focke (Dutch),
Leiden, 1855, 8vo: Wullschlaegel, Lobau, 1856, 8vo. 350 pages.
SLANG. Grose, London, 1785, 8vo; 1796: Hotten, ib. 1864, 8vo;
1866; Farmer & Henley (7 vols., 1890-1904).
Frisic. Wassenbergh, Leeuwarden, 1802, 8vo: Franeker, 1806,
8vo: Outzen, Kopenh. 1837, 4to: Hettema (Dutch), Leuwarden,
1832, 8yo; 1874, 8 vo, 607 pages: Winkler (Nederdeutsch en Friesch
Dialectikon), 's Gravenhage, 1874, 8vo, 2 vols. 1025 pages. OLD
FRISIC. Wiarda (Germ.), Aurich, 1786, 8vo: Richthofen, Gottingen,
1840, 4to. NORTH FRISIC. Bendson (Germ.), Leiden, 1860, 8vo:
Johansen (Fohringer und Amrumer Mundart), Kiel, 1862, 8vo.
EAST FRISIC. Stiirenburg, Aurich, 1857, 8vo. HELIGOLAND.
Oelrichs, i. /., 1836, i6mo.
Dutch. Kok, 2nd ed. Amst. 1785-1798, 8vo, 38 vols.: Weiland,
Amst. 1790-1811, 8vo, II vols.: Harrebomee, Utrecht, 1857, 410;
1862-1870, 8vo, 3 vols. : De Vries and Te Winkel, Gravenh. 1864, &c.,
4to (new ed. 1882- ); Dale, ib. 4th ed. 1898; ENGLISH. Hex-
ham, ed. Manley, Rotterdam, 1675-1678, 4to: Holtrop, Dortrecht,
1823-1824, 8vo, 2 vols. : Bomhoff, Nimeguen, 1859, 8vo, 2 vols. 2323
pages: Jaeger, Gouda, 1862, i6mo: Calisch, Tiel, 1871, &c., 8vo.
FRENCH. Halma, Amst. 1710, 410; 4th ed. 1761 : Marin, ib. 1793,
4to, 2 vols.: Winkelman, ib. 1793, 4to, 2 vols.: Mook, Zutphen,
1 824-1 825, 8vo, 4 vols. ; Gouda, 1857, 8vo, 2 vols. 281 8 pages : Kramers,
ib. 1859-1862, 2 vols. i6mo. GERMAN. Kramer, Niirnb. 1719, fol.;:
1759, 410, 2 vols.; ed. Titius, 1784, Weiland, Haag, 1812, 8vo:
Terwen, Amst. 1844, 8vo. ETYMOLOGY. Franck, 1884-1892.
ORIENTAL WORDS. Dozy, 's Gravenhage, 1867, 8vo. GENDERS OF
NOUNS. Bilderdijk, Amst. 1822, 8vo, 2 vols. SPELLING. Id.,
's Gravenhage, 1829, 8vo. FREQUENTATIVES. De Jager, Gouda,
1875, 8vo, vol. i. OLD DUTCH. Suringer, Leyden, 1865, 8yo.
MIDDLE DUTCH. De Vries, 's Gravenhage, 1864, &c., 4to. Verwijs
and Verdam, ib. 1885-
Flemish. Kilian, Antw. 1511, 8vo; ed. Hasselt, Utrecht, 1777,
4to, 2 vols. FRENCH. Berlemont, Anvers, 1511, 4to: Meurier, ib.
1557, 8vo: Rouxell and Halma, Amst. 1708, 410; 6th ed. 1821:
Van de Velde and Sleeckx, Brux. 1848-1851, 8vo, 2440 pages; ib.
DICTIONARY
1860, 6vo, 2 vols. ANCIENT NAMES OF PLACES. Grandgagnage
<East Belgium), Bruxelles, 1859, 8vo.
German. Josua Pictorius (Maaler), Die teiitsch Spraach, Tiguri,
1561, 8vo; Stieler, Niirnb. 1691,410: Adelung, Leipz. 1774-1786,
410, 5 vols.; 1793-1818, 5 vols.: Campe, Braunschweig, 1807-1811,
4to, 5 vols.: Grimm, Leipzig, 1854, &c., 410: Sanders, ib. 1860-
1865, 410, 3 vols. 1885: Diefenbach and Wiilcker (High and Low
German, to supplement Grimm), Frankf. a. M. 1874, 1885, 8vo. ;
Kluge, Strassburg, 1883; Heine, Leipzig, 1890-1895; Wcigand,
Giessen, 1873. ENGLISH. Adelung, 1783-1796, 8vo, 3 vols.: Hilpert,
Karlsruhe, 1828-1829, 8vo, 2 vols.; 1845-1846, 4to, 2 vols.: Fliigel,
Leipz. 1830, 8vo, 2 vols.; London, 1857, 8vo; Leipzig, 1870:
Miiller, Cothen, 1867, 8vo, 2 vols. FRENCH. Laveaux, Strassburg,
1812, 4to: Mozin, Stuttgard, 1811-1812, 4to, 4 vols. ; 1842-1846, 8yo,
4 vols., 3rd ed. 1850-1851, 8vo: Schuster, Strasb. 1859, 8vo: Daniel,
Paris, 1877, i6mo. OLD HIGH GERMAN. Haltaeus, Lipsiae, 1758,
fol. 2 vols.: Graff, Berlin, 1834-1846, 4to, 7 vols.: Brinckmeier,
Gotha, 1850-1863, 410, 2 vols.: Kehrein (from Latin records), Nord-
hausen, 1863, 8vo. Schade, Halle, 1872-1882. MIDDLE HIGH GERMAN.
Ziemann, Quedlinburg, 1838, 8vo: Benecke, Miiller and Zarnche,
Leipz. 1854-1866, 8vp, 3 vols.: Lexer, Leipzig, 1870, 8vo. MIDDLE
Low GERMAN. Schiller and Liibben, Bremen, 1872, &c., 8vo, in
progress. Low GERMAN. Vollbeding, Zerbst, 1806, 8vo: Kose-
garten, Griefswald, 1839, 4to; 1856, &c., 4to. ETYMOLOGY.
Helvigius, Hanov. 1620, 8vo: Wachter, Lipsiae, 1737, fol. 2 vols.:
Kaindl, Salzbach, 1815-1830, 8vo, 7 vols. : Heyse, Magdeburg, 1843-
1849, 8vo, 3 vols. : Kehrein, Wiesbaden, 1847-1852, 2 vols. SYNONYMS.
Eberhard, Maas, and Griiber, 4th ed. Leipzig, 1852-1863, 8vo, 4
vols.: Aue (Engl.), Edinb. 1836, 8 vo: Eberhard, llthed. Berlin, 1854,
I2mo: Sanders, Hamburg, 1872, 8vo, 743 pages.' FOREIGN WORDS.
Campe, Braunschweig, 1813, 4to: Heyse, Fremdworterbuch,
Hannover, 1848, 8vo. NAMES. Pott. Leipz. 1853, 8vo: Michaelis
(Taufnamen), Berlin, 1856, 8vo: Forstemann (Old Germ.) Nord-
hausen, 1856-1859, 4to, 2 vols. 1573 pages, 12,000 names: Steub
(Oberdeutschen), Miinchen, 1871, 8vo. LUTHER. Dietz, Leipzig,
1869-1872, 8vo, 2 vols. DIALECTS. Popowitsch, Wien, 1780, 8vo:
Fulda, Berlin, 1788, 8vo: Klein, Frankf. 1792, 8vo, 2 vols.: Kalt-
schmidt, Nordlingen, 1851, 410; 1854, 5th ed. 1865. Aix-la-
Chapelle, Miiller and Weitz, Aachen, 1836, I2mo. Appenzell: Tobler,
Zurich, 1837, 8vo. Austria: Hofer, Linz, 1815, 8vo; Castelli, Wien,
1847, I2mo: Scheuchenstul (mining), ib. 1856, 8vo. Bavaria:
Zaupser, Miinchen, 1789, 8vo: Deling, ib. 1820, 2 vols.: Schmeller,
Stuttg. 1827-1837, 8vo, 4 vols. ; 2nd ed. Miinchen, 1872, 410, vol.
i. 1799 pages. Berlin: Trachsel. Berlin, 1873, 8vo. Bremen:
Bremisch Deutsch Gesellschaft, Bremen, 1767-1771, 1869, 8vo, 6 vols.
Oelrich (anc. statutes), Frankf. a. M. 1767, 8yo. Carinthia: Ueber-
felder, Klagenfurt, 1862, 8vo: Lexe, Leipzig, 1862, 8vo. Cleves:
De Schueren, Teuthonista, Colon, 1477, fol.; Leiden, 1804, 4to.
Cottingen: Schambach, Hannover, 1838, 8vo. Hamburg: Richey,
Hamb. 1873, 410; 1755, 8vo. Henneberg: Reinwold, Berlin and
Stettin, 1793, 1801, 8vo, 2 vols.: Bruckner, Meiningen, 1843, 410.
Hesse: Vilmar, Marburg, 1868, 8vo, 488 pages. Holslein: Schiitz
Hamb. i8oo-ri8o6, 8vo, 4 vols. Hungary: Schoer, Wien, 1858.
Livonia: Bergmann, Salisburg, 1785, 8vo: Gutzeit, Riga, 1859-1864,
8vo, 2 parts. Upper Lusatia: Anton, Gorlitz, 1825-1839, 13 parts.
Luxembourg: Gangler, Lux. 1847, 8vo, 406 pages. Mecklenburg and
Western Pomerania: M., Leipzig, 1876, 8vo, 114 pages. Nassau:
Kehrein, Weilburg, 1860, 8vo. Osnaburg: Strodtmann, Leipz. 1756,
8vo. Pomerania and Rugen: Dahnert, Stralsund, 1781, 4to. Posen:
Bernd, Bonn, 1820, 8vo. Prussia: Bock, Konigsb. 1759, 8vo:
Hennig, ib. 1785, 8vo. Saxony Schmeller (from Heliand, &c.),
Stuttg. 1840, 410. Silesia: Berndt, Stendal, 1787, 8vo. Swabia:
Schmid, Berlin, 1795, 8vo; Stuttg. 1831, 8vo. Switzerland:
Stalder, Aarau, 1807-1813, 8vo, 2 vols. Thuringia: Keller, Jena,
1819, 8vo. Transylvania: Schuller, Prag, 1865, 8vo. Tirol:
Schopf, Innspruck, 1866, 8vo. Venetian Alps: Schmeller, Wien,
1854, 8vo. Vienna: Hugel, ib. 1873, 8vo. HUNTING. Westerwald:
Schmidt, Hadamar, 1800, 8vo; Kehrein, Wiesbaden, 1871, I2mo.
SLANG. Gauner Sprache : Schott, Erlangen, 1821, 8vo: Grolmann,
Giessen, 1822, 8vo: Train, Meissen, 1833, 8vo: Anton, 2nd ed.
Magdeburg, 1843, 8vo; 1859: Ave-Lallemant, Das Deutsche
Caunerthun, Leipzig, 1858-1862, 8vo, vol. iv. pp. 515-628. Student
Slang: Vollmann (Burschicoses), Ragaz, 1846, l6mo, 562 pages.
Celtic.
Celtic generally. Lluyd, Archaeologia Britannica, Oxford,
1707, folio: Bullet, Besangon, 1754-1860, fol. 2 vols.
Irish. Cormac, bishop of Cashel, born 831, slain in battle 903,
wrote a Glossary, Sanas Cormaic, printed by Dr Whitley Stokes,
London, 1862, 8vo, with another, finished in 1569, by O'Davoren,
a schoolmaster at Burren Castle, Co. Clare : O'Clery, Lpvanii, 1643,
8vo: Mac Cuirtin (Eng.-Irish), Paris, 1732, 4to: O'Brien, ib. 1768,
410; Dublin, 1832, 8vo: O'Reilly, 1817, 4to: 1821; ed. O' Donovan,
tb. 1864, 410, 725 pages: Foley (Eng.-Irish), ib. 1855, 8vo: Connellan
(do.), 1863, 8vo.
Gaelic. Macdonald, Edin. 1741, 8vo: Shaw, London, 1780,
4to, 2 vols.: Allan, Edin. 1804, 410: Armstrong, London, 1825,
4to: Highland Society, ib. 1828, 410, 2 vols.: Macleod and Dewar,
Glasgow, 1853, 8vo.
Manx. Cregeen, Douglas, 1835, 8vo: Kelly, ib. 1866, 8vo, 2 vols.
Welsh. LATIN. Davies, London, 1632, fol.: Boxhornius,
Amstelodami, 1654, 410. ENGLISH. Salesbury, London, 1547, 410:
1551 : Richards, Bristol, 1759, 8vo: Owen (W.), London, 1793-1794,
8vo, 2 vols.; 1803, 410, 3 vols.: Walters, ib. 1794, 410: Owen-
Pughe, Denbigh, 1832, 8vo; 3rd ed. Pryse, ib. 1866, 8vo: D. S. Evans
(Eng.- Welsh), ib. 1852-1853, 8vo; 1887.
Cornish. Pryce, Archaeologia, Sherborne, 1770, 410: Williams,
Llandovery, 1862-1865, 4to. NAMES. Bannister (20,000), Truro,
1869-1871, 8vo.
Breton. Legadeuc, Le Catholicon breton, finished 1464, printed
at Lantrequier, 1499, fol. 210 pages; 1501, 4to; L'Orient, 1868,
8vo: Quicquerde Roskoff, Morlaix, 1633, 8vo: Rostrenen, Rennes,
1732, 410, 978 pages; ed. Jolivet, Guingamps, 1834, 8vo, 2 vols.:
l'A.[rmerie], Leyde, I744i 8vo; La Haye, 1756: Lepelletier, Paris,
1752, fol.: Legonidec, Angouleme,^l82i, 8vo; St Brieuc, 1847-1850,
410, 924 pages. DIALECT OF LEON. Troude (Fr.-Bret.), Brest,
1870, 8vo; Id. (Bret.-Fr.), ib. 1876, 8vo, 845 pages. DIOCESE OF
VANNES. Armerie, Leyde, 1774, 8vo.
Basque.
Basque. Larramendi, St Sebastian, 1745, fol. 2 vols.; ed-
Zuazua, ib. 1854, fol.; Chaho, Bayonne, 1856, 410, 1867: Fabre,
ib. 1870, 8vo: Van Eys, Paris, 1873, 8vo: Egiiren, Madrid, 1877.
Baltic.
Lithuanian. Szyrwid, 3rd ed., Vilnae, 1642, 8vo; $th ed. 1713:
Schleicher, Prag, 1856^1857, 8vo, 2 vols.: Kurmin, Wilno, 1858, 8vo:
Kurschat, Halle, 1870, &c., 8vo.
Lettic. Mancelius, Riga, 1638, 4to: Elvers, ib. 1748, 8vo:
Lange, Mitau, 1777, 4to: Sjogren, Petersburg, 1861, 410: Ulmann,
ed. Bielenstein, Riga, 1872, &c., 8vo.
Prussian. Bock, Konigsberg, 1759, 8vo: Hennig, 16.1785, 8vo:
Nesselmann, Berlin, 1873, 8vo: Pierson, ib. 1875, 8v -
Slavonic.
Slavonic generally. Franta-Sumavski (Russ. Bulg. Old Slav.
Boh. Polish), Praga, 1857, 8vo, Miklosich, Wien, 1886.
Old Slavonic. Beruinda, Kiev, 1627, 8vo; Kuteinsk, 1653,
4to: Polycarpi (Slav. Greek, Latin), Mosque, 1704, 4to: Alexyccv,
St Petersb. 1773, 8vo; 4th ed. ib. 1817-1819, 8vo, 5 vols.: Russian
Imp. Academy, ib. 1847, 4to, 4 vols. : Miklosich, Vindobonae, 1850:
4to ; 1862-1865, 8vo, Mikhailovski, St Petersb. l875,.8vo : Charkovski,
Warschaw, 1873, 8vo.
Russian. Russian Academy, St Petersburg, 1789-1794, 410, 6
vols.; 1806-1822, ib. 1869, 8vo, 3 vols.: Dahl, Moskva, 1862-1866,
fol. 4 vols.; d., ib. 1873, &c., 410; a 3rd edition, 1903, &c. FRENCH-
GERM.-ENG. Reiff, ib. 1852-1854, 4to. GERMAN, LATIN. Holterhof,
Moskva, I778,8vo,2 vols.;3rded. i853-i855,8vo, 2 vols. : Weismann,
ib. 1731, 410; 1782, and frequently. FRENCH, GERMAN. Nordstet,
ib. 1780-1782, 4to, 2 vols.: Heym, Moskau, 1796-1805, 4to, 4 vols.:
Booch-Arkossi and Frey, Leipzig, 1871, &c., 8vo. ENGLISH.
Nordstet, London, 1780, 4to: Grammatin and Parenogo, Moskva,
1808-1817, 4to, 4 vols.FRENCH. Tatischeff, 2nd ed. St Petersb. 1798,
8vo, 2 vols. ; Moskau, 1816, 410, 2 vols. : Reiff, St Petersb. 1835-1836,
8vo, 2 vols. : Makaroff, ib. 1872, 8vo, 2 vols. mo pages; 1873-1874,
I2mo, 2 vols. GERMAN. Pawlowski, Riga, 1859, 8vo: Lenstrom,
Mitau, 1871, 8vo. SWEDISH. Geitlin, Helsingfors, 1833, I2mo:
Meurmann, ib. 1846, 8vo. POLISH. Jakubowicz, VVarszawa, 1825-
1828, Svo^-a-vols. : Amszejewicz, ib. 1866, 8vo : Szlezigier,i6. 1867, 8vo.
TECWNfcAL. Grakov (Germ.), St Petersb. 1872, 8vo. NAVAL.
Butakov, ib. 1837. DIALECTS. North-west Russia: Gorbachevski
(old language, in Russian), Vilna, 1874, 8vo, 418 pages. White
Russia: Nosovich (Russian), St Petersburg, 1870, 4to, 760 pages.
Red Russia: Patritzkii (German), Lemberg, 1867, 8vo, 2 vols.
842 pages. Ukraine: Piskanov (Russian), Odessa, 1873, 410, 156
pages.
Polish. Linde (explained in Lat. Germ, and 13 Slav dialects),
Warszawie, 1807-1814, 4to, 6 vols. 4574 pages. ENGLISH. [Ryka-
czewski], Complete Dictionary, Berlin, 1849-1851, 8vo, 2 vols.: Ryka-
czewski, Berlin, 1866, i6mo, 1161 pages. FRENCH AND GERMAN.
Troc, Leipz. 1742-1764, 8vo, 4 vols. ; 4th ed. ib. 1806-1822,410, 4 vols. :
Bandtke, Breslau, 1806, 8vo, 2 vols.; 1833-1839, 8vo. FRENCH.
Schmidt, Leipzig, 1870, i6mo. RUSSIAN AND GERMAN. Schmidt
(J. A. E.), Breslau, 1834, 8vo. GERMAN. Mrongovius, Konigsberg,
1765; 1835, 4to; 1837: Troianski, Berlin, 1835-1838, 8vo, 2 vols.:
Booch-Arkossi, Leipzig, 1864-1868, 8vo, 2 vols.: Jordan, ib. 1866,
8vo. ITALIAN. Plazowski, Warszawa, 1860. 8vo. 2 vols. 730 pages.
RUSSIAN. Potocki, Lipsk, 1873, &c., I2mo.
Wendish. Matthai, Budissen, 1721, 8vo: Bose, Grimma, 1840,
8vo: Pfuhl, w Budzsinje, 1866, 8vo, 1210 pages. UPPER LUSATIAN.
Pfuhl and Jordan, Leipz. 1844, 8vo - LOWER LUSATIAN. Zwahr,
Spremberg, 1847, 8vo.
Czech. Rohn (Germ. Lat.), Prag, 1780, 4to, 4 vols. :
Dobrowski and Hanka, ib. 1802-1821, 410, 2 vols. LAT. GERM.
HUNGAR. Jungmann, Praze, 1835-1839, 6 vols. 410, 5316 pages.
GERMAN. Tham, Prag. 1805-1807, 8vo, 2 vols. : Sumavski, ib. 1844-
1846, 8vo, 2 vols.: Koneney, ib. 1855, i8mo, 2 vols.: Rank (Germ.
Boh.), ib. 1860, i6mo, 775 pages. TECHNICAL. Spatny, ib. 1864,
8vo: Kheil (names of goods, Germ. Boh.), ib. 1864, 8vo, 432 pages.
HUNTING. Spatny, ib. 1870, 8vo, 137 pages.
ig6
DICTIONARY
South Slavic. Richterand Ballman.Wien, 1839-1840, 8vo, 2 vols.
SERVIAN. Karajic (Germ. Lat.), ib. 1818, 8vo; 1852: Lavrovski
(Russian), St Petersb. 1870, 8vo, 814 pages. BOSNIAN.
Micalia, Laureti, 1649, 8vo. SLOVAK.- Bernolak (Lat. Germ.
Hung.), Budae, 1825-1827, 8vo, 6 vols.: Loos (Hung, and Germ.),
Pest, 1869, &c., 3 vols. SLOVENE. Gutsmann, Klagenfurt, 1789,
4to: Relkovich, Wien, 1796, 410, 2 vols. : Murko, Gratz, 1838, 8vp,
2 vols.: Janezic, Klagenfurt, 1851, I2mo. DALMATIAN. Ardelio
delta Bella, Venezia, 1728, 8vo; 2nd ed. Ragusae, 1785,410: Stulli,
ib. 1801-1810, 4to, 2 vols. CROATIAN. Habdelich, Gratz, 1670, 8vo:
Sulek, Agram, 1854-1860, 8vo, 2 vols. 1716 pages. CARINTHIAN.
Lexer, Leipzig, 1862, 8vo. OLD SERVIAN. Danitziye (Servian),
Belgrad, 1864, 8vo, 3 vols.
Bulgarian. Daniel (Romaic, Albanian, Rumanian, and Bulgarian) ,
Moschopolis, 1770; Venice, 1802, 410. ENGLISH. Morse and
Vassiliev, Constantinople, 1860, 8vo. RUSSIAN. Borogoff, Vienna,
1872, &c., 8vo.
Ugrian.
TJgrian, Comparative. Donner, Helsingfors, 1874, 8vo, in pro-
gress: Budenz (Ugrian-Magyar), Budapest, 1872-1875, 8vp.
Lappish. Manuale, Holmiae, 1648, 8vo: Fjellstrom, ib. 1738,
8vo: Leem and Sandberg, Havn. 1768-1781, 410, 2 parts: Lindahl
and Oehrling, Holm. 1780, 8vo. NORTH LAPPISH. Stockfleht,
Christiania, 1852, 8vo.
Finnish. Juslenius, Holmiae, 1745, 4to, 567 pages: Renvall,
Aboae, 1826, 410, 2 vols. : Europaeus, Helsingissa, 18521853, l6mo,
2 vols. 742 pages: Lunin, Derpt, 1853, 8vo: Euren, Tavashuus, 1860,
8vo: Ahlman, ib. 1864, 8vp: Wiedemann, St Petersb. 1869, 41:0 :
Godenhjelm (Germ.), Helsingfors, 1871: Lonnrot, Helsingissa,
1874. NAVAL. Stjerncreutz, ib. 1863, 8vo.
Esthonian. Hupel, Mitau, 1818, 8vo, 832 pages: Korber,
Dorpat, 1860, 8vp: Wiedemann, St Petersb. 1869, Ato, 1002 pages:
Aminoff (Esth.-Finnish), Helsingissa, 1869, 8vo: Meves (Russian),
Riga, 1876, I2mo.
Permian. -Rogord (Russian), St Petersb. 1869, 8vo, 420 pages.
Votiak. Wiedemann, Reval, 1847, 8vo : Ahlquist, Helsingfors,
1856, 410.
Cheremiss. Budenz, Pest, 1866, 8vo.
Ersa-Mordvine. Wiedemann, St Petersb. 1865, 4to. MOKSHA-
MORDVINE. Ahlquist, ib. 1862, 8vo.
Magyar. Szabo, Kassan, 1792, 8vo: Guczor and Fogarazi
(Hung. Academy), Pesth, 1862, 8vo, in progress. ENGLISH.
Dallos, Pesth, 1860, 8vo. FRENCH. Kiss, ib. 1844, I2mo, 2 vols. :
Karady, Leipz. 1848, 12mo: Mole, Pest, 1865, 8vo, 2 vols. GERMAN.
Schuster, Wien, 1838, 8vo: Bloch, Pesth, 1857, 4to, 2 vols. : Ballagi,
ib. 1857, 8vo; 6th ed. 1905, 8vo, 2 vols. : Loos, ib. 1870, 8vo, 914 pages.
ETYMOLOGICAL. Dankoysky (Lat.-Germ.), Pressburg, 1853, 8vo:
Kresznerics (under roots, in Hung.), Sudan, 1831-1832, 410, 2 vols. :
Podhorsky (from Chinese roots, in Germ.), Budapest, 1877, 8vo.
NEW WORDS. Kunoss, Pesth, 1836, 8vo; 1844.
Turkish. ARAB. PERS. Esaad Effendi, Constantinople, 1802,
fol. ROMAIC. Alexandrides, Vienna, 1812, 410. POLYGLOTTS.
Pianzola (Ital. Grec. volgare, e Turca), Padova, 1789, 4to: Ciakciak
(Ital. Armeno, Turco), Venice, 1804, 410; 2nd ed. 1829: Azarian
(Ellenico, Ital. Arm. Turco), Vienna, 1848, 8vo: Mechitarist
Congregation (Ital. Francese, Arm. Turco), ib. 1846, 8vo. LATIN.
Mesgnien-Meninski, Viennae, 1680, fol. 3 vols.; ed. Jenisch and
Klezl, ib. 1780-1802, fol. 4 vols. ENGLISH. Sauerwein, London,
1855, I2mo: Redhouse, t&. 1856, 8vo, 1176 pages: Id., Eng. Turkish,
ib. 860, 8vo. FRENCH. Kieffer and Bianchi (Turk.-Fr.), Paris,
1835-1837, 2 vols. 2118 pages: Bianchi (Fr.-Turk.) Paris, 1843-1846,
8vo, 2 vols. 2287 pages; 1850, 8vo, 2 vols. : Mallouf, ib. 1863-1867,
8vo, 2 vols. FRENCH AND GERMAN. Zenker (Arab. Pers.), Leipz,
1862-1876, 410, 2 vols, 982 pages. GERMAN. Korabinsky, Pressburg,
1788, 8vo: Vambery, Constantinople, 1858, 8vo. ITALIAN.
Molina, Roma, 1641, 8vo: Masais, Firenze, 1677, 8vo: Ciadyrgy,
Milano, 1832-1834, 4to, 2 vols. RUSSIAN. Budagov (Comparative
lexicon of the Turkish-Tartar dialects), St Petersburg, 1869, 8vo,
2 vols.
Gipsy. Bischoff, Ilmenau, 1827, 8vo: Truxillo, Madrid, 1844,
8vo: Jimenes, Sevilla, 1846, l6mo: Baudrimont, Bordeaux, 1862,
8vo: Vaillant, Paris, 1868, 8vo: Paspati, Constantinople, 1870,
4to: Borrow, Romany Lavo Lil, London, 1874, 8vo: Smart and
Crofton, London, 1875, 8vo.
Albanian. Blanchus, Romae, 1635, 8vo: Kaballioti (Romaic,
Wallach. Alb.), Venice, 1770, 8vo: Xylander, Frankfurt a. M. 1835,
8vo: Hahn, Jena, 1854, 410: Rossi da Montalto, Roma, 1866, 8vo.
ASIA
Semitic. POLYGLOTTS. Thurneissius, Berolini, 1585, fol.:
Thorndike, London, 1635, fol.: Schindler, Pentaglotton, Frankf,
ad M. 1653, fol.: Hottinger, Heptaglotton, ib. 1661, fol.: Castellus,
London, 1669, fol. 2 vols. (Hebrew, Chaldaic, Syriac, Samaritan,
Aethippic and Arabic in one alphabet; Persian separately. It
occupied him for seventeen years, during which he worked sixteen
to eighteen hours a day): Otho, Frankf. a. M. 1702, 410 (the same
languages with Rabbinical).
Hebrew. Abdut 875, Zemab, head of the school of Pum-
beditha, wrote a Talmudical dictionary of words and things, arranged
in alphabetical order, which is lost. About 880, Jehudah ben
'Alan, of Tiberias, and Jehudah ibnKoreish, ofTahurt, in Morocco
wrote Hebrew dictionaries. Saadia ben Joseph (born 892, died 942),
of Fayum, in Upper Egypt, wrote [rax npp, probably a Hebrew-
Arabic dictionary. Menabem ben Jacob Ibn Saruq (born 910, died
about 970), of Tortosa and Cordova, wrote a copious Hebrew
dictionary, first printed by Herschell F. Filipowski, Edinburgh, 1855,
8vo, from five MSS. David ben Abraham, of Fas, wrote, in Arabic,
a large Hebrew dictionary, the MS. of which, a quarto of 313 leaves
on cotton paper, was found about 1 830 by A. Firkowitz, of Eupatoria,
in the cellar of a Qaraite synagogue in Jerusalem. The age of this
work cannot be ascertained. About 1050, AH ben Suleiman wrote a
dictionary in Arabic, on the plan of that of David ben Abraham. The
MS. of 429 leaves belongs to Firkowitz. Haja ben Sherira, the
famous teacher of the Academy of Pumbeditha, wrote a Hebrew
dictionary in Arabic, called al Ham (The Gathering), arranged
alphabetically in the order of the last radical letter. This dictionary
is lost, as well as that of the Spaniard Isaac ben Saul, of Lucena.
lona ibn Ganah, of Cordova, born about 985, wrote a Hebrew
dictionary in Arabic called Kiidb al Azul (Book of Roots). This,
as well as a Hebrew translation by Samuel ibn Tabon, is extant
in MS., and was used by Gesenius in his Thesaurus. Rabbi David
ben Joseph Kimhi died soon after 1232. His lexicon of roots, called
D'trw, was printed at Naples 1490, fol.; Constantinople, 1513, fol.;
Naples, 1491, 8vp; Venice, 1552; Berolini, 1838, 410. Tishbi (The
Tishbite), by Elijah ben Asher, the Levite, so called because it con-
tained 712 roots, was printed at Isny 1541, 8vo and 4to, and often
afterwards. LATIN. Miinster, Basileae, 1523, 8vo; 5 editions to
1564: Zamora, Compluti, 1526, fol.: Pellicanus, Argentorati, 1540,
fol.: Reuchlin, Basil, 1556, fol.: Avenarius, Wittebergae, 1568, fol.;
auctus, 1589: Pagnini, Lugd. Bat. 1575, fol.; 1577; Genevae, 1614;
Buxtorf, Basil. 1607, 8vo; 1615, and many other editions: Frey
(Lat.-Eng.), 2nd ed. London, 1815, 8vo: Gesenius, Thesaurus, Leipz.
1829-1858, 410, 3 vols. ENGLISH. Bale, London, 1767, 4to: Park-
hurst, ib. 1792, 410: Lee, ib. 1840, 8vo: Gesenius, translated by
Robinson, ib. 1844, 8vo; by Tregelles, ib. 1846, 410: Fuerst, 4th ed.
transl. by Davidson, ib. 1866, 8vo: 1871, 8vo, 1547 pages. FRENCH.
Leigh, Amst. 1703, 410: Glaire, Paris, 1830, 8vo; 1843. GERMAN.
Gesenius, Leipzig, 1810-1812, 8vo, 2 vols. : Fuerst, ib. 1842, l6mo:
ib. 1876, 8vp, 2 vols. ITALIAN. Modena, Venetia, 1612, 410; 1640:
Coen, Reggio, 1811, 8vo: Fontanella, Venezia, 1824, 8vo. DUTCH.
Waterman, Rotterdam, 1859, &c., 8vo. HUNGARIAN. Ehrentheil
(Pentateuch), Pest, 1868, 8vo. ROMAIC. Loundes, Melit6, 1845,
8vo, 987 pages.
Rabbinical and Chaldee. Nathan ben Yehiel of Rome wrote in the
beginning of the I2th century a Talmudic dictionary, Aruch, printed
1480 (?), 5. I., fol.; Pesaro, 1517, fol.; Venice, 1531; and often:
Isaiah ben Loeb, Berlin, wrote a supplement to Aruch, vol. i. Breslau.
1830, 8vo; vol. ii. (S ton), Wien, 1859, 8vo: Miinster, Basil. 1527.
4to, 1530, fol. : Elijah ben Asher, the Levite, transl, by Fagius,
Isnae, 1541, fol.; Venet. 1560: David ben Isaac de Pomis, Zamah
David, Venet. 1587, fol.: Buxtorf, Basileae, 1639, fol.: ed. Fischer,
Leipz. 1866-1875, 4to: Otho, Geneva, 1675, 8vo; Altona, 1757, 8vo:
Zanolini, Patavii, 1747, 8vo: Hornheim, Halle, 1807, 8vo: Landau,
Prag, 1819-1824, 8vo, 5 vols. : Dessauer, Erlangen, 1838, 8vo: Nork
(i.e. Korn), Grimma, 1842, 4to: Schonhak, Warschau, 1858, 8vo,
2 vols. TARGUMS. Levy, Leipzig, 1866-68 410, 2 vols.; 1875:
Id. (Eng.), London, 1869, 8vo, 2 vols. TALMUD. Lowy (in Heb.),
Wien, 1863, 8vo: Levy, Leipzig, 1876, &c., 410. PRAYER-BOOK.
Hecht, Kreuznach, 1860, 8vo: Nathan, Berlin, 1854, I2mo.
SYNONYMS. Pantavitius, Lodevae, 1640, fol. FOREIGN WORDS.
Rabeini, Lemberg, 1857, 8vp, &c. JEWISH-GERMAN. Callenberg.
Halle, 1736, 8vo: Vollbeding, Hamburg, 1808, 8vo: Stern,
Miinchen, 1833, 8vo, 2 vols. : Theile, Berlin, 1842-1843, 8vo, 2 vols. :
Ave-Lallemant, Das deutsche Gaunerthum, Leipzig, 1858, 8vo, 4 vols. ;
vol. iv. pp. 321-512.
Phoenician. M. A. Levy, Breslau, 1864, 8vo.
Samaritan. Crinesius, Altdorphi, 1613, 4to: Morinj, Parish's,
1657, I2mo: Hilligerus, Wittebergae, 1679, 410: Cellarius, Cizae,
1682, 4to; Frankof. 1705: Uhlemann, Leipsiae, 1837, 8vo: Nicholls,
London, 1859, 8vo.
Assyrian. Norris, London, 1868, 8vo, 3 vols. PROPER NAMES.
Menant, Paris, 1861, 8vo.
Accadian. Lenormant, Paris, 1875, 8vo.
Syriac. Joshua ben AH, a physician, who lived about 885, made
a Syro-Arabic lexicon, of which there is a MS. in the Vatican.
Hoffmann printed this lexicon from Alif to Mim, from a Gotha MS.,
Kiel, 1874, 4to. Joshua bar Bahlul, living 963, wrote another, great
part of which Castelli put into his lexicon. His MS. is now at
Cambridge, and, with those at Florence and Oxford, was used by
Bernstein. Elias bar Shinaya, born 975, metropolitan of Nisibis,
1009, wrote a Syriac and Arabic lexicon, entitled Kitab ut Tarjuman
fi Taalem Loghat es Sunan (Book cajled the Interpreter for teaching
the Language of the Syrians), of which there is a MS. in the British
Museum. It was translated into Latin by Thomas a Novaria, a
Minorite friar, edited by Germanus, and published at Rome by
Obicinus, 1636, 8vo. It is a classified vocabulary, divided in 30
chapters, each containing several sections. Crinesius, Wittebergae,
DICTIONARY
197
1612, 4to: Buxforf, Basileae, 1622, 410: Ferrarius, Romae, 1622,
4to: Trost, Cothenis Anhaltor, 1643, 4to: Gutbir, Hamburg!, 1667,
8vo: Schaaf, Lugd. Bat, 1708, 410: Zanolini, Patavii, 1742, 4to:
Castellus, ed. Michaelis, Gottingen, 1788, 410, 2 vols. : Bernstein,
Berlin, 1857, &c. fol.: Smith (Robt. Paine), Dean of Canterbury,
Oxonii, 1868, &c. fol.: fasc. 1-3 contain 538 pages: Zingerle,
Romae, 1873, 8vo, 148 pages.
Arabic. The native lexicons are very many, voluminous and
copious. In the preface to his great Arabic-English lexicon, Lane
describes 33, the most remarkable of which are the 'A in, so called
from the letter which begins its alphabet, commonly ascribed to al
Khalil (who died before A.H. 175 [A.D. 791], aged seventy-four) : the
Sihah of Jauhari (died 398 [1003]) : the Mohkam of Ibn Sidah the
Andalusian, who was blind, and died A.H. 458 [A.D. 1066], aged about
sixty: the Asas of Zamakhshari (born 467 [1075], died 538 [1144]),
"a most excellent repertory of choice words and phrases": the
Lisanel 'Arab of Ibn Mukarram (born 630 [1232], died 711 [1311]);
Lane's copy is in 28 vols. 4to : the Kamus (The Sea) of Fairuzabadi
(born 729 [1328], died 816 [14.13], : the Taj el Arus, by Murtada
Ez Zebadi (born A.D. 1732, died 1791) the copy made for Lane
is in 24 vols. thick 4to. The Sihah was printed Hardervici Getorum,
1774, 4to; Bulak, 1865, fol. 2 vols.: Kamus, Calcutta, 1817, fol.
2 vols.; Bombay, 1855, fol. 920 pages: Sirr el Lagal, by Farish esh
Shidiac, Tunis, fol. 609 pages: Muhlt al Muhit, by Beitrus Al
Bustani Beirut, 1867-1870, 2 vols. 4to, 2358 pages (abridged as
Katr Al Muhit, ib. 1867-1869, 2 vols. 8vo, 2352 pages), is excellent for
spoken Arabic. PERSIAN. The Surah, by Jumal, Calcutta, 1812-
1815, 2 vols. 4to: Samachsharii Lexicon, ed. Wetzstein, Leipz. 1845,
4to; 1850: Muntakhal al Loghat, Calcutta, 1808; ib. 1836; Lucknow,
1845; Bombay, 1862, 8vo, 2 vols.: Muntaha I'Arabi, 4 vols. fol.
1840: Shams al Loghat, Bombay, 1860, fol. 2 vols. 509 pages.
TURKISH. Achteri Kabir, Constantinople. 1827, fol.: El Kamus,
ib. 1816, fol. 3 vols.; translated by Acan Effendi, Bulak, fol.
3 vols.; El Sihah, translated by Al Vani, Constantinople, 1728, fol.
2 vols. : 1755-1756; Scutari, 1802, fol. 2 vols. LATIN. Raphelengius,
Leiden, 1613, fol.: Giggeius, Mediolani, 1632, fol. 4 vofs. : Golius
Lugd. Bat. 1653, fol. (the best before Lane's) : Jahn, Vindobonae,
1802, 8vo: Freytag, Halle, 1830-1838, 4 vols. 410; abridged, ib. 1837,
4to. ENGLISH. Catafago (Arab.-Eng. and Eng. -Arab.), London,
1858, 8vo, 2 vols.; 2nd ed. 1873, 8vo: Lane, London, 1863-1893
(edited after Lane's death, from 1876, by his grandnephew, Stanley
Lane-Poole. The Arabic title is Medd el Kamoos, meaning either the
Flow of the Sea, or The Extension of the Kamus. It was under-
taken in 1842, at the suggestion and at the cost of the 6th duke of
Northumberland, then Lord Prudhoe, by Mr Lane, who returned to
Egypt for the purpose, and lived in Cairo for seven years to study, and
obtain copies of, the great MS. lexicons in the libraries of the mosques,
few of which had ever been seen by a European, and which were so
quickly disappearing through decay, carelessness and theft, that the
means of composing such a work would not long have existed).
Newman (modern), ib. 1872, 8vo, 2 vols. 856 pages. FRENCH.
Ruphy (Fr.-Ar.), Paris, 1802, 4to: Bochtor (do.), Paris, 1828, 410,
2 vols.; 2nd ed. ib. 1850: Roland de Bussy (Algiers, Fr.-Ar.), Alger,
(835, i6mo: Id., 1836, 8vo; 1839: Berggren (Fr.-vulg. Ar., Syria
and Egypt.), Upsala, 1844, 4to: Farhat (Germanps), reyu par
Rochaid ed Dahdah, Marseille, 1849, 410: Biberstein Kasimirski,
Paris, 1846, 8vo, 2 vols.; 1853-1856; 1860, 2 vols. 3032 pages: Marcel
(vulgar dialects of Africa), Paris, 1830; 1835, 8vo; 1837; enlarged,
1869, 8vo; Paulmier (Algeria), 2nd ed. Paris, 1860, 8vo, 931 pages;
1872: Bernard (Egypt), Lyon, 1864, l8mo: Cuche, Beirut, 1862,
8vo; 1867: Nar Bey (A. Calfa), 2nd ed. Paris, 1872, I2mo, 1042
pages: Cherbonneau (written language), Paris, 1876, 2 vols. 8vo:
Id. (Fr.-Ar.), Paris, 1872, 8vo: Beausier (Algiers, Tunis, legal,
epistolary), Alger, 1871, 4to, 764 pages; 1873. GERMAN. Seyfarth
(Algeria), Grimma, 1849, i6mo: Wolff (Mod. Ar.), Leipzig, 1867,
8vo: Wahrmund (do.), Giessen, 1870-1875, 8vo, 4 vols. ITALIAN.
Germano, Roma, 1636, 8vo; (Ar. Lat. It.), Romae, 1639, fol.:
Dizionario, Bulak. 1824, 4to: Schiaparelli, Firenze, 1871, 4to,
641 pages. SPANISH. Alcala, Grenada, 1505, 4to: Canes, Madrid,
1787, fol. 3 vols. SUFI TECHNICAL TERMS. Abd Errahin, ed.
Sprenger, Calcutta, 1845, 8vo. TECHNICAL TERMS OF THE MUSSUL-
MAN SCIENCES. Abd al Hagg and Gholam Kadir, Calcutta, 1853-
1862, 410, 1593 pages. MEDICAL TERMS. PharaonandBertherand,
Paris, 1860, I2mo. MATERIA MEDICA. Muhammed Abd Allah
Shirazi, Ulfaz Udiviyeh, translated by Gladwin (Eng. Pers. Hindi),
Calcutta, 1793, 4to, 1441 words. NOMS DBS VETEMENTS. Dozy,
Amst. 1845, 8vo. WORTER IN ENTGEGENGESETZTEN BEDEUTUNGEN.
Redslob, Gottingen, 1873, 8vo. KORAN. Willmet (also in
Haririum et vitam Timuri), Lugd. Bat. 1784, 4to; Amst. 1790:
Fluegel, Concordantia, Leipz. 1842, 410: Penrice, Dictionary and
Glossary, London, 1873, 410. EL TABRIZI'S LOGIC. Mir Abufeth
(French), Bulak, 184^2, 8vo. MALTESE. Vassal!, Romae, 1796,
4to: Falzon (Malt. Ital. Eng.), Malta, s.a. 8vo: Vella, Livorno,
1843, 8vo.
Armenian. Mechitar, Venice, 1749-1769, 410, 2 vols.: Avedi-
chiam, Siirmelian and Aucher (Aukerian), ib. 1836-1837, 410, 2 vols. :
Aucher, ib. 1846, 410. POLYGLOT. Villa (Arm.-vulg., litteralis, Lat.
Indicae et Gallicae), Romae, 1780. GREEK AND LATIN. Lazarists,
Venice, 1836-1837, 4to, 2 vols. 2217 pages. LATIN. Rivola, Medio-
lani, 1621, fol.: Nierszesovicz, Romae, 1695, 4to; Villotte, ib. 1714,
fol. : Mechitar, Venetiae, 1 747-1 763 , 4to, 2 vols. ENGLISH. Aucher,
Venice, 1821-1825, 4t, 2 vols. FRENCH. Aucher, Venise, 1812-1817,
8vo, 2 vols. ; (Fr.-Arm. Turc.), ib. 1840, 4to: Eminian, Vienna, 1853,
4to: Calfa, Paris, 1861, 8vo, 1016 pages; 1872. ITALIAN.
Ciakciak, Venezia, 1837, 4to. RUSSIAN. Khudobashev [Khuta-
pashian], Moskva, 1838, 8vo, 2 vols. Russ. ARM. Adamdarov, ib.
1821, 8vo: Popov, ib. 1841, 8vo, 2 vols. MODERN WORDS. Riggs,
Smyrna, 1847, 8vo.
Georgian. Paolini (Ital.), Roma, 1629, 410: Klaproth (Fr.),
Paris, 1827, 8vo: Tshubinov (Russian, French), St Petersburg, 1840,
4to; 1846, 8vo, 2 vols. 1187 pages.
Circassian. Loewe, London, 1854, 8vo.
Ossetic. Sjorgen, St Petersb. 1844, 4to.
Kurd. Garzoni, Roma, 1787, 8vo: Lerch (German), St Peters-
burg, 1857, 8vo: Id. (Russian), ib. 1856-1858, 8vo.
Persian. Burhani Qatiu, arranged by J. Roebuck, Calcutta,
1818, 4to: Burhan i Kali, Bulak, 1836, fol.: Muhammed Kazim,
Tabriz, 1844, fol.: Haft Kulzum (The Seven Seas), by Ghazi ed din
Haidar, King of Oude, Lucknow, 1822, fol. 7 vols. ARABIC. Shums
ul Loghat, Calcutta, 1806, 410, 2 vols. TURKISH. Ibrahim Effendi,
Farhangi Shu'uri, ib. 1742, fol. 2 vols. 22,530 words, and 22,450
poetical quotations: Burhan Kati, by Ibn Kalif, translated by
Ahmed Asin Aintabi, ib. 1799, fol.; Bulak, 1836, fol.: Hayret
Effendi, ib. 1826, 8vo. ARMENIAN. Douzean, Constantinople,
1826, fol. BENGALI. Jay Gopal, Serampore, 1818, 8vo. LATIN.
Vullers (Zend appendix), Bonnae ad Rhen, 1855-1868, 4to, 2 vols.
2544 pages; Supplement of Roots, 1867, 142 pages. ENGLISH.
Gladwin, Malda in Bengal, 1780, 4to; Calcutta, 1797: Kirkpatrick,
London, 1785, 4to: Moises, Newcastle, 1794, 4to: Rousseau,
London, 1802, 8vo; 1810: Richardson (Arab, and Pers.), ib. 1780-
1800, fol. 2 vols. ; ed. Wilkins, ib. 1806-1810, 4to, 2 vols. ; ed Johnson,
ib. 1829,410: Ramdhen Sen, Calcutta, 1829, 8vo; 1831: Tucker
(Eng.-Pers.), London, 1850, 410: Johnson (Pers. and Arab.), ib.
1852, 410: Palmer, ib. 1876, 8vo, 726 pages. FRENCH. Handjeri
(Pers. Arab, and Turkish), Moscou, 1841, 4to, 3 vols. 2764 pages:
Berge, Leipzig, 1869, I2mo. GERMAN. -Richardson, translated by
Wahl as Orientalische Bibliotheque, Lemg, 1788-1792, 8vo, 3 vols.
ITALIAN. Angelusa S. Josepho [i.e. Labrosse] (Ital. Lat. Fr.), Amst.
1684, fol.
Old Persian. (Cuneiform), Benfey (German), Leipzig, 1847, 8vo:
Spiegel (id.), ib. 1862, 8yo: Kossovich (Latin), Petropofi, 1872, 8vo.
Zend. Justi, Leipzig, 1864, 4to: Vullers, Persian Lexicon,
Appendix: Lagarde, Leipzig, 1868, 8vo.
Pahlavi. An old Pahlayi and Pazend Glossary, translated by
Destur Hoshengi Jamaspji, ed. Haug, London, 1867, 8vo; 1870,
8vo: West, Bombay, 1874, 8vo.
INDIAN TERMS. The Indian Vocabulary, London, 1788, i6mo:
Gladwin, Calcutta, 1797, 410: Roberts, London, 1800, 8vo: Rous-
seau, ib. 1802, 8vo: Roebuck (naval), ib. 1813, izmo: C. P. Brown,
Zillah Diet., Madras, 1852, 8vo: Robinson (Bengal Courts), Calcutta,
1854, 8vo; 1860: Wilson, London, 1855, 410: Fallen, Calcutta,
1858, 8vo.
Sanskrit. Amarasimha (lived before A.D. 1000), Amarakosha
Calcutta, 1807, 8vo; ib. 1834, 4to; Bombay, 1860, 4to; Lucknow,
1863, 4to; Madras, 1870, 8vo, in Grantha characters; Cottayam,
1873, 8yo, in Malaylim characters; Benares, 1867, fol. with
Amaraviveka, a commentary by Mahesvara: Rajah Radhakanta
Deva, Sabdakalpadruma, Calcutta, 1821-1857, 4to, 8 vols. 8730 pages:
2nd ed. 1874, &c. : Bhattachdrya, Sabdastoma Mahanidhi, Calcutta,
18691870, 8vo, parts i.-vii. 528 pages: Abhidhanaratnamala, by
Halayudha, ed. Aufrecht, London, 1861, 8vo: Vachaspatya, by
Taranatha Tarkavachaspati, Calcutta, 1873, &c., 4to (parts i.-vii.,
1680 pages). BENGALI. Sabdasindhu, Calcutta, 1808: Amarakosa,
translated by Ramodoyu Bidjalunker, Calcutta, 1831, 4to:
Mathurana Tarkaratna, Sabdasandarbhasindhu, Calcutta, 1863, 410.
MARATHI. Ananta Sastri Talekar, Poona, 1853, 8vo, 495 pages:
Madhava Chandora, Bombay, 1870, 410, 695 pages. TELUGU.
Amarakosha, Madras, l86i,ed. Kala, with Gurubalala prabodhika, a
commentary, ib. 1861, 410; with the same, ib. 1875, 4to, 516 pages;
with Amarapadaparijata (Sans, and Tel.), by Vavilla Ramasvani
Sastri, ib. 1862, 4to; ib. 1863, 8vo; 3rd ed. by Jaganmohana
Tarkalankara and Khetramohana, 1872, &c., parts i.-iv. 600 pages:
Suria Pracasa Row, Sarva-Sabda-Sambodhim, ib. 1875, 410, 1064
pages. TIBETAN AND MONGOL. Schiefner, Buddhistische Triglotte,
St Petersburg, 1859, fol., the Vyupatti or Mahavyupatli from the
Tanguir, vol. 123 of the Sutra. LATIN. Paulinus a Sancto
Bartholomeo, Amarasinha, sectio i. de coelo, Romae, 1798, 4to:
Bopp. Berlin, 1828-1830, 4to; 2nd ed. 1840-1844; 3rd, 1866, 410.
ENGLISH. Amarakosha, trans, by Colebrooke, Serampore, 1808,
4to; 1845, 8vo: Rousseau, London, 1812, 4to: Wilson, Calcutta,
1819, 4to; 2nd ed. 1832: ed. Goldstucker, Berlin, 1862, &c., folio,
to be in 20 parts: Yates, Calcutta, 1846, 4to: Benfey, London, 1865,
8vo: Ram Jasen, Benares, 1871, 8vo, 713 pages: Williams, Oxford,
1872, 410. ENGLISH-SANSKRIT. Williams, London, 1851, 4to.
FRENCH. Amarakosha, transl. by Loiseleur Deslongchamps, Paris,
1839-1845, 8vo, 2 vols. 796 pages: Burnouf and Leupol, Nancy,
1863-1864, 8vo. GERMAN. Bohtlingk and Roth, St Petersb. 1853,
&c., 4to, 7 vols. to 1875. ITALIAN. Gubernatis, Torino, 1856, &c.
8vo, unfinished, 2 parts. RUSSIAN. Kossovich, St Petersburg, 1859,
198
DICTIONARY
8vo. ROOTS. Wilkins, London, 1815, 4to: Rosen, Berolini, 1827,
8vo: Westergaard, Bonnae, 1840-1841, 8vo: Vishnu Parasurama
Sastri Pandita (Sans, and Marathi), Bombay, 1865, 8vo: Taranatha
Tarkavachaspati, Dhatupadarsa, Calcutta, 1869, 8vo: Leupql, Paris,
1870, 8vo. SYNONYMS. Abhidlianacintamani, by Hemachadra, ed.
Colebrooke, Calcutta, 1807, 8vo; translated by Bohtlingk and Rieu
(German), St Petersburg, 1847, 8vo. HOMONYMS. Medinikara,
Medinikosha, Benares, 1865, 410; Calcutta, 1869, 8vo; ib. 1872,
8vo. DERIVATIVES. Hirochand and Rooji Rangit, Dhatumanjari,
Bombay, 1865, 8vo. TECHNICAL TERMS OF THE NYAYA PHILO-
SOPHY. Nydyakosa, by Bhimacharya Jhalakikar (Sanskrit),
Bombay, 1875, 8vo, 183 pages. RIG VEDA. Grassmann, Leipzig,
1873-1875, 8vo.
Bengali. Manoel,Lisboa, i743,8vo:Forster,Calcutta, 1799-1802,
4to, 2 vols. 893 pages: Carey, Serampore, 1815-1825, 4to, 2 vols. ;
ed. Marshman, ib. 1827-1828, 8vo, 2 vols.; 3rd ed. ib. 1864-1867,
8 vo; abridged by Marshman, ib. 1865, 8vo; ib. 1871, 8vo, 2 vols.
936 pages: Morton, Calcutta, 1828, 8vo: Houghton, London, 1833,
4to: Adea, Shabdabudhi, Calcutta, 1854, 604 pages. ENGLISH.
Ram Comul Sen, ib. 1834, 410, 2 vols.; London, 1835, 410:
D'Rozario, Calcutta, 1837, 8vo: Adea, Abhidan, Calcutta, 1854,
761 pages. ENGLISH LAT. Ramkissen Sen, ib. 1821, 410. ENG.-
BENG. AND MANIPURI. [Gordon], Calcutta, 1837, 8vo.
Canarese. Reeve, Madras, 1824-1832, 410,2 vols. ; ed. Sanderson,
Bangalore, 1858, 8vo, 1040 pages; abridged by the same, 1858,
8vo, 276 pages: Diclionarium Canarense, Bengalori, 1855, 8vo:
School Dictionary, Mangalore, 1876, 8vo. 575 pages.
Dardic Languages. Leitner(Astori,Ghilghiti,Chilasi, and dialects
of Shina, viz. Arnyia, Khajuna and Kalasha), Lahore, 1868, 410.
Guzarati. (English) Mirza Mohammed Cauzim, Bombay, 1846,
4to; Shapurji Edalji, ib. 1868, 8vo, 896 pages: Karsandas Mulji,
ib. 1868, 8vo, 643 pages.
Hindi. Rousseau, London, 1812, 4to: Adam, Calcutta, 1829,
8vo: Thompson, ib. 1846, 8vo: J. D. Bate, London, 1876, 8vo, 809
pages. ENGLISH. Adam, Calcutta, 1833, 8vo. ENGLISH, URDU
AND HINDI. Mathuraprasada Mirsa, Benares, 1865, 8vo, 1345
pages.
Hindustani. Ferguson, London, 1773, 4to: Gilchrist, Calcutta,
1800, 8vo; ed. Hunter, Edinb. 1810; Lond. 1825: Taylor, Calcutta,
1808, 4to, 2 vols.: Gladwin (Persian and Hind.), Calcutta, 1809,
8vo, 2 vols.: Shakespeare, London, 1817, 410; 1820; 1834; 1849:
Forbes, London, 1847, 8vo; 1857: Bertrand (French), Paris, 1858,
8vo: Brice, London, 1864, I2mo: Fallon, Banaras, 1876, &c., to
be in about 25 parts and 1200 pages. ENGLISH. Gilchrist, 1787-
1780, 4to, 2 parts: Thompson, Serampore, 1838, 8vo.
Kashmiri. Elmslie, London, 1872, 121110.
Khassia. Roberts, Calcutta, 1875, I2mo.
Malayalim. Fabricius and Breithaupt, Weperg, 1 779,410: Bailey,
Cottayam, 1846, 8vo: Gundert, Mangalore, 1871, 8vo, 1171 pages.
Marathi. Carey, Serampore, 1810, 8vo: Kennedy, Bombay,
1824, fol. : Tugunnauth Shastri Kramavant, Bombay, 1829-1831,
4to, 3 vols. : Molesworth, ib. 1831, 410; 2nd ed. 1847, 410; ed. Candy,
Bombay, 1857, 4to, 957 pages; abridged by Baba Padmanji,
ib. 1863, 8vo; 2nd ed. (abridged), London, 1876, 8vo, 644 pages.
ENGLISH. Molesworth, Bombay, 1847, 410.
Oriya. Mohunpersaud Takoor, Serampore, iSn, 8vo: Sutton,
Cuttack, 1841-1848, 8vo, 3 vols. 856 pages.
Pali. Clough, Colombo, 1824, 8vo: Moggallana Thero (a Sin-
halese priest of the I2th century), Abhidhanappika (Pali, Eng.
Sinhalese), ed. Waskeduwe Subheti, Colombo, 1865, 8vo: Childers,
London, 1872-1875, 8vo, 658 pages. ROOTS. Silavansa, Dhatuman-
jusa (Pali Sing, and Eng.), Colombo, 1872, 8vo.
Prakrit. Delius, Radices, Bonnae ad Rh., 1839, 8vo.
Punjabi. Starkey, 1850, 8vo; Lodiana Mission, Lodiana,
1854-1860, 444 pages.
Pushtu or Afghan. Dorn, St Petersb. 1845, 4to: Raverty,
London, 1860, 4to; 2nd ed. ib. 1867, 4.to: Bellew, 1867, 8vo.
Sindhi. Eastwick, Bombay, 1843, fol. 73 pages: Stack, ib. 1855,
8vo,2 vols.
Sinhalese. Clough, Colombo, 1821-1830, 8vo, 2 vols.: Calla-
way (Eng., Portuguese and Sinhalese), ib. 1818, 8yo: Id., School
Dictionary, ib. 1821, 8vo: Bridgenell (Sinh.-Eng.), ib. 1847, i8mo:
Nicholson (Eng.-Sinh.), 1864, 32mo, 646 pages.
Tamil. Provenza (Portug.), Ambalacotae, 1679, 8vo: Sadur
Agurardi, written by Beschi in 1732, Madras, 1827, fol. ; Pondicherry,
1875, 8vo: Blin (French), Paris, 1834, 8vo: Rottler, Madras, 1834-
1841, 4to, 4 vols.: Jaffna Book Society (Tamil), Jaffna, 1842, 8vo,
about 58,500 words: Knight and Spaulding (Eng. Tarn.), ib. 1844,
8vo; Dictionary, ib. 1852, 410: Pope, 2nd ed. ib. 1859, 8vo: Winslow,
Madras, 1862, 410, 992 pages, 67,452 words.
Telugu. Campbell, Madras, 1821, 410: C. P. Brown, Madras
(Eng.-Tel.), 1852, 8vo, 1429 pages: Id. (Tel.-Eng.), ib. 1852, 8vo,
1319 pages. MIXED TELUGU. Id., ib. 1854, 8vo.
Thuggee. Sleeman, Calcutta, 1830, 8vo, 680 Ramasi words.
Indo-Chinese Languages. Leyden, Comparative Vocabulary of
Barma, Malaya and Thai, Serampore, 1810, 8vo. Annamese:
Rhodes (Portug. and Lat.), Romae, 1651, 4to: Pigneaux and Taberd,
Fredericinagon, 1838, 410; Legrand de la Liraye, Paris, 1874, 8vo:
Pauthier (Chin. Ann.-Fr. Lat.), Paris, 1867, &c., 8vo. Assamese:
Mrs Cutter, Saipur, 1840, 12 mo; Bronson, London, 1876, 8vo, 617
pages. Burmese: Hough (Eng.-Burm.), Serampore, 1825, Moul-
main, 1845, 8vo, 2 vols. 955 pages: Judson, Calcutta, 1826, 8vo;
(Eng. Burm.), Moulmain, 1849, 410; (Burm. Eng.), ib. 1852, 8vo;
2nd ed., Rangoon, 1866, 8vo, 2 vols. 968 pages: Lane, Calcutta, 1841,
4to. Cambodian: Aymonier (Fr.-Camb.), Saigon, 1874, 4to; Id.
(Camb.-Fr.), ib. 1875, fol. Karen: Sau-kau Too (Karen), Tavoy,
1847, I2mo, 4 vols. : Mason, Tavoy, 1840, <j.to. Sgau-Karen: Wade,
ib. 1849, 8vo. Siamese (Thai): Pallegoix (Lat. French, Eng.),
Paris, 1854, 410: Dictionarium Latinum Thai, Bangkok, 1850,
4to, 498 pages.
Malay. LATIN. Haex, Romae, 1631, 410; Batavia, 1707.
DUTCH. Houtmann (Malay and Malagasy), Amst. 1603, 410;
1673; 1680; 1687; 1703; Batavia, 1707: Wiltens and Dankaarts,
Gravenhage, 1623, 4to; Amst. 1650; 1677; Batavia, 1708, 410:
Heurnius, Amst. 1640, 4to: Gueynier, Batavia, 1677, 4to; 1708:
Loder, ib. 1707-1708, 410: Van der Worm, ib. 1708 410: Roorda van
Eysinga (Low), ib. 1824-1825, 8vo, 2 vols.; I2th ed. 's Gravenhage,
1863, 8vo; Id. (Hof, Volks en Lagen Taal), ib. 1855, 8vo: Dissel
and Lucardie (High Malay), Leiden, 1860, I2mo: Pijnappel, Amst.
1863, 8vo: Badings, Schoonhoven, 1873, 8vo. ENGLISH. Hout-
mann (Malay and Malagasy), translated by A. Spaulding, London,
1614, 4to: Bowrey, ib. 1701, 410: Howison, ib. 1801, 410: Mars-
den, ib. 1812, 410: Thomsen, Malacca, 1820, 8vo; 1827: Crawford,
London, 1851, 8vo. 2 vols. FRENCH. Boze, Paris, 1825, i6mo:
Elout (Dutch-Malay and French-Malay), Harlem, 1826, 410:
Bougourd, Le Havre, 1856, 8vo: Richard, Paris, 1873, 8vo, 2 vols.:
Favre, Vienna, 1875, 8vo, 2 vols.
Malay Archipelago. Batak: Van der Tuuk, Amsterdam, 1861,
8vo, 564 pages. Bugis: Mathes, Gravenh. 1874, 8vo, 1188 pages:
Thomsen (Eng.-Bugis and Malay), Singapore, 1833, 8vo. Dyak:
Hardeland (German), Amst. 1859, 8vo, 646 pages. Javanese: Sener-
pont Domis, Samarang, 1827, 410, 2 vols.: Roorda van Eysinga,
Kampen, 1834-1835, 8vo, 2 vols.: Gericke, Amst. 1847, 8vo; ed.
Taco Roorda, ib. 1871, &c. parts i.-v., 880 pages: Jansz and
Klinkert, Samarang, 1851, 8vo; 1865: Favre (French), Vienne,
1870, 8vo. Macassar: Matthes, Amst. 1859, 8vo, 951 pages.
Sunda: De Wilde (Dutch, Malay and Sunda), Amsterdam.
1841, 8vo: Rigg (Eng.), Batavia, 1862, 4to, 573 pages. Formosa:
Happart (Favorlang dialect, written about 1650), Parrapattan,
1840, I2mo.
Philippines. Bicol: Marcos, Sampaloc, 1754, fol. Bisaya: San-
chez, Manila, 1711, fol.: Bergano, ib. 1735, fol.: Noceda, ib. 1841:
Mentrida (also Hiliguena and Haraya) ib. 1637, 410; 1841, fol. 827
pages: Felis de la Encarnacion, ib. 1851, 410, 2 vols. 1217 pages.
Ibanac: Bugarin, ib. 1854, 410. Ilocana, Carro, ib. 1849, fol.
Pampanga: Bergafio, ib. 1732, fol. Tagala: Santos, Toyabas, 1703,
fol. ; ib. 1835, 410, 857 pages: Noceda and San Lucar, Manila, 1754,
fol.; 1832.
Chinese. Native Dictionaries are very numerous. Many are
very copious and voluminous, and have passed through many
editions. Shwo wan, by Hu Shin, is a collection of the ancient char-
acters, about 10,000 in number, arranged under 540 radicals, published
150 B.C., usually in 12 vols.: Yu pien, by Ku Ve Wang, published
A.D. 530, arranged under 542 radicals, is the basis of the Chinese
Japanese Dictionaries used in Japan : Ping tseu loui pien, Peking,
1726, 8vo, 130 vols. : Peiwanyunfu (Thesaurus of Literary Phrases),
1711, 131 vols. 8vo, prepared by 66 doctors of the Han lin Academy
in seven years. It contains 10,362 characters, and countless combina-
tions of two, three or four characters, forming compound words
and idioms, with numerous and copious quotations. According to
Williams (On the word Shin, p. 79), an English translation would fill
140 volumes octavo of 1000 pages each. Kanghi tsze tien (Kanghi's
Standard or Canon of the Character), the dictionary of Kanghi, the
first emperor of the present dynasty, was composed by 30 members
of the Han lin, and published in 1716, 40 vols. 4to, with a preface by
the emperor. It contains 49,030 characters, arranged under the 214
radicals. It is generally in 12 vols., and is universally used in China,
being the standard authority among native scholars for the readings
as well as the meanings of characters. LATIN. De Guignes (French,
Lat.), Paris, 1813, fol.; Klaproth, Supplement, 1819; ed. Bazil
(Latin), Hong-Kong, 1853, 4to: Gongalves (Lat.-Chin.), Macao,
1841, fol.: Gallery, Systema phoneticum, Macao, 1841, 8vo: Schott,
Vocabularium, Berlin, 1844, 410. ENGLISH. Raper, London, 1807,
fol. 4 vols.: Morrison, Macao, 1815-1823, 410, 3 parts in 6 vols.:
Medhurst, Batavia, 1842-1843, 8vo, 2 vols.: Thorn, Canton, 1843,
8vo: Lobscheid, Hong-Kong, 1871, 4to: Williams, Shanghai, 1874,
4to. ENG. CHINESE. Morrison, part iii.: Williams, Macao, 1844,
8vo: Medhurst, Shanghai, 1847-1848, 8vo, 2 vols.: Hung Maou,
Tung yung fan hwa (Common words of the Red-haired Foreigners),
1850, 8 vo. Doolittle, Foochow, 1872,410, vol. i. 550 pages. FRENCH,
Gallery, Diet, encydopedique, Macao and Paris, 1845 (radicals 1-20
only): M. A. H., 1876, 8vo, autographic, 1730 pages. FRENCH-
CHIN. Perny (Fr.-Latin, Spoken Mandarin), Paris, 1869, 410;
Appendice, 1770; Lemaire and Giguel, Shanghai, 1874, l6mo.
PoRTUGUESE.Goncalves (Port.-Chin.), Macao, 1830, 8vo, 2 vols.:
Id. (Chin.-Port.), ib. 1833, 8vo. IDIOMS. Giles, Shanghai, 1873,
410. PHRASES. Yaou Pei-keen, Luy yih, 1742-1765, 8vo, 55 vols.:
Tseen Ta-hin, Shing luy, 1853, 8vo, 4 vols. CLASSICAL EXPRESSIONS.
-Keang Yang and 30 others, Sue Shoo teen Lin, 1795, 8vo, 30 vols.
ELEGANT EXPRESSIONS. Chang ting yuh, Fun luy tsze kin, 1722,
DICTIONARY
199
8vo, 64 vols. PHRASES OF THREE WORDS. Julien (Latin), Paris,
1864, 8vo. POETICAL. Pei wan she yun, 1800, 8vo, 5 vols. PROPER
NAMES. F. Porter Smith (China, Japan, Corea, Annam, &c.,
Chinese-Eng.), Shanghai, 1870, 8vo. TOPOGRAPHY. Williams,
Canton, 1841, 8vo. NAMES OF TOWNS. Biot, Paris, 1842, 8vo.
ANCIENT CHARACTERS. Foo Lwantseang, Luh shoo fun luy, 1800,
8vo, 12 vols. SEAL CHARACTER. Heu Shin, Shwo wan, ed. Seu
Heuen, 1527, 8vo, 12 vols. RUNNING HAND. St Aulaire and
Groeneveld (Square Characters, Running Hand; Running, Square),
Amst. 1861, 4to, 117 pages. TECHNICAL TERMS (in Buddhist trans-
lations from Sanskrit) Yuen Ying, Yih 'see king pin e, 1848, 8vo.
DIALECTS. Amoy: Douglas, London, 1873, 4to, 632 pages:
Macgowan, Hong- Kong, 1869, 8vo. Canton: Yu Heo-poo and Wan
ke-shih, Keang hoo chih tuh fun yun (so yaou ho tseih, Canton, 1772,
8vo, 4 vols.; 1803, 8vo, 4 vols.; Fuh-shan, 1833, 8vo, 4 vols.:
Morrison, Macao, 1828, 8vo: Wan ke shih, Canton, 1856, 8vo:
Williams (tonic, Eng.-Chinese), Canton, 1856, 8vo: Chalmers, Hong-
Kong, 1859, I2mo; 3rd ed. 1873, 8vo. Changchowin Fuhkeen: Seay
Sew-lin, Ya suh lung shih woo yin, 1818, 8vp, 8 vols.; 1820. Foo-
chow: Tseih (a Japanese general) and Lin Peih shan, Pa yin ho ting,
ed. Tsin Gan, 1841, 8vo: Maclay and Baldwin, Foochow, 1870, 8vo,
1123 pages. Hok-keen: Medhurst, Macao, 1832, 4to: Peking,
Stent, Shanghai, 1871, 8vo.
Corean. CHINESE, COREAN AND JAPANESE. Cham Seen Wo
Kwo tsze mei, translated by Medhurst, Batavia, 1835, 8vo. RUSSIAN.
Putzillo, St Petersburg, 1874, I2mo, 746 pages.
Japanese. SioKen Zi Ko (Examination of Words and Characters),
1608, 8vo, 10 vols. : Wa Kan Won Se Ki Sio Gen Zi Ko, lithographed
by Siebold, Lugd. Bat., 1835, fol. JAP.-CHINESE. Faga biki set yo
stu. CHINESE-JAP. Kanghi Tse Tein, 30 vols. I2mo: Zi rin gioku
ben. DUTCH DICTIONARIES PRINTED BY JAPANESE. Nieeuverzameld
Japansch en Hollandsch Woordenbock, by the interpreter, B. Sadayok,
1810: Minampto Masataka, Prince of Nakats (Jap. Chinese-Dutch),
5 vols. 4to, printed at Kakats by his servants: Jedo-Halma (Dutch-
Jap.), Jedo, 4to, 20 vols.: Nederduitsche tool. Dutch Chinese, for
the use of interpreters. LATIN AND PORTUGUESE. Calepinus, Dic-
tionarium, Amacusa, 1595, 4to. LATIN. Collado, Compendium,
Romae, 1632, 410: Lexicon, Romae, 1870, 4to, from Calepinus.
ENGLISH. Medhurst, Batavia, 1830, 8vo: Hepburn, Shanghai,
1867, 8vo; 1872. ENG.-JAP. Hori Tatnoskoy, Vedo, 1862, 8vo;
2nd ed. Yeddo, 1866, 8vo: Satow and Ishibashi Masakata (spoken
language), London, 1876, 8vo. FRENCH. Rosny (Jap. Fr. Eng.),
Pans, 1857, 4to, vol. i. : Pages, Paris, 1869, 4to, translated from
Calepinus. FR.-JAP. Soutcovey, Paris, 1864, 8vo. FR. ENG. JAP.
Mermet de Cachon, Paris, 1866, 8vo, unfinished. GERMAN.
Pfizmaier (Jap.-Ger., Eng.), Wien, 1851, 4to, unfinished. SPANISH.
Vocabulario del Japan, Manila, 1630, 4to, translated from the next.
PORTUGUESE. Vocabulario da Lingua de Japam, Nagasaki, 1603,
4to. RUSSIAN. Goshkevich, St Petersburg, 1857, 8vo, 487 pages.
CHINESE CHARACTERS WITH JAPANESE PRONUNCIATION. Rosny,
Paris, 1867, 8vo. CHINESE AND JAPANESE NAMES OF PLANTS.
Hoffmann, Leyde, 1864, 8vo.
Aino. Pfizmaier, Wien, 1854, 4to.
Northern and Central Asia. Burial: Castren, St Petersburg, 1857,
8vo. Calmuck: Zwick, Villingen, 1853, 410: Smirnov, Kazan,
1857, I2mo: Jiigl. Siddhi Kur, Leipzig, 1866, 8vo. Chuvash:
Clergy of the school of the Kazan Eparchia, Kazan, 1836, 8vo, 2481
words: Lyule (Russ.-Chuv. French), Odessa, 1846, 8vo, 244 pages:
Zolotnitski, Kazan, 1875, 8vo, 287 pages. Jagatai: Mir Ah Shir,
Abuska, ed. Vambery, with Hungarian translation, Pesth, 1862, 8vo:
Vambery, Leipzig, 1867, 8vo: Pavet de Courteille, Paris, 1870, 8vo.
Koibal and Karagas: Castren, St Petersburg, 1857, 8vo. Manchu:
Yutchi tseng ting t.sing wen kian (Manchu Chinese), 1771, 4to, 6 vols. :
Sze ti hnh pik wen kian (Manchu-Mongol, Tibetan, Chinese) 10 vols.
410, the Chinese pronunciation represented in Manchu: San hoh
pien Ian (Manchu-Chinese, Mongol), 1792, 8vo, 12 vols.; all three
classed vocabularies : Langles (French), Paris, 1789-1790, 4to, 3 vols. :
Gabelentz (German), Leipzig, 1864, Svo: Zakharov (Russian), St
Petersburg, 1875, 8vo, 1235 pages: Mongol: I. J. Schmidt (German,
Russian), St Petersburg, 1835, 4to: Schergin, Kazan, 1841, 8vo:
Kovalevski, Kasan, 1844-1849, 4to, 3 vols. 2703 pages. Osliak:
Castren, St Petersb. 1858, 8vo. Samoyed: Castren, St Petersb. 1855,
8vo, 308 pages. Tartar: Giganov (Tobolsk), St Petersburg, 1804,
4to; (Russ.-Tartar), ib. 1840, /fto: Troyanski (Karan), Kasan,
1 835-1 855, 410. Tibetan: Minggi djamtoo (Tibet-Mongol) : Bodschi
dajig togpar lama: Kad shi schand scharwi melonggi jige (Manchu-
Mongol-Tibetan-Chinese), Kanghi's Dictionary with the Tibetan
added in the reign of Khian lung (1736-1795) ; Csoma de Koros (Eng.),
Calcutta, 1834, 4to: I. J. Schmidt (German), St Petersburg, 1841,
4to: Id. (Russian), ib. 1843, 4to: Jaeschke (Eng.), London, 1870,
8vo, 160 pages: Id. (Germ.), Gnadau, 1871, 658 pages: (Bhotanta),
Schroeter, Serampore, 1826, 4to. Tungusian: Castren, St Peters-
burg, 1856, 8vp, 632 pages. Uigur: Vambery, Innspruck, 1870, 410.
Yakut: Bohtlingk, i&. 1854, 4to, 2 vols. Yenissei Ostiak: Castren,
ib. 1849, 8vo.
AFRICA
Egyptian. Young (enchorial), London, 1830-1831, 8vo: Sharpe,
London, 1837, 410: Birch, London, 1838, 4to: Champollion (died
March 4, 1832), Dictionnaire egyptien, Paris, 1841, 4to: Brugsch,
Hieroglyphisch-Demotisches Worterbuch, Leipzig, 1867-1868, 410,
4 vols. 1775 pages, nearly 4700 words, arranged according to the
hieroglyphic alphabet of 28 letters : Pierret, Vocabulaire hierog., Paris,
1875, 8vo, containing also names of persons and places: Birch, in
vol. v. pp. 337-580 of Bunsen's Egypt's Place, 2nd ed. London, 1867,
&c. 8vo, 5010 words. PROPER NAMES. Brugsch, Berlin, 1851, 8vo,
726 names: Parthey, ib. 1864, 8vo, about 1500 names: Lieblein,
Christiania, 1871, 8vo, about 3200 from hieroglyphic texts. BOOK
OF THE DEAD. Id., Paris, 1875, lamo.
Coptic. Veyssiere de la Croze, Oxon. 1775, 8vo: Rossi, Romae,
1807, 4to: Tattam, Oxon. 1855, 8vo: Peyron, 1835, 410 (the
standard): Parthey, Berolini, 1844, 8vo.
Ethiopic. Wemmer, Romae, 1638, 4to: Ludolf, London, 1661,
4tp: Francof. ad M., 1699, fl- Dillmann (Tigre appendix),
Leipzig, 1863-1865, dto, 828 pages.
Amharic. Ludolphus, Franc, ad Maenum, 1698, fol.: Isenberg,
London, 1841, 4tp, 442 pages. Tigre: Munzinger, Leipzig, 1865,
8vo: Beurmann. ib. 1868, 8vo.
East Coast. Dankali: Isenberg, London, 1840, I2mo. Galla:
Krapf, London, 1842, 8vo: Tutschek, Miinchen, 1844, 8yo. Engu-
tuklloigob: Erhardt, Ludwigsberg, 1857, 8vo. Kisuaheli: Vocabu-
lary of the Soahili, Cambridge, U.S. 1845, 8vo: Steere, London,
1870, 8vo, about 5800 words. Kisuaheli, Kinika, Kikamba, Kipokono,
Kikian, Kigalla: Krapf, Tubingen, 1850, 8vo.
Malagasy. Houtmann (Malaysche en Madagask Talen), Amst.
1603, 2nd ed. Matthysz, ib. 1680, 8vo: Huet de Froberville, Isle de
France, fol. 2 vols.: Flacourt, Paris, 1658, 8vo: Challand (Southern),
Isle de France, 1773, 4to: Freeman and Johns, London, 1835, Svo,
2 vols.: Dalmont (Malgache, Salalave, et Betsimara), 1842, 8vo:
Kessler, London, 1870, Svo.
Southern Africa, Bleek, The Languages of Mozambique, London,
1856, Svo. Kaffre: Bennie, Lovedale, '1826, i6mo: Aylifie,
Graham's Town, 1846, I2mo: Appleyard, 1850, Svo: Bleek, Bonn,
1853, 4to, 646 pages. Zulu-Kaffre: Pen-in (Kaffre-Eng.), London,
1855, 24mo, 172 pages: Id. (Eng.-Kaffre), Pietermaritzburg, 1855,
24mo, 227 pages: Id. (Eng.-Zulu), ib. 1865, I2mo, 226 pages:
Dohne, Cape Town, 1857, Svo, 428 pages: Colenso, Pietermaritz-
burg, 1861, Svo, 560 pages, about 8000 words. Hottentot: Bleek,
Cape Town, 1857, 4to, 261 pages. Namaqua: Tindall, ib. 1852, 8vo:
Vocabulary, Barmen, 1854, Svo: Hahn, Leipzig, 1870, I2mo.
Sechuana: Casalis, Paris, 1841, Svo. Herero: Hahn, Berlin, 1857,
Svo, 207 pages, 4300 words.
Western Africa. Akra or Go: Zimmermann, Stuttgart, 1858,
Svo, 690 pages. Ashantei: Christaller (also Akra), Basel, 1874,
8vo, 299 pages. Bullom: Nylander, London, 1814, I2mo. Bunda
or Angola: Cannecatim, Lisboa, 1804, 4to, 722 pages. Duatia
Grammatical Elements, &c., Cameroons, 1855, Svo. Efik or Old
Calabar: Waddell, Old Calabar, 1846, I6mo, 126 page's; Edinb.
1849, Svo, 95 pages. Eyo: Raban, London, 1830-1831, 12mq, 2 parts.
Grebo: Vocabulary, Cape Palmas, 1837, 8vo; Dictionary, ib. 1839,
8vo, 119 pages. If a: Schlegel, Stuttgart, 1857, Svo. Mpongwe:
De Lorme (Franc.-Pongoue), Paris, 1876, I2mo, 354 pages. Oji:
Riis, Basel. 1854, 8vo, 284 pages. Sherbro': Schpn, s. a. et I.
Svo, written in 1839, 42 pages. Sum: Brunton, Edinburgh, 1802,
Svo, 145 pages. Vei: Koelle, London, 1854, Svo, 266 pages.
Wolof and Bambarra: Dard, Paris, 1825, Svo. Wolof: Roger, ib.
1829, Svo: Missionnaires de S. Esprit, Dakar, 1855, &c. i6mo.
Faidherbe (French-Wolof, Poula and Soninke), St Louis, Sene-
gambia, 1860, I2mp. Ycruba: Crowther, London, 1843, Svo;
1852, 298 pages: Vidal, ib. 1852, Svo: Bowen, Washington, 1858,
4to.
Central Africa. Barth, Vocabularies. Gotha, 1862-1866, 4to. Sari:
Mitterreutzner, Brixen, 1867, 8vo: Reinisch, Vienna, 1874, 8vo.
Dinka: Mitterreutzner, Brixen, 1866, Svo. Haussa: Schon (Eng.),
London, 1843, Svo.
Berber. Venture de Paradis, Paris, 1844, Svo: Brosselard, ib.
1844, Svo: Delaporte, ib. 1844, 4 to > by order of the Minister of
War: Creusat, Franc.-Kabyle (Zouaoua), Alger, 1873, Svo. Saiiah:
Minutoli, Berlin, 1827, 4to.
AUSTRALIA AND POLYNESIA
Australia. New South Wales: Threlkeld (Lake Macquarie
Language), Sydney, 1834, Svo. Victoria: Bunce, Melbourne, 1856,
I2mo, about 2200 words. South Australia: Williams, South
Australia, 1839, Svo: Teichelmann and Schiirmann, Adelaide,
1840, Svo: Meyer, ib. 1843, Svo. Murray River: Moorhouse, ib.
1846, 8vo. Parnkalla: Schiirmann, Adelaide, 1844, Svo. Woolner
District: Vocabulary, ib. 1869, I2mo. Western Australia: Sir
George Grey, Perth, 1839, 410; London, 1840, 8vo: Moore, ib. 1843:
Brady, Roma, 1845, 24mo, Svo, 187 pages. Tasmania: Millegan,
Tasmania, 1857.
Polynesia. Hale, Grammars and Vocabularies of all the Poly-
nesian Languages, Philadelphia, 1846, 4to. Marquesas, Sandwich
Gambler: Mosblech, Paris, 1843, Svo. Hawaiian: Andrews,
Vocabulary, Lahainaluna, 1636, 8vo: Id., Dictionary, Honolulu,
1865, Svo, 575 pages, about 15,500 words. Marquesas: Pierquin,
de Gembloux, Bourges, 1843, Svo: Buschmann, Berlin, 1843, Svo.
Samoan: Dictionary, Samoa, 1862, Svo. Tahitian: A Tahitian and
English Dictionary, Tahiti, 1851, Svo, 314 pages. Tonga: Rabone,
Vavau, 1845, Svo. Fijian: Hazlewood (Fiji-Eng.), Vewa. 1850,
2OO
DICTYOGENS DIDACHE
I2mo: Id. (Eng.-Fiji), ib. 1852, I2mo: Id., London, 1872, 8vo.
Maori: Kendall, 1820, I2mo: Williams, Paihia, 1844, 8vo; 3rd ed.
London, 1871, 8vo: Taylor, Auckland, 1870, I2mo.
AMERICA
North America. Eskimo: Washington, London, 1850, 8vo:
Petitot (Mackenzie and Anderson Rivers), Paris, 1876, 4to.
Kinai: Radloff, St Petersburg, 1874, 4 to - Greenland: Egede (Gr.
Dan. Lat., 3 parts), Hafn, 1750, 8vo; 1760, Fabricius, Kjobenhavn,
1804, 410. Hudson's Bay Indians: Bowrey, London, 1701, fol.
Abnaki: Rasles, Cambridge, U.S., 1833, 410. Chippewa: Baraga,
Cincinnati, 1853, I2mo, 622 pages: Petitot, Paris, 1876, 4to, 455
pages. Massachusetts or Natick : Cotton, Cambridge, U.S. 1829, 8vo.
Onondaga: Shea (French-Onon.), from a MS. (of I7th century),
London, 1860, 4to, 109 pages. Dacota: Riggs, New York, 1851, 410,
424 pages:] Williamson (Eng. Dae.), Santos Agency, Nebraska,
izrno, 139 pages. Mohawk: Bruyas, New York, 1863, 8vo.
Hidatsa (Minnetarees, Gros Venires of the Missouri) : Matthews,
ib. 1874, 8vo. Chpctaw: Byington, ib. 1852, i6mo. Clattam and
Lummi: Gibbs, ib. 1863, 8vo. Yakama: Pandosy, translated by
Gibbs and Shea, ib. 1862, 8vo. Chinook: Gibbs, New York, 1863,
4to. Chinook jargon, the trade language of Oregon: Id., ib. 1863,
8vo. Tatche or Telame: Sitjar, ib. 1841, 8vo.
Mexico and Central America. Tepehuan: Rinaldini, Mexico,
1743,410. Cora- Ortega, Mexico, 1732,410. Tarahumara: Steffel,
Briinn, 1791, 8vo. Otomi: Carochi, Mexico, 1645, 4*0: Neve y
Molina, ib. 1767, 8vo: Yepes, ib. 1826, 4to: Piccolomini, Roma,
1841, 8vo. Mexican or Aztec: Molina, Mexico, 1555, 4to; 1571,
fol. 2 vols.: Arenas, ib. 1583; 1611, 8vo; 1683; 1725; 1793,
I2mo: Biondelli, Milan, 1869, fol. Mexican, Tontonacan, and
Huastecan: Olmos, Mexico, 1555-1560, 410, 2 vols. Huastecan:
Tapia Zenteno, ib. 1767, 410, 128 pages. Opata or Tequima:
Lombardo, t'6. 1702, 4to. Tarasca: Gilberti, ib. 1559, 4to: Lagunas,
ib. 1574, 8yo. Mixtecan: Alvarado, Mexico, 1593, 4to. Zapoteca:
Cordova, ib. 1578, 4.to. Maya: Beltran de Santa Rosa Maria, ib.
1746, 4to; Merida de Yucatan, 1859, 4to, 250 pages: Brasseur de
Bourbourg, Paris, 1874, 8vo, 745 pages. Quiche: Id. (also Cak-
chiquel and Trutuhil dialects), ib. 1862, 8vo.
South America. Chibcha: Uricoechea, Paris, 1871, 8vo.
Chayma: Tauste, Madrid, 1680, 4to: Yanguas, Burgos, 1683, 4to.
Carib: Raymond, Auxerre, 1665-1666, 8vo. Galibi: D.[e]. L.[a]
S.[auvage], Paris, 1763, 8vo. Tupi: Costa Rubim, Rio de Janeiro,
1853, 8vo: Silva Guimaraes, Bahia, 1854, 8vp: Diaz, Lipsia, 1858,
i6mo. Guarani: Ruiz de Montoyo, Madrid, 1639, 4to; 1640;
1722, 4to; ed. Platzmann, Leipzig, 1876, &c., 8vo, to be in 4 vols.
1850 pages. Moxa: Marban, Lima, 1701, 8vo. Lule: Machoni
deCorderia, Madrid, 1732, I2mo. Quichua: Santo Thomas, Ciudad
de los Reyes, 1586, 8vo: Torres Rubio, Sevilla, 1603, 8vo; Lima,
1609, 8vo; ed. Figueredo, Lima, 1754, 8vo; Holguin, Ciudad de
los Reyes, 1608, 8vo: Tschudi, Wien, 1853, 8vo, 2 vols. : Markham,
London, 1 864, 8vo : Lopez, Les Races A ryennes de Perou, Paris, 1 87 1 ,
8vo, comparative vocabulary, pp. 345-421. Aymara: Bertonio,
Chicuyto, 1612, 4to, 2 vols. Chileno: Valdivia (also Allentiac
and Milcocayac), Lima, 1607, 8vo: Febres, ib. 1765, I2mo; ed.
Hernandez y Caluza, Santiago, 1846, 8vo, 2 vols. Tsonecan
(Patagonian) : Schmid, Bristol, 1860, I2mo.
The above article incorporates the salient features of the 9th-
edition article by the Rev. Ponsonby A. Lyons, and the loth-edition
article by Benjamin E. Smith.
- DICTYOGENS (Gr. &KTVOV, a net, and the termination -ytvr)s,
produced), a botanical name proposed by John Lindley for a
class including certain families of Monocotyledons which have
net-veined leaves. The class was not generally recognized.
DICTYS CRETENSIS, of Cnossus in Crete, the supposed com-
panion of Idomeneus during the Trojan War, and author of a
diary of its events. The MS. of this work, written in Phoenician
characters, was said to have been found in his tomb (enclosed in a
leaden box) at the time of an earthquake during the reign of Nero,
by whose order it was translated into Greek. In the 4th century
A.D. a certain Lucius Septimius brought out Dictys Cretensis
Ephemeris belli Trojani, which professed to be a Latin translation
of the Greek version. Scholars were not agreed whether any
Greek original really existed; but all doubt on the point was
removed by the discovery of a fragment in Greek amongst the
papyri found by B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt in 1905-1906.
Possibly the Latin Ephemeris was the work of Septimius himself.
Its chief interest lies in the fact that (together with Dares
Phrygius's De excidio Trojae) it was the source from which the
Homeric legends were introduced into the romantic literature
of the middle ages.
Best edition by F. Meister (1873), with short but useful introduc-
tion and index of Latinity; see also G. Korting, Diktys und Dares
(1874), with concise bibliography; H. Dunger, Die Sage vom tro-
janischen Kriege in den Bearbeitungen des Mittelalters und ihren
antiken Quellen (l 869, with a literary genealogical table) ; E. Collilieux,
Etude sur Dictys de Crete el Dares de Phrygie (1887), with biblio-
graphy; W. Greif, " Die mittelalterlichen Bearbeitungen der Tro-
janersage," in E. M. Stengel's Ausgaben und Abhandlungen aus dem
Gebieteder romanischen Philolpgie, No. 61 (1886, esp. sections 82, 83,
168-172); F. Colagrosso, " Ditte Cretese " in AM dellar. Accadetma
di Archeologia (Naples, 1897, vol. 18, pt. ii. 2); F. Noack, " Der
griechische Dictys, in Philologus, supp. vi. 403 ff. ; N. E. Griffin,
Dares and Dictys, Introduction to the Study of the Medieval Versions
of the Story of Troy (1907).
DICUIL (fl. 825), Irish monastic scholar, grammarian and
geographer. He was the author of the De mensura orbis lerrae,
finished in 825, which contains the earliest clear notice of a
European discovery of and settlement in Iceland and the most
definite Western reference to the old freshwater canal between
the Nile and the Red Sea, finally blocked up in 767. In 795
(February i-August i) Irish hermits had visited Iceland; on
their return they reported the marvel of the perpetual day at
midsummer in " Thule," where there was then " no darkness to
hinder one from doing what one would." These eremites also
navigated the sea north of Iceland on their first arrival, and
found it ice-free for one day's sail, after which they came to
the ice-wall. Relics of this, and perhaps of other Irish religious
settlements, were found by the permanent Scandinavian colonists
of Iceland in the pth century. Of the old Egyptian freshwater
canal Dicuil learnt from one " brother Fidelis," probably another
Irish monk, who, on his way to Jerusalem, sailed along the
" Nile " into the Red Sea passing on his way the " Barns of
Joseph " or Pyramids of Giza, which are well described. Dicuil's
knowledge of the islands north and west of Britain is evidently
intimate; his references to Irish exploration and colonization,
and to (more recent) Scandinavian devastation of the same, as
far as the Faeroes, are noteworthy, like his notice of the elephant
sent by Harun al-Rashid (in 801) to Charles the Great, the most
curious item in a political and diplomatic intercourse of high
importance. Dicuil's reading was wide; he quotes from, or
refers to, thirty Greek and Latin writers, including the classical
Homer, Hecataeus, Herodotus, Thucydides, Virgil, Pliny and
King Juba, the sub-classical Solinus, the patristic St Isidore and
Orosius, and his contemporary the Irish poet Sedulius; in
particular, he professes to utilize the alleged surveys of the
Roman world executed by order of Julius Caesar, Augustus and
Theodosius (whether Theodosius the Great or Theodosius II.
is uncertain). He probably did not know Greek; his references
to Greek authors do not imply this. Though certainly Irish
by birth, it has been conjectured (from his references to
Sedulius and the caliph's elephant) that he was in later life
in an Irish monastery in the Prankish empire. Letronne in-
clines to identify him with Dicuil or Dichull, abbot of Pahlacht,
born about 760.
There are seven chief MSS. of the De mensura (Dicuil's tract
on grammar is lost); of these the earliest and best are (i) Paris,
National Library, Lat. 4806; (2) Dresden, Regius D. 182; both
are of the loth century. Three editions exist: (i) C. A. Walckenaer's,
Paris, 1807; (2) A. Letronne's, Paris, 1814, best as to commentary;
(3) G. Parthey's, Berlin, 1870, best as to text. See also C. R. Beazley,
Dawn of Modern Geography (London, 1897), i. 317-327. 522-523. 52.9:
T. Wright, Biographia Britannica literaria, Anglo-Saxon Period
(London, 1842), pp. 372-376. (C. R. B.)
DIDACHE, THE, or Teaching of the (twelve) Apostles, the
most important of the recent recoveries in the region of early
Christian literature (see APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE). It was
previously known by name from lists of canonical and extra-
canonical books compiled by Eusebius and other writers. More-
over, it had come to be suspected by several scholars that a lost
book, variously entitled The Two Ways or The Judgment of Peter,
had been freely used in a number of works, of which mention
must presently be made. In 1882 a critical reconstruction of
this book was made by Adam Krawutzcky with marvellous
accuracy, as was shown when in the very next year the Greek
bishop and metropolitan, Philotheus Bryennius, published The
Teaching of the Twelve Apostles from the same manuscript from
DIDACHE
201
which he had previously published the complete form of the
Epistle of Clement. 1
TheDidache, as we now have it in the Greek, falls into two
marked divisions: (a) a book of moral precepts, opening with the
words, " There are two ways"; (6) a manual of church ordin-
ances, linked on to the foregoing by the words, "Having first
said all these things, baptize, &c." Each of these must be
considered separately before we approach the question of the
locality and date of the whole book in its present form.
1 . The Two Ways. The author of the complete work, as we
now have it, has modified the original Two Ways by inserting near
the beginning a considerable section containing, among other
matter, passages from the Sermon on the Mount, in which the
language of St Matthew's Gospel is blended with that of St
Luke's. He has also added at the close a few sentences, begin-
ning, " If thou canst not bear (the whole yoke of the Lord), bear
what thou canst " (vi. 2) ; and among minor changes he has
introduced, in dealing with confession, reference to " the church "
(iv. 14). No part of this matter is to be found in the following
documents, which present us in varying degrees of accuracy with
The Two Ways: (i.) the Epistle of Barnabas, chaps, xix., xx. (in
which the order of the book has been much broken up, and a
good deal has been omitted) ; (ii.) the Ecclesiastical Canons of the
Holy Apostles, usually called the Apostolic Church Order, a book
which presents a parallel to the Teaching, in so far as it consists
first of a form of The Two Ways, and secondly of a number of
church ordinances (here, however, as in the Syriac Didascalia,
which gives about the same amount of The Two Ways, various
sections are ascribed to individual apostles, e.g. " John said,
There are two ways," &c.); (iii.) a discourse of the Egyptian
monk Schnudi (d. 451), preserved in Arabic (see Iselin, Texte
u. Unters., 1895); (iv.) a Latin version, of which a fragment
was published by O. von Gebhardt in 1884, and the whole by
J. Schlecht in 1900. When by the aid of this evidence The Two
Ways is restored to us free of glosses, it has the appearance of
being a Jewish manual which has been carried over into the
use of the Christian church. This is of course only a probable
inference; there is no prototype extant in Jewish literature, and,
comparing the moral (non-doctrinal) instruction for Christian
catechumens in Hermas, Shepherd (Mand. i.-ix.), no real need to
assume one. There was a danger of admitting Gentile converts
to the church on too easy moral terms; hence the need of such
insistence on the ideal as in The Two Ways and the Mandates.
The recent recovery of the Latin version is of singular interest,
as showing that, even without the distinctively Christian
additions and interpolations which our full form of the Teaching
presents, it was circulating under the title Doctrina apostolorum?
2. The second part of our Teaching might be called a church
directory. It consists of precepts relating to church life, which
are couched in the second person plural; whereas The Two Ways
uses throughout the second person singular. It appears to be
a composite work. First (vii. i-xi. 2) is a short sacramental
manual intended for the use of local elders or presbyters, though
such are not named, for they were not yet a distinctive order or
clergy. This section was probably added to The Two Ways before
the addition of the remainder. It orders baptism in the three-
fold name, making a distinction as to waters which has Jewish
parallels, and permitting a threefold pouring on the head, if
sufficient water for immersion cannot be had. It prescribes a
fast before baptism for the baptizer as well as the candidate.
Fasts are to be kept on Wednesday and Friday, not Monday and
Thursday, which are the fast days of " the hypocrites," i.e. by
a perversion of the Lord's words, the Jews. " Neither pray ye as
1 The MS. was found in the Library of the Jerusalem Monastery
of the Most Holy Sepulchre, in Phanar, the Greek quarter of
Constantinople. It is a small octavo volume of 120 parchment
leaves, written throughout by Leo, " notary and sinner," who
finished his task on the iithof June 1156. Besides Tke Didache and
the Epistles of Clement it contains several spurious Ignatian epistles.
2 The word twelve had no place in the original title and was inserted
when the original Didache or Teaching (e.g. The Two Ways) was
combined with the church manual which mentions apostles outside
of the twelve. It may be noted that the division of the Didache into
chapters is due to Bryennius, that into verses to A. Harnack.
the hypocrites; but as the Lord commanded in His Gospel."
Then follows the Lord's Prayer, almost exactly as in St Matthew,
with a brief doxology " for Thine is the power and the glory
for ever. " This is to be said three times a day. Next come three
eucharistic prayers, the language of which is clearly marked off
from that of the rest of the book, and shows parallels with the
diction of St John's Gospel. They are probably founded on
Jewish thanksgivings, and it is of interest to note that a portion
of them is prescribed as a grace before meat in (pseudo-)
Athanasius' De nrginitate. A trace of them is found in one of the
liturgical prayers of Serapion, bishop of Thmui, in Egypt, but
they have left little mark on the liturgies of the church. As in
Ignatius and other early writers, the eucharist, a real meal (x. i)
of a family character, is regarded as producing immortality
(cf. " spiritual food and drink and eternal life "). None are to
partake of it save those who have been " baptized in the name
of the Lord " (an expression which is of interest in a document
which prescribes the threefold formula). The prophets are not
to be confined to these forms, but may " give thanks as much as
they will." This appears to show that a prophet, if present,
would naturally preside over the eucharist. The next section
(xi. 3-xiii.) deals with the ministry of spiritual gifts as exercised
by apostles, prophets and teachers. An apostle is to be " re-
ceived as the Lord "; but he must follow the Gospel precepts,
stay but one or two days, and take no money, but only bread
enough for a day's journey. Here we have that wider use of the
term " apostle " to which Lightfoot had already drawn attention.
A prophet, on the contrary, may settle if he chooses, and in that
case he is to receive tithes and first-fruits; " for they are your
high priests." If he be once approved as a true prophet, his
words and acts are not to be criticized; for this is the sin that
shall not be forgiven. Next comes a section (xiv., xv.) reflecting
a somewhat later development concerning fixed services and
ministry; the desire for a stated service, and the need of regular
provision for it, is leading to a new order of things. The
eucharist is to be celebrated every Lord's Day, and preceded by
confession of sins, " that your sacrifice may be pure ... for this
is that sacrifice which was spoken of by the Lord, In every place
and time to offer unto Me a pure sacrifice. Appoint therefore
unto yourselves bishops and deacons, worthy of the Lord, men
meek and uncovetous, and true and approved; for they also
minister unto you the ministration of the prophets and teachers.
Therefore despise them not; for they are your honoured ones,
together with the prophets and teachers." This is an arrange-
ment recommended by one who has tried it, and he reassures the
old-fashioned believer who clings to the less formal regime (and
whose protest was voiced in the Montanist movement), that there
will be no spiritual loss under the new system. The book closes
(chap, xvi.) with exhortations to steadfastness in the last days,
and to the coming of the " world-deceiver " or Antichrist, which
will precede the coming of the Lord. This section is perhaps the
actual utterance of a Christian prophet, and may be of earlier
origin than the two preceding sections.
3. It will now be clear that indications of the locality and date
of our present Teaching must be sought for only in the second
part, and in the Christian interpolations in the first part. We
have no ground for thinking that the second part ever existed
independently as a separate book. The whole work was in the
hands of the writer of the seventh book of the Apostolic Consti-
tutions, who embodies almost every sentence of it, interspersing
it with passages of Scripture, and modifying the precepts of the
second part to suit a later (4th-century) stage of church develop-
ment; this writer was also the interpolator of the Epistles of
Ignatius, and belonged to the Syrian Church. Whether the
second part was known to the writer of the Apostolic Church
Order is not clear, as his only quotation of it comes from one of the
eucharistic prayers. The allusions of early writers seem to point
to Egypt, but their references are mostly to the first part, so that
we must be careful how we argue from them as to the provenance
of the book as a whole. Against Egypt has been urged the
allusion in one of the eucharistic prayers to " corn upon the
mountains." This is found in the Prayer-book of Serapion
202
DIDACTIC POETRY
(c. 350) but omitted in a later Egyptian prayer; the form as
we have it in The Didache may have passed into Egypt with
the authority of tradition which was afterwards weakened. The
anti- Jewish tone of the second part suggests the neighbourhood
of Jews, from whom the Christians were to be sharply dis-
tinguished. Either Egypt or Syria would satisfy this condition,
and in favour of Syria is the fact that the presbyterate there was
to a late date regarded as a rank rather than an office. If we can
connect the injunctions(vi. 3)concerning (abstinence from certain)
food and that which is offered to idols with the old trouble that
arose at Antioch (Acts xv. i) and was legislated for by the
Jerusalem council, we have additional support for the Syrian
claim. But all that we can safely say as to locality is that the
community here represented seems to have been isolated, and
out of touch with the larger centres of Christian life.
This last consideration helps us in discussing the question of
date. For such an isolated community may have preserved
primitive customs for some time after they had generally dis-
appeared. Certainly the stage of development is an early one, as
is shown, e.g., by the prominence of prophets, and the need that
was felt for the vindication of the position of the bishops and
deacons (there is no mention at all of presbyters); moreover,
there is no reference to a canon of Scripture (though the written
Gospel is expressly mentioned) or to a creed. On the other hand
the " apostles " of the second part are obviously not " the
twelve apostles " of the title; and the prophets seem in some
instances to have proved unworthy of their high position. The
ministry of enthusiasm which they represent is about to give way
to the ministry of office, a transition which is reflected in the New
Testament in the 3rd Epistle of John. Three of the Gospels have
clearly been for some time in circulation; St Matthew's is used
several times, and there are phrases which occur only in St Luke's,
while St John's Gospel lies behind the eucharistic prayers which
the writer has embodied in his work. There are no indications
of any form of doctrinal heresy as needing rebuke; the warnings
against false teaching are quite general. While the first part
must be dated before the Epistle of Barnabas, i.e. before A.D. 90,
it seems wisest not to place the complete work much earlier than
A.D. 1 20, and there are passages which may well be later.
A large literature has sprung up round The Didache since 1884.
Harnack's edition in Texte u. Unters. vol. ii. (1884) is indispensable
to the student; and his discussions in Altchristl. Litteratur and
Chronologic give clear summaries of his work. Other editions of the
text are those of F. X. Funk, Patres Apostolici, vol. i. (Tubingen,
1901); H. Lietzmann (Bonn, 1903; with Latin version). Dr J. E.
Odgers has published an English translation with introduction and
notes (London, 1906). Dr C. Taylor in 1886 drew attention to some
important parallels in Jewish literature; his edition contains an
English translation. Dr Rendel Harris published in 1 887 a complete
facsimile, and gathered a great store of patristic illustration. Text
and translation will also be found in Lightfoot's Apostolic Fathers
(ed. min.) The fullest critical treatment in English is by Dr Vernon
Bartlet in the extra volume of Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible;
the most complete commentary on the text is by P. Drews in
Hennecke's Handbuch zu den N.T. Apocryphen (1904). Other
references to the literature may be found by consulting Harnack's
Altchristl. Litteratur.
DIDACTIC POETRY, that form of verse the aim of which is,
less to excite the hearer by passion or move him by pathos,
than to instruct his mind and improve his morals. The Greek
word 5t5cucTuc6s signifies a teacher, from the verb 5tSd(TKetv,
and poetry of the class under discussion approaches us with the
arts and graces of a schoolmaster. At no time was it found
convenient to combine lyrical verse with instruction, and there-
fore from the beginning of literature the didactic poets have
chosen a form approaching the epical. Modern criticism, which
discourages the epic, and is increasingly anxious to limit the word
" poetry " to lyric, is inclined to exclude the term " didactic
poetry " from our nomenclature, as a phrase absurd in itself.
It is indeed more than probable that didactic verse is hopelessly
obsolete. Definite information is now to be found in a thousand
shapes, directly and boldly presented in clear and technical prose.
No farmer, however elegant, will any longer choose to study
agriculture in hexameters, or even in Tusser's shambling metre.
The sciences and the professions will not waste their time on
methods of instruction which must, from their very nature, be
artless, inexact and vague. But in the morning of the world, those
who taught with authority might well believe that verse was the
proper, nay, the only serious vehicle of their instruction. What
they knew was extremely limited, and in its nature it was
simple and straightforward; it had little technical subtlety; it
constantly lapsed into the fabulous and the conjectural. Not
only could what early sages knew, or guessed, about astronomy
and medicine and geography be conveniently put into rolling
verse, but, in the absence of all written books, this was the
easiest way in which information could be made attractive to the
ear and be retained by the memory.
In the prehistoric dawn of Greek civilization there appear
to have been three classes of poetry, to which the literature of
Europe looks back as to its triple fountain-head. There were
romantic epics, dealing with the adventures of gods and heroes;
these Homer represents. There were mystic chants and religious
odes, purely lyrical in character, of which the best Orphic Hymns
must have been the type. And lastly there was a great body of
verse occupied entirely with increasing the knowledge of citizens in
useful branches of art and observation; these were the beginnings
of didactic poetry, and we class them together under the dim name
of Hesiod. It is impossible to date these earliest didactic poems,
which nevertheless set the fashion of form which has been
preserved ever since. The Works and Days, which passes as the
direct masterpiece of Hesiod (<?..), is the type of all the poetry
which has had education as its aim. Hesiod is supposed to have
been a tiller of the ground in a Boeotian village, who determined
to enrich his neighbours' minds by putting his own ripe stores of
useful information into sonorous metre. Historically examined,
the legend of Hesiod becomes a shadow, but the substance of
the poems attributed to him remains. The genuine parts of
the Works and Days, which Professor Gilbert Murray has called
" a slow, lowly, simple poem," deal with rules for agriculture.
The Theogony is an annotated catalogue of the gods. Other
poems attributed to Hesiod, but now lost, were on astronomy, on
auguries by birds, on the character of the physical world; still
others seem to have been genealogies of famous women. All this
mass of Boeotian verse was composed for educational purposes,
in an age when even preposterous information was better than
no knowledge at all. In slightly later times, as the Greek nation
became better supplied with intellectual appliances, the stream
of didactic poetry flowed more and more closely in one, and that
a theological, channel. The great poem of Parmenides On Nature
and those of Empedocles exist only in fragments, but enough
remains to show that these poets carried on the didactic method
in mythology. Cleostratus of Tenedos wrote an astronomical
poem in the 6th century, and Periander a medical one in the
4th, but didactic poetry did not flourish again in Greece until
the 3rd century, when Aratus, in the Alexandrian age, wrote his
famous Phenomena, a poem about things seen in the heavens.
Other later Greek didactic poets were Nicander, and perhaps
Euphorion.
It was from the hands of these Alexandrian writers that the
genius of didactic poetry passed over to Rome, since, although it
is possible that some of the lost works of the early republic, and in
particular those of Ennius, may have possessed an educational
character, the first and by far the greatest didactic Latin poet
known to us is Lucretius. A highly finished translation by
Cicero into Latin hexameters of the principal works of Aratus is
believed to have drawn the attention of Lucretius to this school
of Greek poetry, and it was not without reference to the Greeks,
although in a more archaic and far purer taste, that he composed,
in the ist century before Christ, his magnificent De rerum
natura. By universal consent, this is the noblest didactic poem
in the literature of the world. It was intended to instruct man-
kind in the interpretation and in the working of the system of
philosophy revealed by Epicurus, which at that time was exciting
the sympathetic attention of all classes of Roman society. What
gave the poem of Lucretius its extraordinary interest, and what
has prolonged and even increased its vitality, was the imaginative
and illustrative insight of the author, piercing and lighting up the
DIDACTIC POETRY
203
recesses of human experience. On a lower intellectual level, but
of a still greater technical excellence, was the Georgics of Virgil,
a poem on the processes of agriculture, published about 30 B.C.
The brilliant execution of this famous work has justly made it the
type and unapproachable standard of all poetry which desires
to impart useful information in the guise of exquisite literature.
Himself once a farmer on the banks of the Mincio, Virgil, at the
apex of his genius, set himself in his Campanian villa to recall
whatever had been essential in the agricultural life of his boyish
home, and the result, in spite of the ardours of the subject, was
what J. W. Mackail has called " the most splendid literary pro-
ductioji of the Empire." In the rest of surviving Latin didactic
poetry, the influence and the imitation of Virgil and Lucretius
are manifest. Manilius, turning again to Alexandria, produced
a fine Aslronomica towards the close of the reign of Augustus.
Columella, regretting that Virgil had omitted to sing of gardens,
composed a smooth poem on horticulture. Natural philosophy
inspired Lucilius junior, of whom a didactic poem on Etna
survives. Long afterwards, under Diocletian, a poet of Carthage,
Nemesianus, wrote in the manner of Virgil the Cynegetica, a
poem on hunting with dogs, which has had numerous imitations
in later European literatures. These are the most important
specimens of didactic poetry which ancient Rome has handed
down to us.
In Anglo-Saxon and early English poetic literature, and
especially in the religious part of it, an element of didacticism is
not to be overlooked. But it would be difficult to say that any-
thing of importance was written in verse with the sole purpose of
imparting information, until we reach the i6th century. Some of
the later medieval allegories are didactic or nothing. The first
poem, however, which we can in any reasonable way compare
with the classic works of which we have been speaking is the
Httndreth Poinles of Good Husbandrie, published in 1557 by
Thomas Tusser; these humble Georgics aimed at a practical
description of the whole art of English farming. Throughout the
early part of the i7th century, when our national poetry was in
its most vivid and brilliant condition, the last thing a poet
thought of doing was the setting down of scientific facts in
rhyme. We come across, however, one or two writers who were
as didactic as the age would permit them to be, Samuel Daniel with
his philosophy, Fulke Greville, Lord Brooke with his " treatises "
of war and monarchy. After the Restoration, as the lyrical
element rapidly died out of English poetry, there was more and
more room left for educational rhetoric in verse. The poems
about prosody, founded upon Horace, and signed by John
Sheffield, 3rd earl of Mulgrave (1648-1 721), and Lord Roscommon,
were among the earliest purely didactic verse-studies in English.
John Philips deserves a certain pre-eminence, as his poem called
Cyder, in 1706, set the fashion which lasted all down the i8th
century, of writing precisely in verse about definite branches of
industry or employment. None of the greater poets of the age of
Anne quite succumbed to the practice, but there is a very distinct
flavour of the purely didactic about a great deal of the verse of
Pope and Gay. In such productions as Gilbert West's (1703-
1756) Education, Dyer's Fleece, and Somerville's Chase, we see
technical information put forward as the central aim of the poet.
Instead of a passionate pleasure, or at least an uplifted enthusi-
asm, being the poet's object, he frankly admits that, first and
foremost, he has some facts about wool or dogs or schoolmasters
which he wishes to b:ing home to his readers, and that, secondly,
he consents to use verse, as brilliantly as he can, for the purpose
of gilding the pill and attracting an unwilling attention. As we
descend the i8th century, these works become more and more
numerous, and more dry, especially when opposed by the de-
scriptive and rural poets of the school of Thomson, the poet of
The Seasons. But Thomson himself wrote a huge poem of
Liberty (1732), for which we have no name if we must not call it
didactic. Even Gray began, though he failed to finish, a work of
this class, on The Alliance of Education and Government. These
poems were discredited by the publication of The Sugar-Cane
(1764), a long verse-treatise about the cultivation of sugar by
negroes in the West Indies, by James Grainger (1721-1766), but,
though liable to ridicule, such versified treatises continued to
appear. Whether so great a writer as Cowper is to be counted
among the didactic poets is a question on which readers of The
Task may be divided; this poem belongs rather to the class of
descriptive poetry, but a strong didactic tendency is visible in
parts of it. Perhaps the latest frankly educational poem which
enjoyed a great popularity was The Course of Time by Robert
Pollok (1798-1827), in which a system of Calvinistic divinity is
laid down with severity and in the pomp of blank verse. This
kind of literature had already been exposed, and discouraged, by
the teaching of Wordsworth, who had insisted on the imperative
necessity of charging all poetry with imagination and passion.
Oddly enough, The Excursion of Wordsworth himself is perhaps
the most didactic poem of the ipth century, but it must be
acknowledged that his influence, in this direction, was saner
than his practice. Since the days of Coleridge and Shelley it
has been almost impossible to conceive a poet of any value com-
posing in verse a work written with the purpose of inculcating
useful information.
The history of didactic poetry in France repeats, in great
measure, but in drearier language, that of England. Boileau, like
Pope, but with a more definite purpose as a teacher, offered
instruction in his Art poetique and in his Epistles. But his
doctrine was always literary, not purely educational. At the
beginning of the i8th century, the younger Racine (1692-1763)
wrote sermons in verse, and at the close of it the Abbe Delille
(1738-1813) tried to imitate Virgil in poems about horticulture.
Between these two there lies a vast mass of verse written for the
indulgence of intellect rather than at the dictates of the heart;
wherever this aims at increasing knowledge, it at once becomes
basely and flatly didactic. There is nothing in French literature
of the transitional class that deserves mention beside The Task or
The Excursion.
During the century which preceded the Romantic revival of
poetry in Germany, didactic verse was cultivated in that country
on the lines of imitation of the French, but with a greater dryness
and on a lower level of utility. Modern German literature
began with Martin Opitz (r 597-1639) and the Silesian School,
who were in their essence rhetorical and educational, and who
gave their tone to German verse. Albrechtvon Haller (1708-
1777) brought a very considerable intellectual force to bear on
his huge poems, The Origin of Evil, which was theological, and
The Alps (1729), botanical and topographical. Johann Peter Uz
(1720-1796) wrote a Theodicee, which was very popular, and not
without dignity. Johann Jacob Dusch (i 725-1787) undertook to
put The Sciences into the eight books of a great didactic poem.
Tiedge (1752-1840) was the last of the school; in a once-famous
Urania, he sang of God and Immortality and Liberty. These
German pieces were the most unswervingly didactic that any
modern European literature has produced. There was hardly
the pretence of introducing into them descriptions of natural
beauty, as the English poets did, or of grace and wit like the
French. The German poets simply poured into a lumbering
mould of verse as much solid information and direct instruction
as the form would hold.
Didactic poetry has, in modern times, been antipathetic to
the spirit of the Latin peoples, and neither Italian nor Spanish
literature has produced a really notable work in this class. An
examination of the poems, ancient and modern, which have been
mentioned above, will show that from primitive times there have
been two classes of poetic work to which the epithet didactic has
been given. It is desirable to distinguish these a little more
exactly. One is the pure instrument of teaching, the poetry
which desires to impart all that it knows about the growing of
cabbages or the prevention of disasters at sea, the revolution of
the planets or the blessings of inoculation. This is didactic poetry
proper, and this, it is almost certain, became irrevocably obsolete
at the close of the i8th century. No future Virgil will give the
world a second Georgics. But there is another species which it
is very improbable that criticism has entirely dislodged; that is
the poetry which combines, with philosophical instruction, an im-
petus of imaginative movement, and a certain definite cultivation
204
DIDEROT
of fire and beauty. In hands so noble as those of Lucretius
and Goethe this species of didactic poetry has enriched the world
with durable masterpieces, and, although the circle of readers
which will endure scientific disquisition in the bonds of verse
grows narrower and narrower, it is probable that the great poet
who is also a great thinker will now and again insist on being
heard. In Sully-Prudhomme France has possessed an eminent
writer whose methods are directly instructive, and both La
Justice (1878) and Le Bonheur (1888) are typically didactic poems.
Perhaps future historians may name these as the latest of their
class. (E. G.)
DIDEROT, DENIS (1713-1784), French man of letters and
encyclopaedist, was born at Langres on the sth of October 1713.
He was educated by the Jesuits, like most of those who after-
wards became the bitterest enemies of Catholicism; and, when
his education was at an end, he vexed his brave and worthy
father's heart by turning away from respectable callings, like law
or medicine, and throwing himself into the vagabond life of a
bookseller's hack in Paris. An imprudent marriage (1743) did
not better his position. His wife, Anne Toinette Champion, was
a devout Catholic, but her piety did not restrain a narrow and
fretful temper, and Diderot's domestic life was irregular and
unhappy. He sought consolation for chagrins at home in attach-
ments abroad, first with a Madame Puisieux, a fifth-rate female
scribbler, and then with Sophie Voland, to whom he was constant
for the rest of her life. His letters to her are among the most
graphic of all the pictures that we have of the daily life of the
philosophic circle im Paris. An interesting contrast may be
made between the Bohemianism of the famous English literary
set who supped at the Turk's Head with the Tory Johnson and
the Conservative Burke for their oracles, and the Bohemianism of
the French set who about the same time dined once a week at the
baron D'Holbach's, to listen to the wild sallies and the inspiring
declamations of Diderot. For Diderot was not a great writer;
he stands out as a fertile, suggestive and daring thinker, and a
prodigious and most eloquent talker.
Diderot's earliest writings were of as little importance as
Goldsmith's Enquiry into the Stale of Polite Learning or Burke's
Abridgement of English History. He earned 100 crowns by
translating Stanyan's History of Greece (1743); with two
colleagues he produced a translation of James's Dictionary of
Medicine (1746-1748) and about the same date he published a
free rendering of Shaftesbury's Inquiry Concerning Virtue and
Merit (1745), with some original notes of his own. With strange
and characteristic versatility, he turned from ethical speculation
to the composition of a volume of stories, the Bijoux indiscrets
(1748), gross without liveliness, and impure without wit. In later
years he repented of this shameless work, just as Boccaccio is
said in the day of his grey hairs to have thought of the sprightli-
ness of the Decameron with strong remorse. From tales Diderot
went back to the more congenial region of philosophy. Between
the morning of Good Friday and the evening of Easter Monday he
wrote the Pensees philosophiques (1746), and he presently added
to this a short complementary essay on the sufficiency of natural
religion. The gist of these performances is to press the ordinary
rationalistic objections to a supernatural revelation; but though
Diderot did not at this time pass out into the wilderness
beyond natural religion, yet there are signs that he accepted that
less as a positive doctrine, resting on grounds of its own, than as
a convenient point of attack against Christianity. In 1747 he
wrote the Promenade du sceptique, a rather poor allegory point-
ing first to the extravagances of Catholicism; second, to the
vanity of the pleasures of that world which is the rival of
the church; and third, to the desperate and unfathomable
uncertainty of the philosophy which professes to be so high
above both church and world.
Diderot's next piece was what first introduced him to the world
as an original thinker, his famous Leltre sur les aveugles (1749).
The immediate object of this short but pithy writing was to show
the dependence of men's ideas on their five senses. It considers
the case of the intellect deprived of 'the aid of one of the senses;
and in a second piece, published afterwards, Diderot considered
the case of a similar deprivation in the deaf and dumb. The
Leltre sur les sourds el muets, however, is substantially a digressive
examination of some points in aesthetics. The philosophic
significance of the two essays is in the advance they make
towards the principle of Relativity. But what interested the
militant philosophers of that day was an episodic application
of the principle of relativity to the master-conception of God.
What makes the Leltre sur les aveugles interesting is its presenta-
tion, in a distinct though undigested form, of the modern theory
of variability, and of survival by superior adaptation. It is worth
noticing, too, as an illustration of the comprehensive freedom
with which Diderot felt his way round any subject that he
approached, that in this theoretic essay he suggests the possibility
of teaching the blind to read through the sense of touch. If the
Lettre sur les aveugles introduced Diderot into the worshipful
company of the philosophers, it also introduced him to the
penalties of philosophy. His speculation was too hardy for the
authorities, and he was thrown into the prison of Vincennes.
Here he remained for three months; then he was released, to
enter upon the gigantic undertaking of his life.
The bookseller Lebreton had applied to him with a project
for the publication of a translation into French of Ephraim
Chambers's Cyclopaedia, undertaken in the first instance by an
Englishman, John Mills, and a German, Gottfried Sellius (for
particulars see ENCYCLOPAEDIA) . Diderot accepted the proposal ,
but in his busy and pregnant intelligence the scheme became
transformed. Instead of a mere reproduction of Chambers, he
persuaded the bookseller to enter upon a new work, which should
collect under one roof all the active writers, all the new ideas, all
the new knowledge, that were then moving the cultivated class
to its depths, but still were comparatively ineffectual by reason of
their dispersion. His enthusiasm infected the publishers; they
collected a sufficient capital for a vaster enterprise than they had
at first planned; D'Alembert was persuaded to become Diderot's
colleague; the requisite permission was procured from the
government; in 173 an elaborate prospectus announced the
project to a delighted public; and in 1751 the first volume was
given to the world. The last of the letterpress was issued in
1765, but it was 1772 before the subscribers received the final
volumes of the plates. These twenty years were to Diderot years
not merely of incessant drudgery, but of harassing persecution,
of sufferings from the cabals of enemies, and of injury from the
desertion of friends. The ecclesiastical party detested the
Encyclopaedia, in which they saw a rising stronghold for their
philosophic enemies. By 1757 they could endure the sight no
longer. The subscribers had grown from 2000 to 4000, and this
was a right measure of the growth of the work in popular influence
and power. To any one who turns over the pages of these re-
doubtable volumes now, it seems surprising that their doctrines
should have stirred such portentous alarm. There is no atheism,
no overt attack on any of the cardinal mysteries of the faith, no
direct denunciation even of the notorious abuses of the church.
Yet we feel that the atmosphere of the book may well have been
displeasing to authorities who had not yet learnt to encounter
the modern spirit on equal terms. The Encyclopaedia takes for
granted the justice of religious tolerance and speculative freedom.
It asserts in distinct tones the democratic doctrine that it is
the common people in a nation whose lot ought to be the main
concern of the nation's government. From beginning to end
it is one unbroken process of exaltation of scientific knowledge on
the one hand, and pacific industry on the other. All these things
were odious to the old governing classes of France; their spirit
was absolutist, ecclesiastical and military. Perhaps the most
alarming thought of all was the current belief that the Encyclo-
paedia was the work of an organized band of conspirators against
society, and that a pestilent doctrine was now made truly
formidable by the confederation of its preachers into an open
league. When the seventh volume appeared, it contained an
article on " Geneva," written by D'Alembert. The writer
contrived a panegyric on the pastors of Geneva, of which every
word was a stinging reproach to the abbes and prelates of
Versailles. At the same moment Helvetius's book, L'Esprit,
DIDEROT
205
appeared, and gave a still more profound and, let us add, a more
reasonable shock to the ecclesiastical party. Authority could
brook no more, and in 1759 the Encyclopaedia was formally
suppressed.
The decree, however, did not arrest the continuance of the
work. The connivance of the authorities at the breach of their
own official orders was common in those times of distracted
government. The work went on, but with its difficulties in-
creased by the necessity of being clandestine. And a worse thing
than troublesome interference by the police now befell Diderot.
D'Alembert, wearied of shifts and indignities, withdrew from
the enterprise. Other powerful colleagues, Turgot among them,
declined to contribute further to a book which had acquired
an evil fame. Diderot was left to bring the task to an end as he
best could. For seven years he laboured like a slave at the oar.
He wrote several hundred articles, some of them very slight, but
many of them most laborious, comprehensive and ample. He
wore out his eyesight in correcting proofs, and he wearied his soul
in bringing the manuscript of less competent contributors into
decent shape. He spent his days in the workshops, mastering the
processes of manufactures, and his nights in reproducing on paper
what he had learnt during the day. And he was incessantly
harassed all the time by alarms of a descent from the police. At
the last moment, when his immense work was just drawing to
an end, he encountered one last and crowning mortification: he
discovered that the bookseller, fearing the displeasure of the
government, had struck out from the proof sheets, after they had
left Diderot's hands, all passages that he chose to think too hardy.
The monument to which Diderot had given the labour of twenty
long and oppressive years was irreparably mutilated and defaced.
It is calculated that the average annual salary received by
Diderot for his share in the Encyclopaedia was about 120
sterling. " And then to think," said Voltaire, " that an army
contractor makes 800 in a day! "
Although the Encyclopaedia was Diderot's monumental work,
he is the author of a shower of dispersed pieces that sowed nearly
every field of intellectual interest with new and fruitful ideas.
We find no masterpiece, but only thoughts for masterpieces; no
creation, but a criticism with the quality to inspire and direct
creation. He wrote plays Le Fih naturel (1757) and Le Pere de
famille (1758) and they are very insipid performances in the sen-
timental vein. But he accompanied them by essays on dramatic
poetry, including especially the Paradoxe sur le comedian, in
which he announced the principles of a new drama, the serious,
domestic, bourgeois drama of real life, in opposition to the stilted
conventions of the classic French stage. It was Diderot's lessons
and example that gave a decisive bias to the dramatic taste of
Lessing, whose plays, and his Hamburgische Dramaturgic (1768),
mark so important an epoch in the history of the modern theatre.
In the pictorial art, Diderot's criticisms are no less rich, fertile
and wide in their ideas. His article on " Beauty " in the
Encyclopaedia shows that he had mastered and passed beyond
the metaphysical theories on the subject, and the Essai sur la
peinture was justly described by Goethe, who thought it worth
translating, as " a magnificent work, which speaks even more
helpfully to the poet than to the painter, though to the painter
too it is as a blazing torch." Diderot's most intimate friend was
Grimm, one of the conspicuous figures of the philosophic body.
Grimm wrote news-letters to various high personages in Germany,
reporting what was going on in the world of art and literature
in Paris, then without a rival as the capital of the intellectual
activity of Europe. Diderot helped his friend at one time and
another between 1759 and 1779, by writing for him an account
of the annual exhibitions of paintings. These Salons are among
the most readable of all pieces of art criticism. They have a
freshness, a reality, a life, which take their readers into a different
world from the dry and conceited pedantries of the ordinary
virtuoso. As has been said by Sainte-Beuve, they initiated the
French into a new sentiment, and introduced people to the
mystery and purport of colour by ideas. " Before Diderot,"
Madame Necker said, " I had never seen anything in pictures
except dull and lifeless colours; it was his imagination that gave
them relief and life, and it is almost a new sense for which I am
indebted to his genius."
Greuze was Diderot's favourite among contemporary artists,
and it is easy to see why. Greuze's most characteristic pictures
were the rendering in colour of the same sentiment of domestic
virtue and the pathos of common life, which Diderot attempted
with inferior success to represent upon the stage. For Diderot
was above all things interested in the life of men, not the
abstract life of the race, but the incidents of individual character,
the fortunes of a particular family, the relations of real and
concrete motives in this or that special case. He delighted with
the enthusiasm of a born casuist in curious puzzles of right
and wrong, and in devising a conflict between the generalities of
ethics and the conditions of an ingeniously contrived practical
dilemma. Mostly his interest expressed itself in didactic and
sympathetic form; in two, however, of the most remarkable
of all his pieces, it is not sympathetic, but ironical. Jacques le
fataliste (written in 1773, but not published until 1796) is in
manner an imitation of Tristram Shandy and The Sentiinental
Journey. Few modern readers will find in it any true diversion.
In spite of some excellent criticisms dispersed here and there,
and in spite of one or two stories that are not without a certain
effective realism, it must as a whole be pronounced savourless,
forced, and as leaving unmoved those springs of laughter and
of tears which are the common fountain of humour. Le Neveu
de Rameau is a far superior performance. If there were any in-
evitable compulsion to name a masterpiece for Diderot, one must
select this singular " farce-tragedy." Its intention has been
matter of dispute; whether it was designed to be merely a satire
on contemporary manners, or a reduction of the theory of self-
interest to an absurdity, or the application of an ironical clincher
to the ethics of ordinary convention, or a mere setting for a
discussion about music, or a vigorous dramatic sketch of a
parasite and a human original. There is no dispute as to its
curious literary flavour, its mixed qualities of pungency, bitter-
ness, pity and, in places, unflinching shamelessness. Goethe's
translation (1805) was the first introduction of Le Neveu de
Rameau to the European public. After executing it, he gave
back the original French manuscript to Schiller, from whom he
had it. No authentic French copy of it appeared until the writer
had been nearly forty years in his grave (1823).
It would take several pages merely to contain the list of
Diderot's miscellaneous pieces ; from an infinitely graceful trifle
like the Regrets sur ma vieille robe de chambre up to Le Rfrve de
D'Alembert, where he plunges into the depths of the controversy
as to the ultimate constitution of matter and the meaning of life.
It is a mistake to set down Diderot for a coherent and systematic
materialist. We ought to look upon him " as a philosopher in
whom all the contradictions of the time struggle with one another "
(Rosenkranz). That is to say, he is critical and not dogmatic.
There is no unity in Diderot, as there was in Voltaire or in
Rousseau. Just as in cases of conduct he loves to make new
ethical assumptions and argue them out as a professional sophist
might have done, so in the speculative problems as to the organiza-
tion of matter, the origin of life, the compatibility between
physiological machinery and free will, he takes a certain stand-
point, and follows it out more or less digressively to its conse-
quences. He seizes a hypothesis and works it to its end, and
this made him the inspirer in others of materialist doctrines
which they held more definitely than he did. Just as Diderot
could not attain to the concentration, the positiveness, the
finality of aim needed for a masterpiece of literature, so he could
not attain to those qualities in the way of dogma and system.
Yet he drew at last to the conclusions of materialism, and con-
tributed many of its most declamatory pages to the Systeme de la
nature of his friend D'Holbach, the very Bible of atheism, as
some one styled it. All that he saw, if we reduce his opinions to
formulae, was motion in space: "attraction and repulsion, the
only truth." If matter produces life by spontaneous generation,
and if man has no alternative but to obey the compulsion of
nature, what remains for God to do?
In proportion as these conclusions deepened in him, the more
206
DIDIUS SALVIUS JULIANUS DIDON
did Diderot turn for the hope of the race to virtue; in other
words, to such a regulation of conduct and motive as shall make
us tender, pitiful, simple, contented. Hence his one great literary
passion, his enthusiasm for Richardson, the English novelist.
Hence, also, his deepening aversion for the political system of
France, which makes the realization of a natural and con-
tented domestic life so hard. Diderot had almost as much to say
against society as even Rousseau himself. The difference between
them was that Rousseau was a fervent theist. The atheism of
the Holbachians, as he called Diderot's group, was intolerable
to him; and this feeling, aided by certain private perversities of
humour, led to a breach of what had once been an intimate
friendship between Rousseau and Diderot (1757)- Diderot was
still alive when Rousseau's Confessions appeared, and he was so
exasperated by Rousseau's stories about Grimm, then and always
Diderot's intimate, that in 1782 he transformed a life of Seneca,
that he had written four years earlier, into an Essai sur les regnes
de Claude et de Ntron (1778-1782), which is much less an account
of Seneca than a vindication oi Diderot and Grimm, and is one of
the most rambling and inept productions in literature. As for the
merits of the old quarrel between Rousseau and Diderot, we may
agree with the latter, that too many sensible people would be in
the wrong if Jean Jacques was in the right.
Varied and incessant as was Diderot's mental activity, it was
not of a kind to bring him riches. He secured none of the posts
that were occasionally given to needy men of letters; he could
not even obtain that bare official recognition of merit which was
implied by being chosen a member of the Academy. The time
came for him to provide a dower for his daughter, and he saw
no other alternative than to sell his library. When the empress
Catherine of Russia heard of his straits, she commissioned an
agent in Paris to buy the library at a price equal to about 1000
of English money , and then handsomely requested the philosopher
to retain the books in Paris until she required them, and to
constitute himself her librarian, with a yearly salary. In 1773
Diderot started on an expedition to thank his imperial bene-
factress in person, and he passed some months at St Petersburg.
. The empress received him cordially. The strange pair passed their
afternoons in disputes on a thousand points of high philosophy,
1 and they debated with a vivacity and freedom not usual in
courts. " Fi, done," said Catherine one day, when Diderot
hinted that he argued with her at a disadvantage, " is there any
difference among men?" Diderot returned home in 1774. Ten
years remained to him, and he spent them in the industrious
acquisition of new knowledge, in the composition of a host of
fragmentary pieces, some of them mentioned above, and in
luminous declamations with his friends. All accounts agree that
Diderot was seen at his best in conversation. " He who only
knows Diderot in his writings," says Marmontel, " does not know
him at all. When he grew animated in talk, and allowed his
thoughts to flow in all their abundance, then he became truly
ravishing. In his writings he had not the art of ensemble; the
first operation which orders and places everything was too slow
and too painful to him." Diderot himself was conscious of the
want of literary merit in his pieces. In truth he set no high value
on what he had done. It is doubtful whether he was ever alive to
the waste that circumstance and temperament together made of
an intelligence from which, if it had been free to work system-
atically, the world of thought had so much to hope. He was one
of those simple, disinterested and intellectually sterling workers
to whom their own personality is as nothing in presence of the
vast subjects that engage the thoughts of their lives. He wrote
what he found to write, and left the piece, as Carlyle has said,
" on the waste of accident, with an ostrich-like indifference."
When he heard one day that a collected edition of his works was
in the press at Amsterdam, he greeted the news with " peals of
laughter," so well did he know the haste and the little heed with
which those works had been dashed off.
Diderot died on the 3oth of July 1784, six years after Voltaire
and Rousseau, one year after his old colleague D'Alembert, and
five years before D'Holbach, his host and intimate for a lifetime.
Notwithstanding Diderot's peals of laughter at the thought, an
elaborate and exhaustive collection of his writings in twenty
stout volumes, edited by MM. Assezat and Tourneux, was com-
pleted in 1875-1877.
AUTHORITIES. Studies on Diderot by Scherer (1880); by
E. Faguet (1890); by Sainte-Beuve in the Causeries du lundi; by
F. Brunetiere in the Etudes critiques, 2nd series, may be consulted.
In English, Diderot has been the subject of a biography by John
Morley [Viscount Morley of Blackburn] (1878). See also Karl
Rosenkranz, Diderots Leben und Werke (1866). For a discussion of
the authenticity of the posthumous works of Diderot see R. Dominic
in the Revue des deux mondes (October 15, 1902). (J. Mo.)
DIDIUS SALVIUS JULIANUS, MARCUS, Roman emperor for
two months (March 28-June 2) during the year A.D. 193. He
was the grandson of the famous jurist Salvius Julianus (under
Hadrian and the Antonines), and the son of a distinguished
general, who might have ascended the throne after the death of
Antoninus Pius, had not his loyalty to the ruling house prevented
him. Didius filled several civil and military offices with dis-
tinguished success, but subsequently abandoned himself to
dissipation. On the death of Pertinax, the praetorian guards
offered the throne to the highest bidder. Flavius Sulpicianus,
the father-in-law of Pertinax and praefect of the city, had already
made an offer; Didius, urged on by the members of his family,
his freedmen and parasites, hurried to the praetorian camp to
contend for the prize. He and Sulpicianus bid against each
other, and finally the throne was knocked down to Didius. The
senate and nobles professed their loyalty; but the people
made no attempt to conceal their indignation at this insult ta
the state, and the armies of Britain, Syria and Illyricum broke
out into open revolt. Septimius Severus, the commander of
the Pannonian legions, was declared emperor and hastened by
forced marches to Italy. Didius, abandoned by the praetorians,
was condemned and executed by order of the senate, which at
once acknowledged Severus.
AUTHORITIES. Dio Cassius Ixxiii. 11-17, who was actually in
Rome at the time; Aelius Spartianus, Didius Julianus; Julius
Capitolinus, Pertinax; Herodian ii.; Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus,
19; Zosimus i. 7; Gibbon, Decline and Fall, chap. 5.
DIDO, or ELISSA, the reputed founder of Carthage (?..), in
Africa, daughter of the Tyrian king Metten (Mutto, Methres,
Belus), wife of Acerbas (more correctly Sicharbas; Sychaeus in
Virgil) , a priest of Hercules. Her husband having been slain by
her brother Pygmalion, Dido fled to Cyprus, and thence to the
coast of Africa, where she purchased from a local chieftain
larbas a piece of land on which she built Carthage. The city
soon began to prosper and larbas sought Dido's hand in marriage,
threatening her with war in case of refusal. To escape from him,
Dido constructed a funeral pile, on which she stabbed herself
before the people (Justin xviii. 4-7). Virgil, in defiance of the
usually accepted chronology, makes Dido a contemporary of
Aeneas, with whom she fell in love after his landing in Africa, and
attributes her suicide to her abandonment by him at the command
of Jupiter (Aeneid, iv.). Dido was worshipped at Carthage as a
divinity under the name of Caelestis, the Roman counterpart of
Tanit, the tutelary goddess of Carthage. According to Timaeus,.
the oldest authority for the story, her name was Theiosso, in
Phoenician Heh'ssa, and she was called Dido from her wanderings,
Dido being the Phoenician equivalent of irKav^ra (Etymo-
logicum Magnum, s.v.); some modern scholars, however,
translate the name by " beloved." Timaeus makes no mention
of Aeneas, who seems to have been introduced by Naevius in his
Bellum Poenicum, followed by Ennius in his Annales.
For the variations of the legend in earlier and later Latin authors,
see O. Rossbach in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopadie, v. pt. I (1905) ;
O. Meltzer's Geschichte der Karthager, i. (1879), and his article in
Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie.
DIDON, HENRI (1840-1900), French Dominican, was born
at Trouvet, Isere, on the I7th of March 1840. He joined the
Dominicans, under the influence of Lacordaire, in 1858, and
completed his theological studies at the Minerva convent at
Rome. The influence of Lacordaire was shown in the zeal dis-
played by Didon in favour of a reconciliation between philosophy
and science. In 1871 his fame had so much grown that he was.
chosen to deliver the funeral oration over the murdered arch-
bishop of Paris, Monseigneur G. Darboy. He also delivered some;
DIDOT DIDYMI
207
discourses at the church of St Jean de Beauvais in Paris on the
relations between science and religion; but his utterances,
especially on the question of divorce, were deemed suspicious by
his superiors, and his intimacy with Claude Bernard the physi-
ologist was disapproved. He was interdicted from preaching and
sent into retirement at the convent of Corbara in Corsica. After
eighteen months he emerged, and travelled in Germany, publish-
ing an interesting work upon that country, entitled Les-Allemands
(English translation by R. Ledos de Beaufort, London, 1884).
On his return to France in 1890 he produced his best known
work, Jesus-Christ (2 vols., Paris), for which he had qualified
himself by travel in the Holy Land. In the same year he became
director of the College Albert-le-Grand at Arcueil, and founded
three auxiliary institutions, Ecole Lacordaire, Ecole Laplace and
Ecole St Dominique. He wrote, in addition, several works on
educational questions, and augmented his fame as an eloquent
preacher by discourses preached during Lent and Advent. He
died at Toulouse on the i3th of March 1900.
See the biographies by J. de Romano (1891), and A. de Coulanges
(Paris, 1900); and especially the work of Stanislas Reynaud,
entitled Le Pert Didon, sa vie et son ceuvre (Paris, 1904).
DIDOT, the name of a family of learned French printers and
publishers. FRANCOIS DIDOT (1689-1757), founder of the
family, was born at Paris. He began business as a bookseller and
printer in 1713, and among his undertakings was a collection
of the travels of his friend the Abbe Prevost, in twenty volumes
(1747). It was remarkable for its typographical perfection,
and was adorned with many engravings and maps. FRANCOIS
AMBROISE DIDOT (1730-1804), son of Francois, made important
improvements in type-founding, and was the first to attempt
printing on vellum paper. Among the works which he published
was the famous collection of French classics prepared by order
of Louis XVI. for the education of the Dauphin, and the folio
edition of L' 'Art de verifier les dates. PIERRE FRANCOIS DIDOT
(1732-1795), his brother, devoted much attention to the art of
type-founding and to paper-making. Among the works which
issued from his press was an edition in folio of the Imitalio
Christi (1788). HENRI DIDOT (1765-1852), son of Pierre Francois,
is celebrated for his " microscopic " editions of various standard
works, for which he engraved the type when nearly seventy years
of age. He was also the engraver of the assignats issued by the
Constituent and Legislative Assemblies and the Convention.
DIDOT SAINT-LEGER, second son of Pierre Frangois, was the
inventor of the paper-making machine known in England as
the Didot machine. PIERRE DIDOT (1760-1853), eldest son of
Francois Ambroise, is celebrated as the publisher of the beautiful
" Louvre " editions of Virgil, Horace and Racine. The Racine,
in three volumes folio, was pronounced in 1801 to be " the most
perfect typographical production of all ages." FIRMIN DIDOT
(1764-1836), his brother, second son of Frangois Ambroise,
sustained the reputation of the family both as printer and type-
founder. He revived (if he did not invent a distinction which
in order of time belongs to William Ged) the process of stereotyp-
ing, and coined its name, and he first used the process in his
edition of Callet's Tables of Logarithms ( 1 7 9 5) , in which he secured
an accuracy till then unattainable. He published stereotyped
editions of French, English and Italian classics at a very low
price. He was the author of two tragedies La Reine de
Portugal and La Mart d'Annibal; and he wrote metrical transla-
tions from Virgil, Tyrtaeus and Theocritus. AMBROISE FIRMIN
01001(1790-1876) was his eldest son. After receiving a classical
education, he spent three years in Greece and in the East; and on
the retirement of his father in 1827 he undertook, in conjunction
with his brother Hyacinthe, the direction of the publishing
business. Their greatest undertaking was a new edition of the
Thesaurus Graecae linguae of Henri Estienne, under the editorial
care of the brothers Dindorf and M. Hase (9 vols., 1855-1859).
Among the numerous important works published by the brothers,
the 200 volumes forming the Bibliotheque des auteurs grecs,
Bibliotheque latine, and Bibliotheque fran$aise deserve special
mention. Ambroise Firmin Didot was the first to propose
(1823) a subscription in favour of the Greeks, then in insurrection
against Turkish tyranny. Besides a translation of Thucydides
(1833), he wrote the articles " Estienne " in the Nomelle Bio-
graphie generale, and " Typographic " in the Ency. mod., as well
as Observations sur I' orthographic francflise (1867), &c. In 1875
he published a very learned and elaborate monograph on Aldus
Manutius. His collection of MSS., the richest in France, was
said to have been worth, at the time of his death, not less than
2,000,000 francs.
DIDRON, ADOLPHE NAPOLEON (1806-1867), French
archaeologist, was born at Hautvillers, in the department of
Marne, on the I3th of March 1806. At first a student of law,
he began in 1830, by the advice of Victor Hugo, a study of the
Christian archaeology of the middle ages. After visiting and
examining the principal churches, first of Normandy, then of
central and southern France, he was on his return appointed by
Guizot secretary to the Historical Committee of Arts and Monu-
ments (1835); and in the following years he delivered several
courses of lectures on Christian iconography at the Bibliotheque
Royale. In 1839 he visited Greece for the purpose of examining
the art of the Eastern Church, both in its buildings and its
manuscripts. In 1844 he originated the Annales archfologiques,
a periodical devoted to his favourite subject, which he edited
until his death. In 1845 he established at Paris a special archaeo-
logical library, and at the same time a manufactory of painted
glass. In the same year he was admitted to the Legion of
Honour. His most important work is the Iconographie chretienne,
of which, however, the first portion only, Hisloirede Dieu (1843),
was published. It was translated into English by E. J. Millington.
Among his other works may be mentioned the Manuel d'icono-
graphie chrelienne grecque et latine (1845), the Iconographie des
chapiteaux du palais ducal de Venise (1857), and the Manuel des
objets de bronze et d'orfevrerie (1859). He died on the I3th of
November 1867.
DIDYMI, or DIDYMA (mod. Hieronta), an ancient sanctuary
of Apollo in Asia Minor situated in the territory of Miletus, from
which it was distant about 10 m. S. and on the promontory
Poseideion. It was sometimes called Branchidae from the name
of its priestly caste which claimed descent from Branchus, a
youth beloved by Apollo. As the seat of a famous oracle, the
original temple attracted offerings from Pharaoh Necho (in whose
army there was a contingent of Milesian mercenaries), and the
Lydian Croesus, and was plundered by Darius of Persia. Xerxes
finally sacked and burnt it (481 B.C.) and exiled the Branchidae
to the far north-east of his empire. This exile was believed to
be voluntary, the priests having betrayed their treasures to the
Persian; and on this belief Alexander the Great acted 150 years
later, when, finding the descendants of the Branchidae established
in a city beyond the Oxus, he ordered them to be exterminated
for the sin of their fathers (328). The celebrated cult-statue of
Apollo by Canachus, familiar to us from reproductions on Milesian
coins, was also carried to Persia, there to remain till restored by
Seleucus I. in 295, and the oracle ceased to speak for a century
and a half. The Milesians were not able to undertake the re-
building till about 332 B.C., when the oracle revived at the bidding
of Alexander. The work proved too costly, and despite a special
effort made by the Asian province nearly 400 years later, at the
bidding of the emperor Caligula, the structure was never quite
finished: but even as it was, Strabo ranked the Didymeum the
greatest of Greek temples and Pliny placed it among the four
most splendid and second only to the Artemisium at Ephesus.
In point of fact it was a little smaller than the Samian Heraeum
and the temple of Cybele at Sardis, and almost exactly the same
size as the Artemisium. The area covered by the platform
measures roughly 360X160 ft.
When Cyriac of Ancona visited the spot in 1446, it seems that
the temple was still standing in great part, although the cella had
been converted into a fortress by the Byzantines: but when the
next European visitor, the Englishman Dr Pickering, arrived
in 1673, it had collapsed. It is conjectured that the cause was
the great earthquake of 1493. The Society of Dilettanti sent two
expeditions to explore the ruins, the first in 1764 under Richard
Chandler, the second in 1812 under Sir Wm. Cell; and the French
208
DIDYMIUM DIE
" Rothschild Expedition " of 1873 under MM. O. Rayet and
A. Thomas sent a certain amount of architectural sculpture to
the Louvre. But no excavation was attempted till MM. E.
Pontremoli and B. Haussoullier were sent out by the French
Schools of Rome and Athens in 1895. They cleared the western
facade and the prodomos, and discovered inscriptions giving
information about other parts which they left still buried.
Finally the site was purchased by, and the French rights were
ceded to, Dr Th. Wiegand, the German explorer of Miletus, who
in 1905 began a thorough clearance of what is incomparably the
finest temple ruin in Asia Minor.
The temple was a decastyle peripteral structure of the Ionic
order, standing on seven steps and possessing double rows of outer
columns 60 ft. high, twenty-one in each row on the flanks. It
is remarkable not only for its great size, but (inter alia) for (i) the
rich ornament of its column bases, which show great variety of
design; (2) its various developments of the Ionic capital, e.g.
heads of gods, probably of Pergamene art, spring from the
" eyes " of the volutes with bulls' heads between them; (3) the
massive building two storeys high at least, which served below
for prodomos, and above for a dispensary of oracles (xpijcr^crypa^ta
mentioned in the inscriptions) and a treasury; two flights of
stairs called " labyrinths " in the inscriptions, led up to these
chambers; (4) the pylon and staircase at the west; (5) the
frieze of Medusa heads and foliage. Two outer columns are still
erect on the north-east flank, carrying their entablature, and one
of the inner order stands on the south-west. The fact that the
temple was never finished is evident from the state in which some
bases still remain at the west. There were probably no pedi-
mental sculptures. A sacred way led from the temple to the sea
at Panormus, which was flanked with rows of archaic statues, ten
of which were excavated and sent to the British Museum in 1858
by C. T. Newton. Fragments of architectural monuments, which
once adorned this road, have also been found. Modern Hieronta
is a large and growing Greek village, the only settlement within a
radius of several miles. Its harbour is Kovella, distant about
i\ m., and on the N. of the promontory.
See Dilettanti Society, Ionian Antiquities, ii. (1821); C. T.
Newton, Hist, of Discoveries, &c. (1862) and Travels in the Levant,
ii. (1865); O. Rayet and A. Thomas, Milet et le Golfe Latmique
(1877); E. Pontremoli and B. Haussoullier, Didymes (1904).
(D. G. H.)
DIDYMIUM (from the Gr. SWupios, twin), the name given to
the supposed element isolated b.y C. G. Mosander from cerite
(1839-1841). In 1879, however, Lecoq de Boisbaudran showed
that Mosander's "didymium " contained samarium; while the
residual " didymium," after removal of samarium, was split
by Auer v. Welsbach (Monats. f. Chemie, 1885, 6, 477) into
two components (known respectively as neodymium and
praseodymium) by repeated fractional crystallization of the
double nitrate of ammonium and didymium in nitric acid.
Neodymium (Nd) forms the chief portion of the old " didymium. "
Its salts are reddish violet in colour, and give a characteristic
absorption spectrum. It forms oxides of composition Nd2O 3
and Nd 2 O5, the latter being obtained by ignition of the nitrate
(B. Brauner). The atomic weight of neodymium is 143-6
(B. Brauner, Proc. Chem. Soc., 1897-1898, p. 70). Praseody-
mium (Pr) forms oxides of composition PrjOs, Pr2Os,xH2O
(B. Brauner), and P^O?. The peroxide, P^O?, forms a dark
brown powder, and is obtained by ignition of the oxalate or
nitrate. The sesquioxide, Pr 2 Os, is obtained as a greenish white
mass by the reduction of the peroxide. The salts of praseodymium
are green in colour, and give a characteristic spark spectrum.
The atomic weight of praseodymium is 140-5.
DIDYMUS (?309-?394), surnamed " the Blind," ecclesiastical
writer of Alexandria, was born about the year 309. Although
he became blind at the age of four, before he had learned to read;
he succeeded in mastering the whole circle of the sciences then
known ; and on entering the service of the Church he was placed
at the head of the Catechetical school in Alexandria, where he
lived and worked till almost the close of the century. Among
his pupils were Jerome and Rufinus. He was a loyal follower of
Origen, though stoutly opposed to Arian and Macedonian teach-
ing. Such of his writings as survive show a remarkable knowledge
of scripture, and have distinct value as theological literature.
Among them are the De Trinitate, De Spirilu Sancto (Jerome's
Latin translation), Adversus Mar.ichae.os, and notes and exposi-
tions of various books, especially the Psalms and the Catholic
Epistles.
See Migne, Patrol. Graec. xxxix. ; O. Bardenhewer, Patrologie,
pp. 290-293 (Freiburg, 1894).
DIDYMUS CHALCENTERUS (c. 63 B.C.-A.D. 10), Greek
scholar and grammarian, flourished in the time of Cicero and
Augustus. His surname (Gr. Xa\Kivrepos, brazen-bowelled)
came from his indefatigable industry; he was said to have
written so many books (more than 3500) that he was unable to
recollect their names (/3t/3\ioXa0as). JJe lived and taught in
Alexandria and Rome, where he became the friend of Varro.
He is chiefly important as having introduced Alexandrian
learning to the Romans. He was a follower of the school of
Aristarchus, upon whose recension of Homer he wrote a treatise,
fragments of which have been preserved in the Venetian Scholia.
He also wrote commentaries on many other Greek poets and
prose authors. In his work on the lyric poets he treated of the
various classes of poetry and their chief representatives, and
his lists of words and phrases (used in tragedy and comedy
and by orators and historians), of words of doubtful meaning,
and of corrupt expressions, furnished the later grammarians with
valuable material. His activity extended to all kinds of subjects :
grammar (orthography, inflexions), proverbs, wonderful stories,
the law-tablets (amoves) of Solon, stones, and different kinds of
wood. His polemic against Cicero's De republica (Ammianus
Marcellinus xxii. 16) provoked a reply from Suetonius. In spite
of his stupendous industry, Didymus was little more than a
compiler, of little critical judgment and doubtful accuracy, but
he deserves recognition for having incorporated in his numerous
writings the works of earlier critics and commentators.
See M. W. Schmidt, De Didymo Chalcentero (1853) and Didymi
Chalcenteri fragmenta (1854) ; also F. Susemihl, Geschichte der griech.
Literatur in der Alexandnnerzeit, ii. (1891); J. E. Sandys, History of
Classical Scholarship, i. (1906).
DIE, a town of south-eastern France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Dr6me, 43 m. E.S.E. of Valence on the
Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 3090. The town is situated in a
plain enclosed by mountains on the right bank of the Dr6me
below its confluence with the Meyrosse, which supplies power to
some of the industries. The most interesting structures of Die
are the old cathedral, with a porch of the nth century supported
on granite columns from an ancient temple of Cybele; and the
Porte St Marcel, a Roman gateway flanked by massive towers.
The Roman remains also include the ruins of aqueducts and altars.
Die is the seat of a sub-prefect, and of a tribunal of first instance.
The manufactures are silk, furniture, cloth, lime and cement, and
there are flour and saw mills. Trade is in timber, especially
walnut, and in white wine known as dairette de Die. The mulberry
is largely grown for the rearing of silkworms. Under the Romans,
Die (Dea A ugusta Vocontiorum) was an important colony. It was
formerly the seat of a bishopric, united to that of Valence from
1 276 to 1687 and suppressed in 1790. Previous to the revocation
of the edict of Nantes in 1685 it had a Calvinistic university.
DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given), a word used in various
senses, for a small cube of ivory, &c. (see DICE), for the engraved
stamps used in coining money, &c., and various mechanical
appliances in engineering. In architecture a " die " is the term
used for the square base of a column, and it is applied also to
the vertical face of a pedestal or podium.
The fabrics known as " dice " take their name from the
rectangular form of the figure. The original figures would
probably be perfectly square, but to-day the same principle of
weaving is applied, and the name dice is given to all figures of
rectangular form. The different effects in the adjacent squares or
rectangles are due to precisely the same reasons as those explained
in connexion with the ground and the figure of damasks. The
same weaves are used in both damasks and dices, but simpler
DIEBITSCH DIEPENBECK
209
weaves are generally employed for the commoner classes of the
latter. The effect is, in every case, obtained by what are technic-
ally called warp and weft float weaves. The illustration B shows
the two double damask, weaves
arranged to form a dice pat-
tern, while A shows a similar
pattern made from two four-
thread twill weaves. C and D
represent respectively the dis-
position of the threads in A
and B with the first pick,
and the solid marks represent
the floats of warp. The four
squares, which are almost as
pronounced in the cloth as
those of a chess-board, may
be made of any size by repeat-
ing each weave for the amount
of surface required. It is only in the finest cloths that the double
damask weaves B are used for dice patterns, the single damask
weaves and the twill weaves being employed to a greater extent.
This class of pattern is largely employed for the production of
table-cloths of lower and medium qualities. The term damask
is also often applied to cloths of this character, and especially so
when the figure is formed by rectangles of different sizes.
DIEBITSCH, HANS KARL FRIEDRICH ANTON, count von
Diebitsch and Narden, called by the Russians Ivan Ivanovich,
Count Diebich-Zabalkansky (1785-1831), Russian field-marshal,
was born in Silesia on the I3th of May 1785. He was educated
at the Berlin cadet school, but by the desire of his father, a
Prussian officer who had passed into the service of Russia, he also
did the same in 1801. He served in the campaign of 1805, and
was wounded at Austerlitz, fought at Eylau and Friedland, and
after Friedland was promoted captain. During the next five
years of peace he devoted himself to the study of military science,
engaging once more in active service in the War of 1812. He
distinguished himself very greatly in Wittgenstein's campaign,
and in particular at Polotzk (October 18 and 19), after which
combat he was raised to the rank of major-general. In the latter
part of the campaign he served against the Prussian contingent
of General Yorck (von Wartenburg), with whom, through
Clausewitz, he negotiated the celebrated convention of Tauroggen,
serving thereafter with Yorck in the early part of the War of
Liberation. After the battle of Ltitzen he served in Silesia
and took part in negotiating the secret treaty of Reichenbach.
Having distinguished himself at the battles of Dresden and
Leipzig he was promoted lieutenant-general. At the crisis of
the campaign of 1814 he strongly urged the march of the allies on
Paris; and after their entry the emperor Alexander conferred on
him the order of St Alexander Nevsky. In 1815 he attended the
congress of Vienna, and was afterwards made adjutant -general
to the emperor, with whom, as also with his successor Nicholas,
he had great influence. By Nicholas he was created baron, and
later count. In 1820 he had become chief of the general staff,
and in 1825 he assisted in suppressing the St Petersburg emeule.
His greatest exploits were in the Russo-Turkish War of 1828-
1829, which, after a period of doubtful contest, was decided by
Diebitsch's brilliant campaign of Adrianople; this won him the
rank of field-marshal and the honorary title of Zabalkanski
to commemorate his crossing of the Balkans. In 1830 he was
appointed to command the great army destined to suppress the
insurrection in Poland. He won the terrible battle of Grochow on
the 25th of February, and was again victorious at Ostrolenka on
the 26th of May, but soon afterwards he died of cholera (or by his
own hand) at Klecksewo near Pultusk, on the loth of June 1831.
See Belmont (Schumberg), Graf Diebitsch (Dresden, 1830);
Sturmer, Der Tod des Graf en Diebitsch (Berlin, 1832); Bantych-
Kamenski, Biographies of Russian Field- Marshals (in Russian,
St Petersburg, 1841).
DIEDENHOFEN (Fr. Thionville), a fortified town of Germany,
in Alsace-Lorraine, dist. Lorraine, on the Mosel, 22 m. N. from
Metz by rail. Pop. (1905) 6047. It is a railway junction of
some consequence, with cultivation of vines, fruit and vegetables,
brewing, tanning, &c. Diedenhofen is an ancient Frank town
(Theudonevilla, Totonisvilla), in which imperial diets were held
in the 8th century; was captured by Condein 1643 and fortified
by Vauban; capitulated to the Prussians, after a severe bom-
bardment, on the 25th of November 1870.
DIEKIRCH, a small town in the grand duchy of Luxemburg,
charmingly situated on the banks of the Sure. Pop. (1905)
3705. Its name is said to be derived from Dide or Dido, grand-
daughter of Odin and niece of Thor. The mountain at the foot of
which the town lies, now called Herrenberg, was formerly known
as Thorenberg, or Thor's mountain. On the summit of this rock
rises a perennial stream which flows down into the town under the
name of Bellenflesschen. Diekirch was an important Roman
station, and in the I4th century John of Luxemburg, the blind
king of Bohemia, fortified it, surrounding the place with a
castellated wall and a ditch supplied by the stream mentioned.
It remained more for less fortified until the beginning of the igth
century when the French during their occupation levelled the old
walls, and substituted the avenues of trees that now encircle the
town. Diekirch is the administrative centre of one of the three
provincial divisions of the grand duchy. It is visited during the
summer by many thousand tourists and travellers from Holland,
Belgium and Germany.
DIELECTRIC, in electricity, a non-conductor of electricity; it
is the same as insulator. The " dielectric constant " of a medium
is its specific inductive capacity, and on the electromagnetic
theory of light it equals the square of its refractive index for light
of infinite wave length (see ELECTROSTATICS; MAGNETO-OPTICS).
DIELHANN, FREDERICK (1847- ), American portrait
and figure painter, was born at Hanover, Germany, on the 25th
of December 1847. He was taken to the United States in
early childhood; studied under Diez at the Royal Academy at
Munich; was first an illustrator, and became a distinguished
draughtsman and painter of genre pictures. His mural decora-
tions and mosaic panels for the Congressional library, Washington ,
are notable. He was elected in 1899 president of the National
Academy of Design.
DIEMEN, ANTHONY VAN (1593-1645), Dutch admiral and
governor-general of the East Indian settlements, was born at
Kuilenburg in 1593. He was educated in commerce, and on
entering the service of the East India Company speedily attained
high rank. In 1631 he led a Dutch fleet from the Indies to
Holland, and in 1636 he was raised to the governor-generalship.
He came into conflict with the Portuguese, and took their
possessions in Ceylon and Malacca from them. He greatly
extended the commercial relationships of the Dutch, opening up
trade with Tong-king, China and Japan. As an administrator
also he showed ability, and the foundation of a Latin school and
several churches in Batavia is to be ascribed to him. Exploring
expeditions were sent to Australia under his auspices in 1636 and
1642, and Abel Tasman named after him (Van Diemen's Land)
the island now called Tasmania. Van Diemen died at Batavia on
the igth of April 1645.
DIEPENBECK, ABRAHAM VAN (1599-1675), Flemish
painter, was born at Herzogenbusch, and studied painting at
Antwerp, where he became one of Rubens's " hundred pupils."
But he was not one of the cleverest of Rubens's followers, and
he succeeded, at the best, in imitating the style and aping the
peculiarities of his master. We see this in his earliest pictures
a portrait dated 1629 in the Munich Pinakothek, and a " Distribu-
tion of Alms " of the same period in the same collection. Yet even
at this time there were moments when Diepenbeck probably
fancied that he might take another path. A solitary copperplate
executed with his own hand in 1630 represents a peasant sitting
under a tree holding the bridle of an ass, and this is a minute and
finished specimen of the engraver's art which shows that the
master might at one time have hoped to rival the animal draughts-
men who flourished in the schools of Holland. However, large
commissions now poured in upon him; he was asked for altar-
pieces, subject-pieces and pagan allegories. He was tempted to
try the profession of a glass-painter, and at last he gave up every
2IO
DIEPPE DIERX
other occupation for the lucrative business of a draughtsman and
designer for engravings. Most of Diepenbeck's important can-
vases are in continental galleries. The best are the " Marriage of
St Catherine " at Berlin and " Mary with Angels Wailing over the
Dead Body of Christ " in the Belvedere at Vienna, the first a very
fair specimen of the artist's skill, the second a picture of more
energy and feeling than might be expected from one who knew
more of the outer form than of the spirit of Rubens. Then we
have thefine "Entombment" at Brunswick,and "St Francis Ador-
ing the Sacrament " at the museum at Brussels, " Clelia and her
Nymphs Flying from the Presence and Pursuit of Porsenna " in
two examples at Berlin and Paris, and " Neptune and Amphitrite"
at Dresden. In all these compositions the drawing and execution
are after the fashion of Rubens, though inferior to Rubens in
harmony of tone and force of contrasted light and shade. Occa-
sionally a tendency may be observed to imitate the style of Van-
dyck, for whom, in respect of pictures, Diepenbeck in his lifetime
was frequently taken. But Diepenbeck spent much less of his
leisure on canvases than on glass-painting. Though he failed to
master the secrets of gorgeous tinting, which were lost, apparently
for ever in the i6th century, he was constantly employed during
the best years of his life in that branch of his profession. In 1 63 5
he finished forty scenes from the life of St Francis of Paula in the
church of the Minimes at Antwerp. In 1644 he received payment
for four windows in St Jacques of Antwerp, two of which are still
preserved, and represent Virgins to whom Christ appears after
the Resurrection. The windows ascribed to him at St Gudule
of Brussels were executed from the cartoons of Theodore van
Thulden. On the occasion of his matriculation at Antwerp in
1638-1639, Diepenbeck was registered in the guild of St Luke as a
glass-painter. He resigned his membership in the Artist Club of
the Violette in 1542, apparently because he felt hurt by a valua-
tion then made of drawings furnished for copperplates to the
engraver Pieter de Jode. The earliest record of his residence at
Antwerp is that of his election to the brotherhood (Sodalitat)
" of the Bachelors " in 1634. It is probable that before this time
he had visited Rome and London, as noted in the work of
Houbraken. In 1636 he was made a burgess of Antwerp. He
married twice, ini637 and 1652. He died in December 1675, and
was buried at St Jacques of Antwerp.
DIEPPE, a seaport of northern France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Seine-Inferieure, on the English
Channel, 38 m. N. of Rouen, and 105 m. N.W. of Paris by the
Western railway. Pop. (1906) 22,120. It is situated at the
mouth of the river Arques in a valley bordered on each side
by steep white cliffs . The main part of the town lies to the west,
and the fishing suburb of Le Pollet to the east of the river and
harbour. The sea-front of Dieppe, which in summer attracts
large numbers of visitors, consists of a pebbly beach backed by a
handsome marine promenade. Dieppe has a modern aspect; its
streets are wide and its houses, in most cases, are built of brick.
Two squares side by side and immediately to the west of the outer
harbour form the nucleus of the town, the Place Nationale, over-
looked by the statue of Admiral A. Duquesne, and the Place St
Jacques, named after the beautiful Gothic church which stands
in its centre. The Grande Rue, the busiest and handsomest
street, leads westward from the Place Nationale. The church
of St Jacques was founded in the i3th century, but consists in
large measure of later workmanship and was in some portions
restored in the igth century. The castle, overlooking the beach
from the summit of the western cliff, was erected in 1435. The
church of Notre-Dame de Bon Secours on the opposite cliff, and
the church of St Remy, of the i6th and lyth centuries, are other
noteworthy buildings. A well-equipped casino stands at the
west end of the sea-front. The public institutions include the sub-
prefecture, tribunals of first instance and commerce, a chamber
of commerce, a communal college and a school of navigation.
Dieppe has one of the safest and deepest harbours on the
English Channel. A curved passage cut in the bed of the Arques
and protected by an eastern and a western jetty gives access to
the outer harbour, which communicates at the east end by a lock-
gate with the Bassin Duquesne and the Bassin Berigny, and at
the west end by the New Channel, with an inner tidal harbour
and two other basins. Vessels drawing 20 ft. can enter the new
docks at neap tide. A dry-dock and a gridiron are included
among the repairing facilities of the port. The harbour railway
station is on the north-west quay of the outer harbour alongside
which the steamers from Newhaven lie. The distance of Dieppe
from Newhaven, with which there has long been daily communica-
tion, is 64 m. The imports include silk and cotton goods, thread,
oil- seeds, timber, coal and mineral oil; leading exports are wine,
silk, woollen and cotton fabrics, vegetables and fruit and flint-
pebbles. The average annual value of imports for the five years
1901-1905 was 4,916,000 (4,301,000 for the years 1896-1900);
the exports were valued at 9,206,000 (7,023,000 for years
1896-1900). The industries comprise shipbuilding, cotton-
spinning, steam-sawing, the manufacture of machinery, porcelain,
briquettes, lace, and articles in ivory and bone, the production
of which dates from the isth century. There is also a tobacco
factory of some importance. The fishermen of Le Pollet, to
whom tradition ascribes a Venetian origin, are among the main
providers of the Parisian market. The sea-bathing attracts
many visitors in the summer. Two miles to the north-east of
the town is the ancient camp known as the Cite de Limes, which
perhaps furnished the nucleus of the population of Dieppe.
It is suggested on the authority of its name, that Dieppe owed
its origin to a band of Norman adventurers, who found its " diep "
or inlet suitable for their ships, but it was unimportant till the
latter half of the 1 2th century. Its first castle was probably built
in 1188 by Henry II. of England, and it was counted a place of
some consideration when Philip Augustus attacked it in 1195.
By Richard I. of England it was bestowed in 1197 on the arch-
bishop of Rouen in return for certain territory in the neighbour-
hood of the episcopal city. In 1339 it was plundered by the
English, but it soon recovered from the blow, and in spite of the
opposition of the lords of Han tot managed to surround itself with
fortifications. Its commercial activity was already great, and it
is believed that its seamen visited the coast of Guinea in 1339,
and founded there a Petit Dieppe in 1365. The town was
occupied by the English from 1420 to 1435. A siege undertaken
in 1442 by John Talbot, first earl of Shrewsbury, was raised by
the dauphin, afterwards Louis XI., and the day of the deliverance
continued for centuries to be celebrated by a great procession
and miracle plays. In the beginning of the i6th century Jean
Parmentier, a native of the town, made voyages to Brazil and
Sumatra; and a little later its merchant prince, Jacques Ango,
was able to blockade the Portuguese fleet in the Tagus. Francis
I. began improvements which were continued under his successor.
Its inhabitants in great number embraced the reformed religion;
and they were among the first to acknowledge Henry IV., who
fought one of his great battles at the neighbouring village of
Arques. Few of the cities of France suffered more from the
revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685; and this blow was
followed in 1694 by a terrible bombardment on the part of the
English and Dutch. The town was rebuilt after the peace of
Ryswick, but the decrease of its population and the deterioration
of its port prevented the restoration of its commercial prosperity.
During the loth century it made rapid advances, partly owing to
Marie Caroline, duchess of Berry, who brought it into fashion as a
watering-place; and also because the establishment of railway
communication with Paris gave an impetus to its trade. During
the Franco-German War the town was occupied by the Germans
from December 1870 till July 1871.
See L. Vitet, Histoire de Dieppe (Paris, 1844); D. Asseline, Les
Antiquites et chroniques de la ville de Dieppe, a 17th-century account
published at Paris in 1874.
DIERX, LfiON (1838- ), French poet, was born in the
island of Reunion in 1838. He came to Paris to study at the
Central School of Arts and Manufactures, and subsequently
settled there, taking up a post in the education office. He
became a disciple of Leconte de Lisle and one of the most
distinguished of the Parnassians. In the death of Stephane
Mallarme in 1898 he was acclaimed " prince of poets "
by " les jeunes." His works include: Palmes et poesies (1864);
DIES, C. A. DIET
211
Lcvres closes (1867); Paroles d'un vaincu (1871) ; La Rencontre, a
dramatic scene (1875) and Les Amants (1879). His Poesies
completes (1872) were crowned by the French Academy. A com-
plete edition of his works was published in 2 vols., 1894-1896.
DIES, CHRISTOPH ALBERT (1755-1822), German painter,
was born at Hanover, and learned the rudiments of art in his
native place. For one year he studied in the academy of Dussel-
dorf, and then he started at the age of twenty with thirty ducats
in his pocket for Rome. There he lived a frugal life till 1796.
Copying pictures, chiefly by Salvator Rosa, for a livelihood, his
taste led him to draw and paint from nature in Tivoli, Albano
and other picturesque places in the vicinity of Rome. Naples,
the birthplace of his favourite master, he visited more than once
for the same reasons. In this way he became a bold executant in
water-colours and in oil, though he failed to acquire any origin-
ality of his own. Lord Bristol, who encouraged him as a copyist,
predicted that he would be a second Salvator Rosa. But Dies
was not of the wood which makes original artists. Besides other
disqualifications, he had necessities which forced him to give
up the great career of an independent painter. David, then
composing his Horatii at Rome, wished to take him to Paris.
But Dies had reasons for not accepting the offer. He was courting
a young Roman whom he subsequently married. Meanwhile he
had made the acquaintance of Volpato, for whom he executed
numerous drawings, and this no doubt suggested the plan, which
he afterwards carried out, of publishing, in partnership with
Median, Reinhardt and Frauenholz, the series of plates known
as the Collection de vues pittoresques de I'ltalie, published in
seventy-two sheets at Nuremberg in 1799. With so many
irons in the fire Dies naturally lost the power of concentration.
Other causes combined to affect his talent. In 1787 he swallowed
by mistake three-quarters of an ounce of sugar of lead. His re-
covery from this poison was slow and incomplete. He settled at
Vienna, and lived there on the produce of his brush as a landscape
painter, and on that of his pencil or graver as a draughtsman and
etcher. But instead of getting better, his condition became
worse, and he even lost the use of one of his hands. In this
condition he turned from painting to music, and spent his leisure
hours in the pleasures of authorship. He did not long survive,
dying at Vienna in 1822, after long years of chronic suffering.
From two pictures now in the Belvedere gallery, and from
numerous engraved drawings from the neighbourhood of Tivoli,
we gather that Dies was never destined to rise above a respectable
mediocrity. He followed Salvator Rosa's example in imitating
the manner of Claude Lorraine. But Salvator adapted the style
of Claude, whilst Dies did no more than copy it.
DIEST, a small town in the province of Brabant, Belgium,
situated on the Demer at its junction with the Sever. Pop.
(1904) 8383. It lies about half-way between Hasselt and
Louvain, and is still one of the five fortified places in Belgium.
It contains many breweries, and is famous for the excellence of
its beer.
DIESTERWEG, FRIEDRICH ADOLF WILHELM (1790-1866),
German educationist, was born at Siegen on the 2gth of October
1790. Educated at Herborn and Tubingen universities, he took
to the profession of teaching in 1811. In 1820 he was appointed
director of the new school at Mors, where he put in practice the
methods of Pestalozzi. In 1832 he was summoned to Berlin to
direct the new state-schools seminary in that city. Here he
proved himself a strong supporter of unsectarian religious teach-
ing. In 1846 he established the Pestalozzi institution at Pankow,
and the Pestalozzi societies for the support of teachers' widows
and orphans. In 1850 he retired on a pension, but continued
vigorously to advocate his educational views. In 1858 he was
elected to the chamber of deputies as member for the city of
Berlin, and voted with the Liberal opposition. He died in Berlin
on the 7th of July 1866. Diesterweg was a voluminous writer
on educational subjects, and was the author of various school
text-books.
DIET, a term used in two senses, (i) food or the regulation
of feeding (see DIETARY and DIETETICS), (2) an assembly
or council (Fr. diete; It. dieta; Low Lat. diaeta; Ger. Tag).
We are here concerned only with this second sense. In
modern usage, though in Scotland the term is still sometimes
applied to any assembly or session, it is practically confined to
the sense of an assembly of estates or of national or federal
representatives. The origin of the word in this connotation is
somewhat complicated. It is undoubtedly ultimately derived
from the Greek SiaiTO. (Lat. diaeta), which meant " mode of
life " and thence " prescribed mode of life," the English " diet "
or " regimen." This was connected with the verb diairav, in
the sense of " to rule," " to regulate " ; compare the office of
Siainjnfc at Athens, and dieteta, " umpire," in Late Latin.
In both Greek and Latin, too, the word meant " a room," from
which the transition to " a place of assembly " and so to " an
assembly " would be easy. In the latter sense the word, however,
actually occurs only in Low Latin, Du Cange (Glossarium,s.v.)
deriving it from the late sense of " meal " or " feast," the Germans
being accustomed to combine their political assemblies with
feasting. It is clear, too, that the word diaeta early became
confused with Lat. dies, " day " (Ger. Tag), " especially a set
day, a day appointed for public business; whence, by extension,
meeting for business, an assembly " (Skeat). Instances of this
confusion are given by Du Cange, e.g. diaeta for dieta, " a day's
journey " (also an obsolete sense of " diet " in English), and
dieta for " the ordinary course of the church," i.e. " the daily
office," which suggests the original sense of diaeta as " a pre-
scribed mode of life."
The word " diet " is now used in English for the Reichstag,
" imperial diet " of the old Holy Roman Empire; for the
Bundestag ," federal diet, "of the former Germanic confederation;
sometimes for the Reichstag of the modern German empire; for
the Landtage, " territorial diets " of the constituent states of the
German and Austrian empires; as well as for the former or
existing federal or national assemblies of Switzerland, Hungary,
Poland, &c. Although, however, the word is still sometimes used
of all the above, the tendency is to confine it, so far as con-
temporary assemblies are concerned, to those of subordinate
importance. Thus " parliament " is often used of the German
Reichstag or of the Russian Landtag, while the Landtag, e.g. of
Styria, would always be rendered " diet." In what follows we
confine ourselves to the diet of the Holy Roman Empire and its
relation to its successors in modern Germany.
The origin of the diet, or deliberative assembly, of the Holy
Roman Empire must be sought in the placitum of the Prankish
empire. This represented the tribal assembly of the Franks,
meeting (originally in March, but after 755 in May, whence it is
called the Campus Maii) partly for a military review on the eve
of the summer campaign, partly for deliberation on important
matters of politics and justice. By the side of this larger
assembly, however, which contained in theory, if not in practice,
the whole body of Franks available for war, there had developed,
even before Carolingian times, a smaller body composed of the
magnates of the Empire, both lay and ecclesiastical. The germ
of this smaller body is to be found in the episcopal synods, which,
afforced by the attendance of lay magnates, came to be used
by the king for the settlement of national affairs. Under the
Carolingians it was usual to combine the assembly of magnates
with the generalis convenlus of the " field of May," and it was
in this inner assembly, rather than in the general body (whose
approval was merely formal, and confined to matters momentous
enough to be referred to a general vote), that the centre of power
really lay. It is from the assembly of magnates that the diet
of medieval Germany springs. The general assembly became
meaningless and unnecessary, as the feudal array gradually
superseded the old levy en masse, in which each freeman had
been liable to service; and after the close of the loth century
it no longer existed.
The imperial diet (Reichstag) of the middle ages might some-
times contain representatives of Italy, the regnum Italicum; but
it was practically always confined to the magnates of Germany,
the regnum Teutonicum. Upon occasion a summons to the diet
might be sent even to the knights, but the regular members were
the princes ( Fiirsten), both lay and ecclesiastical. In the i3th
212
DIETARY
century the seven electors began to disengage themselves from
the prince as a separate element, and the Golden Bull (1356)
made their separation complete; from, the i4th century onwards
the nobles (both counts and other lords) are regarded as regular
members; while after 1250 the imperial and episcopal towns
often appear through their representatives. By the i4th century,
therefore, the originally homogeneous diet of princes is already,
at any rate practically if not yet in legal form, divided into three
colleges the electors, the princes and nobles, and the repre-
sentatives of the towns (though, as we shall see, the latter can
hardly be reckoned as regular members until the century of the
Reformation). Under the Hohenstaufen it is still the rule that
every member of the diet must attend personally, or lose his vote;
at a later date the principle of representation by proxy, which
eventually made the diet into a mere congress of envoys, was
introduced. By the end of the I3th century the vote of the
majority had come to be regarded as decisive; but hi accordance
with the strong sense of social distinctions which marks German
history, the quality as well as the quantity of votes was weighed,
and if the most powerful of the princes were agreed, the opinion
of the lesser magnates was not consulted. The powers of the
medieval diet extended to matters like legislation, the decision
upon expeditions (especially the expeditio Romano), taxation and
changes in the constitution of the principalities or the Empire.
The election of the king, which was originally regarded as one of
the powers of the diet, had passed to the electors by the middle
of the I3th century.
A new era in the history of the diet begins with the Reforma-
tion. The division of the diet into three colleges becomes definite
and precise; the right of the electors, for instance, to constitute
a separate college is explicitly recognized as a matter of established
custom in 1544. The representatives of the towns now become
regular members. In the isth century they had only attended
when special business, such as imperial reform or taxation, fell
under discussion; in 1500, however, they were recognized as a
separate and regular estate, though it was not until 1648 that
they were recognized as equal to the other estates of the diet.
The estate of the towns, or college of municipal representatives,
was divided into two benches, the Rhenish and the Swabian.
The estate of the princes and counts, which stood midway
between the electors and the towns, also attained, in the years
that followed the Reformation, its final organization. The vote
of the great princes ceased to be personal, and began to be
territorial. This had two results. The division of a single
territory among the different t,ons of a family no longer, as of old,
multiplied the voting power of the family; while in the opposite
case, the union of various territories in the hands of a single
person no longer meant the extinction of several votes, since the
new owner was now allowed to give a vote for each of his terri-
tories. The position of the counts and other lords, who joined
with the princes in forming the middle estate, was finally fixed
by the middle of the i7th century. While each of the princes
enjoyed an individual vote, the counts and other lords were
arranged in groups, each of which voted as a whole, though the
whole of its vote (Kuriatstimme) only counted as equal to the
vote of a single prince (Virilstimme). There were six of these
groups; but as the votes of the whole college of princes and
counts (at any rate in the i8th century) numbered 100, they
could exercise but little weight.
The last era in the history of the diet may be said to open with
the treaty of Westphalia (1648) . The treaty acknowledged that
Germany was no longer a unitary state, but a loose confederation
of sovereign princes; and the diet accordingly ceased to bear the
character of a national assembly, and became a mere congress of
envoys. The " last diet " which issued a regular recess (Reichs-
dbschied the term applied to the acta of the diet, as formally
compiled and enunciated at its dissolution) was that of Regens-
burg in 1654. The next diet, which met at Regensburg in 1663,
never issued a recess, and was never dissolved; it continued in
permanent session, as it were, till the dissolution of the Empire
in 1806. This result was achieved by the process of turning the
diet from an assembly of principals into a congress of envoys.
The emperor was represented by two commissarii; the electors,
princes and towns were similarly represented by their accredited
agents. Some legislation was occasionally done by this body; a
conclusum imperil (so called in distinction from the old recessus
imperii of the period before 1663) might slowly (very slowly
for the agents, imperfectly instructed, had constantly to refer
matters back to their principals) be achieved; but it rested with
the various princes to promulgate and enforce the conclusum in
their territories, and they were sufficiently occupied in issuing
and enforcing their own decrees. In practice the diet had
nothing to do; and its members occupied themselves in
" wrangling about chairs " that is to say, in unending disputes
about degrees and precedences.
In the Germanic Confederation, which occupies the interval
between the death of the Holy Roman Empire and the forma-
tion of the North German Confederation (1815-1866), a diet
(Bundestag) existed, which was modelled on the old diet of the i8th
century. It was a standing congress of envoys at Frankfort-on-
Main. Austria presided in the diet, which, in the earlier years of
its history, served, under the influence of Metternich, as an organ
for the suppression of Liberal opinion. In the North German
Confederation (1867-1870) a new departure was made, which has
been followed in the constitution of the present German empire.
Two bodies were instituted a Bundesrat, which resembles the old
diet in being a congress of envoys sent by the sovereigns of the
different states of the confederation, and a Reichstag, which bears
the name of the old diet, but differs entirely in composition. The
new Reichstag is a popular representative assembly, based on
wide suffrage and elected by ballot; and, above all, it is an
assembly representing, not the several states, but the whole
Empire, which is divided for this purpose into electoral districts.
Both as a popular assembly, and as an assembly which represents
the whole of a united Germany, the new Reichstag goes back, one
may almost say, beyond the diet even of the middle ages, to the
days of the old Teutonic folk-moot.
See R. Schroder, Lehrbuch der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte (1902),
pp. 149, 508, 820, 880. Schroder gives a bibliography of monographs
bearing on the history of the medieval diet. (E. BR.)
DIETARY, in a general sense, a system or course of diet, in the
sense of food; more particularly, such an allowance and regula-
tion of food as that supplied to workhouses, the army and navy,
prisons, &c. Lowest in the scale of such dietaries comes what
is termed " bare existence " diet, administered to certain classes
of the community who have a claim on their fellow-countrymen
that their lives and health shall be preserved in statu quo, but
nothing further. This applies particularly to the members of
a temporarily famine-stricken community. Before the days of
prison reform, too, the dietary scale of many prisons was to
a certain extent penal, in that the food supplied to prisoners
was barely sufficient for existence. Nowadays more humane
principles apply; there is no longer the obvious injustice of
applying the same scale of quantity and quality to all prisoners
under varying circumstances of constitution and surroundings,
and whether serving long or short periods of imprisonment.
The system of dietary in force in the local and convict prisons of
England and Wales is that recommended by the Home Office on the
advice of a departmental committee. As to the local prison dietary,
its application is based on (l) the principle of variation of diet with
length of sentence; (2) the system of progressive dietary; (3) the
distinction between hard labour diets and non-hard labour diets;
(4) the differentiation of diet according to age and sex. There are
three classes of diet, classes A, B and C. Class A diet is given
to prisoners undergoing not more than seven days' imprisonment.
The food is good and wholesome, but sufficiently plain and un-
attractive, so as not to offer temptation to the loafer or mendicant.
It is given in quantity sufficient to maintain health and strength
during the single week. Prisoners sentenced to more than seven days
and not more than fourteen days are given class A diet for the first
seven days and class B for the remainder of the sentence. In most
of the local prisons in England and Wales prisoners sentenced to
hard labour received hard labour diet, although quite 60% were
unable to perform the hardest forms of prison labour either through
physical defect, age or infirmity. The departmental committee
of 1899 in their report recommended that no distinction should be
made between hard labour and non-hard labour diets. Class A diet
is as follows: Breakfast, Bread, 8 oz. daily (6 oz. for women and
juveniles) with i pint of gruel. Juveniles (males and females under
DIETARY
213
sixteen years of age) get, in addition, J pint of milk. Dinner, 8 oz. of
bread daily, with I pint of porridge on three days of the week, 8 oz.
of potatoes (representing the vegetable element) on two other days,
TABLE I.
Men.
Women. Juveniles.
Breakfast.
Daily:
Bread . . .
8 oz.
6 oz. 6 oz.
Gruel
i pt:
i pt. I pt.
Milk ....
ipt.
Dinner.
Sunday :
Bread . . .
6 oz.
6 oz.
Potatoes . .
8
8
Cooked meat, pre-
served by heat
4 .,
3 ..
Monday :
Bread . . .
6 oz.
6 oz.
Potatoes .
8
8
Beans
10
8
Fat bacon
2
I
Tuesday :
Bread . . .
6 oz.
6 oz.
Potatoes . . .
8
8
Soup ....
ipt.
ipt.
Wednesday :
Bread . . .
6 oz.
6 oz.
Potatoes . .
8
8
Suet pudding
10
8
Thursday :
Bread . . .
6 oz.
6 oz.
Potatoes .
8
8
Cooked beef,
.
without bone
4 ..
3 -,
Friday :
Bread . . .
6 oz.
6 oz.
Potatoes . . .
8
8
Soup ....
ipt.
ipt.
Saturday: .
Bread . . .
6 oz.
6 oz.
Potatoes .
8
8
Suet pudding
10
8
Supper.
Daily :
Bread . .
8 oz.
6 oz. 6 oz.
Porridge .
I pt.
Gruel
i pt.
Cocoa
f -
ipt.
and 8 oz. of suet pudding (representing the fatty element) on the
other two days. Supper, the breakfast fare repeated.
C}ass B diet, which is also given to (i) prisoners on remand or
awaiting trial, (2) offenders of the 1st division who do not maintain
themselves, (3) offenders of the 2nd division and (4) debtors, is as
shown in Table I.
Class C diet is class B amplified, and is given to those prisoners
serving sentences of three months and over.
The dietary of convict prisons, in which prisoners are all under long
sentence, is divided into a diet for convicts employed at hard labour
and a diet for convicts employed at sedentary, indoor and light
labour. It will be found set forth in the Blue-book mentioned above.
The sparest of all prison diets is called " punishment diet," and is
administered for offences against the internal discipline of the prison.
It is limited to a period of three days. It consists of i ft of bread
and as much water as the prisoner chooses to drink.
In French prisons the dietary is nearly two pounds weight of braad,
with two meals of thin soup (breakfast and dinner) made from
potatoes, beans or other vegetables, and on two days a week made
from meat. In France the canteen system is in vogue, additional
food, such as sausages, cheese, fruit, &c., may be obtained by the
prisoner, according to the wages he receives for his labours. The
dietary of Austrian prisons is ii Ib of bread daily, a dinner of soup
on four days of the week, and of meat on the other three days,
with a supper of soup or vegetable stew. Additional food can be
purchased by the prisoner out of his earnings.
These dietaries may be taken as more or less typical of the ordinary
prison fare in most civilized countries, though in some countries it
may err on the side of severity, as in Sweden, prisoners being given
only two meals a day, one at mid-day and one at seven P.M., porridge
or gruel being the principal element in both meals. On the other
hand, the prison dietaries of many of the United States prisons go
to the other extreme, fresh fish, green vegetables, even coffee and
fruit, figuring in the dietary.
Another class of dietary is that given to paupers. In England,
until 1900, almost every individual workhouse had its own special
dietary, with the consequence that many erred on the side of scanti-
ness and unsuitability, while others were too lavish. By an order of
the Local Government Board of that year, acting on a report of a
committee, all inmates of workhouses, with the exception ofthe sick,
children under three years of age, and certain other special cases,
are dieted in accordance with certain dietary tables as framed and
settled by the board. The order contained a great number of different
rations, it being left to the discretion of the guardians as to the final
settlement of the tables. For adult inmates the dietary tables are
for each sex respectively, two in number, one termed " plain diet "
and the other " infirm diet." All male inmates certified as healthy
able-bodied persons receive plain diet only. All inmates, however,
in workhouses are kept employed according to their capacity and
ability, and this is taken into consideration in giving allowances of
food. _ For instance, for work with sustained exertion, such as stone-
breaking, digging, &c., more food is given than for work without
sustained exertion, such as wood-chopping, weeding or sewing.
Table II. shows an example of a workhouse dietary.
In the casual wards of workhouses the dietary is plainer, consisting
of 8 oz. of bread, or 6 oz. of bread and one pint of gruel or broth for
breakfast; the same for supper; for dinner 8 oz. ofbread and ii oz.
of cheese or 6 oz. of bread and one pint of soup. The American poor
law system is based broadly on that of England, and the methods
of relief are much the same. Each state, however, makes its own
regulations, and there is considerable diversity in workhouse dietaries
in consequence. The German system of poor relief is more methodical
than those of England and America. Thereally deserving are treated
TABLE II.
Breakfast.
Dinner.
Supper.
6
pa
Porridge.
d
8
CO
tp
B
a
Vegetables.
It
<S<2
.*
1
CO
a
A
1
J3
Cheese.
1
P9
A
CO
ja
(A
T
a
8
M
*
o
3
rt
"3
1
M
Cheese.
oz.
pt.
oz.
oz.
oz.
pt.
oz.
oz.
oz.
oz.
pt.
P t.
oz.
OZ.
P t.
pt.
pt.
oz.
Sunday
8
*
4
4i
12
8
i
i
Monday .
4
i*
6
ii
6
ii
Tuesday .*
4
ii
4i
12
6
it
Wednesday
Thursday .
Friday
Saturday .
4
4
4
4
ii
ii
ii
ii
4
4
8
6
4i
12
12
IO
6
8
6
6
-
< .
ii
ii
ii
i
2
3
I
I
* On Sundays i pint of tea and 2j oz. of butter are given instead of porridge.
214
DIETETICS
with more commiseration, and a larger amount of outdoor relief is
given than in England. There is no casual ward, tramps and beggars
being liable to penal treatment, but there are " relief stations,"
somewhat corresponding to casual wards, where destitute persons
tramping from one place to another can obtain food and lodging in
return for work done.
In the British navy certain staple articles of diet are supplied to
the men to the value approximately of 6d. per diem the standard
government ration-^-and, in addition, a messing allowance cf 4d. per
diem, which may either be expended on luxuries in the canteen, or
in taking up government provisions on board ship, in addition to
the standard ration. The standard ration as recommended in 1907
by a committee appointed to inquire into the question of victualling
in the navy is as follows :
Service Afloat.
l ft bread (or J ft bread and J ft trade flour).
J Ib fresh meat.
i ft fresh vegetables.
J pint spirit.
4 oz. sugar.
oz. tea (or I oz. coffee for every J oz. tea).
oz. ordinary or soluble chocolate (or I oz. coffee).
oz. condensed milk.
I oz. jam or marmalade.
4 oz. preserved meat on one day of the week in harbour, or on
two days at sea.
Mustard, pepper, vinegar, and salt as required.
Substitute for soft bread when the latter is not available
i ft biscuit (new type) or I ft flour.
Substitutes for fresh meat when the latter is not available :
(1) Salt pork day:
ft salt pork,
ft split peas.
elery seed, i oz. to every 8 ft of split peas put
into the coppers,
ft potatoes (or i oz. compressed vegetables).
(2) Preserved meat day:
6 oz. preserved meat.
8 oz. trade flour. }
f oz. refined suet > or 4 oz. rice.
2 oz. raisins )
i ft potatoes (or i oz. compressed vegetables).
On shore establishments and depot ships J pt. fresh milk is issued
in lieu of the | oz. of condensed milk.
In the United States navy there is more liberality and variety of
diet, the approximate daily cost of the rations supplied being is. 3d.
per head. In the American mercantile marine, too, according to
the scale sanctioned by act of Congress (December 21, 1898) for
American ships, the seaman is better off than in the British merchant
service. The scale is shown in Table III.
TABLE III.
On
alternate -
days.
In the British mercantile marine there is no scale of provisions
prescribed by the Board of Trade; there is, however, a traditional
scale very generally adopted, having the sanction of custom only
and seldom adhered to. The following dietary scale for steerage
passengers, laid down in the I2th schedule of the Merchant Shipping
Act 1 894, is of interest. See Table IV.
Certain substitutions may be made in this scale at the option
of the master of any emigrant ship, provided that the substituted
articles are set forth in the contract tickets of the steerage passengers.
_ In the British army the soldier is fed partly by a system of co-opera-
tion. He gets a free ration from government of I ft of bread and
j ft of meat; in addition there is a messing allowance of 3^d. per
man per day. He is able to supplement his food by purchases from
the canteen. Much depends on the individual management in each
Scale A.
ScaleB.
For voyages not ex-
For voyages ex-
ceeding 84 days
for sailing ships
ceeding 84 days
for sailing ships
or 50 days for
or 50 days for
steamships.
steamships.
ft oz.
ft oz.
Bread or biscuit, not in-
ferior to navy biscuit
3 8
3 8
Wheaten flour
2
Oatmeal
8
I
Rice .
8
o 8
Peas ....
8
i 8
Beef .
4
1 4
Pork
I O
Butter
o 4
Potatoes
2
2
Sugar
I
I
Tea .
O 2
2
Salt ....
2
O 2
Pepper (white or black),
ground
O*
o oj
Vinegar
Preserved meat .
I gill
i gill
I
Suet ....
. o 6
Raisins
o 8
Lime juice .
o 6
Weekly
Scale.
Articles.
Weekly
Scale.
Articles.
3ift
Biscuits.
ioz.
Tea.
3f
Salt beef.
21 ,,
Sugar.
3
pork.
li ft
Molasses.
i*
Flour.
9 oz.
Fruits, dried.
2
Meats, preserved.
ipt.
Pickles.
IOJ
Bread, fresh (8 ft flour
i
Vinegar.
in lieu).
8 oz.
Corn Meal.
I
Fish, dried.
12
Onions.
7
Potatoes or yams.
7
Lard.
i
Tomatoes, preserved.
7
Butter.
Peas.
1
Mustard.
|
Calavances.
Rice.
i
Pepper.
Salt.
5i oz.
Coffee, green.
regiment as to the satisfactory expenditure of the messing allowance.
In some regiments an allowance is made from the canteen funds
towards messing in addition to that granted by the government.
The ordinary field ration of the British soldier is ij ft of bread or
i ft of biscuit; i ft of fresh, salt or preserved meat; J oz. of coffee;
Joz. of tea; 2 oz. of sugar; oz. of salt, fa oz. of pepper, the
whole weighing something over 2 ft 3 oz. This cannot be looked
on as a fixed ration, as it varies in different campaigns, according to
the country into which the troops may be sent. The Prussian soldier
during peace gets weekly from his canteen 1 1 ft I oz. of rye bread
and not quite 2 J ft of meat. This is obviously insufficient, but under
TABLE IV. Weekly, per Statute Adult.
the conscription system it is reckoned that he will be able to make
up the deficiency out of his own private means, or obtain charitable
contributions from his friends. In the French infantry of the line
each man during peace gets weekly 15 Ib of bread, 3ft ft of meat,
2} ft of haricot beans or other vegetables, with salt and pepper, and
if oz. of brandy.
An Austrian under the same circumstances receives 13-9 ft of
bread, J ft of flour and 3-3 ft of meat.
The Russian conscript is allowed weekly :
Black bread 7 ft.
7 ft.
Meat
Kvass (beer)
Sour cabbage
Barley
Salts .
Horse-radish
Pepper
Vinegar
7-7 quarts.
243 gills =I22j OZ.
243 gills = 1225 oz.
lo| oz.
28 grains.
28 grains.
5J gills = 26J oz.
DIETEflCS, the science of diet, i.e. the food and nutrition of
man in health and disease (see NUTRITION). This article deals
mainly with that part of the subject which has to do with the
composition and nutritive values of foods and their adaptation
to the use of people in health. The principal topics considered
are: (i) Food and its functions; (2) Metabolism of matter and
energy; (3) Composition of food materials; (4) Digestibility of
food; (5) Fuel value of food; (6) Food consumption; (7) Quan-
tities of nutrients needed; (8) Hygienic economy of food; (9)
Pecuniary economy of food.
i. Food and its Functions. For practical purposes, food may be
denned as that which, when taken into the body, may be utilized
for the formation and repair of body tissue, and the production
of energy. More specifically, food meets the requirements of the
body in several ways. It is used for the formation of the tissues
and fluids of the body, and for the restoration of losses of sub-
stance due to bodily activity. The potential energy of the food
is converted into heat or muscular work or other forms of energy.
In being thus utilized, food protects body substance or previously
acquired nutritive material from consumption. When the amount
DIETETICS
215
of food taken into the body is in excess of immediate needs, the
surplus may be stored for future consumption.
Ordinary food materials, such as meat, fish, eggs, vegetables,
&c., consist of inedible materials, or refuse, e.g. bone of meat
and fish, shell of eggs, rind and seed of vegetables; and edible
material, as flesh of meat and fish, white and yolk of eggs, wheat
flour, &c. The edible material is by no means a simple sub-
stance, but consists of water, and some or ail of the compounds
variously designated as food stuffs, proximate principles, nutritive
ingredients or nutrients, which are classified as protein, fats,
carbohydrates and mineral matters. These have various functions
in the nourishment of the body.
The refuse commonly contains compounds similar to those
in the food from which it is derived, but since it cannot be eaten,
it is usually considered as a non-nutrient. It is of importance
chiefly in a consideration of the pecuniary economy of food.
Water is also considered as a non-nutrient, because although it is a
constituent of all the tissues and fluids of the body, the body may
obtain the water it needs from that drunk; hence, that contained
in the food materials is of no special significance as a nutrient.
Mineral matters, such as sulphates, chlorides, phosphates and
carbonates of sodium, potassium, calcium, &c., are found in
different combinations and quantities in most food materials.
These are used by the body in the formation of the various
tissues, especially the skeletal and protective tissues, in digestion,
and in metabolic processes within the body. They yield little
or no energy, unless perhaps the very small amount involved in
their chemical transformation.
Protein ' is a term used to designate the whole group of
nitrogenous compounds of food except the nitrogenous fats. It
includes the albuminoids, as albumin of egg-white, and of blood
serum, myosin of meat (muscle), casein of milk, globulin of blood
and of egg yolk, fibrin of blood, gluten of flour; the gelatinoids,
as gelatin and allied substances of connective tissue, collagen of
tendon, ossein of bone and the so-called extractives ( e.g. creatin)
of meats; and the amids (e.g. asparagin) and allied compounds of
vegetables and fruits.
The albuminoids and gelatinoids, classed together as proteids,
are the most important constituents of food, because they alone
can supply the nitrogenous material necessary for the formation
of the body tissues. For this purpose, the albuminoids are most
valuable. Both groups of compounds, however, supply the body
with energy, and the gelatinoids in being thus utilized protect
the albuminoids from consumption for this purpose. When their
supply in the food is in excess of the needs of the body, the surplus
proteids may be converted into body fat and stored.
The so-called extractives, which are the principal constituents
of meat extract, beef tea and the like, act principally as stimulants
and appetizers. It has been believed that they serve neither
to build tissue nor to yield energy, but recent investigations 2
indicate that creatin may be metabolized in the body.
The/a/i of food include both the animal fats and the vegetable
oils. The carbohydrates include such compounds as starches,
sugars and the fibre of plants or cellulose, though the latter has
but little value as food for man. The more important function
of both these classes of nutrients is to supply energy to the body
to meet its requirements above that which it may obtain from the
proteids. It is not improbable that the atoms of their molecules
as well as those from the proteids are built up into the proto-
plasmic substance of the tissues. In this sense, these nutrients
may be considered as being utilized also for the formation of
tissue; but they are rather the accessory ingredients, whereas the
proteids are the essential ingredients for this purpose. The fats
in the food in excess of the body requirements may be stored as
body fat, and the surplus carbohydrates may also be converted
into fat and stored.
1 The terms applied by different writers to these nitrogenous
compounds are conflicting. For instance, the term " proteid " is
sometimes used as protein is here used, and sometimes to designate
the group here called albuminoids. The classification and terminology
here followed are those tentatively recommended by the Association
of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations.
'Folin, Festschrift fiir Ola} Hammarsten, iii. (Upsala, 1906).
To a certain extent, then, the nutrients of the food may
substitute each other. All may be incorporated into the proto-
plasmic structure of body tissue, though only the proteids can
supply the essential nitrogenous ingredients; and apart from
the portion of the proteid material that is indispensable for this
purpose, all the nutrients are used as a source of energy. If the
supply of energy in the food is not sufficient, the body will use
its own proteid and fat for this purpose. The gelatinoids, fats
and carbohydrates in being utilized for energy protect the body
proteids from consumption. The fat stored in the body from the
excess of food is a reserve of energy material, on which the body
may draw when the quantity of energy in the food is insufficient
for its immediate needs.
What compounds are especially concerned in intellectual
activity is not known. The belief that fish is especially rich in
phosphorus and valuable as a brain food has no foundation in
observed fact.
2. Metabolism of Matter and Energy. The processes of nutri-
tion thus consist largely of the transformation of food into body
material and the conversion of the potential energy of both food
and body material into the kinetic energy of heat and muscular
work and other forms of energy. These various processes are
generally designated by the term metabolism. The metabolism
of matter in the body is governed largely by the needs of the body
for energy. The science of nutrition, of which the present subject
forms a part, is based on the principle that the transformations
of matter and energy in the body occur in accordance with the
laws of the conservation of matter and of energy. That the body
can neither create nor destroy matter has long been universally
accepted. It would seem that the transformation of energy must
likewise be governed by the law of the conservation of energy;
indeed there is every reason a priori to believe that it must; but
the experimental difficulties in the way of absolute demonstration
of the principle are considerable. For such demonstration it is
necessary to prove that the income and expenditure of energy
are equal. Apparatus and methods of inquiry devised in recent
years, however, afford means for a comparison of the amounts of
both matter and energy received and expended by the body, and
from the results obtained in a large amount of such research,
it seems probable that the law obtains in the living organism in
general.
The first attempt at such demonstration was made by
M. Rubner 3 in 1894, experimenting with dogs doing no external
muscular work. The income of energy (as heat) was computed,
but the heat eliminated was measured. In the average of eight
experiments continuing forty-five days, the two quantities agreed
within 0-47 %, thus demonstrating what it was desired to prove
that the heat given off by the body came solely from the
oxidation of food within it. Results in accordance with these
were reported by Studenski 4 in 1897, and by Laulanie 6 in 1898.
The most extensive and complete data yet available on the
subject have been obtained by W. O. Atwater, F. G. Benedict and
associates 6 in experiments with men in the respiration calori-
meter, in which a subject may remain for several consecutive days
and nights. These experiments involve actual weighing and
analyses of the food and drink, and of the gaseous, liquid and
solid excretory products; determinations of potential energy
(heat of oxidation) of the oxidizable material received and given
off by the body (including estimation of the energy of the material
gained or lost by the body) ; and measurements of the amounts of
energy expended as heat and as external muscular work. By
October 1906 eighty-eight experiments with fifteen different sub-
jects had been completed. The separate experiments continued
from two to thirteen days, making a total of over 270 days.
3 Ztschr. Biol. 30, 73.
4 In Russian. Cited in United States Department of Agriculture,
Office of Experiment Stations, Bui. No. 45, A Digest of Metabolism
Experiments, by W. O. Atwater and C. F. Langworthy.
6 Arch, physiol. norm, et path. (1894) 4-
6 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations,
Bulletins Nos. 63, 69, 109, 136, 175. For a description of the respira-
tion calorimeter here mentioned see also publication No. 42 of the
Carnegie Institution of Washington.
2l6
DIETETICS
In some cases the subjects were at rest; in others they per-
formed varying amounts of external muscular work on an
apparatus by means of which the amount of work done was
measured. In some cases they fasted, and in others they received
body. The variations for individual days, and in the average for
individual experiments as well, were in some cases appreciable,
amounting to as much as 6%, which is not strange in view of the
uncertainties in physiological experimenting; but in the average
TABLE I. Percentage Composition of some Common Food Materials.
Food Material.
Refuse.
Water.
Protein.
Fat.
Carbo-
hydrates.
Mineral
Matter.
Fuel Value
per lb.
%
%
o/
/o
%
/
/o
/
/o
Calories.
Beef, fresh (medium fat)
Chuck ....
16-3
52-6
15-5
15-0
. .
0-8
910
Loin .....
13-3
52-5
16-1
17-5
. .
0-9
1025
Ribs
Round .....
20-8
7-2
43-8
60-7
13-9
19-0
21-2
12-8
0-7
I-O
1135
800
Shoulder
16-4
56-8
16-4
9-8
0-9
715
Beef, dried and smoked
47
53-7
26-4
6-9
. .
8-9
790
Veal-
Leg
14-2
60- 1
15-5
7-9
. .
0-9
625
Loin .....
16-5
57-6
16-6
9-0
0-9
685
Breast ....
21-3
52-0
15-4
I I-O
, t
0-8
745
Mutton
Leg . - . . .
18-4
51-2
I5-I
14-7
. .
0-8
890
Loin .....
16-0
42-0
13-5
28-3
0-7
HIS
Flank
9'9
39-o
13-8
36-9
0-6
1770
Pork-
Loin . . ...
19-7
41-8
13-4
24-2
, .
0-8
1245
Ham, fresh ....
10-7
48-0
I3-5
25-9
t t
0-8
1320
Ham, smoked and salted
13-6
34-8
14-2
33-4
4-2
1635
Fat, salt ....
7-9
1-9
86-2
. .
3'9
3555
Bacon .....
77
17-4
9-1
62-2
4-1
2715
Lard, refined
IOO-O
4100
Chicken ....
25-9
47-1
137
12-3
f
0-7
765
Turkey .....
22-7
42-4
16-1
18-4
, ,
0-8
1060
Goose .....
I 7 -6
38-5
13-4
29-8
0-7
1475
Eggs ...
II-2
65-5
13-1
9'3
. .
0-9
635
Cod, fresh ....
29-9
58-5
n-i
O-2
. .
0-8
220
Cod, salted ....
24-9
40-2
16-0
0-4
18-5
325
Mackerel, fresh
44'7
40-4
10-2
4'2
0-7
370
Herring, smoked
44.4
19-2
20-5
8-8
7'4
755
Salmon, tinned
63-5
21-8
I2-I
2-6
915
Oysters, shelled
88-3
6-0
1-3
3'3
i-i
225
Butter
I I-O
I-O
85-0
3-o
34io
Cheese .....
34-2
25-9
337
2-4
3-8
1885
Milk, whole ....
87-0
3'3
4-0
5-o
0-7
310
Milk, skimmed
9C-5
3'4
0-3
5-1
0-7
165
Oatmeal .....
77
16-7
7'3
66-2
2-1
1800
Corn (maize) meal
12-5
9-2
1-9
75-4
I-O
!635
Rye Hour .....
12-9
6-8
0-9
78-7
0-7
1620
Buckwheat flour
13-6
6-4
1-2
77-9
0-9
1605
Rice . . . ' .
12-3
8-0
0-3
79-0
0-4
1620
Wheat flour, white
12-O
1 1 -4
I'O
75-1
'5
'635
Wheat flour, graham
1 1 '3
13-3
2-2
71-4
8
1645
Wheat, breakfast food
9-6
I2-I
1-8
75-2
3
1680
Wheat bread, white .
35-3
9-2
1-3
53-1
i
1200
Wheat bread, graham
357
8-9
1-8
52-1
5
"95
Rye bread ....
357
9-0
0-6
53-2
5
1170
Biscuit (crackers)
6-8
97
I2-I
69-7
7
1925
Macaroni .....
10-3
13-4
O-O
74-1
3
1645
Sugar .....
IOO-O
1750
Starch (corn starch)
90-0
1680
Beans, dried ....
12-6
22-5
1-8
59-6
3-5
1520
Peas, dried ....
9-5
24-6
I-O
62-0
2-9
1565
Beets ._, ....
20-0
70-0
1-3
O'l
77
0-9
1 60
Cabbage .....
iS'O
777
1-4
O-2
4-8
0-9
"5
Squash .....
50-0
44-2
0-7
0-2
4-5
0-4
IOO
Potatoes . .
20-0
62-6
1-8
O-I
14-7
o-S
295
Sweet potatoes . >'
20-0
55'2
1-4
0-6
21-9
0-9
440
Tomatoes .....
94-3
0-9
0-4
3-9
0-5
IOO
Apples .....
25-0
63-3
o-3
o-3
10-8
0-3
190
Bananas .....
35-o
48-9
0-8
0-4
14-3
0-6
260
Grapes . . . . .
25-0
58-0
I-O
1-2
14-4
0-4
295
Oranges .....
27-0
63-4
0-6
O-I
8-5
0-4
150
Strawberries ....
5-o
85-9
0-9
0-6
7-0
0-6
150
Almonds .....
45-o
27
n-5
30-2
9-5
i-i
1515
Brazil nuts .
49-6
2-6
8-6
337
3-5
2-O.
1485
Chestnuts. .
16-0
37-8
5'2
4'5
35-4
i-i
915
Walnuts . . . . ,
58-1
I-O
6-9
26-6
6-8
0-6
1250
diets generally not far from sufficient to maintain nitrogen, and
usually carbon, equilibrium in the body. In these experiments
the amount of energy expended by the body as heat and as
external muscular work measured in terms of heat agreed on
the average very closely with the amount of heat that would be
produced by the oxidation of all the matter metabolized in the
of all the experiments the energy of the expenditure was above
99-9% of the energy of the income, an agreement within one
part in 1000. While these results do not absolutely prove the
application of the law of the conservation of energy in the human
body, they certainly approximate very closely to such demonstra-
tion. It is of course possible that energy may have given off
DIETETICS
217
from the body in other forms than heat and external muscular
work. It is conceivable, for example, that intellectual activity
may involve the transformation of physical energy, and that the
energy involved may be eliminated in some form now unknown.
But if the body did give off energy which was not measured in
these experiments, the quantity must have been extremely small.
It seems fair to infer from the results obtained that the meta-
bolism of energy in the body occurred in conformity with the law
of the conservation of energy.
3. Composition of Food Materials. The composition of food
is determined by chemical analyses, the results of which are
conventionally expressed in terms of the nutritive ingredients
previously described. As a result of an enormous amount of
such investigation in recent years, the kinds and proportions of
nutrients in our common sorts of food are well known. Average
actually digested and absorbed. Thus, two foods may contain
equal amounts of the same nutrient, but the one most easily
digested will really be of most value to the body, because less
effort is necessary to utilize it. Considerable study of this factor
is being made, and much valuable information is accumulating,
but it is of more especial importance in cases of disordered
digestion.
The digestibility of food in the sense of thoroughness of
digestion, however, is of particular importance in the present
discussion. Only that portion of the food that is digested
and absorbed is available to the body for the building of tissue
and the production of energy. Not all the food eaten is thus
actually digested; undigested material is excreted in the faeces.
The thoroughness of digestion is determined experimentally by
weighing and analysing the food eaten and the faeces pertaining
TABLE II. Coefficients of Digestibility (or Availability) of Nutrients in Different Classes of Food Materials.
Kind of Food.
Protein.
Fat.
Carbo-
hydrates.
Kind of Food.
Protein.
Fat.
Carbo-
hydrates.
/o
o/
/o
%
/o
%
o/
la
Meats ....
98
98
Corn meal
So
99
Fish ....
96
97
Wheat meals without bran
83
93
Poultry ....
Eggs ....
96
97
97
Wheat meals with bran
White bread .
B
92
98
Dairy products
Total animal food of
97
96
98
Entire wheat bread
Graham bread
82
76
94
90
mixed diet
97
97
98
Rice ....
76
91
Potatoes
73
98
Fruits and nuts
So
86
96
Beets, carrots, &c.
72
97
Sugars and starches
98
Cabbage, lettuce. &c.
Legumes
Oatmeal ....
78
78
90
90
83
95
97
Total vegetable food of
mixed diet .
Total food of mixed diet .
85
92
90
95
97
97
values for percentage composition of some ordinary food materials
are shown in Table I. (Table I. also includes figures for fuel
value.)
It will be observed that different kinds of food materials vary
widely in their proportions of nutrients. In general the animal
foods contain the most protein and fats, and vegetable foods are
rich in carbohydrates. The chief nutrient of lean meat and fish is
protein ; but in medium fat meats the proportion of fat is as large
as that of protein, and in the fatter meats it is larger. Cheese
is rich in both protein and fat. Among the vegetable foods, dried
beans and peas are especially rich in protein. The proportion in
oatmeal is also fairly large, in wheat it is moderate, and in maize
meal and rice it is rather small. Oats contain more oil than any
of the common cereals, but in none of them is the proportion
especially large. The most abundant nutrient in all the cereals is
starch, which comprises from two-thirds to three-fourths or more
of their total nutritive substance. Cotton-seed is rich in edible
oil, and so are olives. Some of the nuts contain fairly large
proportions of both protein and fat. The nutrient of potatoes is
starch, present in fair proportion. Fruits contain considerable
carbohydrates, chiefly sugar. Green vegetables are not of much
account as sources of any of the nutrients or energy.
Similar food materials from different sources may also differ
considerably in composition. This is especially true of meats.
Thus, the leaner portions from a fat animal may contain nearly as
much fat as the fatter portions from a lean animal. The data
here presented are largely those for American food products,
but the available analyses of English food materials indicate
that the latter differ but little from the former in composition.
The analyses of meats produced in Europe imply that they
commonly contain somewhat less fat and more water, and
often more protein, than American meats. The meats of English
production compare with the American more than with the
European meats. Similar vegetable foods from the different
countries do not differ so much in composition.
4. Digestibility or Availability of Food Materials. The value
of any food material for nutriment depends not merely upon the
kinds and amounts of nutrients it contains, but also upon the
ease and convenience with which the nutrients may be digested,
and especially upon the proportion of the nutrients that will be
to it. The difference between the corresponding ingredients of
the two is commonly considered to represent the amounts of
the ingredients digested. Expressed in percentages, these are
called coefficients of digestibility. See Table II.
Such a method is not strictly accurate, because the faeces do
not consist entirely of undigested food but contain in addition
to this the so-called metabolic products, which include the resi-
duum of digestive juices not resorbed, fragments of intestinal
epithelium, &c. Since there is as yet no satisfactory method of
separating these constituents of the excreta, the actual digesti-
bility of the food is not determined. It has been suggested that
since these materials must originally come from food, they
represent, when expressed in terms of food ingredients, the cost of
digestion; hence that the values determined as above explained
represent the portion of food available to the body for the build-
ing of tissue and the yielding of energy, and what is commonly
designated as digestibility should be called availability. Other
writers retain the term " digestibility," but express the results
as " apparent digestibility," until more knowledge regarding
the metabolic products of the excreta is available and the actual
digestibility may be ascertained.
Experimental inquiry of this nature has been very active in
recent years, especially in Europe, the United States and Japan;
and the results of considerably over 1000 digestion experiments
with single foods or combinations of food materials are available.
These were mostly with men, but some were with women
and with children. The larger part of these have been taken
into account in the following estimations of the digestibility
of the nutrients in different classes of food materials. The
figures here shown are subject to revision as experimental data
accumulate. They are not to be taken as exact measures of
the digestibility (or availability) of every kind of food in each
given class, but they probably represent fairly well the average
digestibility of the classes of food materials as ordinarily utilized
in the mixed diet.
5. Fuel Value of Food. The potential energy of food is
commonly measured as the amount of heat evolved when the
food is completely oxidized. In the laboratory this is determined
by burning the food in oxygen in a calorimeter. The results,
which are known as the heat of combustion of the food, are
DIETETICS
expressed in calories, one calory being the amount of heat
necessary to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water one
degree centigrade. But it is to be observed that this unit is
TABLE III. Estimates of Heals of Combustion and of Fuel Value
of Nutrients in Ordinary Mixed Diet.
Nutrients.
Heat of
Combustion.
Fuel Value.
Calories.
Calories.
One gram of protein
One gram of fats .
One gram of carbohydrates
5-65
9-40
4-15
4-05
8-93
4-03
employed simply from convenience, and without implication
as to what extent the energy of food is converted into heat in
the body. The unit employed in the measurement of some other
greater than that which the body will actually derive from it.
In the first place, as previously shown, part of the food will not
be digested and absorbed. In the second place, the nitrogenous
compounds absorbed are not completely oxidized in the body,
the residuum being excreted in the urine as urea and other bodies
that are capable of further oxidation in the calorimeter. The
total heat of combustion of the food eaten must therefore be
diminished by the heat of combustion of the oxidizable material
rejected by the body, to find what amount of energy is actually
available to the organism for the production of work and heat.
The amount thus determined is commonly known as the fuel
value of food.
Rubner's 1 commonly quoted estimates for the fuel value of the
nutrients of mixed diet are, for protein and carbohydrates 4-1,
and for fats 9-3 calories per gram. According to the method of
deduction, however, these factors were more applicable to digested
than to total nutrients. Atwater 2 and associates have deduced,
TABLE IV. Quantities of Available Nutrients and Energy in Daily Food Consumption of Persons in
Different Circumstances.
Number of
Studies.
Nutrients and Energy per Man per Day.
Protein.
Fat.
Carbo-
hydrates.
Fuel Value.
Persons with Active Work.
Grams.
Grams.
Grams.
Calories.
English royal engineer's ....
I
I
132
1 20
79
IO7
612
6s7
3835
49/)C
Swedish mechanics .
5
**7
174
* w /
105
w o/
693
T-^^O
459
Bavarian lumbermen .
3
1 20
277
702
6015
American lumbermen
5
155
327
804
6745
Japanese rice cleaner
i
103
II
917
4415
Japanese jinrikshaw runner
Chinese farm labourers in California
i
i
137
132
22
90
1010
621
5050
3980
American athletes
19
178
192
525
4740
American working-men's families
13
156
226
694
5650
Persons with Ordinary Work.
Bavarian mechanics .
ii
112
32
553
3060
Bavarian farm labourers
5
126
52
526
3200
Russian peasants
119
31
57i
3155
Prussian prisoners
i
117
28
620
3320
Swedish mechanics .
6
123
75
57
3325
American working-men's families
69
105
J35
426
3480
Persons with Light Work.
American artisans' families
21
93
107
358
2880
English tailors (prisoners)
I
121
37
509
2970
German shoemakers ....
I
99
73
367
2629
Japanese prisoners .....
I
43
6
444
2IIO
Professional and Business Men.
Japanese professional men
13
75
15
408
2I9O
Japanese students
8
85
18
537
28OO
Japanese military cadets
II
98
20
61 1
3185
German physicians .
2
121
90
317
2685
Swedish medical students
5
117
1 08
291
2725
Danish physicians
i
124
133
242
2790
American professional and business men and
students ......
5i
9 8
125
411
3285
Persons with Little or no Exercise.
Prussian prisoners .....
2
9
27
427
2400
Japanese prisoners .....
I
36
6
360
1725
Inmates of home for aged Germany
I
85
43
322
2097
Inmates of hospitals for insane America .
49
80
86
353
2590
Persons in Destitute Circumstances.
Prussian working people ....
13
63
43
372
2215
Italian mechanics .....
5
70
36
384
2225
American working-men's families
ii
69
75
263
2085
form of energy might be used instead, as, for example, the foot-
ton, which represents the amount of energy necessary to raise
one ton through one foot.
The amount of energy which a given quantity of food will
produce on complete oxidation outside the body, however, is
from data much more extensive than those available to Rubner,
factors for total nutrients somewhat lower than these, as shown
1 Ztschr. Biol. 21 (1885), p. 377.
2 Connecticut (Storrs) Agricultural
(1899), 73-
Experiment Station Report
DIETETICS
219
in Table III. These estimates seem to represent the best
average factors at present available, but are subject to revision
as knowledge is extended.
The heats of combustion of all the fats in an ordinary mixed
diet would average about 9-40 calories per gram, but as only
95% of the fat would be available to the body, the fuel value
per gram would be (9-40X0-95 = ) 8-93 calories. Similarly, the
average heat of combustion of carbohydrates of the diet would be
about 4-15 calories per gram, and as 97% of the total quantity
is available to the body, the fuel value per gram would be 4-03.
(It is commonly assumed that the resorbed fats and carbo-
hydrates are completely oxidized in the body.) The heats of
combustion of all the kinds of protein in the diet would average
about 5-65 calories per gram. Since about 92% of the total
protein would be available to the body, the potential energy of
the available protein would be equivalent to (5-65X0-92 = ) 5-20
calories; but as the available protein is not completely oxidized
allowance must be made for the potential energy of the incom-
pletely oxidized residue. This is estimated as equivalent to 1-15
calories for the 0-92 gram of available protein; hence, the fuel
value of the total protein is (5-20-1-15 = ) 4-05 calories per gram.
Nutrients of the same class, but from different food materials,
vary both in digestibility and in heat of combustion, and hence
in fuel value. These factors are therefore not so applicable to the
nutrients of the separate articles in a diet as to those of the diet as
a whole.
6. Food Consumption. Much information regarding the food
consumption of people in various circumstances in different parts
of the world has accumulated during the past twenty years, as a
result of studies of actual dietaries in England, Germany, Italy,
Russia, Sweden and elsewhere in Europe, in Japan and other
oriental countries, and especially in the United States. These
studies commonly consist in ascertaining the kinds, amounts
and composition of the different food materials consumed by a
group of persons during a given period and the number of meals
taken by each member of the group, and computing the quantities
of the different nutrients in the food on the basis of one man for
one day. When the members of the group are of different age,
sex, occupation, &c., account must be taken of the effect of these
factors on consumption in estimating the value " per man."
Men as a rule eat more than women under similar conditions,
women mo re than children, and persons at active work more than
those at sedentary occupation. The navvy, for example, who
is constantly using up more nutritive material or body tissue to
supply the energy required for his muscular work needs more
protein and energy in his food than a bookkeeper who sits at his
desk all day.
In making allowance for these differences, the various indi-
viduals are commonly compared with a man at moderately active
muscular work, who is taken as unity. A man at hard muscular
work is reckoned at 1-2 times such an individual; a man with
light muscular work or a boy 15-16 years old, -9; a man at
sedentary occupation, woman at moderately active muscular
work, boy 13-14 or girl 15-16 years old, -8; woman at light work,
boy 12 or girl 13-14 years old, -7; boy 10-11 or girl 10-12
years old, -6; child 6-9 years old, -5; child 2-5 years old, -4;
child under 2 years, -3. These factors are by no means absolute
or final, but are based in part upon experimental data and in
part upon arbitrary assumption.
The total number of dietary studies on record is very large,
but not all of them are complete enough to furnish reliable
data. Upwards of 1000 are sufficiently accurate to be included
in statistical averages of food consumed by people in different
circumstances, nearly half of which have been made in the United
States in the past decade. The number of persons in the indi-
vidual studies has ranged from one to several hundred. Some
typical results are shown in Table IV.
7. Quantities of Nutrients needed. For the proper nourish-
ment of the body, the important problem is how much protein,
fats and carbohydrates, or more simply, what amounts of protein
and potential energy are needed under varying circumstances,
to build and repair muscular and other tissues and to supply
energy for muscular, work, heat and other forms of energy.
The answer to the problem is sought in the data obtained in
dietary studies with considerable numbers of people, and in
metabolism experiments with individuals in which the income
and expenditure of the body are measured. From the informa-
tion thus derived, different investigators have proposed so-called
dietary standards, such as are shown in the table below, but
unfortunately the experimental data are still insufficient for
entirely trustworthy figures of this sort; hence the term
" standard " as here used is misleading. The figures given are
not to be considered as exact and final as that would suggest;
they are merely tentative estimates of the average daily amounts
of nutrients and energy required. (It isto be especially noted
that these are available nutrients and fuel value rather than
total nutrients and energy.) Some of the values proposed by
other investigators are slightly larger than these, and others
are decidedly smaller, but these are the ones that have hitherto
been most commonly accepted in Europe and America.
TABLE V. Standards for Dietaries. Available Nutrients and
Energy per Man per Day.
Protein.
Fat.
Carbo-
hydrates.
Fuel
Value.
Voit's Standards.
Grams. 1
Grams.
Grams.
Calories.
Man at hard work
Man at moderate work
133
109
95
53
437
485
3270
2965
Atwater's Standards.
Man at very hard
muscular work
161
z
t
5500
Man at hard muscular
work
138
4150
Man at moderately
active muscular work
"5
3400
Man at light to
moderate muscular
work
103
3050
Man at " sedentary "
or woman at moder-
ately active work
92
2700
Woman at light mus-
cular work, or man
without muscular
exercise
83
2450
8. Hygienic Economy of Food. For people in good health, there
are two important rules to be observed in the regulation of the
diet. One is to choose the foods that " agree " with them, and
to avoid those which they cannot digest and assimilate without
harm; and the other is to use such sorts and quantities of foods
as will supply the kinds and amounts of nutrients needed by the
body and yet to avoid burdening it with superfluous material to
be disposed of at the cost of health and strength.
As for the first-mentioned rule, it is practically impossible to
give information that may be of more than general application.
There are people who, because of some individual peculiarity,
cannot use foods which for people in general are wholesome
and nutritious. Some persons cannot endure milk, others suffer
if they eat eggs, others have to eschew certain kinds of meat, or
are made uncomfortable by fruit; but such cases are exceptions.
Very liltle is known regarding the cause of these conditions. It
is possible that in the metabolic processes to which the ingredients
of the food are subjected in the body, or even during digestion
before the substances are actually taken into the body, com-
pounds may be formed that are in one way or another injurious.
Whatever the cause may be, it is literally true in this sense that
"what is one man's meat is another man's poison," and each
must learn for himself what foods " agree " with him and what
ones do not. But for the great majority of people in health,
1 One ounce equals 28-35 grams.
2 As the chief function of both fats and carbohydrates is to furnish
energy, their exact proportion in the diet is of small account. The
amount of either may vary largely according to taste, available
supply, or other condition, as long as the total amount of both is
sufficient, together with the protein to furnish the required energy.
220
DIETETICS
suitable combinations of the ordinary sorts of wholesome food
materials make a healthful diet. On the other hand, some foods
are of particular value at times, aside from their use for nourish-
ment. Fruits and green vegetables often benefit people greatly,
not as nutriment merely, for they may have very little actual
nutritive material, but because of fruit or vegetable acids or
other substances which they contain, and which sometimes
serve a most useful purpose.
The proper observance of the second rule mentioned requires
information regarding the demands of the body for food under
different circumstances. To supply this information is one
purpose of the effort to determine the so-called dietary standards
TABLE VI. Amounts of Nutrients and Energy Furnished for One Shilling in Food Materials at Ordinary Prices.
Food Materials as Purchased.
Prices
per lb
One Shilling will buy
Total Food
Materials.
Available Nutrients.
Fuel
Value.
Protein.
Fat.
Carbo-
hydrates.
Beef, round .....
s. d.
O IO
o 8|
o 5
ft.
1-20
I-4I
2-40
lb.
22
26
44
lb.
H
17
29
ft.
Calories.
1,155
1,235
2,105
Beef, sirloin .....
O IO
o 9
o 8
o 5
I -2O
i-33
1-50
2-40
19
21
20
22
1,225
1,360
Beef, rib ....
o 9
o 7*
o 4J
1-33
i -60
2-67
I 9
19
1,200
Mutton, leg ....
o 9
o 5
1-33
2-40
2O
37
20
35
. .
1,245
2,245
Pork, spare-rib ....
o 9
o 7
1-33
1-71
17
22
3>
39
'.645
2,110
Pork, salt, fat ....
o 7
o 5
1-71
2-40
03
04
1-40
1-97
6,025
8,460
Pork, smoked ham ....
o 8
o 4i
i-5
2-67
20
36
48
85
2,435
4,33
Fresh cod ....
o 4
o 3
3-00
4-00
34
45
01
OI
710
945
Salt cod
o 3?
10
3'43
i -20
54
07
07
OI
04
1.370
275
Milk, whole, 4d. a qt.
3d. aqt.
2d aqt.
O 2
I-J
O I
6-00
8-00
I2-OO
19
26
38
23
30
46
3
40
60
1-915
2,55
3-825
Milk, skimmed, ad. a qt. .
O I
12-00
40
03
61
2,085
Butter
I 6
i 3
I O
67
80
I -CO
01
01
OI
54
64
81
2,320
2,770
3,460
Margarine ....
o 4
3-00
2-37
10,080
Eggs, 2s. a dozen . ;
,, l$s. a dozen ....
,, is. a dozen .
i 4
I O
o 8
75
I-OO
1-50
IO
13
19
07
09
13
475
635
950
Cheese ......
o 8
o 7
o 5
1-50
1-71
2-40
3
43
60
48
55
77
04
04
06
2,865
3,265
4,585
Wheat bread . _;
I)
10-67
76
13
5-57
12,421
Wheat flour ....
I?
1^
7-64
8-16
67
72
07
07
5-63
6-01
12,110
12,935
Oatmeal ....
I?
I*
8-39
8-16
III
i -08
54
53
5-54
5-39
14.835
14-430
Rice I ....
If
6-86
45
02
5-27
10,795
Potatoes ....
o of
o oj
18-00
24-00
25
34
02
O2
2-70
3-6o
5-605
7,470
Beans ......
2
6-00
1-05
IO
3-47
8,960
Sugar ......
I 1
6-86
6-86
12,760
DIETRICH, C. W. E. DIETRICH OF BERN
221
mentioned above. It should be observed, however, that these
are generally more applicable to the proper feeding of a group
or class of people as a whole than for particular individuals
in this class. The needs of individuals will vary largely from
the average in accordance with the activity and individuality.
Moreover, it is neither necessary nor desirable for the individual
to follow any standard exactly from day to day. It is requisite
only that the average supply shall be sufficient to meet the
demands of the body during a given period.
The cooking of food and other modes of preparing it for
consumption have much to do with its nutritive value. Many
materials which, owing to their mechanical condition or to
some other cause, are not particularly desirable food materials
in their natural state, are quite nutritious when cooked or other-
wise prepared for consumption. It is also a matter of common
experience that well-cooked food is wholesome and appetizing,
whereas the same material poorly prepared is unpalatable.
There are three chief purposes of cooking; the first is to change
the mechanical condition of the food. Heating changes the
structure of many food materials very materially, so that they
may be more easily chewed and brought into a condition in which
the digestive juices can act upon them more freely, and in this
way probably influencing the ease and thoroughness of digestion.
The second is to make the food more appetizing by improving
the appearance or flavour or both. Food which is attractive to
the eye and pleasing to the palate quickens the flow of saliva
and other digestive juices and thus aids digestion. The third
is to kill, by heat, disease germs, parasites or other dangerous
organisms that may be contained in food. This is often a very
important matter and applies to both animal and vegetable foods.
Scrupulous neatness should always be observed in storing,
handling and serving food. If ever cleanliness is desirable it
must be in the things we eat, and every care should be taken to
ensure it for the sake of health as well as of decency. Cleanliness
in this connexion means not only absence of visible dirt, but
freedom from undesirable bacteria and other minute organisms
and from worms and other parasites. If food, raw or cooked, is
kept in dirty places, peddled from dirty carts, prepared in dirty
rooms and in dirty dishes, or exposed to foul air, disease germs
and other offensive and dangerous substances may easily enter it.
9. Pecuniary Economy of Food. Statistics of economy and of
cost of living in Great Britain, Germany and the United States
show that at least half, and commonly more, of the income of
wage-earners and other people in moderate circumstances is
expended for subsistence. The relatively large cost of food, and
the important influence of diet upon health and strength, make a
more widespread understanding of the subject of dietetics very
desirable. The maxim that " the best is the cheapest " does not
apply to food. The " best " food, in the sense of that which is
the finest in appearance and flavour and which is sold at the
highest price, is not generally the most economical.
The price of food is not regulated largely by its value for
nutriment. Its agreeableness to the palate or to the buyer's
fancy is a large factor in determining the current demand and
market price. There is no more nutriment in an ounce of protein
or fat from the tender-loin of beef than from the round or shoulder.
The protein of animal food has, however, some advantage over
that of vegetable foods in that it is more thoroughly, and perhaps
more easily, digested, for which reason it would be economical to
pay somewhat more for the same quantity of nutritive material
in the animal food. Furthermore, animal foods such as meats,
fish and the like, gratify the palate as most vegetable foods do
not. For persons in good health, foods in which the nutrients
are the most expensive are like costly articles of adornment.
People who can well afford them may be justified in buying
them, but they are not economical. The most economical food
is that which is at the same time most healthful and cheapest.
The variations in the cost of the actual nutriment in different
food materials may be illustrated by comparison of the amounts
of nutrients obtained for a given sum in the materials as bought
at ordinary market prices. This is done in Table VI., which
shows the amounts of available nutrients contained in the quan-
tities of different food materials that may be purchased for one
shilling at prices common in England.
When proper attention is given to the needs of the body for
food and the relation between cost and nutritive value of food
materials, it will be found that with care in the purchase and skill
in the preparation of food, considerable control may be had over
the expensiveness of a palatable, nutritious and healthful diet.
AUTHORITIES. COMPOSITION OF FOODS: Konig, Chemit der
menschlichen Nahrungs- und Genussmittel; Atwater and Bryant,
" Composition of American Food Materials," Bui. 28, Office of
Experiment Stations, U.S. Department of Agriculture. NUTRITION
AND DIETETICS: Armsby, Principles of Animal Nutrition; Lusk,
The Science of Nutrition; Burney Yeo, Food in Health and Disease;
Munk and Uffelmann, Die Erndhrung des gesunden und kranken
Menschen; Von Leyden, Erndhrungstherapie und Diatetik; Dujardin-
Beaumetz, Hygiene alimentaire; Hutchison, Food and Dietetics; R.
H. Chittenden, Physiological Economy in Nutrition(igo^), Nutrition of
Man (1907) ; Atwater, " Chemistry and Economy of Food," Bui. 21,
Office of Experiment Stations, U.S. Department of Agriculture. See
also other Bulletins of the same office on composition of food, results
of dietary studies, metabolism experiments, &c., in the United States.
GENERAL METABOLISM: Voit, Physiologic des allgemeinen Staff -
wechsels und der Erndhrung; Hermann, Handbuch der Physiologic,
Bd. vi. ; Von Noorden, Pathologie des Stoffwechsels; Schafer, Text-
Book of Physiology, vol. i.; Atwater and Langworthy, " Digest of
Metabolism Experiments," Bull. 45, Office of Experiment Stations,
U.S. Department of Agriculture. (W. O. A. ; R. D. M.)
DIETRICH, CHRISTIAN WILHELM ERNST (1712-1774),
German painter, was born at Weimar, where he was brought up
early to the profession of art by his father Johann George, then
painter of miniatures to the court of the duke. Having been sent
to Dresden to perfect himself under the care of Alexander Thiele,
he had the good fortune to finish in two hours, at the age of
eighteen, a picture which attracted the attention of the king of
Saxony. Augustus II. was so pleased with Dietrich's readiness
of hand that he gave him means to study abroad, and visit in
succession the chief cities of Italy and the Netherlands. There
he learnt to copy and to imitate masters of the previous century
with a versatility truly surprising. Winckelmann, to whom he
had been recommended, did not hesitate to call him the Raphael
of landscape. Yet in this branch of his practice he merely
imitated Salvator Rosa and Everdingen. He was more successful
in aping the style of Rembrandt, and numerous examples of this
habit may be found in the galleries of St Petersburg, Vienna and
Dresden. At Dresden, indeed, there are pictures acknowledged
to be his, bearing the fictitious dates of 1636 and 1638, and the
name of Rembrandt. Among Dietrich's cleverest reproductions
we may account that of Ostade's manner in the " Itinerant
Singers " at the National Gallery. His skill in catching the
character of the later masters of Holland is shown in candle-
light scenes, such as the " Squirrel and the Peep-Show " at St
Petersburg, where we are easily reminded of Godfried Schalcken.
Dietrich tried every branch of art except portraits, painting
Italian and Dutch views alternately with Scripture scenes and
still life. In 1 741 he was appointed court painter to Augustus III.
at Dresden, with an annual salary of 400 thalers (60) , conditional
on the production of four cabinet pictures a year. This condition,
no doubt, accounts for the presence of fifty-two of the master's
panels and canvases in one of the rooms at the Dresden museum.
Dietrich, though popular and probably the busiest artist of his
time, never produced anything of his own; and his imitations
are necessarily inferior to the originals which he affected to copy.
His best work is certainly that which he gave to engravings.
A collection of these at the British Museum, produced on the
general lines of earlier men, such as Ostade and Rembrandt,
reveal both spirit and skill. Dietrich, after his return from the
Peninsula, generally signed himself " Dietericij," and with this
signature most of his extant pictures are inscribed. He died at
Dresden, after he had successively filled the important appoint-
ments of director of the school of painting at the Meissen porcelain
factory and professor of the Dresden academy of arts.
DIETRICH OF BERN, the name given in German popular
poetry to Theodoric the Great. |The legendary history of Dietrich
differs so widely from the life of Theodoric that it has been
suggested that the two were originally unconnected. Medieval
222
DIEZ, F. C.
chroniclers, however, repeatedly asserted the identity of Dietrich
and Theodoric, although the more critical noted the anachronisms
involved in making Ermanaric (d. 376) and Attila (d. 453) con-
temporary with Theodoric (b. 455)- That the legend is based
on vague historical reminiscences is proved by the retention of
the names of Theodoric (Thiuda-reiks, Dietrich) and his father
Theudemir (Dietmar), by Dietrich's connexion with Bern
(Verona) and Raben (Ravenna) . Something of the Gothic king's
character descended to Dietrich, familiarly called the Beruer,
the favourite of German medieval saga heroes, although his
story did not leave the same mark on later German literature as
did that of the Nibelungs. The cycle of songs connected with his
name in South Germany is partially preserved in the Heldenbuch
(q.v.) in Dietrich's Flucht, the RabensMacht and Alpharts Tod;
but it was reserved for an Icelandic author, writing in Norway
in the I3th century, to compile, with many romantic additions, a
consecutive account of Dietrich. In this Norse prose redaction,
known as the Vilkina Saga, cr more correctly the Thidrekssaga,
is incorporated much extraneous matter from the Nibelungen
and Wayland legends, in fact practically the whole of south
German heroic tradition.
There are traces of a form of the Dietrich legend in which he
was represented as starting out from Byzantium, in accordance
with historical tradition, for his conquest of Italy. But this
early disappeared, and was superseded by the existing legend,
in which, perhaps by an " epic fusion " with his father Theudemir,
he was associated with Attila, and then by an easy transition
with Ermanaric. Dietrich was driven from his kingdom of
Bern by his uncle Ermanaric. After years of exile at the court
of Attila he returned with a Hunnish army to Italy, and defeated
Ermanaric in the Rabenschlacht, or battle of Ravenna. Attila 's
two sons, with Dietrich's brother, fell in the fight, and Dietrich
returned to Attila 's court to answer for the death of the young
princes. This very improbable renunciation of the advantages of
his victory suggests that in the original version of the story the
Rabenschlacht was a defeat. In the poem of Ermenrichs Tod
he is represented as slaying Ermanaric, as in fact Theodoric slew
Odoacer. '' Otacher " replaces Ermanaric as his adversary in the
Hildebrandslied, which relates how thirty years after the earlier
attempt he reconquered his Lombard kingdom. Dietrich's long
residence at Attila's court represents the youth and early man-
hood of Theodoric spent at the imperial court and fighting in the
Balkan peninsula, and, in accordance with epic custom, the period
of exile was adorned with war-like exploits, with fights with
dragons and giants, most of which had no essential connexion
with the cycle. The romantic poems of Konig Laurin, Sigcnot,
Eckenlied and Virginal are based largely on local traditions
originally independent of Dietrich. The court of Attila (Etzel)
was a ready bridge to the Nibelungen legend. In the final catas-
trophe he was at length compelled, after steadily holding aloof
from the. combat, to avenge the slaughter of his Amelungs by
the Burgundians, and delivered Hagen bound into the hands of
Kriemhild. The flame breath which anger induced from him
shows the influence of pure myth, but the tales of his demonic
origin and of his being carried off by the devil in the shape of a
black horse may safely be put down to the clerical hostility to
Theodoric's Arianism.
Generally speaking, Dietrich of Bern was the wise and just
monarch as opposed to Ermanaric, the typical tyrant of Germanic
legend. He was invariably represented as slow of provocation
and a friend of peace, but once roused to battle not even Siegfried
could withstand his onslaught. But probably Dietrich's fight
with Siegfried in Kriemhild's rose garden at Worms is a late
addition to the Rosengarten myth. The chief heroes of the
Dietrich cycle are his tutor and companion in arms, Hildebrand
(see HILDEBRAND, LAY or), with his nephews the Wolfings
Alphart and Wolfhart; Wittich, who renounced his allegiance
to Dietrich and slew the sons of Attila; Heime and Biterolf.
The contents of the poems dealing with the Dietrich cycle are
summarized by Uhland in Schriften zur Geschichte der Dichlung und
Sage (Stuttgart, 1873). The Thidrekssaga (ed. C. Unger, Christiania,
1853) is translated into German by F. H. v. der Hagen in Altdcutsche
und altnordische Heldensagen (vols. i. and ii. 3rd ed., Breslau, 1872).
A summary of it forms the concluding chapter of T. Hodgkin's
Theodoric the Goth (1891). The variations in the Dietrich legend in
the Latin historians, in Old and Middle High German literature,
and in the northern saga, can be studied in W. Grimm's Deutsche
Heldensage (2nd ed., Berlin, 1867). There is a good account in English
in F. E. Sandbach's Heroic Saga-cycle of Dietrich of Bern (1906),
forming No. 15 of Alfred Nutt's Popular Studies in Mythology, and
another in M. Bentinck Smith's translation of Dr O. L. Jinczek's
Deutsche Heldensage (Northern Legends, London, 1902). For modern
German authorities and commentators see B. Symons, " Deutsche
Heldensage " in H. Paul's Grd. d. german. Phil. (Strassburg, new ed.,
I 95) ; also Goedeke, Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung (i. 241-246).
DIEZ, FRIEDRICH CHRISTIAN (1794-1876), German
philologist, was born at Giessen, in Hesse- Darmstadt, on the 1 5th
of March 1794. He was educated first at the gymnasium and
then at the university of his native town. There he studied
classics under Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker (1784-1868) who had
just returned from a two years' residence in Italy to fill the chair
of archaeology and Greek literature. It was Welcker who
kindled in him a love of Italian poetry, and thus gave the first
bent to his genius. In 1813 he joined the Hesse corps as a
volunteer and served in the French campaign. Next year he
returned to his books, and this short taste of military service was
the only break in a long and uneventful life of literary labours.
By his parents' desire he applied himself for a short time to law,
but a visit to Goethe in 1818 gave a new direction to his studies,
and determined his future career. Goethe had been reading
Raynouard's Selections from the Romance Poets, and advised the
young scholar to explore the rich mine of Provencal literature
which the French savant had opened up. This advice was
eagerly folio wed, and henceforth Diezdevoted himself to Romance
literature. He thus became the founder of Romance philology.
After supporting himself for some years by private teaching, he
removed in 1822 to Bonn, where he held the position of privat-
docent. In 1823 he published his first work, An Introduction
to Romance Poetry; in the following year appeared The Poetry
of the Troubadours, and in 1829 The Lives and Works of the
Troubadours. In 1830 he was called to the chair of modern
literature. The rest of his life was mainly occupied with the
composition of the two great works on which his fame rests, the
Grammar of the Romance Languages (1836-1844), and the Lexicon
of the Romance Languages Italian, Spanish and French (1853);
in these two works Diez did for the Romance group of languages
what Jacob Grimm did for the Teutonic family. He died at
Bonn on the 2gth of May 1876.
The earliest French philologists, such as Perion and Henri Estienne,
had sought to discover the origin of French in Greek and even in
Hebrew. For more than a century Menage's Etymological Dictionary
held the field without a rival. Considering the time at which it was
written (1650), it was a meritorious work, but philology was then in
the empirical stage, and many of Menage's derivations (such as
that of "rat "from the Latin "mus,"orof " haricot " from " faba ")
have since become bywords among philologists. A great advance
was made by Raynouard, who by his critical editions of the works
of the Ttoubadours, published in the first years of the igth century,
laid the foundations on which Diez afterwards built. The difference
between Diez's method and that of his predecessors is well stated by
him in the preface to his dictionary. In sum it is the difference
between science and guess-work. The scientific method is to follow
implicitly the discovered principles and rules of phonology, and not
to swerve a foot's breadth from them unless plain, actual exceptions
shall justify it; to follow the genius of the language, and by cross-
questioning to elicit its secrets; to gauge each letter and estimate
the value which attaches to it in each position; and lastly to possess
the true philosophic spirit which is prepared to welcome any new
fact, though it may modify or upset the most cherished theory.
Such is the historical method which Diez pursues in his grammar
and dictionary. To collect and arrange facts is, as he tells us, the
sole secret of his success, and he adds in other words the famous
apophthegm of Newton, " hypotheses non fingo." The introduction
to the grammar consists of two parts: the first discusses the Latin,
Greek and Teutonic elements common to the Romance languages;
the second treats of the six dialects separately, their origin and the
elements peculiar to each. The grammar itself is divided into four
books, on phonology, on flexion, on the formation of words by
composition and derivation, and on syntax.
His dictionary is divided into two parts. The first contains words
common to two at least of the three principal groups of Romance :
Italian, Spanish and Portuguese, and Provencal and French. The
Italian, as nearest the original, is placed at the head of each article.
DIEZ DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF
223
The second part treats of words peculiar to one group. There is no
separate glossary of Wallachian.
Of the introduction to the grammar there is an English translation
by C. B. Cayley. The dictionary has been published in a remodelled
form for English readers by T. C. Donkin.
DIEZ, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-
Nassau, romantically situated in the deep valley of the Lahn,
here crossed by an old bridge, 30 m. E. from Coblenz on the
railway to Wetzlar. Pop. 4500. It is overlooked by a former
castle of the counts of Nassau-Dillenburg, now a prison. Close
by, on an eminence above the river, lies the castle of Oranien-
stein, formerly a Benedictine nunnery and now a cadet school,
with beautiful gardens. There are a Roman Catholic and two
Evangelical churches. The new part of the town is well built
and contains numerous pretty villa residences. In addition to
extensive iron-works there are sawmills and tanneries. In the
vicinity are Fachingen, celebrated for its mineral waters, and
the majestic castle of Schaumburg belonging to the prince of
Waldeck-Pyrmont.
DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences},
that branch of mathematics which deals with the successive
differences of the terms of a series.
1. The most important of the cases to which mathematical
methods can be applied are those in which the terms of the series
are the values, taken at stated intervals (regular or irregular), of
a continuously varying quantity. In these cases the formulae
of finite differences enable certain quantities, whose exact value
depends on the law of variation (i.e. the law which governs the
relative magnitude of these terms) to be calculated, often with
great accuracy, from the given terms of the series, without
explicit reference to the law of variation itself. The methods
used may be extended to cases where the series is a double series
(series of double entry), i.e. where the value of each term depends
on the values of a pair of other quantities.
2. The first differences of a series are obtained by subtracting
from each term the term immediately preceding it. If these are
treated as terms of a new series, the first differences of this series
are the second differences of the original series; and so on.
The successive differences are also called differences of the first,
second, . . . order. The differences of successive orders are most
conveniently arranged in successive columns of a table thus:
Term.
ist Diff.
2nd Diff.
3rd Diff.
4th Diff.
a
b
b-a
r h
c 2b+a
c
d
d-c
e-d
d-2c+b
e2d+c
d e-ld+y-b
e 4d+6c 46+0
e
(A)
Algebra of Differences and Sums.
3. The formal relations between the terms of the series and the
differences may be seen by comparing the arrangements (A) and (B)
in fig. i. In (A) the various terms and differences are the same as in
2, but placed differently. In
(B) we take a new series of
terms a, /3, 7, 5, commencing
with the same term a, and take
the successive sums of pairs of
terms, instead of the successive
I- differences, but place them to
the left instead of to the right.
It will be seen, in the first
place, that the successive terms
in (A), reading downwards to the right, and the successive
terms in (B), reading downwards to the left, consist each of
a series of terms whose coefficients follow the binomial law; i. e.
the coefficients in ba, c 2b+a, dy+^ba, . . . and in
O+/3, 0+2/3+7, 0+3/3+37+5, . . . are respectively the same as
in yx, (yx) 1 , (yx)*, . . . and in x+y, (x+y) 2 , (x+y) 3 , . . .
In the second place, it will be seen that the relations between the
various terms in (A) are identical with the relations between the
similarly placed terms in (B) ; e.g. 0+y is the difference of 0+2/8+7
and o+/3, just asc 6 is the difference of c and b: and d cis the sum
of c band d2c+b, just as /3+2y+& is the sum of +7 and 7+8.
Hence if we take ff, y, S, . . . of (B) as being the same as ba,
c2b+a,dy+3ba, . . . of (A), all corresponding terms in the
two diagrams will be the same.
Thus we obtain the two principal formulae connecting terms and
differences. If we provisionally described a,c 26+0, . . . as the
first, second, . . . differences of ,the particular term a ( 7), then
(i.) the nth difference of a is
where/, k . . . are the (n + i)th, nth, . . . terms of the series a, b, c,
. . . ; the coefficients being those of the terms in the expansion of
(y *)": and (ii.) the (n + i)th term of the series, i.e. the nth term
after a, is
a+n0+^^y+...
where 0, y, . . . are the first, second, . . . differences of a; the
coefficients being those of the terms in the expansion of (x+y) n .
4. Now suppose we treat the terms a, b, c, ... as being them-
selves the first differences of another series. Then, if the first term
of this series is N, the subsequent terms are N+o, N+o+6, N+a+
b+c, . . .; i.e. the difference between the ( + i)th term and the
first term is the sum of the first n terms of the original series. The
term N, in the diagram (A), will come above and to the left of a; and
we see, by (ii.) of 3, that the sum of the first n terms of the original
series is
n.n i
,, , n.n-i , n.n-i.n-2
5 <H r^T- P-\ . 2 3 1
(^M+no+ I2 ,. , ... f . , I2 ,. , i
5. As an example, take the arithmetical series
a, a+p, a+2p, . . .
The first differences are p, p,p, . . ., and the differences of any higher
order are zero. Hence, by (ii.)of 3,the(n + i)th term isa+np,and,
by 4, the sum of the first ra terms is no+J(ra 1)/> = %n\2a + (n l)p\.
6. As another example, take the series i, 8, 27, . . . the terms of
which are the cubes of i, 2, 3, ... The first, second and third
differences of the first term are 7, 12 and 6; and it may be shown
( 14 (i.)) that all differences of a higher order are zero. Hence the
sum of the first n terms is
n.n i.n 2 , , .n i.n 2.n 3
+6-
1.2.3.4
1.2.3
7. In 3 we have described ba, c 26+0, ... as the first,
second, . . . differences of a. This ascription of the differences
to particular terms of the series is quite arbitrary. If we read the
differences in the table of 2 upwards to the right instead of down-
wards to the right, we might describe e d, e 2d+c, ... as the
first, second, . . . differences of e. On the other hand, the term of
greatest weight in c 2b+a, i.e. the term which has the numerically
greatest coefficient, is b, and therefore c 2b+a might properly be
regarded as the second difference of b; and similarlye 4d+6c 46+0
might be regarded as the fourth difference of c. These three
methods of regarding the differences lead to three different systems
of notation, which are described in 9, 10 and 1 1.
Notation of Differences and Sums.
8. It is convenient to denote the terms a, b, c, . . . of the series
by o, i, s, MS .... If we merely have the terms of the series,
may be regarded as meaning the (n + i)th term. Usually, however,
the terms are the values of a quantity u, which is a function of
another quantity *, and tha values of x, to which a, b, c, . . . corre-
spond, proceed by a constant difference h. If xa and o are a pair
of corresponding values of x and , and if any other value Xt>+mh of x
and the corresponding value of are denoted by x m and m , then
the terms of the series will be. . .it_i, _i, , n+i, Mn+j. . ., corre-
sponding to values of x denoted by. . .Xn-s, Xa-i, x n , x*+ t , Xn+t. . . .
9. In the advancing-difference notation Un+i u a is denoted by
Ati,,. The differences Au, AMI, A 2 . . . may then be regarded as
values of a function Aw corresponding to values of x proceeding by
constant difference A; and therefore Awn+i Aw n is denoted by AAM,
or, more briefly, A 2 M n ; and so on. Hence the table of differences in
2, with the corresponding values of x and of placed opposite each
other in the ordinary manner of mathematical tables, becomes
X
U
ISt Diff.
2nd Ditf.
3rd Diff.
4th Diff.
Xn-i
W.i-2
A*L
A*i
*_!
-,
A'tt^ 2
A%^,...
X n
ttr,
-l
^2^^
n-2
A 4 Mij _ 2
Att,
A'Mn-!
Xn+1
tt.v+1
A**)
A^Wii
A '""
Lc
The terms of the series of which . . . u*-i, , +i, . . . are
the first differences are denoted by SM, with proper suffixes, so
224
DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF
that this series is ... Vun-i, 21*,, 2 n+ i .... The suffixes are
chosen so that we may have A2M n = M n , whatever n may be; and
therefore ( 4) 2n may be regarded as being the sum of the terms
of the series up to and including n _i. Thus if we write Sw^i =
C+K_2, where C is any constant, we shall have
and so on. This is true whatever C may be, so that the knowledge
of ... Un-i, Un, . gives us no knowledge of the exact value
of 2ttn; in other words, C is an arbitrary constant, the value of
which must be supposed to be the same throughout any operations in
which we are concerned with values of 2u corresponding to different
suffixes.
There is another symbol E, used in conjunction with u to denote
the next term in the series. Thus Ew n means M n +i, so that
n* n .
10. Corresponding to the advancmg-difference notation there is
a receding-difference notation, in which +!- is regarded as
a difference of M+I, and may be denoted by A'tt n+ i, and similarly
Un+i 2u n +u n -i may be denoted by A' 2 u n+ i. This notation is only
required for certain special purposes, and the usage is not settled
( 19 (ii.)).
11. The central -difference notation depends on treating
+i 2+n-i as the second dfference of , and therefore as
corresponding to the value *; but there is no settled system of
notation. The following seems to be the most convenient. Since u n is
a function of *, and the second difference u^ 2 -2u n+ i+u n is a func-
tion of *+!, the first difference u n +r-u, must be regarded as a func-
tion of *+}, i.e. of Kx.+Sn+i). We therefore write u a+ i-u n = 8tt,, + j,
and each difference in the table in 9 will have the same suffix
as the value of * in the same horizontal line; or, if the difference
is of an odd order, its suffix will be the means of those of the two
nearest values of x. This is shown in the table below.
In this notation, instead of using the symbol E, we use a symbol M
to denote the mean of two consecutive values of , or of two consecu-
tive differences of the same order, the suffixes being assigned on the
same principle as in the case of the differences. Thus
), &c.
If we take the means of the differences of odd order immediately
above and below the horizontal line through any value of x, these
means, with the differences of even order in that line, constitute the
central differences of the corresponding value of . Thus the table
of central differences is as follows, the values obtained as means
being placed in brackets to distinguish them from the actual
differences :
X
U
ist Diff.
2nd Diff.
3rd Diff.
4th Diff.
X.-1
-2
(Mfci. 2 )
. 2
(M* 3 *,-,
I**J
*.-!
-!
fjfc)
2 n-,
(M 3 M-l)
'_! . . .
*
H.
tei
5 2 n
So
S'w. . . .
*+!
Mn*,
0*8+i)
5^w n +j
r ix5 'M nj. i )
5^W 4,3
< n+I . . .
*+
n -H
( " 5 "" +2)
S^Mn+1
(liS^Mn-l-z)
"""'
Similarly, by taking the means of consecutive values of u and also
of consecutive differences of even order, we should get a series of
terms and differences central to the intervals x n _ 2 to * n _i, * n -i to
The terms of the series of which the values of u are the first differ-
ences are denoted by O-M, with suffixes on the same principle; the
suffixes being chosen so that &au n shall be equal to . Thus, if
, &C.,
then
and also
C being an arbitrary constant which must remain the same through-
out any series of operations.
Operators and Symbolic Methods.
12. There are two further stages in the use of the symbols A, 2,
4, <r, &c., which are not essential for elementary treatment but
lead to powerful methods of deduction.
(i.) Instead of treating AM as a function of *, so that A n means
(A), we may regard A as denoting an operation performed on u,
and take AM, as meaning A. n . This applies to the other symbols
E, i, &c., whether taken simply or in combination. Thus AEu
means that we first replace u n by n +i, and then replace this by
+r-U,+l.
(ii.) The operations A, E, 8, and n, whether performed separately
or in combination, or in combination also with numerical multipliers
and with the operation of differentiation denoted by D( = d/d:t),
follow the ordinary rules of algebra: e.g. A(u n +v n )=Au n +Av n ,
ADi< n = DAw n , &c. Hence the symbols can be separated from the
functions on which the operations are performed, and treated as
if they were algebraical quantities. For instance, we have
E. n = M n+ i =
so that we may write E = i-i-<S, or A = E-i. The first of these is
nothing more than a statement, in concise form, that if we take two
quantities, subtract the first from the second, and add the result to
the first, we get the second. This seems almost a truism. But, \f
we deduce E"=(i+A) n , A"=(E-i)", and expand by the binomial
theorem and then operate on MO, we get the general formulae
+A"tt ,
which are identical with the formulae in (ii.) and (i.) of 3.
(iii.) What hasbeensaid under (ii.) applies, with certain reservations,
to the operations 2 and a, and to the operation which represents
integration. The latter is sometimes denoted by D~'; and, since
A2w n = M n , and So-M n = n , we might similarly replace 2 and <r by
A" 1 and I" 1 . These symbols can be combined with A, E, &c.
according to the ordinary laws of algebra, provided that proper
account is taken of the arbitrary constants introduced by the
operations D" 1 , A" 1 , S~ l .
Applications to Algebraical Series.
13. Summation of Series. If , denotes the (r+i)th term of a
series, and if v, is a function of r such that Ai/ r = r for all integral
values of r, then the sum of the terms u m , m+i, .... u n is
Vn+i-Vm. Thus the sum of a number of terms of a series may often
be found by inspection, in the same kind of way that an integral
is found.
14. Rational Integral Functions.^ (i.) If , is a rational integral
function of r of degree p, then Au, is a rational integral function of r
of degree p-i.
(ii.) A particular case is that of a factorial, i.e. a product of the
form (r+a+i) (r+a+2) . . . (r+b), each factor exceeding the pre-
ceding factor by i. We have
A. (r+a+i) (r+a+2) .. . . (r+b) = (b-a).(r+a+2) . . . (r+b),
whence, changing a into o-i,
2(r+a+l) (r+a+2) . . . (r+b) =const. + (r+a)(r+a+l) . .
A similar method can be applied to the series whose (r-r-l)th
term is of the form lj(r+a+l) (r+a+2) . . . (r+b).
(iii.) Any rational integral function can be converted into the sum
of a number of factorials; and thus the sum of a series of which such
a function is the general term can be found. For example, it may-
be shown in this way that the sum of the pth powers of the first n
natural numbers is a rational integral function of n of degree p+i,
the coefficient of n^ 1 being l/(p+l).
15. Difference- equations. The summation of the series . . .
+ttn+2+n-i+n is a solution of the difference-equation A n =n+i,
which may also be written (E-i)f n = n+1 . This is a simple form
of difference-equation. There are several forms which have been
investigated ; a simple form, more general than the above, is the
linear equation with constant coefficients
where 01, 02, . . . a m are constants, and N is a given function of .
This may be written
(E-fc) (E-fc)... (-/>) r. = N.
The solution, if pi, p ..... p m are all different, is v a = Cipi*+
Cipi"+ . . . +C m p m "+V,,, where Q, C 2 . . . are constants, and
ti n = V n is any one solution of the equation. The method of finding
a value for V depends on the form of N. Certain modifications are
required when two or more of the p's are equal.
It should be observed, in all cases of this kind, that, in describing
Ci, C2 as " constants," it is meant that the value of any one, as Ci, is
the same for all values of n occurring in the series. A " constant "
may, however, be a periodic function of n.
Applications to Continuous Functions.
1 6. The cases of greatest practical importance are those in which
u is a continuous function of x. The terms i, Ut . . . of the series
then represent the successive values of u corresponding to x = x it x,
. . . The important applications of the theory in these cases are to
(i.) relations between differences and differential coefficients, (ii.)
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
225
interpolation, or the determination of intermediate values of u, and
(iii ) relations between sums and integrals.
17 Starting from any pair of values *o and o, we may suppose
the interval h from *o to Xi to be divided into q equal portions. I
we suppose the corresponding values of u to be obtained, and their
differences taken, the successive advancing differences of o being
denoted by do, d 2 o .... we have ( 3 (ii.))
When q is made indefinitely great, this (writing /(*) for ) becomes
Taylors Theorem (INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS)
which, expressed in terms of operators, is
This gives the relation between A and D. Also we have
and, if p is any integer,
From these equations u p l q could be expressed in terms of o, i,
,... ; this is a particular case of interpolation (q.v.).
' 18. Differences and Differential Coefficients. The various formulae
are most quickly obtained by symbolical methods; i.e. by dealing
with the operators A, E, D, . . . as if they were algebraical
quantities. Thus the relation E = e"o ( 17) gives
The formulae connecting central differences with differential
coefficients are based on the relations n=coshiAD = J(el* D +e~i* D ),
6 = 2 sinh JAD=e AD e-J AD , and may be grouped as follows:
. . .)M O
)!
tto
1
When u is a rational integral function of x, each of the above series
is a terminating series. In other cases the series will be an infinite
one, and may be divergent; but it may be used for purposes o:
approximation up to a certain point, and there will be a " remainder, 1 '
the limits of whose magnitude will be determinate.
19. Sums and Integrals. The relation between a sum and an
integral is usually expressed by the Euler-Maclaurin formula. The
principle of this formula is that, if u m and m +i, are ordinates of a
curve, distant h from one another, then for a first approximation to
the area of the curve between M m and m-n we have %h(u m +u m+ i)
vill. 8
and the difference between this and the true value of the area can
De expressed as the difference of two expressions, one of which is a
unction of x m , and the other is the same function of
Denoting these by 4>(x m ) and <t>(x m +i), we have
' +
/x m +
Xm
Adding a series of similar expressions, we find
/:
The function i>(x) can be expressed in terms either of differential
coefficients of u or of advancing or central differences; thus there
are three formulae.
(i.) The Euler-Maclaurin formula, properly so called, (due inde-
pendently to Euler and Maclaurin) is
udx =
where Bi, Bu, B s . . . are Bernoulli's numbers.
(ii.) If we express differential coefficients in terms of advancing
differences, we get a theorem which is due to Laplace :
i f Xn
-r I (ix=/i<r(ttn-Mo)-i I j(AM n -AMo)+j'(A 2 -A 2 o)
n J xo - ,% (A 3 , - A'tto) + yfo (A 4 w n - A 4 )
For practical calculations this may more conveniently be written
rfc
*/ -to
where accented differences denote that the values of u are read back-
wards from M n ; i.e. A' n denotes Mn-i-Wn, not (as in io)n- n _i.
(iii.) Expressed in terms of central differences this becomes
udx =
(iv.) There are variants of these formulae, due to taking Att m+ j as
the first approximation to the area of the curve between it and
Um+i', the formulae involve the sum MJ+MJ+ . . . +u^^<r(u*-u<i)
(see MENSURATION).
20. The formulae in the last section can be obtained by symbolical
methods from the relation
Thus for central differences, if we write 9 = JAD, we] have n =cosh 0,
5 = 2 sinh 9, a = S~ l , and the result in (iii.) corresponds to the formula
sinh 0=9 cosh 9/(l+J sinh I 9-,? B sinh V+f.ft sinh 6 0- . . .).
REFERENCES. There is no recent English work on the theory of
finite differences as a whole. G. Boole's Finite Differences (ist ed.,
1860, 2nd ed., edited by J. F. Moulton, 1872) is a comprehensive
treatise, in which symbolical methods are employed very early.
A. A. Markoff's Differ enzenrechnung (German trans., 1896) contains
general formulae. (Both these works ignore central differences.)
Encycl. der math. Wiss. vol. i. pt. 2, pp. 919-935, may also be con-
sulted. An elementary treatment of the subject will be found in
many text-books, e.g. G. Chrystal's Algebra (pt. 2, ch. xxxi.).
A. W. Sunderland, Notes on Finite Differences (1885), is intended for
actuarial students. Various central-difference formulae with refer-
ences are given in Proc. Land. Math. Soc. xxxi. pp. 449-488. For
other references see INTERPOLATION. (W. F. SH.)
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION, in mathematics, a relation be-
tween one or more functions and their differential coefficients.
The subject is treated here in two parts: (i) an elementary
introduction dealing with the more commonly recognized types
of differential equations which can be solved by rule; and (2) the
general theory.
Part I. Elementary Introduction.
Of equations involving only one independent variable, x (known
as ordinary differential equations), and one dependent variable, y,
and containing only the first differential coefficient dy/dx (and there-
fore said to be of the first order), the simplest form is that reducible
to the type
dy/dx =f(x)/F(y),
leading to the result fF(y)dy-ff(x)dx = A, where A is an arbitrary
constant; this result is said to solve the differential equation, the
problem of evaluating the integrals belonging to the integral calculus.
226
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
Another simple form is
dy/dx+yP=Q,
where P, Q are functions of * only; this is known as the linear equa-
tion, since it contains y and dy/dx only to the first degree.
fPdx = u, we clearly have
If
so that y = e~ u (fe"Qdx+A.) solves the equation, and is the only
possible solution, A being an arbitrary constant. The rule for the
solution of the linear equation is thus to multiply the equation by
", where u =fPdx.
A third simple and important form is that denoted by
where* is an abbreviation for dy/dx; this is known as Clairaut's
form. By differentiation in regard to x it gives
where
thus, either (i.) dp/dx = o, that is, f is constant on the curve satis-
fying the differential equation, which curve is thus any one of the
straight lines y = cx+f(c), where c is an arbitrary constant, or else,
(ii.) x+f(p) =o; if this latter hypothesis be taken, andp be eliminated
between x+f'(p)=o and y = px+f(p), a relation connecting x and y,
not containing an arbitrary constant, will be found, which obviously
represents the envelope of the straight lines y = cx+f(c).
In general if a differential equation <t>(x, y, dy/dx) =o be satisfied
by any one of the curves F(x, y, c) = o,where cisan arbitrary constant,
it is clear that the envelope of these curves, when existent, must
also satisfy the differential equation; for this equation prescribes
a relation connecting only the co-ordinates x, y and the differential
coefficient dy/dx, and these three quantities are the same at any
point of the envelope for the envelope and for the particular curve
of the family which there touches the envelope. The relation ex-
pressing the equation of the envelope is called a singular solution of
the differential equation, meaning an isolated solution, as not being
one of a family of curves depending upon an arbitrary parameter.
An extended form of Clairaut's equation expressed by
y=xF(p)+f(p)
may be similarly solved by first differentiating in regard to p, when
it reduces to a linear equation of which x is the dependent and p the
independent variable; from the integral of this linear equation, and the
original differential equation, the quantity p is then to be eliminated.
Other types of solvable differential equations of the first order
are (l)
where M, N are homogeneous polynomials in x and y, of the same
order; by putting v=y/x and eliminating y, the equation becomes
of the first type considered above, in and x. An equation (oB^iA)
(ax+by+c)dy/dx=Ax+'By+C
may be reduced to this rule by first putting x-\-h, y+k for x and y,
and determining h, k so that ah+bk+c o, AA+B+C = o.
(2) An equation in which y does not explicitly occur,
/(*, dy/dx) =o,
may, theoretically, be reduced to the type dy/dx = F(x); similarly
an equation F(y, dy/dx) o.
(3) An equation
J(dy/dx, x, y) =o,
which is an integral polynomial in dy/dx, may, theoretically, be
solved for dy/dx, as an algebraic equation ; to any root dy/dx = FI (x,y)
corresponds, suppose, a solution <tn(x, y, c) =o, where c is an arbi-
trary constant; the product equation <h(x, y, c)fa(x,y,c) ... =o,
consisting of as many factors as there were values of dy/dx, is
effectively as general as if we wrote <tn(x, y, Ci)<h(x, y, Ci) . . ,=o;
for, to evaluate the first form, we must necessarily consider the
factors separately, and nothing is then gained by the multiple
notation for the various arbitrary constants. The equation
<h(x,y, c)<h(x, y, c) . . . =o is thus the solution of the given differ-
ential equation.
In all these cases there is, except for cases of singular solutions, one
and only_ one arbitrary constant in the most general solution of the
differential equation; that this must necessarily be so we may take
as obvious, the differential equation being supposed to arise _by
elimination of this constant from the equation expressing its solution
and the equation obtainable from this by differentiation in regard
to x.
A further type of differential equation of the first order, of the form
in which A, B, C are functions of x, will be briefly considered below
under differential equations of the second order.
When we pass to ordinary differential equations of the second order,
that is, those expressing a relation between x, y, dy/dx and d^y/dx 2 ,
the number of types for which the solution can be found by a known
procedure is very considerably reduced. Consider the general linear
equation
where P, Q, R are functions of x only. There is no method always
effective; the main general result for such a linear equation is that
if any particular function of x, say yi, can be discovered, for which
then the substitution y=y\i\ in the original equation, with R on
the right side, reduces this to a linear equation of the first order with
the dependent variable dy/dx. In fact, if y = yiri we have
and thus
if then
and z denote dy/dx, the original differential equation becomes
From this equation z can be found by the rule given above for
the linear equation of the first order, and will involve one arbi-
trary constant; thence y y\ ii = y\ I zdx+Ay t , where A is another
will be the general solution of the original
to be expected, involves two arbitrary
arbitrary constant,
equation, and, as was
constants.
The case of most frequent occurrence is that in which the co-
efficients P, Q are constants; we consider this case in some detail.
If0 be a root of the quadratic equation 0+0P-|-Q = o, it can be at
once seen that a particular integral of the differential equation with
zero on the right side is yi=e e *. Supposing first the roots of the
quadratic equation to be different, and </> to be the other root, so that
= -P, the auxiliary differential equation for z, referred to above,
becomes - + (9 - <t>) z = Re-" 1 , which leads to zeC*"*)* = B +
where B is an arbitrary constant, and hence to
or say to y = Ae e *+Ce**+U, where A, C are arbitrary constants and
U is a function of x, not present at all when R = o. If the quadratic
equation 2 + P0+Q=o has equal roots, so that 26= P, the
auxiliary equation in z becomes dz/dx = Re" 91 , giving z = B + j Re~ e *dx,
where 8 is an arbitrary constant, and hence
or, say, y= (A.+Bx)e e *+U, where A, B are arbitrary constants, and
U is a function of x not present at all when R = o. The portion
Ae**-r-Be* or (A+Ex)e ex of the solution, which is known as the com-
plementary function, can clearly be written down at once by inspec-
tion of the given differential equation. The remaining portion U
may, by taking the constants in the complementary function
properly, be replaced by any particular solution whatever of the
differential equation
for if u be any particular solution, this has a form
or a form
= (Ao+Bo*)e*"+U;
thus the general solution can be written
(A-A )e SI +(B-Bo)e*'-l-M, or {A-A a +(B-E< 1 )x}e<>'+u,
where A Ao, B Bo, like A, B, are arbitrary constants.
A similar result holds for a linear differential equation of any order,
say
~
where PI, PS, ... P n are constants, and R is a function of x. If
we form the algebraic equation 6"+PiO"- 1 + ... +Pn = o, and all the
roots of this equation be different, say they are 0i, 0s, 0n, the
general solution of the differential equation is
where Ai, As, ... A n are arbitrary constants, and u is any
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
227
particular solution whatever; but if there be one root 9i re-
' must be replaced by
peated r times, the terms A^ l + . . .
8 f
(Ai+A 2 x + . . . +A r x r - 1 )e ' where Ai, . . . A, are arbitrary con-
stants; the remaining terms in the complementary function will
similarly need alteration of form if there be other repeated roots.
To complete the solution of the differential equation we need some
method of determining a particular intagral u; we explain a pro-
cedure which is effective for this purpose in the cases in which R is
a sum of terms of the form e x <t>(x), where <t>(x) is an integral poly-
nomial in x; this includes cases in which R contains terms of the
form cos bx.j>(x) or sin bx.<p(x). Denote d/dx by D ; it is clear that if
u be any function of x, D(e*u)=e /1 *Du+ae'"u, or say, D(e"*u) =
(D+a)w; hence D>("tt), i.e.jg(e*u), being equal to D(e"T),
where = (D+o), is equal to e" (D+o)p, that is to e*(D+a)*u.
In this way we find D*(e"u) =e a '(D+a)"u, where n is any positive
integer. Hence if rf-(D) be any polynomial in D with constant co-
efficients, ^(D) (e OI ij)=e a V(D+a). Next, denoting \ udx by
D *, and any solution of the differential equation j^~^-oz = u by
z = (D+o)-', we have D[e(D-t-a)- 1 ] = D(e"z) = e M (D+o)z =
e"u, so that we may write D- l (e"u)=e"(D+a)- l u, where the
meaning is that one value of the left side is equal to one value of the
right side; from this, the expression D~~*(e x u), which means
D-'ID-He"*)], is equal to D-'(e"z) and hence to ^
which we write e"(D+a)~*<; proceeding thus we obtain
where n is any positive integer, and the meaning, as before, is that
one value of the first expression is equal to one value of the second.
More generally, if ^(D) be any polynomial in D with constant co-
efficients, and we agree to denote by ./,/p\" any solution z of the
differential equation ^(D)z = M, we have, if v = .A/n +a) u ' tne identity
(e*v) =e" x \lf(D+a)v=e'"u, which we write in the form
This gives us the first step in the method we are explaining,
namely that a solution of the differential equation iff(D)y = e aI u+
**p+ . . . where u, v, . . . are any functions of x, is any function
denoted by the expression
It is now to be shown how to obtain one value of,/p . u, when u
is a polynomial in x, namely one solution of the differential equation
tt. Let the highest power of * entering in u be x"; if /
were a variable quantity, the rational fraction in t, ,;/ ., by first
writing it as a sum of partial fractions, or otherwise, could be identic-
ally written in the form
where <t>(t) is a polynomial in t; this shows that there exists an
identity of the form
and hence an identity
. . . +H m D]
in this, since u contains no power of x higher than x m , the second
term on the right may be omitted. We thus reach the conclusion
that a solution of the differential equation ^(D+o)z = w is given by
+K 1 D-+H+H 1 D+ . . . + H m D-),
of which the operator on the right is obtained simply by expanding
iM(D+a) in ascending powers of D, as if D were a numerical
quantity, the expansion being carried as far as the highest power of
D which, operating upon u, does not give zero. In this form every
term in z is capable of immediate calculation.
Example. For the equation
t cos x or
cos x,
o are 8= ,
the roots of the associated algebraic equation ((P-l-i)*
each repeated ; the complementary function is thus
(A+Bx)e"+(C+Dx)e-<*,
where A, B, C, D are arbitrary constants; this is the same as
(H+Kx) cos x+(M+Nx) sin x,
where H, K, M, N are arbitrary constants. To obtain a particular
integral we must find a value of (l+D*)-*x l cos x; this is the real
part of (i-r-D 1 )- 1 e<*x* and hence of e iI [i+(D+i) t ]- t x*
or e*''[2D(i-|tD)]-V,
or -le^D-'Ci+iD-fD'-frD'+ftD^VD 1 . . .)*,
or -ie v *( ? 1 B* 5 + l* 4 -!:c l -i ! +*+S*') ;
the real part of this is
-l_(A* 6 -i* ! + *) cos x+lds'-f^+S) sin x.
This expression added to the complementary function found above
gives the complete integral; and no generality is lost by omitting
from the particular integral the terms -H * cos x+fe sin x, which
are of the types of terms already occurring in the complementary
function.
The symbolical method which has been explained has wider appli-
cations than.that to which we have, for simplicity of explanation,
restricted it. For example, if 4/(x) be any function of x, and
Oi, Oj, . . .a, be different constants, and [(<+Oi) (t+at) . . . (t+a*)]~ l
when expressed in partial fractions be written ^c m (t-\-a^)~ l , a par-
ticular integral of the differential equation (D+<Ji)(D-(-aj) . . .
)}> = tf<(x) is given by
The particular integral is thus expressed as a sum of n integrals.
A linear differential equation of w
f which the left side has the form
where PI, . . . P are constants, can be reduced to the case considered
above. Writing x et we have the identity
x"j=e($-l)(0-2)...(6-m + i) u, where 0=d/dt.
When the linear differential equation, which we take to be of the
second order, has variable coefficients, though there is no general rule
for obtaining a solution in finite terms, there are some results which
it is of advantage to have in mind. We have seen that if one solution
of the equation obtained by putting the right side zero, say yi, be
known, the equation can be solved. If yt be another solution of
where m, n, k are
there being no relation of the form my\ +ny t
constants, it is easy to see that
A exp. ( |
Pdx
so that we have yi'yt-yiyi
where A is a suitably chosen constant, and exp. z denotes e 1 . In terms
of the two solutions y\, yi of the differential equation having zero on
the right side, the general solution of the equation with R = #(*) on
the right side can at once be verified to be
where u, v respectively denote the integrals
The equation
by writing y=v exp. ( i \ Pdx), is at once seen to be reduced to
T
o, where
d*v
,dP
.
If
i do
-~-^, the equation
becomes d x = l+ r ?< a non-linear equation of the first
order.
More generally the equation
where A, B, C are functions of x, is, by the substitution
i dy
reduced to the linear equation
The equation
=o.
dx~
known as Riccati's equation, is transformed into an equation of
the same form by a substitution of the form Tf=-(aY+6)/(cY-|-</),
where a, b, c, d are any functions of x, and this fact may be utilized
to obtain a solution when A, B, C have special forms; in particular
if any particular solution of the equation be known, say rjt, the
228
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
substitution j = ixri/Y enables us at once to obtain the general
solution ; for instance, when
a particular solution is TJO = V ( A/C). This is a case of the remark,
often useful in practice, that the linear equation
where M s a constant, is reducible to a standard form by taking a new
independent variable z=J <
We pass to other types of equations of which the solution can be
obtained by rule. We may have cases in which there are two
dependent variables, * and y, and one independent variable /, the
differential coefficients dx/dt, dy/dt being given as functions^ of x, y
and /. Of such equations a simple case is expressed by the pair
%-ax+by+c, tjt-a's+Vy+<f,
wherein the coefficients a, 6, c, a', b', c', are constants. To integrate
these, form with the Constant X the differential coefficient of
z = x+\y, that is dz/dt = (a+*a')x+(b+'>J>')y+c+)*', the quantity
X being so chosen that b+\b' = \(a+\a'), so that we have
<fz/<i/ = (a+Xa')z+e+Xc'; this last equation is at once integrable
in the form z(<z-)-Xa')+c+Xc' = Ae (a+ * ' )< , where A is an arbitrary
constant. In general, thecondition 6+X6' = X(a+Xo') is satisfied by
two different values of X, say Xi, Xz; the solutions corresponding to
these give the values of x+\iy and x+\ty, from which x and y can
be found as functions of /, involving two arbitrary constants. If,
however, the two roots of the quadratic equation for X are equal,
that is, if (a-&') 2 +4<z'& = o, the method described gives only one
equation, expressing x+\y in terms of /; by means of this equation
y can be eliminated from dx/dt = ax +by+c, leading to an equation
of the form dx/dt = P*+p,+Re (a+ *'' > ', where P, Q, R are constants.
The integration of this gives x, and thence y can be found.
A similar process is applicable when we have three or more
dependent variables whose differential coefficients in regard to the
single independent variables are given as linear functions of the
dependent variables with constant coefficients.
Another method of solution of the equations
dx/dt = ax+by+c, dy/dt = a'x+b'y+c',
consists in differentiating the first equation, thereby obtaining
d?x dx . ,dy
dP =a di +b dx'
from the two given equations, by elimination of y, we can express
dy/dt as a linear function of x and dx/dt; we can thus form an
equation of the shape dtx/dP^P+Qx+RdxIdt, where P, Q, R are
constants; this can be integrated by methods previously ex-
plained, and the integral, involving two arbitrary constants, gives,
by the equation dx/dt = ax+by+c, the corresponding value of y.
Conversely it should be noticed that any single linear differential
equation
<Px . . dx
where , v, w are functions of /, by writing y for dx/dt, is equivalent
with the two equations dx/dt = y, dy/dt = u+vx+wy. In fact a
similar reduction is possible for any system of differential equations
with one independent variable.
Equations occur to be integrated of the form
Xdx+Ydy+Zdz = o,
where X, Y, Z are functions of x, y, z. We consider only the case in
which there exists an equation <j>(x, y, z)=C whose differential
is equivalent with the given differential equation ; that is, p being
a proper function of x, y, z, we assume that there exist equations
Off) -mf Otft -*r Q(P rj
these equations require
and hence
X (dy'Jz'J ~T * \te~dx) T" \te~dy
conversely it can be proved that this is sufficient in order that /JL
may exist to render n(Xdx+\dy+Zdz) a perfect differential; in
particular it may be satisfied in virtue of the three equations such as
- = o
dy dz '
in which case we may take p = i. Assuming the condition in
its general form, take in the given differential equation a plane
section of the surface <t> = C parallel to the plane z, viz. put z con-
stant, and consider the resulting differential equation in the two
variables x, y, namely Xdx+Ydy = o; let <l>(x, y, z) =constant, be its
integral, the constant z entering, as a rule, in \j/ because it enters in
X and Y. Now differentiate the relation $(x, y, z)=/(z), where/
is a function to be determined, so obtaining
there exists a function a of x, y, z such that
because ^ = constant, is the integral of ~X.dx-\-\dy=o; we desire to
prove that /can be chosen so that also, in virtue of t(x, y, z) =/(z),
we have
W d\
, namely j =5*- aZ;
az dz
if this can be proved the relation y>(x, y, z)-/(z) =constant, will be
the integral of the given differential equation. To prove this it is
enough to show that, in virtue of ^(x, y, z) =/(z), the function
rp wZ can be expressed in terms of z only. Now in consequence
of the originally assumed relations,
r ?*_..v- ^-..-7
we have
and hence
dx
dy'
_
dxdy dydx~ '
this shows that, as functions of x and y, $ is a function of <t> (see the
note at the end of part i. of this article, on Jacobian determinants),
so that we may write ^ = F(z, <j>), from which
dF ^ dj dF,dFd<t> dF , a 7 dF dt dF
'-
in virtue of 4>(x, y, z)=/(z), and ^ = F(z, <t>), the function <t>can be
written in terms of z only, thus dF/dz can be written in terms of 2 only,
and what we required to prove is proved.
Consider lastly a simple type of differential equation containing
two independent variables, say x and y, and one dependent variable
z, namely the equation
p|5 +Q |l = R i
dx *dy
where P, Q, R are functions of x, y, z. This is known as Lagrange's
linear partial differential equation of the first order. To integrate
this, consider first the ordinary differential equations dx/dz = P/R,
dy/dz = Q/R, and suppose that two functions u, v, of x, y, z can be
determined, independent of one another, such that the equations
u = a, v = b, where a, b are arbitrary constants, lead to these ordinary
differential equations, namely such that
JHu , ~3tt . r.du , .JSv . f^dv . D d
P ^+Q^+% = and P dx+Qdy+ R dz =0 -
Then if F(x, y, z) =o be a relation satisfying the original differential
equations, this relation giving rise to
It follows that the determinant of three rows and columns vanishes
whose first row consists of the three quantities dF/dx, dF/dy, dF/dz,
whose second row consists of the three quantities dujdx, du/dy, du/dz,
whose third row consists similarly of the partial derivatives of v.
The vanishing of this so-called Jacobian determinant is known to
imply that F is expressible as a function of u and v, unless these are
themselves functionally related, which is contrary to hypothesis
(see the note below on Jacobian determinants). Conversely, any
relation <t>(u, v)=o can easily be proved, in virtue of the equations
satisfied by u and f, to lead to
The solution of this partial equation is thus reduced to the solu-
tion of the two ordinary differential equations expressed by
dx/P = dy/Q = dz/R. In regard to this problem one remark may be
made which is often of use in practice: when one equation u=a
has been found to satisfy the -differential equations, we may utilize
this to obtain the second equation v = b; for instance, we may, by
means of u = a, eliminate z when then from the resulting equations
in x and y a relation ! = & has been found containing x and y and a,
the substitution a = u will give a relation involving x, y, z.
Note on Jacobian Determinants. The fact assumed above that the
vanishing of the Jacobian determinant whose elements are the partial
derivatives of three functions F, , v, of three variables x, y, i,
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
229
involves that there exists a functional relation connecting the three
functions F, u, v, may be proved somewhat roughly as follows:
The corresponding theorem is true for any number of variables.
Consider first the case of two functions p, q, of two variables x, y.
The function p, not being constant, must contain one of the variables,
say x ; we can then suppose x expressed in terms of y and the function
p ; thus the function q can be expressed in terms of y and the function
p, say q = Q(p, y). This is clear enough in the simplest cases which
arise, when the functions are rational. Hence we have
these give
_ =
dx~dpdxdy dpdydy'
_
dxdy dydx~dxdy '
by hypothesis dp/dx is not identically zero; therefore if the Jacobian
determinant of p and q in regard to x and y is zero identically, so is
dQ/dy, or Q does not contain y, so that q is expressible as a function
of p only. Conversely, such an expression can be seen at once to
make the Jacobian of p and q vanish identically.
Passing now to the case of three variables, suppose that the
Jacobian determinant of the three functions F, u, v in regard to
x, y, z is identically zero. We prove that if u, v are not themselves
functionally connected, F is expressible as a function of u and v.
Suppose first that the minors of the elements of dF/dx, dF/dy, dF/dz
in the determinant are all identically zero, namely the three deter-
minants such as
dudv _dudv
dydz~dzdy'
then by the case of two variables considered above there exist three
functional relations^ (u,v,x) = o,^ 2 (,p,y) =o, ^ s (u,v,z) = o, of which
the first, for example, follows from the vanishing of
dudv_dudy_
dy dz dz dy'
We cannot assume that x is absent from fa, or y from ^ 2 , or z from ^3 ;
but conversely we cannot simultaneously have x entering in ^i, and
y in fa, and z in ^ 3 , or else by elimination of u and v from the three
equations ^1=0, ^2=0, ^3 = 0, we should find a necessary relation
connecting the three independent quantities x, y, z; which is absurd.
Thus when the three minors of dF/dx, dF/dy, dF/dz in the Jacobian
determinant are all zero, there exists a functional relation connecting
u and only. Suppose no such relation to exist; we can then
suppose, for example, that
^__
dydz dzdy
isnotzero. Then from the equations u(x, y, z) =u, v(x,y,z) =rwecan
express y and z in terms of u, v, and x (the attempt to do this could
only fail by leading to a relation connecting u, v and x, and the
existence of such a relation would involve that the determinant
dudv dudv
dydz~dzdy
was zero), and so write F in the form F(*, y : z) =*(, v, x). We then
have
dF = d&d_U,d$d_v d* dF_dJbdu ,S^dv_ dF_dJI>du ,v
dx ~dudx'dvdx~i~dx' dy ~dudy'dv dy' dz ~dudz~^dv dz'
thereby the Jacobian determinant of F, u, v is reduced to
d* /dudv_dudv\ _
dx \dydz dz dy) '
by hypothesis the second factor of this does not vanish identically ;
hence d$/dx = o identically, and * does not contain x; so that F
is expressible in terms of u, v only ; as was to be proved.
Part II. General Theory.
Differential equations arise in the expression of the relations
between quantities by the elimination of details, either unknown
or regarded as unessential to the formulation of the relations in
question. They give rise, therefore, to the two closely connected
problems of determining what arrangement of details is consistent
with them, and of developing, apart from these details, the general
properties expressed by them. Very roughly, two methods of
study can be distinguished, with the names Transformation-
theories, Function-theories; the former is concerned with the
reduction of the algebraical relations to the fewest and simplest
forms, eventually with the hope of obtaining explicit expressions
of the dependent variables in terms of the independent variables;
the latter is concerned with the determination of the general
descriptive relations among the quantities which are involved by
the differential equations, with as little use of algebraical calcula-
tions as may be possible. Under the former heading we may,
with the assumption of a few theorems belonging to the latter,
arrange the theory of partial differential equations and Pfaff's
problem, with their geometrical interpretations, as at present
developed, and the applications of Lie's theory of transforma-
tion-groups to partial and to ordinary equations; under the
latter, the study of linear differential equations in the manner
initiated 1 by Riemann, the applications of discontinuous groups,
the theory of the singularities of integrals, and the study of
potential equations with existence-theorems arising therefrom.
In order to be clear we shall enter into some detail in regard
to partial differential equations of the first order, both those
which are linear in any number of variables and those not
linear in two independent variables, and also in regard to the
function-theory of linear differential equations of the second
order. Space renders impossible anything further than the
briefest account of many other matters; in particular, the theories
of partial equations of higher than the first order, the function-
theory of the singularities of ordinary equations not linear and the
applications to differential geometry, are taken account of only in
the bibliography. It is believed that on the whole the article will
be more useful to the reader than if explanations of method had
been further curtailed to include more facts.
When we speak of a function without qualification, it is to be
understood that in the immediate neighbourhood of a particular
set x , y m . . of values of the independent variables x, y, . . .
of the function, at whatever point of the range of values for
x, y, . . . under consideration x a , y , . . may be chosen, the
function can be expressed as a series of positive integral powers
of the differences x X , yy ,..., convergent when these are
sufficiently small (see FUNCTION: Functions of Complex Vari-
ables). Without this condition, which we express by saying that
the function is developable about *, y , . . . , many results
provisionally stated in the transformation theories would be
unmeaning or incorrect. If, then, we have a set of k functions,
fi . . . ft, of n independent variables x\ . . . x n , we say that
they are independent when n>Ji and not every determinant of
k rows and columns vanishes of the matrix of k rows and
columns whose r-th row has the constituents df r /dxi, . . .df r ldx n ',
the justification being in the theorem, which we assume, that if
the determinant involving, for instance, the first k columns be not
zero for x\ = x\ . . . x n =x n , and the functions be developable
about this point, then from the equations f\ = c\, . . .ftCk we
can express x\, . . . x* by convergent power series in the
differences **+! *t+i, . . . Xnx n , and so regard x\, . . . **
as functions of the remaining variables. This we of t en express by
saying that the equations /i = Ci, . . ./*=* can be solved for
*i,... Xk. The explanation is given as a type of explanation
often understood in what follows.
We may conveniently begin by stating the theorem : If each of
the n functions 0i, . . .<j> n ol the (n + i) variables *i,. . .x^t be develop-
able about the values xi, . . . x n "t, the n differential
equations of the form dxi/dt = <t>i(txi, ...*) are satisfied e
by convergent power series
v-4-f/ /*AA -L(V / \2A ,L o/ MM? first
reducing respectively to xi", . . .x,f when t = t;&nd the er "
only functions satisfying the equations and reducing respectively to
*i, . . . x n when* = <", are those determined by continuation of these
series. If the result of solving these n equations for xi", . . . x a be
written in the forma>i(jCi, . . . x n t) = x\, . . .u,,(xi, . . . x n t) =x a ,
it is at once evident that the differential equation Single
df/dt+<t>,df/d Xl +. . .+<t> a df/dXn = homogene-
possesses n integrals, namely, the functions i, . . . , *
which are developable about the values (xf. . . . Xnt") and e ?"f ? .
reduce respectively to x i, . . .* wheni = /. And in fact it ' lne '"
has no other integrals so reducing. Thus this equation
also possesses a unique integral reducing when t = t to an arbitrary
function $(xi, . . . #), this integral being <f>(ui, . . . ). Conversely
the existence of these principal integrals i, . . . w, of the partial
equation establishes the existence of the specified solutions of the
ordinary equations dxi/dt = <tn. The following sketch of the proof of
the existence of these principal integrals for the case n = 2 will show
the character of more general investigations. Put x for* x", &c.,
and consider the equation a(xyt)df/dx+b(xyt)df/dy = df/dt, wherein
the functions a, b are developable about x = o, y = o, t o; say
a(xyt)=a +lai+Pa2/2\+..., b(xyt)=b,+tbi-\-Pbi/2\+...,
so that
where S r =Ord/dx+b r d/dy. In order that
230
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
wherein p,, pi . . . are power series in *, y, should satisfy the equa-
tion, it is necessary, as we find by equating like terms, that
Pro f and in general
existence wl ~ ' *' j,=\ s !)/(r!)~(s-r)!
Now compare with the given equation another equation
"* ^x y t)dF/dx+B(xyt)dF/dy = dF/dt,
wherein each coefficient in the expansion of either A or B is real and
positive, and not less than the absolute value of the corresponding
coefficient in the expansion of a or 6. In the second equation let us
substitute a series
wherein the coefficients in P, are real and positive, and each not less
than the absolute value of the corresponding coefficient in p a ; then
putting ^r Ard/dx-^-BTd/dy we obtain necessary equations of the
same form as before, namely,
and in general P.+i=A,,P,+iiAiP^i+. .+A.P,. These give for
every coefficient in P.+I an integral aggregate with real positive
coefficients of the coefficients in P., P,_i, . . . , P and the coefficients
in A and B ; and they are the same aggregates as would be given by
the previously obtained equations for the corresponding coefficients
in PHI in terms of the coefficients in .p,, p^.i, . . . p and the co-
efficients in o and b. Hence as the coefficients in P and also in A, B
are real and positive, it follows that the values obtained in succession
for the coefficients in Pi, Pj, . . . are real and positive; and further,
taking account of the fact that the absolute value of a sum of terms
is not greater than the sum of the absolute values of the terms, it
follows, for each value of s, that every coefficient in +; is> ' n absolute
value, not greater than the corresponding coefficient in PHJ. Thus
if the series for F be convergent, the series for / will also be ; and we
are thus reduced to (i), specifying functions A, B with real positive
coefficients, each in absolute value not less than the corresponding
coefficient in a, b; (2) proving that the equation
MF/dx+BdF/dy =dF(dt
possesses an integral Po+tPi+CPi/2\ + ... in which the coefficients
in P. are real and positive, and each not less than the absolute value
of the corresponding coefficient in p . If a, 6 be developable for *, y
both in absolute value less than r and for / less in absolute value than
R, and for such values o, 6 be both less in absolute value than the
real positive constant M, it is not difficult to verify that we may
take A = B = M (i -2) "' (l -Q ~\ and obtain
and that this solves the problem when *, y, t are sufficiently small
for the two cases p a = x, p<,=y. One obvious application of the
general theorem is to the proof of the existence of an integral of
an ordinary linear differential equation given by the n equations
dy/dx=yi, dyi/dx=yi . . ,
dy n -i/dx=p-piy-i- . .-p_*y;
but in fact any simultaneous system of ordinary equations is re-
ducible to a system of the form
dxi/dt = <t>i(txi, . . . *)
Suppose we have k homogeneous linear partial equations of the
first order in n independent variables, the general equation being
a n df/dxi+. . .+a<rndf/dx n =o, where =!,... fc.andthat
Slmultaae- we Desire to know whether the equations have common
" S Ji i r solutions, and if so, how many. It is to be understood
"! that the equations are linearly independent, which implies
that k 5n and not every determinant of k rows and columns
is identically zero in the matrix in which the t-th element of the <r-th
row is o<ri(t = l, . . . n, <r = l, . . . k). Denoting the left side of the
<r-th equation by P<rf, it is clear that every common solution of the
two equations Po/=o, PP/=O is also a solution of the equation
Pp(P<7/)-P<r(Pp/)=o. We immediately find, however, that this is
also a linear equation, namely, ZH<d//<&< =owhere Hi =Ppo<7i-P<7api,
and if it be not already contained among the given equations, or be
linearly deducible from them, it may be added to them, as not intro-
ducing any additional limitation of the possibility of their having
common solutions. Proceeding thus with every pair of the original
equations, and then with every pair of the possibly augmented
system so obtained, and so on continually, we shall arrive at a
system of equations, linearly independent of each other and therefore
not more than n in number, such that the combination, in the way
described, of every pair of them, leads to an equation which is
linearly deducible from them. If the number of this so-called
. complete system is n, the equations give dfldx\=o . . . df/dx, = o,
leading to the nugatory result /=a constant. Suppose, then, the
number of this system to be r, <n; suppose, further, that from the
matrix of the coefficients a determinant of r rows and
Complete co i umns not vanishing identically is that formed by the
coefficients of the differential coefficients of / in regard
" e f to xi ... XT; also that the coefficients are all developable
afloat about the values *t=*i*. * = *. and that for these
values the determinant just spoken of is not zero.
Then the main theorem is that the complete system of r equa-
tions, and therefore the originally given set of fe equations,
have in common n-r solutions, say w, + i, . . . w n , which reduce
respectively to x, + i, . . . x n when in them for xi, . . . XT are respec-
tively put Xi, . . . XT'; so that also the equations have in common a
solution reducing when xi = xi, . . . x T =x r a to an arbitrary function
4>(x,+i, ...*) which is developable about xS+i, x,, namely,
this common solution is ^(uv+i, . . . <o n ). It is seen at once
that this result is a generalization of the theorem for r i, and its
proof is conveniently given by induction from that case. It can be
verified without difficulty (i) that if from the r equations of the
complete system we form r independent linear aggregates, with
coefficients not necessarily constants, the new system is also a com-
plete system; (2) that if in place of the independent variables
*i,... * we introduce any other variables which are independent
functions of the former, the new equations also form a complete
system. It is convenient, then, from the complete system of r
equations to form r new equations by solving separately for df/dxi, . . ,
df/dxr ; suppose the general equation of the new system to be
Qvf=df/dx<,+c*, r + l dfldx r+ i+ . . . +c<,ndfldx*=o(v = i, . . . r).
Then it is easily obvious that the equation QpQ<rf-QaQpf=o con-
tains only the differential coefficients of /in regard to x,+i . . .x,; as
it is at most a linear function of Qif, . . . Q,f, it must be identically
zero. So reduced the system is called a Jacobian system. Of this
system Qi/=o has n-l principal solutions reducing re-
spectively to Xi, . . . * when
X\ s= Xi,
and its' form shows that of these the first r-i are exactly xt . . . XT.
Let these n-l functions together with xi be introduced as n new
independent variables in all the r equations. Since the first equation
is satisfied by n-i of the new independent variables, it will contain
no differential coefficients in regard to them, and will reduce therefore
simply to df/dxi = o, expressing that any common solution of the r
equations is a function only of the n-i remaining variables. Thereby
the investigation of the common solutions is reduced to the same
problem for r-i equations in n-i variables. Proceeding thus, we
reach at length one equation in n-^r+l variables, from which, by
retracing the analysis, the proposition stated is seen to follow.
The analogy with the case of one equation is, however, still closer.
With the coefficients Caj of the equations Q<r/ = o in transposed
array ( = i, ... r, j = r+i, ... n) we can put down the
(n-r) equations, dxj=cndxi+. . .-\-c,jdx,, equivalent to ^ y ,..
the r(n-r) equations dxi/dxa-=c^j. That consistent f"" t l~.
with them we may be able to regard XT+I, . . . * as , t ,*
functions of x\,... XT, these being regarded as independent
variables, it is clearly necessary that when we differentiate c<r, in
regard to xp on this hypothesis the result should be the same as when
we differentiate Cpj in regard to x<r on this hypothesis. The differ-
ential coefficient of a function / of x\, . . . x n on this hypothesis, in
regard to xp, is, however,
namely, is Qp/. Thus the consistence of the n-r total equations
requires the conditions QpC<rj-Q<rCpj=o, which are, however,
verified in virtue of Q/>(Q<r/)-Q<r(Qp/)=o. And it can in fact be
easily verified that if UT+I, . . . , be the principal solutions of the
Jacobian system, Q<r/=o, reducing respectively toxr+i, . . . x n when
xi=xi", . . . x r =x T , and the equations UT+I=X T + I, . . . w,=x n
be solved for x,+i, . . . * to give*, =M*i, *r, aV+i, . x,), these
values solve the total equations and reduce respectively to x,+i,. . . x,'
when xi=xi . . . x T =x r . And the total equations have no
other solutions with these initial values. Conversely, the existence
of these solutions of the total equations can be deduced a priori
and the theory of the Jacobian system based upon them. The
theory of such total equations, in general, finds its natural place
under the heading Pfaffian Expressions, below.
A practical method of reducing the solution of the r equations
of a Jacobian system to that of a single equation in n-r+l variables
may be explained in connexion with a geometrical inter-
pretation which will perhaps be clearer in a particular *..f "
case, say = 3, r = 2. There is then only one total Mlo ' a
equation, say dz = ads+bdy; if we do not take account ^
of the condition of integrability, which is in this case so/(lWoo
da/dy+bda/dz=dbldx+adb/dz, this equation may be re-
garded as defining through an arbitrary point (*, ><,, z) of three-
dimensioned space (about which a, b are developable) a plane, namely,
z-s,=a,(x-x,)+b,(y-y,'), and therefore, through this arbitrary
point oo 2 directions, namely, all those in the plane. If now there be
a surface z = ^(x, y), satisfying dz = adz+bdy and passing through
(x a , y a , z,,), this plane will touch the surface, and the operations of
passing along the surface from (x,, y a , z) to
(x a -\-dxo, y a , z a +dzc)
and then to (x.-\-dx a , y,+dy , z,+d l z,), ought to lead to the same
value of d l z a as do the operations of passing along the surface trom
(*,. y,, z,) to (xo, y a +dy<,, z+z ), and then to
(x,,+dx,, y,+dy,, Zo-H'z,),
namely, J'z. ought to be equal to d l z a . But we find
and so at once reach the condition of integrability. If now we put
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
231
x = Xo+t, y y,+mt, and regard m as constant, we shall in fact be
considering the section of the surface by a fixed plane y-y = m(x-x ) ;
along this section dz = dt(a+bm) ; if we then integrate the equation
dx/dt = a+bm, where a, b are expressed as functions of m and /, with
m kept constant, finding the solution which reduces to z, for / = o,
and in the result again replace m by (y-y)/(x-x a ), we shall have the
surface in question. In the general case the equations
dXj=CijdXl+. ,C,jdXr
Mayer"* similarly determine through an arbitrary point Xi, . ._. x n
method of a planar manifold of r dimensions in space of n dimensions,
Integra- and when the conditions of integrability are satisfied,
tlon. every direction in this manifold through this point is
tangent to the manifold of r dimensions, expressed by u r+ i=x r \i,
. . un = Xn, which satisfies the equations and passes through this
point. If we put xi-x\ = t, x^-xi" = ntit, . . . x r -x r = m r t, and
regard MI, ... m, as fixed, the (n-r) total equations take the form
dxj/dt = Cij+miCij+. . .+m r c r j, and their integration is equivalent to
that of the single partial equation
n
df/dt+ 2(Cij+miCn+. . . +m r c,j)dfldxj = o
in the n-r + i variables /, av+i, . . . x n . Determining the solutions
Qr+i,. . . .a, which reduce.to respectively *r+i,- . .* when* = o, and sub-
stituting t = xi-xi", mi = (xi-xi)/(xi-x,), . . . m r = (x r -x r )/(xi-x l ),
we obtain the solutions of the original system of partial equa-
tions previously denoted by ov+i, . . . o>n. It is to be remarked,
however, that the presence of the fixed parameters mi, ... m, in
the single integration may frequently render it more difficult than if
they were assigned numerical quantities.
We have above considered the integration of an equation
dz = adz+bdy
on the hypothesis that the condition
da / dy-}-bda/dz = db/dz -\-adbfdz.
p. . It is natural to inquire what relations among x, y, z, if any,
are implied by, or are consistent with, a differential relation
adx+bdy+cdx = o, when a, b, c are unrestricted functions
of x, y, z. This problem leads to the consideration of the
so-called Pfaffian Expression adx+bdy+cde. It can be shown (i) if
each of the quantities db/dz-dc/dy, dc/dx-da/dz, da/dy-db/dz, which
we shall denote respectively by w 2s , , u n , be identically zero, the
expression is the differential of a function of x, y, z, equal to dt say;
(2) that if the quantity auii+bu a i+cua is identically zero, the ex-
pression is of the form udt, i.e. it can be made a perfect differential
by multiplication by the factor i/u; (3) that in general the ex-
pression is of the form dt+Uidti. Consider the matrix of four
rows and three columns, in which the elements of the first row are
a, b, c, and the elements of the (r+i)-th row, for r = i, 2, 3, are the
quantities Uri, Urt, UT>, where ttn = s2 = Ms=o. Then it is easily
seen that the cases (i), (2), (3) above correspond respectively to the
cases when (i) every determinant of this matrix of two rows and
columns is zero, (2) every determinant of three rows and columns
is zero, (3) when no condition is assumed. This result can be general-
ized as follows: if 01, . . . a n be any functions of xi, . . . *, the so-
called Pfaffian expression a t dxi+. . .+a n dx* can be reduced to one
or other of the two forms
Uidti+. . .-{-utdti,, dt-\-uidti-\-. . .-\-Uk-idtt-i,
wherein t, u\, . . .,t\, . . . are independent functions of xi, . . .x n , and k
is such that in these two cases respectively 2k or 2k-i is the rank of
a certain matrix of n + i rows and n columns, that is, the greatest
number of rows and columns in a non-vanishing determinant of the
matrix; the matrix is that whose first row is constituted by the
quantities 01, . . . o n , whose s-th element in the (r-f l)-th row is the
quantity da,ldx,-da,ldx,. The proof of such a reduced form can
be obtained from the two results: (i) If t be any given functjon
of the 2m independent variables MI, ... Mm, <i, tm, the expression
dt+uidh+. . .+Umdtm can be put into the form u'idt\+. . .+u' m dt' m .
(2) If the quantities MI, . . . , Um, h, tm be connected by a relation,
theexpression nidh+. . .+Umdt m can be put into the form dt'+u\dt'i
+. . .+u'm-idt'm-i; and if the relation connecting MI,. . . Mm, h,. ..tm
be homogeneous in MI, ... *,, then t' can be taken to be zero. These
two results are deductions from the theory of contact transformations
(see below), and their demonstration requires, beside elementary
algebraical considerations, only the theory of complete systems of
linear homogeneous partial differential equations of the first order.
When the existence of the reduced form of the Pfaffian expression
containing only independent quantities is thus once assured, the
identification of the number k with that defined by the specified
matrix may, with some difficulty, be made a posteriori.
In all cases of a single Pfaffian equation we are thus led to consider
what is implied by a relation dt-u t dti~. . .-Umdt m = o, in which
s:n i ? **! wi*i , tm are, except for this equation,
independent variables. This is to be satisfied in virtue of
_. . one or several relations connecting the variables; these
must involve relations connecting t, t\, . . . tm only, and
in one of these at least t must actually enter. We can
then suppose that in one actual system of relations in virtue of which
the Pfaffian equation is satisfied, all the relations connecting t,t t . . .
t m only are given by
t^(t, + i. . .!), /I=^I(/,-H. . .tm), / = ^(<+l t m );
so that the equation
is identically true in regard to i, . . . u m , t^i . . , t*; equating to
zero the coefficients of the differentials of these variables, we thus
obtain m-s relations of the form
these m-s relations, with the previous s+i relations, constitute a set
of m + i relations connecting the 2>n + i variables in virtue of which
the Pfaffian equation is satisfied independently of the form of the
functions <f>, <l/i, . . .<//,. There is clearly such a set for each of the
values s = o, s = i, . . ,,s = m-i,s m. And for any value of s there
may exist relations additional to the specified m + i relations, pro-
vided they dp not involve any relation connecting t, h, . . . <mOnly,
and are consistent with the m-s relations connecting iti, . . . Mm. It
is now evident that, essentially, the integration of a Pfaffian equation
wherein <ti, . . . a* are functions of x\, . . . x n , is effected by the
processes necessary to bring it to its reduced form, involving only
independent variables. And it is easy to see that if we suppose this
reduction to be carried out in all possible ways, there is no need to
distinguish the classes of integrals corresponding to the various
values of s; for it can be verified without difficulty that by putting
t'^t-Uid-. . .-Uj., t'i=Ui, . . . <', = U\=-ti, . . ., '.= -/.,
*'HJ =*+! - - *'m = <m, U' I+ I=UH.I, . . . u' m = Um, the reduced equation
becomes changed to dt'-u\dt\-. . .-u' m dt' m = o, and the general
relations changed to
t' = W^i, . . . f m )-t'iWi, t' m )-.. .-O.f/,+1, . . . t' m ),=<t>,
say, together with u'i = d<t>/dt'i ..... u' m =d<t>/dt' m ,'wh\ch contain only
one relation connecting the variables /', t\, . . . t' m only.
This method for a single Pfaffian equation can, strictly speaking,
be generalized to a simultaneous system of (n-r) Pfaffian equations
dxj = cijdxi+. . .+c T jdx r only in the case already treated, ... ,
when this system is satisfied by regarding av+i, . . . * as .
suitable functions of the independent variables x\, . . . x,; %? e f f!"
in that case the integral manifolds are of r dimensions.
When these are non-existent, there may be integral mani- equa
folds of higher dimensions ; for if
d<t> = <M*i + . . . + <M*r +<t>r+i (ci r+idxi + . . . +c r , r+ idx r ) + tfy+j ( ) + . . .
be identically zero, then 0ff+ca,r + i#v + i+. . .+cir, n n =p, or < satisfies
the r partial differential equations previously associated with the
total equations; when these are not a complete system, but in-
cluded in a complete system of r-it equations, having therefore
n-r-p independent integrals, the total equations are satisfied over
a manifold of r+n dimensions (see E. v. Weber, Math. Annal. Iv.
(1901), p. 386).
It seems desirable to add here certain results, largely of algebraic
character, which naturally arise in connexion with the theory of
contact transformations. For any two functions of the 2n
independent variables xi,...x*,pi,... p n we denote by (jrf) CoatKt
&& d*d<t> _ transfer.
the sum of the n terms such as , / - , , . For two matlons.
(i'P \CLXi dPidjCi
functions of the (2n + l) independent variables z,x t , . . . x,,pi, ... p n
we denote by [<^] the sum of the n terms such as
d<t> (dt ,.dy\
dpi (dxl+^Tz) ~
d<t>
It can at once be verified that for any three functions[/[^]] + [0[^/]]
which when/, *, *do not contain z
becomes the identity (/(<WO) + (<#>(#)) + GK./V>)) =o. Then.if Xi,. ..X n ,
PI, ... P be such functions of xi, . . . x n ,p\ . . . pn that PidXi
+ . . . +PndX n is identically equal to pidx!+ . . . +p n dx,, it can be
shown by elementary algebra, after equating coefficients of inde-
pendent differentials, (i) that the functions Xi, . . . P are independ-
ent functions of the 2n variables *i, . . . p n , so that the equations
*',=Xi, p'i = Pi]can be solved ford, ...*, pi, . . . n ,and represent
therefore a transformation, which we call a homogeneous contact
transformation ; (2) that the Xj, . . . X n are homogeneous functions of
pi,. . . p n of zero dimensions the PI,... P are homogeneous functions
of pi, . . . p n of dimension one, and the in(n-i) relations (X<X.) =o
are verified. So also are the n 2 relations (PiX,-) = i, (PiX,-) = o,
(PiP,-) =o. Conversely, if Xi, . . . X be independent functions, each
homogeneous of zero dimension in pi, . . . p, satisfying the ^n(n-i)
relations (XiX,-) =o, then PI, ... P B can be uniquely determined, by
solving linear algebraic equations, such that PidXi+. . .-fPnrfX,
= pidxi+. . .+p n dx n . If now we put n-fi for n, put z for *+!,
Z for Xn+i, Qi for-Pi/P^.!, for * = i, ... n, put q> ior-pi/p^.i and <r
for ffn+1/Q.H.i, and then finally write Pi, ... P n , pi, ...p n for Qi, . . . On,
?!,... g n , we obtain the following results: If ZXi . . . X B , PI, . . . P n
be functions of z, xi,. . . x,, p\, .. . p n , such that the expression
dZ-PidX^. . .-PndX, is identically equal to <r(dz-pidxi~. . .-p,dx n ),
and <r not zero, then (i) the functions Z, Xi, . . . X n , Pi, ... P,
are independent functions of z, xi, . . . *, 61, ... p,, so that the
equations z' = Z, x'i = X,, p'i = P< can be solved for z,Xi,...x n ,pi,...p,
and determine a transformation which we call a (non-homogeneous)
contact transformation; (2) the Z, Xi, . . . X n verify the fn(w
232
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
identities [ZXil=o, [XiX,]=o. And the further identities
[P i X i ] = 7, [PiX,]=o, [PiZ^vPi, [PiPj]=o,
are also verified. Conversely, if Z, Xi, . . . X n be independent func-
tions satisfying the identities [ZX;] =o, [X,X,] =o, then a, other than
zero, and Pi, ... P can be uniquely determined, by solution of
algebraic equations, such that
dZ-PidXi- . . .-P a dX n = <r(dz-pidxi- . . . -p n dx a ).
Finally, there is a particular case of great importance arising when
= 1, which gives the results: (l) If U, X t , . . . X n , Pi, ... P n be
2n+i functions of the 2n independent variables a, . . . x n , pi,
..., satisfying the identity
dU+Pi<?*i+ +P n dX. n =pidx!+ . . . +p a dx n ,
then the 2n functions Pi, ... P n ,X,, . . . X n are independent,
= i ,,,, ) ,,,
where & denotes the operator pid/dpi+ . . . +p n d/dp n ; (2) If
Xi, . . . X n be independent functions of Xi, ... x n , pi, . . . p n ,
such that (XiX,-) =o, then U can be found by a quadrature, such that
(XiU) =SXj;
and when X<, . . . X n , U satisfy these |n(+i) conditions, then
P, P n can be found, by solution of linear algebraic equations, to
render' true the identity <fU+PidXi+... +P n <2X = pidxt +... +p n dx n ;
(i) Functions Xi, . . . X n , Pi, ... Pn can be found to satisfy
this differential identity when U is an arbitrary given function of
*i . . . x n , pi, pn', but this requires integrations. In order
to' see' what integrations, it is only necessary to verify the statement
that if U be an arbitrary given function of xi, . . . x n , pi, . . . p n ,
and, for r<n, Xi, . . . Xr be independent functions of these vari-
ables, such that (Xo-U)=SX<r, (XpX<r)=o, for p, <r = l . . . r, then
the r+i homogeneous linear partial differential equations of the
first order (U/)+/=o, (Xp/)=o, form a complete system. It will
be seen that the assumptions above made for the reduction of
Pfaffian expressions follow from the results here enunciated for
contact transformations.
We pass on now to consider the solution of any partial
differential equation of the first order; we attempt to explain
certain ideas relatively to a single equation with any
aittena- number of independent variables (in particular, an
tialequa- ordinary equation of the first order with one inde-
tion of tho pendent variable) by speaking of a single equation with
nrst two independent variables x, y, and one dependent
variable z. It will be seen that we are naturally led to
consider systems of such simultaneous equations, which we
consider below. The central discovery of the transformation
theory of the solution of an equation F(x, y, z, dz/dx, dz/dy)=o
is that its solution can always be reduced to the solution of
partial equations which are linear. For this, however, we must
regard dz/dx, dz/dy, during the process of integration, not as the
differential coefficients of a function z in regard to x and y, but as
variables independent of x, y, z, the too great indefiniteness that
might thus appear to be introduced being provided for in another
way. We notice that if z = \l/(x, y) be a solution of the differ-
ential equation, then dz=dxd\pldx+dyd\l//dy; thus if we denote
the equation by F(x,'y, z, p, q,)=o, and prescribe the condition
dz=pdx+qdy for every solution, any solution such as z-^(x, y)
will necessarily be associated with the equations p= dz/dx,
q = dz/dy, and z will satisfy the equation in its original form. We
have previously seen (under Pfaffian Expressions) that if five
variables x, y, z, p, q, otherwise independent, be subject to
dzpdxqdy-o, they must in fact be subject to at least three
mutual relations. If we associate with a point (x, y, z) the plane
Z-z=p(X-x)+q(Y-y)
passing through it, where X, Y, Z are current co-ordinates, and
call this association a surface-element; and if two consecutive
elements of which the point(*-N*, y+dy, z+dz)oi one lies on the
plane of the other, for which, that is, the condition dz = pdx+qdy
is satisfied, be said to be connected, and an infinity of connected
elements following one another continuously be called a con-
nectivity, theft our statement is that a connectivity consists of not
more than ao 2 elements, the whole number of elements (x, y,z, p, q)
that are possible being called oo 6 . The solution of an equation
F(x, y , z, dz/dx, dzjdy) = o is then to be understood to mean finding
in all possible ways, from the oo 4 elements (x, y, z, p, q) which
satisfy F(x, y, z, p, q)=o a set of oo 2 elements forming a con-
nectivity; or, more analytically, finding in all possible ways two
relations G = o, H = o connecting x, y,z,p, q and independent of
F = o, so that the three relations together may involve
dz=pdx+qdy.
Such a set of three relations may, for example, be of the form
z = \p(x, y), p=d\l//dx, q = d\{//dy; but it may also, as another
case, involve two relations z \j/(y), x = \l/\(y) connecting x, y, z,
the third relation being
the connectivity consisting in that case, geometrically, of a curve
in space taken with xi 1 oi its tangent planes; or, finally, a
connectivity is constituted by a fixed point and all the planes
passing through that point. This generalized view of the mean-
ing of a solution of F=o is of advantage, moreover, in view of
anomalies otherwise arising from special forms of the equation
itself. For instance, we may include the case, some- Meaning
times arising when the equation to be solved is obtained ota sola-
by transformation from another equation, in which F tloa of the
does not contain either p or q. Then the equation has e <t uatloa -
oo 2 solutions, each consisting of an arbitrary point of the surface
F = o and all the oo 2 planes passing through this point; it also
has oo 2 solutions, each consisting of a curve drawn on the surface
F=o and all the tangent planes of this curve, the whole consisting
of oo 2 elements; finally, it has also an isolated (or singular)
solution consisting of the points of the surface, each associated
with the tangent plane of the surface thereat, also oo 2 elements in
all. Or again, a linear equation F = Pp+Qq R = o, wherein
P, Q, R are functions of x, y, z only, has oo 2 solutions, each
consisting of one of the curves defined by
dx/P = dy/q=dz/R
taken with all the tangent planes of this curve; and the same
equation has oo 2 solutions, each consisting of the points of a
surface containing oo 1 of these curves and the tangent planes of
this surface. And for the case of n variables there is similarly
the possibility of n+i kinds of solution of an equation
F(*i, . . . x n , z, pi, . . . p n )=o; these can, however, by a
simple contact transformation be reduced to one kind, in which
there is only one relation z' = if/(x'i, . . . x' n ) connecting the
new variables x\, . . . x' n , z' (see under Pfaffian Expressions) ;
just as in the case of the solution
of the equation P^+Q<? = R the transformation z'=zpx,
x' = p, p' = x,y' = y,q' = q gives the solution
z' = t(y')+x'ti(y'), p' = dz'/dx', q' = dz'/dy'
of the transformed equation. These explanations take no
account of the possibility of p and q being infinite; this can be
dealt with by writing p=ujw, q=v/w, and considering
homogeneous equations in u, v, w, with udx+vdy+wdz = o as the
differential relation necessary for a connectivity; in practice we
use the ideas associated with such a procedure more often without
the appropriate notation.
In utilizing these general notions we shall first consider
the theory of characteristic chains, initiated by Cauchy, which
shows well the nature of the relations implied by the given
differential equation; the alternative ways of carrying
out the necessary integrations are suggested by con-
sidering the method of Jacob! and Mayer, while a good
summary is obtained by the formulation in terms of a Pfaffian
expression.
Consider a solution of F = o expressed by the three independent
equations F=o, G=o, H=o. If it be a solution in which there is
more than one relation connecting x, y, z, let new variables x' ,y' ,z' ,p' ,q'
be introduced, as before explained under Pfaffian Ex- Caarac-
pressions, in which z' is of the form terlstic
z' = z 1*1 . . . p,x,(s = l or 2), chains.
so that the solution becomes of a form z' = ^(x'y'),
p'=dt/dx', q' = d<(<ldy', which then will identically satisfy the trans-
formed equations F'=o, G'=o, H' = o. The equation F' = o, if x',y,'z'
be regarded as fixed, states that the plane Z-z r =p'(X.-x')+q'(Y-y")
is tangent to a certain cone whose vertex is (x', y, z'), the consecutive
point (x'+dx', y'+dz', z'+dz') of the generator of contact being such
Passing in this direction on the surface z' = <j/(x', y') the tangent
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
233
,dF'
plane of the surface at this consecutive point is (p'+dp', q'+dq'),
where, since F'(x', y', t, dt/dx', d^ldy) =o is identical, we have
dx' (dF'/dx'+p'dF'/dz')+dp'dF'/dp' = o. Thus the equations, which
we shall call the characteristic equations,
dF' ,dF'\ ,.,/ dF'
dF'
are satisfied along a connectivity of oo 1 elements consisting of a curve
on z' = iK*'i y') and the tangent planes of the surface along this curve.
The equation F'=o, when *', q' are fixed, represents a curve in the
plane Z-z' = p'(X-3c')+2'(Y-y') passing through (x', y', z'); if
(x'+Sx', y' = &y', e'+Sz') be a consecutive point of this curve, we
find at once
Sx ' \~d~x 1 ~^P'~3z') ~^ S y'\dy r ^~2~dz') =o;
thus the equations above give Sx'dp'+5y'dq'=o, or the tangent line
of the plane curve, is, on the surface z' =$(x', y'), in a direction con-
jugate to that of the generator of the cone. Putting each of the
fractions in the characteristic equations equal to dt, the equations
enable us, starting from an arbitrary element x'a, y'a, z', p'o, q'a,
about which all the quantities F', dF'/dp', &c., occurring in the
denominators, are developable, to define, from the differential
equation F' = o alone, a connectivity of oo 1 elements, which we call
a characteristic^ chain ; and it is remarkable that when we transform
again to the original variables (x, y, z, p, q), the form of the differential
equations for the chain is unaltered, so that they can be written
down at once from the equation F = o. Thus we have proved that
the characteristic chain starting from any ordinary element of any
integral of this equation F=o consists only of elements belonging
to this integral. For instance, if the equation do not contain p, q,
the characteristic chain, starting from an arbitrary plane through
an arbitrary point of the surface F = o, consists of a pencil of planes
whose axis is a tangent line of the surface F=o. Or if F=o be of
the form Pp+Qg = R, the chain consists of a curve satisfying
dx/P=dy/Q=dz/'R. and a single infinity of tangent planes of this
curve, determined by the tangent plane chosen at the initial point.
In all cases there are oo 3 characteristic chains, whose aggregate may
therefore be expected to exhaust the oo 4 elements satisfying F = o.
Consider, in fact, a single infinity of connected elements each
satisfying F = o, say a chain connectivity T, consisting of elements
Specified by x a , y a , z , p a , qa, which we suppose expressed as
functions of a parameter u, so that
Uo = dza/du padxaldu qodya/du
is everywhere zero on this chain; further, suppose that
T"rt d eacn ^' dF/dp, . . . , dF/dx+pdF/dz is developable
about each element of this chain T, and that T is not a
w ' characteristic chain. Then consider the aggregate of the
c * "" characteristic chains issuing from all the elements of T.
The oo 2 elements, consisting of the aggregate of these
chain*. characteristic chains, satisfy F=o, provided the chain
connectivity T consists of elements satisfying F=o; for each
characteristic chain satisfies dF=o. It can be shown that these
chains are connected ; in other words, that if x, y f z, p, q, be any
element of one of these characteristic chains, not only is
dz/dt - pdx/dt - qdy/dt = o,
as we know, but also U =dz/du pdx/du qdy/du is also zero. For
we have *(*L-& -^ d < dz ^ d '
_ip_dx dj>dic dijdy_ dqdy
~du di~ dt du + (lu~di~ dtdu'
which is equal to
dpdF . dx/dF , dF\ . dqdF . ay (dF . dF\ dF
As TT is a developable function of t, this, giving
shows that U is everywhere zero. Thus integrals of F=o are
obtainable by considering the aggregate of characteristic chains
issuing from arbitrary chain connectivities T satisfying F=o; and
such connectivities T are, it is seen at once, determinable without
integration. Conversely, as such a chain connectivity T can be taken
out from the elements of any given integral all possible integrals
are obtainable in this way. For instance, an arbitrary curve in
space, given by x =8(u), ya = <t>(u),z c = \f'(u), determines by the two
equations F(*b, y,, z,, p,, g,)=o, 4>'(u) = pjB' (u) +q,<t>' (u) , such a
chain connectivity T, through which there passes a perfectly
definite integral of the equation F = o. By taking oo 2 initial chain
connectivities T, as for instance by taking the curves x<,=8, yo = <t>
Zo = iA to be the oo 2 curves upon an arbitrary surface, we thus obtair
oo 2 integrals, and so oo * elements satisfying F = o. In general, ii
functions G, H, independent of F, be obtained, such that the
equations F = o, G = 6, Hc represent an integral for all values of the
constants b, c, these equations are said to constitute a complete
ntegral. Then oo 4 elements satisfying F = o are known, and in fact
:yery other form of integral can be obtained without further integra-
ions.
In the foregoing discussion of the differential equations of a
characteristic chain, the denominators dF/dp, . . . may be supposed
;o be modified in form by means of F = o in any way conducive to
a simple integration. In the immediately following explanation of
ideas, however, we consider indifferently all equations F= constant;
when a function of x, y, z, p, q is said to be zero, it is meant that this
^s so identically, not in virtue of F = o; in other words, we consider
:he integration of F=o, where a is an arbitrary constant. In the
theory of linear partial equations we have seen that the integration
of the equations of the characteristic chains, from whjch, ooenKtons
as has just been seen, that of the equation F=a follows ' - fssan ,
at once, would be involved in completely integrating .
the single linear homogeneous partial differential equation .
of the first order [F/] =o where the notation is that "
explained above under Contact Transformations. One "'
obvious integral is/=F. Putting F = a, where a is arbi-
trary , and eliminating one of the independent variables, we can reduce
this equation [F/] = o to one in four variables ; and sojon. Calling, then,
the determination of a single integral of a single homogeneous partial
differential equation of the first order in n independent variables, an
operation of order -i, the characteristic chains, and therefore the
most general integral of F = o, can be obtained by successive opera-
tions of orders 3, 2, I. If, however, an integral of F=o be repre-
sented by F = a, G = b, H =c, where b and c are arbitrary constants,
the expression of the fact that a characteristic chain of F =a satisfies
dG = o, gives [FG]=o; similarly, [FH] = o and [GH]=o, these
three relations being identically true. Conversely, suppose that an
integral G, independent of F, has been obtained of the equation
[F/] = o, which is an operation of order three. Then it follows from
theidentity lfl*t}]+[4[m+WM=[W+W]+[f<t>] before
remarked, by putting <t> = F, <1> = G, and then (F/]=A(/), [G/] = B(/),
that AB(/)-BA(/) = -^B (/)--^A(/), so that the two linear equations
[F/] =o, [G/] =o form a complete system; as two integrals F, G are
known, they have a common integral H, independent of F, G, deter-
minable by an operation of order one only. The three functions
F, G, H thus identically satisfy the relations (FG] = [GH] = [FH] =o.
The oo 2 elements satisfying F = a, G = b, H=c, wherein o, b, c are
assigned constants, can then be seen to constitute anintegralpf F =a.
For the conditions that a characteristic chain of G = b issuing from
an element satisfying F=a, G = b, H=c should consist only of
elements satisfying these three equations are simply[FG] =o,[GH] =o.
Thus, starting from an arbitrary element of (F=a, G = 6, H =c),we
can single out a connectivity of elements of (F = o, G b, H=c)
forming a characteristic chain of G = ft; then the aggregate of the
characteristic chains of F = a issuing from the elements of this
characteristic chain of G =b will be a connectivity consisting only of
elements of
(F=o, G = b, H=c),
and will therefore constitute an integral of F=a; further, it will
include all elements of (F =a, G=b, H=c). This result follows also
from a theorem given under Contact Transformations, which shows,
moreover, that though the characteristic chains of F = a are not
determined by the three equations F=a, G = b, H=c, no further
integration is now necessary to find them. By this theorem, since
identically [FG] = [GH] = [FH]=o, we can find, by the solution of
linear algebraic equations only, a non-vanishing function a and two
functions A, C, such that
dG-AdF-CdH =a(dz-pdz-qdy) ;
thus all the elements satisfying F = a,G = 6,H=c, satisfy dz = pdx+qdy
and constitute a connectivity, which is therefore an integral of
F=a. While, further, from the associated theorems, F, G, H, A, C
are independent functions and [FC]=o. Thus C may be taken to
be the remaining integral independent of G, H, of the equation
[F/] =o, whereby the characteristic chains are entirely determined.
When we consider the particular equation F=o, neglecting the
case when neither p nor q enters, and supposing p to enter, we may
express p from F = o in terms of x, y, z, q, and then eliminate it from
all other equations. Then instead of the equation [Ff] = o, we
have, if F =o give p = 4>(x, y, z, q), the equation
moreover obtainable by omitting the term in df/dp in [p-<lt, /]=o.
Let x a , y a , z , q , be values about which the coefficients in Tfc- s in~ju
this equation are developable, and let f, TJ, to be the eauatio g
principal solutions reducing respectively to z, y and q f o
when * = *<,. Then the equations p = ^, f-=z c ,ri = y / u = q M afflaa
represent a characteristic chain issuing from the element . * nla
x a , y a , Zo, &>, g; we have seen that the aggregate of
such chains issuing from the elements of an arbitrary
chain satisfying
d Za podxa q<4y = o
constitute an integral of the equation p = <l/. Let this arbitrary
234
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
chain be taken so that *.' is constant; then the condition for initial
values is only
dz a qadyaO,
and the elements of the integral constituted by the characteristic
chains issuing therefrom satisfy
Hence this equation involves dz <ffdxqdy = o, or we have
dz \l>dxqdy = <r(d(codri) ,
where a is not zero. Conversely, the integration of p = \l* is, essentially,
the problem of writing the expression dz ^dxqdy in the form
<r(d?tadri), as must be possible (from what was said under Pfqffian
Expressions).
To integrate a system of simultaneous equations of the first
order Xi = ai, . . . X r = o r in n independent variables *i, . . .
and one dependent variable z, we write pi for dz/dxi, &c.,
System of an( j attempt to find n + ir further functions Z, X r +i
equations . . . x, such that the equations Z = a, X< = a t (i = I , . . . n)
benrst involve dz-pidxi-. . .-p n dx n = o. By an argument
already given, the common integral, if existent, must be sat-
isfied by the equations of the characteristic chains of any one equation
Xi=0i; thus each of the expressions [XiX,] must vanish in virtue
of the equations expressing the integral, and we may without loss of
generality assume that each of the corresponding $r(r i ) expressions
Formed from the r given differential equations vanishes in virtue of
these equations. The determination of the remaining n-fi r
functions may, as before, be made to depend on characteristic chains,
which in this case, however, are manifolds of r dimensions obtained
by integrating the equations [Xi/]=o, . . . [X,/]=o; or having
obtained one integral of this system other than Xi, . . . X r , say
X r ^i, we may consider the system [Xi/]=o, . . . fXr + i/]=o, for
which, again, we have a choice ; and at any stage we may use Mayer's
method and reduce the simultaneous linear equations to one equation
involving parameters; while if at any stage of the process we find
some but not all of the integrals of the simultaneous system, they
can be used to simplify the remaining work; this can only be clearly
explained in connexion with the theory of so-called function groups
for which we have no space. One result arising is that the simul-
taneous system pi = <t>i, . p, = <t>r, wherein pi, . p r are not involved in
<tn, . 0r, if it satisfies the ir(r i) relations [pi <t>t, pj4>i\=o,
has a solution z = <l/(xi, . . . *), pi = d^ldxi, . . . p n =dif'/dx n ,
reducing to an arbitrary function of x r +i, . . . x n only, when xi = xf,
. . . x, = x, under certain conditions as to developability ; a
generalization of the theorem for linear equations. The problem of
integration of this system is, as before, to put
dz <t>idxi ... <t>rdx r p r+ idxr+i ... pn dx n
into the form <r(df u,+id{r+i . . . w n d n ) ; and here f, r+ i, . . .{,
(ar+i, . . . u n may be taken, as before, to be principal integrals
of a certain complete system of linear equations; those, namely,
determining the characteristic chains.
If L be a function of t and of the an quantities *i, . . . x,, xi, . . .
x n , where x< denotes dx^/dt, &c., and if in the n equations
d_(dL\ = d\- L
dt \dxi) dxi
we put />=;jp and so express x t , . . . * in terms of t, x it . . .
x,, pi, . . . pn, assuming that the determinant of the quantities
, I A is not zero; if, further, H denote the function of t, x t , . . .
*, pi, . . . p n , numerically equal to pii+. . .+pnXn L, it is easy
to prove that dpt/dl = -dHjdxi, dXi/dt = dH/dpi. These
Equations so . ca n e d canonical equations form part of those for
the characteristic chains of the single partial equation
dynamics. dz/ ^ + H, *,, . . . x n , dzjdxi, _. . ., dz/dx,) = o, to which
then the solution of the original equations for xi . . . x n can be
reduced. Itmay beshown (i) that ifz = ^(t, *i, . . . *n, ci, c n )+c
be a complete integral of this equation, then pi=d\f>ldxi, d<ff/dci = et
are an equations giving the solution of the canonical equations
referred to, where c\ . . . c n and e\, . . . e n are arbitrary constants ;
(2) that if Xi=Xi(t, x } ,.. ./>), pi = Pi(t, Xi ,. . .pn) be the principal
solutions of the canonical equations for t = f, and o> denote the result
of substituting these values in pidH/dpi+. . .+pndHidp n H, and
= f' t wdt, where, after integration, SI is to be expressed as a function
of /, Xi . . . Xn, xi", . . . Xn, then 2 = 12+2 is a complete integral of
the partial equation.
A. system of differential equations is said to allow a certain
continuous group of transformations (see GROUPS, THEORY OF)
when the introduction for the variables in the differen-
Appika- ^ e q Ua tions of the new variables given by the
'theory of equations of the group leads, for all values of the
coatiou- parameters of the group, to the same differential equa-
ou* groups t i ons i n tne new variables. It would be interesting
Theories.' to verif X in examples that this is the case in at least
the majority of the differential equations which are
known to be integrable in finite terms. We give a theorem of
very general application for the case of a simultaneous complete
system of linear partial homogeneous differential equations of the
first order, to the solution of which the various differential equa-
tions discussed have been reduced. It will be enough to consider
whether the given differential equations allow the infinitesimal
transformations of the group.
It can be shown easily that sufficient conditions in order that a
complete system IIi/=o. . .n*/ = o, in n independent variables,
should allow the infinitesimal transformation P/=o are expressed
by fe equations niP/-Pni/=Xiin,/+...+X it IIi/. Suppose now
a complete system of n r equations in n variables to allow a
group of r infinitesimal transformations (Pi/, . . ., P r /) which has
an invariant subgroup of ri parameters (Pi/, . . ., P r _i/), it
being supposed that the n quantities tti/, . . ., Hn-rf, PI/, . . .,
Prf are not connected by an identical linear equation (with co-
efficients even depending on the independent variables). Then
it can be shown that one solution of the complete system is deter-
minable by a quadrature. For each of IliPo-/ Palli/ is a linear
function of Uif, . . ., Un-rf and the simultaneous system of inde-
pendent equations IIi/=o, . . . n_ r /=o, PI/=O, . . . P r _i/=o
is therefore a complete system, allowing the infinitesimal trans-
formation P,/. This complete system of n I equations has there-
fore one common solution a, and P r (a>) is a function of a. By
choosing u suitably, we can then make P r (u) = i. From this
equation and the n i equations Hita = o, P<7">=o, we can determine
w by a quadrature only. Hence can be deduced a much more
general result, that if the group of r parameters be integrable, the
complete system can be entirely solved by quadratures; it is only
necessary to introduce the solution found by the first quadrature as
an independent variable, whereby we obtain a complete system of
nr equations in n I variables, subject to an integrable group of
r i parameters, and to continue this process. We give some
examples of the application of the theorem, (i) If an equation of
the first order y' = $(x, y) allow the infinitesimal transformation
tdf/dx+ridf/dy, the integral curves u(x, y)=y, wherein w(x, y) is
the solution of 5+^( 3C .y) = reducing to y for x=x, are
interchanged among themselves by the infinitesimal transformation,
or <a(x, y) can be chosen to make dw/dx+ridia/dy = i; this, with
do>ldx+tda>/dy = o, determines <a as the integral of the complete
differential (dy ^(te)/(ij *l). This result itself shows that every
ordinary differential equation of the first order is subject to an
infinite number of infinitesimal transformations. But every infinit-
esimal transformation df/dx+ijdf/dy can by change of variables
(after integration) be brought to the form df/dy, and all differential
equations of the first order allowing this group can then be reduced
to the form F(x, dy/dx)=o. (2) In an ordinary equation of the
second order y" = <Kx,y, y') , equivalent tody /dx = yi,dyi/dx = <[>(x, y,yi) ,
if H,Hi be the solutions for y and yi chosen to reduce to y and
yi" when x = x, and the equations H=y, Hi = yi be equivalent
to ci)=y, <*iyi, then w, 101 are the principal solutions of
nf=df/dx+yidf/dy+<t'df/dyi = o. If the original equation allow
an infinitesimal transformation whose first extended form (see
GROUPS) is Pf=df/dx+iidf/dy-t-Tiidf/dyi, where ruSt is the increment
of dy/dx when ?8i, i? are the increments of x, y, and is to be
expressed in terms 'of x, y, yi, then each of P&> and Pw; must
be functions of a and ui, or the partial differential equation nf
must allow the group P/. Thus by our general theorem, if the
differential equation allow a group of two parameters (and such
a group is always integrable), it can be solved by quadratures, our
explanation sufficing, however, only provided the form Uf and the
two infinitesimal transformations are not linearly connected. It
can be shown, from the fact that jji is a quadratic polynomial in yi,
that no differential equation of the second order can allow more
than 8 really independent infinitesimal transformations, and that
every homogeneous linear differential equation of the second order
allows just 8, being in fact reducible to d?y/dx* = o. Since every
group of more than two parameters has subgroups of two para-
meters, a differential equation of the second order allowing a group
of more than two parameters can, as a rule, be solved by quadratures.
By transforming the group we see that if a differential equation of
the second order allows a single infinitesimal transformation, it can
be transformed to the form F(x,d-y/dx, tfy/dx*) ; this is not the case
for every differential equation of the second order. (3) For an
ordinary differential equation of the third order, allowing an integ-
rable group of three parameters whose infinitesimal transformations
are not linearly connected with the partial equation to which |the
solution of the given ordinary equation is reducible, the similar
result follows that it can be integrated by quadratures. But if the
group of three parameters be simple, this result must be replaced
by the statement that the integration is reducible to quadratures
and that of a so-called Riccati equation of the first order, of the
form dy/dx = A+By+Cy*, where A, B, C are functions of x. (4) Simi-
larly for the integration by quadratures of an ordinary equation
y n = ^(*, y, yi, y-i) of an y order. Moreover, the group allowed
by the equation may quite well consist of extended contact transfor-
mations. An important application is to the case where the differ-
ential equation is the resolvent equation defining the group of
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
235
transformations or rationality group of another differential equation
(see below) ; in particular, when the rationality group of an ordinary
linear differential equation is integrable, the equation can be solved
by quadratures.
Following the practical and provisional division of theories
of differential equations, to which we alluded at starting, into
transformation theories and function theories, we pass
now to Si ye some account of the latter. These are both
function a necessary logical complement of the former, and the
theories of only remaining resource when the expedients of the
differen- f ormer have been exhausted. While in the former
equations, investigations we have dealt only with values of the
independent variables about which the functions are
developable, the leading idea now becomes, as was long ago
remarked by G. Green, the consideration of the neighbourhood of
the values of the variables for which this developable character
ceases. Beginning, as before, with existence theorems applicable
for ordinary values of the variables, we are to consider the cases of
failure of such theorems.
When in a given set of differential equations the number of
equations is greater than the number of dependent variables, the
equations cannot be expected to have common solutions unless
certain conditions of compatibility, obtainable by equating
different forms of the same differential coefficients deducible from
the equations, are satisfied. We have had examples in systems
of linear equations, and in the case of a set of equations
Pi = <t>i, . . . ,p,=<t> r . For the case when the number of equations
is the same as that of dependent variables, the following is a
general theorem which should be referred to: Let there be r
equations in r dependent variables z\, . . . z, and n independent
variables x\, . . . x*; let the differential coefficient of
A general Za o f highest order which enters be of order h a , and
existence
theorem, suppose (rWaldxfa to enter, so that the equations can be
written d*ffZ(r/<tei*ff = <><,, where in the general differen-
tial coefficient of z p which enters in
, say
we have ki<h p and
+k n "<h p . Let
61, ... b r and bP^ . . . be a set of values of
*!,... *n, Zi, . . . 3 r
and of the differential coefficients entering in <lv about which
all the functions $1, . . . <, are developable. Corresponding
to each dependent variable z a , we take now a set of h a functions of
*2, . . .*, say 4>a, <<r (1) , . . . , <f>a' h ~ l) arbitrary save that they must
be developable about aj, a, . . . a n , and such that for these
values of &, . . . x*, the function <t> p reduces to b p , and the
differential coefficient
reduces to i''*, * Then the theorem is that there exists
one, and only one, set of functions z\, . . . z, oi x*, . . . x n
developable about a\, . . . On satisfying the given differential
equations, and such that for x\ a\ we have
Z v = <t> a , dZr/dx^t, . . . ^-V<** ff ~\ = <*>>""
And, moreover, if the arbitrary functions < ff , <j>^ . . . contain a
certain number of arbitrary variables t\, . . . lm, and be de-
velopable about the values t\, . . . t m of these variables, the
solutions Zi, . . . z T will contain l\, . . . t m , and be developable
about t, . . . t m .
The proof of this theorem may be given by showing that if
ordinary power series in *i Oi, . . . xa*, ti h", . . . tmtm
be substituted in the equations wherein in Za the coefficients of
(xi oi)", xi oi, .... (*i oOV" 1 are the arbitrary functions
4> a , <l> a w , . . . </> ff ( *~ 1) , divided respectively by I, l!, 2!, &c., then the
differential equations determine uniquely all the other coefficients,
and that the resulting series are convergent. We rely, in fact,
upon the theory of monogenic analytical functions (see FUNCTION),
a function being determined entirely by its development in the
neighbourhood of one set of values of the independent variables,
from which all its other values arise by continuation-, it being of
course understood that the coefficients in the differential equations
are to be continued at the same time. But it is to be remarked that
there is no ground for believing, if this method of continuation be
utilized, that the function is single- valued ; we may quite well return
to the same values of the independent variables with a different
value of the function, belonging, as we say, to a different
branch of the function; and there is even no reason for
assuming that the number of branches is finite, or that
different branches have the same singular points and
regions of existence. Moreover, and this is the most difficult con-
sideration of all, all these circumstances may be dependent upon the
values supposed given to the arbitrary constants of the integral ; in
other words, the singular points may be either fixed, being deter-
mined by the differential equations themselves, or they may be
movable with the variation of the arbitrary constants of integration.
Such difficulties arise even in establishing the reversion of an elliptic
integral, in solving the equation
(its) = (* '~ '
(* ~ ^ (x-a 3 )(x -a,);
about an ordinary value the right side is developable; if we put
xai=h*, the right side becomes developable about <i = o; if we
put x = i/t, the right side of the changed equation is developable
about t = o; it is quite easy to show that the integral reducing to a
definite value x a for a value s a is obtainable by a series in integral
powers; this, however, must be supplemented by showing that for
no value of s does the value of x become entirely undetermined.
These remarks will show the place of the theory now to be
sketched of a particular class of ordinary linear homogeneous
differential equations whose importance arises from
the completeness and generality with which they can Linear
be discussed. We have seen that if in the equations dltfenu-
lt . . ., d^dx = ^i, tlalequa-
where a\, 02, . . . , a n are now to be taken to be rational efficients.
functions of x, the value x=x be one for which no one of
these rational functions is infinite, and y, y\, . . . , yv_i be quite
arbitrary finite values, then the equations are satisfied by
where u, HI, . . . , u*-i are functions of x, independent of 31, ...
y-i, developable about x=x; this value of y is such that for
x = x the functions y, yi . . ;y_i reduce respectively to y, yf,
. . . y_i ; it can be proved that the region of existence of these
series extends within a circle centre x and radius equal to the
distance from x of the nearest point at which one of 01, . . . a n
becomes infinite. Now consider a region enclosing x, and only one
of the places, say 2, at which one of 01, . . . a* becomes infinite.
When x is made to describe a closed curve in this region, including
this point 2 in its interior, it may well happen that the continuations
of the functions it, ui, . . . , u^-i give, when we have returned to
the point x, values v, vj, . . ., v^-i, so that the integral under con-
sideration becomes changed to yv+yivi+ . . . +y"n-iv^.\. At
x let this branch and the corresponding values of y\, . . . yn-\ be
ri, TJI, . . . i)n-i; then, as there is only one series satisfying the
equation and reducing to (j), iji, ._ . . ijV.i) for x = x, and the
coefficients in the differential equation are single-valued functions,
we must have T) O +THWI+ . . . +i7-itt-i = 3' p+yVi-f . . . +
?%_A-ii as this holds for arbitrary values of y, . . . y^.\, upon
which u, . . . n-i and v, . . . Vn-i do not depend, it follows that
each of , . . . i>n_i is a linear function of , . . . w n _i with constant
coefficients, say fi =Aii+ . . . Ai*u*-i. Then
yv+. . . +yVif^-i = (2iA iI y < ) +. . . +(2iA in y ,)^ i:
this is equal to u(yu+ . . . +y-i*._i) if 2;A ir y i =/ 1 ji r _ 1 ;
eliminating y, . . . yn-i from these linear equations, we have a
determinantal equation of order forp; let m be one of its roots;
determining the ratios of 31, y\, . . . yn_i to satisfy the linear
equations, we have thus proved that there exists an integral,
H, of the equation, which when continued round the point 2 and
back to the starting-point, becomes changed to Hi =MiH. Let now
{ be the value of x at 2 and r\ one of the values of (i/2vi) log MI ; con-
sider the function (x fJ^iH; when x makes a circuit round * = $,
this becomes changed to
exp(-2xir t ) (x-Q-'mH,
that is, is unchanged; thus we may put H = (* ) r i<i, ^i being a
function single-valued for paths in the region considered described
about 2, and therefore, by Laurent's Theorem (see FUNCTION),
caoable of expression in the annular region about this point by a
series of positive and negative integral powers of x {, which in
general may contain an infinite number of negative powers; there is,
however, no reason to suppose n to be an integer, or even real.
Thus, if all the roots of the determinantal equation inn are different,
we obtain n integrals of the forms (* f) p i^i, . . ., (* |) r n .
In general we obtain as many integrals of this form as there are
really different roots; and the problem arises to discover, in case a
root be k times repeated, k I equations of as simple a form as
possible to replace the k I equations of the form yv+ . . . +
y n-i0n-i=p(y + +;yn-iWn-i) which would have existed had
the roots been different. The most natural method of obtaining
a suggestion lies probably in remarking that if rj = ri+ft, there is an
integral [(x ) r i + *<fc (x |) r i^i]/A, where the coefficients in fa are
236
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
the same functions of ri+fc as are the coefficients in <tn of
h vanishes, this integral takes the form
i; when
or say (x ) r i [<fo +fa log (* )];
denoting this by 2ViK, and (* ) r i <t>t by H, a circuit of the point
changes K into
A similar artifice suggests itself when three of the roots of the deter-
minantal equation are the same, and so on. We are thus led to the
result, which is justified by anexamination of the algebraic conditions,
that whatever may be the circumstances as to the roots of the
determinantal equation, n integrals exist, breaking up into
batches, the values of the constituents Hi, Hi, ... of a batch after
circuit about x = being Hi' = /aiHi, H 2 ' = MiH 2 +Hi, H 3 '=MiH 3 +H 2 ,
and so on. And this is found to lead to the forms (x ) r i0i,
and so on. Here each of <t>i, fa, xi, X2, is a series of positive
and negative integral powers of x in which the number of negative
powers may be infinite.
It appears natural enough now to inquire whether, under proper
conditions for the forms of the rational functions ai, . . . a n , it may
be possible to ensure that in each of the series &, fa, \i, .
the number of negative powers shall be finite. Herein
equations. jj gs> j n f act> tne limitation w hich experience has shown
to be justified by the completeness of the results obtained. Assum-
ing n integrals in which in each of <fa, fa, Xi the number of
negative powers is finite, there is a definite homogeneous linear
differential equation having these integrals; this is found by
forming it to have the form
where 61, . . . b n are finite for x = !-. Conversely, assume the
equation to have this form. Then on substituting a series of
the form (*-) r [i+Ai(*-J)-)-A 2 (x-) 2 + . . .] and equating the
coefficients of like powers of x , it is found that r must be a root of
an algebraic equation of order n ; this equation, which we shall call
the index equation, can be obtained at once by substituting for y
only (x ) r and replacing each of 61, ... & by their values at
x = ; arrange the roots r\, r a , ... of this equation so that the
real part of ri is equal to, or greater than, the real part of rt+i,
and take r equal to TI; it is found that the coefficients Ai, A 2 . . .
are uniquely determinate, and that the series converges within a
circle about * = which includes no other of the points at which
the rational functions oi, . . . <i become infinite. We have thus a
solution Hi = (* ) r i<fo of the differential equation. If we now
substitute in the equation y = Hifridx, it is found to reduce to an
equation of order n i for TJ of the form
where Ci, . . . Cn-i are not infinite at x = . To this equation
precisely similar reasoning can then be applied ; its index equation
has in fact the roots r t ri I, . . . , r n r\ i; if rt ri be zero,
the integral (* )~ l fa of the ij equation will give an integral of the
original equation containing log (x ); if r 2 r\ be an integer, and
therefore a negative integer, the same will be true, unless in ^i the
term in (x ) r i~ r 2 be absent; if neither of these arise, the original
equation will have an integral (x ) r 2<fe. The t\ equation can now,
by means of the one integral of it belonging to the index r 2 r\ I,
be similarly reduced to one of order n 2, and so on. The result will
be that stated above. We shall say that an equation of the form in
question is regular about x = {.
We may examine in this way the behaviour of the integrals at
all the points at which any one of the rational functions u, . . , n. :
becomes infinite; in general we must expect that beside
these the value x = oo will be a singula.- point for the
equations. so i ut i O ns of the differential equation. To test this we
put x = i/t throughout, and examine as before at t = o. For instance,
the ordinary linear equation with constant coefficients has no singular
point for finite values of x; at x = 00 it has a singular point and is not
regular; or again, Bessel's equation x*y"+xy' + (x 2 n?)y = o is
regular about x = o, but not about * = oo . An equation regular at all
the finite singularities and also at x = x is called a Fuchsian equation.
We proceed to examine particularly the case of an equation of the
second order
y"+ay'+by = o.
Putting x = l/t, it becomes
which is not regular about t = o unless 2 at' 1 and ftr 1 , that is,
unless ax and bx 1 are finite at # = ao ; which we thus assume; putting
a n y = t T (l+A t t+ . ..), wefindfor the index equation at # = oo
ftthl theequationr(r-i)+r(2-a*) +(&* 2 )o = o. If there be
second finite Sm 8 ular points at It, . . . | m , where we assume
ord , r m>l, the cases m = o, m = i being easily dealt with, and
if *(*) = (*-i) . . . (*-&), we must have a.$(x)
and &.[#()]* finite for all finite values of x, equal say to the re-
spective polynomials ^(x) and 0(x), of which by the conditions at
x = the highest respective orders possible are m I and 2(m i).
and if 01, A be its roots, we have ai+ft = i iA(6)/*'(fi) and
tift=0(i)/[#'(i)] 2 . Thus by an elementary theorem of algebra,
the sum S(l ai 0i)/(x fc), extended to the m finite singular
points, is equal to t(x)/<t>(x), and the sum 2(i -oi-ft) is equal to
the ratio of the coefficients of the highest powers of x in t(x) and
<t>(x), and therefore equal to l+a+0, where a, are the indices at
x = oo . Further, if (x, l)m_ 2 denote the integral part of the quotient
B(x)/<t>(x), we have2a,ft0'(&)/(*-i) equal to-(x, i) m - 2 +9(*)/0(*),
and the coefficient of ac- 2 in (x, l) m - 2 is a/3. Thus the differential
equation has the form
y"+/2(i-oi-ft)/(*-ii)+y[(*. i)-i+2o<&0'(&)/(*-&)]/*(*) =0.
If, however, .we make a change in the dependent variable, putting
y = (x i)i . . . (x m)m>i, it is easy to see that the equation
changes into one having the same singular points about each of
which it is regular, and that the indices at x = {,- become o and ft a,,
which we shall denote by X;, for (x {,)"j can be developed in positive
integral powers of x , about * = &; by this transformation the
indices at x = oo are changed to
a+oi + . . . +a m , /3+ft + . . . +/3 ra
which we shall denote by A, /*. If we suppose this change to have
been introduced, and still denote the independent variable by y,
the equation has the form
y"+y"S(i-\i)l(x-^+y(x, i),_,/0(*) =o,
while X+M+XI+ . . . +\m = m I. Conversely, it is easy to verify
that if XM be the coefficient of * m ~ 2 in (x, l) m _ 2 , this equation has
the specified singular points and indices whatever be the other
coefficients in (*, l)m- 2 .
Thus we see that (beside the cases m = o, m = i) the " Fuchsian
equation " of the second order with two finite singular points is
distinguished by the fact that it has a definite form
when the singular points and the indices are assigned. *w | sw
In that case, putting (-&)/(*&)- t/(t - 1 ) , the singular "
points are transformed to o, I , op , and, as is clear, without e 1" atloa -
change of indices. Still denoting the independent variable by x,
the equation then has the form
*(i -x)y"+y'[i -Ai -x(i +X+M)] -X/ry =o,
which is the ordinary hypergeometric equation. Provided none
of AI, X 2 , X M be zero or integral about x = o, it has the solutions
F(X, n, i -X,, *), x\F(\+\i, M+XI, i+Ai, x) ;
about x = I it has the solutions
F(X, M, I -X 2 , i -*), (i -x)^P(\+\ i , M +X 2 , i +X 2 , i -*),
where X+M+Xi + X 2 = i ; about * = oo it has the solutions
*-*F(X, X+X,, X- M +i, *-i)
where F(o, /3, y, x) is the series
a0x a
h 7 1.2.7(7 + 1) '
which converges when |*i<l, whatever o, /3, 7 may be, converges
f or all values of x for which \x\ = I provided the real part of 7 o /S<o
algebraically, and converges for all these values except x = i provided
the real part of 7 o /3 > I algebraically.
In accordance with our general theory, logarithms are to be ex-
pected in the solution when one of Xj, X 2 , X ju is zero or integral.
Indeed when Xi is a negative integer, not zero, the second solution
about x = o would contain vanishing factors in the denominators
of its coefficients; in case X or n be one of the positive integers
I, 2, ... ( Xi), vanishing factors occur also in the numerators;
and then, in fact, the second solution about x = o becomes x\ times
an integral polynomial of degree ( Xi) X or of degree ( Xi) it.
But when Xi is a negative integer including zero, and neither X nor ji
is one of the positive integers I, 2 ... ( Xi), the second solution
about x = o involves a term having the factor log x. When Xi is a
positive integer, not zero, the second solution about x = o persists as
a solution, in accordance with the order of arrangement of the roots
of the index equation in our theory; the first solution is then
replaced by an integral polynomial of degree X or in, when Xor PL
is one of the negative integers o, I, 2, . . ., I Xi, but otherwise
contains a logarithm. Similarly for the solutions about x = i or
x <x> ; it will be seen below how the results are deducible from
those for x = o.
Denote now the solutions about x = o by i, *; those about * = i
by PI, 2 ; and those about x = <x by ti, a> 2 ; in the region (S Si)
common to the circles S a , Si of radius I whose centres
are the points x = o, * = i, all the first four are valid,
and there exist equations i=Ari+Bti 2 , 2 = Cwi + Dt; 2 , .
where A, B, C, D are constants; in the region (S.S)
lying inside the circle Si and outside the circle So, those that are
valid are v\, t> 2 , 101, w t , and there exist equations i = Paii+Qt 2)
vi = Rwi+Twt, where P, Q, R, T are constants; thus considering
any integral whose expression within the circle S<, is aui+bu,, where
o, 6 are constants, the same integral will be represented within the
circle Si by (oA+6C)i + (aB+6D)u 2 , and outside these circles will be
represented by
_
A single-valued branch of such integral can be obtained by making
a barrier in the plane joining oo to o and I to oo ; for instance, by
excluding the consideration of real negative values of x and of real
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
237
positive values greater than i, and defining the phase of x and x-i
for real values between o and I as respectively o and r.
We can form the Fuchsian equation of the second order with
three arbitrary singular points &, 2 , { s , and no singular point
_ . at x = oo, and with respective indices a!, /Si, at, ft, a 3 , /Sjsuch
ntloaof thatai-h8i+aj+ft+a-t-0 = l. This equation can then be
the eaua- transformed mto the hypergepmetric equation in 24 ways;
lloa into' f r out f '' ^ 2l ^ 3 we can ' n s * x wavs choose two, say
itself &' &' wn i cn are to be transformed respectively into
o and i, by (x-fi)/(x-| 2 )=<(<-i); and then there
are four possible transformations of the dependent variable which
will reduce one of the indices at t = o to zero and one of the indices
at t = i also to zero, namely, we may reduce either 01 or /3i at / = o,
and simultaneously either o 2 or fa at t=i. Thus the hypergeo-
metric equation itself can be transformed into itself in 24 ways,
and from the expression F(X, ju, i-Ai, x) which satisfies it follow 23
other forms of solution; they involve four series in each of the argu-
ments, x, x-i, ijx, i/(i-x), (x-i)/x, x/(x-i). Five of the 23
solutions agree with the fundamental solutions already described
about x = o, x = l, x = ao ; and from the principles by which these
were obtained it is immediately clear that the 24 forms are, in value,
equal in fours.
The quarter periods K, K' of Jacobi's theory of elliptic functions,
of which K = j"f*(i-h sin *))~*d<j, and K' is the same function of
i-h, can easily be proved to be the solutions of a hypergeometric
equation of which is the independent variable. When K, K' are
Inversion. re g ar ded as defined in terms of h by the differential
Modular ' equation, the ratio K'/K is an infinitely many valued
functions, function of h. But it is remarkable that Jacobi's own
theory of theta functions leads to an expression for h in
terms of K'/K (see FUNCTION) in terms of single-valued functions.
We may then attempt to investigate, in general, in what cases the
independent variable x of a hypergeometric equation is a single- valued
function of the ratio s of two independent integrals of the equation.
The same inquiry is suggested by the problem of ascertaining in what
cases the hypergeometric series F(a, /3, y, x) is the expansion of an
algebraic (irrational) function of x. In order to explain the meaning
of the question, suppose that the plane of x is divided along the real
axis from -o> to o and from i to + , and, supposing logarithms
not to enter about x = o, choose two quite definite integrals yi, yi of
the equation, say
j>i = F(X, M, i-Xi,*),yi = x A iF(X+Xi,/+Xi, l+Xi,x),
with the condition that the phase of x is zero when x is real
and between o and i. Then the value of s=yi/yi is definite for all
values of * in the divided plane, s being a single-valued monogenic
branch of an analytical function existing and without singularities
all over this region. If, now, the values of s that so arise be plotted
on to another plane, a value p+iq of s being represented by a point
(p, q) of this j-plane, and the value of x from which it arose being
mentally associated with this point of the s-plane, these points will
fill a connected region therein, with a continuous boundary formed
of four portions corresponding to the two sides of the two barriers
of the x-plane. The question is then, firstly, whether the same value
of s can arise for two different values of x, that is, whether the same
point (p , q) of the s-plane can arise twice, or in other words, whether
the region of the s-plane overlaps itself or not. Supposing this is not
so, a second part of the question presents itself. If in the x-plane the
barrier joining - oo to o be momentarily removed, and x describe a
small circle with centre at x = o starting from a point x= -h-ik,
where h, k are small, real, and positive and coming back to this point,
the original value s at this point will be changed to a value a, which in
the original case did not arise for this value of x, and possibly not
at all. If, now, after restoring the barrier the values arising by
continuation from <r be similarly plotted on the s-plane, we shall
again obtain a region which, while not overlapping itself, may quite
possibly overlap the former region. In that case two values of x
would arise for the same value or values of the quotient yi/y\, arising
from two different branches of this quotient. We shall understand
then, by the condition that x is to be a single-valued function .of x,
that the region in the s-plane corresponding to any branch is not to
overlap itself, and that no two of the regions corresponding to the
different branches are to overlap. Now in describing the circle
about x = o from x = -h-ik to -h+ik, where h is small and k
evanescent,
s = x*iF(X+X!, ju+X,, i +x,, x)/F(X, n, l-Xi, x)
is changed to <r = j^ lr A i. Thus the two portions of boundary of the
s-region corresponding to the two sides of the barrier (-00,0) meet
(at s = o if the real part of Xi be positive) at an angle 2-irLi, where LI
is the absolute value of the real part of Xi ; the same is true for the
ff-region representing the branch a-. The condition that the s-region
shall not overlap itself requires, then, Li=l. But, further, we may
form an infinite number of branches <r = se 2ir < A i, ai=e i "'^i, ... in
the same way, and the corresponding regions in the plane upon which
yily\ is represented will have a common point and each have an
angle 2;rLi ; if neither overlaps the preceding, it will happen, if LI
is not zero, that at length one is reached overlapping the first, unless
for some positive integer a we have 2iraLi = 2jr, in other words
Li = i/a. If this be so, the branch a -i=se 2ir **l will be represented
by a region having the angle at the common point common with the
region for the branch s ; but not altogether coinciding with this last
region unless Xi be real, and therefore = 1/0; then there is only
a finite number, a, of branches obtainable in this way by crossing
the barrier (- , o). In precisely the same way, if we had begun
by taking the quotient
, i+X 2 , l-x)/F(X, M , i-X 2 , i-x)
of the two solutions about * = i , we should have found that x is not
a single-valued function of $' unless X 2 is the inverse of an integer, or
is zero; as $' is of the form (As-|-B)/(Cs + D), A, B, C, D constants,
the same is true in our case; equally, by considering the integrals
about x = > we find, as a third condition necessary in order that x
may be a single-valued function of s, that X-/ must be the inverse
of an integer or be zero. These three differences of the indices,
namely, Xi, X 2 , X-AI, are the quantities which enter in the differential
equation satisfied by x as a function of ?, which is easily found to be
where xi=dxlds, &c. ; and hi = i-yi 1 , h> = i-X 2 2 , h 3 = i-(X-ji) 1 . Into
the converse question whether the three conditions are sufficient
to ensure (i) that the s region corresponding to any branch does
not overlap itself, (2) that no two such regions overlap, we have no
space to enter. The second question clearly requires the inquiry
whether the group (that is, the monodromy group) of the differential
equation is properly discontinuous. ( See GROUPS, THEORY OF.)
The foregoing account will give an idea of the nature of the
function theories of differential equations; it appears essential
not to exclude some explanation of a theory intimately related
both to such theories and to transformation theories, which is a
generalization of Galois's theory of algebraic equations. We deal
only with the application to homogeneous linear differential
equations.
In general a function of variables Xi, Xi . . . is said to be rational
when it can be formed from them and the integers i, 2, 3, ... by a
finite number of additions, subtractions, multiplications p a </ ona /
and divisions. We generalize this definition. Assume that L, U/ , /
we have assigned a fundamental series of quantities and f^^ar
functions of x, in which x itself is included, such that all equation
quantities formed by a finite number of additions, subtrac-
tions, multiplications, divisions and differentiations in regard to x,
of the terms of this series, are themselves members of this series.
Then the quantities of this series, and only these, are called rational.
By a rational function of quantities p, q, r, ... is meant a function
formed from them and any of the fundamental rational quantities
by a finite number of the five fundamental operations. Thus it is a
function which would be called, simply, rational if the fundamental
series were widened by the addition to it of the quantities p,q,r, ...
and those derivable from them by the five fundamental operations.
A rational ordinary differential equation, with x as independent and
y as dependent variable, is then one which equates to zero a rational
function of y, the order k of the differential equation being that of the
highest differential coefficient /*' which enters; only such equations
are here discussed. Such an equation P = o is called irreducible when,
firstly, being arranged as an integral polynomial in y<*>, this poly-
nomial is not the product of other polynomials in /''also
of rational .form ; and, secondly, the equation has no
solution satisfying also a rational equation of lower order.
From this it follows that if an irreducible equation P=o
have one solution satisfying another rational equation Q = o
of the same or higher order, then all the solutions of P =o also satisfy
Q = o. For from the equation P = o we can by differentiation express
,y(t+i> ) jK*+2) > ... j n terms of x, y, yW, .... y 1 ", and so put the
function Q rationally in terms of these quantities only. It is
sufficient, then, to prove the result when the equation Q = o is of the
same order as P = o. Let both the equations be arranged as integral
polynomials in /*> ; their algebraic eliminant in regara to /*> must
then vanish identically, for they are known to have one common
solution not satisfying an equation of lower order; thus the equation
P =o involves Q =o for all solutions of P =o.
Now let jK>=aiy<"-j> + . . . +a n y be a given rational homo-
geneous linear differential equation; let y\, . . . y n be n particular
functions of x, unconnected by any equation with constant co-
efficients of the form Ciyi+ -\-c a y n =o, all satisfying
the differential equation; let iji, . . . ij n be linear functions
of y\, . . . y n , say in=h.nyi+ . . . +Ai,y n , where the
constant coefficients A;,- have a non-vanishing deter-
minant ; write (y) = A(y), these being the equations of a
general linear homogeneous group whose transformations
may be denoted by A, B, .... We desire to form a
rational function 0(ij), or say <(A(y)), of iji, . . . >j, in which the
i) 2 constants A,-/ shall all be essential, and not feduce effectively to a
fewer number, as they would, for instance, if the yi, . . . y* were
connected by a linear equation with constant coefficients. Such a
function is in fact given, if the solutions y it . . . y n be developable
Irreducl-
bllity of a
rational
equation.
The
variant
function
fora
linear
equation.
2 3 8
DIFFLUGIA DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
by its
in positive integral powers about x =
(x a) 1 "- 1 '"!),. Such a function, V, we call a variant.
Then differentiating V in regard to *, and replacing
value Oii) ( "- l) +. . . +OTI, we can arrange dV/dx, and similarly each
of d*V/dx* . . . d^V/dx^, where N=n*, as a linear function of
the N quantities m, . . .17., . . . m*"- 1 ', W-^.and
thence by elimination obtain a linear differential equation
for V of order N with rational coefficients. This we
equation. d eno teby F=o. Further, each of iji, . . . ij is expressible
as a linear function of V, dV/dx, . . . dN- 1 V/d* N - 1 , with rational co-
efficients not involving any of the n 2 coefficients Ai,-, since otherwise
V would satisfy a linear equation of order less than N, which is
impossible, as it involves (linearly) the w 2 arbitrary coefficients Ai,-,
which would not enter into the coefficients of the supposed equation.
In particular, yi, . . . y n are expressible rationally as linear functions
of u, du/dx, . . . dF-Lw/dx* 1 - 1 , where u> is the particular function
<t>(y). Any solution W of the equation F = o is derivable from
functions f lt . . . f, which are linear functions of yi, . . . y n , just
as V was derived from iji, . . .ij; but it does not follow that these
functions fi, . . . f.are obtained from yi, . . . y by a transforma-
tion of the linear group A, B, . . . ; for it may happen that the
determinant d(fi,. . . fn)/(dyi, . . . ?) is zero. In that case
fi,. . . f n may be called a singular set, and W a singular solution ; it
satisfiesan equation of lower than the N-th order. But every solution
V, W, ordinary or singular, of the equation F=o, is expressible
rationally in terms of , du/dx, . . . d^-^/dx^- 1 ; we shall write,
simply, V=r(u). Consider now the rational irreducible equation
of lowest order, not necessarily a linear equation, which is satisfied
by >; as y\, . . . y n are particular functions, it may quite well
be of order less than N ; we call it the resolvent equation, suppose it
of order p, and denote it by y(v). Upon it the whole theory turns.
In the first place, as y(v) =o is satisfied by the solution of F=o, all
the solutions of y(v) are solutions F = o, and are therefore rationally
expressible by ; any one may then be denoted by r(o>). If this
solution of F = o be not singular, it corresponds to a transformation
A of the linear group (A, B, . . .), effected upon yi, . . . y. The
coefficients Ai,- of this transformation follow from the expressions
before mentioned for iji. . .i^in terms of VjdV/dx.&V/dx 1 , ... by
substituting V = r(u); thus they depend on the p arbitrary para-
meters which enter into the general expression for the integral of
the equation y(v) =o. Without going into further details, it is then
clear enough that the resolvent equation, being irreducible and such
that any solution is expressible rationally, with p parameters, in
terms of the solution a, enables us to define a linear homogeneous
group of transformations of yi . . . y n depending on p parameters ;
and every operation of this (continuous) group corresponds to a
rational transformation of the solution of the resolvent equation.
This is the group called the rationality group, or the group of trans-
formations of the original homogeneous linear differential equation.
The group must not be confounded with a subgroup of itself,
the monodromy group of the equation, often called simply the group
of the equation, which is a set of transformations, not depend-
ing on arbitrary variable parameters, arising for one particular
fundamental set of solutions of the linear equation (see GROUPS,
THEORY OF).
The importance of the rationality group consists in three proposi-
tions. (i) Any rational function of yi, . . . y which is unaltered in
* value by the transformations of the group can be written
The fan- ; n ra t; ona l form. (2) If any rational function be changed
* in form, becoming a rational function of yi, . . . y n , a
"", transformation of the group applied to its new form will
leave its value unaltered. (3) Any homogeneous linear
ration- transformation leaving unaltered the value of every
allty ' rational function of yi, . . . y which has a rational value,
rroup. belongs to the group. It follows from these that any
group of linear homogeneous transformations having the
properties (i) (2) is identical with the group in question. It is clear
that with these properties the group must be of the greatest import-
ance in attempting to'discover what functions of x must be regarded as
rational in order that the values of yi . . . y n may be expressed.
And this is the problem of solving the equation from another point
of view.
LITERATURE. (o) Formal or Transformation Theories for Equations
of the First Order: E. Goursat, Lemons sur I' integration des equa-
tions aux derivees partielles du premier ordre (Paris, 1891); E. v.
Weber, Vorlesungen uber das Pfajfsche Problem und die Theorie der
partiellen Differentialgleichungen erster Ordnung (Leipzig, 1900);
S. Lie und G. Scheffers, Geometrie der Beruhrungstransformationen,
Bd. i. (Leipzig, 1896); Forsyth, Theory of Differential Equations,
Part i., Exact Equations and P faffs Problem (Cambridge, 1890);
S. Lie, "Allgemeine Untersuchungen fiber Differentialgleichungen, die
eine continuirliche endliche Gruppe gestatten " (Memoir), Mathem.
Annal. xxv. (1885), pp. 71-151 ; S. Lie und G. Scheffers, Vorlesungen
uber Differentialgleichungen mil bekannten infinitesimalen Transforma-
tionen (Leipzig, 1891). A very full bibliography is given in the book
of E. v. Weber referred to ; those here named are perhaps sufficiently
representative of modern works. Of classical works may be named :
Jacobi, Vorlesungen uber Dynamik (von A. Clebsch, Berlin, 1866);
Werke, Supplementband; G Monge, Application de I'analyse a la
geometrie (par M. Liouville, Paris, 1850); J. L. Lagrange, Lemons
sur le calcul des fonctions (Paris, 1806), and Theorie des fonctions
analytiques (Paris, Prairial, an V); G. Boole, A Treatise on Differ-
ential Equations (London, 1859); and Supplementary Volume
(London, 1865); Darboux, Lefons sur la theorie generals des
surfaces, tt. i.-iv. (Paris, 1887-1896); S. Lie, Theorie der transforma-
tionsgruppen ii. (on Contact Transformations) (Leipzig, 1890).
(/3) Quantitative or Function Theories for Linear Equations:
C. Jordan, Cours d' analyse, t. iii. (Paris, 1896); E. Picard, Traite
d'analyse, tt. ii. and iii. (Paris, 1893, 1896); Fuchs, Various
Memoirs, beginning with that in Crelle's Journal, Bd. Ixvi. p. 121;
Riemann, Werke, 2' Aufl. (1892); Schlesinger, Handbuch der
Theorie der linearen Differentialgleichungen, Bde. i.-ii. (Leipzig,
18957-1898); Heffter, Einleitung in die Theorie der linearen Differen-
tialgleichungen mil einer unabhdngigen Variablen (Leipzig, 1894) ;
Klein, Vorlesungen uber lineare Diflerentialgleichungen der zweiten
Ordnung (Autographed, Gottingen, 1894); and Vorlesungen uber
die hypergeometrische Function (Autographed, Gottingen, 1894);
Forsyth, Theory of Differential Equations, Linear Equations.
(y) Rationality Group (of Linear Differential Equations):
Picard, Traite d' Analyse, as above, t. iii.; Vessiot, Annales de
I'Ecole Normale, serie III. t. ix. p. 199 (Memoir); S. Lie,
Transformationsgruppen, as above, iii. A connected account is
given in Schlesinger, as above, Bd. ii., erstes Theil.
(i) Function Theories of Non-Linear Ordinary Equations:
Painlev6, Lemons sur la theorie analytique des equations differentielles
(Paris, 1897, Autographed); Forsyth, Theory of Differential Equa-
tions, Part ii.. Ordinary Equations not Linear (two volumes, ii. and iii.)
(Cambridge, 1900) ; Kpnigsberger, Lehrbuch der Theorie der Differen-
tialgleichungen (Leipzig, 1889); Painlev6, Lefons sur Vintegration
des Equations differentielles de la mecanique et applications (Paris,
1895)-
(f) Formal Theories of Partial Equations of the Second and Higher
Orders: E. Goursat, Lemons sur Vintegration des equations aux
derivees partielles du second ordre, tt. i. and ii. (Paris, 1896, 1898);
Forsyth, Treatise on Differential Equations (London, 1889); and
Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (A.), vol. cxci. (1898), pp. 1-86.
(f) See also the six extensive articles in the second volume of
the German Encyclopaedia of Mathematics. (H. F. BA.)
DIFFLUGIA (L. Leclerc), a genus of lobose Rhizopoda, char-
acterized by a shell formed of sand granules cemented together;
these are swallowed by the animal, and during the process of
bud-fission they pass to the surface of the daughter-bud and
are cemented there. Centropyxis (Steia) and Lecqueureuxia
(Schlumberg) differ only in minor points.
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT. i. When light proceeding from
a small source falls upon an opaque object, a shadow is cast upon
a screen situated behind the obstacle, and this shadow is found to
be bordered by alternations of brightness and darkness, known
as " diffraction bands." The phenomena thus presented were
described by Grimaldi and by Newton. Subsequently T. Young
showed that in their formation interference plays an important
part, but the complete explanation was reserved for A. J. Fresnel.
Later investigations by Fraunhofer, Airy and others have
greatly widened the field, and under the head of " diffraction "
are now usually treated all the effects dependent upon the
limitation of a beam of light, as well as those which arise from
irregularities of any kind at surfaces through which it is trans-
mitted, or at which it is reflected.
2. Shadows. In the infancy of the undulatory theory the
objection most frequently urged against it was the difficulty of
explaining the very existence of shadows. Thanks to Fresnel
and his followers, this department of optics is now precisely the
one in which the theory has gained its greatest triumphs. The
principle employed in these investigations is due to C. Huygens,
and may be thus formulated. If round the origin of waves an
ideal closed surface be drawn, the whole action of the waves in the
region beyond may be regarded as due to the motion continually
propagated across the various elements of this surface. The wave
motion due to any element of the surface is called a secondary
wave, and in estimating the total effect regard must be paid to the
phases as well as the amplitudes of the components. It is usually
convenient to choose as the surface of resolution a wave-front, i.e.
a surface at which the primary vibrations are in one phase. Any
obscurity that may hang over Huygens's principle is due mainly to
the indefiniteness of thought and expression which we must be
content to put up with if we wish to avoid pledging ourselves as
to the character of the vibrations. In the application to sound,
where we know what we are dealing with, the matter is simple
enough in principle, although mathematical difficulties would
often stand in the way of the calculations we might wish to make.
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
239
FIG. i.
The ideal surface of resolution may be there regarded as a flexible
lamina; and we know that, if by forces locally applied every
element of the lamina be made to move normally to itself exactly
as the air at that place does, the external aerial motion is fully
determined. By the principle of superposition the whole effect
may be found by integration of the partial effects due to each
element of the surface, the other elements remaining at rest.
We will now consider in detail the important case in which uniform
plane waves are resolved at a surface coincident with a wave-front
(OQ). We imagine a wave-front divided
* Q into elementary rings or zones often named
after Huygens, but better after Fresnel
by spheres described round P (the point at
which the aggregate effect is to be estimated),
the first sphere, touching the plane at O, with
a radius equal to PO, and the succeeding
spheres with radii increasing at each step
by $X. There are thus marked out_ a series
of circles, whose radii * are given by
x*+r 2 = (r+inX) 2 , or x? =nXr nearly ; so that
the rings are at first of nearly equal area.
Now the effect upon P of each element of the
plane is proportional to its area; but it
depends also upon the distance from P, and possibly upon the
inclination of the secondary ray to the direction of vibration and
to the wave-front.
The latter question can only be treated in connexion with the
dynamical theory (see below, 1 1) ; but under all ordinary circum-
stances the result is independent of the precise answer that may be
given. All that it is necessary to assume is that the effects of the
successive zones gradually diminish, whether from the increasing
obliquity of the secondary ray or because (on account of the limita-
tion of the region of integration) the zones become at last more and
more incomplete. The component vibrations at P due to the
successive zones are thus nearly equal in amplitude and opposite in
phase (the phase of each corresponding to that of the infinitesimal
circle midway between the boundaries), and the series which we have
to sum is one in which the terms are alternately opposite in sign
and, while at first nearly constant in numerical magnitude, gradually
diminish to zero. In such a series each term may be regarded as very
nearly indeed destroyed by the halves of its immediate neighbours,
and thus the sum of the whole series is represented by half the first
term, which stands over uncompensated. The question is thus
reduced to that of finding the effect of the first zone, or central
circle, of which the area is ir\r.
We have seen that the problem before us is independent of the
law of the secondary wave as regards obliquity; but the result of
the integration necessarily involves the law of the intensity and
phase of a secondary wave as a function of r, the distance from the
origin. And we may in fact, as was done by A. Smith (Camb. Math.
Journ., 1843, 3, p. 46), determine the law of the secondary wave, by
comparing the result of the integration with that obtained by sup-
posing the primary wave to pass on to P without resolution.
Now as to the phase of the secondary wave, it might appear
natural to suppose that it starts from any point Q with the phase
of the primary wave, so that on arrival at P, it is retarded by the
amount corresponding to QP. But a little consideration will prove
that in that case the series of secondary waves could not reconstitute
the primary wave. For the aggregate effect of the secondary waves
is the half of that of the first Fresnel zone, and it is the central
element only of that zone for which the distance to be travelled is
equal to r. Let us conceive the zone in question to be divided
into infinitesimal rings of equal area. The effects due to each of
these rings are equal in amplitude and of phase ranging uniformly
over half a complete period. The phase of the resultant is midway
between those of the extreme elements, that is to say, a quarter of
a period behind that due to the element at the centre of the circle.
It is accordingly necessary to suppose that the secondary waves
start with a phase one-quarter of a period in advance of that of the
primary wave at the surface of resolution.
Further, it is evident that account must be taken of the variation
of phase in estimating the magnitude of the effect at P of the first
zone. The middle element alone contributes without deduction;
the effect of every other must be found by introduction of a resolv-
ing factor, equal to cos 6, if 9 represent the difference of phase
between this element and the resultant. Accordingly, the amplitude
of the resultant will be less than if all its components had the same
phase, in the ratio
-+JT
cos 9d6 : JT,
or 2: r. Now 2 area /ir = 2Xr; so that, in order to reconcile the
amplitude of the primary wave (taken as unity) with the half effect
of the first zone, the amplitude, at distance r, of the secondary wave
emitted from the element of area dS must be taken to be
dS/Xr ........ (1).
_2j /"
Xjo
By this expression, in. conjunction with the quarter-period accelera-
tion of phase, the law of the secondary wave is determined.
That the amplitude of the secondary wave should vary as r~ l was
to be expected from considerations respecting energy; but the
occurrence of the factor X~ l , and the acceleration of phase, have
sometimes been regarded as mysterious. It may be well therefore
to remember that precisely these laws apply to a secondary wave
of sound, which can be investigated upon the strictest mechanical
principles.
The recomposition of the secondary waves may also be treated
analytically. If the primary wave at O be cos kat, the effect of the
secondary wave proceeding from the element dS> at Q is
rfS dS .
j^ cos k(al-p+l\) - -j^ sin k(at p).
If dS = 2vxdx, we have for the whole effect
sink(at-p)xdx
o ~ P
or, since xdx pdp, k = 2ir/X,
k sin k(atp)dp= [cos k(at p)]"^
In order to obtain the effect of the primary wave, as retarded by
traversing the distance r, viz. cos k(at-r), it is necessary to suppose
that the integrated term vanishes at the upper limit. And it is im-
portant to notice that without some further understanding the
integral is really ambiguous. According to the assumed law of
the secondary wave, the result must actually depend upon the
precise radius of the outer boundary of the region of integration,
supposed to be exactly circular. This case is, however, at most
very special and exceptional. We may usually suppose that a large
number of the outer rings are incomplete, so that the integrated term
at the upper limit may properly be taken to vanish. If a formal
proof be desired, it may be obtained by introducing into the integral
a factor such as tf"**", in which h is ultimately made to diminish
without limit.
When the primary wave is plane, the area of the first Fresnel
zone is irXr, and, since the secondary waves vary as r~ l , the intensity
is independent of r, as of course it should be. If, however, the
primary wave be spherical, and of radius a at the wave-front of
resolution, then we know that at a distance r further on the
amplitude of the primary wave will be diminished in the ratio
o:(r+a). This may be regarded as a consequence of the altered
area of the first Fresnel zone. For, if * be its radius, we have
so that
x t = \ar/(a+r) nearly.
Since the distance to be travelled by the secondary waves is still
r, we see how the effect of the first zone, and therefore of the whole
series is proportional to a/(a+r). In like manner may be treated
other cases, such as that of a primary wave-front of unequal principal
curvatures.
The general explanation of the formation of shadows may also
be conveniently based upon Fresnel's zones. If the point under
consideration be so far away from the geometrical shadow that a
large number of the earlier zones are complete, then the illumina-
tion, determined sensibly by the first zone, is the same as if there
were no obstruction at ajl. If, on the other hand, the point be well
immersed in the geometrical shadow, the earlier zones are altogether
missing, and, instead of a series of terms beginning with finite
numerical magnitude and gradually diminishing to zero, we have
now to deal with one of which the terms diminish to zero at both
ends. The sum of such a series is very approximately zero, each term
being neutralized by the halves of its immediate neighbours, which
are of the opposite sign. The question of light or darkness then
depends upon whether the series begins or ends abruptly. With few
exceptions, abruptness can occur only in the presence of the first
term, viz. when the secondary wave of least retardation is unob-
structed, or when a ray passes through the point under consideration.
According to the undulatory theory the light cannot be regarded
strictly as travelling along a ray ; but the existence of an unobstructed
ray implies that the system of Fresnel's zones can be commenced,
and, if a large number of these zones are fully developed and do not
terminate abruptly, the illumination is unaffected by the neighbour-
hood of obstacles. Intermediate cases in which a few zones only are
formed belong especially to the province of diffraction.
An interesting exception to the general rule that full brightness
requires the existence of the first zone occurs when the obstacle
assumes the form of a small circular disk parallel to the plane of
the incident waves. In the earlier half of the i8th century R. Delisle
found that the centre of the circular shadow was occupied by a
bright point of light, but the observation passed into oblivion
until S. D. Poisson brought forward as an objection to Fresnel's
theory that it required at the centre of a circular shadow a point as
bright as if no obstacle were intervening. If we conceive the primary
wave to be broken up at the plane of the disk, a system of Fresnel s
zones can be constructed which begin from the circumference;
and the first zone external to the disk plays the part ordinarily
taken by the centre of the entire system. The whole effect is the
240
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
half of that of the first existing zone, and this is sensibly the same
as if there were no obstruction.
When light passes through a small circular or annular aperture,
the illumination at any point along the axis depends upon the
precise relation between the aperture and the distance from it at
which the point is taken. If, as in the last paragraph, we imagine
a system of zones to be drawn commencing from the inner circular
boundary of the aperture, the question turns upon the manner in
which the series terminates at the outer boundary. If the aperture
be such as to fit exactly an integral number of zones, the aggregate
effect may be regarded as the half of those due to the first and last
zones. If the number of zones be even, the action of the first and last
zones are antagonistic, and there is complete darkness at the point.
If on the other hand the number of zones be odd, the effects con-
spire; and the illumination (proportional to the square of the ampli-
tude) is four times as great as if there were no obstruction at all.
The process of augmenting the resultant illumination at a par-
ticular point by stopping some of the secondary rays may be carried
much further (Soret, Pogg. Ann., 1875, 156, p. 99). By the aid of
photography it is easy to prepare a plate, transparent where the zones
of oda order fall, and opaque where those of even order fall. Such
a plate has the power of a condensing lens, and gives an illumination
out of all jproportion to what could be obtained without it. An even
greater effect (fourfold) can be attained by providing that the
stoppage of the light from the alternate zones is replaced by a
phase-reversal without loss of amplitude. R. W. Wood (Phil. Mag.,
1898, 45, p 513) has succeeded in constructing zone plates upon this
principle.
In such experiments the narrowness of the zones renders necessary
a pretty close approximation to the geometrical conditions. Thus
in the case of the circular disk, equidistant (r) from the source of
light and from the screen upon which the shadow is observed, the
width of the first exterior zone is given by
2x being the diameter of the disk. If 2r = ioop cm., 2x = i cm.,
X = 6Xio~ cm., then d* = -oois cm. Hence, in order that this
zone may be perfectly formed, there should be no error in the circum-
ference of the order of -ooi cm. (It is easy to see that the radius of
the bright spot is of the same order of magnitude.) The experiment
succeeds in a dark room of the length above mentioned, with a
threepenny bit (supported by three threads) as obstacle, the origin
ctf light being a small needle hole in a plate of tin, through which the
sun's rays shine horizontally after reflection from an external mirror.
In the absence of a heliostat it is more convenient to obtain a point of
light with the aid of a lens of short focus.
The amplitude of the light at any point in the axis, when plane
waves are incident perpendicularly upon an annular aperture, is,
as above,
cos k(at-ri)-cos k(at-ri) =2 sin kat sin k(ri-r t ),
fj, r\ being the distances of the outer and inner boundaries
from the point in question. It is scarcely necessary to remark
that in all such cases the calculation applies in the first instance
to homogeneous light, and that, in accordance with Fourier's
theorem, each homogeneous component of a mixture may be treated
separately. When the original light is white, the presence of some
components and the absence of others will
usually give rise to coloured effects, variable
with the precise circumstances of the case.
Although the matter can be fully treated
only upon the basis of a dynamical theory, it
is proper to point out at once that there is an
element of assumption in the application of
Huygens's principle to the calculation of the
effects produced by opaque screens of limited
extent. Properly applied, the principle could
not fail; but, as may readily be proved in
the case of sonorous waves, it is not in strict-
ness sufficient to assume the expression for
a secondary wave suitable when the primary
wave is undisturbed, with mere limitation of
the integration to the transparent parts of the screen. But, except
perhaps in the case of very fine gratings, it is probable that the error
thus caused is Insignificant; for the incorrect estimation of the
secondary waves will be limited to distances of a few wave-lengths
only from the boundary of opaque and transparent parts.
3. Fraunhofer's Diffraction Phenomena. A very general
problem in diffraction is the investigation of the distribution
of light over a screen upon which impinge divergent or con-
vergent spherical waves after passage through various diffracting
apertures. When the waves are convergent and the recipient
screen is placed so as to contain the centre of convergency the
image of the original radiant point, the calculation assumes a less
complicated form. This class of phenomena was investigated
by J. von Fraunhofer (upon principles laid down by Fresnel),
and are sometimes called after his name. We may conveniently
FIG. 2.
commence with them on account of their simplicity and great
importance in respect to the theory of optical instruments.
If / be the radius of the spherical wave at the place of resolution,
where the vibration is represented by cos kat, then at any point
M (fig. 2) in the recipient screen the vibration due to an element <iS
of the wave-front is ( 2)
JC
j^ sink(at-p) ,
p being the distance between M and the element <ZS.
Taking co-ordinates in the plane of the screen with the centre of
the wave as origin, let us represent M by {, TJ, and P (where dS is
situated) by x, y, z.
Then
so that
In the applications with which we are concerned, |, rj are very
small quantities; and we may take
f m f\ 1 -ft \
At the same time dS may be identified with dxdy, and in the de-
nominator p may be treated as constant and equal to/. Thus the
expression for the vibration at M becomes
_,_ i
. . (i);
and for the intensity, represented by the square of the amplitude,
. (2).
This expression for the intensity becomes rigorously applicable when
/ is indefinitely great, so that ordinary optical aberration disappears.
The incident waves are thus plane, and are limited to a plane aper-
ture coincident with a wave-front. The integrals are then properly
functions of the direction in which the light is to be estimated.
In experiment under ordinary circumstances it makes no differ-
ence whether the collecting lens is in front of or behind the diffract-
ing aperture. It is usually most convenient to employ a telescope
focused upon the radiant point, and to place the diffracting apertures
immediately in front of the object-glass. What is seen through the
eye-piece in any case is the same as would be depicted upon a screen
in the focal plane.
Before proceeding to special cases it may be well to call attention
to some general properties of the solution expressed by (2) (see
Bridge, Phil. Mag., 1858).
If when the aperture is given, the wave-length (proportional to
k~ l ) varies, the composition of the integrals is unaltered, provided
and i) are taken universely proportional to X. A diminution of
X thus leads to a simple proportional shrinkage of the diffraction
pattern, attended by an augmentation of brilliancy in proportion
to X~ 2 .
If the wave-length remains unchanged, similar effects are pro-
duced by an increase in the scale of the aperture. The linear
dimension of the diffraction pattern is inversely as that of the
aperture, and the brightness at corresponding points is as the
square of the area of aperture.
If the aperture and wave-length increase in the same proportion,
the size and shape of the diffraction pattern undergo no change.
We will now apply the integrals (2) to the case of a rectangular
aperture of width a parallel to x and of width b parallel to y. The
limits of integration for x may thus be taken to be -j<z and + i<z,
and for y to be -ji, +%b. We readily find (with substitution for
k Of 27T/X)
-iroj . -Trbri
Z-JT^ sin 2 -^-'
(3),
as representing the distribution of light in the image of a mathe-
matical point when the aperture is rectangular, as is often the case
in spectroscopes.
The second and third factors of (3) being each of the form sin 2 / 2 ,
we have to examine the character of this function. It vanishes'
when u = mK, m being any whole number other than zero. When
= o, it takes the value unity. The maxima occur when
and then
w=tan ,
sin 2 /# 2 = cos 2
(4),
(5).
To calculate the roots of (5) we may assume
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
241
where y is a positive quantity which is small when u is large. Substi-
tuting this, we find cot y = U-y, whence
This equation is to be solved by successive approximation. It will
readily be found that
-U-y-U-U-'-lu--}fu--l$U-- . . (6).
In the first quadrant there is no root after zero, since tan u>u,
and in the second quadrant there is none because the signs of and
tan u are opposite. The first root after zero is thus in the third
quadrant, corresponding to m = l. Even in this case the series
converges sufficiently to give the value of the root with considerable
accuracy, while for higher values of m it is all that could be desired.
The actual values of u/v (calculated in another manner by F. M.
Schwerd) are 1-4303, 2-4590, 3-4709, 4-4747. 5'48i8, 6-4844, &c.
Since the maxima occur when M = (m + i)ir nearly, the successive
values are not very different from
&c
'
4 _L
9" 2 ' 25"'
The application of these results to (3) shows that the field is
brightest at the centre f = o, 17 = 0, viz. at the geometrical image
of the radiant point. It is traversed by dark lines whose equations
| = mf\/a, T? = mf\/b.
Within the rectangle formed by pairs of consecutive dark lines,
and not far from its centre, the brightness rises to a maximum;
but these subsequent maxima are in all cases much inferior to the
brightness at the centre of the entire pattern ( = o, 17=0).
By the principle of energy the illumination over the entire focal
plane must be equal to that pyer the diffracting area ; and thus, in
accordance with the suppositions by which (3) was obtained, its
value when integrated from J = co to {=+, and from i)= ao
to 17 =+ should be equal to ah. This integration, employed
originally by P. Kelland (Edin. Trans. 15, p. 315) to determine the
absolute intensity of a secondary wave, may be at once effected by
means of the known formula
It will be observed that, while the total intensity is proportional to
ab, the intensity at the focal point is proportional to O 2 6 2 . If the
aperture be increased, not only is the total brightness over the focal
plane increased with it, but there is also a concentration of the
diffraction pattern. The form of (3) shows immediately that, if
a and 6 be altered, the co-ordinates of any characteristic point in the
pattern vary as a- 1 and b-*.
The contraction of the diffraction pattern with increase of aperture
is of fundamental importance in connexion with the resolving power
of optical instruments. According to common optics, where images
are absolute, the diffraction pattern is supposed to be infinitely
small, and two radiant points, however near together, form separated
images. This is tantamount to an assumption that X is infinitely
small. The actual finiteness of X imposes a limit upon the separating
or resolving power of an optical instrument.
This indefiniteness of images is sometimes said to be due to
diffraction by the edge' of the aperture, and proposals have even been
made for curing it by causing the transition between the interrupted
and transmitted parts of the primary wave to be less abrupt. Such
a view of the matter is altogether misleading. What requires
explanation is not the imperfection of actual images so much as the
possibility of their being as good as we find them.
At the focal point (i = o, ij = o) all the secondary waves agree in
phase, and the intensity is easily expressed, whatever be the form
of the aperture. From the general formula (2), if A be the area of
aperture,
I ! =AVX*P (7).
The formation of a sharp image of the radiant point requires
that the illumination become insignificant when , ) attain small
values, and this insignificance can only arise as a consequence of
discrepancies of phase among the secondary waves from various
parts of the aperture. So long as there is no sensible discrepancy
of phase there can be no sensible diminution of brightness as com-
pared with that to be found at the focal point itseTf. We may go
further, and lay it down that there can be no considerable loss of
brightness until the difference of phase of the waves proceeding from
the nearest and farthest parts of the aperture amounts to JX.
When the difference of phase amounts to X, we may expect the
resultant illumination to be very much reduced. In the particular
case of a rectangular aperture the course of things can be readily
followed, especially if we conceive/ to be infinite. In the direction
(suppose horizontal) for which 17=0, |//=sin 6, the phases of the
secondary waves range over a complete period when sin = X/a, and,
since all parts of the horizontal aperture are equally effective, there
is in this direction a complete compensation and consequent absence
of illumination. When sin = fX/a, the phases range one and a half
periods, and there is revival of illumination. We may compare
the brightness with that in the direction 8=0. The phase of the
resultant amplitude is the same as that due to the central secondary
wave, and the discrepancies of phase among the components reduce
the amplitude in the proportion
d<t> : i ,
or 2/3*-:! ; so that the brightness in this direction is 4/9*' of the
maximum at 6 = 0. In like manner we may find the illumination
in any other direction, and it is obvious that it vanishes when sin 6
is any multiple of X/a.
The reason of the augmentation of resolving power with aperture
will now be evident. The larger the aperture the smaller are the
angles through which it is necessary to deviate from the principal
direction in order to bring in specified discrepancies of phase the
more concentrated is the image.
In many cases the subject of examination is a luminous line of
uniform intensity, the various points of which are to be treated as
independent sources of light. If the image of the line be = o,
the intensity at any point , it of the diffraction pattern may be
represented by
(S),
FIG. 3.
the same law as obtains for a luminous point when horizontal
directions are alone considered. The definition of a fine vertical
line, and consequently the resolving power for contiguous vertical
lines, is thus independent of the vertical aperture of the instrument,
a law of great importance in the theory of the spectroscope.
The distribution of illumination in the image of a luminous line
is shown by the curve ABC (fig. 3), representing the value of the
function sin 2 w/ 2 from w=p to M = 2jr. The part corresponding to
negative values of u is similar, OA being a line of symmetry.
Let us now consider the distribution of brightness in the image
of a double line whose components are of equal strength, and at
such an angular interval that the central line in the image of one
coincides with the first zero of brightness in the image of the other.
In fig. 3 the curve of brightness for one component is ABC, and
for the other OA'C'; and the curve representing half the combined
brightnesses is E'BE. The brightness (cor-
responding to B) midway between the two A
central points AA' is -8106 of the bright-
ness at the central points themselves. We
may consider this to be about the limit pf
closeness at which there could be any
decided appearance of resolution, though
doubtless an observer accustomed to his
instrument would recognize the duplicity
with certainty. The obliquity, corre-
sponding to M = w, is such that the phases
of the secondary waves range over a com-
plete period, i.e. such that the projection of
the horizontal aperture upon this direction
is one wave-length. We conclude that a double line cannot be
fairly resolved unless Us components subtend an angle exceeding that
subtended by the wave-length of light at a distance equal to the horizontal
aperture. This rule is convenient on account of its simplicity ; and
it is sufficiently accurate in view of the necessary uncertainty as to
what exactly is meant by resolution.
If the angular interval between the components of a double line
be half as great again as that supposed in the figure, the brightness
midway between is -1802 as against 1-0450 at the central lines of
each image. Such a falling off in the middle must be more than
sufficient for resolution. If the angle subtended by the components
of a double line be twice that subtended by the wave-length at a
distance equal to the horizontal aperture, the central bands are
just clear of one another, and there is a line of absolute blackness
in the middle of the combined images.
The resolving power of a telescope with circular or rectangular
aperture is easily investigated experimentally. The best object for
examination is a grating of fine wires, about fifty to the inch, backed
by a sodium flame. The object-glass is provided with diaphragms
pierced with round holes or slits. One of these, of width equal, say,
to one-tenth of an inch, is inserted in front of the object-glass, and
the telescope, carefully focused all the while, is drawn gradually back
from the grating until the lines are no longer seen. From a measure-
ment of the maximum distance the least angle between consecutive
lines consistent with resolution may be deduced, and a comparison
made with the rule stated above.
Merely to show the dependence of resolving power on aperture it is
not necessary to use a telescope at all. It is sufficient to look at wire
gauze backed by the sky or by a flame, through a piece of blackened
cardboard, pierced by a needle and held close to the eye. By
varying the distance the point is easily found at which resolution
ceases ; and the observation is as sharp as with a telescope. The
242
DIFFRACTION. OF LIGHT
function of the telescope is in fact to allow the use of a wider, and
therefore more easily measurable, aperture. An interesting modi-
fication of the experiment may be made by using light of various
wave-lengths.
Since the limitation of the width of the central band in the image
of a luminous line depends upon discrepancies of phase among the
secondary waves, and since the discrepancy is greatest for the waves
which come from the edges of the aperture, the question arises
how far the operation of the central parts of the aperture is ad-
vantageous. If we imagine the aperture reduced to two equal
narrow slits bordering its edges, compensation will evidently be
complete when the projection on an oblique direction is equal to
iX, instead of X as for the complete aperture. By this procedure
the width of the central band in the diffraction pattern is halved,
and so far an advantage is attained. But, as will be evident, the
bright bands bordering the central band are now not inferior to it
in brightness; in fact, a band similar to the central band is repro-
duced an indefinite number of times, so long as there is no sensible
discrepancy of phase in the secondary waves proceeding from the
various parts of the same slit. Under these circumstances the
narrowing of the band is paid for at a ruinous price, and the arrange-
ment must be condemned altogether.
A more moderate suppression of the central parts is, however,
sometimes advantageous. Theory and experiment alike prove that
a double line, of which the components are equally strong, is better
resolved when, for example, one-sixth of the horizontal aperture is
blocked off by a central screen ; or the rays quite at the centre may
be allowed to pass, while others a little farther removed are blocked
off. Stops, each occupying one-eighth of the width, and with centres
situated at the points of tnsection, answer well the required purpose.
It has already been suggested that the principle of energy requires
that the general expression for I 2 in (2) when integrated over the
whole of the plane J, TJ should be equal to A, where A is the area of
the aperture. A general analytical verification has been given by
Sir G. G. Stokes (Edin. Trans., 1853, 20, p. 317). Analytically
expressed
ff+Vdtdr,=ffdxdy = A . (9).
We have seen that IJ (the intensity at the focal point) was equal to
A 2 /X ! / 2 . If A' be the area over which the intensity must be I in
order to give the actual total intensity in accordance with
the relation between A and A' is AA' = X 5 / 2 . Since A' is in some
sense the area of the diffraction pattern, it may be considered to be a
rough criterion of the definition, and we infer that the definition of a
point depends principally upon the area of the aperture, and only in
a very secondary degree upon the shape when the area is maintained
constant.
4. Theory of Circular Aperture. We will now consider the
important case where the form of the aperture is circular.
Writing for brevity
*{//-#, fc|//-S. ..... 0).
we have for the general expression ( n) of the intensity
X/P = S+C ..... (2),
where S>=ffsin(px+qy)dxdy, . . . (3),
C=ffcos(px+qy)dxdy, . . . (4).
When, as in the application to rectangular or circular apertures,
the form is symmetrical with respect to the axes both of x and y,
S = o, and C reduces to
C=JJ"cospxcosqydxdy, . . . (o).
In the case of the circular aperture the distribution of light is of
course symmetrical with respect to the focal point p = o, g = o; and
C is a function of p and q only through V (t>*+<f)- It is thus
sufficient to determine the intensity along the axis of p. Putting
<l = o, we get
C =ffcos px dx dy = 2/**cos px V (R 1 -* 1 ) dx,
R being the radius of the aperture. This integral is the Bessel's
function of order unity, defined by
. . . (6).
(7);
Thus, if
Ji(z) = -
cos 0,
and the illumination at distance r from the focal point is
X 2 f 2
(8).
/2jrRr\ 2
V7T7
The ascending series for Ji(z), used by Sir G. B. Airy (Camb. Trans.,
1834) in his original investigation of the diffraction of a circular
object-glass, and readily obtained from (6), is
r+
2 2 .4 2 .6 2 2 .4 J .6 2 .8
When 2 is great, we may employ the semi-convergent series
(9).
3.5.7.9.1.3.5
8.16.24.32
-] cos(z-l,, ( g
3.5.7.9.11.1.3.5.
/1N 4 . )
\z/ "*")
1 3.5.7.1.3
' z ~ 8.16.24
/1\
(z)
8.16.24.32.40
z '--i-
(10).
A table of the values-of 2z-'Ji(z) has been given by E. C. J. Lommel
(SMomilch, 1870, 15, p. 166), to whom is due the first systematic
application of Bessel's functions to the diffraction integrals.
The illumination vanishes in correspondence with the roots of the
equation j!(z)=o. If these be called zi, zj, z t , . . . the radii of the
dark rings in the diffraction pattern are
2irR ' 2ir
being thus inversely proportional to R.
The integrations may also be effected by means of polar co-
ordinates, taking first the integration with respect to so as to
obtain the result for an infinitely thin annular aperture. Thus, if
x = p cos <t>, y = p sin <t>,
C =/f cos px dx dy =/ R f 2 " cos (pp cos B)pdpdO.
Now by definition
J (z) =
(z cos 9) dO = 1 -
The value of C for an annular aperture of radius r and width dr is
dC = 2,]o(pp)pdp ....... (12).
For the complete circle,
as before.
F
In these expressions we are to replace p by k/f, or rather, since
the diffraction pattern is symmetrical, by kr/f, where r is the distance
of any point in the focal plane from the centre of the system.
The roots of Jo(z) after the first may be found from
-050661 -053041 , -262051 ,. >
. . U<v.
and those of Ji(z) from
z .,.- "151982
-=.+25 1 j Tr -
-015399
(4*+l) a
'245835
(14),
formulae derived by Stokes (Camb. Trans., 1850, vol. ix.) from the
descending series. 1 The following table gives the actual values :
i
|forJ (z)-0
|forj,(z)=0
i
|forJ,(z)-0
jforj,(z)-0
1
2
3
4
5
7655
1-7571
2-7546
3-7534
4-7527
1-2197
22330
32383
42411
5-2428
6
7
8
9
10
5-7522
67519
7-7516
8-7514
97513
62439
7-2448
82454
9-2459
10-2463
In both cases the image of a mathematical point is thus a
symmetrical ring system. The greatest brightness is at the centre,
where
dC=2Tpdp, C = TR.
For a certain distance outwards this remains sensibly unimpaired
and then gradually diminishes to zero, as the secondary waves
become discrepant in phase. The subsequent revivals of brightness
forming the bright rings are necessarily of inferior brilliancy as
compared with the central disk.
The first dark ring in the diffraction pattern of the complete
circular aperture occurs when
r//=i-2i97XX/2R (15).
1 The descending series for JoW appears to have been first given
by Sir W. Hamilton in a memoir on " Fluctuating Functions,
Roy. Irish Trans., 1840.
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
243
We may compare this with the corresponding result for a rectangular
aperture of width a,
t//=X/o;
and it appears that in consequence of the preponderance of the
central parts, the compensation in the case of the circle does not
set in at so small an obliquity as when the circle is replaced by a
rectangular aperture, whose side is equal to the diameter of the
circle.
Again, if we compare the complete circle with a narrow annular
aperture of the same radius, we see that in the latter case the first
dark ring occurs at a much smaller obliquity, viz.
r//=7655XX/2R.
It has been found by Sir William Herschel and others that the
definition of a telescope is often improved by stopping off a part of
the central area of the object-glass; but the advantage to be obtained
in this way is in no case great, and anything like a reduction of the
aperture to a narrow annulus is attended by a development of the
external luminous rings sufficient to outweigh any improvement
due to the diminished diameter of the central area. 1
The maximum brightnesses and the places at which they occur
are easily determined with the aid of certain properties of the
Bessel's functions. It is known (see SPHERICAL HARMONICS) that
(17);
(18).
The maxima of C occur when
dz
or by (17 when Jj(z)=o.
determined,
z
When z has one of the values thus
The accompanying table is given by Lommel, in which the first
column gives the roots of Js(z) =o, and the second and third columns
the corresponding values of the functions specified. If appears that
the maximum brightness in the first ring is only about ,^ of the
brightness at the centre.
z 2*-Ji(z) 4z~ s ji 2 (z)
oooooo
5-135630
8-417236
11-619857
14-795938
17-959820
+ I-OOOOOO
- -132279
+ -064482
-040008
+ -027919
- -020905
I-OOOOOO
017498
004158
001601
000779
000437
We will now investigate the total illumination distributed over
the area of the circle of radius r. We have
(19),
(20).
where
Thus
irR'. 2JV'J 1 '(z)<fe.
.!(*) -Ji'W;
Now by (17), (18)
so that
and
If r, or z, be infinite, Jo(z), Ji(z) vanish, and the whole illumination
is expressed by irR 2 , in accordance with the general principle. In
any case the proportion of the whole illumination to be found outside
the circle of radius r is given by
Jo 2 (z)+J,'(z).
For the dark rings Ji(z)=o; so that the fraction of illumination
outside any dark ring is simply J 2 (z). Thus for the first, second,
third and fourth dark rings we get respectively -161, -090, -062, -047,
showing that more than Aths of the whole light is concentrated
within the area of the second dark ring (Phil. Mag., 1881).
When z is great, the descending series (10) gives
so that the places of maxima and minima occur at equal intervals.
1 Airy, loc. cit. " Thus the magnitude of the central spot is
diminished, and the brightness of the rings increased, by covering
the central parts of the object-glass."
The mean brightness varies as -' (or as f-), and the integral
found by multiplying it by zdi and integrating between o and oo
converges.
It may be instructive to contrast this with the case of an infinitely
narrow annular aperture, where the brightness is proportional to
Jo*(z). When z is great,
The mean brightness varies as g~ l ; and the integral J o Jo I (z)ziiz
is not convergent.
5. Resolving Power of Telescopes. The efficiency of a tele-
scope is of course intimately connected with the size of the disk
by which it represents a mathematical point. In estimating
theoretically the resolving power on a double star we have to
consider the illumination of the field due to the superposition of
the two independent images. If the angular interval between the
components of a double star were equal to twice that expressed
in equation (15) above, the central disks of the diffraction patterns
would be just in contact. Under these conditions there is no
doubt that the star would appear to be fairly resolved, since the
brightness of its external ring system is too small to produce any
material confusion, unless indeed the components are of very
unequal magnitude. The diminution of the star disks with
increasing aperture was observed by Sir William Herschel, and in
1823 Fraunhofer formulated the law of inverse proportionality.
In investigations extending over a long series of years, the
advantage of a large aperture in separating the components of
close double stars was fully examined by W. R. Dawes.
The resolving power of telescopes was investigated also by
J. B. L. Foucault, who employed a scale of equal bright and dark
alternate parts; it was found to be proportional to the aperture
and independent of the focal length. In telescopes of the best
construction and of moderate aperture the performance is not
sensibly prejudiced by outstanding aberration, and the limit
imposed by the finiteness of the waves of light is practically
reached. M. E. Verdet has compared Foucault's results with
theory, and has drawn the conclusion that the radius of the
visible part of the image of a luminous point was equal to half the
radius of the first dark ring.
The application, unaccountably long delayed, of this principle
to the microscope by H. L. F. Helmholtz in 1 87 1 is the; foundation
of the important doctrine of the microscopic limit. It is true that
in 1823 Fraunhofer, inspired by his observations upon gratings,
had very nearly hit the mark. 2 And a little before Helmholtz,
E. Abbe published a somewhat more complete investigation, also
founded upon the phenomena presented by gratings. But
although the argument from gratings is instructive and convenient
in some respects, its use has tended to obscure the essential unity
of the principle of the b'mit of resolution whether applied to
telescopes or microscopes.
In fig. 4, AB represents the axis of an optical instrument (tele-
scope or microscope), A being a point of the object and B a point
of the image. By the operation of the object-glass LL' all the rays
issuing from A arrive in the same phase at B. Thus if A be self-
luminous, the illumination is
a maximum at B, where all
the secondary waves agree in
phase. B is in fact the centre
of the diffraction disk which
constitutes the image of A.
At neighbouring points the
illumination is less, in conse-
quence of the discrepancies of
phase which there enter. In
like manner if we take a neigh-
bouring point P, also self-
FIG. 4.
luminous, in the plane of the object, the waves which issue from
it will arrive at B with phases no longer absolutely ^concordant,
and the discrepancy of phase will increase as the interval AP
8 " Man kann daraus sMiessen, was moglicher Weise durch Mikro-
skope noch zu sehen ist. Ein mikroskopischer Gegenstand z. B, dessen
Durchmesser = (\) ist, und der aus zwei Theilen besteht, kann nicht
mehr als aus zwei Theilen bestehend erkannt werden. Dieses zeigt uns
eine Grenze des Sehvermogens durch Mikroskope " (Gilbert's Ann.
74> 337)- Lord Rayleigh has recorded that he was himself convinced
by Fraunhofer's reasoning at a date antecedent to the writings of
Helmholtz and Abbe.
244
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
increases. When the interval is very small the discrepancy,
though mathematically existent, produces no practical effect, and
the illumination at B due to P is as important as that due to A,
the intensities of the two luminous sources being supposed equal.
Under these conditions it is clear that A and P are not separated in
the image. The question is to what amount must the distance AP
be increased in order that the difference of situation may make itself
felt in the image. This is necessarily a question of degree; but it
does not require detailed calculations in order to show that the
discrepancy first becomes conspicuous when the phases corresponding
to the various secondary waves which travel from P to B range over
a complete period. The illumination at B due to P then becomes
comparatively small, indeed for some forms of aperture evanescent.
The extreme discrepancy is that between the waves which travel
through the outermost parts of the object-glass at L and L' ; so that
if we adopt the above standard of resolution, the question is where
must P be situated in order that the relative retardation of the rays
PL and PL' may on their arrival at B amount to a wave-length (X).
In virtue of the general lawthat the reduced optical path is stationary
in value, this retardation may be calculated without allowance for
the different paths pursued on the farther side of L, L', so that the
value is simply PL PL'. Now since AP is very small, AL' PL' =
AP sin a, where a is the angular semi-aperture L'AB. In like manner
PL AL has the same value, so that
PL-PL'=2APsina.
According to the standard adopted, the condition of resolution is
therefore that AP, or , should exceed ^X/sin a. If e be less than this,
the images overlap too much; while if greatly exceed the above
value the images become unnecessarily separated.
In the above argument the whole space between the object and
the lens is supposed to be occupied by matter of one refractive index,
and X represents the wave-length in this medium of the kind of light
employed. If the restriction as to uniformity be violated, what we
have ultimately to deal with is the wave-length in the medium
immediately surrounding the object.
Calling the refractive index M, we have as the critical value of ,
e = jXo/A'sin a (1),
Xo being the wave-length in vacua. The denominator n sin a is the
quantity well known (after Abbe) as the " numerical aperture."
The extreme value possible for o is a right angle, so that for the
microscopic limit we have
e = JXo//K ..<?).
The limit can be depressed only by a diminution in Xo, such as
photography makes possible, or by an increase in M, the refractive
index of the medium in which the object is situated.
The statement of the law of resolving power has been made in a
form appropriate to the microscope, but it admits also of immediate
application to the telescope. If 2R be the diameter of the object-
glass and D the distance of the object, the angle subtended by AP is
e/D, and the angular resolving power is given by
X/2Dsino= X/2R (3).
This method of derivation (substantially due to Helmholtz) makes
it obvious that there is' no essential difference of principle between
the two cases, although the results are conveniently stated in different
forms. In the case of the telescope we have to deal with a linear
measure of aperture and an angular limit of resolution, whereas in
the case of the microscope the limit of resolution is linear, and it is
expressed in terms of angular aperture.
It must be understood that the above argument distinctly assumes
that the different parts of the object are self-luminous, or at least
that the light proceeding from the various points is without phase
relations. As has been emphasized by G. ]. Stoney, the restriction
is often, perhaps usually, violated in the microscope. A different
treatment is then necessary, and for some of the problems which
arise under this head the method of Abbe is convenient.
The importance of the general conclusions above formulated, as
imposing a limit upon our powers of direct observation, can hardly
be overestimated; but there has been in some quarters a tendency
to ascribe to it a more precise character than it can bear, or even to
mistake its meaning altogether. A few words of further explanation
may therefore be desirable. The first point to be emphasized is that
nothing whatever is said as to the smallness of a single object that
may be made visible. The eye, unaided or armed with a telescope,
is able to see, as points of light, stars subtending no sensible angle.
The visibility of a star is a question of brightness simply, and has
nothing to do with resolving power. The latter element enters only
when it is a question of recognizing the duplicity of a double star,
or of distinguishing detail upon the surface of a planet. So in the
microscope there is nothing except lack of light to hinder the visi-
bility of an object however small. But if its dimensions be much
less than the half wave-length, it can only be seen as a whole, and its
parts cannot be distinctly separated, although incases near the border
line some inference may be possible, founded upon experience of what
appearances are presented in various cases. Interesting observa-
tions upon particles, ultra-microscopic in the above sense, have been
recorded by H. F. W. Siedentopf and R. A. Zsigmondy (Drude's Ann.,
1903, 10, p. l).
In a somewhat similar way a dark linear interruption in a bright
jround may be visible, although its actual width is much inferior
to the half wave-length. In illustration of this fact a simple experi-
ment may be mentioned. In front of the naked eye was held a piece
of copper foil perforated by a fine needle hole. Observed through
this the structure of some wire gauze just disappeared at a distance
from the eye equal to 17 in., the gauze containing 46 meshes to
the inch. On the other hand, a single wire 0-034 ' n - in diameter
remained fairly visible up to a distance of 20 ft. The ratio between
the limiting angles subtended by the periodic structure of the gauze
and the diameter of the wire was (-O22/-O34)X (240/17) =9-1. For
further information upon this subject reference may be made to
Phil. Mag., 1896, 42, p. 167; Journ. R. Micr. Soc., 1903, p. 447.
6. Coronas or Glories. The results of the theory of the diffrac-
tion patterns due to circular apertures admit of an interesting
application to coronas, such as are often seen encircling the sun
and moon. They are due to the interposition of small spherules
of water, which act the part of diffracting obstacles. In order to
the formation of a well-defined corona it is essential that the
particles be exclusively, or preponderatingly, of one size.
If the origin of light be treated as infinitely small, and be seen
in focus, whether with the naked eye or with the aid of a telescope,
the whole of the light in the absence of obstacles would be concen-
trated in the immediate neighbourhood of the focus. At other
parts of the field the effect is the same, in accordance with the
principle known as Babinet's, whether the imaginary screen in front
of the object-glass is generally transparent but studded with a number
of opaque circular disks, or is generally opaque but perforated with
corresponding apertures. Since at these points the resultant due to
the whole aperture is zero, any two portions into which the whole
may be divided must give equal and opposite resultants. Consider
now the light diffracted in a direction many times more oblique than
any with which we should be concerned, were the whole aperture
uninterrupted, and take first the effect of a single small aperture.
The light in the proposed direction is that determined by the size of
the small aperture in accordance with the laws already investigated,
and its phase depends upon the position of the aperture. If we take
a direction such that the light (of given wave-length) from a single
aperture vanishes, the evanescence continues even when the whole
series of apertures is brought into contemplation. Hence, whatever
else may happen, there must be a system of dark rings formed,
the same as from a single small aperture. In directions other than
these it is a more delicate question how the partial effects should be
compounded. If we make the extreme suppositions of an infinitely
small source and absolutely homogeneous light, there is no escape
from the conclusion that the light in a definite direction is arbitrary,
that is, dependent upon the chance distribution of apertures. If,
however, as in practice, the light be heterogeneous, the source of
finite area, the obstacles in motion, and the discrimination of different
directions imperfect, we are concerned merely with the mean bright-
ness found by varying the arbitrary phase-relations, and this is
obtained by simply multiplying the brightness due to a single
aperture by the number of apertures (n) (see INTERFERENCE OF
LIGHT, 4). The diffraction pattern is therefore that due to a single
aperture, merely brightened n times.
In his experiments upon this subject Fraunhofer employed plates
of glass dusted over with lycopodium, or studded with small metallic
disks of uniform size ; and he found that the diameters of the rings
were proportional to the length of the waves and inversely as the
diameter of the disks.
In another respect the observations of Fraunhofer appear at
first sight to be in disaccord with theory; for his measures of the
diameters of the red rings, visible when white light was employed,
correspond with the law applicable to dark rings, and not to the
different law applicable to the luminous maxima. Verdet has,
however, pointed out that the observation in this form is essentially
different from that in which homogeneous red light is employed,
and that the position of the red rings would correspond to the
absence of blue-green light rather than to the greatest abundance of
red light. Verdet's own observations, conducted with great care,
fully confirm this view, and exhibit a complete agreement with
theory.
By measurements of coronas it is possible to infer the size of the
particles to which they are due, an application of considerable
interest in the case of natural coronas the general rule being the
larger the corona the smaller the water spherules. Young employed
this method not only to determine the diameters of cloud particles
(? ijVtrin.), but also those of fibrous material, for which the
theory is analogous. His instrument was called the eriometer
(see Chromatics," vol. iii. of supp. to Ency. Brit., 1817).
7. Influence of Aberration. Optical Power of Instruments.
Our investigations and estimates of resolving power have thus
far proceeded upon the supposition that there are no optical
imperfections, whether of the nature of a regular aberration or
dependent upon irregularities of material and workmanship. In
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
245
practice there will always be a certain aberration or error of phase,
which we may also regard as the deviation of the actual wave-
surface from its intended position. In general, we may say that
aberration is unimportant when it nowhere (or at any rate over a
relatively small area only) exceeds a small fraction of the wave-
length (X). Thus in estimating the intensity at a focal point,
where, in the absence of aberration, all the secondary waves would
have exactly the same phase, we see that an aberration nowhere
exceeding j\ can have but little effect.
The only case in which the influence of small aberration upon
the entire image has been calculated (Phil. Mag., 1875) is that of a
rectangular aperture, traversed by a cylindrical wave with aberration
equal to ex 3 . The aberration is here unsymmetrical, the wave being
in advance of its proper place in one half of the aperture, but behind
in the other half. No terms in x or x 2 need be considered. The
first would correspond to a general turning of the beam; and the
second would imply imperfect focusing of the central parts. The
effect of aberration may be considered in two ways. We may
suppose the aperture (a) constant, and inquire into the operation
of an increasing aberration ; or we may take a given value of c (i.e.
a given wave-surface) and examine the effect of a varying aperture.
The results in the second case show that an increase of aperture
up to that corresponding to an extreme aberration of half a period
has no ill effect upon the central band ( 3), but it increases unduly
the intensity of one of the neighbouring lateral bands; and the
practical conclusion is that the best results will be obtained from an
aperture giving an extreme aberration of from a quarter to half a
period, and that with an increased aperture aberration is not so
much a direct cause of deterioration as an obstacle to the attainment
of that improved definition which should accompany the increase
of aperture.
If, on the other hand, we suppose the aperture given, we find
that aberration begins to be distinctly mischievous when it amounts
to about a quarter period, i.e. when the wave-surface deviates at
each end by a quarter wave-length from the true plane.
As an application of this result, let us investigate what amount
of temperature disturbance in the tube of a telescope may be ex-
pected to impair definition. According to J. B. Biot and F. J. D.
Arago, the index M for air at t C. and at atmospheric pressure is given
by
00029
~l + -0037r
If we take o C. as standard temperature,
Thus, on the supposition that the irregularity of temperature /
extends through a length /, and produces an acceleration of a quarter
of a wave-length,
or, if we take X = 5-3Xio~ 5 ,
//=I2,
the unit of length being the centimetre.
We may infer that, in the case of a telescope tube 12 cm. long,
a stratum of air heated i C. lying along the top of the tube, and
occupying a moderate fraction of the whole volume, would produce
a not insensible effect. If the change of temperature progressed
uniformly from one side to the other, the result would be a lateral
displacement of the image without loss of definition ; but in general
both effects would be observable. In longer tubes a similar dis-
turbance would be caused by a proportionally less difference of
temperature. S. P. Langley has proposed to obviate such ill-effects
by stirring the air included within a telescope tube. It has long been
known that the definition of a carbon bisulphide prism may be much
improved by a vigorous shaking.
We will now consider the application of the principle to the
formation of images, unassisted by reflection or refraction (Phil. Mag.,
1881). The function of a lens in forming an image is to compensate
by its variable thickness the differences of phase which would other-
wise exist between secondary waves arriving at the focal point from
various parts of the aperture. If we suppose the diameter of the
lens to be given (zR), and its focal length /gradually to increase, the
original differences of phase at the image of an infinitely distant
luminous point diminish without limit. When / attains a certain
value, say /i, the extreme error of phase to be compensated falls
to JX. But, as we have seen, such an error of phase causes no sensible
deterioration in the definition; so that from this point onwards
the lens is useless, as only improving an image already sensibly as
perfect as the aperture admits of. Throughout the operation of
increasing the focal length, the resolving power of the instrument,
which depends only upon the aperture, remains unchanged; and
we thus arrive at the rather startling conclusion that a telescope
of any degree of resolving power might be constructed without an
object-glass, if only there were no limit to the admissible focal length.
This last proviso, however, as we shall see, takes away almost all
practical importance from the proposition.
To get an idea of the magnitudes of the quantities involved, let us
take the case of an aperture of 1 in., about that of the pupil of the
eye. The distance /i, which the actual focal length must exceed, is
given by
so that
Thus, if X =
(1).
= 1 I B , we find
/i = 800 inches.
The image of the sun thrown upon a screen at a distance exceeding
66 ft., through a hole J in. in diameter, is therefore at least as well
defined as that seen direct.
As the minimum focal length increases with the square of the
aperture, a quite impracticable distance would be required to rival
the resolving power of a modern telescope. Even for an aperture of
4 in., /i would have to be 5 miles.
A similar argument may be applied to find at what point an
achromatic lens becomes sensibly superior to a single one. The
question is whether, when the adjustment of focus is correct for the
central rays of the spectrum, the error of phase for the most extreme
rays (which it is necessary to consider) amounts to a quarter of a
wave-length. If not, the substitution of an achromatic lens will be
of no advantage. Calculation shows that, if the aperture be J in.,
an achromatic lens has no sensible advantage if the focal length
be greater than about 1 1 in. If we suppose the focal length to be
66 ft., a single lens is practically perfect up to an aperture of 1-7 in.
Another obvious inference from the necessary imperfection of
optical images is the uselessness of attempting anything like an
absolute destruction of spherical aberration. An admissible error
of phase of JX will correspond to an error of jX in a reflecting and iX
in a (glass) refracting surface, the incidence in both cases being
perpendicular. If we inquire what is the greatest admissible longi-
tudinal aberration (Sf) in an object-glass according to the above
rule, we find
/=Xa-2 ....... (2),
o being the angular semi-aperture.
In the case of a single lens of glass with the most favourable curva-
tures, / is about equal to a 2 /, so that a 4 must not exceed X//. For
a lens of 3 ft. focus this condition is satisfied if the aperture does
not exceed 2 in.
When parallel rays fall directly upon a spherical mirror the
longitudinal aberration is only about one-eighth as great as for the
most favourably shaped single lens of equal focal length and aper-
ture. Hence a spherical mirror of 3 ft. focus might have an
aperture of 2\ in., and the image would not suffer materially from
aberration.
On the same principle we may estimate the least visible displace-
ment of the eye-piece of a telescope focused upon a distant object,
a question of interest in connexion with range-finders. It appears
(Phil. Mag., 1885, 20, p. 354) that a displacements/ from the true focus
will not sensibly impair definition, provided
2R being the diameter of aperture. The linear accuracy required
is thus a function of the ratio of aperture to focal length. The
formula agrees well with experiment.
The principle gives an instantaneous solution of the question of
the ultimate optical efficiency in the method of " mirror-reading,"
as commonly practised in various physical observations. A rotation
by which one edge of the mirror advances \\ (while the other edge
retreats to a like amount) introduces a phase-discrepancy of a whole
period where before the rotation there was complete agreement. A
rotation of this amount should therefore be easily visible, but the
limits of resolving power are being approached ; and the conclusion
is independent of the focal length of the mirror, and of the employ-
ment of a telescope, provided of course that the reflected image is
seen in focus, and that the full width of the mirror is utilized.
A comparison with the method of a material pointer, attached to
the parts whose rotation is under observation, and viewed through
a microscope, is of interest. The
limiting efficiency of the microscope
is attained when the angular aperture
amounts to 180; and it is evident
that a lateral displacement of the point
under observation through ^X entails
(at the old image) a phase-discrepancy
of a whole period, one extreme ray
being accelerated and the other re-
FIG. 5.
tarded by half that amount. We may infer that the limits of
efficiency in the two methods are the same when the length of the
pointer is equal to the width of the mirror.
We have seen that in perpendicular reflection a surface error not
exceeding JX may be admissible. In the case of oblique reflection
at an angle <t>, the error of retardation due to an elevation BD (fig. 5)
246
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
from which it follows that an error of given magnitude in the figure
of a surface is less important in oblique than in perpendicular
reflection. It must, however, be borne in mind that errors can
sometimes be compensated by altering adjustments. If a surface
intended to be flat is affected with a slight general curvature, a
remedy may be found in an alteration of focus, and the remedy is
the less complete as the reflection is more oblique.
The formula expressing the optical power of prismatic spectro-
scopes may readily be investigated upon the principles of the wave
theory. Let AoBo be a plane wave-surface of the light before it falls
upon the prisms, AB the corresponding wave-surface for a particular
part of the spectrum after the light has passed the prisms, or after it
has passed the eye-piece of the observing telescope. The path of a
ray from the wave-surface Ao Bo to A or B is determined by the con-
dition that the optical distance, Jpds, is a minimum; and, as AB
is by supposition a wave-surface, this optical distance is the same
for both points. Thus
jnds(lorA.)=jnds (for B) .... (4).
We have now to consider the behaviour of light belonging to a
neighbouring part of the spectrum. The path of a ray from the
wave-surface AoBo to the point A is changed; but in virtue of the
minimum property the change may be neglected in calculating the
optical distance.as it influences the result by quantities of the second
order only in the changes of refrangibility. Accordingly, the optical
distance fromAoBo to A is represented by f(n+Sii)ds, the integration
being along the original path Ao . . . A; and similarly the optical
distance between AoB and B is represented by f(n+Sn)ds, the
integration being along Bo ... B. In virtue of (4) the difference
of the optical distances to A and B is
fads (along B . . . B)-JWi (along Ao ... A) (5).
The new wave-surface is formed in such a position that the optical
distance is constant; and therefore the dispersion, or the angle
through which the wave-surface is turned by the change of refrangi-
bility, is found simply by dividing (5) by the distance AB. If, as
in common flint-glass spectroscopes, there is only one dispersing
substance, (&nds = &p.s, where s is simply the thickness traversed
by the ray. If h and <i be the thicknesses traversed by the extreme
rays, and o denote the width of the emergent beam, the dispersion
is given by
or, if <i be negligible,
(6).
The condition of resolution of a double line whose components
subtend an angle is that 6 must exceed X/a. Hence, in order
that a double line may be resolved whose components have indices
M and H+&P, it is necessary that / should exceed the value given
by the following equation :
........ (7)-
8. Diffraction Gratings. Under the heading " Colours of
Striated Surfaces," Thomas Young (Phil. Trans., 1802) in his
usual summary fashion gave a general explanation of these
colours, including the law of sines, the striations being supposed
to be straight, parallel and equidistant. Later, in his article
" Chromatics " in the supplement to the 5th edition of this
encyclopaedia, he shows that the colours " lose the mixed
character of periodical colours, and resemble much more the
ordinary prismatic spectrum, with intervals completely dark
interposed," and explains it by the consideration that any phase-
difference which may arise at neighbouring striae is multiplied in
proportion to the total number of striae.
The theory was further developed by A. J. Fresnel (1815), who
gave a formula equivalent to (5) below. But it is to J. von
Fraunhofer that we owe most of our knowledge upon this subject.
His recent discovery of the " fixed lines " allowed a precision of
observation previously impossible. He constructed gratings up
to 340 periods to the inch by straining fine wire over screws.
Subsequently he ruled gratings on a layer of gold-leaf attached to
glass, or on a layer of grease similarly supported, and again by
attacking the glass itself with a diamond point. The best gratings
were obtained by the last method, but a suitable diamond point
was hard to find, and to preserve. Observing through a telescope
with light perpendicularly incident, he showed that the position
of any ray was dependent only upon the grating interval, viz. the
distance from the centre of one wire or line to the centre of the
next, and not otherwise upon the thickness of the wire and the
magnitude of the interspace. In different gratings the lengths
of the spectra and their distances from the axis were inversely
proportional to the grating interval, while with a given grating
the distances of the various spectra from the axis were as i, 2, 3,
&c. To Fraunhofer we owe the first accurate measurements
of wave-lengths, and the method of separating the overlapping
spectra by a prism dispersing in the perpendicular direction.
He described also the complicated patterns seen when a point of
light is viewed through two superposed gratings, whose lines cross
one another perpendicularly or obliquely. The above observa-
tions relate to transmitted light, but Fraunhofer extended his
inquiry to the light reflected. To eliminate the light returned
from the hinder surface of an engraved grating, he covered it with
a black varnish. It then appeared that under certain angles of
incidence parts of the resulting spectra were completely polarized.
These remarkable researches of Fraunhofer, carried out in the
years 1817-1823, are republished in his Collected Writings
(Munich, 1888).
The principle underlying the action of gratings is identical with
that discussed in 2, and exemplified in I. L. Soret's " zone plates."
The alternate Fresnel's zones are blocked out or otherwise modified;
in this way the original compensation is upset and a revival of light
occurs in unusual directions. If the source be a point or a line, and
a collimating lens be used, the incident waves may be regarded as
plane. If, further, on leaving the grating the light be received by a
focusing lens, e.g. the object-glass of a telescope, the Fresnel's zones
are reduced to parallel and equidistant straight strips, which at
certain angles coincide with the ruling. The directions of the lateral
spectra are such that the passage from one element of the grating
to the corresponding point of the next implies a retardation of
an integral number of wave-lengths. If the grating be composed
of alternate transparent and opaque parts, the question may be
treated by means of the general integrals ( 3) by merely limiting
the integration to the transparent parts of the aperture. For an
investigation upon these lines the reader is referred to Airy's
Tracts, to Verdet's Lemons, or to R. W. Wood's Physical Optics. If,
however, we assume the theory of a simple rectangular aperture
( 3) ; the results of the ruling can be inferred by elementary methods,
which are perhaps more instructive.
Apart from the ruling, we know that the image of a mathematical
line will be a series of narrow bands, of which the central one is
by far the brightest. At the middle of this band there is complete
agreement of phase among the secondary waves. The dark lines
which separate the bands are the places at which the phases of the
secondary wave range over an integral number of periods. If now
we suppose the aperture AB to be covered by a great number of
opaque strips or bars of width d, separated by transparent intervals
of width a, the condition of things in the directions just spoken of
is not materially changed. At the central point there is still complete
agreement of phase ; but the amplitude is diminished in the ratio of
a: a+d. In another direction, making a small angle with the last,
such that the projection of AB upon it amounts to a few wave-
lengths, it is easy to see that the mode of interference is the same as
if there were no ruling. For example, when the direction is such that
the projection of AB upon it amounts to one wave-length, the
elementary components neutralize one another, because their phases
are distributed symmetrically, though discontinuously, round the
entire period. The only effect of the ruling is to diminish the
amplitude in the ratio a: a+d; and, except for the difference in
illumination, the appearance of a line of light is the same as if the
aperture were perfectly free.
The lateral (spectral) images occur in such directions that the
projection of the element (a+d) of the grating upon them is an exact
multiple of X. The effect of each of the n elements of the grating
is then the same ; and, unless this vanishes on account of a particular
adjustment of the ratio a:d, the resultant amplitude becomes com-
paratively very great. These directions, in which the retardation
between A and B is exactly mnX, may be called the principal direc-
tions. On either side of any one of them the illumination is dis-
tributed according to the same law as for the central image (m = o),
vanishing, for example, when the retardation amounts to (wm=*i)X.
In considering the relative brightnesses of the different spectra, it
is therefore sufficient to attend merely to the principal directions,
provided that the whole deviation be not so great that its cosine
differs considerably from unity.
We have now to consider the amplitude due to a single element,
which we may conveniently regard as composed of a transparent
part a bounded by two opaque parts of width J<f. The phase of
the resultant effect is by symmetry that of the component which
comes from the middle of o. The fact that the other components
have phases differing from this by amounts ranging between
d=amir/(a+d) causes the resultant amplitude to be less than for
the central image (where there is complete phase agreement).
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
247
If Br, denote the brightness of the m th lateral image, and B that
of the central image, we have
B m :B=
If B denotes the brightness of the central image when the whole of
the space occupied by the grating is transparent, we have
B :B=a 2 :(<z+<Z) ! ,
and thus
fn\
The sine of an angle can never be greater than unity ; and con-
sequently under the most favourable circumstances only 1/mW of
the original light can be obtained in the m th spectrum. We con-
clude that, with a grating composed of transparent and opaque
parts, the utmost light obtainable in any one spectrum is in the first,
and there amounts to l/ir 2 , or about Vs. and that for this purpose
a and d must be equal. When d = a the general formula becomes
B:B-5 ..... (3),
showing that, when m is even, B m vanishes, and that, when m is odd,
The third spectrum has thus only J of the brilliancy of the first.
Another particular case of interest is obtained by supposing a
small relatively to (a+d). Unless the spectrum be of very high
order, we have simply
B m :B = (a/(o+<*))* ..... (4);
so that the brightnesses of all the spectra are the same.
The light stopped by the opaque parts of the grating, together
with that distributed in the central image and lateral spectra, ought
to make up the brightness that would be found in the central image,
were all the apertures transparent. Thus, if a = d, we should have
which is true by a known theorem. In the general case
o-N-
a formula which may be verified by Fourier's theorem.
According to a general principle formulated by J. Babinet, the
brightness of a lateral spectrum is not affected by an interchange
of the transparent and opaque parts of the grating. The vibrations
corresponding to the two parts are precisely antagonistic, since if
both were operative the resultant would be zero. So far as the
application to gratings is concerned, the same conclusion may be
derived from (2).
From the value of Bm : Bo we see that no lateral spectrum can
surpass the central image in brightness ; but this result depends upon
the hypothesis that the ruling acts by opacity, which is generally
very far from being the case in practice. In an engraved glass
grating there is no opaque material present by which light could be
absorbed, and the effect depends upon a difference of retardation in
passing the alternate parts. It is possible to prepare gratings which
give a lateral spectrum brighter than the central image, and the ex-
planation is easy. For if the alternate parts were equal and alike
transparent, but so constituted as to give a relative retardation of
jX, it is evident that the central image would be entirely extinguished,
while the first spectrum would be four times as bright as if the
alternate parts were opaque. If it were possible to introduce at
every part of the aperture of the grating an arbitrary retardation,
all the light might be concentrated in any desired spectrum. By
supposing the retardation to vary uniformly and continuously we
, fall upon the case of an ordinary prism : but there
is then no diffraction spectrum in the usual sense.
To obtain such it would be necessary that the
retardation should gradually alter by a wave-
length in passing over any element of the grating,
and then fall back to its previous value, thus
springing suddenly over a wave-length (Phil.
Mag., 1874, 47, p. 193). It is not likely that such
a result will ever be fully attained in practice; but
the case is worth stating, in order to show that
there is no theoretical limit to the concentration
p G ^ of light of assigned wave-length in one spectrum
and as illustrating the frequently observed un-
symmetrical character of the spectra on the two sides of the centra'
image. 1
We have hitherto supposed that the light is incident perpen
1 The last sentence is repeated from the writer's article " Wave
Theory " in the gth edition of this work, but A. A. Michelson's
ingenious echelon grating constitutes a realization in an unexpectec
manner of what was thought to be impracticable. [R.]
dicularly upon the grating; but the theory is easily extended. If
he incident rays make an angle S with the normal (fig. 6), and the
diffracted rays make an angle 4> (upon the same side), the relative
retardation from each element of width (a+d) to the next is
'a+d) (sin 0+sin <t>) ; and this is the quantity which is to be equated
m\. Thus
sinfl+sin = 2 sin %(8+<f>) cos 1(6 <j>) =m\/(a+d) (5).
The "deviation" is (0+<f>), and is therefore a minimum when
1 = <t>, i.e. when the grating is so situated that the angles of incidence
and diffraction are equal.
In the case of a reflection grating the same method applies. If
6 and <t> denote the angles with the normal made by the incident
and diffracted rays, the formula (5) still holds,
and, if the deviation be reckoned from the
direction of the regularly reflected rays, it is
expressed as before ;by (0+<t>), and is a mini-
mum when 6 <t>, that is, when the diffracted
rays return upon the course of the incident
ays.
In either case (as also with a prism) the
josition of minimum deviation leaves the
FIG. 7.
width of the beam unaltered, i.e. neither magnifies nor diminishes the
angular width of the object under view.
From (5) we see that, when the light falls perpendicularly upon
grating (0 = o), there is no spectrum formed (the image corre-
sponding to m=o not being counted as a spectrum), if the grating
"nterval <r or (a+d) is less than X. Under these circumstances,
.! the material of the grating be completely transparent, the whole
of the light must appear in the direct image, and the ruling is not
perceptible. From the absence of spectra Fraunhofer argued that
there must be a microscopic limit represented by X; and the infer-
ence is plausible, to say the least (Phil. Mag., 1886). Fraunhofer
should, however, have fixed the microscopic limit at JX, as appears
from (5), when we suppose = |jr, < = iir.
We will now consider the important subject of the resolving
power of gratings, as dependent upon the
number of lines (n) and the order of the spec- Q .~
trum observed (m). Let BP (fig. 8) be the V \ \
direction of the principal maximum (middle \\
of central band) for the wave-length X in the \\
m th spectrum. Then the relative retardation ^\
of the extreme rays (corresponding to the A.
edges A, B of the grating) is mn\. If BQ A B
be the direction for the first minimum (the FIG. 8.
darkness between the central and first lateral
band), the relative retardation of the extreme rays is (tnn + i)\.
Suppose now that X+5X is the wave-length for which BQ gives the
principal maximum, then
whence
X/X=i/mn ..... (6).
According to our former standard, this gives the smallest difference
of wave-lengths in a double line which can be just resolved; and
we conclude that the resolving power of a grating depends only
upon the total number of lines, and upon the order of the spectrum,
without regard to any other considerations. It is here of course
assumed that the n lines are really utilized.
In the case of the D lines the value of 5X/X is about i/iooo; so
that to resolve this double line in the first spectrum requires 1000
lines, in the second spectrum 500, and so on.
It is especially to be noticed that the resolving power does not
depend directly upon the closeness of the ruling. Let us take the
case of a grating I in. broad, and containing loop lines, and consider
the effect of interpolating an additional 1000 lines, so as to bisect
the former intervals. There will be destruction by interference of
the first, third and odd spectra generally; while the advantage
gained in the spectra of even order is not in dispersion, nor in
resolving power, but simply in brilliancy, which is increased four
times. If we now suppose half the grating cut away, so as to leave
lopo lines in half an inch, the dispersion will not be altered, while the
brightness and resolving power are halved.
There is clearly no theoretical limit to the resolving power of
gratings, even in spectra of given order. But it is possible that,
as suggested by Rowland,* the structure of natural spectra may
be too coarse to give opportunity for resolving powers much higher
than those now in use. However this may be, it would always
be possible, with the aid of a grating of given resolving power, to
construct artificially from white light mixtures of slightly different
wave-length whose resolution or otherwise would discriminate
between powers inferior and superior to the given one. 3
'Compare also F. F. Lippich, Pogg. Ann. cxxxix. p. 465, 1870;
Rayleigh, Nature (October 2, 1873).
* The power of a grating to construct light of nearly definite wave-
length is well illustrated by Young's comparison with the production
of a musical note by reflection of a sudden sound from a row of
palings. The objection raised by Herschel (Light, 703) to this
comparison depends on a misconception
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
If we define as the " dispersion " in a particular part of the
spectrum the ratio of the angular interval dB-to the corresponding
increment of wave-length d\ we may express it by a very simple
formula. For the alteration of wave-length entails,_ at the two
limits of a diffracted wave-front, a relative retardation equal to
mnd\. Hence, if a be the width of the diffracted beam, and d the
angle through which the wave-front is turned,
ad6 = mn d\,
dispersion =mn/a
(7)-
The resolving power and the width of the emergent beam fix
the optical character of the instrument. The latter element must
eventually be decreased until less than the diameter of the pupil
of the eye. Hence a wide beam demands treatment with further
apparatus (usually a telescope) of high magnifying power.
In the above discussion it has been supposed that the ruling is
accurate, and we have seen that by increase of m a high resolving
power is attainable with a moderate number of lines. But this
procedure (apart from the question of illumination) is open to the
objection that it makes excessive demands upon accuracy. Accord-
ing to the principle already laid down it can make but little difference
in the principal direction corresponding to the first spectrum,
provided each line lie within a quarter of an interval (a+d) from its
theoretical position. But, to obtain an equally good result in the
m th spectrum, the error must be less than ijm of the above amount. 1
There are certain errors of .a systematic character which demand
special consideration. The spacing is usually effected by means of
a screw, to each revolution of which corresponds a large number
(e.g. one hundred) of lines. In this way it may happen that although
there is almost perfect periodicity with each revolution of the screw
after (say) 100 lines, yet the 100 lines themselves are not equally
spaced. The " ghosts " thus arising were first described by G. H.
Quincke (Fogg. Ann., 1872, 146, p. i), and have been elaborately
investigated by C. S. Peirce (Ann. Journ. Math., 1879, 2, p. 330), both
theoretically and experimentally. The general nature of the effects
to be expected in such a case may be made clear by means of an illus-
tration already employed for another purpose. Suppose two similar
and accurately ruled transparent gratings to be superposed in such
a manner that the lines are parallel. If the one set of lines exactly
bisect the intervals between the others, the grating interval is
practically halved, and the previously existing spectra of odd order
vanish. But a very slight relative displacement will cause the
apparition of the odd spectra. In this case there is approximate
periodicity in the half interval, but complete periodicity only after
the whole interval. The advantage of approximate bisection lies
in the superior brilliancy of the surviving spectra ; but in any case
the compound grating may be considered to be perfect in the
longer interval, and the definition is as good as if the bisection were
accurate.
The effect of a gradual increase in the interval (fig. 9) as we
pass across the grating has been investigated by M. A. Cornu
(C.R., 1875, 80, p. 655), who thus explains an anomaly observed by
FIG. 9. x*. FIG. io. y. FIG. ii. *
FIG. 12. xf.
E. E. N. Mascart. The latter found that certain gratings exercised
a converging power upon the spectra formed upon one side, and a
corresponding diverging power upon the spectra on the other side.
Let us suppose that the light is incident perpendicularly, and that
the grating interval increases from the centre towards that edge
which lies nearest to the spectrum under observation, and decreases
towards the hinder edge. It is evident that the waves from both
halves of the
grating are ac-
celerated in an
increasing degree,
as we pass from
the centre out-
wards, as com-
pared with the
phase they would possess were the central value of the grating
interval maintained throughout. The irregularity of spacing has
thus the effect of a convex lens, which accelerates the marginal
relatively to the central rays. On the other side the effect is
reversed. This kind of irregularity may clearly be present in a
FIG. 13. xy. FIG. 14. x*y. FIG. 15. y*.
1 It must not be supposed that errors of this order of magnitude are
unobjectionable in all cases. The position of the middle of the bright
band representative of a mathematical line can be fixed with a
spider-line micrometer within a small fraction of the width of the
band, just as the accuracy of astronomical observations far transcend:
the separating power of the instrument.
degree surpassing the usual limits, without loss of definition, when
;he telescope is focused so as to secure the best effect.
It may be worth while to examine further the other variations
r rom correct ruling which correspond to the various terms expressing
:he deviation of the wave-surface from a perfect plane. If x and y
je co-ordinates in the plane of the wave-surface, the axis of y being
parallel to the lines of the grating, and the origin corresponding
:o the centre of the beam, we may take as an approximate equation
to the wave-surface
(8);
and, as we have just seen, the term in * 2 corresponds to a linear
error in the spacing. In like manner, the term in y 2 corresponds
:o a general curvature of the lines (fig. 10), and does not influence
the definition at the (primary) focus, although it may introduce
astigmatism. 2 If we suppose that everything is symmetrical on
the two sides of the primary plane y = o, the coefficients B, 0, 5
vanish. In spite of any inequality between p and p', the definition
will be good to this order of approximation, provided a and y vanish.
The former measures the thickness of the primary focal line, and the
latter measures its curvature. The error of ruling giving rise to a is
one in which the intervals increase or decrease in both directions
from the centre outwards (fig. Ii), and it may often be compensated
by a slight rotation in azimuth of the object-glass of the observing
telescope. The term in y corresponds to a variation of curvature
in crossing the grating (fig. 12).
When the plane zx is not a plane of symmetry, we have to consider
the terms in xy, x^y, and y 3 . The first of these corresponds to a devia-
tion from parallelism, causing the interval tpalter gradually as we pass
along the lines (fig. 13). The error thus arising may be compensated
by a rotation of the object-glass about one of the diameters y =t*.
The term in x*y corresponds to a deviation from parallelism in the
same direction on both sides of the central line (fig. 14); and that in
y 3 would be caused by a curvature such that there is a point of
inflection at the middle of each line (fig. 15).
All the errors, except that depending on o, and especially those
depending on y and {, can be diminished, without loss of resolving
power, by contracting the vertical aperture. A linear error in the
spacing, and a general curvature of the lines, are eliminated in the
ordinary use of a grating.
The explanation of the difference of focus upon the two sides as
due to unequal spacing was verified by Cornu upon gratings purposely
constructed with an increasing interval. He has also shown how to
rule a plane surface with lines so disposed that the grating shall of
itself give well-focused spectra.
A similar idea appears to have guided H. A. Rowland to his
brilliant invention of concave gratings, by
which spectra can be photographed without
any further optical appliance. In these
instruments the lines are ruled upon a
spherical surface of speculum metal, and
mark the intersections of the surface by a
system of parallel and equidistant planes, O;
of which the middle member passes through V
the centre of the sphere. If we consider for
the present only the primary plane of_sym-
metry, the figure is reduced to two dimen-
sions. Let AP (fig. 1 6) represent the surface
of the grating, O being the centre of the
circle. Then, if Q be any radiant point and
Q' its image (primary focus) in the spherical mirror AP, we have
1.1 _2cos<t>
Vi u~ a '
where t))=AQ', u=AQ, o = OA, <*> = angleof incidence QAO, equal to
the angle of reflection Q'AO. If Q be on the circle described upon
OA as diameter, so that u-a cos <j>, then Q' lies also upon the same
circle; and in this case it follows from the symmetry that the
unsymmetrical aberration (depending upon a) vanishes.
This disposition is adopted in Rowland's instrument; only, in
addition to the central image formed at the angle <t>' = <t>, there are
a series of spectra with various values of 4>', btit all disposed upon
the same circle. Rowland's investigation is contained in the paper
already referred to; but the following account of the theory is in
the form adopted by R. T. Glazebrook (Phil. Mag., 1883).
In order to find the difference of optical distances between the
courses QAQ', QPQ', we have to express QP-QA, PQ'-AQ'. To
find the former, we have, if OAQ = <, AOP = ,
= (tt+a sin <i> sin u>) 2 a 2 sin 2 0sin 2 a>+4a sin 2 ju(a- cos <j>).
FIG.
2 " In the same way we may conclude that in flat gratings any
departure from a straight line has the effect of causing the dust in
the slit and the spectrum to have different foci a fact sometimes
observed " (Rowland, " On Concave Gratings for Optical Purposes,
Phil. Mag., September 1883).
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
249
Now as far as 4
4 sin 4w =
and thus to the same order
QP 2 = (u+a sin <t> sin w)*
a cos <f>(ua cos <i>) sin 2 aj + j<z(<i M cos <t>) sin 4 w.
But if we now suppose that Q lies on the circle u=a cos <t>, the
middle term vanishes, and we get, correct as far as w 4 ,
QP = (M+asin <t>sin a)
so that
in which it is to be noticed that the adjustment necessary to secure
the disappearance of sin 2 &> is sufficient also to destroy the term in
sin 3 w.
A similar expression can be found for Q'P Q'A; and thus, if
Q'A = ii, Q'AO=<' , where v = a cos <t>' , we get
/) . . . (10).
If (' = <, the term of the first order vanishes, and the reduction of
the difference of path via P and via A to a term of the fourth order
proves not only that Q and Q' are conjugate foci, but also that the
foci are exempt from the most important term in the aberration.
In the present application <t>' is not necessarily equal to </>; but if
P correspond to a line upon the grating, the difference of retarda-
tions for consecutive positions of P, so far as expressed by the term
of the first order, will be equal to =FJM\ (m integral), and therefore
without influence, provided
a (sin <t>-sin<t>') = =F mX (11),
where a denotes the constant interval between the planes contain-
ing the lines. This is the ordinary formula for a reflecting plane
grating, and it shows that the spectra are formed in the usual
directions. They are here focused (so far as the rays in the primary
plane are concerned) upon the circle OQ'A, and the outstanding
aberration is of the fourth order.
In order that a large part of the field of view may be in focus at
once, it is desirable that the locus of the focused spectrum should
be nearly perpendicular to the line of vision. For this purpose
Rowland places the eye-piece at O, so that <t> = o, and then by (n)
the value of <t>' in the m" spectrum is
If u now relate to the edge of the grating, on which there are
altogether n lines,
n<r = 2a sin u,
and the value of the last term in (10) becomes
r sin 3 o> sin <'tan <t>' ,
^a mnXsin' wtan <t>' (13).
This expresses the retardation of the extreme relatively to the
central ray, and is to be reckoned positive, whatever may be the
signs of u, and 0'. If the semi-angular aperture (u) be T j , and
tan 4>' = i, mn might be as great as four millions before the error of
phase would reach JX. If it were desired to use an angular aperture
so large that the aberration according to (13) would be injurious,
Rowland points out that on his machine there would be no difficulty
in applying a remedy by making a slightly variable towards the
edges. Or, retaining a constant, we might attain compensation by so
polishing the surface as to bring the circumference slightly forward
in comparison with the position it would occupy upon a true sphere.
It may be remarked that these calculations apply to the rays in
the primary plane only. The image is greatly affected with astig-
matism ; but this is of little consequence, if 7 in (8) be small enough.
Curvature of the primary focal line having a very injurious effect
upon definition, it may be inferred from the excellent performance
of these gratings that y is in fact small. Its value does not appear
to have been calculated. The other coefficients in (8) vanish in
virtue of the symmetry.
The mechanical arrangements for maintaining the focus are of
great simplicity. The grating at A and the eye-piece at O are
rigidly attached to a bar AO, whose ends rest on carriages, moving
on rails OQ, AQ at right angles to each other. A tie between the
middle point of the rod OA and Q can be used if thought desirable.
The absence of chromatic aberration gives a great advantage in
the comparison of overlapping spectra, which Rowland has turned
to excellent account in his determinations of the relative wave-
lengths of lines in the solar spectrum (Phil. Mag., 1887).
For absolute determinations of wave-lengths plane gratings are
used. It is found (Bell, Phil. Mag., 1887) that the angular
measurements present less difficulty than the comparison of the
grating interval with the standard metre. There is also some
uncertainty as to the actual temperature of the grating when in
use. In order to minimize the heating action of the light, it might
be submitted to a preliminary prismatic analysis before it reaches
the slit of the spectrometer, after the manner of Helmholtz.
In spite of the many improvements introduced by Rowland and
of the care with which his observations were made, recent workers
have come to the conclusion that errors of unexpected amount
have crept into his measurements of wave-lengths, and there is
even a disposition to discard the grating altogether for funda-
mental work in favour of the so-called " interference methods,"
as developed by A. A. Michelson, and by C. Fabry and J. B. Perot.
The grating would in any case retain its utility for the reference of
new lines to standards otherwise fixed. For such standards
a relative accuracy of at least one part in a million seems now
to be attainable.
Since the time of Fraunhofer many skilled mechanicians have
given their attention to the ruling of gratings. Those of Nobert
were employed by A. J. Angstrom in his celebrated researches
upon wave-lengths. L. M. Rutherfurd introduced into common
use the reflection grating, finding that speculum metal was less
trying than glass to the diamond point, upon the permanence of
which so much depends. In Rowland's dividing engine the
screws were prepared by a special process devised by him, and
the resulting gratings, plane and concave, have supplied the
means for much of the best modern optical work. It would
seem, however, that further improvements are not excluded.
There are various copying processes by which it is possible
to reproduce an original ruling in more or less perfection. The
earliest is that of Quincke, who coated a glass grating with a
chemical silver deposit, subsequently thickened with copper in
an electrolytic bath. The metallic plate thus produced formed,
when stripped from its support, a reflection grating reproducing
many of the characteristics of the original. It is best to com-
mence the electrolytic thickening in a silver acetate bath. At
the present time excellent reproductions of Rowland's speculum
gratings are on the market (Thorp, Ives, Wallace), prepared, after
a suggestion of Sir David Brewster, by coating the original with a
varnish, e.g. of celluloid. Much skill is required to secure that
the film when stripped shall remain undeformed.
A much easier method, applicable to glass originals, is that
of photographic reproduction by contact printing. In several
papers dating from 1872, Lord Rayleigh (see Collected Papers,
i. 157, 160, 199, 504; iv. 226) has shown that success may
be attained by a variety of processes, including bichromated
gelatin and the old bitumen process, and has investigated the
effect of imperfect approximation during the exposure between the
prepared plate and the original. For many purposes the copies,
containing lines up to 10,000 to the inch, are not inferior. It is
to be desired that transparent gratings should be obtained from
first-class ruling machines. To save the diamond point it might
be possible to use something softer than ordinary glass as the
material of the plate.
9. Talbot's Bands. These very remarkable bands are seen
under certain conditions when a tolerably pure spectrum is re-
garded with the naked eye, or with a telescope, half the aperture
being covered by a thin plate, e.g. of glass or mica. The view of the
matter taken by the discoverer (Phil. Mag., 1837, 10, p. 364) was
that any ray which suffered in traversing the plate a retardation
of an odd number of half wave-lengths would be extinguished,
and that thus the spectrum would be seen interrupted by a
number of dark bars. But this'explanation cannot be accepted as
it stands, being open to the same objection as Arago's theory of
stellar scintillation. 1 It is as far as possible from being true that
a body emitting homogeneous light would disappear on merely
covering half the aperture of vision with a half- wave plate.
Such a conclusion would be in the face of the principle of energy,
which teaches plainly that the retardation in question leaves
the aggregate brightness unaltered. The actual formation of
1 On account of inequalities in the atmosphere giving a variable
refraction, the light from a star would be irregularly distributed over
a screen. The experiment is easily made on a laboratory scale, with
a small source of light, the rays from which in their course
towards a rather distant screen, are disturbed by the neighbourhood
of a heated body. At a moment when the eye, or object-glass of a
telescope, occupies a dark position, the star vanishes. A fraction
of a second later the aperture occupies a bright place, and the star
reappears. According to this view the chromatic effects depend
entirely upon atmospheric dispersion.
250
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
the bands comes about in a very curious way, as is shown by a
circumstance first observed by Brewster. When the retarding
plate is held on the side towards the red of the spectrum, the bands
are not seen. Even in the contrary case , the thickness of the plate
must not exceed a certain limit, dependent upon the purity of
the spectrum. A satisfactory explanation of these bands was first
given by Airy (Phil. Trans., 1840, 225; 1841, i), but we shall here
follow the investigation of Sir G. G. Stokes ( Phil. Trans., 1848,
227), limiting ourselves, however, to the case where the retarded
and unretarded beams are contiguous and of equal width.
The aperture of the unretarded beam may thus be taken to be
limited by x= h, * = o, y I, y=+l; and that of the beam re-
tarded by R to be given by * = o, x = h, y=l, y = +l. For the
former (i) 3 gives
2lh
. kr,l 2f_ . kth . ,( , &)
sm -j kth sin w sm * I at ~ J % I
on integration and reduction.
For the retarded stream the only difference is that we must sub-
tract R from at, and that the limits of * are o and -\-h. We thus
get for the disturbance at , ij, due to this stream
2lh
kril2
kth
~
If we put for shortness T for the quantity under the last circular
function in (i), the expressions (i), (2) may be put under the forms
u sinr, sin (T o) respectively; and, if I be the intensity, I will be
measured by the sum of the squares of the coefficients of sin r and
cos T in the expression
u sin T+ sin (T a),
so that
I = 2 +*+2i) cos o,
which becomes on putting for u, v, and a their values, and putting
(3),
(4).
If the subject of examination be a luminous line parallel to ij, we
shall obtain what we require by integrating (4) with respect to i\
from oo to + 00. The constant multiplier is of no especial interest
so that we may take as applicable to the image of a line
2 . jlrfft I /2irR 2irft\ )
If R = JX, I vanishes at =o; but the whole illumination, repre-
sented by | I d, is independent of the value of R. If R=o,
J oe
1 2ir? h
I =|jsin 2 -r^-, in agreement with 3, where o has the meaning
here attached to 2ft.
The expression (5) gives the illumination at due to that part
of the complete image whose geometrical focus is at = o, the
retardation for this component being R. Since we have now to
integrate for the whole illumination at a particular point O due to
all the components which have their foci in its neighbourhood, we
may conveniently regard O as origin. is then the co-ordinate
relatively to O of any focal point O' for which the retardation is R;
and the required result is obtained by simply integrating (5) with
respect to from oo to +00. To each value of corresponds
a different value of X, and (in consequence of the dispersing power
of the plate) of R. The variation of X may, however, be neglected
in the integration, except in 2?rR/X, where a small variation of X
entails a comparatively large alteration of phase. If we write
p = 2jrR/X (6),
we must regard p as a function of , and we may take with sufficient
approximation under any ordinary circumstances
_ f I (tf\
where p' denotes the value of p at O, and o is a constant, which is
positive when the retarding plate is held at the side on which the
blue of the_spectrum is seen. The possibility of dark bands depends
upon o being positive. Only in this case can
retain the constant value i throughout the integration, and then
only when
ra = 2xA/X/ (8)
and
cosp'=-i (9).
The first of these equations is the condition for the formation of
dark bands, and the second marks their situation, which is the
same as that determined by the imperfect theory.
The integration can be effected without much difficulty. For
the first term in (5) the evaluation is effected at once by a known
formula. In the second term if we observe that
cos (p' + (a - 2rhl\f) t] = cos [p' - g,|)
= cos p' cos gi +sin p' sin gi{,
we see that the second part vanishes when integrated, and that
the remaining integral is of the form
where
(10).
By differentiation with respect to g! it may be proved that
t0 = fromgi = oo togi = ahi,
t0 = iir(2&i+gi) from gi= -2hi to gi=0,
t0 = iir(2Ai-fr) fromgi = togi=2fc,
w = fromgi = 2Ai togi = oo.
The integrated intensity, I', or
2rh t +2 COS pW,
is thus
I' = 2Tftj ...... (11),
when gi numerically exceeds ahi; and, when gi lies between =2&i,
I = {2fti + (2ft, -V ft 1 ) cos p') . . . (12).
It appears therefore that there are no bands at all unless ro lies
between o and +4*1, and that within these limits the best bands are
formed at the middle of the range when er=2ft,. The formation
of bands thus requires that the retarding plate be held upon the
side already specified, so that BJ be positive ; and that the thickness
of the plate (to which CT is proportional) do not exceed a certain
limit, which we may call 2T . At the best thickness To the bands
are black, and not otherwise.
The linear width of the band (?) is the increment of which alters
p by 2ir, so that
e=2ir/CT ...... (13).
With the best thickness
CT=27rft/X/ ...... (14).
so that in this case
= A//A ...... (15).
The bands are thus of the same width as those due to two infinitely
narrow apertures coincident with the central lines of the retarded
and unretarded streams, the subject of examination being itself a
fine luminous line.
If it be desired to see a given number of bands in the whole or
in any part of the spectrum, the thickness of the retarding plate
is thereby determined, independently of all other considerations.
But in order that the bands may be really visible, and still more in
order that they may be black, another condition must be satisfied.
It is necessary that the aperture of the pupil be accommodated
to the angular extent of the spectrum, or reciprocally. Black
bands will be too fine to be well seen unless the aperture (2/1) of
the pupil be somewhat contracted. One-twentieth to one-fiftieth
of an inch is suitable. The aperture and the number of bands being
both fixed, the condition of blackness determines the angular magni-
tude of a band and of the spectrum. The use of a grating is very
convenient, for not only are there several spectra in view at the same
time, but the dispersion can be varied continuously by sloping the
grating. The slits may be cut out of tin-plate, and half covered by
mica or " microscopic glass," held in position by a little cement.
If a telescope be employed there is a distinction to be observed,
according as the half-covered aperture is between the eye and the
ocular, or in front of the object-glass. In the former case the
function of the telescope is simply to increase the dispersion, and
the formation of the bands is of course independent of the par-
ticular manner in which the dispersion arises. If, however, the
half-covered aperture be in front of the object-glass, the pheno-
menon is magnified as a whole, and the desirable relation between
the (unmagnified) dispersion and the aperture is the same as with-
out the telescope. There appears to be no further advantage in the
use of a telescope than the increased facility of accommodation,
and for this of course a very low power suffices.
The original investigation of Stokes, here briefly sketched, extends
also to the case where the streams are of unequal width h, k,
and are separated by an interval 2g. In the case of unequal width
the bands cannot be black; but if h = k, the finiteness of 2g does
not preclude the formation of black bands.
The theory of Talbot's bands with a half-covered circular aperture
has been considered by H. Struve (St Peters. Trans., 1883, 31, No. i).
The subject of " Talbot's bands " has been treated in a very
instructive manner by A. Schuster (Phil. Mag., 1904), whose point
of view offers the great advantage of affording an instantaneous
explanation of the peculiarity noticed by Brewster. A plane
pulse, i.e. a disturbance limited to an infinitely thin slice of the
medium, is supposed to fall upon a parallel grating, which again may
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
251
be regarded as formed of infinitely thin wires, or infinitely narrow
lines traced upon glass. The secondary pulses diverted by the ruling
fall upon an object-glass as usual, and on arrival at the focus
constitute a procession equallyspaced in time, the interval between
consecutive members depending upon the obliquity. If a retarding
plate be now inserted so as to operate upon the pulses which come
from one side of the grating, while leaving the remainder unaffected,
we have to consider what happens at the focal point chosen. A full
discussion would call for the formal application of Fourier's theorem,
but some conclusions of importance are almost obvious.
Previously to the introduction of the plate we have an effect
corresponding to wave-lengths closely grouped around the principal
wave-length, viz. a sin <t>, where a is the grating-interval and <#> the
objiquity, the closeness of the grouping increasing with the number
of intervals. In addition to these wave-lengths there are other groups
centred round the wave-lengths which are submultiples of the
principal one the overlapping spectra of the second and higher
orders. Suppose now that the plate is introduced so as to cover half
the aperture and that it retards those pulses which would otherwise
arrive first. The consequences must depend upon the amount of the
retardation. As this increases from zero, the two processions which
correspond to the two halves of the aperture begin to overlap, and
the overlapping gradually increases until there is almost complete
superposition. The stage upon which we will fix our attention is
that where the one procession bisects the intervals between the
other, so that a new simple procession is constituted, containing the
same number of members as before the insertion of the plate, but
now spaced at intervals only half as great. It is evident that the
effect at the focal point is the obliteration of the first and other
spectra of odd order, so that as regards the spectrum of the first order
we may consider that the two beams interfere. The formation of
black bands is thus explained, and it requires that the plate be
introduced upon one particular side, and that the amount of the
retardation be adjusted to a particular value. If the retardation
be too little, the overlapping of the processions is incomplete, so that
besides the procession of half period there are residues of the original
processions of full period. The same thing occurs if the retardation
be too great. If it exceed the double of the value necessary for
black bands, there is again no overlapping and consequently no
interference. If the plate be introduced upon the other side, so as
to retard the procession originally in arrear, there is no overlapping,
whatever may be the amount of retardation. In this way the
principal features of the phenomenon are accounted for, and
Schuster has shown further how to extend the results to spectra
having their origin in prisms instead of gratings.
10. Diffraction when the Source of Light is not seen in Focus.
The phenomena to be considered under this head are of less
importance than those investigated by Fraunhofer, and will be
treated in less detail; but in view of their historical interest and
of the ease with which many of the experiments may be tried,
some account of their theory cannot be omitted. One or two
examples have already attracted our attention when considering
Fresnel's zones, viz. the shadow of a circular disk and of a screen
circularly perforated.
Fresnel commenced his researches with an examination of the
fringes, external and internal, which accompany the shadow of a
narrow opaque strip, such as a wire. As a source of light he used
sunshine passing through a very small hole perforated in a metal
plate, or condensed by a lens of short focus. In the absence of a
heliostat the latter was the more convenient. Following, un-
known to himself, in the footsteps of Young, he deduced the
principle of interference from the circumstance that the darkness
of the interior bands requires the co-operation of light from both
sides of the obstacle. At first, too, he followed Young in the view
that the exterior bands are the result of interference between the
direct light and that reflected from the edge of the obstacle, but
he soon discovered that the character of the edge e.g. whether
it was the cutting edge or the back of a razor made no material
difference, and was thus led to the conclusion that the explanation
of these phenomena requires nothing more than the application of
Huygens's principle to the unobstructed parts of the wave. In
observing the bands he received them at first upon a screen of
finely ground glass, upon which a magnifying lens was focused;
but it soon appeared that the ground glass could be dispensed with,
the diffraction pattern being viewed in the same way as the image
formed by the object-glass of a telescope is viewed through the
eye-piece. This simplification was attended by a great saving of
light, allowing measures to be taken such as would otherwise have
presented great difficulties.
In theoretical investigations these problems are usually treated
as of two dimensions only, everything being referred to the plane
passing through the luminous point and perpendicular to the diffract-
ing edges, supposed to be straight and parallel. In strictness this
idea is appropriate only when the source is a luminous line, emitting
cylindrical waves, such as might be obtained from a luminous point
with the aid of a cylindrical lens. When, in order to apply Huygens's
principle, the wave is supposed to be broken up, the phase is the same
at every_ element of the surface of resolution which lies upon a line
perpendicular to the plane of reference, and
thus the effect of the whole line, or rather
infinitesimal strip, is related in a constant
manner to that of the element which lies
in the plane of reference, and may be
considered to be represented thereby. The
same method of representation is applicable
to spherical waves, issuing from a point, if
the radius of curvature be large; for, al-
though there is variation of phase along the
1 ul_ _f o_l __*_ 1 _.__ * _ _ . * I *
FIG. 17.
length of the infinitesimal strip, the whole effect depends practically
upon that of the central parts where the phase is sensibly constant. 1
In fig. 17 APQ is the arc of the circle representative of the wave-
front of resolution, the centre being at O, and the radius OA being
equal to a. B is the point at which the effect is required, distant
a+b from O, so that AB=ft, AP = j, PQ=ds.
Taking as the standard phase that of the secondary wave from
A, we may represent the effect of PQ by
where S=BP-AP is the retardation at B of the wave from P
relatively to that from A.
Now
..... . . (1),
so that, if we write
the effect at B is
\ 2FF5) \ '' \ COS? T/
COS
(3),
the limits of integration depending upon the disposition of the
diffracting edges. When a, b, \ are regarded as constant, the first
factor may be omitted, as indeed should be done for consistency's
sake, inasmuch as other factors of the same nature have been
omitted already.
The intensity I 2 , the quantity with which we are principally
concerned, may thus be expressed
I 1 ={/cosjTt> 2 .<fo^+{/sin|> I .<to^ . (4).
These integrals, taken from =o, are known as Fresnel's integrals;
we will denote them by C and S, so that
= I cos
= L'si
(5).
When the upper limit is infinity, so that the limits correspond to
the inclusion of half the primary wave, C and S are both equal to
, by a known formula; and on account of the rapid fluctuation
of sign the parts of the range beyond very moderate values of v
contribute but little to the result.
Ascending series for C and S were given by K. W. Knockenhauer,
and are readily investigated. Integrating by parts, we find
r L -c C v *'*** '-I"** /" -i lr * s
C+ * S= Jo e dv = e J-i
and, by continuing this process,
(6),
(7),
By separation of real and imaginary parts,
C = M cos ii*+N sin
S = M sin Jar 2 N cos
where
, ,, v irV . TT%'
M=7 ~ -0+3X7:9 -
NTV-
=TT;
1.3.5.7.9.11 - ' ' ' -
These series are convergent for all values of , but are practically
useful only when v is small .
Expressions suitable for discussion when v is large were obtained
1 In experiment a line of light is sometimes substituted for a point
in order to increase the illumination. The various parts of the line
are here independent sources, and should be treated accordingly.
To assume a cylindrical form of primary wave would be justifiable
only when there is synchronism among the secondary waves issuing
from the various centres.
252
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
by L. P. Gilbert (Mem. cow. de I'Acad. de Bruxelles, 31, p. i). Taking
Jir^ = tt ....... (9),
we may write
Again, by a known formula,
<*dx
v^~v!^o ~w
Substituting this in (10), and inverting the order of integration, we
get
dx
*dx <;"-*) -1
V* t *
Thus, if we take
- - (12).
(13),
i-Gcostt+Hsinw, S = -G sin w-H cos . (14).
The constant parts in (14), viz. \, may be determined by direct
integration of (12), or from the observation that by their constitu-
tion G and H vanish when = oo , coupled with the fact that C and
S then assume the value J.
Comparing the expressions for C, S in terms of M, N, and in terms
of G, H, we find that
G = J(cos w+sin)-M, H = j(costt-sinw)+N . (15),
formulae which may be utilized for the calculation of G, H when
u (or v) is small. For example, when = o, M =o, N =o, and con-
sequently G = H = J.
Descending series of the semi-convergent class, available for
numerical calculation when u is moderately large, can be obtained
from (12) by writing x uy, and expanding the denominator in
powers of y. The integration of the several terms may then be
effected by the formula
,.
Jo
T(g+i)= (q- J)( 2 -f
and we get in terms of ti
1.3.5 , 1.3.5.7.9
. . (16),
__ 1 1.3
~ir W
1.3.5.7
(17).
The corresponding values of C and S were originally derived by
A. L. Cauchy, without the use of Gilbert's integrals, by direct
integration by parts.
From the series for G and H just obtained it is easy to verify that
dG
(18).
We now proceed to consider more particularly the distribution of
light upon a screen PBQ near the shadow of a straight edge A.
At a point P within the geometrical shadow of the obstacle, the
half of the wave to the right of C (fig. 18), the nearest point on the
wave-front, is wholly intercepted, and on the left the integration
is to be taken from s = CA to s = w. If V be the value of v corre-
sponding to CA, viz.
i / f\ t _ I 1\ \
.... (19),
we may write
or, according to our previous notation,
(20),
Now in the integrals represented by G and H every element
diminishes as V increases from zero. Hence,
as CA increases, viz. as the point P is more
and more deeply immersed in the shadow,
the illumination continuously decreases, and
that without limit. It has long been known
from observation that there are no bands
on the interior side of the shadow of the
' edge.
The law of diminution when V is moder-
ately large is easily expressed with the aid
of the series (16), (17) for G, H. We have
ultimately G =o, H = OrV)-', so that
FIG 18 I 2 = i/jr 2 V 2 ,
or the illumination is inversely as the square
of the distance from the shadow of the edge.
For a point Q outside the shadow the integration extends over
more than half the primary wave. The intensity may be expressed by
I 2 = (J+C v ) 2 +(i+Sv) 2
and the maxima and minima occur when
whence
(22);
(23).
When V o, viz. at the edge of the shadow, I 2 = J; when V= x,
I 2 = 2, on the scale adopted. The latter is the intensity due to the
uninterrupted wave. The quadrupling of the intensity in passing
outwards from the edge of the shadow is, however, accompanied by
fluctuations giving rise to bright and dark bands. The position
of these bands determined by (23) may be very simply expressed
when V is large, for then sensibly G = o, and
!*-V 2 = Jir+nir (24),
n being an integer. In terms of S, we have from (2)
x (S. i 1 11 \ f*)^}
The first maximum in face occurs when 8 = |X OO46X, and the
first minimum when S = |X ooi6X, the corrections being readily
obtainable from a table of G by substitution of the approximate
value of V.
The position of Q corresponding to a given value of V, that is,
to a band of given order, is by (19)
. . (26).
By means of this expression we may trace the locus of a band of
given order as b varies. With sufficient approximation we may
regard BQ and 6 as rectangular co-ordinates of Q. Denoting them
by x, y, so that AB is axis of y and a perpendicular through A the
axis of x, and rationalizing (26), we have
2o* 2 - V'Xy 2 - Va\y = o,
which represents a hyperbola with vertices at O and A.
From (24), (26) we see that the width of the bands is of the order
V \b\(a+b)la\. From this we may infer the limitation upon the
width of the source of light, in order that the bands may be properly
formed. If a be the apparent magnitude of the source seen from A,
ub should be much smaller than the above quantity, or
o><V!X(a-r-6)/a6! (27).
If a be very great in relation to b, the condition becomes
a-<V(X/6) (28),
so that if 6 is to be moderately great (i metre), the apparent magni-
tude of the sun must be greatly reduced before it can be used as a
source. The values of V for the maxima and minima of intensity,
and the magnitudes of the latter, were calculated by Fresnel. An
extract from his results is given in the accompanying table.
V
I 1
First maximum .
1-2172
2-74I3
First minimum
1-8726
1-5570
Second maximum
2-3449
2-3990
Second minimum
2-7392
1-6867
Third maximum .
3-0820
2-3022
Third minimum .
3-39I3
1-7440
A very thorough investigation of this and other related questions,
accompanied by fully worked-out tables of the functions concerned,
will be found in a paper by E. Lommel (Abh. buyer. Akad. d. Wiss.
II. Cl., 15, Bd., iii. Abth., 1886).
When the functions C and S have once been calculated, the
discussion of vaiious diffraction problems is much facilitated by
the idea, due to M. A. Cornu (Journ. de Phys., 1874, 3, p. i ; a similar
suggestion was made independently by G. F. Fitzgerald), of exhibit-
ing as a curve the relationship between C and S, considered as the
rectangular co-ordinates (x, y) of a point. Such a curve is shown in
fig. 19, where, according to the definition (5) of C, S,
>>= I si
./o
sin jjrt> 2 .dt>
(29).
The origin of co-ordinates O corresponds to v = o ; and the asymptotic
points J, J', round which the curve revolves in an ever-closing spiral,
correspond to v = =*= w .
The intrinsic equation, expressing the relation between the arc
o- (measured from O) and the inclination <t> of the tangent at any
points to the axis of x, assumes a very simple form. For
dx =cos %irv-.dv, dy = s'\
so that
a =/V(d* 2 +(*/)=,
* = tan-' (dy/dx) = Jirr
(30),
(31).
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
253
Accordingly,
and for the curvature,
(32);
(33).
Cornu remarks that this equation suffices to determine the general
character of the curve. For the osculating circle at any point
includes the whole of the
/" "X curve which lies beyond;
and the successive con-
volutions envelop one an-
other- without intersection.
The utility of the curve
depends upon the fact that
the elements of arc repre-
sent, in amplitude and
phase, the component vi-
brations due to the corre-
sponding portions of the
primary wave-front. For
by (.39) dv = de, and by
(2) dv is proportional to ds.
Moreover by (2) and (31)
the retardation of phase of
the elementary vibration
p, G from PQ (fig. 17) is 2*&/\,
or <t>. Hence, in accordance
with the rule for compounding vector quantities, the resultant
vibration at B, due to any finite part of the primary wave, is
represented in amplitude and phase by the chord joining the ex-
tremities of the corresponding arc (o?-<ri).
In applying the curve in special cases of diffraction to exhibit
the effect at any point P (fig. 18) the centre of the curve O is to be
considered to correspond to that point C of the primary wave-front
which lies nearest to P. The operative part, or parts, of the curve
are of course those which represent the unobstructed portions of
the primary wave.
Let us reconsider, following Cornu, the diffraction of a screen
unlimited on one side, and on the other terminated by a straight
edge. On the illuminated side, at a distance from the shadow, the
vibration is represented by IJ'. The co-ordinates of J, J' being
(i. i). ( J. j), I z is2; and the phase is \ period in arrear of
that of the element at O. As the point under contemplation is
supposed to approach the shadow, the vibration is represented by the
chord drawn from J to a point on the other half of the curve, which
travels inwards from J' towards O. The amplitude is thus subject
to fluctuations, which increase as the shadow is approached. At
the point O the intensity is one-quarter of that of the entire wave,
and after this point is passed, that is, when we have entered the
geometrical shadow, the intensity falls off gradually to zero, without
fluctuations. The whole progress of the phenomenon is thus ex-
hibited to the eye in a very instructive manner.
We will next suppose that the light is transmitted by a slit, and
inquire what is the effect of varying the width of the slit upon the
illumination at the projection of its centre. Under these circum-
stances the arc to be considered is bisected at O, and its length is
proportional to the width of the slit. It is easy to see that the
length of the chord (which passes in all cases through O) increases
to a maximum near the place where the phase-retardation is f of
a period, then diminishes to a minimum when the retardation is
about | of a period, and so on.
If the slit is of constant width and we require the illumination
at various points on the screen behind it, we must regard the arc
of the curve as of constant length. The intensity is then, as always,
represented by the square of the length of the chord. If the slit
be narrow, so that the arc is short, the intensity is constant over
a wide range, and does not fall off to an important extent until
the discrepancy of the extreme phases reaches about a quarter of a
period.
We have hitherto supposed that the shadow of a diffracting
obstacle is received upon a diffusing screen, or, which comes to
nearly the same thing, is observed with an eye-piece. If the eye,
provided if necessary with a perforated plate in order to reduce the
aperture, be situated inside the shadow at a place where the illumina-
tion is still sensible, and be focused upon the diffracting edge, the
light which it receives will appear to corne from the neighbourhood
of the edge, and will present the effect of a silver lining. This is
doubtless the explanation of a " pretty optical phenomenon, seen
in Switzerland, when the sun rises from behind distant trees stand-
ing on the summit of a mountain." *
ii. Dynamical Theory of Diffraction. The explanation of
diffraction phenomena given by Fresnel and his followers is
1 H. Necker (Phil- Mag., November 1832) ; Fox Talbot (Phil.Mag.,
June 1833). " When the sun is about to emerge .... every branch
and leaf is lighted up with a silvery lustre of indescribable beauty. . . .
The birds, as Mr Necker very truly describes, appear like flying
brilliant sparks." Talbot ascribes the appearance to diffraction;
and he recommends the use of a telescope.
independent of special views as to the nature of the aether, at least
in its main features; for in the absence of a more complete
foundation it is impossible to treat rigorously the mode of action
of a solid obstacle such as a screen. But, without entering upon
matters of this kind, we may inquire in what manner a primary
wave may be resolved into elementary secondary waves, and
in particular as to the law of intensity and polarization in a
secondary wave as dependent upon its direction of propagation,
and upon the character as regards polarization of the primary
wave. This question was treated by Stokes in his " Dynamical
Theory of Diffraction " (Camb. Phil. Trans., 1849) on the basis
of the elastic solid theory.
Let x, y, z be the co-ordinates of any particle of the medium in
its natural state, and , >), f the displacements of the same particle
at the end of time /, measured in the directions of the three axes
respectively. Then the first of the equations of motion may be put
under the form
where <z* and V denote the two arbitrary constants. Put for short-
ness
df ...
=
and represent by v* the quantity multiplied by If. According to
this notation, the three equations of motion are .
. . . . (2).
It is to be observed that 6 denotes the dilatation of volume of the
element situated at (x, y, z). In the limiting case in which the
medium is regarded as absolutely incompressible i vanishes; but,
in order that equations (2) may preserve their generality, we must
suppose o at the same time to become infinite, and replace a 2 5 by
a new function of the co-ordinates.
These equations simplify very much in their application to plane
waves. If the ray be parallel to OX, and the direction of vibration
parallel to OZ, we have { = o, i;=o, while f is a function of x and
/ only. Equation (i) and the first pair of equations (2) are thus
satisfied identically. The third equation gives
(4),
of which the solution is
f =/(*-*)
where / is an arbitrary function.
The question as to the law of the secondary waves is thus an-
swered by Stokes. " Let = o, 17 =o, f =f(btx) be the displacements
corresponding to the incident light ; let Oi be any point in the plane
P (of the wave-front), dS an element of that plane adjacent to d;
and consider the disturbance due to that portion only of the incident
disturbance which passes continually across dS. Let O be any point
in the medium situated at a distance from the point Oi which is
large in comparison with the length of a wave; let OiO = r, and let
this line make an angle 6 with the direction of propagation of the
incident light, or the axis of x, and <t> with the direction of vibration,
or axis of z. Then the displacement at O will take place in a direction
perpendicular to OiO, and lying in the plane ZOiO ; and, if f ' be the
displacement at O, reckoned positive in the direction nearest to
that in which the incident vibrations are reckoned positive,
.... (5),
In particular, if
we shall have
It is then verified that, after integration with respect to dS>, (6)
gives the same disturbance as if the primary wave had been supposed
to pass on unbroken.
The occurrence of sin <t> as a factor in (6) shows that the relative
intensities of the primary light and of that diffracted in the direc-
tion 9 depend upon the condition of the former as regards polariza-
tion. If the direction of primary vibration be perpendicular to
the plane of diffraction (containing both primary and secondary
rays), sin # = i; but, if the primary vibration be in the plane of
diffraction, sin #=cos 0. This result was employed by Stokes as
a criterion of the direction of vibration; and his experiments, con-
ducted with gratings, led him to the conclusion that the vibrations
254
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
of polarized light are executed in a direction perpendicular to the
plane of polarization.
The factor (i+cos 6) shows in what manner the secondary dis-
turbance depends upon the direction in which it is propagated with
respect to the front of the primary wave.
If, as suffices for all practical purposes, we limit the application
of the formulae to points in advance of the plane at which the wave
is supposed to be broken up, we may use simpler methods of resolu-
tion than that above considered. It appears indeed that the purely
mathematical question has no definite answer. In illustration of
this the analogous problem for sound may be referred to. Imagine
a flexible lamina to be introduced so as to coincide with the plane
at which resolution is to be effected. The introduction of the lamina
(supposed to be devoid of inertia) will make no difference to the
propagation of plane parallel sonorous waves through the position
which it occupies. At every point the motion of the lamina will be
the same as would have occurred in its absence, the pressure of the
waves impinging from behind being just what is required to generate
the waves in front. Now it is evident that the aerial motion in front
of the lamina is determined by what happens at the lamina without
regard to the cause of the motion there existing. Whether the
necessary forces are due to aerial pressures acting on the rear, or to
forces directly impressed from without, is a matter of indifference.
The conception of the lamina leads immediately to two schemes,
according to which a primary wave may be supposed to be broken
up. In the first of these the element dS, the effect of which is to be
estimated, is supposed to execute its actual motion, while every other
element of the plane lamina is maintained at rest. The resulting
aerial motion in front is readily calculated (see Rayleigh, Theory of
Sound, 278) ; it is symmetrical with respect to the origin, i.e. inde-
pendent of 8. When the secondary disturbance thus obtained is
integrated with respect to dS> over the entire plane of the lamina, the
result is necessarily the same as would have been obtained had the
primary wave been supposed to pass on without resolution, for this
is precisely the motion generated when every element of the lamina
vibrates with a common motion, equal to that attributed to dS.
The only assumption here involved is the evidently legitimate one
that, when two systems of variously distributed motion at the
lamina are superposed, the corresponding motions in front are
superposed also.
The method of resolution just described is the simplest, but it is
only one of an indefinite number that might be proposed, and which
are all equally legitimate, so long as the question is regarded as a
merely mathematical one, without reference to the physical pro-
perties of actual screens. If, instead of supposing the motion at dS
to be that of the primary wave, and to be zero elsewhere, we suppose
the force operative over the element dS of the lamina to be that
corresponding to the primary wave, and to vanish elsewhere, we
obtain a secondary wave following quite a different law. In this
case the motion in different directions varies as cos0, vanishing at
right angles to the direction of propagation of the primary wave.
Here again, on integration over the entire lamina, the aggregate
effect of the secondary waves is necessarily the same as that of the
primary.
In order to apply these ideas to the investigation of the secondary
wave of light, we require the solution of a problem, first treated
by Stokes, viz. the determination of the motion in an infinitely
extended elastic solid due to a locally applied periodic force. If
we suppose that the force impressed upon the element of mass
D dx dy dz is
DZ dx dy dz,
being everywhere parallel to the axis of Z, the only change required
in our equations (i), (2) is the addition of the term Z to the second
member of the third equation (2). In the forced vibration, now
under consideration, Z, and the quantities , ?j, f, 5 expressing the
resulting motion, are to be supposed proportional to '"', where
i = il( i), and n = 2jr/T, r being the periodic time. Under these
circumstances the double differentiation with respect to t of any
quantity is equivalent to multiplication by the factor a , and thus
our equations take the form
. . . (7).
It will now be convenient to introduce the quantities CTI, sr 2 , BT S ,
which express the rotations of the elements of the medium round axes
parallel to those of co-ordinates, in accordance with the equations
In terms of these we obtain from (7), by differentiation and subtrac-
tion,
(9).
dS
The first of equations (9) gives
For Oi we have
-, =
(10).
where r is the distance between the element dxdydz and the point
where ui is estimated, and
(12),
X being the wave-length.
(This solution may be verified in the same manner as Poisson's
theorem, in which k=o.)
We will now introduce the supposition that the force Z acts
only within a small space of volume T, situated at (x, y, z), and for
simplicity suppose that it is at the origin of co-ordinates that the
rotations are to be estimated. Integrating by parts in (11), we get
fe-* dZ , r 7 e-*-1 f 7 d /e-*\ ,
J Ty A y = \ L \ -J Z 3y-( ) dy '
in which the integrated terms at the limits vanish, Z being finite
only within the region T. Thus
Since the dimensions of T are supposed to be very small in com-
parison with X, the factor j- \f-f-J is sensibly constant ; so that,
if Z stand for the mean value of Z over the volume T, we may write
= TZ y d /e~<*\
In like manner we find
TZ * d /e-*\
From (iq), (13), (14) we see that, as might have been expected,
the rotation at any point is about an axis perpendicular both to
the direction of the force and to the line joining the point to the
source of disturbance. If the resultant rotation be CD , we have
TZ V (**+?*) d (e-**\ _TZsinJ d fe- <tr \
~4rV~ r Jr\r)~ 4*6" dr\~)'
^denoting the angle between r and z. In differentiating e^^/r
with respect to r, we may neglect the term divided by r 1 as altogether
insensible, kr being an exceedingly great quantity at any moderate
distance from the origin of disturbance. Thus
(15),
which completely determines the rotation at any point. For a dis-
turbing force of given integral magnitude it is seen to be everywhere
about an axis perpendicular to r and the direction of the force, and
in magnitude dependent only upon the angle (<) between these two
directions and upon the distance (r).
The intensity of light is, however, more usually expressed in
terms of the actual displacement in the plane of the wave. This
displacement, which we may denote by f ', is in the plane containing
z and r, and perpendicular to the latter. Its connexion with ra is
expressed by & = df'/dr; so that
,_TZsin0 g '(a<-b-)
(16),
where the factor '"' is restored.
Retaining only the real part of (16), we find, as the result of a
local application of force equal to
DTZcosn/ ....... (17),
the disturbance expressed by
TZsin.fr cos(n<-fer)
: 47T&* -- ~ ''
,
,,.
(I 8 )-
The occurrence of sin <t> shows that there is no disturbance
radiated in the direction of the force, a feature which might have
been anticipated from considerations of symmetry.
We will now apply (18) to the investigation of a law of secondary
disturbance, when a primary wave
sia(nt-kx)
(19)
is supposed to be broken up in passing the plane x = o. The first step
is to calculate the force which represents the reaction between the
parts of the medium separated by x = o. The force operative upon
the positive half is parallel to OZ, and of amount per unit of area
equal to
and to this force acting over the whole of the plane the actual
motion on the positive side may be conceived to be due. The
DIFFUSION
255
secondary disturbance corresponding to the element dS of the plane
may be supposed to be that caused by a force of the above magnitude
acting over dS and vanishing elsewhere; and it only remains to
examine what the result of such a force would be.
Now it is evident that the force in question, supposed to act
upon the positive half only of the medium, produces just double of
the effect that would be caused by the same force if the medium
were undivided, and on the latter supposition (being also localized
at a point) it comes under the head already considered. According
to (18), the effect of the force acting at dS parallel to OZ, and of
amount equal to
2&kD dS cos nt,
will be a disturbance
r = dS_sinJ, cos(n< _ fer) (20)>
AT
regard being had to (12). This therefore expresses the secondary
disturbance at a distance r and in a direction making an angle <t>
with OZ (the direction of primary vibration) due to the element dS
of the wave-front.
The proportionality of the secondary disturbance to sin 4> is
common to the present law and to that given by Stokes, but here
there is no dependence upon the angle between the primary and
secondary rays. The occurrence of the factor (Xrj r 1 , and the
necessity of supposing the phase of the secondary wave accelerated
by a quarter of an undulation, were first established by Archibald
Smith, as the result of a comparison between the primary wave,
supposed to pass on without resolution, and the integrated effect
of al! the secondary waves ( 2). The occurrence of factors such
as sin <f>, or KI+COS 8), in the expression of the secondary wave
has no influence upon the result of the integration, the effects of
all the elements for which the factors differ appreciably from unity
being destroyed by mutual interference.
The choice between various methods of resolution, all mathe-
matically admissible, would be guided by physical considerations
respecting the mode of action of obstacles. Thus, tojefer again to
the acoustical analogue in which plane waves are incident upon
a perforated rigid screen, the circumstances of the case are best
represented by the first method of resolution, leading to symmetrical
secondary waves, in which the normal motion is supposed to be zero
over the unperforated parts. Indeed, if the aperture is very small,
this method gives the correct result, save as to a constant factor. In
like manner our present law (20) would apply to the kind of obstruc-
tion that would be caused by an actual physical division of the elastic
medium, extending over the whole of the area supposed to be occupied
by the intercepting screen, but of course not extending to the parts
supposed to be perforated.
On the electromagnetic theory, the problem of diffraction becomes
definite when the properties of the obstacle are laid down. The
simplest supposition is that the material composing the obstacle
is perfectly conducting, i.e. perfectly reflecting. On this basis
A. J. W.Sommerfeld (Math. Ann., 1895, 47, p. 317), with great mathe-
matical skill, has solved the problem of the shadow thrown by a
semi-infinite plane screen. A simplified exposition has been given by
Horace Lamb (Proc. Land. Math. Soc., 1906, 4, p. 190). It appears that
Fresnel's results, although based on an imperfect theory, require only
insignificant corrections. Problems not limited to two dimensions,
such for example as the shadow of a circular disk, present great
difficulties, and have not hitherto been treated by a rigorous method ;
but there is no reason to suppose that Fresnel's results would be
departed from materially. (R.)
DIFFUSION (from the Lat. di/undere; dis-, asunder, and
fundere, to pour out), in general, a spreading out, scattering
or circulation; in physics the term is applied to a special
phenomenon, treated below.
i. General Description. When two different substances are
placed in contact with each other they sometimes remain
separate, but in many cases a gradual mixing takes place. In the
case where both the substances are gases the process of mixing
continues until the result is a uniform mixture. In other cases
the proportions in which two different substances can mix
lie between certain fixed limits, but the mixture is distinguished
from a chemical compound by the fact that between these limits
the composition of the mixture is capable of continuous variation,
while in chemical compounds, the proportions of the different
constituents can only have a discrete series of numerical values,
each different ratio representing a different compound. If we
take, for example, air and water in the presence of each other, air
will become dissolved in the water, and water will evaporate into
the air, and the proportions of either constituent absorbed by the
other will vary continuously. But a limit will come when the air
will absorb no more water, and the water will absorb no more air,
and throughout the change a definite surface of separation will
exist between the liquid and the gaseous parts. When no surface
of separation ever exists between two substances they must
necessarily be capable of mixing in all proportions. If they are
not capable of mixing in all proportions a discontinuous change
must occur somewhere between the regions where the substances
are still unmixed, thus giving rise to a surface of separation.
The phenomena of mixing thus involves the following pro-
cesses: (i) A motion of the substances relative to one another
throughout a definite region of space in which mixing is taking
place. This relative motion is called " diffusion." (2) The pas-
sage of portions of the mixing substances across the surface of
separation when such a surface exists. These surface actions
are described under various terms such as solution, evaporation,
condensation and so forth. For example, when a soluble salt is
placed in a liquid, the process which occurs at the surface of the
salt is called " solution," but the salt which enters the liquid by
solution is transported from the surface into the interior of the
liquid by " diffusion."
Diffusion may take place in solids, that is, in regions occupied
by matter which continues to exhibit the properties of the solid
state. Thus if two liquids which can mix are separated by a
membrane or partition, the mixing may take place through the
membrane. If a solution of salt is separated from pure water by
a sheet of parchment, part of the salt will pass through the parch-
ment into the water. If water and glycerin are separated in this
way most of the water will pass into the glycerin and a little
glycerin will pass through in the opposite direction, a property
frequently used by microscopists for the purpose of gradually
transferring minute algae from water into glycerin. A still more
interesting series of examples is afforded by the passage of gases
through partitions of metal, notably the passage of hydrogen
through platinum and palladium at high temperatures. When
the process is considered with reference to a membrane or partition
taken as a whole, the passage of a substance from one side to the
other is commonly known as " osmosis " or " transpiration "
(see SOLUTION), but what occurs in the material of the membrane
itself is correctly described as diffusion.
Simple cases of diffusion are easily observed qualitatively. If a
solution of a coloured salt is carefully introduced by a funnel into
the bottom of a jar containing water, the two portions will at first
be fairly well defined, but if the mixture can exist in all propor-
tions, the surface of separation will gradually disappear; and the
rise of the colour into the upper part and its gradual weakening
in the lower part, may be watched for days, weeks or even longer
intervals. The diffusion of a strong aniline colouring matter into
the interior of gelatine is easily observed, and is commonly seen in
copying apparatus. Diffusion of gases may be shown to exist by
taking glass jars containing vapours of hydrochloric acid and
ammonia, and placing them in communication with the heavier
gas downmost. The precipitation of ammonium chloride shows
that diffusion exists, though the chemical action prevents this
example from forming a typical case of diffusion. Again, when
a film of Canada balsam is enclosed between glass plates, the
disappearance during a few weeks of small air bubbles enclosed
in the balsam can be watched under the microscope.
In fluid media, whether liquids or gases, the process of mixing
is greatly accelerated by stirring or agitating the fluids, and
liquids which might take years to mix if left to themselves
can thus be mixed in a few seconds. It is necessary to carefully
distinguish the effects of agitation from those of diffusion proper.
By shaking up two liquids which do not mix we split them up
into a large number of different portions, and so greatly increase
the area of the surface of separation, besides decreasing the
thicknesses of the various portions. But even when we produce
the appearance of a uniform turbid mixture, the small portions
remain quite distinct. If however the fluids can really mix, the
final process must in every case depend on diffusion, and all we
do by shaking is to increase the sectional area, and decrease the
thickness of the diffusing portions, thus rendering the completion
of the operation more rapid. If a gas is shaken up in a liquid
the process of absorption of the bubbles is also accelerated by
capillary action, as occurs in an ordinary sparklet bottle. To
state the matter precisely, however finely two fluids have been
256
DIFFUSION
subdivided by agitation, the molecular constitution of the
different portions remains unchanged. The ultimate process
by which the individual molecules of two different substances
become mixed, producing finally a homogeneous mixture, is in
every case diffusion. In other words, diffusion is that relative
motion of the molecules of two different substances by which the
proportions of the molecules in any region containing a finite
number of molecules are changed.
In order, therefore, to make accurate observations of diffusion in
fluids it is necessary to guard against any cause which may set up
currents; and in some cases this is exceedingly difficult. Thus, if
gas is absorbed at the upper surface of a liquid, and if the gaseous
solution is heavier than the pure liquid, currents may be set up, and
a steady state of diffusion may cease to exist. This has been tested
experimentally by C. G. von Hiifner and W. E. Adney. The same
thing may happen when a gas is evolved into a liquid at the surface
of a solid even if no bubbles are formed ; thus if pieces of aluminium
are placed in caustic soda, the currents set up by the evolution of
hydrogen are sufficient to set the aluminium pieces in motion, and
it is probable that the motions of the Diatomaceae are similarly
caused by the evolution of oxygen. In some pairs of substances
diffusion may take place more rapidly than in others. Of course the
progress of events in any experiment necessarily depends on various
causes, such as the size of the containing vessels, but it is easy to see
that when experiments with different substances are carried out under
similar conditions, however these " similar conditions " be defined,
the rates of diffusion must be capable of numerical comparison, and
the results must be expressible in terms of at least one physical
quantity, which for any two substances can be called their co-
efficient of diffusion. How to select this quantity we shall see later.
2 Quantitative Methods of observing Diffusion. The simplest
plan of determining the progress of diffusion between two liquids
would be to draw off and examine portions from different strata
at some stage in the process; the disturbance produced would,
however, interfere with the subsequent process of diffusion, and
the observations could not be continued. By placing in the
liquid column hollow glass beads of different average densities,
and observing at what height they remain suspended, it is
possible to trace the variations of density of the liquid column
at different depths, and different times. In this method, which
was originally introduced by Lord Kelvin, difficulties were
caused by the adherence of small air bubbles to the beads.
In general, optical methods are the most capable of giving
exact results, and the following may be distinguished, (a) By
refraction in a horizontal plane. If the containing vessel is in
the form of a prism, the deviation of a horizontal ray of light in
passing through the prism determines the index of refraction,
and consequently the density of the stratum through which the
ray passes, (b) By refraction in a vertical plane. Owing to the
density varying with the depth, a horizontal ray entering the
liquid also undergoes a small vertical deviation, being bent
downwards towards the layers of greater density. The observa-
tion of this vertical deviation determines not the actual density,
but its rate of variation with the depth, i.e. the "density gradient"
at any point, (c) By the saccharimeter. In the cases of solutions
of sugar, which cause rotation of the plane of polarized light,
the density of the sugar at any depth may be determined by
observing the corresponding angle of rotation, this was done
originally by W. Voigt.
2- Elementary Definitions of Coefficient of Diffusion. The
simplest case of diffusion is that of a substance, say a gas, diffusing
in the interior of a homogeneous solid medium, which remains at
rest, when no external forces act on the system. We may regard
it as the result of experience that: (i) if the density of the diffus-
ing substance is everywhere the same no diffusion takes place, and
(2) if the density of the diffusing substance is different at different
points, diffusion will take place from places of greater to those of
lesser density, and will not cease until the density is everywhere
the same. It follows that the rate of flow of the diffusing sub-
stance at any point in any direction must depend on the density
gradient at that point in that direction, i.e. on the rate at which
the density of the diffusing substance decreases as we move in
that direction. We may define the coefficient of diffusion as the
ratio of the total mass per unit area which flows across any
small section, to the rate of decrease of the density per unit
distance in a direction perpendicular to that section.
In the case of steady diffusion parallel to the axis of x, if p be the
density of the diffusing substance, and q the mass which flows across
a unit of area in a plane perpendicular to the axis of x, then the density
gradient is dpldx and the ratio of q to this is called the " coefficient
of diffusion." By what has been said this ratio remains finite, how-
ever small the actual gradient and flow may be; and it is natural
to assume, at any rate as a first approximation, that it is constant
as far as the quantities in question are concerned. Thus if the
coefficient of diffusion be denoted by K we have g= K(dp/dx).
Further, the rate at which the quantity of substance is increasing
in an element between the distances x and x+dx is equal to the
difference of the rates of flow in and out of the two faces, whence as
in hydrodynamics, we have dpldt= dqjdx.
It follows that the equation of diffusion in this case assumes the
form
</P ^l-ir dp
dt~dx\
which is identical with the equations representing conduction of
heat, flow of electricity and other physical phenomena. For motion
in three dimensions we have in like manner
dp_ _ jl_ / T.- dp\ . d / .r dp\
dt dx \ dx) dy \ dy)
and the corresponding equations in electricity and heat for aniso-
tropic substances would be available to account for any parallel
phenomena, which may arise, or might be conceived, to exist in
connexion with diffusion through a crystalline solid.
In the case of a very dilute solution, the coefficient of diffusion
of the dissolved substance can be defined in the same way as
when the diffusion takes place in a solid, because the effects of
diffusion will not have any perceptible influence on the solvent,
and the latter may therefore be regarded as remaining practically
at rest. But in most cases of diffusion between two fluids, both
of the fluids are in motion, and hence there is far greater difficulty
in determining the motion, and even in defining the coefficient of
diffusion. It is important to notice in the first instance, that it
is only the relative motion of the two substances which consti-
tutes diffusion. Thus when a current of air is blowing, under
ordinary circumstances the changes which take place are purely
mechanical, and do not depend on the separate diffusions of the
oxygen and nitrogen of which the air is mainly composed. It is
only when two gases are flowing with unequal velocity, that
is, when they have a relative motion, that these changes of
relative distribution, which are called diffusion, take place. The
best way out of the difficulty is to investigate the separate motions
of the two fluids, taking account of the mechanical actions
exerted on them, and supposing that the mutual action of the
fluids causes either fluid to resist the relative motion of the other.
4. The Coefficient of Resistance. Let us call the two diffusing
fluids A and B. If B were absent, the motion of the fluid A
would be determined entirely by the variations of pressure of the
fluid A, and by the external forces, such as that due to gravity
acting on A. Similarly if A were absent, the motion of B would
be determined entirely by the variations of pressure due to the
fluid B, and by the external forces acting on B. When both
fluids are mixed together, each fluid tends to resist the relative
motion of the other, and by the law of equality of action and
reaction, the resistance which A experiences from B is every-
where equal and opposite to the resistance which B experiences
from A. If the amount of this resistance per unit volume be
divided by the relative velocity of the two fluids, and also by the
product of their densities, the quotient is called the "coefficient of
resistance." If then pi, p 2 are the densities of the two fluids,
MI, M 2 their velocities, C the coefficient of resistance, then the
portion of the fluid A contained in a small element of volume v
will experience from the fluid B a resistance Cpip 2 ti(wi w 2 ), and
the fluid B contained in the same volume element will experience
from the fluid A an equal and opposite resistance, Cp 2 piZ>(w 2 Ui).
This definition implies the following laws of resistance to
diffusion, which must be regarded as based on experience, and
not as self-evident truths: (i) each fluid tends to assume, so far
as diffusion is concerned, the same equilibrium distribution that
it would assume if its motion were unresisted by the presence of
the other fluid. (Of course, the mutual attraction of gravitation
of the two fluids might affect the final distribution, but this is
practically negligible. Leaving such actions as this out of
DIFFUSION
257
account the following statement is correct.) In a state of
equilibrium, the density of each fluid at any point thus depends
only on the partial pressure of that fluid alone, and is the same
as if the other fluids were absent. It does not depend on the
partial pressures of the other fluids. If this were not the case,
the resistance to diffusion would be analogous to friction, and
would contain terms which were independent of the relative
velocity ui u\. (2) For slow motions the resistance to diffusion
is (approximately at any rate) proportional to the relative
velocity. (3) The coefficient of resistance C is not necessarily
always constant; it may, for example, and, in general, does,
depend on the temperature.
If we form the equations of hydrodynamics for the different fluids
occurring in any mixture, taking account of diffusion, but neglecting
viscosity, and using suffixes I, 2 to denote the separate fluids, these
assume the form given by James Clerk Maxwell (" Diffusion," in
Ency. Brit., gth ed.) :
Pl~l)t~ S t~ fa~ XlPl+Cl 2 plp2(tti 2 ) +&C. = O,
where
I );/, tl/i, . flu, . du,
-
and these equations imply that when diffusion and other motions
cease, the fluids satisfy the separate conditions of equilibrium
dpi/dx Xipio. The assumption made in the following account is
that terms such as Dui/Dt may be neglected in the cases considered.
A further property based on experience is that the motions set
up in a mixture by diffusion are very slow compared with those
set up by mechanical actions, such as differences of pressure.
Thus, if two gases at equal temperature and pressure be allowed
to mix by diffusion, the heavier gas being below the lighter, the
process will take a long time; on the other hand, if two gases,
or parts of the same gas, at different pressures be connected,
equalization of pressure will take place almost immediately.
It follows from this property that the forces required to overcome
the " inertia " of the fluids in the motions due to diffusion are
quite imperceptible. At any stage of the process, therefore, any
one of the diffusing fluids may be regarded as in equilibrium under
the action of its own partial pressure, the external forces to which
it is subjected and the resistance to diffusion of the other fluids.
5. Slow Diffusion of two Gases. Relation between the Co-
efficients of Resistance and of Diffusion. We now suppose the
diffusing substances to be two gases which obey Boyle's law, and
that diffusion takes place in a closed cylinder or tube of unit
sectional area at constant temperature, the surfaces of equal
density being perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder, so that the
direction of diffusion is along the length of the cylinder, and we
suppose no external forces, such as gravity, to act on the system.
The densities of the gases are denoted by pi, p 2 , their velocities of
diffusion by u\, u 2 , and if their partial pressures are pi, p 3 , we have by
Boyle's law pi = k\pi, 2 = 202, where *t, ki are constants for the two
gases, the temperature being constant. The axis of the cylinder is
taken as the axis of x.
From the considerations of the preceding section, the effects of
inertia of the diffusing gases may be neglected, and at any instant of
the process either of the gases is to be treated as kept in equilibrium
by its partial pressure and the resistance to diffusion produced by
the other gas. Calling this resistance per unit volume R.and putting
R = Cpip2(i 2 ), where C is the coefficient of resistance, the equa-
tions of equilibrium give
j;f+Cpip2(i-tt2)=0, and ^+Cp 2 pi(2-tti)-o. (1).
These involve
where P is the total pressure of the mixture, and is everywhere
constant, consistently with the conditions of mechanical equilibrium.
Now dpi/dx is the pressure-gradient of the first gas, and is, by
Boyle's law, equal to ki times the corresponding density-gradient.
Again piUi is the mass of gas flowing across any section per unit
time, and kipiUi or p\u\ can be regarded as representing the flux of
partial pressure produced by the motion of the gas. Since the total
pressure is everywhere constant, and the ends of the cylinder are
supposed fixed, the fluxes of partial pressure due to the two gases
are equal and opposite, so that
piui+piui = o or AipiMi+A 2 p 2 M2 = o . . . (3).
From (2) (3) we find by elementary algebra
Ullpt = -U-jpl = (UlU 2 )/(pi +/>.) = (, -M 2 )/P,
vm. 9
and therefore
plUl = piU2=p 1 p- 1 (ui
Hence equations (i) (2) gives
whence also substituting pi =
k\k t dpi
-
= kw, and by transposing
k t k 2 dpi
, and p 2 w 2 =
We may now define the " coefficient of diffusion " of either gas as
the ratio of the rate of flow of that gas to its density-gradient. With
this definition, the coefficients of diffusion of both the gases in a
mixture are equal, each being equal to kik 2 /CP. The ratios of the
fluxes of partial pressure to the corresponding pressure-gradients are
also equal to the same coefficient. Calling this coefficient K, we also
observe that the equations of continuity for the two gases are
leading to the equations of diffusion
dpi d /,,dpi\ . dpi d
-dt = dx( K -^)' and w=r x [
exactly as in the case of diffusion through a solid.
If we attempt to treat diffusion in liquids by a similar method,
it is, in the first place, necessary to define the " partial pressure "
of the components occurring in a liquid mixture. This leads to
the conception of " osmotic pressure," which is dealt with in the
article SOLUTION. For dilute solutions at constant temperature,
the assumption that the osmotic pressure is proportional to the
density, leads to results agreeing fairly closely with experience,
and this fact may be represented by the statement that a sub-
stance occurring in a dilute solution behaves like a perfect gas.
6. Relation of the Coefficient of Diffusion to the Units of Length
and Time. We may write the equation defining K in the form
P dx'
Here dp/pdx represents the " percentage rate " at which the
density decreases with the distance x; and we thus see that the
coefficient of diffusion represents the ratio of the velocity of flow
to the percentage rate at which the density decreases with the
distance measured in the direction of flow. This percentage rate
being of the nature of a number divided by a length, and the
velocity being of the nature of a length divided by a time, we may
state that K is of two dimensions in length and i in time, i.e.
dimensions L 2 /T.
Example i. Taking K =0-1423 for carbon dioxide and air (at
temperature o C. and pressure 76 cm. of mercury) referred to a
centimetre and a second as units, we may interpret the result as
follows: Supposing in a mixture of carbon dioxide and air, the
density of the carbon dioxide decreases by, say, l, 2 or 3% of
itself in a distance of I cm., then the corresponding velocities
of the diffusing carbon dioxide will be respectively o-oi, 0-02 and
0-03 times 0-1423, that is, 0-001423, 0-002846 and 0-004269 cm.
per second in the three cases.
Example 2. If we wished to take a foot and a second as our units,
we should have to divide the value of the coefficient of diffusion in
Example I by the square of the number of centimetres in I ft., that
is, roughly speaking, by 900, giving the new value of K =000016
roughly.
7. Numerical Values of the Coefficient of Diffusion. The
table on p. 258 gives the values of the coefficient of diffusion of
several of the principal pairs of gases at a pressure of 76 cm. of
mercury, and also of a number of other substances. In the gases
the centimetre and second are taken as fundamental units, in
other cases the centimetre and day.
8. Irreversible Changes accompanying Diffusion.- The diffusion
of two gases at constant pressure and temperature is a good
example of an " irreversible process." The gases always tend to
mix, never to separate. In order to separate the gases a change
must be effected in the external conditions to which the mixture
is subjected, either by liquefying one of the gases, or by separating
them by diffusion through a membrane, or by bringing other out-
side influences to bear on them. In the case of liquids, electrolysis
affords a means of separating the constituents of a mixture.
Every such method involves some change taking place outside the
mixture, and this change may be regarded as a " compensating
DIFFUSION
transformation." We thus have an instance of the property
that every irreversible change leaves an indelible imprint some-
where or other on the progress of events in the universe. That
the process of diffusion obeys the laws of irreversible thermo-
dynamics (if these laws are properly stated) is proved by the fact
that the compensating transformations required to separate
mixed gases do not essentially involve anything but transforma-
tion of energy. The process of allowing gases to mix by diffusion,
and then separating them by a compensating transformation,
thus constitutes an irreversible cycle, the outside effects of which
Substances.
Temp.
K.
Author.
Carbon dioxide and air ....
oC.
0-1423 cm 2 /sec.
J. Loschmidt.
,, hydrogen .
oC.
0-5558
,
oxygen
oC.
0-1409 ,
,
carbon monoxide
oC.
o- 1406 ,
,
marsh gas (methane)
oC.
0-1586
,
,, nitrous oxide
oC.
0-0983
,
Hydrogen and oxygen ....
oC.
0-7214
,
,, carbon monoxide
oC.
0-6422 ,
,
sulphur dioxide
oC.
0-4800 ,
,
Oxygen and carbon monoxide .
oC.
0-1802 ,
Water and ammonia ....
20 C.
1-250
G. Hiifner.
, 11
5C.
0-822
j.
,, common salt (density I -0269)
0-355 cmVhour.
J. Graham.
14-33 C.
I -020, 0-996, 0-972,
0-932 cmVday.
F. Heimbrodt.
zinc sulphate (0-312 gm/cm 3 ) .
0-1162
W. Seitz.
zinc sulphate (normal)
0-2355
II
zinc acetate (double normal) .
0-II95
n
,, zinc formate (half normal)
0-4654
,,
,, cadmium sulphate (double
normal) ....
0-2456
,,
glycerin (|n, $n, In, 1-511)
10-14 C.
0-356, 0-350, 0-342,
0-315 cmVday.
F. Heimbrodt.
urea ,, ,,
14-83 C.
0-973, 0-946, 0-926,
0-883 cmVday.
M
,, hydrochloric acid .
14-30 C.
2-208, 2-331,
2-480 cmVday.
Gelatin 20% and ammonia
I 7 C.
127-1 ,
A. Hagenbach.
,, , carbon dioxide
0-845
,,
,, , nitrous oxide.
0-509
M
,, , oxygen
0-230
,,
,, , hydrogen
0-0565
"
are that energy somewhere or other must be less capable of trans-
formation than it was before the change. We express this fact by
stating that an irreversible process essentially implies a loss of
availability. To measure this loss we make use of the laws of
thermodynamics, and in particular of Lord Kelvin's statement
that " It is impossible by means of inanimate material agency to
derive mechanical effect from any portion of matter by cooling it
below the temperature of the coldest of the surrounding objects."
Let 'us now assume that we have any system such as the gases
above considered, and that it is in the presence of an indefinitely
extended medium which we shall call the " auxiliary medium." If
heat be taken from any part of the system, only part of this heat can
be converted into work by means of thermodynamic engines; and
the rest will be given to the auxiliary medium, and will constitute
unavailable energy or waste. To understand what this means, we
may consider the case of a condensing steam engine. Only part of
the energy liberated by the combustion of the coal is available for
driving the engine, the rest takes the form of heat imparted to
the condenser. The colder the condenser the more efficient is the
engine, and the smaller is the quantity of waste.
The amount of unavailable energy associated with any given
transformation is proportional to the absolute temperature of the
auxiliary medium. When divided by that temperature the quotient
is called the change of " entropy " associated with the given change
(see THERMODYNAMICS). Thus if a body at temperature T receives
a quantity of heat Q, and if To is the temperature of the auxiliary
medium, the quantity of work which could be obtained from Q by
means of ideal thermodynamic engines would be Q(i To/T), and
the balance, which is O/IVT, would take the form of unavailable
or waste energy given to the medium. The quotient of this, when
divided by To, is Q/T, and this represents the quantity of entropy
associated with Q units of heat at temperature T.
Any irreversible change for which a compensating transformation
of energy exists represents, therefore, an increase of unavailable
energy, which is measurable in terms of entropy. The increase of
entropy is independent of the temperature of the auxiliary medium.
It thus affords a measure of the extent to which energy has run
to waste during the change. Moreover, when a body is heated, the
increase of entropy is the factor which determines how much of the
energy imparted to the body is unavailable for conversion into work
under given conditions. In all cases we have
increase of unavailable energy
temperature of auxiliary medium = mcrease of entr <W-
When diffusion takes place between two gases inside a closed
vessel at uniform pressure and temperature no energy in the form
of heat or work is received from without, and hence the entropy
gained by the gases from without is zero. But the irreversible
processes inside the vessel may involve a gain of entropy, and this
can only be estimated by ex-
amining by what means mixed
gases can be separated, and, in
particular, under what con-
ditions the process of mixing
and separating the gases could
(theoretically) be made revers-
ible.
9. Evidence derived from
Liquefaction of one or both of
the Gases. The gases in a
mixture can often be separated
by liquefying, or even solidify-
ing, one or both of the com-
ponents. In connexion with
this property we have the
important law according to
which " The pressure of a
vapour in equilibrium with its
liquid depends only on the
temperature and is indepen-
dent of the pressures of any
other gases or vapours which
may be mixed with it." Thus
if two closed vessels be taken
containing some water and
one be exhausted, the other
containing air, and if the tem-
peratures be equal, evapora-
tion will go on until the
pressure of the vapour in the
exhausted vessel is equal to
its partial pressure in the other vessel, notwithstanding the fact
that the total pressure in the latter vessel is greater by the
pressure of the air.
To separate mixed gases by liquefaction, they must be compressed
and cooled till one separates in the form of a liquid. If no changes are
to take place outside the system, the separate components must be
allowed to expand until the work of expansion is equal to the work
of compression, and the heat given out in compression is reabsorbed
in expansion. The process may be made as nearly reversible as we
like by performing the operations so slowly that the substances
are practically in a state of equilibrium at every stage. This is a
consequence of an important axiom in thermodynamics according
to which " any small change in the neighbourhood of a state of
equilibrium is to a first approximation reversible."
Suppose now that at any stage of the compression the partial
pressures of the two gases are pi and pi, and that the volume is
changed from V to VdV. The work of compression is (pi+p^dV,
and this work will be restored at the corresponding stage if each
of the separated gases increases in volume from V 2V to V. The
ultimate state of the separated gases will thus be one in which
each gas occupies the volume V originally occupied by the mixture.
We may now obtain an estimate of the amount of energy rendered
unavailable by diffusion. We suppose two gases occupying volumes
Vi and V 2 at equal pressure p to mix by diffusion, so that the final
volume is Vi+V 2 . Then if before mixing each gas had been allowed
to expand till its volume was Vi+Vj, work would have been done
in the expansion, and the gases could still have been mixed by a
reversal of the process above described. In the actual diffusion this
work of expansion is los{, and represents energy rendered unavailable
at the temperature at which diffusion takes place. When divided
by that temperature the quotient gives the increase of entropy.
Thus the irreversible processes, and, in particular, the entropy
changes associated with diffusion of two gases at uniform pressure,
are the same as would take place if each of the gases in turn were to
Gibbs (see ENERGETICS).
DIFFUSION
259
Another way in which two or more mixed gases can be separated
is by placing them in the presence of a liquid which can freely absorb
one of the gases, but in which the other gas or gases are insoluble.
Here again it is found by experience that when equilibrium exists
at a given temperature between the dissolved and uiidissolved
portions of the first gas, the partial pressure of that gas in the
mixture depends on the temperature alone, and is independent of
the partial pressures of the insoluble gases with which it is mixed,
so that the conclusions are the same as before.
10. Diffusion through a Membrane or Partition. Theory of the
semi- permeable Membrane. It has been pointed out that diffusion
of gases frequently takes place in the interior of solids; moreover,
different gases behave differently with respect to the same solid at
the same temperature. A membrane or partition formed of such
a solid can therefore be used to effect a moie or less complete
separation of gases from a mixture. This method is employed
commercially for extracting oxygen from the atmosphere, in
particular for use in projection lanterns where a high degree of
purity is not required. A similar method is often applied to
liquids and solutions and is known as " dialysis."
In such cases as can be tested experimentally it has been found
that a gas always tends to pass through a membrane from the side
where its density, and therefore its partial pressure, is greater
to the side where it is less; so that for equilibrium the partial
pressures on the two sides must be equal. This result is un-
affected by the presence of other gases on one or both sides of the
membrane. For example, if different gases at the same pressure
are separated by a partition through which one gas can pass more
rapidly than the other, the diffusion will give rise to a difference of
pressure on the two sides, which is capable of doing mechanical
work in moving the partition. In evidence of this conclusion
Max Planck quotes a test experiment made by him in the Physical
Institute of the university of Munich in 1883, depending on the
fact that platinum foil at white heat is permeable to hydrogen but
impermeable to air, so that if a platinum tube filled with hydrogen
be heated the hydrogen will diffuse out, leaving a vacuum.
The details of the experiment may be quoted here: " A glass
tube of about 5 mm. internal diameter, blown out to a bulb at the
middle, was provided with a stop-cock at one end. To the other a
platinum tube 10 cm. long was fastened, and closed at the end. The
whole tube was exhausted by a mercury pump, filled with hydrogen
at ordinary atmospheric pressure, and then closed. The closed end
of the platinum portion was then heated in a horizontal position by
a Bunsen burner. The connexion between the glass and platinum
tubes, having been made by means of sealing-wax, had to be kept
cool by a continuous current of water to prevent the softening of the
wax. After four hours the tube was taken from the flame, cooled
to the temperature of the room, and the stop-cock opened under
mercury. The mercury rose rapidly, almost completely filling the
tube, proving that the tube had been very nearly exhausted."
In order that diffusion through a membrane may be reversible
so far as a particular gas is concerned, the process must take place
so slowly that equilibrium is set up at every stage (see 9 above).
In order to separate one
gas from another con-
sistently with this con-
dition it is necessary
that no diffusion of the
latter gas should ac-
company the process.
The name " semi-per-
meable " is applied to
an ideal membrane or partition through which one gas can
pass, and which offers an insuperable barrier to any diffusion
whatever of a second gas. By means of two semi-permeable
partitions acting oppositely with respect to two different gases
A and B these gases could be mixed or separated by reversible
methods. The annexed figure shows a diagrammatic representa-
tion of the process.
We suppose the gases contained in a cylindrical tube; P, Q, R, S
are four pistons, of which' P and R are joined to one connecting rod,
Q and S to another. P, S are impermeable to both gases; Q is
semi-permeable, allowing the gas A to pass through but not B, simi-
larly R allows the gas B to pass through but not A. The distance PR
is equal to the distance QS, so that if the rods are pushed towards each
other as far as they will go, P and Q will be in contact, as also R and
S. Imagine the space RQ filled with a mixture of the two gases
Gas A Cases A&B Gas B
under these conditions. Then by slowly drawing the connecting
rods apart until R, Q touch, the gas A will pass into the space PQ,
and B will pass into the space RS, and the gases will finally be com-
pletely separated ; similarly, by pushing the connecting rods together,
the two gases will be remixed in the space RQ. By performing the
operations slowly enough we may make the processes as nearly
reversible as we please, so that no available energy is lost in either
change. The gas A being at every instant in equilibrium on the two
sides of the piston Q, its density, and therefore its partial pressure,
is the same on both sides, and the same is true regarding the gas B
on the two sides of R. Also no work is done in moving the pistons, for
the partial pressures of B on the two sides of R balance each other,
consequently, the resultant thrust on R is due to the gas A alone,
and is equal and opposite to its resultant thrust on P, so that the
connecting rods are at every instant in a state of mechanical equili-
brium so far as the pressures of the gases A and B are concerned. We
conclude that in the reversible separation of the gases by this method
at constant temperature without the production or absorption of
mechanical work, the densities and the partial pressures of the two
separated gases are the same as they were in the mixture. These
conclusions are in entire agreement with those of the preceding
section. If this agreement did not exist it would be possible, theo-
retically, to obtain perpetual motion from the gases in a way that
would be inconsistent with the second law of thermodynamics.
Most physicists admit, as Planck does, that it is impossible to
obtain an ideal semi-permeable substance; indeed such a sub-
stance would necessarily have to possess an infinitely great resist-
ance to diffusion for such gases as could not penetrate it. But in
an experiment performed under actual conditions the losses of
available energy arising from this cause would be attributable
to the imperfect efficiency of the partitions and not to the gases
themselves; moreover, these losses are, in every case, found to be
completely in accordance with the laws of irreversible thermo-
dynamics. The reasoning in this article being somewhat con-
densed the reader must necessarily be referred to treatises on
thermodynamics for further information on points of detail
connected with the argument. Even when he consults these
treatises he may find some points omitted which have been
examined in full detail at some time or other, but are not suffi-
ciently often raised to require mention in print.
1 1. Kinetic Models of Diffusion. Imagine in the first instance
that a very large number of red balls are distributed over one half
of a billiard table, and an equal number of white balls over the
other half. If the balls are set in motion with different velocities
in various directions, diffusion will take place, the red balls find-
ing their way among the white ones, and vice versa; and the
process will be retarded by collisions between the balls. The
simplest model of a perfect gas studied in the kinetic theory of
gases (see MOLECULE) differs from the above illustration in that
the bodies representing the molecules move in space instead of in
a plane, and, unlike billiard balls, their motion is unresisted,
and they are perfectly elastic, so that no kinetic energy is lost
either during their free motions, or at a collision.
The mathematical analysis connected with the application of the
kinetic theory to diffusion is very long and cumbersome. We shall
therefore confine our attention to regarding a medium formed of
elastic spheres as a mechanical model, by which the most important
features of diffusion can be illustrated. We shall assume the results
of the kinetic theory, according to which: (l) In a dynamical
model of a perfect gas the mean kinetic energy of translation of the
molecules represents the absolute temperature of the gas. (2) The
pressure at any point is proportional to the product of the number
of molecules in unit volume about that point into the mean square
of the velocity. (The mean square of the velocity is different from
but proportional to the square of the mean velocity, and in the
subsequent arguments either of these two quantities can generally
be taken.) (3) In a gas mixture represented by a mixture of mole-
cules of unequal masses, the mean kinetic energies of the different
kinds are equal.
Consider now the problem of diffusion in a region containing two
kinds of molecules A and B of unequal mass. The molecules of A
in the neighbourhood of any point will, by their motion, spread out
in every direction until they come into collision with other molecules
of either kind, and this spreading out from every point of the medium
will give rise to diffusion. If we imagine the velocities of the A
molecules to be equally distributed in all directions, as they would
be in a homogeneous mixture, it is obvious that the process of diffusion
will be greater, ceteris paribus, the greater the velocity of the mole-
cules, and the greater the length of the free path before a collision
takes place. If we assume consistently with this, that the co-
efficient of diffusion of the gas A is proportional to the mean value of
aio/o, where a> a is the velocity and / is the length of the path of a
260
DIGBY, SIR E.
molecule of A, this expression for the coefficient of diffusion is of the
right dimensions in length and time. If, moreover, we observe that
when diffusion takes place in a fixed direction, say that of the axis
of x, it depends only on the resolved part of the velocity and length
of path in that direction : this hypothesis readily leads to our taking
the mean value of ! s WaL as the coefficient of diffusion for the gas A.
This value was obtained by O. E. Meyer and others.
Unfortunately, however, it makes the coefficients of diffusion
unequal for the two gases, a result inconsistent with that obtained
above from considerations of the coefficient of resistance, and
leading to the consequence that differences of pressure would be
set up in different parts of the gas. To equalize these differences of
pressure, Meyer assumed that a counter current is set up, this current
being, of course, very slow in practice; and J. Stefan assumed that
the diffusion of one gas was not affected by collisions between mole-
cules of the same gas. When the molecules are mixed in equal
proportions both hypotheses lead to the value l([w a l a ]+[wi,lb]),
(square brackets denoting mean values). When one gas preponder-
ates largely over the other, the phenomena of diffusion are too
difficult of observation to allow of accurate experimental tests
being made. Moreover, in this case no difference exists unless the
molecules are different in size or mass.
Instead of supposing a velocity of translation added after the
mathematical calculations have been performed, a better plan is to
assume from the outset that the molecules of the two gases have
small velocities of translation in opposite directions, superposed on
the distribution of velocitv, which would occur in a medium repre-
senting a gas at rest. When a collision occurs between molecules
of different gases a transference of momentum takes place between
them, and the quantity of momentum so transferred in one second
in a unit of volume gives a dynamical measure of the resistance to
diffusion. It is to be observed that, however small the relative
velocity of the gases A and B, it plays an all-important part in
determining the coefficient of resistance; for without such relative
motion, and with the velocities evenly distributed in all directions, no
transference of momentum could take place. The coefficient of
resistance being found, the motion of each of the two gases may be
discussed separately.
One of the most important consequences of the kinetic theory
is that if the volume be kept constant the coefficient of diffusion
varies as the square root of the absolute temperature. To prove
this, we merely have to imagine the velocity of each molecule to
be suddenly increased fold; the subsequent processes, includ-
ing diffusion, will then go on n times as fast; and the temperature
T, being proportional to the kinetic energy, and therefore to the
square of the velocity, will be increased 2 fold. Thus K, the
coefficient of diffusion, varies as VT.
The relation of K to the density when the temperature remains
constant is more difficult to discuss, but it may be sufficient to
notice that if the number of molecules is increased n fold, the
chances of a collision are n times as great, and the distance
traversed between collisions is (not therefore but as the result of
more detailed reasoning) on the average i/n of what it was before.
Thus the free path, and therefore the coefficient of diffusion,
varies inversely as the density, or directly as the volume. If the
pressure p and temperature T be taken as variables, K varies
inversely as p and directly as VT 3 .
Now according to the experiments first made by J. C. Maxwell
and J. Loschmidt, it appeared that with constant density K
was proportional to T more nearly than to VT. The inference is
that in this respect a medium formed of colliding spheres fails to
give a correct mechanical model of gases. It has been found by
L. Boltzmann, Maxwell and others that a system of particles
whose mutual actions vary according to the inverse fifth power of
the distance between them represents more correctly the relation
between the coefficient of diffusion and temperature in actual
gases. Other recent theories of diffusion have been advanced
by M. Thiesen, P. Langevin and W. Sutherland. On the other
hand, J. Thovert finds experimental evidence that the coefficient
of diffusion is proportional to molecular velocity in the cases
examined of non-electrolytes dissolved in water at iS at 2-5
grams per litre.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The best introduction to the study of theories
of diffusion is afforded by O. E. Meyer's Kinetic Theory of Gases,
translated by Robert E. Baynes (London, 1899). The mathematical
portion, though sufficient for ordinary purposes, is mostly of the
simplest possible character. Another useful treatise is R. Ruhlmann's
Handbuch der mechanischen Warmetheorie (Brunswick, 1885). For
a shorter sketch the reader may refer to J. C. Maxwell's Theory of
Heat, chaps, xix. and xxii., or numerous other treatises on physics.
The theory of the semi-permeable membrane is discussed by
M. Planck in his Treatise on Thermodynamics, English translation
by A. Ogg (1903), also in treatises on thermodynamics by W. Voigt
and other writers. For a more detailed study of diffusion in general
the following papers may be consulted: L. Boltzmann, " Zur
Integration derDiffusionsgleichung," Sitzung. der k. bayer.Akad math.-
phys. Klasse (May 1894); T. des Coudres, " Diffusionsvorgange in
einem Zylinder," Wied. Ann. Iv. (1895), p. 213; J. Loschmidt,
" Experimentaluntersuchungen iiber Diffusion," Wien. Sitz. Ixi.,
Ixii. (1870); J. Stefan, " Gleichgewicht und . . . Diffusion von Gas-
mengen," Wien. Sitz. Ixiii., " Dynamische Theorie der Diffusion,"
Wien. Sitz. Ixv. (April 1872) ; M. Toepler, " Gas-diffusion," Wied.
Ann. Iviii. (1896), p. 599; A. Wretschko, " Experimentalunter-
suchungen iiber die Diffusion von Gasmengen," Wien. Sitz. Ixii.
The mathematical theory of diffusion, according to the kinetic
theory of gases, has been treated by a number of different methods,
and for the study of these the reader may consult L. Boltzmann,
Vorlesungen iiber Gastheorie (Leipzig, 1896-1898); S. H. Burbury,
Kinetic Theory of Gases (Cambridge, 1899), and papers by L. Boltz-
mann in Wien. Sitz. Ixxxvi. (1882), Ixxxvii. (1883); P. G. Tait,
" Foundations of the Kinetic Theory of Gases," Trans. R.S.E.
xxxiii., xxxv., xxvi., or Scientific Papers, ii. (Cambridge, 1900).
For recent work reference should be made to the current issues
of Science Abstracts (London), and entries under the heading
" Diffusion " will be found in the general index at the end of each
volume. (G. H. BR.)
DIGBY, SIR EVERARD (1578-1606), English conspirator, son
of Everard Digby of Stoke Dry, Rutland, was born on the i6th
of May 1578. He inherited a large estate at his father's death
in 1592, and acquired a considerable increase by his marriage in
1596 to Mary, daughter and heir of William Mulsho of Gothurst
(now Gayhurst), in Buckinghamshire. He obtained a place in
Queen Elizabeth's household and as a ward of the crown was
brought up a Protestant; but about 1599 he came under the
influence of the Jesuit, John Gerard, and soon afterwards joined
the Roman Catholics. He supported James's accession and was
knighted by the latter on the 23rd of April 1603. In a letter to
Salisbury, the date of which has been ascribed to May 1605,
Digby offered to go on a mission to the pope to obtain from
the latter a promise to prevent Romanist attempts against the
government in return for concessions to the Roman Catholics;
adding that if severe measures were again taken against them
" within brief there will be massacres, rebellions and desperate
attempts against the king and state." Digby had suffered no
personal injury or persecution on account of his religion, but he
sympathized with his co-religionists; and when at Michaelmas,
1605, the government had fully decided to return to the policy of
repression, the authors of the Gunpowder Plot (q.v.) sought his
financial support, and he joined eagerly in the conspiracy. His
particular share in the plan was the organization of a rising in the
Midlands; and on the pretence of a hunting party he assembled a
body of gentlemen together at Danchurch in Warwickshire on the
5th of November, who were to take action immediately the news
arrived from London of the successful destruction of the king
and the House of Lords, and to seize the person of the princess
Elizabeth, who was residing in the neighbourhood. The con-
spirators arrived late on the evening of the 6th to tell their story
of failure and disaster, and Digby, who possibly might have
escaped the more serious charge of high treason, was persuaded by
Catesby, with a false tale that the king and Salisbury were dead,
to further implicate himself in the plot and join the small band of
conspirators in their hopeless endeavour to raise the country. He
accompanied them, the same day, to Huddington in Worcester-
shire and on the 7th to Holbeche in Staffordshire. The following
morning, however, he abandoned his companions, dismissed his
servants except two, who declared " they would never leave him
but against their will," and attempted with these to conceal him-
self in a pit. He was, however, soon discovered and surrounded.
He made a last effort to break through his captors on horseback,
but was taken and conveyed a prisoner to the Tower. His trial
took place in Westminster Hall, on the 27th of January 1606, and
alone among the conspirators he pleaded guilty, declaring that
the motives of his crime had been his 'friendship for Catesby
and his devotion to his religion. He was condemned to death,
and his execution, which took place on the 3ist, in St Paul's
Churchyard, was accompanied by all the brutalities exacted by
the law.
Digby was a handsome man, of fine presence. Father Gerard
DIGBY, SIR K.
261
extols his skill in sport, his " riding of great horses," as well as his
skill in music, his gifts of mind and his religious devotion, and
concludes " he was as complete a man in all things, that deserved
estimation or might win affection as one should see in a kingdom."
Some of Digby's letters and papers, which include a poem
before his execution, a last letter to his infant sons and corre-
spondence with his wife from the Tower, were published in The
Gunpowder Treason by Thomas Barlow, bishop of Lincoln, in
1679. He left two sons, of whom the elder, Sir Kenelm Digby,
was the well-known author and diplomatist.
See works on the Gunpowder Plot; Narrative of Father Gerard,
in Condition of the Catholics under James I. by J. Morris (1872),
&c. A life of Digby under the title of A Life of a Conspirator,
by a Romish Recusant (Thomas Longueville), was published in
1895- (P. C. Y.)
DIGBY, SIR KENELM (i6o3-!665), English author, diplom-
atist and naval commander, son of Sir Everard Digby (q.v.),
was born on the i ith of July 1603, and after his father's execution
in 1606 resided with his mother at Gayhurst, being brought up
apparently as a Roman Catholic. In 1617 he accompanied his
cousin, Sir John Digby, afterwards ist earl of Bristol, and then
ambassador in Spain, to Madrid. On his return in April 1618 he
entered Gloucester Hall (now Worcester College), Oxford, and
studied under Thomas Allen (1542-1632), the celebrated mathe-
matician, who was much impressed with his abilities and called
him the Mirandula, i.e. the infant prodigy, of his age. 1 He left
the university without taking a degree in 1620, and travelled
in France, where, according to his own account, he inspired an
uncontrollable passion in the queen-mother, Marie de' Medici,
now a lady of more than mature age and charms; he visited
Florence, and in March 1623 joined Sir John Digby again at
Madrid, at the time when PrinceCharles and Buckingham arrived
on their adventurous expedition. He- joined the prince's house-
hold and returned with him to England on the 5th of October
1623, being knighted by James I. on the 23rd of October and
receiving the appointment of gentleman of the privy chamber to
Prince Charles. In 1625 he married secretly Venetia, daughter of
Sir Edward Hanley of Tonge Castle, Shropshire, a lady of extra-
ordinary beauty and intellectual attainments, but of doubtful
virtue. Digby was a man of great stature and bodily strength.
Edward Hyde, afterwards earl of Clarendon, who with Ben
Jonson was included among his most intimate friends, describes
him as " a man of very extraordinary person and presence which
drew the eyes of all men upon him, a wonderful graceful
behaviour, a flowing courtesy and civility, and such a volubility
of language as surprised and delighted." 2 Digby for sometime
was excluded from public employment by Buckingham's jealousy
of his cousin, Lord Bristol. At length in 1627, on the latter's
advice, Digby determined to attempt " some generous action,"
and on the 22nd of December, with the approval of the king,
embarked as a privateer with two ships, with the object of attack-
ing the French ships in the Venetian harbour of Scanderoon. On
the i8th of January he arrived off Gibraltar and captured several
Spanish and Flemish vessels. From the I5th of February to the
2/th of March he remained at anchor off Algiers on account of the
sickness of his men, and extracted a promise from the authorities
of better treatment of the English ships. He seized a rich Dutch
vessel near Majorca, and after other adventures gained a complete
victory over the French and Venetian ships in the harbour of
Scanderoon on the i ith of June. His successes, however, brought
upon the English merchants the risk of reprisals, and he was urged
to depart. He returned home in triumph in February 1629, and
was well received by the king, and was made a commissioner of
the navy in October 1630, but his proceedings were disavowed on
account of the complaints of the Venetian ambassador. In 1633
Lady Digby died, and her memory was celebrated by Ben Jonson
in a series of poems entitled Eupheme, and by other poets of
the day. Digby retired to Gresham College, and exhibited ex-
travagant grief, maintaining a seclusion for two years. About
this time Digby professed himself a Protestant, but by October
1635, while in France, he had already returned to the Roman
1 Letters by Eminent Persons (Aubrey's Lives), ii. 324.
1 Life and Continuation.
Catholic faith. 3 In a letter dated the 27th of March 1636 Laud
remonstrates with him, but assures him of the continuance of his
friendship. 4 In 1638 he published A Conference with a Lady about
choice of a Religion, in which he argues that the Roman Church,
possessing alone the qualifications of universality, unity of
doctrine and uninterrupted apostolic succession, is the only true
church, and that the intrusion of error into it is impossible. The
same subject is treated in letters to George Digby, afterwards
2nd earl of Bristol, dated the 2nd of November 1638 and the 29th
of November 1639, which were published in 1651, as well as in
a further Discourse concerning Infallibility in Religion in 1652.
Returning to England he associated himself with the queen and
her Roman Catholic friends, and joined in the appeal to the
English Romanists for money to support the king's Scottish
expedition. 5 In consequence he was summoned to the bar of
the House of Commons on the 27th of January 1641, and the
king was petitioned to remove him with other recusants from his
councils. He left England, and while at Paris killed in a duel a
French lord who had insulted Charles I. in his presence. Louis
XIII. took his part, and furnished him with a military escort into
Flanders. Returning home he was imprisoned, by order of the
House of Commons, early in 1642, successively in the " Three
Tobacco Pipes nigh Charing Cross," where his delightful con-
versation is said to have transformed the prison into " a place of
delight," 6 and at Winchester House. He was finally released and
allowed to go to France on the 3oth of July 1643, through the
intervention of the queen of France, Anne of Austria, on condition
that he would neither promote nor conceal any plots abroad
against the English government.
Before leaving England an attempt was made to draw from
him an admission that Laud, with whom he had been intimate,
had desired to be made a cardinal, but Digby denied that the
archbishop had any leanings towards Rome. On the ist of
November 1643 it was resolved by the Commons to confiscate his
property. He published in London the same year Observations
on the 22nd stanza in the plh canto of the 2nd book of Spenser's
" Faerie Queene," the MS. of which is in the Egerton collection
(British Museum, No. 2725 f. 117 b), and Observations on a
surreptitious and unauthorized edition of the Religio Medici, by
Sir Thomas Browne, from the Roman Catholic point of view,
which drew a severe rebuke from the author. After his arrival
in Paris he published his chief philosophical works, Of Bodies
and Of the Immortality of Man's Soul (1644), autograph MSS. of
which are in the Bibliotheque Ste Genevieve at Paris, and made
the acquaintance of Descartes. He was appointed by Queen
Henrietta Maria her chancellor, and in the summer of 1645 he was
despatched by her to Rome to obtain assistance. Digby promised
the conversion of Charles and of his chief supporters. At first his
eloquence made a great impression. Pope Innocent X. declared
that he spoke not merely as a Catholic but as an ecclesiastic.
But the absence of any warrant from Charles himself roused
suspicions as to the solidity of his assurances, and he obtained
nothing but a grant of 20,000 crowns. A violent quarrel with the
pope followed, and he returned in 1646, having consented in the
queen's name to complete religious freedom for the Roman
Catholics, both in England and Ireland, to an independent parlia-
ment in Ireland, and to the surrender of Dublin and all the Irish
fortresses into the hands of the Roman Catholics, the king's
troops to be employed in enforcing the articles and the pope
granting about 36,000 with a promise of further payments in
obtaining direct assistance. In February 1649 Digby was invited
to come to England to arrange a proposed toleration of the Roman
Catholics, but on his arrival in May the scheme had already been
abandoned. He was again banished on the 3ist of August, and
it was not till 1654 that he was allowed by the council of state to
return. He now entered into close relations with Cromwell, from
whom he hoped to obtain toleration for the Roman Catholics, and
whose alliance he desired to secure for France rather than for
3 Strafford's Letters, i. 474.
4 Laud's Works, vi. 447.
* Thomason Tracts, Brit. Mus. E 164 (15).
6 A rchaeologia Cantiana, ii. 190.
262
DIGBY, K. H. DIGESTIVE ORGANS
Spain, and was engaged by Cromwell, much to the scandal of both
Royalists and Roundheads, in negotiations abroad, of which the
aim was probably to prevent a union between those two foreign
powers. He visited Germany, in 1660 was in Paris, and at the
Restoration returned to England. He was well received in spite
of his former relations with Cromwell, and was confirmed in his
post as Queen Henrietta Maria's chancellor. In January 1661
he delivered a lecture, which was published the same month, at
Gresham College, on the vegetation of plants, and became an
original member of the Royal Society in 1663. In January 1664
he was forbidden to appear at court, the cause assigned being that
he had interposed too far in favour of the 2nd earl of Bristol,
disgraced by the king on account of the charge of high treason
brought by him against Clarendon into the House of Lords. The
rest of his life was spent in the enjoyment of literary and scientific
society at his house in Covent Garden. He died on the nth of
June 1665. He had five children, of whom two, a son and one
daughter, survived him.
Digby, though he possessed for the time a considerable know-
ledge of natural science, and is said to have been the first to
explain the necessity of oxygen to the existence of plants, bears
no high place in the history of science. He was a firm believer in
astrology and alchemy, and the extraordinary fables which he
circulated on the subject of his discoveries are evidence of any-
thing rather than of the scientific spirit. In 1656 he made public
a marvellous account of a city in Tripoli, petrified in a few hours,
which he printed in the Mercurius Politicus. Malicious reports
had been current that his wife had been poisoned by one of his
prescriptions, viper wine, taken to preserve her beauty. Evelyn,
who visited him in Paris in 1651, describes him as an " errant
mountebank." Henry Stubbes characterizes him as "the very
Pliny of our age for lying," and Lady Fanshawe refers to the same
" infirmity." J His famous " powder of sympathy," which seems
to have been only powder of " vitriol," healed without any
contact, by being merely applied to a rag or bandage taken from
the wound, and Digby records a miraculous cure by this means in
a lecture given by him at Montpellier on this subject in 1658,
published in French and English the same year, in German in
1660 and in Dutch in 1663; but Digby 's claim to its original
discovery is doubtful, Nathaniel Highmore in his History of
Generation (1651, p. 113) calling the powder " Talbot's powder,"
and ascribing its invention to Sir Gilbert Talbot. Some of Digby's
pills and preparations, however, described in The Closet of the
Eminently Learned Sir Kenelm Digby Knt. Opened (publ. 1677),
are said to make less demand upon the faith of patients, and his
injunction on the subject of the making of tea, to let the water
" remain upon it no longer than you can say the Miserere Psalm
very leisurely," is one by no means to be ridiculed. As a philo-
sopher and an Aristotelian Digby shows little originality and
followed the methods of the schoolmen. His Roman Catholic
orthodoxy mixed with rationalism, and his political opinions,
according to which any existing authority should receive support,
were evidently derived from Thomas White (1582-1676), the
Roman Catholic philosopher, who lived with him in France.
White published in 1651 Institutionum Peripateticorum libri
quinque, purporting to expound Digby's "peripatetic philo-
sophy," but going far beyond Digby's published treatises.
Digby's Memoirs are composed in the high-flown ."antastic manner
then usual when recounting incidents of love and adventure,
but the style of his more sober works is excellent. In 1632 he
presented to the Bodleian library a collection of 236 MSS., be-
queathed to him by his former tutor Thomas Allen, and described
in Catalogi codicum manuscriptorum bibliothecae Bodleianae, by
W. D. Macray, part ix. Besides the works already mentioned
Digby translated A Treatise of adhering to God written by Albert
the Great, Bishop of Ratisbon (1653); and he was the author of
Private Memoirs, published by Sir N. H. Nicholas from Harleian
MS. 6j$8 with introduction (1827); Journal of the Scanderoon
Voyage in 1628, printed by J. Bruce with preface (Camden
Society, 1868); Poems from Sir Kenelm Digby's Papers . . . with
1 Diet, of Nat. Biog. sub " Digby." See also Robert Boyle's
Works (1744), v. 302.
preface and notes (Roxburghe Club, 1877); in the Add. MSS.
34,362 f. 66 is a poem Of the Miserys of Man, probably by Digby;
Choice of Experimental Receipts in Physick and Chirurgery . . .
collected by Sir K. Digby (1668), and Chymical Secrets and Rare
Experiments ( 1683) , were published by G. Hartman, who describes
himself as Digby's steward and laboratory assistant.
See the Life of Sir Kenelm Digby by one of his Descendants
(T. Longueville), 1896. (P. C. Y.)
DIGBY, KENELM HENRY (1800-1880), English writer,
youngest son of William Digby, dean of Clonfert, was born at
Clonfert, Ireland, in 1800. He was educated at Trinity College,
Cambridge, and soon after taking his B.A. degree there in 1819
became a Roman Catholic. He spent most of his life, which was
mainly devoted to literary pursuits, in London, where he died on
the 22nd of March 1880. Digby's reputation rests chiefly on his
earliest publication, The Broadstone of Honour, or Rules for the
Gentlemen of England (1822), which contains an exhaustive survey
of medieval customs, full of quotations from varied sources. The
work was subsequently enlarged and issued (1826-1827) in four
volumes entitled: Godefridus, Tancredus, Morus and Orlandus
(numerous re-impressions, the best of which is the edition
brought out by B. Quaritch in five volumes, 1876^1877).
Among Digby's other works are: Mores Catholici, or Ages of
Faith (n vols., London, 1831-1840); Compitum; or the Meeting of
the Ways at the Catholic Church (7 vols., London, 2848-1854); The
Lovers' Seat, Kathemerina; or Common Things in relation to Beauty,
Virtue and Faith (2 vols., London, 1856). A complete list is given
in J. Gillow's Bibliographical Dictionary of English Catholics, ii.
81-83.
DIGENES ACRITAS, BASILIUS, Byzantine national hero,
probably lived in the loth century. He is named Digenes (of
double birth) as the son of a Moslem father and a Christian
mother; Acritas (oxpa, frontier, boundary), as one of the fron-
tier guards of the empire, corresponding to the Roman milites
limilanei. The chief duty of these acritae consisted in repelling
Moslem inroads and the raids of the apelatae (cattle-lifters),
brigands who may be compared with the more modern Klephts.
The original Digenes epic is lost, but four poems are extant, in
which the different incidents of the legend have been worked
up by different hands. The first of these consists of about 4000
lines, written in the so-called " political " metre, and was dis-
covered in the latter part of the ipth century, in a 16th-century
MS., at Trebizond; the other three MSS. were found at Grotta
Ferrata, Andros and Oxford. The poem, which has been com-
pared with the Chanson de Roland and the Romance of the Cid,
undoubtedly contains a kernel of fact, although it cannot be
regarded as in any sense an historical record. The scene of action
is laid in Cappadocia and the district of the Euphrates.
Editions of the Trebizond MS. by C. Sathas and E. Legrand in
the Collection des monuments pour servir & V elude de la langue neo-
hellenique, new series, vi. (1875), and by S. Joannides (Constantinople,
1887). See monographs by A. Luber (Salzburg, 1885) and G.
Wartenberg (Berlin, 1897). Full information will be found in
C. Krumbacher's Ceschichle der byzantinischen Litteratur , p. 827
(2nd ed., 1897); see also G. Schlumberger, L'Epopee Byzantine a
la fin du dixicme siecle (1897).
DIGEST, a term used generally of any digested or carefully
arranged collection or compendium of written matter, but more
particularly in law of a compilation in condensed form of a body
of law digested in a systematical method; e.g. the Digest (Digesta)
or Pandects (navStKrai) of Justinian, a collection of extracts
from the earlier jurists compiled by order of the emperor
Justinian. The word is also given to the compilations of the
main points (marginal or hand-notes) of decided cases, usually
arranged in alphabetical and subject order, and published under
such titles as " Common Law Digest," " Annual Digest," &c.
DIGESTIVE ORGANS (PATHOLOGY). Several facts of im-
portance have to be borne in mind for a proper appreciation of
the pathology of the organs concerned in digestive processes (for
the anatomy see ALIMENTARY CANAL and allied articles). In
the first place, more than all other systems, the digestive comprises
greater range of structure and exhibits wider diversity of function
within its domain. Each separate structure and each different
function presents special pathological signs and symptoms.
Again, the duties imposed upon the system have to be performed
DIGESTIVE ORGANS
263
notwithstanding constant variations in the work set them. The
crude articles of diet offered them vary immensely in nature, bulk
and utility, from which they must elaborate simple food-elements
for absorption, incorporate them after absorption into complex
organic substances properly designed to supply the constant needs
of cellular activity, of growth and repair, and fitly harmonized
to fulfil the many requirements of very divergent processes and
functions. Any form of unphysiological diet, each failure to
cater for the wants of any special tissue engaged in, or of any
processes of, metabolism, carry with them pathological signs.
Perhaps in greater degree than elsewhere are the individual
sections of the digestive system dependent upon, and closely
correlated with, one another. The lungs can only yield oxygen
to the blood when the oxygen is uncombined; no compounds
are of use. The digestive organs have to deal with an enormous
variety of compound bodies, from which to obtain the elements
necessary for protoplasmic upkeep and activity. Morbid lesions
of the respiratory and circulatory systems are frequently capable
of compensation through increased activity elsewhere, and the
symptoms they give rise to follow chiefly along one line; diseases
of the digestive organs are more liable to occasion disorders
elsewhere than to excite compensatory actions. The digestive
system includes every organ, function and process concerned
with the utilization of food-stuffs, from the moment of their
entrance into the mouth, their preparation in the canal, assimi-
lation with the tissues, their employment therein, up to their
excretion or expulsion in the form of waste. Each portion
resembles a link of a continuous chain; each link depends upon
the integrity of the others, the weakening or breaking of one
straining or making impotent the chain as a whole.
The mucous membrane lining the alimentary tract is the part
most subject to pathological alterations, and in this connexion
it should be remembered that this membrane differs both in
structure and functions throughout the tract. Chiefly protective
from the mouth to the cardia, it is secretory and absorbent in the
stomach and bowel; while the glandular cells forming part of it
secrete both acid and alkaline fluids, several ferments or mucus.
Over the dorsum of the tongue its modified cells subserve the
sense of taste. Without, connected with it by the submucous
connective tissue, is placed the muscular coat, and externally over
the greater portion of its length the peritoneal serous membrane.
All parts are supplied with blood-vessels, lymph-ducts and
nerves, the last belonging either to local or to central circuits.
Associated with the tract are the salivary glands, the liver and
the pancreas; while, in addition, lymphoid tissue is met with
diffuselyscattered throughout the lining membranes in the tonsils,
appendix, solitary glands and Peyer's patches, and the mesenteric
glands. The functions of the various parts of the system in whose
lesions we are here interested are many in number, and can only
be summarized here. (For the physiology of digestion see
NUTRITION.) Broadly, they may be given as: (i) Ingestion and
swallowing of food, transmission of it through the tract, and
expulsion of the waste material; (2) secretion of acids and
alkalis for the performance of digestive processes, aided by (3)
elaboration and addition of complex bodies, termed enzymes
or ferments; (4) secretion of mucus; (5) protection of the body
against organismal infection, and against toxic products; (6)
absorption of food elements and reconstitution of them into
complex substances fitted for metabolic application; and (7)
excretion of the waste products of protoplasmic action. These
functions may be altered by disease, singly or in conjunction; it
is rare, however, to find but one affected, while an apparently
identical disturbance of function may often arise from totally
different organic lesions. Another point of importance is seen in
the close interdependence which exists between the secretions of
acid and those of alkaline reaction. The difference in reaction
seems to act mutatis mutandis as a stimulant in each instance.
General Diseases.
In all sections of the alimentary canal actively engaged in the
digestion of food, a well-marked local engorgement of the blood-
vessels supplying the walls occurs. The hyperaemia abates soon
after completion of the special duties of the individual sections.
This normal condition may be abnormally exaggerated by over-
stimulation from irritant poisons introduced into the
canal; from too rich, too copious or indigestible
articles of diet; or from too prolonged an experience
of some unvaried kind of food-stuff, especially if large quantities
of it are necessary for metabolic needs; entering into the first
stage of inflammation, acute hyperaemia. More important,
because productive of less tractable lesions, is passive congestion
of the digestive organs. Whenever the flow of blood into the
right side of the heart is hindered, whether it arise from disease
of the heart itself, or of the lungs, or proceed from obstruction in
some part of the portal system, the damming-back of the venous
circulation speedily produces a more or less pronounced stasis of
the blood in the walls of the alimentary canal and in the associated
abdominal glands. The lack of a sufficiently vigorous flow of
blood is followed by deficient secretion of digestive agents from
the glandular elements involved, by decreased motility of the
muscular coats of the stomach and bowel, and lessened adapt-
ability throughout for dealing with even slight irregular demands
on their powers. The mucous membrane of the stomach and
bowel, less able to withstand the effects of irritation, even of a
minor character, readily passes into a condition of chronic
catarrh, while it frequently is the seat of small abrasions,
haemorrhagic erosions, which may cause vomiting of blood and
the appearance of blood in the stools. Obstruction to the flow
of blood from the liver leads to dilatation of its blood-vessels,
consequent pressure upon the hepatic cells adjoining them, and
their gradual loss of function, or even atrophy and degeneration.
In addition to the results of such passive congestion exhibited
by the stomach and bowel as noted above, passive congestion
of the liver is often accompanied by varicose enlargement of the
abdominal veins, in particular of those which surround the lower
end of the oesophagus, the lowest part of the rectum and anus.
In the latter position these dilated veins constitute what are
known as haemorrhoids or piles, internal or external as their
site lies within or outside the anal aperture.
The mucous and serous membranes of the canal and the
glandular elements of the associated organs are the parts most
subject to inflammatory affections. Among the several sections
of the digestive tract itself, the oesophagus and jejunum are
singularly exempt from inflammatory processes; the fauces,
stomach, caecum and appendix, ileum, mouth and duodenum
(including the opening of the common bile-duct), are more
commonly involved. Stomatitis, or inflammation of the mouth,
has many predisposing factors, but it has now been
definitely determined that its exciting cause is always
some form of micro-organism. Any condition favouring
oral sepsis, as carious teeth, pyorrhoea alveolaris (a dis-
charge of pus due to inflamed granulations round carious teeth),
granulations beneath thick crusts of tartar, or an irritating tooth
plate, favours the growth of pyogenic organisms and hence of
stomatitis. Many varieties of this disease have been described,
but all are forms of " pyogenic " or " septic stomatitis." This in
its mildest form is catarrhal or erythematous, and is attended
only by slight swelling tenderness and salivation. In its next
stage of acuteness it is known as " membranous," as a false
membrane is produced somewhat resembling that due to
diphtheria, though caused by a staphylococcus only. A still
more acute form is " ulcerative," which may go on to the forma-
tion of an abscess beneath the tongue. Scarlet fever usually
gives rise to a slight inflammation of the mouth followed by
desquamation, but more rarely it is accompanied by a most
severe oedematous stomatitis with glossitis and tonsillitis.
Erysipelas on the face may infect the mouth, and an acute
stomatitis due to the diphtheria bacillus, Klebs-Loeffler bacillus,
has been described. A distinct and very dangerous form of
stomatitis in infants and young children is known as " aphthous
stomatitis " or " thrush." This is caused by the growth of
Oidium albicans. It is always preceded by a gastro-enteritis and
dry mouth, and if this is not attended to, soon attracts attention
by the little white raised patches surrounded by a dusky red zone
264
DIGESTIVE ORGANS
scattered on tongue and cheeks. Epidemics have occurred in
hospitals and orphanages. Mouth breathing is the cause of many
ills. As a result of this, the mucous membrane of the tongue, &c.,
becomes dry, micro-organisms multiply and the mouth becomes
foul. Also from disease of the nose, the upper jaw, palate and
teeth do not make proper progress in development. There is
overgrowth of tonsils, and adenoids, with resulting deafness, and
the child's mental development suffers. An ordinary " sore
throat " usually signifies acute catarrh of the fauces, and is of
purely organismal origin, " catching cold " being only a secondary
and minor cause. In " relaxed throats " there is a chronic
catarrhal state of the lining membrane, with some passive con-
gestion. The tonsils are peculiarly liable to catarrhal attacks,
as might a priori be expected by reason of their Cerberus-like
function with regard to bacterial intruders. Still, acute attacks
of tonsillitis appear on good evidence to be more common among
individuals predisposed constitutionally to rheumatic manifesta-
tions. Cases of acute tonsillitis may or may not go on to suppura-
tion or quinsy; in all there is great congestion of the glands,
increased mucus secretion, and often secondary involvement of
the lymphatic glands of the neck. Repeated acute attacks often
lead to chronic inflammation, in which the glands are enlarged,
and often hypertrophied in the true sense of the term. The
oesophagus is the seat of inflammation but seldom. In infants
and young children thrush due to Oidium albicans may spread
from the mouth, and also a diphtheritic inflammation spreads
from the fauces into the oesophagus. A catarrhal oesophagitis
is rarely seen, but the commonest form is traumatic, due to the
swallowing of boiling water, corrosive or irritant substances, &c.
A non-malignant ulceration may result which later leads on to
an oesophageal stricture. The physical changes presented by the
coats of the stomach and the intestine, the subjects of catarrhal
attacks, closely resemble one another, but differ symptomatic-
ally. Acute catarrh of the stomach is associated with intense
hyperaemia of its lining coats, with visible engorgement and
swelling of the mucous membrane, and an excessive secretion of
mucus. The formation of active gastric juice is arrested, digestion
ceases, peristaltic movements are sluggish or absent, unless so
over-stimulated that they act in a direction the reverse of the
normal, and induce expulsion of the gastric contents by vomiting.
The gastric contents, in whatever degree of dilution or concentra-
tion they may have been ingested, when ejected are of porridge-
thick consistency, and often but slightly digested. Such
conditions may succeed a severe alcoholic bout, be caused by
irritant substances taken in by the mouth or arise from fer-
mentative processes in the stomach contents themselves. Should
the irritating material succeed in passing from the stomach into
the bowel, similar physical signs are present; but as the quickest
path offered for the expulsion of the offending substances from
the body is downwards, peristalsis is increased, the flow of fluid
from the intestinal glands is larger in bulk, though of less potency
as regards its normal actions, than in health, and diarrhoea, with
removal of the irritant, follows. As a general rule, the more
marked the involvement of the large bowel, the severer and more
fluid is the resultant diarrhoea. Inflammation of the stomach
may be due to mechanical injury, thermal or chemical irritants
or invasion by micro-organisms. Also all the symptoms of
gastric catarrh may be brought on by any acute emotion. The
commonest mechanical injury is that due to an excess of food,
especially when following on a fast; poisons act as irritants, and
also the weevils of cheese and the larvae of insects.
Inflammatory affections of the caecum and its attached
appendix vermiformis are very common, and give rise to several
special symptoms and signs. Acute inflammatory appendicitis
appears to be inci easing in frequency, and is associated by many
with the modern deterioration in the teeth. Constipation
certainly predisposes to it, and it appears to be more prevalent
among medical men, commercial travellers, or any engaged in
arduous callings, subjected to irregular meals, fatigue and
exposure. A foreign body is the exciting cause in many cases,
though less commonly so than was formerly imagined. The
inflammation in the appendix varies in intensity from a very
slight catarrhal or simple form to an ulcerative variety, and much
more rarely to the acute fulminating appendicitis in which
necrosis of the appendix with abscess formation occurs. It is
always accompanied by more or less peritonitis, which is pro-
tective in nature, shutting in the inflammatory process. Very
similar symptomatically is the condition termed perityphlitis,
doubtless in former days frequently due to the appendix, an acute
or chronic inflammation of the walls of the caecum often leading
to abscess formation outside the gut, with or without direct
communication with the canal. The colon is subject to three
main forms of inflammation. In simple colitis the mucous
membrane of the colon is intensely injected, bright red in colour,
and secreting a thick mucus, but there is no accompanying
ulceration. It is often found in association with some constitu-
tional disease, as Bright's disease, and also with cancer of the
bowel. But when it has no association with other trouble it is
probably bacterial in origin, the Bacillus enteritidis spirogenes
having been isolated in many cases. The motions always contain
large quantities of mucus and more or less blood. A second very
severe form of inflammation of the colon is known as " membran-
ous colitis," and this may be either dyspeptic, or secondary to
other diseases. In this trouble membranes are passed per anum,
accompanied by a pain so intense as often to cause fainting. In
severe cases complete tubular casts of the intestine have been
found. Often the motions contain very little faecal matter, but
consist only of membranes, mucus and a little blood. A third
form is that known as " ulcerative colitis." Any part of the large
intestine may be affected, and the ulceration shows no special
distribution. In severe cases the muscular coat is exposed, and
perforation may ensue. The number of ulcers varies from a few
to many dozen, and in size from a pea to a five-shilling piece.
Like all chronic intestinal ulcers they show a tendency to become
transverse.
Chronic catarrhal affections of the stomach are very common,
and often follow upon repeated acute attacks. In them the
connective tissue increases at the expense of the glandular
elements; the mucous membrane becomes thickened and less
active in function. Should the muscular coat be involved, the
elasticity and contractility of the organ suffer; peristaltic move-
ment is weakened; expulsion of the contents through the pylorus
hindered; and, aggravated by these effects, the condition
becomes worse, atonic dyspepsia in its most pronounced form
results, with or without dilatation. Chronic vascular congestion
may occasion in process of time similar signs and symptoms.
Duodenal catarrh is constantly associated with jaundice, indeed
is most probably the commonest cause of catarrhal jaundice; often
it is accompanied by catarrh of the common bile-duct. Chronic
inflammation of the small intestine gives rise to less prominent
symptoms than in the stomach. It generally arises from more than
one cause; or rather secondary causes rapidly become as import-
ant as the primary in its incidence. Chronic congestion and pro-
longed irritation lead to deficient secretion and sluggish peristalsis;
these effects encourage intestinal putrefaction and autointoxi-
cation; and these latter, in turn, increase the local unrest.
The intestinal mucous membrane, the peritoneum and the
mesenteric glands are the chief sites of tubercular infection in
the digestive organs. Rarely met with in the gullet and
stomach, and comparatively seldom in the mouth and 'ksifias'
lips, tubercular inflammation of the small intestine
and peritoneum is common. Tubercular enteritis is a frequent
accompaniment of phthisis, but may occur apart from tubercle
of other organs. Children are especially subject to the primary
form. Tubercular peritonitis often is present also. The in-
flammatory process readily tends towards ulcer formation, with
haemorrhage and sometimes perforation. If in the large bowel,
the symptoms are usually less acute than those characterizing
tubercular inflammation of the small intestine. The appendix
has been found to be the seat of tubercular processes; in the
rectum they form the general cause of the fistulae and abscesses so
commonly met with here. Tubercular peritonitis may be primary
or secondary, acute or chronic; occasionally very acute cases are
seen running a rapid course; the majority are chronic in type.
DIGESTIVE ORGANS
265
The tubercles spread over the surface of the serous membrane,
and if small and not very numerous may give rise in chronic
cases to few symptoms; if larger, and especially when they
involve and obstruct the lymph- and blood-vesseis, ;iscii es follows.
It is hardly possible that tubercular invasion of the mesenteric
glands can ever occur unaccompanied by peritoneal infection;
but when the infection of the glands constitutes the most pro-
minent sign, the term tabes mesenlerica is sometimes employed.
Here the glands, enlarged, forma doughy mass in the abdomen,
leading to marked protrusion of the abdominal walls, with
wasting elsewhere and diarrhoea.
The liver is seldom attacked by tubercle, unless in cases of
general miliary tuberculosis. Now and then it contains large
caseous tubercular masses in its substance.
An important fact with regard to the tubercular processes in
the digestive organs lies in the ready response to treatment shown
by many cases of peritoneal or mesenteric invasion, particularly
in the young.
The later sequelae of syphilis display a predilection for the
rectam and the liver, usually leading to the development of a
stricture in the former, to a diffuse hepatitis or the formation
of gummata in the second. In inherited syphilis the temporary
teeth usually appear early, are discoloured and soon crumble
away. The permanent teeth may be sound and healthy, but are
often especially the upper incisors notched aji'd stunted, when
they are known as " Hutchinson's teeth." As the result both of
syphilis and of tubercle, the tissues of the liver and bowel may
present a peculiar alteration; they become amyloid, or lard-
aceous, a condition in which they appear " waxy," are coloured
dark mahogany brown with dilute iodine solutions, and show
degenerative changes in the connective tissue.
The Bacillus typhosus discovered by Eberth is the causal agent
of typhoid fever, and has its chief seat of activity in the small
intestine, more especially in the lower half of the ileum. Attack-
ing the lymphoid follicles in the mucous membrane, it causes first
inflammatory enlargement, then necrosis and ulceration. The
adjacent portions of the mucous membrane show acute catar,rhal
changes. Diarrhoea, of a special " pea-soup " type, may or may
not be present; while haemorrhage from the bowel, if ulcers have
formed, is common. As the ulcers frequently extend down to the
peritoneal coat cf the bowel, perforation of this membrane and
extravasation into the peritoneal cavity is easily induced by
irritants introduced into or elaborated in the bowel, acting
physically or by the excitation of hyper-peristalsis.
True Asiatic cholera is due to the comma-bacillus or spirillum
of cholera, which is found in the rice-water evacuations, in the
contents of the intestine after death, and in the mucous membrane
of the intestine just beneath the epithelium. It has not been
found in the blood. It produces an intense irritation of the bowel,
seldom of the stomach, without giving rise locally to any marked
physical change; it causes violent diarrhoea and copious dis-
charges of " rice-water " stools, consisting largely of serum
swarming with the organism.
Dysentery gives rise to an inflammation of the large intestine
and sometimes of the lower part of the ileum, resulting in exten-
sive ulceration and accompanied by faecal discharges of mucus,
muco-pus or blood. In some forms a protozoan, the Amoeba
dysenteriae, is found in the stools this is the amoebic dysentery;
in other cases a bacillus, Bacillus dysenteriae , is found the
bacillary dysentery.
Acute parotitis, or mumps, is an infectious disease of the parotid
glands, chiefly interesting because of the association between it
and the testes in males, inflammation of these glands occasionally
following or replacing the affection of the parotids. The causal
agent is probably organismal, but has as yet escaped detection.
The relative frequency with which malignant growths occur in
the different organs of the digestive system may be gathered from
the tabular analysis, on p. 266, of 1768 cases recorded in
the books of the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary as having
been treated in the medical and surgical wards between
the years 1892 and 1809 inclusive. Of these, 1263, or 71-44 %,
were males; 505, or 28-56%, females. (See Table I. p. 266.)
New
growths.
If the figures there given be classified upon broader lines, the
results are as given in Table II. p. 266, and speak for them-
selves. I
The digestive organs are peculiarly subject to malignant
disease, a result of the incessant changes from passive to active
conditions, and vice versa, called for by repeated introduction
of food; while the comparative frequency with which different
parts are attacked depends, in part, upon the degree of irritation
or changes of function imposed upon them. Scirrhous, en-
cephaloid and colloid forms of carcinoma occur. In the stomach
and oesophagus the scirrhous form is most common, the soft
encephaloid form coming next. The most common situation for
cancerous growth in the stomach is the pyloric region. Walsh out
of 1300 cases found 60-8 % near the pylorus, 11-4 % over the
lesser curvature, and 4-7 % more or less over the whole organ.
The small intestine is rarely attacked by cancer; the large
intestine frequently. The rectum, sigmoid flexure, caecum and
colon are affected, and in this order, the cylindrical-celled form
being the most common. Carcinoma of the peritoneum is
generally colloid in character, and is often secondary to growths in
other organs. Cancer of the liver follows cancer of the stomach
and rectum in frequency of occurrence, and is relatively more
common in females than males. Secondary invasion of the liver
is a frequent sequel to gastric cancer. The pancreas occasionally
is the seat of cancerous growth.
Sarcomata are not so often met with in the digestive organs.
When present, they generally involve the peritoneum or the
mesenteric glands. The liver is sometimes attacked, the stomach
rarely.
Benign tumours are not of common occurrence in the digestive
organs. Simple growths of the salivary glands, cysts of the
pancreas and polypoid tumours of the rectum are the most
frequent.
The intestinal canal is the habitat of the majority of animal
parasites found in man. Frequently their presence leads to no
morbid symptoms, local or general; nor are the symptoms, when
they do arise, always characteristic of the presence of
parasites alone. Discovery of their bodies, or of their parasites
eggs, in the stools is in most instances the only satis-
factory proof of their presence. The parasites found in the bowel
belong principally to two natural groups, Protozoa and Metazoa.
The great class of the Protozoa furnish amoebae, members of
Sporozoa and Infusoria. The amoebae are almost invariably
found in the large intestine; one species, indeed, is termed Amoeba
coli. The frequently observed relation between attacks of
dysentery and the presence of amoebae in the stools has led to the
proposition that an Amoeba dysenlerica exists, causing the disease
a theory supported by the detection of amoebae in the contents
of dysenteric abscesses of the liver. No symptoms of injury to
health appear to accompany the presence of Sporozoa in the
bowel, while the species of Infusoria found in it, the Cercomonas,
and Trichomonas inleslinalis, and the Balantidium coli, may or
may not be guilty of prolonging conditions within the bowel
as have previously set up diarrhoea.
The Metazoa supply examples of intestinal parasites from the
classes Annuloida and Nematoidea. To the former class belong
the various tapeworms found in the small intestine of man.
They, like other intestinal parasites, are destitute of any power
of active digestion, simply absorbing the nutritious proceeds of
the digestive processes of their hosts. Nematode worms infest
both the small and large intestine; Ascaris lumbricoides, the
common round worm, and the male Oxyuris vermicularis are
found in the small bowel, the adult female Oxyuris vermicitlaris
and the Tricocephalus dispar in the large.
The eggs of the Trichina spiralis, when introduced with the
food, develop in the bowel into larval forms which invade the
tissues of the body, to find in the muscles congenial spots wherein
to reach maturity. Similarly, the eggs of the Echinococcus
arc hatched in the bowel, and the embryos proceed to take
up their abode in the tissues of the body, developing into cysts
capable of growth into mature worms after their ingestion by
dogs.
266
DIGESTIVE ORGANS
Numbers of bacterial forms habitually infest the alimentary
canal. Many of them are non-pathogenic; some develop patho-
genic characters only under provocation or when a
suitable environment induces them to act in such a
manner; others may form the materies morbiot special
lesions, or be casual visitors capable of originating disease if
opportunity occurs. Apart from those organisms associated with
acute infective diseases, disturbances of function and physical
TABLE I.
Males.
Females.
Both Sexes.
Organ or Tissue in
Order of Frequency.
Per-
centage.
Organ or Tissue in
Order of Frequency.
Per-
centage.
Organ or Tissue in
Order of Frequency.
Per-
centage.
I Stomach
22-56
I Stomach
22-37
I Stomach
22-49
2 Lip ....
12-94
2 Rectum .
17-24
2 Rectum
13-12
3 Rectum .
n-57
3 Liver . . .
15-50
3 Liver
IO-O2
4 Tongue .
11-36
4 Peritoneum
7-86
4 Lip . . . .
9-89
5 Oesophagus
10-90
5 Oesophagus
5-33
5 Oesophagus
9-29
6 Liver
7-80
6 Sigmoid
4-53
6 Tongue .
8-96
7 Jaw ....
6-38
7 Pancreas
3-52
7 Jaw ....
5-65
8 Mouth . .
2-88
8 Tongue .
3-12
8 Peritoneum
2-94
9 Tonsils .
2-09
9 Omentum .
2-98
9 Sigmoid
2-56
10 Sigmoid flexure
1-77
10 Lip ....
2-57
10 Mouth .
2-40
II Parotid . . 1
II Jaw ....
1-97
1 1 Pancreas
i -80
12 Pancreas . . )
I- IO
12 Colon . . . )
T Q .
12 Tonsils .
1-35
13 Caecum . . (
13 Abdomen . . )
I-O4
13 Omentum .
1-25
14 Peritoneum. . \
0-94
14 Intestine
1-56
14 Parotid . . )
15 Colon .
0-89
15 Caecum
'37
15 Colon . . . )
I 12
16 Pharynx . . "1
16 Mouth . . . )
T T Q
16 Caecum
I -08
17 Intestine (site
unknown) . . J
0-79
17 Parotid . . \
1 8 Splenic flexure
I -10
0-98
17 Intestine . . )
1 8 Abdomen . . \
l-OO
1 8 Abdomen .
0-71
19 Jejunum and
19 Pharynx
O-62
19 Mesentery .. . )
20 Omentum . . $
o-55
ileum .
20 Tonsils .
0-78
0-68
20 Mesentery .
21 Jejunum and "|
0-52
21 Hepatic flexure
o-39
21 Pharynx . . "1
ileum ... 1
22 Submaxillary . "|
22 Hepatic flexure
0-40
22 Hepatic flexure
0-44
gland ... 1
23 Mesentery . . J
23 Splenic flexure J
23 Jejunum and
ileum . . . j
0-31
24 Submaxillary . /
25 Duodenum . . )
O-2O
24 Submaxillary .
25 Duodenum
0-28
O-22
24 Duodenum .
0-23
25 Splenic flexure
0-15
Note. The figures where several organs are bracketed apply to each organ separately
lesions may be the result of abnormal bacterial activity in the
canal; and these disturbances may be both local and general.
Many of the bacteria commonly present produce putrefactive
changes in the contents of the tract by their metabolic processes.
They render the medium they grow in alkaline, produce different
gases and elaborate more or less virulent toxins. Other species
set up an acid fermentation, seldom accompanied by gas or toxin
formation. The products of either class are inimical to the free
TABLE II.
Bacillus lactis may be found where the child is bottle fed.
If there is trouble with the first dentition and food is allowed
to collect, staphylococci, streptococci, pneumococci and colon
bacilli may be present. Even in healthy babies Oidiwm albicans
may be present, and in older children the pseudo-diphtheria
bacillus. From carious teeth may be isolated streptothrix,
leptothrix, spirilla and fusiform bacilli. Under conditions of
health these micro-organisms live in the mouth as saprophytes,
and show no virulence when culti-
vated and injected into animals.
The two common pyogenetic organ-
isms, Staphylococcus albus and
brevis, show no virulence. Also
the pneumococcus, though often
present, must be raised in virulence
before it can produce untoward
results. The foulness of the mouth
is supposed to be due to the colon
bacillus and its allies, but those
obtained from the mouth are in-
nocuous. Also to enable the Oidium
albicans to attack the mucous mem-
brane there must be some slight
inflammation or injury. The micro-
organisms found in the stomach
gain access to that organ in the
food or by regurgitation from the
small intestine. Most are relatively
inert, but some have a special fer-
mentative action on the food (see
NUTRITION). Abelous isolated six-
teen distinct species of organism
from a healthy stomach, including
Sarcinae, B. lactis, pyocyaneus,
subtilis, lactis erythrogenes, amy-
lobacter, megatherium, and Vibrio
rugula.
Hare-lip, cleft palate, hernia
and imperforate anus are physical
Males.
Per-
centage.
Females.
Per-
centage.
Total.
Per-
centage.
iMouth and
pharynx
2 Oesophagus and
stomach
3 Intestines
4 Liver
5 Peritoneum
6 Pancreas
37-85
33-46
17-04
7-8
2-75
i-i
I Intestines
2 Oesophagus and
stomach
3 Liver . .
4 Peritoneum .
5 M ou t h and
pharynx
6 Pancreas
28-9
27-7
15-5
I3-I
"3
3-5
i Oesophagus and
stomach
2 Mouth and
pharynx
3 Intestines
4 Liver
5 Peritoneum .
6 Pancreas
3I-78
30-27
20-42
IO-O2
5-71
I -80
growth of members of the other. The specieswhichproduceacids
aremoreresistant to the action of acids. Thus, when the contents
of the stomach possess a normal or excessive proportion of free
hydrochloric acid, a much larger number of putrefactive and
pathogenic organisms in the food are destroyed or inhibited than
of the bacteria of acid fermentation. Diminished gastric acidity
allows of the entry of a greater number of putrefactive (and
pathogenic) types, with, as a consequence, increased facilities
for their growth and activity, and the appearance of intestinal
derangements.
In a healthy new-born infant the mouth is free from micro-
organisms, and very few are found in a breast-fed baby, but
abnormalities which are interesting to the surgeon rather than to
the pathologist. The oesophagus may be the seat of a diverti-
culum, or blind pouch, usually situated in its lower half, which in
most instances is probably partly acquired and partly
congenital; a local weakness succumbing to pressure.
Hypertrophy of the muscular coat of the pyloric region
is an infrequent congenital gastric anomaly in infants,
preventing the passage of food into the bowel, and causing death
in a short time. Incomplete closure
of the vitelline duct results in
the presence of a diverticulum
Meckel's generally connected with
the ileum, mainly important by
reason of the readiness with which
it occasions intestinal obstruction.
Idiopathic congenital dilatation of
the colon has been described.
Traction diverticula of the oeso-
phagus not uncommonly occur as
sequels to suppurative inflamma-
tion of cervical lymphatic glands.
More frequently dilatation of a section is met with, due as a
rule to the presence of a stricture. The stomach often diverges
from the normal in size, shape and position. Normally capable
in the adult of containing from fifty to sixty ounces, either by
reason of organic disease, or as the result of functional disturb-
ance, its capacity may vary enormously. The writer has seen
post mortem a stomach which held a gallon (160 ounces), and
again one holding only two ounces. Cancer spread over a large
area and cirrhosis of the stomach wall cause diminution in
capacity; pyloric obstruction, weakness of the muscular coat,
and nervous influences are associated with dilatation. A peculiar
distortion of the shape of the stomach follows cicatrization of
DIGESTIVE ORGANS
267
ulcers of greater or lesser curvature; the gastric cavity becomes
" hour-glass " in shape. In addition, the stomach may be dis-
placed downwards as a whole, a condition known as gastroptosis:
if the pyloric portion only be displaced, the lesion is termed
pyloroptosis. Ptoses of other abdominal organs are described;
the liver, transverse colon, spleen and kidneys may be involved.
Displacements downwards of the stomach and transverse colon,
along with a movable right kidney and associated with dyspepsia
and neurasthenia, form the malady termed by Glenard entero-
ptosis. A general visceroptosis often occurs in those patients
who have some tuberculous lesion of the lungs or elsewhere,
this disease causing a general weakening and subsequent
stretching of all ligaments. Displacements of the abdominal
viscera are almost invariably accompanied by symptoms of
dyspepsia of a neurotic type. The rectum is liable to prolapse,
consequent upon constipation and straining at stool, or following
local injuries of the perineal floor.
Every pathological lesion shown by digestive organs is closely
associated with the state of the nervous system, general or local;
Influence so stoppage of active gastric digestive processes after
of the profound nervous shock, and occurrence of nervous
nervous diarrhoea from the same cause. Gastric dyspepsia
system. o f nervous origin presents most varied and contra-
dictory symptoms: diminished acidity of the gastric juice,
hyper-acidity, over-production, arrest of secretion, lessened or
increased movements, greater sensitiveness to the presence of
contents, dilatation or spasm. Often the nervous cause can
be traced back farther, in females, frequently to the pelvic
organs; in both sexes, to the condition of the blood, the brain or
the bowel. Unhealthy conditions related to evacuation of the
bowel-contents commonly induce reflex nervous manifestations of
abnormal character referred to the stomach and liver. Gastric
disturbances similarly react upon the proper conduct of intestinal
functions.
Local Diseases.
The. Mouth. The lining membrane of the cheeks inside the
mouth, of the gums and the under-surface and edges of the
tongue, is often the seat of small irritable ulcers, usually associated
with some digestive derangement. A crop of minute vesicles
known as Koplik's spots over these parts has been lately stated
by Koplik to be an early symptom of measles. Xerostomia, or
dry mouth, is a rare condition, connected with lack of salivary
secretion. Gangrenous stomatitis, cancrum oris, or noma,
occasionally attacks debilitated children, or patients convalescing
from acute fevers, more especially after measles. It commences
in the gums or cheeks, and causes widespread sloughing of the
adjacent soft parts. it may be of the bones.
The Stomach. It were futile to attempt to enumerate all the
protean manifestations of disturbance which proceed from a dis-
ordered stomach. The possible permutations and combinations
of the causes of gastric vagaries almost reach infinity. Idio-
syncrasy, past and present gastric education, penury or plethora,
actual digestive power, motility, bodily requirements and condi-
tions, environment, mental influences, local or adjacent organic
lesions, and, not least, reflex impressions from other organs, all
contribute to the variance.
Ulcer of the stomach, however the perforating gastric ulcer
occupies a unique position among diseases of this organ.
Gastric ulcers are circumscribed, punched out, rarely larger than
a sixpenny-bit, funnel-shaped, the narrower end towards the
peritoneal coat, and distributed in those regions of the stomach
wall which are most exposed to the action of the gastric contents.
They occur most frequently in females, especially if anaemic, and
are usually accompanied by excess of acid, actual or relative
to the state of the blood, in the stomach contents. Local pain,
dorsal pain, generally to the left of the eighth or ninth dorsal
spinous process, and haematemesis and melaena, are symptom-
atic of it. The amount of blood lost varies with the rapidity of
ulcer formation and the size of vessel opened into. Fatal results
arise from ulceration into large blood-vessels, followed by copious
haemorrhage, or by perforation of the ulcer into the peritoneal
cavity.' Scars of such ulcers may be found post mortem, although
no symptoms of gastric disease have been exhibited during life;
gastric ulcers, therefore, may be latent.
Irritation of the sensory nerve-endings in the stomach wall
from the presence of an increased proportion of acid, organic or
mineral, in the stomach contents is accountable for the well-
known symptom heartburn. Water-brash is a term applied to
eructation of a colourless, almost tasteless fluid, probably saliva,
which has collected in the lower part of the oesophagus from
failure of the cardiac sphincter of the stomach to relax; reversed
oesophageal peristalsis causing regurgitation. A similar reversed
action serves in merycism, or rumination, occasionally found in
man, to raise part of the food, lately ingested, from the stomach to
the mouth. Vomiting also is aided by reversed peristaltic action,
both of the stomach and the oesophagus, with the help of the
diaphragm and the muscles of the anterior abdominal wall.
Emesis may be caused both by local nervous influence, and
through the central nervous mechanism either reflexly or from
the direct action of substances circulating in the blood. Further,
the causal agent acting on the central nervous apparatus may be
organic or functional, as well as medicinal. Vomiting without
any apparent cause suggests nervous lesions, organic or reflex.
The obstinate vomiting of pregnancy is a case in point. Here the
primary cause proceeds reflexly from the pelvis. In females the
pelvic organs are often the true source of emesis. Haematemesis
accompanies gastric ulcer, cancer, chronic congestion with
haemorrhagic erosion, congestion of the liver, or may follow
violent acts of vomiting. In cases of ulcer the blood is usually
bright and in considerable amount; in cancer, darker, like coffee-
grounds; and in cases of erosion, in smaller quantity and of bright
colour. The reaction of the stomach contents, if the cause be
doubtful, yields valuable aid towards a diagnosis. Of increased
acidity in gastric ulcer, normal in hepatic congestion, it is
diminished in cancer; but as the acid present in cancer is largely
lactic, analysis of the gastric contents must often be a sine qua
non, because hyperacidity from lactic may obscure hypoacidity of
hydrochloric acid.
Flatulence usually results from fermentative processes in
the stomach and bowel, as the outcome of bacterial activity. A
different form of flatulence is common in neurotic individuals;
in such the gas evolved consists simply in carbonic acid liberated
from the blood, and its evolution is generally characterized by
rapid development and by lack of all fermentative signs.
The Liver. The liver is an organ frequently libelled for the
delinquencies of other organs, and regarded as a common source of
ill. In catarrhal jaundice it is in most cases the bowel that is at
fault, the liver acting properly, but unable to get rid of all the bile
produced. The liver suffers, however, from several diseases of its
own. Its fibrous or connective tissue is very apt to increase
at the expense of the cellular elements, destroying their functions.
This cirrhotic process usually follows long-continued irritation,
such as is produced by too much alcohol absorbed from the bowel
habitually, the organ gradually becoming harder in texture and
smaller in bulk. Hypertrophic cirrhosis of the liver is not un-
commonly met with, in which the liver is much increased in size,
the " unilobular " form, also of alcoholic origin. In still-born
children and in some infants a form of hypertrophic cirrhosis is
occasionally seen, probably of hereditary syphilitic origin. Acute
congestion of the liver forms an important symptom of malarial
fever, and often leads in time to establishment of cirrhotic changes;
here the liver is generally enlarged, but not invariably so, and the
part played by alcohol in its causation has still to be investigated.
Acute yellow atrophy of the liver is a disease sui generis. Of rare
occurrence, possibly of toxic origin, it is marked by jaundice, at
first of usual type, later becoming most intense; by vomiting;
haemorrhages widely distributed ; rapid diminution in the size of
the liver; the appearance of leucin and tyrosin in the urine, with
lessened urea; and in two or three days, death. The liver after
death is soft, of a reddish colour dotted with yellow patches, and
weighs only about a third part of the normal about i^ Ib in
place of 3! Ib. A closely analogous affection of the liver, known
as Weil's disease, is of infectious type, and has been noted in
268
DIGGES DIGITALIS
epidemic form. In this the spleen and liver are commonly but
not always swollen, and the liver is often tender on pressure. As
a large proportion of the sufferers from this disease have been
butchers, and the epidemics have occurred in the hot season of
the year, it probably arises from contact with decomposing
animal matter. Hepatic abscess may follow on an attack of
amoebic dysentery, and is produced either by infection through
the portal vein, or by direct infection from the adjacent colon.
In general pyaemia multiple small abscesses may occur in the
liver.
The Gall- Bladder. The formation of biliary calculi in the gall-
bladder is the chief point of interest here. At least 75% of such
cases occur in women, especially in those who have borne children.
Tight-lacing has been stated to act as an exciting cause, owing to
the consequent retardation of the flow of bile. Gall-stones may
number from one to many thousands. They are largely com-
posed of cholesterin, combined with small amounts of bile-
pigments and acids, lime and magnesium salts. Their presence
may give rise to no symptoms, or may cause violent biliary colic,
and, if the bile-stream be obstructed, to jaundice. Inflammatory
processes may be initiated in the gall-bladder or the bile-ducts,
catarrhal or suppurative in character.
The Pancreas. Haemorrhages into the body of the pancreas,
acute and chronic inflammation, calculi, cysts and tumours,
among which cancer is by far the most common, are recognized as
occurring in this organ; the point of greatest interest regarding
them lies in the relations established between pancreatic disease
and diabetes mellitus, affections of the gland frequently being
complicated by, and probably causing, the appearance of sugar in
the urine.
The Small Intestine. Little remains to be added to the account
of inflammatory lesions in connexion with the small intestine. It
offers but few conditions peculiar to itself, save in typhoid fever,
and the ease with which it contrives to become kinked, or intus-
suscepted, producing obstruction, or to take part in hernial
protrusions. The first section, the duodenum, is subject to
development of ulcers very similar to those of the gastric mucous
membrane. For long duodenal ulceration has been regarded as a
complication of extensive burns of the skin, but the relationship
between them has not yet been quite satisfactorily explained.
The condition of colic in the bowel usually arises from over-
distension of some part of the small gut with gas, the frequent
sharp turns of the gut facilitating temporary closure of its lumen
by pressure of the dilated gut near a curve against the part
beyond. In the large bowel accumulations of gas seldom cause
such acute symptoms, having a readier exit.
The Large Intestine. The colon, especially the ascending
portion, may become immensely dilated, usually after prolonged
constipation and paralysis of the gut; occasionally the condition
is congenital. Straining efforts made in defaecation may often
account for prolapse of the lower end of the rectum through the
anus. Haemorrhage from the bowel is usually a sign of disease
situated in the large intestine: if bright in colour, the source is
probably low down; if dark, from the caecum or from above the
ileo-caecal valve. Blood after a short stay in any section of the
alimentary canal darkens, and eventually becomes almost black
in colour. (A. L. G.; M. F.*)
DIGGES, WEST (1720-1786), English actor, made his first stage
appearance in Dublin in 1749 as Jaffier in Venice Preserved; and
both there and in Edinburgh until 1764 he acted in many tragic
r61es with success. He was the original " young Norval " in
Home's Douglas (1756). His first London appearance was as
Cato in the Haymarket in 1777, and he afterwards played Lear,
Macbeth, Shylock and Wolsey. In 1881 he returned to Dublin
and retired in 1784.
DIGIT (Lat. digitus, finger) , literally a finger or toe, and so used
to mean, from counting on the fingers, a single numeral, or, from
measuring, a finger's breadth. In astronomy a digit is the twelfth
part of the diameter of the sun or moon; it is used to express the
magnitude of an eclipse.
DIGITALIS. The leaves of the foxglove (q.v.), gathered from
wild plants when about two-thirds of their flowers are expanded,
deprived usually of the petiole and the thicker part of the midrib,
and dried, constitute the drug digitalis or digitalis folia of the
Pharmacopoeia. The prepared leaves have a faint odour and
bitter taste; and to preserve their properties they must be kept
excluded from light in stoppered bottles. They are occasionally
adulterated with the leaves of Inula Conyza, ploughman's
spikenard, which may be distinguished by their greater rough-
ness, their less divided margins, and their odour when rubbed;
also with the leaves of Symphytum officinale, comfrey, and of
Verbascum Thapsus, great mullein, which unlike those of the
foxglove have woolly upper and under surfaces. The earliest
known descriptions of the foxglove are those given by Leonhard
Fuchs and Tragus about the middle of the i6th century, but its
virtues were doubtless known to herbalists at a much remoter
period. J. Gerarde, in his Herbal (1597), advocates the use of
foxglove for a variety of complaints; and John Parkinson, in the
Tlieatrum Botanicum, or Theater of Plants (1640), and later W.
Salmon, in The New London Dispensatory, similarly praised the
remedy. Digitalis was first brought prominently under the
notice of the medical profession by Dr W. Withering, who, in his
Account of the Foxglove (1785), gave details of upwards of 200
cases chiefly dropsical, in which it was used.
Digitalis contains four important glucosides, of which three are
cardiac stimulants. The most powerful is digitoxin C^H^On,
an extremely poisonous and cumulative drug, insoluble in water.
Digilalin, CssHjeOu, is crystalline and is also insoluble in water.
Digitalcin is amorphous but readily soluble in water. It can
therefore be administered subcutaneously, in doses of about one-
hundredth of a grain. Digitonin, on the other hand, is a cardiac
depressant, and has been found to be identical with saponin,
the chief constituent of senega root. There are numerous pre-
parations, patent and pharmacopeial, their composition being
extremely varied, so that, unless one has reason to be certain of
any particular preparation, it is almost better to use only the
dried leaves themselves in the form of a powder (dose 5-2 grains).
The pharmacopeial tincture may be given in doses of five to
fifteen minims, and the infusion has the unusually small dose of
two to four drachms the dose of other infusions being an ounce
or more. The tincture contains a fair proportion of both digitalin
and digitoxin.
Digitalis leaves have no definite external action. Taken by the
mouth, the drug is apt to cause considerable digestive disturbance,
varying in different cases and sometimes so severe as to cause
serious difficulty. This action is probably due to the digitonin,
which is thus a constituent in every way undesirable. The all-
important property of the drug is its action on the circulation.
Its first action on any of the body-tissues is upon unstriped
muscle, so that the first consequence of its absorption is a con-
traction of the arteries and arterioles. No other known drug has
an equally marked action in contracting the arterioles. As the
vaso-motor centre in the medulla oblongata is also stimulated, as
well as the contractions of the heart, there is thus trebly caused a
very great rise in the blood-pressure.
The clinical influence of digitalis upon the heart is very well
defined. After the taking of a moderate dose the pulse is
markedly slowed. This is due to a very definite influence upon
the different portions of the cardiac cycle. The systole is not
altered in length, but the diastole is very much prolonged, and
since this is the period not only of cardiac rest but also of cardiac
" feeding " the coronary vessels being compressed and occluded
during systole the result is greatly to benefit the nutrition of the
cardiac muscle. So definite is this that, despite a great increase
in the force of the contractions and despite experimental proof
that the heart does more work in a given time under the influence
of digitalis, the organ subsequently displays all the signs of having
rested, its improved vigour being really due to its obtaining a
larger supply of the nutrient blood. Almost equally striking is
the fact that digitalis causes an irregular pulse to become regular.
Added to the greater force of cardiac contraction is a permanent
tonic contraction of the organ, so that its internal capacity is
reduced. The bearing of this fact on cases of cardiac dilatation
is evident. In larger doses a remarkable sequel to these actions
DIGNE DIJON
269
may be observed. The cardiac contractions become irregular, the
ventricle assumes curious shapes " hour-glass," &c. becomes
very pale and bloodless, and finally the heart stops in a state of
spasm, which shortly afterwards becomes rigor-mortis. Before
this final change the heart may be started again by the applica-
tion of a soluble potassium salt, or by raising the fluid pressure
within it. Clinically it is to be observed that the drug is cumu-
lative, being very slowly excreted, and that after it has been taken
for some time the pulse may become irregular, the blood-pressure
low, and the cardiac pulsations rapid and feeble. These
symptoms with more or less gastro-intestinal irritation and
decrease in the quantity of urine passed indicate digitalis poison-
ing. The initial action of digitalis is a stimulation of the cardiac
terminals of the vagus nerves, so that the heart's action is slowed.
Thereafter follows the most important effect of the drug, which is
a direct stimulation of the cardiac muscle. This can be proved to
occur in a heart so embryonic that no nerves can be recognized in
it, and in portions of cardiac muscle that contain neither nerve-
cells nor nerve-fibres.
The action of this drug on the kidney is of importance only
second to its action on the circulation. In small or moderate
doses it is a powerful diuretic. Though Heidenhain asserts that
rise in the renal blood-pressure has not a diuretic action per se,
it seems probable that this influence of the drug is due to a rise
in the general blood-pressure associated with a relatively dilated
condition of the renal vessels. In large doses, on the other hand,
the renal vessels also are constricted and the amount of urine falls.
It is probable that digitalis increases the amount of water rather
than that of the urinary solids. In large doses the action of
digitalis on the circulation causes various cerebral symptoms,
such as seeing all objects blue, and various other disturbances of
the special senses. There appears also to be a specific action of
lowering the reflex excitability of the spinal cord.
Digitalis is used in therapeutics exclusively for its action on the
circulation. In prescribing this drug it must be remembered that
fully three days elapse before it gets into the system, and thus it
must always be combined with other remedies to tide the patient
over this period. It must never be prescribed in large doses to
begin with, as some patients are quite unable to take it,intractable
vomiting being caused. The three days that must pass before
any clinical effect is obtained renders it useless in an emergency.
A certain consequence of its use is to cause or increase cardiac
hypertrophy a condition which has its own dangers and
ultimately disastrous consequences, and must never be provoked
beyond the positive needs of the case. But digitalis is indicated
whenever the heart shows itself unequal to the work it has to
perform. This formula includes the vast majority of cardiac
cases. The drug is contra-indicated in all cases where the heart is
already beating too slowly; in aortic incompetence where the
prolongation of diastole increases the amount of the blood that
regurgitates through the incompetent valve; in chronic Bright's
disease and in fatty degeneration of the heart since nothing can
cause fat to become contractile.
DIGNE, the chief town of the department of the Basses Alpes,
in S.E. France, 14 m. by a branch line from the main railway
line between Grenoble and Avignon. Pop. (1906), town, 4628;
commune, 7456. The Ville Haute is built on a mountain spur
running down to the left bank of the Bleone river, and is composed
of a labyrinth of narrow winding streets, above which towers the
present cathedral church, dating from the end of the isth century,
but largely reconstructed in modern times, and the former
bishop's palace (now the prison). The fine Boulevard Gassendi
separates the Ville Haute from the Ville Basse, which is of modern
date. The old cathedral (Notre Dame du Bourg) is a building of
the I3th century, but is now disused except for funerals: it
stands at the east end of the Ville Basse. The neighbourhood of
Digne is rich in orchards, which have long made the town famous
in France for its preserved fruits and confections. It is the Dinia
of the Romans, and was the capital of the Bodiontii. From the
early 6th century at least it has been an episcopal see, which till
1700 was in the ecclesiastical province of Embrun, but since 1802
in that of Aix en Provence. The history of Digne in the middle
ages is bound up with that of its bishops, under whom it prospered
greatly. But it suffered much during the religious wars of the
i6th and I7th centuries, when it was sacked several times. A
little way off, above the right bank of the Bleone, is Charnptercier,
the birthplace of the astronomer Gassendi (1592-1655), whose
name has been given to the principal thoroughfare of the little
town.
See F. Guichard, Souvenirs historiques sur la ville de Digne el ses
environs (Digne, 1847). (W. A. B. C.)
DIGOIN, a town of cast-central France, in the department of
Saone-et-Loirc, on the right bank of the Loire, 55 m. W.N.W.
of Macon on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 5321. It is
situated at the meeting places of the Loire, the Lateral canal of the
Loire and the Canal du Centre, which here crosses the Loire by a
fine aqueduct. The town carries on considerable manufactures of
faience, pottery and porcelain. The port on the Canal du Centre
has considerable traffic in timber, sand, iron, coal and stone.
DIJON, a town of eastern France, capital of the department of
Cote d'Or and formerly capital of the province of Burgundy,
195 m. S.E. of Paris on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906)
65,516. It is situated on the western border of the fertile plain of
Burgundy, at the foot of Mont Afrique, the north-eastern summit
of the Cote d'Or range, and at the confluence of the Ouche and the
Suzon; it also has a port on the canal of Burgundy. The great
strategic importance of Dijon as a centre of railways and roads,
and its position with reference to an invasion of France from the
Rhine, have led to the creation of a fortress forming part of the
Langres group. There is no enceinte, but on the east side detached
forts, 3 to 4 m. distant from the centre, command all the great
roads, while the hilly ground to the west is protected by Fort
Hauteville to the N.W. and the "groups" of Motte Giron and
Mont Afrique to the S.W., these latter being very formidable
works. Including a fort near Saussy (about 8 m. to the N.W.)
protecting the water-supply of Dijon, there are eight forts,
besides the groups above mentioned. The fortifications which
partly surrounded the eld and central portion of the city have
disappeared to make way for tree-lined boulevards with fine
squares at intervals. The old churches and historic buildings of
Dijon are to be found in the irregular streets of the old town, but
industrial and commercial" activity has been transferred to the
new quarters beyond its limits. A fine park more than 80 acres
in extent lies to the south of the city, which is rich in open spaces
and promenades, the latter including the botanical garden and
the Promenade de 1'Arquebuse, in which there is a black poplar
famous for its size and age.
The cathedral of St Benigne, originally an abbey church,
was built in the latter half of the i3th century on the site of a
Romanesque basilica, of which the crypt remains. The west
front is flanked by two towers and the crossing is surmounted by
a slender timber spire. The plan consists of three naves, short
transepts and a small choir, without ambulatory, terminating in
three apses. In the interior there is a fine organ and a quantity of
statuary, and the vaults contain the remains of Philip the Bold,
duke of Burgundy, and Anne of Burgundy, daughter of John
the Fearless. The site of the abbey buildings is occupied by
the bishop's palace and an ecclesiastical seminary. The church
of Notre-Dame, typical of the Gothic style of Burgundy, was
erected from 1252 to 1334, and is distinguished for the grace of
its interior and the beauty of the western facade. The portal
consists of three arched openings, above which are two stages of
arcades, open to the light and supported on slender columns.
A row of gargoyles surmounts each storey of the facade, which is
also ornamented by sculptured friezes. A turret to the right of
the portal carries a clock called the Jaquemart, on which the hours
are struck by two figures. The church of St Michel belongs to the
1 5th century. The west facade, the most remarkable feature of
the church, is, however, of the Renaissance period. The vaulting
of the three portals is of exceptional depth owing to the projection
of the lower storey of the facade. Above this storey rise two
towers of five stages, the fifth stage being formed by an octagonal
cupola. The columns decorating the facade represent all the four
orders. The design of this facade is wrongly attributed to Hugues
270
DIKE DILAPIDATION
Sarnbin (fl. c. 1540), a native of Dijon, and pupil of Leonardo da
Vinci, but the sculpture of the portals, including " The Last
Judgment " on the tympanum of the main portal, is probably
from his hand. St Jean (isth century) and St Etienne (isth,
i6thand 1 7th centuries), now used as the exchange, are the other
chief churches. Of the ancient palace of the dukes of Burgundy
there remain two towers, the Tour de la Terrasse and the Tour
de Bar, the guard-room and the kitchens; these now form part
of the hotel de ville, the rest of which belongs to the i;th and
1 8th centuries. This building contains an archaeological museum
with a collection of Roman stone monuments; the archives of
the town; and the principal museum, which, besides valuable
paintings and other works of art, contains the magnificent tombs
of Philip the Bold and John the Fearless, dukes of Burgundy.
These were transferred from the Chartreuse of Dijon (or of
Champmol), built by Philip the Bold as a mausoleum, now re-
placed by a lunatic asylum. Relics of it survive in the old Gothic
entrance, the portal of the church, a tower and the well of Moses,
which is adorned with statues of Moses and the prophets by
Claux Sluter (fl. end of I4th century), the Dutch sculptor, who
also designed the tomb of Philip the Bold. The Palais de
Justice, which belongs to the reign of Louis XII., is of interest as
the former seat of the parlement of Burgundy. Dijon possesses
several houses of the isth, i6th and i7th centuries, notably the
Maison Richard in the Gothic, and the Hotel Vogue in the
Renaissance style. St Bernard, the composer J. P. Rameau and
the sculptor Francois Rude have statues in the town, of which
they were natives. There are also monuments to those in-
habitants of Dijon who fell in the engagement before the town
in 1870, and to President Carnot and Garibaldi.
The town is important as the seat of a prefecture, a bishopric, a
court of appeal and a court of assizes, and as centre of an academic
(educational district) . There are tribunals of first instance and of
commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce,
an exchange (occupying the former cathedral of St Etienne), and
an important branch of the Bank of France. Its educational
establishments include faculties of law, of science and of letters, a
preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy, a higher school of
commerce, a school of fine art, a conservatoire of music, lycees and
training colleges, and there is a public library with about 100,000
volumes.
Dijon is well known for its mustard, and for the black currant
liqueur called cassis de Dijon; its industries include the manu-
facture of machinery, automobiles, bicycles, soap, biscuits,
brandy, leather, boots and shoes, candles and hosiery. There
are also flour mills, breweries, important printing works, vinegar
works and, in the vicinity, nursery gardens. The state has a
large tobacco manufactory in the town. Dijon has considerable
trade in cereals and wool, and is the second market for the wines
of Burgundy.
Under the Romans Dijon (Divonense caslrum) was a vicus in
the civitas of Langres. In the 2nd century it was the scene of
the martyrdom of St Benignus (Benigne, vulg. Berin, Berain),
the apostle of Burgundy. About 274 the emperor Aurelian
surrounded it with ramparts. Gregory of Tours, in the 6th
century, comments on the strength and pleasant situation
of the place, expressing surprise that it does not rank as
a civitas. During the middle ages the fortunes of Dijon
followed those of Burgundy, the dukes of which acquired it
early in the nth century. The communal privileges, conferred
on the town in 1182 by Hugh III., duke of Burgundy, were
confirmed by Philip Augustus in 1183, and in the i3th century
the dukes took up their residence there. For the decoration of the
palace and other monuments built by them, eminent artists were
gathered from northern France and Flanders, and during this
period the town became one of the great intellectual centres of
France. The union of the duchy with the crown in 1477 deprived
Dijon of the splendour of the ducal court ; but to cbunterbalance
this loss it was made the capital of the province and seat of a
parlement. Its fidelity to the monarchy was tested in -1513,
when the citizens were besieged by 50,000 Swiss and Germans,
and forced to agree to a treaty so disadvantageous that Louis XII.
refused to ratify it. In the wars of religion Dijon sided with the
League, and only opened its gates to Henry IV. in 1595. The
i8th century was a brilliant period for the city; it became the
seat of a bishopric, its streets were improved, its commerce
developed, and an academy of science and letters founded;
while its literary salons were hardly less celebrated than those of
Paris. The neighbourhood was the scene of considerable fighting
during the Franco-German War, which was, however, indirectly
of some advantage to the city owing to the impetus given to its
industries by the immigrants from Alsace.
See H. Chabeuf, Dijon a trailers les ages (Dijon, 1897), and Dijon,
monuments et souvenirs (Dijon, 1894).
DIKE, or DYKE (Old Eng. die, a word which appears in various
forms in many Teutonic languages, cf . Dutch dijk, German Teich,
Danish dige, and in French, derived from Teutonic, digue; it is
the same word as " ditch " and is ultimately connected with the
root of " dig "), properly a trench dug out of the earth for de-
fensive and other purposes. Water naturally collects in such
trenches, and hence the word is applied to natural and artificial
channels filled with water, as appears in the proverbial expression
" February fill-dyke," and in the names of many narrow water-
ways in East Anglia. " Dike " also is naturally used of the bank
of earth thrown up out of the ditch, and so of any embankment,
dam or causeway, particularly the defensive works in Holland,
the Fen district of England, and other low-lying districts which
are liable to flooding by the sea or rivers (see HOLLAND and FENS).
In Scotland any wall, fence or even hedge, used as a boundary is
called a dyke. In geology the term is applied to wall-like masses
or rock (sometimes projecting beyond the surrounding surface)
which fill up vertical or highly inclined fissures in the strata.
DIKKA, a term in Mahommedan architecture for the tribune
raised upon columns, from which the Koran is recited and the
prayers intoned by the Imam of the mosque.
DILAPIDATION (Lat. for " scattering the stones," lapides, of a
building) , a term meaning in general a falling into decay, but more
particularly used in the plural in English law for (i) the waste
committed by the incumbent of an ecclesiastical living; (2) the
disrepair for which a tenant is usually liable when he has agreed
to give up his premises in good repair (see EASEMENT; FLAT;
LANDLORD AND TENANT). By the general law a tenant for
life has no power to cut down timber, destroy buildings, &c.
(voluntary waste), or to let buildings fall into disrepair (per-
missive waste). In the eye of the law an incumbent of a living is
a tenant for life of his benefice, and any waste, voluntary or per-
missive, on his part must be made good by his administrators to
his successor in office. The principles on which such dilapidations
are to be ascertained, and the application of the money payable in
respect thereof, depend partly on old ecclesiastical law and partly
on acts of parliament. Questions as to ecclesiastical dilapidations
usually arise in respect of the residence house and other buildings
belonging to the living. Inclosures, hedges, ditches and the like
are included in things " of which the beneficed person hath the
burden and charge of reparation." In a leading case (Ross v.
Adcock, 1868, L.R. 3 C.P. 657) it was said that the court was
acquainted with no precedent or decision extending the liability
of the executors of a deceased incumbent to any species of waste
beyond dilapidation of the house, chancel or other buildings or
fences of the benefice. And it has been held that the mere mis-
management or miscultivation of the ecclesiastical lands will not
give rise to an action for dilapidations. To place the law relating
to dilapidations on a more satisfactory footing, the Ecclesiastical
Dilapidations Act 1871 was passed. The buildings to which the
act applies are defined to be such houses of residence, chancels,
walls, fences and other buildings and things as the incumbent of
the benefice is by law and custom bound to maintain in repair.
In each diocese a surveyor is appointed by the archdeacons and
rural deans subject to the approval of the bishop; and such
surveyor shall by the direction of the bishop examine the build-
ings on the following occasions viz. (i) when the benefice is
sequestrated; (2) when it is vacant; (3) at the request of the
incumbent or on complaint by the archdeacon, rural dean or
patron. The surveyor specifies the works required, and gives an
DILATATION DILKE
271
estimate of their probable cost. In the case of a vacant benefice,
the new incumbent and the old incumbent or his representatives
may lodge objections to the surveyor's report on any grounds of
fact or law, and the bishop, after consideration, may make an
order for the repairs and their cost, for which the late incumbent
or his representatives are liable. The sum so stated becomes a
debt due from the late incumbent or his representatives to the
new incumbent, who shall pay over the money when recovered
to the governors of Queen Anne's Bounty. The governors pay
for the works on execution on receipt of a certificate from the
surveyor; and the surveyor, when the works have been completed
to his satisfaction, gives a certificate to that effect, the effect of
which, so far as regards the incumbent, is to protect him from
liability for dilapidations for the next five years. Unnecessary
buildings belonging to a residence house may, by the authority
of the bishop and with the consent of the patron, be removed.
An amending statute of 1872 (Ecclesiastical Dilapidations Act
(1871) Amendment) relates chiefly to advances by the governors
of Queen Anne's Bounty for the purposes of the act.
DILATATION (from Lat. dis-, distributive, and latus, wide), a
widening or enlarging; a term used in physiology. &c.
DILATORY (from Lat. dilatus, from dijferre, to put off or
delay), delaying, or slow; in law a " dilatory plea " is one
made merely for delaying the suit.
DILEMMA (Gr. &X?;wua, a double proposition, from Si- and
\anpaveiv), a term used technically in Iqgic, and popularly
in common parlance and rhetoric, (i) The latter use has no
exact definition, but in general it describes a situation wherein
from either of two (or more) possible alternatives an unsatis-
factory conclusion results. The alternatives are called the
" horns " of the dilemma. Thus a nation which has to choose
between bankruptcy and the repudiation of its debts is on the
horns of a dilemma. (2) In logic there is considerable divergence
of opinion as to the best definition. Whatdy defined it as " a
conditional syllogism with two or more antecedents in the major
and a disjunctive minor." Aulus Gellius gives an example as
follows: " Women are either fair or ugly; if you marry a fair
woman, she will attract other men; if an ugly woman she will
not please you; therefore marriage is absurd." From either
alternative, an unpleasant result follows. Four kinds of dilemma
are admitted: (a) Simple Constructive: If A, then C; if B,
then C, but either B or A; therefore C. (b) Simple Destructive:
If A is true, B is true; if A is true, C is true; B and C are not both
true; therefore A is not true, (c) Complex Constructive: If A,
then B; if C, then D; but either A or C; therefore either B or D.
(d) Complex Destructive: If A is true, B is true; if C is true, D is
true; but B and D are not both true; hence A and C are not
both true. The soundness of the dilemmatic argument in general
depends on the alternative possibilities. Unless the alternatives
produced exhaust the possibilities of the case, the conclusion is
invalid. The logical form of the argument makes it especially
valuable in public speaking, before uncritical audiences. It is, in
fact, important rather as a rhetorcial subtlety than as a serious
argument.
Dilemmist is also a term used to translate Vaibhashikas, the
name of a Buddhist school of philosophy.
DILETTANTE, an Italian word for one who delights in the fine
arts, especially in music and painting, so a lover of the fine arts
in general. The Ital. dilettare is from Lat. delectare, to delight.
Properly the word refers to an " amateur " as opposed to a
" professional " cultivation of the arts, but like " amateur " it is
often used in a depreciatory sense for one who is only a dabbler,
or who only has a superficial knowledge or interest in art. The
Dilettanti Society founded in 1733-1734 still exists in England.
A history of the society, by Lionel Cust, was published in 1898.
DILIGENCE, in law, the care which a person is bound to
exercise in his relations with others. The possible degrees of
diligence are of course numerous, and the same degree is not
required in all cases. Thus a mere depositary would not be held
bound to the same degree of diligence as a person borrowing an
article for his own use and benefit. Jurists, following the divisions
of the civil law, have concurred in fixing three approximate
standards of diligence viz. ordinary (diligentia) , less than
ordinary (levissima diligentia) and more than ordinary
(exactissima diligentia). Ordinary or common diligence is defined
by Story (On Bailments) as " that degree of diligence which men
in general exert in respect of their own concerns." So Sir Wilb'am
Jones: " This care, which every person of common prudence
and capable of governing a family takes of his own concerns, is
a proper measure of that which would uniformly be required in
performing every contract, if there were not strong reasons for
exacting in some of them a greater and permitting in others a less
degree of attention" ( Essay on Bailments) . The highest degree of
diligence would be that which only very prudent persons bestow
on their own concerns; the lowest, that which even careless
persons bestow on their own concerns. The want of these various
degrees of diligence is negligence in corresponding degrees. These
approximations indicate roughly the greater or less severity with
which the law will judge the performance of different classes of
contracts; but English judges have been inclined to repudiate
the distinction as a useless refinement of the jurists. Thus Baron
Rolfe could see no difference between negligence and gross
negligence; it was the same thing with the addition of a vituper-
ative epithet. See NEGLIGENCE.
Diligence, in Scots law, is a general term for the process by
which persons, lands or effects are attached on execution, or in
security for debt.
DILKE, SIR CHARLES WENTWORTH, Bart. (1810-1869),
English politician, son of Charles Wentworth Dilke, proprietor
and editor of The Athenaeum, was born in London on the i8th
of February 1810, and was educated at Westminster school and
Trinity Hall, Cambridge. He studied law, and in 1834 took his
degree of LL.B., but did not practise. He assisted his father in
his literary work, and was for some years chairman of the council
of the Society of Arts, besides taking a prominent part in the
affairs of the Royal Horticultural Society and other bodies. He
was one of the most zealous promoters of the Great Exhibition
(1851), and a member of the executive committee. At the close
of the exhibition he was honoured by foreign sovereigns, and the
queen offered him knighthood, which, however, he did not accept;
he also declined a large remuneration offered by the royal com-
mission. In 1853 Dilke was one of the English commissioners at
the New York Industrial Exhibition, and prepared a report on it.
He again declined to receive any money reward for his services.
He was appointed one of the five royal commissioners for the
Great Exhibition of 1862; and soon after the death of the prince
consort he was created a baronet. In 1865 he entered parliament
as member for Wallingford. In 1869 he was sent to Russia as
representative of England at the horticultural exhibition held
at St Petersburg. His health, however, had been for some time
failing, and he died suddenly in that city, on the loth of May 1 869.
A selection from his writings, Papers of a Critic (2 vols., 1875),
contains a biographical sketch by his son.
His son, SIR CHARLES WENTWORTH DILKE, BART. (1843- ),
became a prominent Liberal politician, as M.P. for Chelsea
(1868-1886), under-secretary for foreign affairs (1880-1882), and
president of the local government board (1882-1885); and he
was then marked out as one of the best-informed and ablest of the
advanced Radicals. He was chairman of the royal commission
on the housing of the working classes in 1884-1885. But his
sensational appearance as co-respondent in a divorce case of a
peculiarly unpleasant character in 1885 cast a cloud over his
career. He was defeated in Chelsea in 1886, and did not return
to parliament till 1892, when he was elected for the Forest of
Dean; and though his knowledge of foreign affairs and his
powers as a critic and writer on military and naval questions were
admittedly of the highest order, his official position in public life
could not again be recovered. His military writings are The
British Army (1888); Army Reform (1898) and, with Mr Spenser
Wilkinson, Imperial Defence (1892). On colonial questions he
wrote with equal authority. His Greater Britain (2 vols., 1866-
1867) reached a fourth edition in 1868, and was followed by
Problems of Greater Britain (2 vols., 1890) and The British
Empire (1899). He was twice married, his second wife (nee
272
DILL DILLMANN
Dill (A nethum or Peucedanum graveolens) ,
leaf and inflorescence.
Emilia Frances Strong), the widow of Mark Pattison, being
an accomplished art critic and collector. She died in 1904. The
most important of her books were the studies on French Painters
of the Eighteenth Century (1899) and three subsequent volumes on
the architects and sculptors, furniture and decoration, engravers
and draughtsmen of the same period, the last of which appeared
in 1902. A posthumous volume, The Book of the Spiritual Life
(1905), contains a memoir of her by Sir Charles Dilke.
DILL (Anethum or Peucedanum graveolens), a member of the
natural botanical order Umbelliferae, indigenous to the south of
Europe, Egypt and the Cape of Good Hope. It resembles fennel
in appearance. Its root is long and fusiform; the stem is round,
jointed and about a yard high; the leaves have fragrant leaflets;
and the fruits are brown
oval and concavo-con-
vex. The piant flowers
from June till August in
England. The seeds are
sown, preferably as soon
as ripe, either broad-
cast or in drills between
6 and 12 in. asunder.
The young plants should
be thinned when 3 or 4
weeks old, so as to be
at distances of about
10 in. A sheltered spot
and dry soil are needed
for the production of the
seed in the climate of England. The leaves of the dill are used in
soups and sauces, and, as well as the umbels, for flavouring
pickles. The seeds are employed for the preparation of dill-water
and oil of dill; they are largely consumed in the manufacture of
gin, and, when ground, are eaten in the East as a condiment.
The British Pharmacopoeia contains the Aqua Anethi or dill-
water (dose 1-2 oz.), and the Oleum Anethi, almost identical in
composition with caraway oil, and given in doses of 5-3 minims.
Dill-water is largely used as a carminative for children, and as a
vehicle for the exhibition of nauseous drugs.
DILLEN [DILLENIUS], JOHANN JAKOB (1684-1747), English
botanist, was born at Darmstadt in 1684, and was educated at the
university of Giessen, where he wrote several botanical papers for
the Ephcmcrides naturae curiosorum, and printed, in 1719. his
Catalogus plantarum sponte circa Gissam nascentium, illustrated
with figures drawn and engraved by his own hand, and containing
descriptions of many new species. In 1 7 2 1 , at the instance of the
botanist William Sherard (1659-1728), he came to England, and
in 1724 he published a new edition of Ray's Synopsis stirpium
Britannicarum. In 1732 he published Hortus Ellhamensis, a
catalogue of the rare plants growing at Eltham, Kent, in the
collection of Sherard's younger brother, James (1666-1738), who,
after making a fortune as an apothecary, devoted himself to
gardening and music. For this work Dillen himself executed 324
plates, and it was described by Linnaeus, who spent a month
with him at Oxford in 1736, and afterwards dedicated his Critica
botanica to him, as " opus botanicum quo absolutius mundus non
vidit." In 1 734 he was appointed Sherardian prof essor of botany
at Oxford, in accordance with the will of W. Sherard, who at his
death in 1728 left the university 3000 for the endowment of the
chair, as well as his library and herbarium. Dillen, who was also
the author of an Historia muscorum (1741), died at Oxford, of
apoplexy, on the 2nd of April 1747. His manuscripts, books and
collections of dried plants, with many drawings, were bought by
his successor at Oxford, Dr Humphry Sibthorp (1713-1797), and
ultimately passed into the possession of the university.
For an account of his collections preserved at Oxford, see The
Dillenian Herbaria, by G. Claridge Druce (Oxford, 1907).
DILLENBUR6, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Hesse-Nassau, delightfully situated in the midst of a well-wooded
country, on the Dill, 25 m. N.W. from Giessen on the railway to
Troisdorf. Pop. 4500. On an eminence above it lie the ruins
of the castle of Dillenburg, founded by Count Henry the Rich
of Nassau, about the year 1255, and the birthplace of Prince
William of Orange (1533). It has an Evangelical church, with
the vault of the princes of Nassau-Dillenburg, a Roman Catholic
church, a classical school, a teachers' seminary and a chamber
of commerce. Its industries embrace iron-works, tanne.ies and
the manufacture of cigars. Owing to its beautiful surroundings
Dillenburg has become a favourite summer resort.
DILLENS, JULIEN (1840-1904), Belgian sculptor, was born at
Antwerp on the 8th of June 1849, son of a painter. He studied
under Eugene Simonis at the Brussels Academy of Fine Arts.
In 1877 he received the prix de Rome for " A Gaulish Chief taken
Prisoner by the Romans." At Brussels, in 1881, he executed
the groups entitled " Justice " and " Herkenbald, the Brussels
Brutus." For the pediment of the orphanage at Uccle, " Figure
Kneeling" (Brussels Gallery), and the statue of the lawyer
Metdepenningen in front of the Palais de Justice at Ghent, he was
awarded the medal of honour in 1889 at the Paris Universal
Exhibition, where, in 1900, his " Two Statues of the Anspach
Monument" gained him a similar distinction. For the town of
Brussels he executed "The Four Continents" (MaisonduRenard,
Grand' Place), " The Lansquenets " crowning the lucarnes of
the Maison de Roi, and the " Monument t' Serclaes " under the
arcades of the Maison de I'Etoile, and, for the Belgian govern-
ment, " Flemish Art," " German Art," " Classic Art " and " Art
applied to Industry " (all in the Palais des Beaux Arts, Brussels),
" The Laurel" (Bqtanic Garden, Brussels), and the statue of
" Bernard van Orley " (Place du petit Sablon, Brussels). Mention
must also be made of " An Enigma " (1876), the bronze busts of
"Rogierde la Pasture" and "P. P. Rubens" (1879), "Etruria "
(1880), " ( The Painter Leon Frederic " (1888), " Madame Leon
Herbo," " Hermes." a scheme of decoration for the ogival fagade
of the h6tel de ville at Ghent (1893), " The Genius of the Funeral
Monument of the Moselli Family," " The Silence of Death " (for
the entrance of the cemetery of St Gilles), two caryatides for the
town hall of St Gilles, presentation plaquette to Dr Heger, medals
of MM. Godefroid and Vanderkindere and of " The Three
Burgomasters of Brussels," and the ivories " Allegretto,"
"Minerva" and the " Jamaer Memorial." Dillens died at
Brussels in November 1904.
DILLINGEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria,
on the left bank of the Danube, 25 m. N.E. from Ulm, on the
railway to Ingolstadt. Pop. (1905) 6078. Its principal buildings
are an old palace, formerly the residence of the bishops of
Augsburg and now government offices, a royal gymnasium, a
Latin school with a library of 75,000 volumes, seven churches
(six Roman Catholic), two episcopal seminaries, a Capuchin
monastery, a Franciscan convent and a deaf and dumb asylum.
The university, founded in 1549, was abolished in 1804, being
converted into a lyceum. The inhabitants are engaged in cattle-
rearing, the cultivation of corn, hops and fruit, shipbuilding and
the shipping trade, and the manufacture of cloth, paper and
cutlery. In the vicinity is the Karolinen canal, which cuts off a
bend in the Danube between Lauingen and Dillingen. In 1488
Dillingen became the residence of the bishops of Augsburg; was
taken by the Swedes in 1632 and 1648, by the Austrians in 170?,
and on the iyth of June 1800 by the French. In 1803 it passed
to Bavaria.
DILLMANN, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1823-1894),
German orientalist and biblical scholar, the son of a Wurttemberg
schoolmaster, was born at Illingen on the 25th of April 1823. He
was educated at Tubingen, where he became a pupil and friend of
Heinrich Ewald, and studied under F. C. Baur, though he did not
join the new Tubingen school. For a short time he worked as
pastor at Gersheim, near his native place, but he soon came to
feel that his studies demanded his whole time. He devoted him-
self to the study of Ethiopic MSS. in the libraries of Paris, London
and Oxford, and this work caused a revival of Ethiopic study in
the igth century. In 1847 and 1848 he prepared catalogues of
the Ethiopic MSS. in the British Museum and the Bodleian
library at Oxford. He then set to work upon an edition of the
Ethiopic bible. Returning to Tubingen in 1848, in 1853 he was
appointed professor extraordinarius. Subsequently he became
DILLON DINAJPUR
professor of philosophy at Kiel (1854), and of theology at Giessen
(1864) and Berlin (1869). He died on the 4th of July 1894.
In 1851 he had published the Book of Enoch in Ethiopian
(German, 1853), and at Kiel he completed the first part of the
Ethiopic bible, Oclateuchus Aelhiopicus (1853-1855). In 1857
appeared his Grammatik der iithiopischen Sprache (2nd ed. by
C. Bezold, 1899); in 1859 the Book of Jubilees; in 1861 and 1871
another part of the Ethiopic bible, Libri Regum ; in 1865 his
great Lexicon linguae aelhiopicae; in 1866 his Chrestomalhia
aethiopica. Always a theologian at heart, however, he returned
to theology in 1864. Plis Giessen lectures were published under
the titles, Ursprung der altlestamentlichen Religion (1865) and
Die Prophelen des alien Bundes nach Hirer polilischen Wirksamkeit
(1868). In 1869 appeared his CommenlarzumHiob (4th ed. 1891)
which stamped him as one of the foremost Old Testament
exegetes. His renown as a theologian, however, was mainly
founded by the series of commentaries, based on those of August
Wilhelm Knobels' Genesis (Leipzig, 1875; 6th ed. 1892; Eng.
trans, by W. B. Stevenson, Edinburgh, 1897); Exodus und
Leviticus, 1880, revised edition by V. Ryssel, 1897; Numeri,
Deuteronomium und Josua, with a dissertation on the origin of
'the Hexateuch, 1886; Jesaja, 1890 (revised edition by Rudolf
Kittel in 1898). In 1877 he published the Ascension of Isaiah
in Ethiopian and Latin. He was also a contributor to D.
Schenkel's Bibellexikon, Brockhaus's Conversalionslcxikon, and
Herzog's Realencyklopddie. His lectures on Old Testament
theology, Vorlesungen iiber Theologie dcs Allen Teslamentes, were
published by Kittel in 1895.
See the articles in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadic. and the
Allgemeine deutsche Biographic; F. Lichtenberger, History of
German Theology in the Nineteenth Century (1889); Wolf Baudissin,
A. Dillmann (Leipzig, 1895).
DILLON, ARTHUR RICHARD (1721-1807), French arch-
bishop, was the son of Arthur Dillon (1670-1733), an Irish
gentleman who became general in the French service. He was
born at St Germain, entered the priesthood and was successively
cure of Elan near Mezieres, vicar-general of Pontoise (1747),
bishop of Evreux (1753) and archbishop of Toulouse (1758),
archbishop of Narbonne in 1763, and in that capacity, president
of the estates of Languedoc. He devoted himself much less to
the spiritual direction of his diocese than to its temporal welfare,
carrying out many works of public utility, bridges, canals, roads,
harbours, &c.; had chairs of chemistry and of physics created at
Montpellier and at Toulouse, and tried to reduce the poverty,
especially in Narbonne. In 1 787 and in 1 788 he was a member of
the Assembly of Notables called together by Lcuis XVI., and in
1788 presided over the assembly of the clergy. Having refused
to accept the civil constitution of the clergy, Dillon had to leave
Narbonne in 1790, then to emigrate to Coblenz in 1791. Soon
afterwards he went to London, where he lived until his death in
1807, never accepting the Concordat, which had suppressed his
archiepiscopal see.
See L. Audibret, Le Dernier President des Etats du Languedoc, Mgr.
Arthur Richard Dillon, archeveque de Narbonne (Bordeaux, 1868);
L. dc Lavergne, Les Assemblies provinciates sous Louis XVI
(Paris, 1864).
DILLON, JOHN (1851- ), Irish nationalist politician, was
the son of John Blake Dillon (1816-1866), who sat in parliament
for Tipperary, and was one of the leaders of " Young Ireland."
John Dillon was educated at the Roman Catholic university of
Dublin, and afterwards studied medicine. He entered parliament
in 1880 as member for Tipperary, and was at first an ardent
supporter of C. S. Parnell. In August he delivered a speech on
the Land League at Kildare which was characterized as " wicked
and cowardly " by W. E. Forster; he advocated boycotting, and
was arrested in May 1881 under the Coercion Act, and again after
two months of freedom in October. In 1883 he resigned his seat
for reasons of health, but was returned unopposed in 1885 for
East Mayo, which he continued to represent. He was one of the
prime movers in the famous " plan of campaign," which provided
that the tenant should pay his rent to the National League instead
of the landlord, and in case of eviction be supported by the general
fund. Mr Dillon was compelled by the court of queen's bench on
273
the i4th of December 1886 to find securities for good behaviour,
but two days later he was arrested while receiving rents on Lord
Clanricarde's estates. In this instance the jury disagreed, but
in June 1888 under the provisions of the new Criminal Law
Procedure Bill he was condemned to six months' imprisonment.
He was, however, released in September, and in the spring of 1889
sailed for Australia and New Zealand, where he collected funds
for the Nationalist party. On his return to Ireland he was again
arrested, but, being allowed bail, sailed to America, and failed to
appear at the trial. He returned to Ireland by way of Boulogne,
where he and Mr W. O'Brien held long and indecisive conferences
with Parncll. They surrendered to the police in February, and
on their release from Gal way gaol in July declared their opposition
to Parnell. After the expulsion of Mr T. M. Healy and others
from the Irish National Federation, Mr Dillon became the chair-
man (February 1896). His early friendship with Mr O'Brien
gave place to considerable hostility, but the various sections of
the party were ostensibly reconciled in 1900 under the leadership
of Mr Redmond. In the autumn of 1896 he arranged a conven-
tion of the Irish race, which included 2000 delegates from various
parts of the world. In 1897 Mr Dillon opposed in the House
the Address to Queen Victoria on the occasion of the Diamond
Jubilee, on the ground that her reign had not been a blessing to
Ireland, and he showed the same uncompromising attitude in
1901 when a grant to Lord Roberts was under discussion, accusing
him of " systematized inhumanity." He was suspended on the
2oth of March for violent language addressed to Mr Chamberlain.
He married in 1895 Elizabeth (d. 1907), daughter of Lord Justice
J. C. Mathew.
DILUVIUM (Lat. for "deluge," from diluere, to wash away),
a term in geology for superficial deposits formed by flood-like
operations of water, and so contrasted with alluvium (q.v.) or
alluvial deposits formed by slow and steady aqueous agencies.
The term was formerly given to the " boulder clay " deposits,
supposed to have been caused by the Noachian deluge.
DIME (from the Lat. decima, a tenth, through the O. Fr.
disme), the tenth part, the tithe paid as church dues, or as tribute
to a temporal power. In this sense it is obsolete, but is found in
Wycliffe's translation of the Bible '' He gave him dymes of alle
thingis " (Gen. xiv. 20). A dime is a silver coin of the United
States, in value 10 cents (English equivalent about 5d.) or one-
tenth of a dollar; hence " dime-novel," a cheap sensational
novel, a " penny dreadful "; also " dime-museum."
DIMENSION (from Lat. dimensio, a measuring), in geometry, a
magnitude measured in a specified direction, i.e. length, breadth
and thickness; thus a line has only length and is said to be of
one dimension, a surface has length and breadth, and has two
dimensions, a solid has length, breadth and thickness, and has
three dimensions. This concept is extended to algebra: since
a line, surface and solid are represented by linear, quadratic and
cubic equations, and are of one, two and three dimensions; a
biquadratic equation has its highest terms of four dimensions,
and, in general, an equation in any number of variables which has
the greatest sum of the indices of any term equal to n is said to
have n dimensions. The " fourth dimension " is a type of non-
Euclidean geometry, in which it is conceived that a " solid " has
one dimension more than the solids of experience. For the
dimensions of units see UNITS, DIMENSIONS OF.
DIMITY, derived from the Gr. Siiuros " double thread,"
through the Ital. dimito, " a kind of course linzie-wolzie "
(Florio, 1611); a cloth commonly employed for bed upholstery
and curtains, and usually white, though sometimes a pattern is
printed on it in colours. It is stout in texture, and woven in
raised patterns.
DINAJPUR, a town (with a population in 1901 of 13,430) and
district of Britsh India, in the Raishahi division of Eastern
Bengal aad Assam. The earthquake of the I2th of June 1897
caused serious damage to most of the public buildings of the town.
There is a railway station and a government high school. The
district comprises an area of 3946 sq. m. It is traversed in every
direction by a network of channels and water courses. Along the
banks of the Kulik river, the undulating ridges and long lines of
274
DINAN DINARCHUS
mango-trees give the landscape a beauty which is not found else-
where. Dinajpur forms part of the rich arable tract lying between
the Ganges and the southern slopes of the Himalayas. Although
essentially a fluvial district, it does not possess any river navigable
throughout the year by boats of 4 tons burden. Rice forms the
staple agricultural product. The climate of the district, although
cooler than that of Calcutta, is very unhealthy, and the people
have a sickly appearance. The worst part of the year is at the
close of the rains in September and October, during which months
few of the natives escape fever. The average maximum tempera-
ture is 92-3 F., and the minimum 74-8. The average rainfall
is 85-54 in. In 1901 the population was 1,567,080, showing an
increase of 6 % in the decade. The district is partly traversed
by the main line of the Eastern Bengal railway and by two branch
lines. Save between 1404 and 1442, when it was the seat of
an independent raj, founded by Raja Ganesh, a Hindu turned
Mussulman, Dinajpur has no separate history. Pillars and
copper-plate inscriptions have yielded numerous records of the
Pal kings who ruled the country from the 9th century onwards,
and the district is famous for many other antiquities, some of
which are connected by legend with an immemorial past (see
Reports, Arch. Survey of India, xv. ; Epigraphia Indica, ii.).
DINAN, a town of north-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of C6tes-du-Nord, 37 m. E. of
St Brieuc on the Western railway. Pop. (1906) 8588. Dinan is
situated on a height on the left bank of the Ranee (here canalized),
some 17 m. above its mouth at St Malo, with which it com-
municates by means of small steamers. It is united to the village
of Lanvallay on the right bank of the river by a granite viaduct
130 ft. in height. The town is almost entirely encircled by the
ramparts of the middle ages, strengthened at intervals by towers
and defended on the south by a castle of the late i4th century,
which now serves as prison. Three old gateways are also pre-
served. Dinan has two interesting churches; that of St Malo, of
late Gothic architecture, and St Sauveur, in which the Roman-
esque and Gothic styles are intermingled. In the latter church a
granite monument contains the heart of Bertrand Du Guesclin,
whose connexion with the town is also commemorated by an
equestrian statue. The quaint winding streets of Dinan are often
bordered by medieval houses. Its picturesqueness attracts large
numbers of visitors and there are many English residents in the
town and its vicinity. About three-quarters of a mile from the
town are the ruins of the chateau and the Benedictine abbey at
Lehon; near the neighbouring village of St Esprit stands the
large lunatic asylum of Les Bas Foins, founded in 1836; and at
no great distance is the now dismantled chateau of La Garaye,
which was rendered famous in the i8th century by the philan-
thropic devotion of the count and countess whose story is told
.in Mrs Norton's Lady of La Garaye. Dinan is the seat of a sub-
prefect and has a tribunal of first instance, and a communal
college. There is trade in grain, cider, wax, butter and other
agricultural products. The industries include the manufacture
of leather, farm-implements and canvas.
The principal event in the history of Dinan, which was a strong-
hold of the dukes of Brittany, is the siege by the English under the
duke of Lancaster in 1359, during which Du Guesclin and an
English knight called Thomas of Canterbury engaged in single
combat.
DINANT, an ancient town on the right bank of the Meuse in
the province of Namur, Belgium, connected by a bridge with the
left bank, on which are the station and the suburb of St Medard.
Pop. (1904) 7674. The name is supposed to be derived from
Diana, and as early as the 7th century it was named as one of the
dependencies of the bishopric of Tongres. In the loth century it
passed under the titular sway of Liege, and remained the fief of the
prince-bishopric till the French revolution put an end to that
survival of feudalism. In the middle of the 1 5th century Dinant
reached the height of its prosperity. With a population of
60,000, and 8000 workers in copper, it was one of the most
flourishing cities in Walloon Belgium until it incurred the wrath
of Charles the Bold. Belief in the strength of its walls and of the
castle that occupied the centre bridge, thus effectually command-
ing navigation by the river, engendered arrogance and over-
confidence, and the people of Dinant thought they could defy the
full power of Burgundy. Perhaps they also expected aid from
France or Liege. In T466 Charles, in his father's name, laid siege
to Dinant, and on the 27th of August carried the place by storm.
He razed the walls and allowed the women, children and priests
to retire in safety to Liege, but the male prisoners he either
hanged or drowned in the river by causing them to be cast from
the projecting cliff of Bouvignes. In 1675 the capture of Dinant
formed one of the early military achievements of Louis XIV., and
it remained in the hands of the French for nearly thirty years
after that date. The citadel on the cliff, 300 ft. or 408 steps above
the town, was fortified by the Dutch in 1818. It is now dis-
mantled, but forms the chief curiosity of the place. The views
of the river valley from this eminence are exceedingly fine. Half
way up the cliff, but some distance south of the citadel, is the
grotto of Montfat, alleged to be the site of Diana's shrine. The
church of Notre Dame, dating from the I3th century, stands
immediately under the citadel and flanking the bridge. It has
been restored, and is considered by some authorities, although
others make the same claim on behalf of Huy, the most complete
specimen in Belgium of pointed Gothic architecture. The
baptismal fonts date from the i2th century, and the curious spire
in the form of an elongated pumpkin and covered with slates
gives a fantastic and original appearance to the whole edifice.
The present prosperity of Dinant is chiefly derived from its being
a favourite summer resort for Belgians as well as foreigners. It
has facilities for boating and bathing as well as for trips by
steamer up and down the river Meuse. It is also a convenient
central point for excursions into the Ardennes. Although there
are some indications of increased industrial activity in recent
years, the population of Dinant is not one-eighth of what it was
at the time of the Burgundians.
DINAPUR, a town and military station of British India, in the
Patna district of Bengal, on the right bank of the Ganges, 12 m.
W. of Patna city by rail. Pop. (1901) 33,699. It is the largest
military cantonment in Bengal, with accommodation for two
batteries of artillery, a European and a native infantry regiment.
In 1857 the sepoy garrison of the place initiated the mutiny of
that year in Patna district, but after a conflict with the European
troops were forced to retire from the town, and subsequently laid
siege to Arrah.
DINARCHUS, last of the " ten " Attic orators, son of Sostratus
(or, according to Suidas, Socrates), born at Corinth about 361
B.C. He settled at Athens early in life, and when not more than
twenty-five was already active as a writer of speeches for the law
courts. As an alien, he was unable to take part in the debates.
He had been the pupil both of Theophrastus and of Demetrius
Phalereus, and had early acquired a certain fluency and versa-
tility of style. In 324 the Areopagus, after inquiry, reported
that nine men had taken bribes from Harpalus, the fugitive
treasurer of Alexander. Ten public prosecutors were appointed.
Dinarchus wrote, for one or more of these prosecutors, the three
speeches which are still extant Against Demosthenes, Against
Aristogeiton, Against Philodes. The sympathies of Dinarchus
were in favour of an Athenian oligarchy under Macedonian
control; but it should be remembered that he was not an
Athenian citizen. Aeschines and Demades had no such excuse.
In the Harpalus affair, Demosthenes was doubtless innocent,
and so, probably, were others of the accused. Yet Hypereides,
the most fiery of the patriots, was on the same side as Dinarchus.
Under the regency of his old master, Demetrius Phalereus,
Dinarchus exercised much political influence. The years 3 1 7-307
were the most prosperous of his life. On the fall of Demetrius
Phalereus and the restoration of the democracy by Demetrius
Poliorcetes, Dinarchus was condemned to death and withdrew
into exile at Chalcis in Euboea. About 292, thanks to his friend
Theophrastus, he was able to return to Attica, and took up his
abode in the country with a former associate, Proxenus. He
afterwards brought an action against Proxenus on the ground
that he had robbed him of some money and plate. Dinarchus
died at Athens about 291.
DINARD DINGELSTEDT
275
According to Suidas, Dinarchus wrote 160 speeches; and
Dionysius held that, out of 85 extant speeches bearing his name,
58 were genuine, 28 relating to public, 30 to private causes.
Although the authenticity of the three speeches mentioned
above is generally admitted, Demetrius of Magnesia doubted that
of the speech Against Demosthenes, while A. Westermann rejected
all three. Dinarchus had little individual style and imitated
by turns Lysias, Hypereides and Demosthenes. He is called by
Hermogenes 6 Kpi6i.v6s ttaujoadanp, a metaphor taken from
barley compared with wheat, or beer compared with wine,
a Demosthenes whose strength is rougher, without flavour or
sparkle.
Editions: (text and exhaustive commentary) E. Matzner (1842);
(text) T. Thalheim (1887), F. Blass (1888); see L. L. Forman,
Index Andocideus, Lycurgeus, Dinarcheus (1897) ; and, in general,
F. Blass, Attische Beredsamkeit, iii. There is a valuable treatise on
the life and speeches of Dinarchus by Dionysius of Halicarnassus.
DINARD, a seaside town of north-western France, in the
department of Ille-et-Vilaine. The town, which is the chief
watering-place of Brittany, is situated on a rocky promontory at
the mouth of the Ranee opposite St Malo, which is about i m.
distant. It is a favourite resort of English and Americans as
well as of the French, its attractions being the beauty of its
situation, the mildness of the climate and the good bathing. It
has two casinos and numerous luxurious hotels and elegant villas.
Together with the adjoining watering-place of St Enogat, Dinard
has a population of 4882 (1906).
DINDIGUL, a town of British India, in the Madura district of
Madras, 880 ft. above the sea, 40 m. from Madura by rail. Pop.
(1901) 25,182. Dindigul has risen into importance as the centre
of a trade in tobacco and manufacture of cigars, which are
exported to England. There are two large European cigar
factories here. The town has manufactures of silk, muslin and
blankets, and an export trade in hides and cardamoms; and
there is a large native Christian population, with two churches.
The ancient fort, well preserved, stands on a rock rising 350 ft.
above the town; this was formerly a position of great strategic
importance, commanding passes into Madura from Coimbatore,
and figured prominently in the military operations of the
Mahrattas in the i7th and i8th centuries, and of Hyder Ali in
!75S seq., being thrice captured by the British (1767, 1783, 1790).
After the two first captures it was restored to Hyder Ali under
treaty; after the third it was ceded to the East India Company.
DINDORF, KARL WILHELM (1802-1883), German classical
scholar, was born at Leipzig on the 2nd of January 1802. From
his earliest years he showed a strong taste for classical studies,
and after completing F. Invernizi's edition of Aristophanes at
an early age, and editing several grammarians and rhetoricians,
was in 1828 appointed extraordinary professor of literary history
in his native city. Disappointed at not obtaining the ordinary
professorship when it became vacant in 1833, he resigned his post
in the same year, and devoted himself entirely to study and
literary work. His attention had at first been chiefly given to
Athenaeus, whom he edited in 1827, and to the Greek dramatists,
all of whom he edited separately and combined in his Poetae
scenici Graeci (1830 and later editions). He also wrote a work
on the metres of the Greek dramatic poets, and compiled special
lexicons to Aeschylus and Sophocles. He edited Procopius for
Niebuhr's Corpus of the Byzantine writers, and between 1846 and
1851 brought out at Oxford an important edition of Demosthenes;
he also edited Lucian and Josephus for the Didot classics. His
last important editorial labour was his Eusebius of Caesarea
(1867-1871). Much of his attention was occupied by the re-
publication of Stephanus's Thesaurus (Paris, 1831-1865), chiefly
executed by him and his brother Ludwig, a work of prodigious
labour and utility. His reputation suffered somewhat through
the imposture practised upon him by the Greek Constantine
Simonides, who succeeded in deceiving him by a fabricated
fragment of the Greek historian Uranius. The book was printed,
and a few copies had been circulated, when the forgery was
discovered, just in time to prevent its being given to the world
under the auspices of the university of Oxford. Shortly after the
death of his brother, he lost all his property and his library by
rash speculations. He died on the ist of August 1883.
His brother LUDWIG (1805-1871) was born at Leipzig on the
3rd of January 1 805, and died there on the 6th of September 1871.
He never held any academical position, and led so secluded a
life that many doubted his existence, and declared that he was
a mere pseudonym. The important share which he took in the
edition of the Thesaurus is nevertheless authenticated by his
own signature to his contributions. He also published valuable
editions of Polybius, Dio Cassius and other Greek historians.
D'INDY, PAUL-MARIE-THEODORE-VINCENT (1851- ),
French musical composer, was born in Paris, on the 27th of March
1851. He studied composition and the organ at the Paris Conser-
vatoire under Cesar Franck, and obtained the grand prize offered
by the city of Paris in 1885 with Le Chant de la Cloche, a dramatic
legend after Schiller. His principal works, beside the above, are
the symphonic trilogy Wallenstein, the symphonic works entitled
Saugefleurie, La Fortt enchantZe, Istar, Symphonic sur un air
monlagnard franqais; overture to Anthony and Cleopatra; Sle
Marie Magdeleinc, a cantata; Allendez-moi sous I'orme, a one-act
opera; Fervaal, a musical drama in three acts. Vincent d'Indy
is perhaps the most prominent among the disciples of Cesar
Franck. Imbued with very high aims, he was always guided by
a lofty ideal, and few musicians have attained so complete a
mastery over the art of instrumentation. His music, however,
lacks simplicity, and can never become popular in the widest
sense. His opera Fervaal, which is styled " action musicale," is
constructed upon the system of Leit-motifs. Its legendary
subject recalls both Parsifal and Tristan, and the music is also
suggestive of Wagnerian influence. D'Indy can scarcely be
considered so typical a representative of modern French music as
his juniors Alfred Bruneau, the composer of Le R&ie, L'Altaque du
moulin, Messidor, or Gustave Charpentier, the author of Louise,
who chose subjects of modern life for their operatic works.
DINEIR, a small town in Asia Minor, built amidst the ruins of
Celaenae-Apamea, near the sources of the Maeander (Menderes).
It is the terminus of the Smyrna-Aidin-Dineir railway. Pop.
1400. (See APAMEA.)
DINGELSTEDT, FRANZ VON (1814-1881), German poet and
dramatist, was born at Halsdorf, in Hesse Cassel, on the 3oth of
June 1814. Having studied at the university of Marburg, he
became in 1836 a master at the Lyceum in Cassel, from which he
was transferred to Fulda in 1838. In 1839 he produced a novel,
Unter der Erde, which obtained considerable success, and in 1841
published the book by which he is best remembered, the Lieder
eines kosmopolitischen Nachtwiichters. These poems, animated
as they are by a spirit of bitter opposition to everything that
savours of despotism, were an effective contribution to the
political poetry of the day. The popularity of this book
determined Dingelstedt to take up a literary career, and iri 1841
he obtained an appointment on the staff of the Augsburger
allgemeine Zeitung. In 1843, however, the satirist of German
princes accepted, to the general surprise, the appointment of
private librarian to the king of Wurttemberg, and in the same year
he married the celebrated Bohemian opera singer, Jenny Lutzer.
In 1845 ne published a volume of poems, some of which, treating
of modern life, possessed great literary rather than strictly
poetical merit. A subsequent collection, published in 1852,
attracted little attention. The success of his tragedy Das Haus
der Barneveldt (1850) obtained for him the position of intendant
at the court theatre at Munich, where he soon became the centre
of literary society. He incurred, however, the animosity of the
Jesuit clique at the court, and in 1856 was suddenly dismissed on
the most frivolous charges. A similar position was offered to him
at Weimar through the influence of Liszt, and he remained there
until 1867. His administration was most successful, and he
especially distinguished himself by presenting all Shakespeare's
historical plays upon the stage in an unbroken cycle. In 1867 he
became director of the court opera house in Vienna, and in 1872
of the Hofburgtheater, a position he held until his death on the
1 5th of May 1881. Among his other works may be noticed an
autobiographical sketch of his Munich career, entitled Munchener
276
DINGHY DINKA
Bilderbogen (1879), Die Amazone, an art novel of considerable
merit (1869), translations of several of Shakespeare's comedies,
and several writings dealing with questions of practical drama-
turgy. He was ennobled in 1867 by the king of Bavaria and in
1876 was created Freihen by the emperor of Austria.
Dingelstedt's Samtliche Werke appeared in 12 vols. (1877-1878),
but this edition is far from complete. On his life see, besides the
autobiography mentioned above, J. Rodenberg, Heimaterinnerungen
an F. Dingelstedt (Berlin, 1882), and by the same author, F. Dingel-
stedt, Blatter aus seinem Nachlass (2 vols., 1891). Also an essay by
A. Stern in Zur Literatur der Gegenwart (Leipzig, 1880).
DINGHY, or DINGEY (from the Hindu dengi a small boat, the
diminutive of denga, a sloop or coasting vessel), a boat of greatly
varying size and shape, used on the rivers of India; the term is
applied also, in certain districts, to a larger boat used for coasting
purposes. The name was adopted by the merchantmen trading
with India, and is now generally used to designate the small extra
boat kept for general purposes on a man-of-war or merchant
vessel, and also, on the Thames, for small pleasure boats built for
one or two pairs of sculls.
DINGLE, a seaport and market town of county Kerry, Ireland,
in the west parliamentary division, the terminus of the Tralee
and Dingle railway. Pop. ( 1 90 1 ) 1 7 86. This may be considered
the most westerly town in the United Kingdom unless
Knightstown at Valencia Island be excepted: it lies on the south
side of the northernmost of the great promontories which pro-
trude into the Atlantic on the south-western coast of Ireland, on
the fine natural harbour of Dingle Bay, in a wild hilly district
abundant in relics of antiquity. The town, which is the centre
of a considerable fishing industry, especially in mackerel, was in
the 1 6th century of no little importance as a seaport; it had also
a noted manufacture of linen. It was incorporated by Queen
Elizabeth, and returned two members to the Irish parliament
until the Union.
DINGO, a name applied apparently by Europeans to the
warrigal, or native Australian dog. the Canis dingo of J. F.
Blumenbach. The dingo is a stoutly-built, rather short-legged,
sandy-coloured dog, intermediate in size between a jackal and a
wolf, and measuring about 51 in. in total length, of which the
tail takes up about eleven. In general appearance it is very like
some of the pariah dogs of India and Egypt; and, except on
distributional grounds, there is no reason for regarding it as
specifically distinct from such breeds. Dingos, which are found
both wild and tame, interbreed freely with European dogs in-
troduced into the country, and it may be that the large amount
of black on the back of many specimens may be the result of
crossing of this nature.
The main point of interest connected with the dingo relates to
its origin; that is to say, whether it is a member of the indigenous
Australian fauna (among which it is the only large placental
mammal), or whether it has been introduced into the country
by man. There seems to be no doubt that fossilized remains of
the dingo occur intermingled with those of the extinct Australian
mammals, such as giant kangaroos, giant wombats and the still
more gigantic Diprotodon. And since remains of man have
apparently not yet been detected in these deposits, it has been
thought by some naturalists that the dingo must be an indigenous
species. This was the opinion of Sir Frederick McCoy, by whom
the deposits in question were regarded as probably of Pliocene age.
A similar view is adopted by D . Ogil vy in a Catalogue of A uslralian
Mammals, published at Sydney in 1892; the writer going how-
ever one step further and expressing the belief that the dingo
is the ancestor of all domesticated dogs. The latter contention
cannot for a moment be sustained; and there are also strong
arguments against the indigenous origin of the dingo. That the
animal now occurs in a wild state is no argument whatever as to
its being indigenous, seeing that a domesticated breed introduced
by man into a new country abounding in game would almost
certainly revert to the wild state. The apparent absence of
human remains in the beds yielding dingo teeth and bones (which
are almost certainly not older than the Pleistocene) is of only
negative value, and liable to be upset by new discoveries. Then,
again (as has been pointed out by R. I. Pocock in the first part of
the Kennel Encyclopaedia, 1907), the absence of any really wild
species of the typical group of the genus Canis between Burma
and Siam on the one hand and Australia on the other is a very
strong argument against the dingo being indigenous, seeing that,
whether brought by man or having travelled thither of its own
accord, the dingo must have reached its present habitat by way
of the Austro-Malay archipelago. If it had followed that route
in the course of nature, it is inconceivable that it would not still
be found on some portions of the route. On the supposition that
the dingo was introduced by man, we have now fairly decisive
evidence that the native Australian, in place of being (as formerly
supposed) a member of the negro stock, is a low type of Caucasian
allied to the Veddahs of Ceylon and the Toalas of Celebes.
Consequently the Australian natives must be presumed to have
reached the island-continent by way of Malaya; and if this be
admitted, nothing is more likely than that they should have been
accompanied by pariah dogs of the Indian type. Confirmation of
this is afforded by the occurrence in the mountains of Java of a
pariah-like dog which has reverted to an almost completely wild
condition; and likewise by the fact that the old voyagers met
with dogs more or less similar to the dingo in New Guinea, New
Zealand and the Solomon and certain other of the smaller Pacific
islands. On the whole, then, the most probable explanation of
the case is that the dingo is an introduced species closely allied to
the Indian pariah dog. Whether the latter represents a truly wild
type now extinct, cannot be determined. If so, all pariahs should
be classed with the Australian warrigal under the name of Canis
dingo. If, on the other hand, pariahs, and consequently the dingo,
cannot be separated specifically from ths domesticated dogs of
western Europe, then the dingo should be designated Canis
familiaris dingo. (R. L.*)
DINGWALL, a royal and police burgh and county town of the
shire of Ross and Cromarty, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 2519. It is
situated near the head of Cromarty Firth where the valley of the
Peffery unites with the alluvial lands at the mouth of the Conon,
i8| m. N.W. of Inverness by the Highland railway. Its name,
derived from the Scandinavian Thingvb'llr, " field or meeting-
place of the thing," or local assembly, preserves the Norse origin of
the town; its Gaelic designation is Inverpefferon," the mouth of
the Peffery." The 18th-century town house, and some remains
of the ancient mansion of the once powerful earls of Ross still
exist. There is also a public park. An obelisk, 57 ft. high, was
erected over the grave of the ist earl of Cromarty. The town
belongs to the Wick district group of parliamentary burghs. It is
a nourishing distributing centre and has an important corn market
and auction marts. Some shipping is carried on at the harbour
at the mouth of the Peffery, about a mile below the burgh.
Branch lines of the Highland railway run to Strathpeffer and to
Strome Ferry and Kyle of Lochalsh (for Skye). Alexander II.
created Dingwall a royal borough in 1226, and its charter was
renewed by James IV. On the top of Knockfarrel (Gaelic, cnoc,
hill; faire, watch, or guard), a hill about 3 m. to the west, is a
large and very complete vitrified fort with ramparts.
DINKA (called by the Arabs Jange), a widely spread negro
people dwelling on the right bank of the White Nile to about
12 N., around the mouth of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, along the right
bank of that river and on the banks of the lower Sobat. Like the
Shilluk, they were greatly harried from the north by Nuba-
Arabic tribes, but remained comparatively free owing to the vast
extent of their country, estimated to cover 40,000 sq. m., and their
energy in defending themselves. They are a tall race with skins
of almost blue black. The men wear practically no clothes,
married women having a short apron, and unmarried girls a
fringe of iron cones round the waist. They tattoo themselves
with tribal marks, and extract the lower incisors; they also
pierce the ears and lip for the attachment of ornaments, and wear
a variety of feather, iron, ivory and brass ornaments. Nearly
all shave the head, but some give the hair a reddish colour by
moistening it with animal matter. Polygamy is general; some
headmen have as many as thirty or more wives; but six is the
average number. They are great cattle and sheep breeders; the
men tend their beasts with great devotion, despising agriculture,
DINKELSBUHL DINOFLAGELLATA
277
which is left to the women; the cattle are called by means of
drums. Save under stress of famine cattle are never killed
for food, the people subsisting largely on durra. The Dinkas
reverence the cow, and snakes, which they call " brothers."
Their folklore recognizes a good and evil deity; one of the two
wives of the good deity created man, and the dead go to live with
him in a great park filled with animals of enormous size. The
evil deity created cripples. The Dinka came, in 1899, under the
control of the Sudan government, justice being administered
as far as possible in accord with tribal custom. A compendium
of Dinka laws was compiled by Captain H. D. E. O'Sullivan.
See G. A. Schweinfurth, The Heart of Africa (1874); W. Junker,
Travels in Africa, Eng. edit. (London, 1890-1892); The Anglo-
Egyptian Sudan, edited by Count Gleichen (London, 1905).
DINKELSBUHL, a town of German}', in the kingdom of
Bavaria, on the Wornitz, i6m. N. from Nordlingen, on the rail-
way to Dombiihl. Pop. 5000. It is an interesting medieval town,
still surrounded by old walls -and towers, and has an Evangelical
and two Roman Catholic churches. Notable is the so-called
Deutsches Haus, the ancestral home of the counts of Drechsel-
Deufstetten, a fine specimen of the German renaissance style of
wooden architecture. There are a Latin and industrial school,
several benevolent institutions, and a monument to Christoph
von Schmid (1768-1854), a writer of stories for the young. The
inhabitants carry on the manufacture of brushes, gloves, stock-
ings and gingerbread, and deal largely in cattle.
Fortified by the emperor Henry I., Dinkelsbtihl received in
1305 the same municipal rights as Ulm, and obtained in 1351 the
position of a free imperial city, which it retained till 1802, when
it passed to Bavaria. Its municipal code, the Dinkelsbiihler
Recht, published in 1536, and revised in 1738, contained a very
extensive collection of public and private laws.
DINNER, the chief meal of the day, eaten either in the middle
of the day, as was formerly the universal custom, or in the
evening. The word " dine " comes through Fr. from Med. Lat.
disnare, for disjejunare, to break one's fast (jejunium); it is,
therefore, the same word as Fr. dejeuner, to breakfast, in
modern France, to take the midday meal, diner being used
for the later repast. The term " dinner-wagon," originally
a movable table to hold dishes,
is now used of a two-tier side-
board.
DINOCRATES, a great and
original Greek architect, of the
age of Alexander the Great. He
tried to captivate the ambitious
fancy of that king with a design
for carving Mount Athos into a
gigantic seated statue. This plan
was not carried out, but Dino-
crates designed for Alexander the
plan of the new city of Alex-
andria, and constructed the vast
funeral pyre of Hephaestion.
Alexandria was, like Peiraeus
and Rhodes (see HIPPODAMUS),
built on a regular plan; the streets
After F. Schut, in Engler and Prantl's f mOSt Carl ' er tOWDS bein g narrOW
and confused.
DINOFLAGELLATA, so called
by O. Biitschli (= the CILIO-
verse grooves in which lie the FLAGELLATA of E. Claparide and
respective flagella /./., t.f. ; s.p., H. Lachmann), a group of Pro-
large "sack pusule" discharging tozoa characterized as Mastigo-
tnrough a tube by pore o : c.p., , ., . . .
" collective pusule discharging P hora > Provided with two flagella,
at o, and surrounded by a ring the one anterior extended in loco-
of formative " or " daughter motion, the other coiled round
pusules"; n, nucleus. its basg) or lying in a transverse
groove. The body is bounded by a firm pellicle, often supple-
mented by an armour (" lorica ") of cuticular cellulose plates,
with usually a marked longitudinal groove from which the
anterior flagellum springs, and an oblique or spiral transverse
cp.
P/ianzcn/amilien, by permission of Wm.
Engelmann.
FIG. I. Peridiniumdivergens
showing longitudinal and trans-
groove for the second flagellum. In Polykrikos (fig. 2, 9) there
are eight transverse grooves each with its flagellum. The
armour-plates are often exquisitely sculptured, and may be
produced into spines or perpendicular plates to give greater
surface extension, as we find in other plankton organisms.
The cortical plasma may protrude pseudopodia in the longi-
tudinal groove; it contains trichocysts in several species, true
nematocysts in Polykrikos. It contains chromatophores in
many species, coloured by a mixed lipochrome pigment which
FIG. 2.
From Delage and Hfrouard's Troilt de snoloqie concrete,
by permission of Schleicher Freres.
1. Modified from Schiitt, Ornitho- 4. After Steip, Prorocentrum.
ceras. 5, 6. Ceratium, single and series.
2. Diagram of transverse fission 7. Pouchetia fusus (Schiitt).
of a Dinoflagellate.
3. After Schiitt, Exuviaeetta.
8. Cithanstes.
9. After Biitschli, Polykrikos.
appears to be distinct from diatomin. The endoplasm is
ramified between alveoli; it contains a large nucleus (in
Polykrikos there are eight nuclei, accompanied by smaller,
more numerous bodies regarded by O. Biitschli as micro-
nuclei). Besides the other spaces are definite rounded or oval
vacuoles with a permanent pellicular wall termed by Schiitt
" pusules "; these open by a duct or ducts into the longitudinal
groove. They enlarge and diminish, and are possibly excretory
like the " contractile vacuoles " of other Protista; though it has
been suggested that by their communication with the medium
they subserve nutrition. Nutrition is of course holozoic or
278
DINOTHERIUM DIG CASSIUS
saprophytic in the colourless forms, holophytic in the coloured;
but these divergent methods are exhibited by different species
of the same genus, or even by individuals of one and the same
species under different conditions. Binary fission has been
widely observed, both in the active condition or after loss of
the flagella: it differs from that of true Flagellates in not
being longitudinal, but transverse or oblique (fig. 2, 2). Re-
peated fission (brood-formation) within a cyst has also been
observed, as in Pyrocystis and Ceratium; and possibly the chains
of Ceralium and other (fig. 2, 5 and 6) genera are due to the non-
separation of the brood-cells. Conjugation of adults has been
observed in several species, the most complete account being that
of Zederbauer on Ceratium hirundinella (marine): either mate
puts forth a tube which meets and opens into that of the
other (as in some species of Chlamydomonas and Desmids) ; the
two cell-bodies fuse in this tube, and encyst to form a rest-
ing zygospore. The Dinoflagellates are relatively large for
Mastigophora, many attaining 50 /i (riV) in length. The
majority are marine; but some genera (Ceratium, Peridinium)
include fresh-water species. Many are highly phosphorescent
and some by their abundance colour the water of the sea or pool
which they dwell in. Like so many coloured Protista, they
frequently possess a pigmented " eye-spot " in which may be
sunk a spheroidal refractive body (" lens ").
The affinities of the Dinoflagellata are certainly with those
Cryptomonadine Flagellates which possess two unequal flagella;
the zoospores or young of the Cystoflagellates are practically
colourless Dinoflagellates.
1. Gymnodiniaceae: body naked, or with a simple cellulose or
gelatinous envelope; both grooves present. Pyrocystis (Murray),
often encysted, spherical orcrescentic, becoming free within cyst wall,
and escaping whole or after brood-divisions as a form like Gymno-
dinium ; Gymnodinium (Stein) ; Hemidinium (Stein) ; Pouchetia
(Schiitt) (fig. 2, 7) with complex eye-spot; to this group we may
refer Polykrikos (Butschli) (fig. 2, 9), with its metameric transverse
grooves and flagella.
2. Prorocentraceae (Schiitt) (=the Adinida of Bergh); body sur-
rounded by a firm shell of two valves without a girdle band ; trans-
verse groove absent; transverse flagellum coiled round base of
longitudinal. Exuviaeella (Cienk.) (fig. 2, 3); Prorocentrum (Ehrb.)
(fig. 2, 4).
3. Peridiniaceae (Schutt) ; body with a shell of plates, a girdle
band along the transverse groove, in which the transverse flageljum
lies. Genera, Peridinium (Ehrb.) (fig. l), fresh-water and marine;
Ceratium (Schrank) (fig. 2, 5, 6), fresh-water and marine; Citharistes
(Stein); Ornithoceras (Claparede and Lachmann) (fig. 2, i).
LITERATURE. R. S. Bergh, "DerOrganismusder Cilioflagellaten,"
Morphol. Jahrbuch, vii. (1881); F. von Stein, Organismus der Infu-
sionsthiere, Abth. 3, 2. Halfte; Die Naturgeschichte der arthrodelen
Flagellaten (1883); Butschli, "Mastigophora" (in Bronn's Thier-
reich, i. Abth. 2), 18811887; G. Pouchet, various observations on
Dinoflagellates, Journal de Vanatomie et de la physiologie (1885,
1887, 1891); F. Schutt, " Die Peridineen der Plankton Expedition "
(Ergebnisse d. PI. Exed. i. Th. vol. iv. 1895); and " Peridiniales "
in Engler and Prantl's Pflanzenfamilien, vol. i. Abt. 2 b. (1896);
Zederbauer, Berichte d. deutschen botanischen Gesellschaft, vol. xx.
(1900); Delage and Herouard, Traite de zoologie concrete, vol. i. La
Cellule et les protozoaires (1896). (M. HA.)
DINOTHERIUM, an extinct mammal, fossil remains of which
occur in the Miocene beds of France, Germany, Greece and
Northern India. These consist chiefly of teeth and the bones of
the head. An entire skull, obtained from the Lower Pliocene
beds of Eppelsheim, Hesse-Darmstadt, in 1836, measured 4.5 ft.
in length and 3 ft. in breadth, and indicates an animal exceeding
the elephant in size. The upper jaw is apparently destitute of
incisor and canine teeth, but possesses five molars on each side,
with a corresponding number in the jaw beneath. The most
remarkable feature, however, consists in the front part of the
lower jaw being bent downwards and bearing two tusk-like
incisors also directed downwards and backwards. Dinotherium
is a member of the group Proboscidea, of the line of descent of
the elephants.
DINWIDDIE, ROBERT (1693-1770), English colonial governor
of Virginia, was born near Glasgow, Scotland, in 1693. From the
position of customs clerk in Bermuda, which he held in 1727-1738,
he was promoted to be surveyor-general of the customs " of
the southern ports of the continent of America," as a reward
for having exposed the corruption in the West Indian customs
service. In r/43 he was commissioned to examine into the
customs service in the Barbadoes arid exposed similar corruption
there. In 1751-1758 he was lieutenant-governor of Virginia,
first as the deputy of Lord Albemarle and then, from July 1756 to
January 1758, as deputy for Lord Loudon. He was energetic in
the discharge of his duties, but aroused much animosity among
the colonists by his zeal in looking after the royal quit-rents, and
by exacting heavy fees for the issue of land-patents. It was his
chief concern to prevent the French from building in the Ohio
Valley a chain of forts connecting their settlements in the north
with those on the Gulf of Mexico; and in the autumn of 1753 he
sent George Washington to Fort Le Bceuf, a newly established
French post at what is now Waterford, Pennsylvania, with a
message demanding the withdrawal of the French from English
territory. As the French refused to comply, Dinwiddie secured
from the reluctant Virginia assembly a grant of 10,000 and in the
spring of 1754 he sent Washington-with an armed force toward
the forks of the Ohio river " to prevent the intentions of the
French in settling those lands." In the latter part of May
Washington encountered a French force at a spot called Great
Meadows, near the Youghiogheny river, in what is now south-
western Pennsylvania, and a skirmish followed which precipitated
the French and Indian War. Dinwiddie was especially active at
this time in urging the co-operation of the colonies against the
French in the Ohio Valley; but none of the other governors,
except William Shirley of Massachusetts, was then much con-
cerned about the western frontier, and he could accomplish very
little. His appeals to the home government, however, resulted in
the sending of General Edward Braddock to Virginia with two
regiments of regular troops; and at Braddock's call Dinwiddie
and the governors of Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania
and Maryland met at Alexandria, Virginia, in April 1755, and
planned the initial operations of the war. Dinwiddie's administra-
tion was marked by a constant wrangle with the assembly over
money matters; and its obstinate resistance to military appro-
priations caused him in 1754 and 1755 to urge the home govern-
ment to secure an act of parliament compelling the colonies
to raise money for their protection. In January 1758 he left
Virginia and lived in England until his death on the 2 7th of July
1770 at Clifton, Bristol.
The Official Records of Robert Dinwiddie, Lieutenant-Governor of
Virginia (1751-1758), published in two volumes, at Richmond,
Va., in 1883-1884, by the Virginia Historical Society, and edited
by R. A. Brock, are of great value for the political history of the
colonies in this period.
DIO CASSIUS (more correctly CASSIUS Dio), COCCEIANUS
(c. A.D. 150-235), Roman historian, was born at Nicaea in
Bithynia. His father was Cassius Apronianus, governor of
Dalmatia and Cilicia under Marcus Aurelius, and on his mother's
side he was the grandson of Dio Chrysostom, who had assumed
the surname of Cocceianus in honour of his patron the emperor
Cocceius Nerva. After his father's death, Dio Cassius left
Cilicia for Rome (180) and became a member of the senate.
During the reign of Commodus, Dio practised as an advocate at
the Roman bar, and held the offices of aedile and quaestor. He
was raised to the praetorship by Pertinax (193), but did not
assume office till the reign of Septimius Severus, with whom he
was for a long time on the most intimate footing. By Macrinus
he was entrusted with the administration of Pergamum and
Smyrna; and on his return to Rome he was raised to the
consulship about 220. After this he obtained the proconsulship
of Africa, and again on his return was sent as legate successively
to Dalmatia and Pannonia. He was raised a second time to
the consulship by Alexander Severus, in 229; but on the plea
of ill health soon afterwards retired to Nicaea, where he died.
Before writing his history of Rome (Tco/uaoca or 'Pw^aiKri
'Icrropta), Dio Cassius had dedicated to the emperor Severus
an account of various dreams and prodigies which had
presaged his elevation to the throne (perhaps the 'Ev65ta
attributed to Dio by Suidas), and had also written a biography
of his fellow-countryman Arrian. The history of Rome, which
DIOCESE DIG CHRYSOSTOM
279
consisted of eighty books, and, after the example of Livy, was
divided into decades, began with the landing of Aeneas in Italy,
and was continued as far as the reign of Alexander Severus
(222-235). Of this great work we 'possess books 36-60, contain-
ing the history of events from 68 B.C.-A.D. 47; books 36 and
55-60 are imperfect. We also have part of 35 and 36-80 in the
epitome of John Xiphilinus, an nth-century Byzantine monk.
For the earlier period the loss of Dio's work is partly supplied
by the history of Zonaras, who followed him closely. Numerous
fragments are also contained in the excerpts of Constantine
Porphyrogenitus. Dio's work is a most important authority for
the history of the last years of the republic and the early empire.
His industry was great and the various important offices he held
afforded him ample opportunities for historical investigation.
His style, though marred by Latinisms, is clearer than that of
his model Thucydides, and his narrative shows the hand of the
practised soldier and politician; the language is correct and
free from affectation. But he displays a superstitious regard
for miracles and prophecies; he has nothing to say against the
arbitrary acts of the emperors, which he seems to take as a matter
of course; and his work, although far more than a mere compila-
tion, is not remarkable for impartiality, vigour of judgment or
critical historical faculty.
The best edition with notes is that of H. S. Reimar (1750-1752),
new ed. by F. G. Sturz (1824-1836); text by I. Melber (1890 foil.),
with account of previous editions, and U. P. Boissevain (1895 1901) ;
translation by H. B. Foster (Troy, New York, 1905 foil.), with full
bibliography ; see also W. Christ, Geschichte der gnechischen Litteratur
(1898), p. 675; E. Schwartz in Pauly-Wisspwa's Realencydopadie,
iii. pt. 2 (1899) ; C. Wachsmuth, Einleitung in das Studium der alien
Geschichte (1895).
DIOCESE (formed on Fr. diocese, in place of the Eng. form
diocess current until the ipth century from Lat. dioecesis,
med. Lat. variant diocesis, from Gr. 5uo'ua\ais, " house-
keeping," " administration," SiouctLV, " to keep house," " to
govern"), the sphere of a bishop's jurisdiction. In this, its
sole modern sense, the word diocese (dioecesis) has only been
regularly used since the gth century, though isola ted instances of
such use occur so early as the 3rd, what is now known as a diocese
having been till then usually called a parochia (parish). The
Greek word 5iouo7<r(.s, from meaning " administration," came
to be applied to the territorial circumscription in which ad-
ministration was exercised. It was thus first applied e.g. to the
three districts of Cibyra, Apamea and Synnada, which were added
to Cilicia in Cicero's time (between 56 and 50 B.C.). The word
is here equivalent to " assize-districts " (Tyrrell and Purser's
edition of Cicero Epist. ad fam. iii. 8. 4; xiii. 67; cf. Strabo
xiii. 628-629). But in the reorganization of .the empire, begun
by Diocletian and completed by Constantine, the word " diocese"
acquired a more important meaning, the empire being divided
into twelve dioceses, of which the largest Oriens embraced
sixteen provinces, and the smallest Britain four (see ROME:
Ancient History; and W. T. Arnold, Roman Provincial Adminis-
tration, pp. 187, 194-196, which gives a list of the dioceses and
their subdivisions). The organization of the Christian church in
the Roman empire following very closely the lines of the civil
administration (see CHURCH HISTORY), the word diocese, in its
ecclesiastical sense, was at first applied to the sphere of jurisdic-
tion, not of a bishop, but of a metropolitan. 1 Thus Anastasius
Bibliothecarius (d. c. 886), in his life of Pope Dionysius, says that
he assigned churches to the presbyters, and established dioceses
(parochiae) and provinces (dioeceses). The word, however, sur-
vived in its general sense of " office " or " administration," and
it was even used during the middle ages for " parish " (see Du
Cange, Glossarium, s. " Dioecesis " 2).
The practice, under the Roman empire, of making the areas of
ecclesiastical administration very exactly coincide with those of
the civil administration, was continued in the organization of the
church beyond the borders of the empire, and many dioceses to
this day preserve the limits of long vanished political divisions.
The process is well illustrated in the case of English bishoprics.
But this practice was based on convenience, not principle; and
1 For exceptions see Hinschius ii. p. 39, note I.
the limits of the dioceses, once fixed, did not usually change with
the changing political boundaries. Thus Hincmar, archbishop
of Reims, complains that not only his metropolitanate (dioecesis)
but his bishopric (parochia) is divided between two realms under
two kings; and this inconvenient overlapping of jurisdictions
remained, in fact, very common in Europe until the readjust-
ments of national boundaries by the territorial settlements of the
i gth century. In principle, however, the subdivision of a diocese,
in the event of the work becoming too heavy for one bishop,
was very early admitted, e.g. by the first council at Lugo in Spain
(569), which erected Lugo into a metropolitanate, the consequent
division of diocese being confirmed by the king of the second
council, held in 572. Another reason for dividing a diocese, and
establishing a new see, has been recognized by the church as
duly existing " if the sovereign should think fit to endow some
principal village or town with the rank and privileges of a
city" (Bingham, lib. xvii. c. 5). But there are canons for the
punishment of such as might induce the sovereign so to erect
any town into a city, solely with the view of becoming bishop
thereof. Nor could any diocese be divided without the consent
of the primate.
In England an act of parliament is necessary for the creation of
new dioceses. In the reign of Henry VIII. six new dioceses were
thus created (under an act of 1539); but from that time onward
until the I9th century they remained practically unchanged.
The Ecclesiastical Commissioners Act 1836, which created two
new dioceses (Ripon and Manchester), remodelled the state of the
old dioceses by an entirely new adjustment of the revenues and
patronage of each see, and also extended or curtailed the parishes
and counties in the various jurisdictions.
By the ancient custom of the church the bishop takes his title,
not from his diocese, but from his see, i.e. the place where his
cathedral is established. Thus the old episcopal titles are all
derived from cities. This tradition has been broken, however, by
the modern practice of bishops in the United States and the
British colonies, e.g. archbishop of the West Indies, bishop of
Pennsylvania, Wyoming, &c. (see BISHOP).
See Hinschius, Kirchenrecht, ii. 38, &c. ; Joseph Bingham, Origines
ecclesiasticae, 9 yols. (1840); Du Cange, Glossarium, s. " Dioecesis ";
New English Dictionary (Oxford, 1897), s. " Diocese."
DID CHRYSOSTOM (c. A.D. 40-115), Greek sophist and
rhetorician, was born at Piusa (mod. Brusa), a town at the foot
of Mount Olympus in Bithynia. He was called Chrysostom
(" golden-mouthed ") from his eloquence, and also to distinguish
him from his grandson, the historian Dio Cassius; his surname
Cocceianus was derived from his patron, the emperor Cocceius
Nerva. Although he did much to promote the welfare of his
native place, he became so unpopular there that he migrated to
Rome, but, having incurred the suspicion of Domitian, he was
banished from Italy. With nothing in his pocket but Plato's
Phaedo and Demosthenes' De falsa legalione, he wandered about
in Thrace, Mysia, Scythia and the land of the Getae. He
returned to Rome on the accession of Nerva, with whom and
his successor Trajan he was on intimate terms. During this
period he paid a visit to Prusa, but, disgusted at his reception,
he went back to Rome. The place and date of his death are
unknown; it is certain, however, that he was alive in 112, when
the younger Pliny was governor of Bithynia.
Eighty orations, or rather essays on political, moral and
philosophical subjects, have come down to us under his name;
the Corinthiaca, however, is generally regarded as spurious, and
is probably the work of Favorinus of Arelate. Of the extant
orations the following are the most important: Boryslhenitica
(xxxvi.), on the advantages of monarchy, addressed to the
inhabitants of Olbia.and containing interesting information on the
history of the Greek colonies on the shores of the Black Sea;
Olympica (xii.), in which Pheidias is represented as setting forth
the principles which he had followed in his statue of Zeus, one
passage being supposed by some to have suggested Lessing's
Laocoon; Rhodiaca (xxxi.), an attack on the Rhodians for alter-
ing the names on their statues, and thus converting them into
memorials of famous men of theday (an imitation of Demosthenes'
280
DIOCLETIAN DIOCLETIAN, EDICT OF
Leptines); De. regno (i.-iv.), addressed to Trajan, a eulogy of the
monarchical form of government, under which the emperor is the
representative of Zeus upon earth; De Aeschylo et Sophocle et
Euripide (lii.), a comparison of the treatment of the story of
Philoctetes by the three great Greek tragedians; and Philoctetes
(lix.), a summary of the prologue to the lost play by Euripides.
In his later life, Dio, who had originally attacked the philosophers,
himself became a convert to Stoicism. To this period belong the
essays on moral subjects, such as the denunciation of various
cities (Tarsus, Alexandria) for their immorality. Most pleasing
of all is the Euboica (vii.), a description of the simple life of the
herdsmen and huntsmen of Euboea as contrasted with that of the
inhabitants of the towns. Troica (xi.), an attempt to prove to
the inhabitants of Ilium that Homer was a liar and that Troy was
never taken, is a good example of a sophistical rhetorical exercise.
Amongst his lost works were attacks on philosophers and
Domitian, and Getica (wrongly attributed to Dio Cassius by
Suldas), an account of the manners and customs of the Getae, for
which he had collected material on the spot during his banish-
ment. The style of Dio, who took Plato and Xenophon especially
as his models, is pure and refined, and on the whole free from
rhetorical exaggeration. With Plutarch he played an impoitant
part in the revival of Greek literature at the end of the ist
century of the Christian era.
Editions: J. J. Reiske (Leipzig, 1784); A. Emperius (Bruns-
wick, 1844) ; L. Dindorf (Leipzig, 1857) ; H. von Arnim (Berlin, 1893-
1896). The ancient authorities for his life are Philostratus, Vit. Soph.
i. 7; Photius, Bibliotheca, cod. 209; Suidas, s.v. ; Synesius, Aiav.
On Dio generally see H. von Arnim, Leben und Werke des Dion von
Prusa (Berlin, 1898) ; C. Martha, Les Moralistes sous I' empire remain
(1865); W. Christ, Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur (1898),
520; J. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship (2nd ed., 1906) ;
W. Schmid in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopddie, v. pt. I (1905).
The Euboica has been abridged by J. P. Mahaffy in The Greek World
under Roman Sway (1890), and there is a translation of Select Essays
by Gilbert Wakefield (1800).
DIOCLETIAN (GAIUS AURELIUS VALERIUS DIOCLETIANUS)
(A.D. 245-313), Roman emperor 284-305, is said to have been
born at Dioclea, near Salona, in Dalmatia. His original name
was Diocles. Of humble origin, he served with high distinction
and held important military commands under the emperors
Probus and Aurelian, and accompanied Carus to the Persian War.
After the death of Numerianus he was chosen emperor by the
troops at Chalcedon, on the i7th of September 284, and slew with
his own hands Arrius Aper, the praefect of the praetorians. He
thus fulfilled the prediction of a druidess of Gaul, that he would
mount a throne as soon as he had slain a wild boar (aper) . Having
been installed at Nicomedia, he received general acknowledg-
ment after the murder of Carinus. In consequence of the rising of
the Bagaudae in Gaul, and the threatening attitude of the German
peoples on the Rhine, he appointed Maximian Augustus in 286;
and, in view of further dangers and disturbances in the empire,
proclafmedConstantiusChlorusand Galerius Caesars in 293. Each
of the four rulers was placed at a separate capital Nicomedia,
Mediolanum (Milan), Augusta Trevirorum (Trier), Sirmium.
This amounted to an entirely new organization of the empire, on
a plan commensurate with the work of government which it now
had to carry on. At the age of fifty-nine, exhausted with labour,
Diocletian abdicated his sovereignty on the ist of May 305, and
retired to Salona, where he died eight years afterwards (others
give 316 as the year of his death). The end of his reign was
memorable for the persecution of the Christians. In defence of
this it may be urged that he hoped to strengthen the empire by
reviving the old religion, and that the church as an independent
state over whose inner life at least he possessed no influence,
appeared to be a standing menace to his authority. Under
Diocletian the senate became a political nonentity, the last traces
of republican institutions disappeared, and were replaced by
an absolute monarchy approaching to despotism. He wore the
royal diadem, assumed the title of lord, and introduced a com-
plicated system of ceremonial and etiquette, borrowed from the
East, in order to surround the monarchy and its representative
with mysterious sanctity. But at the same time he devoted
his energies to the improvement of the administration of the
empire; he reformed the standard of coinage, fixed the price
of provisions and other necessaries of daily life, remitted the
tax upon inheritances and manumissions, abolished various
monopolies, repressed corruption and encouraged trade. In
addition, he adorned the city with numerous buildings, such
as the thermae, of which extensive remains are still standing
(Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, 39; Eutropius ix. 13; Zonaras
xii. 31).
See A. Vogel, Der Kaiser Diocletian (Gotha, 1857), a short sketch,
with notes on the authorities; T. Preuss, Kaiser Diocletian und seine
Zeit (Leipzig, 1869); V. Casagrandi, Diocleziano (Faenza, 1876);
H. Schiller, Gesch. der romischen Kaiserzeit, ii. (1887) ; T. Bernhardt,
Geschichte Roms von Valerian bis zu Diocletians Tod (1867); A. J.
Mason, The Persecution of Diocletian (i 876) ; P. Allard, La Persecution
de Diocletien (1890); V. Schultzc in Herzog-Hauck's Realency-
klopddie fiir proteslantische Theologie, iv. (1898); Gibbon. Decline
and Fall, chaps. 13 and 16; A. W. Hunzinger, Die Diocletianische
Staatsreform (1899); O. Seeck, "Die Schatzungsordnung Dio-
cletians" in Zeitschrift fur Social- und Wirthschaftsgeschichte (1896),
a valuable paper with notes containing references to sources; and
O. Seeck, Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt, vol. i. cap. I.
On his military reforms see T. Mommsen in Hermes, xxiv-., and on his
tariff system, DIOCLETIAN, EDICT OF.
DIOCLETIAN, EDICT OF (De pretiis rerum ijenaUum), an im-
perial edict promulgated in A.D. 301, fixing a maximum price for
provisions and other articles of commerce, and a maximum rate of
wages. Incomplete copies of it have been discovered at various
times in various places, the first (in Greek and Latin) in 1709, at
Stratonicea in Caria, by W. Sherard, British consul at Smyrna,
containing the preamble and the beginning of the tables down to
No. 403. This partial copy was completed by W. Bankcs in 1817.
A second fragment (now in the museum at Aix in Provence) was
brought from Egypt in 1809; it supplements the preamble by
specifying the titles of the emperors and Caesars and the number
of times they had held them, whereby the date of publication can
be accurately determined. For other fragments and their localities
see Corpus Inscriptionum Lalinarum (iii., 1873, PP- 801 and 1055;
and supplement i., 1893, p. 1909); special mention may be made
of those of Elatea, Plataea and Megalopolis. Latin being the
official language all over the empire, there was no official Greek
translation (except for Greece proper), as is shown by the varia-
tions in those portions of the text of which more than one Greek
version is extant. Further, all the fragments come from the
provinces which were under the jurisdiction of Diocletian, from
which it is argued that the edict was only published in the
eastern portion of the empire; certainly the phrase universo orbi
in the preamble is against this, but the words may merely be an
exaggerated description of Diocletian's special provinces, and if it
had been published in the western portion as well, it is curious
that no traces haVe been found of it. The articles mentioned
in the edict, which is chiefly interesting as giving their relative
values at the time, include cereals, wine, oil, meat, vegetables,
fruits, skins, leather, furs, foot-gear, timber, carpets, articles of
dress, and the wages range from the ordinary labourer to the
professional advocate. The unit of money was the denarius, not
the silver, but a copper coin introduced by Diocletian, of which
the value has been fixed approximately at th of a penny. The
punishment for exceeding the prices fixed was death or deporta-
tion. The edict was a well-intended but abortive attempt, in
great measure in the interests of the soldiers, to meet the distress
caused by several bad harvests and commercial speculation. The
actual effect was disastrous; the restrictions thus placed upon
commercial freedom brought about a disturbance of the food
supply in non-productive countries, many traders were ruined,
and the edict soon fell into abeyance.
See Lactantius, De morlibus persecutorum, vii., a contemporary
who, as a Christian, writes with natural bias against Diocletian;
T. Mommsen, Das Edict Diocletians (1851) ; W. M. Leake, An Edict
of Diocletian (1826) ; W. H. Waddington, L'Edit de Diocletien (1864),
and E. Lepaulle, L'Edit de maximum (1886), both containing intro-
ductions a'nd ample notes; J. C. Rolfe and F. B. Tarbell in Papers
of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, v. (1892)
(Plataea); W. Loring in Journal of Hellenic Studies, xi. (1890)
(Megalopolis) ; P. Paris in Bulletin de correspondance hellenique, ix.
(1885) (Elatea). There is an edition of the whole by Mommsen, with
notes by H. Bliimner (1893).
DIODATI DIOGENES, THE CYNIC
281
DIODATI, GIOVANNI (1576-1649), Swiss Protestant divine,
was born at Geneva on the 6th of June 1576, of a noble family
originally belonging to Lucca, which had been expatriated on
account of its Protestantism. At the age of twenty-one he was
nominated professor of Hebrew at Geneva on the recommendation
of Theodor Beza. In 1606 he became professor of theology, in
1608 pastor, or parish minister, at Geneva, and in the following
year he succeeded Beza as professor of theology. As a preacher
he was eloquent, bold and fearless. He held a high place among
the reformers of Geneva, by whom he was sent on a mission to
France in 1614. He had previously visited Italy, and made the
acquaintance of Paolo Sarpi, whom he endeavoured unsuccess-
fully to engage in a reformation movement. In 1618-1619 ne
attended the synod of Dort. and took a prominent part in its
deliberations, being one of the six divines appointed to draw up
the account of its proceedings. He was a thorough Calvinist, and
entirely sympathized with the condemnation of the Arminians.
In 1645 he resigned his professorship, and died at Geneva on the
3rd of October 1649. Diodati is chiefly famous as the author of
the translation of the Bible into Italian (1603, edited with notes,
1607) . He also undertook a translation of the Bible into French,
which appeared with notes in 1644. Among his other works are
his Annotations in Biblia (1607), of which an English translation
(Pious and Learned Annotations upon the Holy Bible) was
published in London in 1648, and various polemical treatises,
such as De fictitio Pontificiorum Purgatorio (1619); De justa
secessions Reformatorum ab Ecclesia Romano, (1628); De
Antichristo, &c. He also published French translations of
Sarpi's History of the Council of Trent, and of Edwin Sandys's
Account of the State of Religion in the West.
DIODORUS CRONUS (4th century B.C.), Greek philosopher of
the Megarian school. Practically nothing is known of his life.
Diogenes Laertius (ii. in) tells a story that, while staying at the
court of Ptolemy Soter, Diodorus was asked to solve a dialectical
subtlety by Stilpo. Not being able to answer on the spur of the
moment, he was nicknamed 6 Kpocos (the God, equivalent to
" slowcoach ") by Ptolemy. The story goes that he died of
shame at his failure. Strabo, however, says (xiv. 658; xvii. 838)
that he took the name from Apollonius, his master. Like the rest
of the Megarian school he revelled in verbal quibbles, proving that
motion and existence are impossible. His was the famous
sophism known as the Kupieiiow. The impossible cannot
result from the possible; a past event cannot become other than
it is; but if an event, at a given moment, had been possible, from
this possible would result something impossible; therefore the
original event was impossible. This problem was taken up by
Chrysippus, who admitted that he could not solve it. Apart
from these verbal gymnastics, Diodorus did not differ from
the Megarian school. From his great dialectical skill he earned
the title 6 StaXomKos, or SiaAe/m/curaTcs, a title which was
borne by his five daughters, who inherited his ability.
See Cicero, De Fato, 6, 7, 9; Aristotle, Metaphysica, 6 3; Sext.
Empiric., adv. Math. x. 85; Ritter and Preller, Hist, philos. Cr. et
Rom. chap. v. 234-236 (ed. 1869); and bibliography appended
to article MEGARIAN SCHOOL.
DIODORUS SICULUS, Greek historian, born at Agyrium in
Sicily, lived in the times of Julius Caesar and Augustus. From
his own statements we learn that he travelled in Egypt between
60-^57 B.C. and that he spent several years in Rome. The latest
event mentioned by him belongs to the year 21 B.C. He asserts
that he devoted thirty years to the composition of his history, and
that he undertook frequent and dangerous journeys in prosecu-
tion of his historical researches. These assertions, however, find
little credit with recent critics. The history, to which Diodorus
gave the name /3t/3Xio0i7/tt) toropucq (Bibliotheca historica,
" Historical Library "), consisted of forty books, and was divided
into three parts. The first treats of the mythic history of the non-
Hellenic, and afterwards of the Hellenic tribes, to the destruction
of Troy; the second section ends with Alexander's death; and
the third continues the history as far as the beginning of Caesar's
Gallic War. Of this extensive work there are still extant only the
first five books, treating of the mythic history of the Egyptians,
Assyrians, Ethiopians and Greeks; and also the nth to the 2oth
books inclusive, beginning with the second Persian War, and end-
ing with the history of the successors of Alexander, previous to
the partition of the Macedonian empire (302). The rest exists
only in fragments preserved in Photius and the excerpts of
Constantine Porphyrogenitus. The faults of Diodorus arise
partly from the nature of the undertaking, and the awkward form
of annals into which he has thrown the historical portion of his
narrative. He shows none of the critical faculties of the historian,
merely setting down a number of unconnected details. His
narrative contains frequent repetitions and contradictions, is
without colouring, and monotonous; and his simple diction,
which stands intermediate between pure Attic and the colloquial
Greek of his time, enables us to detect in the narrative the
undigested fragments of the materials which he employed. In
spite of its defects, however, the Bibliotheca is of considerable
value as to some extent supplying the loss of the works of older
authors, from which it is compiled. Unfortunately, Diodorus
does not always quote his authorities, but his general sources of
information were in history and chronology, Castor, Ephorus
and Apollodorus; in geography, Agatharchides and Artemidorus.
In special sections he followed special authorities e.g. in the
history of his native Sicily, Philistus and Timaeus.
Editio princeps, by H. Stephanus (1559); of other editions the
best are: P. Wesseling (1746), not yet superseded; L. Dindorf
(1828-1831); (text) L. Dindorf (1866-1868, revised by F. Vogel,
1888-1893 and C. T. Fischer, 1905-1906). The standard works on
the sources of Diodorus are C. G. Heyne, De fontibus et auctoribus
historiarum Diodori, printed in Dindorf's edition, and C. A.
Volquardsen, Die Quellen der griechischen und sicilischen Geschichten
bei Diodor (1868); A. von Mess, Rheinisches Museum (1906); see
also L. O. Brocker, Untersuchungen uber Diodor (1879), short, but
containing much information; O. Maass, Kleitarch und Diodor
(1894- ); G. J. Schneider, De Diodori fontibus, i.-iv. (1880);
C. Wachsmuth, Einleitung in das Studium der alien Geschichte (1895) ;
GREECE: Ancient History, "Authorities."
DIODOTUS, Seleucid satrap of Bactria, who rebelled against
Antiochus II. (about 255) and became the founder of the Graeco-
Bactrian kingdom (Trogus, Prol. 41; Justin xli. 4, 5, where he is
wrongly called Theodotus; Strabo xi. 515). His power seems to
have extended over the neighbouring provinces. Arsaces, the
chieftain of the nomadic (Dahan) tribe of the Parni, fled before
him into Parthia and here became the founder of the Parthian
kingdom (Strabo I.e.). When Seleucus II. in 239 attempted to
subjugate the rebels in the east he seems to have united with him
against the Parthians (Justin xli. 4, 9). Soon afterwards he died
and was succeeded by his son Diodotus II., who concluded a peace
with the Parthians (Justin I.e.). Diodotus II. was killed by
another usurper, Euthydemus (Polyb. xi. 34, 2). Of Diodotus I.
we possess gold and silver coins, which imitate the coins of
Antiochus II.; on these he sometimes calls himself Soter, " the
saviour." As the power of the Seleucids was weak and con-
tinually attacked by Ptolemy II., the eastern provinces a*nd
their Greek cities were exposed to the invasion of the nomadic
barbarians and threatened with destruction (Polyb. xi. 34, 5);
thus the erection of an independent kingdom may have been a
necessity and indeed an advantage to the Greeks, and this epithet
well deserved. Diodotus Soter appears also on coins struck in his
memory by the later Graeco-Bactrian kings Agathocles and
Antimachus. Cf. A. v. Sallet, Die Nachfolger Alexanders d. Gr.
in Baktrien und Indien ; Percy Gardner, Calal. of the Coins of the
Greek and Scythian Kings of Bactria and India (Brit. Mus.) ; see
also BACTRIA. (D. M.)
DIOGENES, " the Cynic," Greek philosopher, was born at
Sinope about 412 B.C., and died in 323 at Corinth, according to
Diogenes Laertius, on the day on which Alexander the Great died
at Babylon. His father, Icesias, a money-changer, was imprisoned
or exiled on the charge of adulterating the coinage. Diogenes was
included in the charge, and went to Athens with one attendant,
whom he dismissed, saying, " If Manes can live without Diogenes,
why not Diogenes without Manes ? " Attracted by the ascetic
teaching of Antisthenes, be became his pupil, despite the brutality
with which he was received, and rapidly excelled his master both
in reputation and in the austerity of his life. The stories which
282
DIOGENES APOLLONIATES DIOGNETUS
are told of him are probably true; in any case, they serve
to illustrate the logical consistency of his character. He inured
himself to the vicissitudes of weather by living in a tub belonging
to the temple of Cybele. The single wooden bowl he possessed he
destroyed on seeing a peasant boy drink from the hollow of his
hands. On a voyage to Aegina he was captured by pirates and
sold as a slave in Crete to a Corinthian named Xeniades. Being
asked his trade, he replied that he knew no trade but that of
governing men, and that he wished to be sold to a man who
needed a master. As tutor to the two sons of Xeniades, he lived
in Corinth for the rest of his life, which he devoted entirely to
preaching the doctrines of virtuous self-control. At the Isthmian
games he lectured to large audiences who turned to him from
Antisthenes. It was, probably, at one of these festivals that he
craved from Alexander the single boon that he would not stand
between him and the sun, to which Alexander replied " If I were
not Alexander, I would be Diogenes." On his death, about which
there exist several accounts, the Corinthians erected to his
memory a pillar on which there rested a dog of Parian marble.
His ethical teaching will be found in the article CYNICS (q.v.).
It may suffice to say here that virtue, for him, consisted in
the avoidance of all physical pleasure; that pain and hunger
were positively helpful in the pursuit of goodness; that all the
artificial growths of society appeared to him incompatible with
' truth and goodness; that moralization implies a return to nature
and simplicity. He has been credited with going to extremes of
impropriety in pursuance of these ideas; probably, however, his
reputation has suffered from the undoubted immorality of some of
his successors. Both in ancient and in modern times, his person-
ality has appealed strongly to sculptors and to painters. Ancient
busts exist in the museums of the Vatican, the Louvre and the
Capitol. The interview between Diogenes and Alexander is repre-
sented in an ancient marble bas-relief found in the Villa Albani.
Rubens, Jordaens, Steen, Van d'er Werff, Jeaurat, Salvator Rosa
and Karel Dujardin have painted various episodes in his life.
The chief ancient authority for his life is Diogenes Laertius vi. 20;
see also Mayor's notes on Juvenal, Satires, xiv. 308-314; and article
CYNICS.
DIOGENES APOLLONIATES (c. 460 B.C.), Greek natural
philosopher, was a native of Apollonia in Crete. Although of
Dorian stock, he wrote in the Ionic dialect, like all the physiologi
(physical philosophers) . There seems no doubt that he lived some
time at Athens, where it is said that he became so unpopular
(probably owing to his supposed atheistical opinions) that his
life was in danger. The views of Diogenes are transferred in the
Clouds (264 ff.) of Aristophanes to Socrates. Like Anaximenes,
he believed air to be the one source of all being, and all other
substances to be derived from it by condensation and rarefaction.
His chief advance upon the doctrines of Anaximenes is that
he asserted air, the primal force, to be possessed of intelligence -
" the air which stirred within him not only prompted, but in-
structed. The air as the origin of all things is necessarily an
eternal, imperishable substance, but as soul it is also necessarily
endowed with consciousness." In fact, he belonged to the old
Ionian school, whose doctrines he modified by the theories of
his contemporary Anaxagoras, although he avoided his dualism.
His most important work was Ilept <j>ixreias (De nalura), of
which considerable fragments are extant (chiefly in Simplicius) ;
it is possible that he wrote also Against the Sophists and On the
Nature of Man, to which the well-known fragment about the
veins would belong; possibly these discussions were subdivisions
of his great work.
Fragments in F. Mullach, Fragmenta philosophorum Graecorum,
i. (1860); F. Panzerbieter, Diogents Apottoniates (1830), with
philosophical dissertation; J. Burnet, Early Greek Philosophy (1892) ;
H. Ritter and L. Preller, Historia philosophiae (4th ed., 1869),
59-68; E. Krause, Diogenes von Apollonia (1909). See IONIAN
SCHOOL.
DIOGENES LAERTIUS (or LAERTIUS DIOGENES), the
biographer of the Greek philosophers, is supposed by some to have
received his surname from the town of Laerte in Cilicia, and by
others from the Roman family of the Laertii. Of the circum-
stances of his life we know nothing. He must have lived after
Sextus Empiricus (c. A.D. 200), whom he mentions, and before
Stephanus of Byzantium (c. A.D. 50x3), who quotes him. It is
probable that he flourished during the reign of Alexander Severus
(A.D. 222-235) an( l hi s successors. His own opinions are equally
uncertain. By some he was regarded as a Christian; but it seems
more probable that he was an Epicurean. The work by which
he is known professes to give an account of the lives and sayings
of the Greek philosophers. Although it is at best an uncritical
and unphilosophical compilation, its value, as giving us an insight
into the private life of the Greek sages, justly led Montaigne
to exclaim that he wished that instead of one Laertius there had
been a dozen. He treats his subject in two divisions which he
describes as the Ionian and the Italian schools; the division is
quite unscientific. The biographies of the former begin with
Anaximander, and end with Clitomachus, Theophrastus and
Chrysippus; the latter begins with Pythagoras, and ends with
Epicurus. The Socratic school, with its various branches, .is
classed with the Ionic; while the Eleatics and sceptics are
treated under the Italic. The whole of the last book is devoted to
Epicurus, and contains three most interesting letters addressed
to Herodotus, Pythocles and Menoeceus. His chief authorities
were Diocles of Magnesia's Cursory Notice ('Emdpo^ri) of Philo-
sophers and Favorinus's Miscellaneous History and Memoirs.
From the statements of Burlaeus (Walter Burley, a 14th-century
monk) in his De iiila et rnoribus philosophorum the text of
Diogenes seems to have been much fuller than that which we
now possess. In addition to the Lives, Diogenes was the author
of a work in verse on famous men, in various metres.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Editio princeps (1533) ; H. Hiibner and C.
Jacobitz with commentary (1828-1833); C. G. Cobet (1850), text
only. See F. Nietzsche, " De Diogenis Laertii fontibus " in
Rheinisches Museum, xxiii., xxiv. (1868-1869) ; J. Freudenthal,
" Zu Quellenkunde Diog. Lae'rt.," in Hellenistische Studien, iii.
(1879); O. Maass, De biographis Graecis (1880); V. Egger, De
fontibus Diog. La'ert. (1881). There is an English translation by
C. D. Yonge in Bohn's Classical Library.
DIOGENIANUS, of Heraclea on the Pontus (or in Caria), Greek
grammarian, flourished during the reign of Hadrian. He was
the author of an alphabetical lexicon, chiefly of poetical words,
abridged from the great lexicon (Ilept y\taa<jwv') of Pamphilus
of Alexandria (ff. A.D. 50) and other similar works. It was also
known by the title TlepiepycnrivriTes (for the use of " industrious
poor students "). It formed the basis of the lexicon, or rather
glossary, of Hesychius of Alexandria, which is described in the
preface as a new edition of the work of Diogenianus. We still
possess a collection of proverbs under his name, probably an
abridgment of the collection made by himself from his lexicon
(ed. by E. Leutsch and F. W. Schneidewin in Paroemiographi
Graeci, i. 1839). Diogenianus was also the author of an Anthology
of epigrams, of treatises on rivers, lakes, fountains and pro-
montories; and of a list (with map) of all the towns in the world.
DIOGNETUS, EPISTLE TO, one of the early Christian apolo-
gies. Diognetus, of whom nothing is really known, has expressed
a desire to know what Christianity really means " What is this
new race " of men who are neither pagans nor Jews? " What is
this new interest which has entered into men's lives now and not
before?" The anonymous answer begins with a refutation of
the folly of worshipping idols, fashioned by human hands and
needing to be guarded if of precious material. The repulsive
smell of animal sacrifices is enough to show their monstious
absurdity. Next Judaism is attacked. Jews abstain from
idolatry and worship one God, but they fall into the same error of
repulsive sacrifice, and have absurd superstitions about meats
and sabbaths, circumcision and new moons. So far the task is
easy; but the mystery of the Christian religion " think not to
learn from man." A passage of great eloquence follows, showing
that Christians have no obvious peculiarities that mark them off
as a separate race. In spite of blameless lives they are hated.
Their home is in heaven, while they live fm earth. " In a word,
what the soul is in a body, this the Christians are in the
world. . . . The soul is enclosed in the body, and yet itself
holdeth the body together: so Christians are kept in the world
as in a prison-house, and yet they themselves hold the world
DIOMEDES DIONYSIA
283
together." This strange life is inspired in them by the almighty
and invisible God, who sent no angel or subordinate messenger to
teach them, but His own Son by whom He created the universe.
No man could have known God, had He not thus declared
Himself. " If thou too wouldst have this faith, learn first the
knowledge of the Father. For God loved men, for whose sake He
made the world. . . . Knowing Him, thou wilt love Him and imi-
tate His goodness; and marvel not if a man can imitate God: he
can, if God will. " By kindness to the needy, by giving them what
God has given to him, a man can become " a god of them that
receive, an imitator of God." " Then shalt thou on earth behold
God's life in heaven; then shalt thou begin to speak the mysteries
of God." A few lines after this the letter suddenly breaks off.
Even this rapid summary may show that the writer was a man
of no ordinary power, and there is no other early Christian
writing outside the New Testament which appeals so strongly
to modern readers. The letter has been often classed with the
writings of the Apostolic Fathers, and in some ways it seems
to mark the transition from the sub-apostolic age to that of the
Apologists. Bishop Lightfoot, who speaks of the letter as " one
of the noblest and most impressive of early Christian apologies,"
places it c. A.D. 150, and inclines to identify Diognetus with the
tutor of Marcus Aurelius. Harnack and others would place it
later, perhaps in the 3rd century. There are some striking
parallels in method and language to the Apology of Aristides
(q.v.), and also to the early " Preaching of Peter."
The one manuscript which contained this letter perished by fire
at Strassburg in 1870, but happily it had been accurately collated
by Reuss nine years before. It formed part of a collection of
works supposed to be by Justin Martyr, and to this mistaken
attribution its preservation is no doubt due. Both thought and
language mark the author off entirely from Justin. The end
of the letter is lost, but there followed in the codex the end of
a homily, 1 which was attached without a break to the epistle:
this points to the loss in some earlier codex of pages containing
the end of the letter and the beginning of the homily.
The Epistle may be read in J. B. Lightfoot's Apostolic Fathers
(ed. min.) , where there is also a translation into English. (J. A. R.)
DIOMEDES, in Greek legend, son of Tydeus, one of the bravest
of the heroes of the Trojan War. In the Iliad he is the favourite
of Ather.a, by whose aid he not only overcomes all mortals who
venture to oppose him, but is even enabled to attack the gods. In
the post-Homeric story, he made his way with Odysseus by an
underground passage into the citadel of Troy and carried off the
Palladium, the presence of which within the walls secured Troy
against capture (Virgil, Aeneid, ii. 164). On his return to Argos,
finding that his wife had been unfaithful, he removed to Aetolia,
and thence to Daunia (Apulia), where he married the daughter of
King Daunus. He was buried or mysteriously disappeared on
one of the islands in the Adriatic called after him Diomedeae, his
sorrowing companions being changed into birds by the gods out
of compassion (Ovid, Melam. xiv. 457 ff.). He was the reputed
founder of Argyrippa (Arpi) and other Italian cities (Aeneid, xi.
243 ff.). He was worshipped as a hero not only in Greece, but on
the coast of the Adriatic, as at Thurii and Metapontum. At Argos,
his native place, during the festival of Athena, his shield was
carried through the streets as a relic, together with the Palladium,
and his statue was washed in the river Inachus.
DIOMEDES, Latin grammarian, flourished at the end of the
4th century A.D. He was the author of an extant A rs grammatica
in three books, dedicated to a certain Athanasius. The third book
is the most important, as containing extracts from Suetonius's
De poetis. Diomedes wrote about the same time as Charisius (q.v.)
and used the same sources independently. The works of both
grammarians are valuable, but whereas much cf Charisius has
been lost, the Ars of Diomedes has come down to us complete. In
book i. he treats of the eight parts of speech; in ii. of the elemen-
tary ideas of grammar and of style; in iii. of quantity and metres.
The best edition is in H. Kail's Grammatici Lalini, i. ; see also C. von
Paucker, Kleinere Studien, i. (1883), on the Latinity of Diomedes.
1 Chapters xi. and xii., which Lightfoot suggested might be the
work of Pantaenus.
DION, tyrant of Syracuse (408-353 B.C.), the son of Hipparinus,
and brother-in-law of Dionysius the Elder. In his youth he was
an admirer and pupil of Plato, whom Dionysius had invited to
Syracuse; and he used every effort to inculcate the maxims of
his master in the mind of the tyrant. The stern morality of
Dion was distasteful to the younger Dionysius, and the historian
Philistus, a faithful supporter of despotic power, succeeded in
procuring his banishment on account of alleged intrigues with the
Carthaginians. The exiled philosopher retired to Athens, where
he was at first permitted to enjoy his revenues in peace; but the
intercession of Plato (who had again visited Syracuse to procure
Dion's recall) only served to exasperate the tyrant, and at length
provoked him to confiscate the property of Dion, and give his wife
to another. This last outrage roused Dion. Assembling a small
force at Zacynthus, he sailed to Sicily (357) and was received with
demonstrations of joy. Dionysius, who was in Italy, returned
to Sicily, but was defeated and obliged to flee. Dion himself was
soon after supplanted by the intrigues of Heracleides, and again
banished. The incompetency of the new leader and the cruelties
of Apollocrates, the son of Dionysius, soon led to his recall. He
had, however, scarcely made himself master of Sicily when the
people began to express their discontent with his tyrannical
conduct, and he was assassinated by Callippus, an Athenian
who had accompanied him in his expedition.
See Lives by Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos (cf. Diod. Sic. xvi.
6-20) and in modern times by T. Lau (1860) ; see also SYRACUSE and
SICILY: History.
DIONE, in the earliest Greek mythology, the wife of Zeus. As
such she is associated with Zeus Nai'us (the god of fertilizing
moisture) at Dodona (Strabo vii. p. 329), by whose side she sits,
adorned with a bridal veil and garland and holding a sceptre. As
the oracle declined in importance, her place as the wife of Zeus
was taken by Hera. It is probable that in very early times the
cult of Dione existed in Athens, where she had an altar before the
Erechtheum. After her admission to the general religious system
of the Greeks, Dione was variously described. In the Iliad
(v. 370) she is the mother by Zeus of Aphrodite, who is herself in
later times called Dione (the epithet Dion'aeus was given to Julius
Caesar as claiming descent from Venus) . In Hesiod ( Theog. 353)
she is one of the daughters of Oceanus; in Pherecydes (ap. schol.
Iliad, xviii. 486), one of the nymphs of Dodona, the nurses of
Dionysus; in Euripides (frag. 177), the mother of Dionysus; in
Hyginus (fab. 9. 82), the daughter of Atlas, wife of Tantalus and
mother of Pelops and Niobe. Others make her a Titanid, the
daughter of Uranus and Gaea (Apollodorus i. i). Speaking
generally, Dione may be regarded as the female embodiment
of the attributes of Zeus, to whose name her own is related as
Juno ( = Jovino) to Jupiter.
DIONYSIA, festivals in honour of the god Dionysus generally,
but in particular the festivals celebrated in Attica and by the
branches of the Attic-Ionic race in the islands and in Asia Minor.
In Attica there were two festivals annually, (i) The lesser
Dionysia, or TO, /car' aypovs, was held in the country places for
four days (about the igth to the 22nd of December) at the first
tasting of the new wine. It was accompanied by songs, dance,
phallic processions and the impromptu performances of itinerant
players, who with others from the city thronged to take part in the
excitement of the rustic sports. A favourite amusement was the
Ascoliasmus, or dancing on one leg upon a leathern bag (d<r/c6s),
which had been smeared with oil. (2) The greater Dionysia, or
TO. tv ocrra, was held in the city of Athens for six days (about the
28th of March to the 2nd of April). This was a festival of joy at
the departure of winter and the promise of summer, Dionysus
being regarded as having delivered the people from the wants and
troubles of winter. The religious act of the festival was the
conveying of the ancient image of the god, which had been brought
from Eleutherae to Athens, from the ancient sanctuary of the
Lenaeum to a small temple near the Acropolis and back again,
with a chorus of boys and a procession carrying masks and singing
the dithyrambus. The festival culminated in the production of
tragedies, comedies and satyric dramas in the great theatre
of Dionysus. Other festivals in honour of Dionysus were the
284 DIONYSIUS, POPE DIONYSIUS AREOPAGITICUS
Anthesteria (q.v.) ; the Lenaea (about the 28th to the 3 ist of Janu-
ary), or festival of vats, at which, after a great public banquet, the
citizens went through the city in procession to attend the dramatic
representations; the Oschophoria (October-November), a vintage
festival, so called from the blanches of vine with grapes carried
by twenty youths from the ephebi, two from each tribe, in a race
from the temple of Dionysus in Athens to the temple of Athena
Sciras in Phalerum.
See A. Mommsen, Feste der Stadt Athen (1898); L. Preller,
Griechische Mythologie; L. C. Purser in Smith's Dictionary of
Antiquities (yd ed., 1890); article DIONYSOS in VV. H. Roscher's
Lexikon der Mythologie; and the exhaustive account with biblio-
graphy by J. Girard in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des
antiquites.
DIONYSIUS, pope from 259 to 268. To Dionysius, who was
elected pope in 259 after the persecution of Valerian, fell the task
of reorganizing the Roman church, which had fallen into great
disorder. At the protest of some of the faithful at Alexandria,
he demanded from the bishop of Alexandria, also called Dionysius,
explanations touching his doctrine. He died on the 26th of
December 268.
DIONYSIUS (c. 432-367 B.C.), tyrant of Syracuse, began life as
a clerk in a public office, but by courage and diplomacy succeeded
in making himself supreme (see SYRACUSE). He carried on war
with Carthage with varying success; his attempts to drive the
Carthaginians entirely out of the island failed, and at his death
they were masters of at least a third of it. He also carried on an
expedition against Rhegium and its allied cities in Magna Graecia.
In one campaign, in which he was joined by the Lucanians. he
devastated the territories of Thurii, Croton and Locri. After a
protracted siege he took Rhegium (386), and sold the inhabitants
as slaves. He joined the Illyrians in an attempt to plunder the
temple of Delphi, pillaged the temple of Caere on the Etruscan
coast, and founded several military colonies on the Adriatic. In
the Peloponnesian War he espoused the side of the Spartans, and
assisted them with mercenaries. He also posed as an author and
patron of literature; his poems, severely criticized by Philoxenus,
were hissed at the Olympic games; but having gained a prize
for a tragedy on the Ransom of Hector at the Lenaea at Athens, he
was so elated that he engaged in a debauch which proved fatal.
According to others, he was poisoned by his physicians at the
instigation of his son. His life was written by Philistus, but the
work is not extant. Dionysius was regarded by the ancients as
a type of the worst kind of despot cruel, suspicious and vin-
dictive. Like Peisistratus, he was fond of having distinguished
literary men about him, such as the historian Philistus, the poet
Philoxenus, and the philosopher Plato, but treated them in a most
arbitrary manner.
See Diod. Sic. xiii., xiv., xv. ; J. Bass, Dionysius I. von Syrakus
(Vienna, 1881), with full references to authorities in footnotes;
articles SICILY and SYRACUSE.
His son DIONYSIUS, known as " the Younger," succeeded
in 367 B.C. He was driven from the kingdom by Dion (356) and
fled to Locri; but during the commotions which followed
Dion's assassination, he managed to make himself master of
Syracuse. On the arrival of Timolcon he was compelled to
surrender and retire to Corinth (343), where he spent the rest
of his days in poverty (Diodorus Siculus xvi.; Plutarch,
Timoleon).
See SYRACUSE and TIMOLEON; and, on both the Dionysii, articles
by B. Niese in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclepadie, v. pt. I (1905).
DIONYSIUS AREOPAGITICUS (or " the Areopagite "), named
in Acts xvii. 34 as one of those Athenians who believed when they
had heard Paul preach on Mars Hill. Beyond this mention our
only knowledge of him is the statement of Dionysius, bishop of
Corinth (fl. A.D. 171), recorded by Eusebius (Church Hist. iii. 4;
iv. 23), that this same Dionysius the Areopagite was the first
" bishop " of Athens. Some hundreds of years after the
Areopagite's death, his name was attached by the Pseudo-
Areopagite to certain theological writings composed by the latter.
These were destined to exert enormous influence upon medieval
thought, and their fame led to the extension of the personal legend
of the real Dionysius. Hilduin, abbot of St Denys (814-840),
identified him with St Denys, martyr and patron-saint of France.
In Hilduin's Areopagilica, the Life and Passion of the most holy
Dionysius (Migne, Patrol. Lat. tome 106), the Areopagite is sent
to France by Clement of Rome, and suffers martyrdom upon the
hill where the monastery called St Denys was to rise in his honour.
There is no earlier trace of this identification, and Gregory of
Tours (d. 594) says (Hist. Francorum, i. 18) that St Denys came
to France in the reign of Decius (A.D. 250), which falls about
midway between the presumptive death of the real Areopagite
and the probable date of the writings to which he owed his
adventitious fame.
Traces of the influence of these writings appear in the works
of Eastern theologians in the early part of the 6th century. They
also were cited at the council held in Constantinople in 533, which
is the first certain dated reference to them. In the West, Gregory
the Great (d. 604) refers to them in his thirty-fourth sermon on
the gospels (Migne, Pat. Lat. tome 76, col. 1254). They did not,
however, become generally known in the Western church till after
the year 827, when the Byzantine emperor Michael the Stammerer
sent a copy to Louis the Pious. It was given over to the care of
the above-mentioned abbot Hilduin. In the next generation the
scholar and philosopher Joannes Scotus Erigena (q.v.) translated
the Dionysian writings into Latin. This appears to have been
the only Latin translation until the izth century when another
was made, followed by several others.
Thus, the author, date and place of composition of these
writings are unknown. External evidence precludes a date later
than the year 500, and the internal evidence from the writings
themselves precludes any date prior to 4th-century phases of
Neo-platonism. The extant writings of the Pseudo-Areopagite
are: (a) Ilepi TTJS ovpavlas tepapxias, Concerning the Celestial
Hierarchy, in fifteen chapters. (6) Ilepi TJJS eKKATjffiaorucTJs
itpapxias, Concerning the Ecclesiastical Hierarchy, in seven
chapters, (c) Ilepi 6duv ovofiaTuv, Concerning Divine Names,
in thirteen chapters, (d) Hepl (ivanKrjs 6eo\oyias, Concerning
Mystic Theology, in five chapters, (e) Ten letters addressed to
various worthies of the apostolic period.
Although these writings seem complete, they contain refer-
ences to others of the same author. But of the latter nothing
is known, and they may never have existed.
The writings of the Pseudo-Areopagite are of great interest,
first as a striking presentation of the heterogeneous elements that
might unite in the mind of a gifted man in the $th century, and
secondly, because of their enormous influence upon subsequent
Christian theology and art. Their ingredients Christian, Greek,
Oriental and Jewish are not crudely mingled, but are united
into an organic system. Perhaps theological philosophic fantasy
has never constructed anything more remarkable. The system of
Dionysius was a proper product of its time, lofty, apparently
complete, comparable to the Enncads of Plotinus which formed
part of its materials. But its materials abounded everywhere,
and offered themselves temptingly to the hand strong enough
to build with them. There was what had entered into Neo-
platonism, both in its dialectic form as established by Plotinus,
and in its magic-mystic modes devised by lamblichus (d. c. 333).
There was Jewish angel lore and Eastern mood and fancy; and
there was Christianity so variously understood and heterogene-
ously constituted among Syro- Judaic Hellenic communities.
Such Christianity held materials for formula and creed; also
principles of liturgic and sacramental doctrine and priestly
function; also a mass of popular beliefs as to intermediate
superhuman beings who seemed nearer to men than any member
of the Trinity.
Out of this vast spiritual conglomerate, Pseudo-Dionysius
formed his system. It was not juristic, not Roman, Pauline
or Augustinian. Rather he borrowed his constructive principles
from Hellenism in its last great creation, Neo-platonism. That
had been able to gather and arrange within itself the various
elements of latter-day paganism. The Neo-platonic categories
might be altered in name and import, and yet the scheme remain
a scheme; since the general principle of the transmission of life
from the ultimate Source downward through orders of mediating
beings unto men, might readily be adapted to the Christian God
DIONYSIUS EXIGUUS DIONYSIUS HALICARNASSENSIS 285
and his ministering angels. Pseudo-Dionysius had lofty thoughts
of the sublime transcendence of the ultimate divine Source. That
source was not remote or inert; but a veritable Source from which
life streamed to all lower orders of existence, in part directly,
and in part indirectly as power and guidance through the higher
orders to the lower. Life, creation, every good gift, is from God
directly; but his flaming ministers also intervene to guide and
aid the life of man; and the life which through love floods forth
from God has its counterflow wherebv it draws its own creations
to itself. God is at once absolutely transcendent and universally
immanent. To live is to be united with God; evil is the non-
existent, that is, severance from God. Whatever is, is part of
the forth-flowing divine life which ever purifies, enlightens and
perfects, and so draws all back to the Source.
The transcendent Source, as well as the universal immanence,
is the Triune God. Between that and men are ranged the
three triads of the Celestial Hierarchy: Seraphim, Cherubim
and Thrones; Dominations, Virtues, Powers; Principalities,
Archangels, Angels. Collectively their general office is to raise
mankind to God through purification, illumination and perfec-
tion; and to all may be applied the term angel. The highest
triad, which is nearest God, contemplates the divine effulgence,
and reflects it onward to the second; the third, and more
specifically angelic triad, immediately ministers to men. The
sources of these names are evident: seraphim and cherubim are
from the Old Testament; later Jewish writings gave names to
archangels and angels, who also fill important functions in the New
Testament. The other names are from Paul (Eph. i. 21 ; Col. i. 16).
Such is the system of Pseudo-Dionysius, as presented mainly in
The Celestial Hierarchy. That work is followed by The Ecclesi-
astical Hierarchy, its counterpart on earth. What the primal
triune Godhead is to the former, Jesus is to the latter. The
Ecclesiastical Hierarchy likewise is composed of Triads. The first
includes the symbolic sacra.ments: Baptism, Communion,
Consecration of the Holy Chrism. Baptism signifies purification;
Communion signifies enlightening; the Holy Chrism signifies
perfecting. The second triad is made up of the three orders of
Bishops, Presbyters and Deacons, or rather, as the Areopagite
names them: Hierarchs, Light-bearers, Servitors. The third
triad consists of monks, who are in a state of perfection, the
initiated laity, who are in a state of illumination, and the
catechumens, in a state of purification. All worship, in this
treatise, is a celebration of mysteries, and the pagan mysteries are
continually suggested by the terms employed.
The work Concerning the Divine Names is a noble discussion of
the qualities which may be predicated of God, according to the
warrant of the terms applied to him in Scripture. The work
Concerning Mystic Theology explains the function of symbols, and
shows that he who would know God truly must rise above them
and above the conceptions of God drawn from sensible things.
The works of Pseudo-Dionysius began to influence theological
thought in the West from the time of their translation into Latin
by Erigena. Their use may be followed through the writings of
scholastic philosophers, e.g. Peter Lombard, Albertus Magnus,
Thomas Aquinas and many others. In poetry we find their
influence in Dante, Spenser, Milton. The fifteenth chapter of The
Celestial Hierarchy constituted the canon of symbolical angelic
lore for the literature and art of the middle ages. Therein the
author explains in what respect theology ascribes to angels the
qualities of fire, why the thrones are said to be fiery (irvplvovs) ;
why the seraphim are burning (e^iTrpTjtrras) as their name
indicates. The fiery form signifies-, with Celestial Intelligences,
likeness to God. Dionysius explains the significance of the parts
of the human body when given to celestial beings: feet are
ascribed to angels to denote their unceasing movement on the
divine business, and their feet are winged to denote their celerity.
He likewise explains the symbolism of wands and axes, of brass
and precious stones, when joined to celestial beings; and whal
wheels and a chariot denote when furnished to them, and much
more besides.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. There is an enormous literature on Pseudp
Dionysius. The reader may be first referred to the articles in
Smith's Dictionary of Christian Biography and Hauck's Realencyklo-
)adiefur protestantische Theologie (Leipzig, 1898). The bibliography
n the latter is very full. Some other references, especially upon the
ater influence of these works, are given in H. O. Taylor's Classical
Heritage of the Middle Ages (Macmillan, 1903). The works themselves
~.re in Migne's Patrologia Graeca, tomes 3 and 4, with a Latin version,
irigena's version is in Migne, Patrol. Lat. t. 122. Vita Dionysii by
iilduin is in Migne, Pat. Lat. 1 06. There is an English version by
Barker (London, 1894 and 1897). (H. O. T.)
DIONYSIUS EXIGUUS, one of the most learned men of the
6th century, and especially distinguished as a chronologist, was,
according to the statement of his friend Cassiodorus, a Scythian
>y birth, " Scytha natione." This may mean only that he was a
native of the region bordering on the Black Sea, and does not
necessarily imply that he was not of Greek origin. Such origin is
ndicated by his name and by his thorough familiarity with the
"Jreek language. His surname " Exiguus " is usually translated
' the Little," but he probably assumed it out of humility. He
was living at Rome in the first half of the 6th century, and is
usually spoken of as abbot of a Roman monastery. Cassiodorus,
lowever, calls him simply " monk," while Bede calls him " abbot."
But as itwas not unusual to apply the latter term to distinguished
monks who were not heads of their houses, it is uncertain whether
Dionysius was abbot in fact or only by courtesy. He was in high
repute as a learned theologian, was profoundly versed in the Holy
Scriptures and in canon law, and was also an accomplished
mathematician and astronomer. We owe to him a collection of
401 ecclesiastical canons, including the apostolical canons and the
decrees of the councils of Nicaea, Constantinople, Chalcedon and
Sardis, and also a collection of the decretals of the popes from
Siricius (385) to Anastasius II. (498). These collections, which
had great authority in the West (see CANON LAW), were published
by Justel in 1628. Dionysius did good service to his contempor-
aries by his translations of many Greek works into Latin; and
by these translations some works, the originals of which have
perished, have been handed down to us. His name, however, is
now perhaps chiefly remembered for his chronological labours.
It was Dionysius who introduced the method of reckoning
the Christian era which we now use (see CHRONOLOGY). His
friend Cassiodorus depicts in glowing terms the character of
Dionysius as a saintly ascetic, and praises his wisdom and
simplicity, his accomplishments and his lowly-mindedness, his
power of eloquent speech and his capacity of silence. He died at
Rome, some time before A.D. 550.
His works have been published in Migne, Patrologia Latina, tome
67 ; see especially A. Tardif , Hisloire des sources du droil canonique
(Paris, 1887), and D. Pitra, Analecta novissima, Spicilegii Snlesmensis
continualio, vol. i. p. 36 (Pads, 1885).
DIONYSIUS HALICARNASSENSIS ("of Halicarnassus "),
Greek historian and teacher of rhetoric, flourished during the reign
of Augustus. He went to Rome after the termination of the civil
wars, and spent twenty-two years in studying the Latin language
and literature and preparing materials for his history. During
this period he gave lessons in rhetoric, and enjoyed the society of
many distinguished men. The date of his death is unknown.
His great work, entitled TC^UCUK)? apxcuoKoyla (Roman
Antiquities), embraced the history of Rome from the mythical
period to the beginning of the first Punic War. It was divided
into twenty books, of which the first nine remain entire, the
tenth and eleventh are nearly complete, and the remaining books
exist in fragments in the excerpts of Constantine Porphyrogenitus
and an epitome discovered by Angelo Mai in a Milan MS. The
first three books of Appian, and Plutarch's Life of Camillus also
embody much of Dionysius. His chief object was to reconcile
the Greeks to the rule of Rome, by dilating upon the good
qualities of their conquerors. According to him, history is
philosophy teaching by examples, and this idea he has carried
out from the point of view of the Greek rhetorician. But he has
carefully consulted the best authorities, and his work and that of
Livy are the only connected and detailed extant accounts of early
Roman history.
Dionysius was also the author of several rhetorical treatises, in
which he shows that he has thoroughly studied the best Attic
models: The Art of Rhetoric (which is rather a collection of
286
DIONYSIUS PERIEGETES DIONYSUS
essays on the theory of rhetoric), incomplete, and certainly not
all his work; The Arrangement of Words (Ilepi avvOfcreus
ovonarbiv), treating of the combination of words according
to the different styles of oratory; On Imitation (IIpi
jiijuijcreus), on the best models in the different kinds of literature
and the way in which they are to be imitated a fragmentary
work; Commentaries on the Attic Orators (Hepl TUP dpxaicov
pT]T6ptiiv inronvr/naTUTiiol) , which, however, only deal with
Lysias, Isaeus, Isocrates and (by way of supplement) Dinarchus ;
On the admirable Style of Demosthenes (Ilepi rfjs Xexroc^s Arj/jo-
aOivovs deivorijTos) ; and On the Character of Thucydides (IIe/t
TOV QovKvSLdov xapaKrrjpos), a detailed but on the whole an
unfair estimate. These two treatises are supplemented by letters
to Cn. Pompeius and Ammaeus (two).
Complete edition by J. I. Reiske (1774-1777) ; of the Archaeologia
by A. Kiessling and V. Prou (1886) and C. Jacoby (1885-1891);
Opuscula by Usener and Radermacher (1899); Eng. translation by
E. Spelman (1758). A full bibliography of the rhetorical works is
given in W. Rhys Roberts's edition of the Three Literary Letters
(1901) ; the same author published an edition of the De compositione
verborum (1910, with trans.) ; see also M. Egger, Denysd'Halicarnasse
(1902), a very useful treatise. On the sources of Dionysius see O.
Bocksch, " De fontibus Dion. Halicarnassensis " in Leipziger Studien,
xvii. (1895). Cf. also J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Class. Schol. i. (1906).
DIONYSIUS PERIEGETES, author of a Tiepifijijaa rrjs
olKovnivris, a description of the habitable world in Greek
hexameter verse, written in a terse and elegant style. Nothing
certain is known of the date or nationality of the writer, but there
is some reason for believing that he was an Alexandrian, who
wrote in the time of Hadrian (some put him as late as the end of
the 3rd century). The work enjoyed a high degree of popularity
in ancient times as a school-book; it was translated into Latin
by Rufus Festus Avienus, and by the grammarian Priscian. The
commentary of Eustathius is valuable.
The best editions are by G. Bernhardy (1828) and C. Miiller (1861)
in their Geographici Graeci minores; see also E. H. Bunbury,
Ancient Geography (ii. p. 480), who regards the author as flourishing
from the reign of Nero to that of Trajan, and U. Bernays, Studien
zu Dion. Perieg. (1905). There are two old English translations:
T. Twine (1572, black letter), J. Free (1789, blank verse).
DIONYSIUS TELMAHARENSIS (" of Tell-Mahre "), patriarch
or supreme head of the Syrian Jacobite Church during the years
818-848, was born at Tell-Mahre near Rakka (ar-Rakkah) on the
Ballkh. He was the author of an important historical work,
which has seemingly perished except for some passages quoted by
Barhebraeus and an extract found by Assemani in Cod. Vat. 144
and published by him in the Bibliotheca orientalis (ii. 72-77). He
spent his earlier years as a monk at the convent of Ien-neshre on
the upper Euphrates; and when this monastery was destroyed by
fire in 815, he migrated northwards to that of Kaisum in the
district of Samosata. At the death of the Jacobite patriarch
Cyriacus in 81 7, the church was agitated by a dispute about the
use of the phrase " heavenly bread " in connexion with the
Eucharist. An anti-patriarch had been appointed in the person
of Abraham of Kartamin, who insisted on the use of the phrase
in opposition to the recognized authorities of the church. The
council of bishops who met at Rakka in the summer of 818 to
choose a successor to Cyriacus had great difficulty in finding a
worthy occupant of the patriarchal chair, but finally agreed on
the election of Dionysius, hitherto known only as an honest monk
who devoted himself to historical studies. Sorely against his will
he was brought to Rakka, ordained deacon and priest on two
successive days, and raised to the supreme ecclesiastical dignity
en the ist of August. From this time he showed the utmost zeal
in fulfilling the duties of his office, and undertook many journeys
both within and without his province. The ecclesiastical schism
continued unhealed during the thirty years of his patriarchate.
The details of this contest, of his relations with the caliph
Ma'mun, and of his many travels including a journey to Egypt,
on which he viewed with admiration the- great Egyptian
monuments, are to be found in the Ecclesiastical Chronicle of
Barhebraeus. 1 He died in 848, his last days having been especially
1 Ed. Abbeloos and Lamy, j. 343-386; cf. Wright, Syriac
Literature, 196-200, and Chabot's introduction to his translation of
the fourth part of the Chronicle of (pseudo) Dionysius.
embittered by Mahommedan oppression. We learn from Michael
the Syrian that his Annals consisted of two parts each divided
into eight chapters, and covered a period of 260 years, viz. from
the accession of the emperor Maurice (582-583) to the death of
Theophilus (842-843).
In addition to the lost Annals, Dionysius was from the time of
Assemani until 1896 credited with the authorship of another im-
portant historical work a Chronicle, which in four parts narrates
the history of the world from the creation to the year A.D. 774-775
and is preserved entire in Cod. Vat. 162. The first part (edited by
Tullberg, Upsala, 1850) reaches to the epoch of Constantine the
Great, and is in the main an epitome of the Eusebian Chronicle. 2
The second part reaches to Theodosius II. and follows closely the
Ecclesiastical History of Socrates; while the third, extending to
Justin II., reproduces the second part of the History of John
of Asia or Ephesus, and also contains the well-known chronicle
attributed to Joshua the Stylite. The fourth part 3 is not like the
others a compilation, but the original work of the author, and
reaches to the year 774-775 apparently the date when he was
writing. On the publication of this fourth part by M. Chabot, it
was discovered and clearly proved by Noldeke ( Vienna Oriental
Journal, x. 160-170), and Nau (Bulletin critique, xvii. 321-327),
who independently reached the same conclusion, that Assemani's
opinion was a mistake, and that the chronicle in question was the
work not of Dionysius of Tell-Mahre but of an earlier writer, a
monk of the convent of Zuknln near Amid (Diarbekr) on the upper
Tigris. Though the author was a man of limited intelligence and
destitute of historical skill, yet the last part of his work at least
has considerable value as a contemporary account of events
during the middle period of the 8th century. (N. M )
DIONYSIUS THRAX (so called because his father was a
Thracian) , the author of the first Greek grammar, flourished about
100 B.C. He was a native of Alexandria, where he attended
the lectures of Aristarchus, and afterwards taught rhetoric in
Rhodes and Rome. His fk\vri ypa.mj,a.Tuai, which we possess
(though probably not in its original form) , begins with the defini-
tion of grammar and its functions. Dealing next with accent,
punctuation marks, sounds and syllables, it goes on to the different
parts of speech (eight in number) and their inflections. No rules
of syntax are given, and nothing is said about style. The
authorship of Dionysius was doubted by many of the early middle-
age commentators and grammarians, and in modern times its
origin has been attributed to the oecumenical college founded
by Constantine the Great, which continued in existence till 730.
But there seems no reason for doubt; the great grammarians
of imperial times (Apollonius Dyscolus and Herodian) were
acquainted with the work in its present form, although, as was
natural considering its popularity, additions and alterations may
have been made later. The rexyrj was first edited by J. A.
Fabricius from a Hamburg MS. and published in his Bibliolheca
Graeca, vi. (ed. Harles). An Armenian translation, belonging to
the 4th or 5th century, containing five additional chapters, was
published with the Greek text and a French version, by M.
Cirbied (i 830) . Dionysius also contributed much to the criticism
and elucidation of Homer, and was the author of various other
works amongst them an account of Rhodes, and a collection of
MeXerat (literary studies), to which the considerable fragment in
the Stromala (v. 8) of Clement of Alexandria probably belongs.
Editions, with scholia, by I. Bekker in Anecdota Graeca, ii. and
G. Uhlig (1884), reviewed exhaustively by P. Egenolff in Bursian's
Jahresbericht, vol. xlvi. (1888); Scholia, ed. A. Hilgard (1901); see
also W. Horschelmann, De Dionysii Thracis interpretibus veteribus
(1874) ; J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Classical Scholarship, i. (1906).
DIONYSUS (probably = " son of Zeus," from Ai6s and
vvaos, a Thracian word for " son "), in Greek mythology,
originally a nature god of fruitfulness and vegetation, especially
of the vine; hence, distinctively, the god of wine. The names
Bacchus (Bdfcxos, in use among the Greeks from the sth
2 See the studies by Siegfried and Gelzer, Eusebii canonum
epitome ex Dionysii Telmaharensis chronico petita (Leipzig, 1884).
and von Gutschmid, Untersuchungen iiber die syrische Epitome der
Eusebischen Canones (Stuttgart, 1886).
8 Text and translation by J.-B. Chabot (Paris, 1895).
DIONYSUS
287
century), Sabazius, and Bassareus, are also Thracian names of
the god. The two first (like lacchus, Bromius and Euios) have
been connected with the loud " shout " (<ra/3df ea> = /3df ew =
eiidfeo') of his worshippers, Bassareus with (laaaapai, the
fox-skin garments of the Thracian Bacchanals. It has been
suggested (J. E. Harriscn Prolegomena to Greek Religion)
that Sabazius and Bromius= " beer-god," " god of a cereal
intoxicant " (cf. Illyrian sabaia, and modern Greek PPU/J.L,
" oats "), while W. Ridgeway (Classical Review, January 1896),
comparing Apollo Smintheus, interprets Bassareus as " he who
keeps away the foxes from the vineyards " (for various interpreta-
tions of these and other cult-titles, see O. Gruppe, Griechische
Mythologie, ii. pp. 1408, 1532, especially the notes).
In Homer, notwithstanding the frequent mention of the use of
wine, Dionysus is never mentioned as its inventor or introducer,
nor does he appear in Olympus; Hesiod is the first who calls
wine the gift of Dionysus. On the other hand, he is spoken of
in the Iliad (vi. 130 foil., a passage belonging to the latest period
of epic), as " raging," an epithet that indicates that in those
comparatively early times the orgiastic character of his worship
was recognized. In fact, Dionysus may be regarded under two
distinct aspects: that of a popular national Greek god of wine
and cheerfulness, and that of a foreign deity, worshipped with
ecstatic and mysterious rites introduced from Thrace. Accord-
ing to the usual tradition, he was born at Thebes originally the
local centre of his worship in Greece and was the son of Zeus,
the fertilizing rain god, and Semele, the daughter of Cadmus,
a personification of earth. Before the child was mature, Zeus
appeared to Semele at her request in his majesty as god of
lightning, by which she was killed, but the infant was saved
from the flames by Zeus (or Hermes). The epithet vepua6vi.os,
originally referring to an ivy-crowned, pillar-shaped fetish of the
god, afterwards gave rise to the legend of a miraculous growth of
ivy " round the pillars " of the royal palace, whereby the infant
Dionysus was preserved from the flames. Zeus took him up,
enclosed him within his own thigh till he came to maturity, and
then brought him to the light, so that he was twice born; it was
to celebrate this double birth that the dilhyrambus (also used as
an epithet of the god) was sung (see Elym. Mag. s.v.). It has
been suggested that this is an allusion to the couvade of certain
barbarous tribes, amongst whom it is customary, when a child is
born, for the husband to take to his bed and receive medical treat-
ment, as if he shared the pains of maternity (see COUVADE,
and references there). Dionysus was then conveyed by Hermes
to be brought up by the nymphs of Nysa, a purely imaginary
spot, afterwards localized in different parts of the world, which
claimed the honour of having been the birthplace of the god. As
soon as Dionysus was grown up, he started on a journey through
the world, to teach the cultivation of the vine and spread his
worship among men. While so engaged he met with opposition,
even in his own country, as in the case of Pentheus, king of
Thebes, who opposed the orgiastic rites introduced by Dionysus
among the women of Thebes, and, having been discovered watch-
ing one of these ceremonies, was mistaken for some animal of the
chase, and slam by his own mother (see A. G. Bather, Journ. Hell.
Studies, xiv. 1894). A similar instance is that of Lycurgus, a
Thracian king, from whose attack Dionysus saved himself by
leaping into the sea, where he was kindly received by Thetis.
Lycurgus was blinded by Zeus and soon died, or became frantic
and hewed down his own son, mistaking him for a vine. At
Orchomenus, the three daughters of Minyas refused to join the
other women in their nocturnal orgies, and for this were trans-
formed into birds (see AGRIONIA). These and similar stories point
to the vigorous resistance offered to the introduction of the
mystic rites of Dionysus, in places where an established religion
already existed. On the other hand, when the god was received
hospitably he repaid the kindness by the gift of the vine, as in the
case of Icarius of Attica (see ERIGONE).
The worship of Dionysus was actively conducted in Asia Minor,
particularly in Phrygia and Lydia. Here, as Sabazius, he was
associated with the-Phrygian goddess Cybele, and was followed in
his expeditions by a thiasos (retinue) of centaurs and satyrs, with
Pan and Silenus. In Lydia his triumphant return from India was
celebrated by an annual festival on Mount Tmolus; in Lydia
he assumed the long beard and long robe which were after-
wards given him in his character of the " Indian Bacchus," the
conqueror of the East, who, after the campaigns of Alexander,
was reported to have advanced as far as the Ganges. The other
incidents in which he appears in a purely triumphal character are
his transforming into dolphins the Tyrrhene pirates who attacked
him, as told in the Homeric hymn to Dionysus and represented on
the monument of Lysicrates at Athens, and his part in the war of
the gods against the giants. The former story has been connected
with the sailors' custom of hanging vine leaves, ivy and bunches
of grapes round the masts of vessels in honour of vintage festivals.
The adventure with the pirates occurred on his voyage to Naxos,
where he found Ariadne abandoned by Theseus. At Naxos
Ariadne (probably a Cretan goddess akin to Aphrodite) was
associated with Dionysus as his wife, by whom he was the father
of Oenopion (wine-drinker), Staphylus (grape), and Euanthes
(blooming}, and their marriage was annually celebrated by a
festival. Having compelled all the world to recognize his
divinity, he descended to the underworld to bring up his mother,
who was afterwards worshipped with him under the name of
Thycne ("the raging"), he himself being called after her
Thyoneus.
Another phase in the myth of Dionysus originated in observing
the decay of vegetation in winter, to suit which he was supposed
to be slain and to join the deities of the lower world. This phase
of his character was developed by the Orphic poets, he having
here the name of Zagreus (" torn in pieces "), and being no longer
the Theban god, but a son of Zeus and Persephone. The child
was brought up secretly, watched over by Curetes; but the
jealous Hera discovered where he was, and sent Titans to the spot,
who, finding him at play, tore him to pieces, and cooked and ate
his limbs, while Hera gave his heart to Zeus. The tearing in
pieces is referred by some to the torture experienced by the grape
(Naturschmerz) when crushed for making into wine (cf . Burns's
John Barleycorn) ; but it is better to refer it to the tearing of the
flesh of the victim at sacrifices at which the deity or the sacred
animal was slain, and sacramentally eaten raw (cf. the title
&/j.T]ffrfis given to Dionysus in certain places, probably point-
ing to human sacrifice.) To connect this with the myth of the
Theban birth of Dionysus, it is said that Zeus gave the child's
heart to Semele, or himself swallowed it and gave birth to the new
Dionysus (called lacchus from his worshippers' cry of rejoicing),
who was cradled and swung in a winnowing fan (Xki'os; see
J. E. Harrison, Journ. Hellenic Studies, xxiii.), the swinging being
supposed to act as a charm in awakening vegetation from its
winter sleep. The conception of Zagreus, or the winter Dionysus,
appears to have originated in Crete, but it was accepted also in
Delphi, where his grave was shown, and sacrifice was secretly
offered at it annually on the shortest day. The story is in many
respects similar to that of Osiris. According to others, Zagreus
was originally a god of the chase, who became a hunter of men
and a god of the underworld, more akin to Hades than to
Dionysus (see also TITANS).
Dionysus further possessed the prophetic gift, and his oracle
at Delphi was as important as that of Apollo. Like Hermes,
Dionysus was a god of the productiveness of nature, and hence
Priapus was one of his regular companions, while not only in the
mysteries but in the rural festivals his symbol, the phallus, was
carried about ostentatiously. His symbols from the animal
kingdom were the bull (perhaps a totemistic attribute and
identified with him), the panther, the lion, the tiger, the ass, the
goat, and sometimes also the dolphin and the snake. His personal
attributes are an ivy wreath, the thyrsus (a staff with pine cone at
the end), the laurel, the pine, a drinking cup, and sometimes the
horn of a bull on his forehead. Artistically he was represented
mostly either as a youth of soft, nearly feminine form, or as a
bearded and draped man, but frequently also as an infant, with
reference to his birth or to his bringing up in " Nysa." His
earliest images were of wood with the branches still attached in
parts, whence he was called Dionysus Dendrites, an allusion to his
288
DIOPHANTUS DIOPSIDE
protection of trees generally (according to Pherecydes in C. W.
Miiller, Frag. Hist. Grace, iv. p. 637, the word vvcra signified
" tree "). It is suggested that the cult of Dionysus absorbed that
of an old tree-spirit. He was figured also, like Hermes, in the
form of a pillar or term surmounted by his head. For the
connexion of Dionysus with Greek tragedy see DRAMA.
See Farnell, Culls of the Greek Slates, v. (1910) ; also O. Rapp,
Beziehungen dcs Dicnysuskultus zu Thrakien (1882); O. Ribbeck,
Anfdnge und Entwickelung des Dionysuskultes in Attica (1869);
A. Lang, Myth, Ritual and Religion, ii. p. 241 ; L. Dyer, The Gods
in Greece (1891); J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of G.'eek
Religion (1903); J. G. Frazcr, The Golden Bough, ii (1900), pp. 160,
291, who regards the bull and goat form of Dionysus as expressions
of his proper character as a deity of vegetation; F. A. Voigt in
Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie; L. Preller, Gricchische Mythologie
(4th ed. by C. Robert) ; F. Lenormant (s.v. " Bacchus ") in Darem-
berg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquites ; O. Kern in Pauly-
Wissowa's Realencyclopadie (with list of cult titles); W. Pater,
Greek Studies (1895); E. Rohde, Psyche, ii., who finds the origin of
the Hellenic belief in the immortality of the soul ii: the " enthusi-
astic " rites of the Thracian Dionysus, which lifted persons out of
themselves, and exalted them to a fancied equality with the gods;
O. Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte. ii. (1907),
who considers Boeotia, not Thrace, to have been the original home
of Dionysus; P. Foucart, " Le Culte de Dionysos en Attique " in
Memoires de I'Inslitut national de France, xxxvii. (1906), who finds
the prototype of Dionysus in Egypt. The Great Dionysiak Myth
(1877-1878) by R. Brown contains a wealth of material, but is weak
in scholarship. For a striking survival of Dionysiac rites in Thrace
(Bizye), see Dawkins, in J.H.S. (1906), p. 191.
DIOPHANTUS, of Alexandria, Greek algebraist, probably
flourished about the middle of the 3rd century. Not that this
date rests on positive evidence. But it seems a fair inference from
a passage of Michael Psellus (Diophantus, ed. P. Tannery, ii.
p. 38) that he was not later than Anatolius, bishop of Laodicea
from A.D. 270, while he is net quoted by Nicomachus (fl. c.
A.D. 100), nor by Theon of Smyrna (c. A.D. 130), nor does Greek
arithmetic as represented by these authors and by lamblichus
(end of 3rd century) show any trace of his influence, facts which
can only be accounted for by his being later than those arith-
meticians at least who would have been capable of understanding
him fully. On the other hand he is quoted by Theon of Alexandria
(who observed an eclipse at Alexandria in A.D. 365); and his
work was the subject of a commentary by Theon's daughter
Hypatia (d . 4 1 5) . The A rithmetica, the greatest treatise on which
the fame of Diophantus rests, purports to be in thirteen Books,
but none of the Greek MSS. which have survived contain more
than six (though one has the same text in seven Books). They
contain, however, a fragment of a separate tract on Polygonal
Numbers. The missing books were apparently lost early, for
there is no reason to suppose that the Arabs who translated or
commented on Diophantus ever had access to more of the work
than we now have. The difference in form and content suggests
that the Polygonal Numbers was not part of the larger work. On
the other hand the Porisms, to which Diophantus makes three
references (" we have it in the Porisms that . . . "), were
probably not a separate book but were embodied in the
Arithmelica itself, whether placed all together or, as Tannery
thinks, spread over the work in appropriate places. The
" Porisms " quoted are interesting propositions in the theory of
numbers, one of which was clearly that the difference between two
cubes can be resolved into the sum of two cubes. Tannery thinks
that the solution of a complete quadratic promised by Diophantus
himself (I. def. n), and really assumed later, was one of the
Porisms.
Among the great variety of problems solved are problems leading
to determinate equations of the first degree in one, two, three or
four variables, to determinate quadratic equations, and to inde-
terminate equations of the first degree in one or more variables, which
are, however, transformed into determinate equations by arbitrarily
assuming a value for one of the required numbers, Diophantus being
always satisfied with a rational, even if fractional, result and not re-
quiring a solution in integers. But the bulk of the work consists of
problems leading to indeterminate equations of the second degree,
and these universally take the form that one or two (and never
more) linear or quadratic functions of one variable x are to be made
rational square numbers by finding a suitable value for X. A few
problems lead to indeterminate equations of the third and fourth
degrees, an easy indeterminate equation of the sixth degree being
also found. The general type of problem is to find two, three or four
numbers such that different expressions involving them in the first
and second, and sometimes the third, degree are squares, cubes,
partly squares and partly cubes, &c. E.g. To find three numbers such
that the product of any two added to the sum of those two gives a square
(III. 15, ed. Tannery); To find four numbers such that, if we take the
square of their sum =*= any one of them singly, all the resulting numbersare
squares (III. 22) ; To find two numbers such that their product their
sum gives a cube (IV. 29) ; To find three squares such that their continued
product added to any one of them gives a square (V. 21). Book VI.
contains problems of finding rational right-angled triangles such that
different functions of their parts (the sides and the area) are squares.
A word is necessary on Diophantus' notation. He has only one
symbol (written somewhat like a final sigma) for an unknown
quantity, which he calls dpitfjuos (defined as " an undefined number of
units ") ; the symbol may be a contraction of the initial letters ap, as
A r , K*', A K A, &c., are for the powers of the unknown (SWOMIS, square ;
KU/SOS, cube; SwaMoSwaM's, fourth power, &c.). The only other
algebraical symbol is /f for minus ; plus being expressed by merely
writing terms one after another. With one symbol for an unknown,
it will easily be understood what scope there isforadroitassumptions,
for the required numbers, of expressions in the one unknown which
are at once seen to satisfy some of the conditions, leaving only one or
two to be satisfied by the particular value of x to be determined.
Often assumptions are made which lead to equations in * which
cannot be solved " rationally," i.e. would give negative, surd or
imaginary values; Diophantus then traces how each element of the
equation has arisen, and formulates the auxiliary problem of de-
termining how the assumptions must be corrected so as to lead to an
equation (in place of the " impossible " one) which can be solved
rationally. Sometimes his x has to do duty twice, for different
unknowns, in one problem. In general his object is to reduce the
final equation to a simple one by making such an assumption for the
side of the square or cube to which the expression in * is to be equal
as will make the necessary number of coefficients vanish. The book
is valuable also for the propositions in the theory of numbers, other
than the " porisms," stated or assumed in it. Thus Diophantus knew
that no number of the form 8n+7 can be the sum of three squares. He
also says that, if 2 + i is to be the sum of two squares, " n must not
be odd " (i.e. no number of the form 4n+3, or 4n I, can be the sum of
two squares), and goes on to add, practically, the condition stated by
Fermat, " and the double of it [n] increased by one, when divided
by the greatest square which measures it, must not be divisible by a
prime number of the form 471 1," except for the omission of the
words " when divided . . . measures it."
AUTHORITIES. The first to publish anything on Diophantus in
Europe was Rafael Bombelli, who embodied in his Algebra (1572)
all the problems of Books L IV. and some of Book V., interspersing
them with his own problems. Next Xylander (Wilhelm Holzmann)
published a Latin translation (Basel, 1575), an altogether meri-
torious work, especially having regard to the difficulties he had with
the text of his MS. The Greek text was first edited by C. G. Bachet
(Diophanti Alexandrini arilhmelicorum libri sex, et de numeris
multangulis liber unus, nunc primum graece et laline editi atque
absolutissimis commentaries illustrate . . . Lutetiae Parisiorum . . .
MDCXXI.). A reprint of 1670 is only valuable because it contains
P. de Fermat's notes; as far as the Greek text is concerned it is much
inferior to the other. There are two German translations, one by
Otto Schulz (1822) and the other by G. Wertheim (Leipzig, 1890),
and an English edition in modern notation (T. L. Heath, Diophantos
of Alexandria: A Study in the History of Greek Algebra (Cambridge,
1885). The Greek text has now been definitively edited (with Latin
translation, Scholia, &c.) by P. Tannery (Teubner, vol. i., 1893;
vol. ii., 1895). General accounts of Diophantus' work are to be
found in H. Hankel and M. Cantor's histories of mathematics, and
more elaborate analyses are those of Nesselmann (Die Algebra der
Gricchen, Berlin, 1842) and G. Loria (Le Scienze esatte nell' antica
Grecia, libra v., Modena, 1902, pp. 95-158). (T. L. H.)
DIOPSIDE, an important member of the pyroxene group of
rock-forming minerals. It is a calcium-magnesium metasilicate,
CaMg (Si0 3 ) 2 , and crystallizes in the monoclinic system. Usually
some iron is present replacing magnesium, and when this pre-
dominates there is a passage to hedenbergite, CaFo(SiO 3 ) 2 , a
closely allied variety of monoclinic pyroxene. These are distin-
guished from augite by containing little or no aluminium.
Diopside is colourless, white, pale green to dark green or nearly
black in colour, the depth of the colour depending on the amount
of iron present. The specific gravity and optical constants also
vary with the chemical composition; the sp. gr. of diopside is
3-2, increasing to 3-6 in hedenbergite, and the angle of optical
extinction in the plane of symmetry varies between 38 and 47
in the two extremes of the series. Crystals are usually prismatic
in habit with a rectangular cross-section as shown in the figure:
the angle between the prism faces m, parallel to which there are
perfect cleavages, is 92 .50'.
DIOPTASE DIP
289
pyroxene-granites,
the characteristic
Several varieties, depending on differences in structure and
chemical composition, have been distinguished, viz. coccolite
(from KOK.XOS, a grain), a granular variety;
salite or sahlite, from Sala in Sweden;
malacolite; diallage; violane, a lamellar
variety of a dark violet-blue colour;
chrome-diopside, a bright green variety
containing a small amount of chromium;
and many others. Belonging to the same
series with diopside and hedenbergite
is a manganese pyroxene, known as
schefferite, which has the composition
(Ca, Mg) (Fe, Mn) (SiO 3 ) 2 .
Diopside is the characteristic pyroxene
of metamorphic rocks, occurring especially
in crystalline limestones, and often in
association with garnet and epidote. It
is also an essential constituent of some
diorites and a few other igneous rocks, but
pyroxene of this class of rocks is augite.
Fine transparent crystals of a pale green colour occur, with
crystals of yellowish-red garnet (hessonite) and chlorite, in veins
traversing serpentine in the Ala valley near Turin in Piedmont:
a crystal of this variety (" alalite ") is represented in the
accompanying figure. These, as well as the long, transparent,
bottle-green crystals from the Zillerthal in the Tyrol, have
occasionally been cut as gem-stones. Good crystals have been
found also at Achmatovsk near Zlatoust in the Urals, Traversella
near Ivrea in Piedmont (" traversellite "), Nordmark in Sweden,
Monroe in New York, Burgess in Lanark county, Ontario, and
several other places: at Nordmark the large, rectangular black
crystals occur with magnetite in the iron mines. (L. J. S.)
DIOPTASE, a rare mineral species consisting of acid copper
orthosilicate, H 2 CuSiO 4 , crystallizing in the parallel-faced hemi-
hedral class of the rhombohedral system. The degree of sym-
metry is the same as in the mineral phenacite,
there being only an axis of triad symmetry
and a centre of symmetry. The crystals
have the form of a hexagonal prism m
terminated by a rhombohedron r, the alter-
nate edges between these being sometimes re-
placed by the faces of a rhombohedron s. The
faces are striated parallel to the edges between
r, s and m. There are perfect cleavages
parallel to the faces of a rhombohedron which
truncate the polar edges of r: from the cleav-
age cracks internal reflections are often to
be seen in the crystal, and it was on account
of this that the mineral was named dioptase, by
R. J. Hatiy in 1797, from Bio-n-Tevtiv, " to see into." The crystals
vary from transparent to translucent with a vitreous lustre, and
are bright emerald-green in colour; they thus have a certain
resemblance to emerald, hence the early name emerald-copper
(German, Kupfer-Smaragd). Hardness 5; sp. gr. 3-3. The
mineral is decomposed by hydrochloric acid with separation of
gelatinous silica. At a red heat it blackens and gives off water.
The fine crystals from Mount Altyn-Tube on the western slopes of
the Altai Mountains in the Kirghiz Steppes, Asiatic Russia, line
cavities in a compact limestone; they were first sent to Europe
in 1785 by Achir Mahmed, a Bucharian merchant, after whom
the mineral has been named archirite. More recently, in 1890,
good crystals of similar habit, but rather darker in colour,
have been found with quartz and malachite near Komba in the
French Congo. As drusy crystalline crusts it has been found at
Copiapo in Chile and in Arizona.
Dioptase has occasionally been used as a gem-stone, especially
in Russia and Persia; it has a fine colour, but a low degree of
hardness and the transparency is imperfect. (L. J. S.)
DIORITE (from the Gr. Siopi^iv to distinguish, from
Sid through, opos, a boundary), in petrology, the name given
by Hatty to a family of rocks of granitic texture, composed of
plagioclase felspar and hornblende. As they are richer in the dark
VIII. IO
coloured ferromagnesian minerals they are usually grey or dark
grey, and h'ave a higher specific gravity than granite. They also
rarely show visible quartz. But there are diorites of many kinds,
as the name applies rather to a family of rocks than to t a single
species. Some contain biotite, others augite or hypersthene;
many have a small amount of quartz. Orthoclase is rarely
entirely absent, and when it is fairly common the rock becomes a
tonalite; in this way a transition is furnished between diorites
and granites. It is rare to find the pure types of " hornblende-
diorite," " augite-diorite," &c., but in most cases the rocks
contain two or more ferromagnesian silicates, and such combina-
tions as " hornblende-biotite-diorite " are commonest in nature.
The felspar of the diorites ranges in composition from oligoclase
to labradorite, and is often remarkably zonal, the external layers
being more alkaline than the internal. Small fluid enclosures
and black grains, probably iron oxides, often occur in it in great
numbers. Weathering produces epidote, calcite, sericite and
kaolin. The biotite is always brown or yellow; the hornblende
usually green, but sometimes brown or yellowish brown in those
diorites which have affinities to lamprophyres. The ailgite is
nearly always green but sometimes has a reddish tinge; bronzite
and hypersthene have their usual green and brown shades.
Apatite, iron oxides and zircon are almost invariably present;
sphene, garnet and orthite are occasionally observed; calcite,
chlorite, muscovite, kaolin, epidote and bastite are secondary.
The structure is not essentially different from that of granite.
The ferromagnesian minerals crystallize comparatively early
and have some idiomorphism; the felspar usually follows and
only in part shows good crystalline outlines. Orthoclase and
quartz, if present, are last to separate out, and fill the spaces
between the other minerals; often they interpenetrate to form
micropegmatite. In many diorites the plagioclase felspar has
crystallized before the hornblende, which consequently has less
perfect outlines and forms irregular plates which enclose sharply
formed individuals of felspar. This produces the ophitic structure
(very common also in the dolerites). More rarely biotite and
augite exhibit the same relations to the plagioclase. Orbicular
structure also occasionally appears in these rocks; in fact
the orbicular diorite of Corsica (also called " Napoleonite " or
" Corsite ") was for a long time the best-known example of this
structure. The rock seems composed of spheroids, about an inch
in diameter, surrounded by a smaller amount of dark-coloured
dioritic matrix. The spheroids have a radiate structure and often
show concentric dark and pale shells. These consist of hornblende
(dark green) and basic plagioclase felspar, labradorite and
bytownite (grey or nearly white). Occasionally diorites have
a parallel banded or foliated structure, but these must not be
confounded with the epidiorites, -which are metamorphic rocks
and also have a conspicuous foliation.
Diorites must also be distinguished from hornblendic gabbros,
which contain more basic felspars, rarely quartz and occasionally
olivine; but the boundary lines between diorites and gabbros are
admittedly somewhat vague, e.g. some authors would call rocks
gabbro which others would regard as augite-diorite. The horn-
blendites differ from the diorites in containing little felspar, and
consist principally of hornblende. Among varietal designations
given to rocks of the diorite family are " banatite " for an augite-
diorite with or without quartz (from the Schemnitz district),
" granodiorite " for a quartz-hornblende-diorite (essentially
the same as tonalite) from California, &c., " adamellite " for
the quartz-mica-diorite or tonalite of Monte Adamello (Alps),
" ornite " for a hornblende-diorite rich in felspar, from Sweden.
(J. S. F.)
DIP (Old Eng. dyppan, connected with the common Teutonic
root seen in " deep "), the angle which the magnetic needle makes
with the horizon. A freely suspended magnetic needle will not
maintain a horizontal position except at the magnetic equator.
Over the N. magnetic pole the north-seeking end of the needle
points directly downwards and dips at an intermediate angle at
intermediate distances between the magnetic poles and equator.
There are secular progressive variations of dip as well as of
declination and the maxima are independent of each other. In
5
290
DIPHENYL DIPHTHERIA
1576 the dip at London was 71 50', 'in 1720 (max.) 74 42', in
1900 67 9'. (For Dip Circle see INCLINOMETER.)
DIPHENYL (phenyl benzene), CeHs.CeHs, a hydrocarbon
found in that fraction of the coal-tar distillate boiling between
240-300 C., from which it may be obtained by warming with
sulphuric acid, separating the acid layer and strongly cooling
the undissolved ofl. It may be artificially prepared by passing
benzene vapour through a red-hot tube; by the action of sodium
on brombenzene dissolved in ether; by the action of stanncus
chloride on phenyldiazonium chloride; or by the addition of solid
phenyldiazonium sulphate to warm benzene (R. Mohlau, Berichle,
1893, 26, 1997) C 6 H5N2-HSO4+C6H6=H2SO4-r-N2+C6H5-C6Hr,.
L. Gattermann (Berichte, 1890, 23, 1226) has also prepared it
by the decomposition of a solution of phenyldiazonium sulphate
with alcohol and copper powder. It crystallizes in plates (from
alcohol) meltingat 70-71 C. and boiling at 2 S4C. It is oxidized
by chromic acid in glacial acetic acid solution to benzoic acid,
dilute nitric acid and chromic acid mixture being without effect.
It is not reduced by hydriodic acid and phosphorus, but sodium
in the presence of amyl alcohol reduces it to tetrahydrodiphenyl
Many substitution derivatives are known: the monosubstitntion
derivatives being capable of existing in three isomeric forms. Of the
disubstitution derivatives the most important are those derived from
diparadiaminodiphenyl or benzidine (q.v.).
NH 2
_ L.
Orthoaminodiphenyl, <^ _ ^>~<C _ ]>, is prepared by the action of
bromine and caustic soda on orthophenylbenzamide (R. Hirsch,
Berichte, 1892, 25, 1974); when its vapour is passed over heated
lime, carbazol (q.v.) is formed.
NH 2 NH 2
_l I
Diorthodiaminodiphenyl,<^ _ ^> <^ _ ^>,isobtainedbythereduc-
tion of the corresponding nitro compound (obtained by the action of
ethyl nitrite at o C. on metadinitrobenzidine hydrpchloride). Its
tetrazo compound on reduction gives a hydrazine which, on warming
with hydrochloric acid at 150 C., decomposes into ammonium
N = N
chloride and phenazone,<^~^> <C~^> (Ci 2 H 8 N 2 ). One of the
most important derivatives of diphenyl, from the theoretical point
of view, is diphenic acid or diorthodiphenyl carboxylic acid, which can
be obtained from_ diparadiaminodiphenyldiorthocarboxylic acid,
~ NH 2 ,orfromphenanthrene(2.t).), the consti-
H 2 N <^~
HOOC
CO
See BENZIDINE for diparadiamino-
OOH
tution of which it determines.
diphenyl.
DIPHILUS, of Sinope, poet of the new Attic comedy and
contemporary of Menander (342-291 B.C.). Most of his plays were
written and acted at Athens, but he led a wandering life, and died
at Smyrna. He was on intimate terms with the famous courtesan
Gnathaena (Athenaeus xiii. pp. 579, 583). He is said to have
written 100 comedies, the titles of fifty of which are preserved.
He sometimes acted himself. To judge from the imitations
of Plautus. (Casino from the KXij/MUjuepot, Asinaria from the
'Ovaj6s, Rttdens from some other play), he was very skilful in
the construction of his plots. Terence also tells us that he
introduced into the Adelphi (ii. i) a scene from the ~2vva.iro6vr)-
(TKovres, which had been omitted by Plautus in his adaptation
(Commorientes) of the same play. The style of Diphilus was
simple .and natural, and his language on the whole good Attic;
he paid great attention to versification, and was supposed to have
invented a peculiar kind of metre. The ancients were undecided
whether to class him among the writers of the New or Middle
comedy. In his fondness for mythological subjects (Hercules,
Theseus) and his introduction on the stage (by a bold ana-
chronism) of the poets Archilochus and Hipponax as rivals of
Sappho, he approximates to the spirit of the latter.
Fragments in H. Koch, Comicorum Atticorum fragmenta, ii. ; see
J. Denis, La Comedie grecque (1886), ii. p. 414; R. W. Bond in
Classical Review (Feb. 1910, with trans, of Emporos fragm.).
DIPHTHERIA (from 5i<t>6fpa, a skin or membrane), the term
applied to an acute infectious disease, which is accompanied by
a membranous exudation on a mucous surface, generally on the
tonsils and back of the throat or pharynx.
In general the symptoms at the commencement of an attack
of diphtheria are comparatively slight, being those commonly
accompanying a cold, viz. chilliness and depression. Sometimes
more severe phenomena usher in the attack, such as vomiting
and diarrhoea. A slight feeling of uneasiness in the throat is ex-
perienced along with some stiffness of the back of the neck. When
looked at the throat appears reddened and somewhat swollen,
particularly in the neighbourhood of the tonsils, the soft palate
and upper part of pharynx, while along with this there is tender-
ness and swelling of the glands at the angles of the jaws. The
affection of the throat spreads rapidly, and soon the character-
istic exudation appears on the inflamed surface in the form of
greyish- white specks or patches, increasing in extent and thickness
untilayellowish-looking false membrane isformed. This deposit
is firmly adherent to the mucous membrane beneath or in-
corporated with it, and if removed leaves a raw, bleeding,
ulcerated surface, upon which it is reproduced in a short period.
The appearance of the exudation has been compared to wet
parchment or washed leather, and it is more or less dense in
texture. It may cover the whole of the back of the throat, the
cavity of the mouth, and the posterior nares, and spread down-
wards into the air-passages on the one hand and into the ali-
mentary canal on the other, while any wound on the surface of
the body is liable to become covered with it. This membrane is
apt to be detached spontaneously, and as it loosens it becomes
decomposed, giving a most offensive and characteristic odour to
the breath. There is pain and difficulty in swallowing, but unless
the disease has affected the larynx no affection of the breathing.
The voice acquires a snuffling character. When the disease
invades the posterior nares an acrid, fetid discharge, and some-
times also copious bleeding, takes place from the nostrils. Along
with these local phenomena there is evidence of constitutional
disturbance of the most severe character. There may be no
great amount of fever, but there is marked depression and loss of
strength. The pulse becomes small and frequent, the countenance
pale, the swelling of the glands of the neck increases, which, along
with the presence of albumen in the urine, testifies to a condition
of blood poisoning. Unless favourable symptoms emerge death
takes place within three or four days or sooner, either from the
rapid extension of the false membrane into the air-passage, giving
rise to asphyxia, or from a condition of general collapse, which is
sometimes remarkably sudden. In cases of recovery the change
for the better is marked by an arrest in the extension of the false
membrane, the detachment and expectoration of that already
formed, and the healing of the ulcerated mucous membrane
beneath. Along with this there is a general improvement in the
symptoms, the power of swallowing returns, and the strength
gradually increases, while the glandular enlargement of the
neck diminishes, and the albumen disappears from the urine.
Recovery, however, is generally slow, and it is many weeks
before full convalescence is established. Even, however, where
diphtheria ends thus favourably, the peculiar sequelae already
mentioned are apt to follow, generally within a period of two or
three weeks after all the local evidence of the disease has dis-
appeared. These secondary affections may occur after mild as
well as after severe attacks, and they are principally in the form of
paralysis affecting the soft palate and pharynx, causing difficulty
in swallowing with regurgitation of food through the nose, and
giving a peculiar nasal character to the voice. There are, how-
ever, other forms of paralysis occurring after diphtheria, especially
that affecting the muscles of the eye, which produces a loss of the
power of accommodation and consequent impairment of vision.
There may be, besides, paralysis of both legs, and occasionally
also of one side of the body (hemiplegia). These symptoms,
however, after continuing for a variable length of time, almost
always ultimately disappear.
Under the name of the Malum Egyptiacum, Aretaeus in the 2nd
century gives a minute description of a disease which in all its
essential characteristics corresponds to diphtheria. In the i6th,
1 7th and i8th centuries epidemics of diphtheria appear to have
DIPHTHERIA
291
frequently prevailed in many parts of Europe, particularly in
Holland, Spain, Italy, France, as well as in England, and were
described by physicians belonging to those countries under various
titles; but it is probable that other diseases of a similar nature
were included in their descriptions, and no accurate account of
this affection had been published till M. Bretonneau of Tours in
1821 laid his celebrated treatise on the subject before the French
Academy of Medicine. By him the term La Diphtlterite was first
given to the disease.
Great attention has been paid to diphtheria in recent years,
with some striking results. Its cause and nature have been
definitely ascertained, the conditions which influence its pre-
valence have been elucidated, and a specific " cure " has been
found. In the last respect it occupies a unique position at the
present time. In the case of several other zymotic diseases much
has been done by way of prevention, little or nothing for treat-
ment; in the case of diphtheria prevention has failed, but treat-
ment has been revolutionized by the introduction of antitoxin,
which constitutes the most important contribution to practical
medicine as yet made by bacteriology.
The exciting cause of diphtheria is a micro-organism, identified
by Klebs and Loffler in 1883 (see PARASITIC DISEASES). It
Causation ^ as ^ een s h wn by experiment that the symptoms of
diphtheria, including the after-effects, are produced by
a toxin derived from the micro-organisms which lodge in the air-
passages and multiply in a susceptible subject. The natural
history of the organism outside the body is not well understood,
but there is some reason to believe that it lives in a dormant
condition in suitable soils. Recent research does not favour the
theory that it is derived from defective drains or " sewer gas,"
but these things, like damp and want of sunlight, probably
promote its spread, by lowering the health of persons exposed to
them, and particularly by causing an unhealthy condition of the
throat, rendering it susceptible to the contagion. Defective
drainage, or want of drainage, may also act, by polluting the
ground, and so providing a favourable soil for the germ, though
it is to be noted that " the steady increase in the diphtheria
mortality has coincided, in point of time, with steady improve-
ment in regard of such sanitary circumstances as water supply,
sewerage, and drainage " (Thome Thorne). Cats and cows are
susceptible to the diphtheritic bacillus, and fowls, turkeys
and other birds have been known to suffer from a disease like
diphtheria, but other domestic animals appear to be more or less
resistant or immune. In human beings the mere presence of the
germ is not sufficient to cause disease; there must also be
susceptibility, but it is not known in what that consists. Indi-
viduals exhibit all degrees of resistance up to complete immunity.
Children are far more susceptible than adults, but even children
may have the Klebs-Loffler bacillus in their throats without
showing any symptoms of illness. Altogether there are many
obscure points about this micro-organism, which is apt to assume
a puzzling variety of forms. Nevertheless its identification has
greatly facilitated the diagnosis of the disease, which was previ-
ously a very difficult matter, often determined in an arbitrary
fashion on no particular principles.
Diphtheria, as at present understood, may be defined as sore
throat in which the bacillus is found; if it cannot be found, the
illness is regarded as something else, unless the clinical symptoms
are quite unmistakable. One result of this is a large transference
of registered mortality from other throat affections, and particu-
larly from croup, to diphtheria. Croup, which never had a well-
defined application, and is not recognized by the College of
Physicians as a synonym for diphtheria, appears to be dying out
from the medical vocabulary in Great Britain. In France the
distinction has never been recognized.
Diphtheria is endemic in all European and American countries,
and is apparently increasing, but the incidence varies greatly.
It is far more prevalent .on the continent than in
England, and still more so in the United States and
Canada. The following table, compiled from figures
collected by Dr Newsholme, shows how London compares with
some foreign cities. The figures give the mean death-rate from
Mean Death-Rales from Diphtheria and Croup per Million living.
New York
1610
Munich .
990
Chicago
1400
Milan
Buenos Aires
1360
Florence .
830
Trieste
1300
Vienna .
770
Dresden .
1290
Stockholm
720
Berlin
IIOO
St Petersburg
650
Boston
1160
Moscow .
640
Marseilles .
1130
Paris
630
Christiania
1090
Hamburg
490
Budapest .
1880
London .
386
Preva-
lence.
diphtheria and croup for the term of years during which records
have been' kept. The period varies in different cases, and there-
fore the comparison is only a rough one.
There is comparatively little diphtheria in India and Japan,
but in Egypt, the Cape and Australasia it prevails very extensively
among the urban populations. The mortality varies greatly from
year to year in all countries and cities. In Berlin, for instance, it
has oscillated between a maximum of 2420 in 1883 and a minimum
of 340 in 1896; in New York between 2760 in 1877 and 680 in
1868; in Christiania between 3290 in 1887 and 170 in 1871. In
some American ci ties still higher maxima have been recorded. In
other words, diphtheria, though always endemic, exhibits at times
a great increase of activity, and becomes epidemic or even
pandemic. The following table for 1850-99 shows fairly well the
periodical rise and fall in England and Wales. Diphtheria and
croup are given both separately and together, showing the
increasing transference from one to the other of late years.
Diphtheria was first entered separately in the year 1859.
Deaths from Diphtheria and Croup per Million living in
England and Wales.
Years.
Diphtheria.
Croup.
Diphtheria
and Croup.
1859
517
286
803
i860
261
220
481
1861-70
185
246
431
1871-80
121
1 68
289
1881-90
163
144
37
1891-95
254
70
324
1896-97
269
43
312
1898
244
27
271
1899
293
32
325
The combined figures for diphtheria and croup in later years are :
(1900) 316; (1901) 296; (1902) 255; (1903) 195; (1904) 184;
(1905) !74: (1906) 190; (1907) 175; (1908) 166.
Several facts are roughly indicated by the table. It begins
with an extremely severe epidemic, which has not been ap-
proached since. Then follows a fall extending over twenty years.
On the whole this diminution was progressive, though not in
reality so steady as the decennial grouping makes it appear, being
interrupted by smaller oscillations in single years and groups of
years. Still the main fact holds good. After 1880 an opposite
movement began, likewise interrupted by minor oscillations, but
on the whole progressive, and culminating in the year 1893 with a
death-rate of 389, the highest recorded since 1865. After 1896
a marked fall again took place. This is partly accounted for by
the use of antitoxin, which only began on a considerable scale in
1895, and did not become general until a year or two lateral
least. Its effects were only then fully felt. The registrar-
general's returns record mortality, not prevalence that is to
say, the number of deaths, not of cases.
On the whole, we get clear evidence of an epidemic rise and fall,
which may serve to dispose of some erroneous conceptions. The
belief, held until recently, that diphtheria is steadily increasing in
Great Britain was obviously premature; it did rise over a series
of years, but has now ebbed again. Moreover, the general
prevalence during the last thirty years has been notably less
than in the previous twelve years. Yet it is during years since
1870 that compulsory education has been in existence and
main drainage chiefly carried out. It follows that neither school
attendance nor sewer gas exercises such an important influence
over the epidemicity of diphtheria as some other conditions.
292
DIPHTHERIA
What are those conditions ? Dr Newsholme has advanced the
theory, based on an elaborate examination of statistics in various
countries, that the activity of diphtheria is connected with the
rainfall, and he lays down the following general induction from
the facts: " Diphtheria only becomes epidemic in years in which
the rainfall is deficient, and the epidemics are on the largest scale
when three or more years of deficient rainfall follow each other."
He points out that the comparative rarity of diphtheria in tropical
climates, which are characterized by excessive rainfall, and its
greater prevalence in continental than in insular countries,
confirm his theory. His observations seem quite contrary to the
view laid down by various authorities, and hitherto accepted,
that wet weather favours diphtheria. The two, however, are not
irreconcilable. The key to the problem and possibly to many
other epidemiological problems may perhaps be found in the
movements of the subsoil water. It has been suggested by
different observers, and particularly by Mr M. A. Adams, who has
for some years made a study of the subsoil water at Maidstone,
that there is a definite connexion between it and diphtheria. In
England the underground water normally reaches its lowest level
at the end of the summer; then it gradually rises, fed by percola-
tion from the winter rains, reaching a maximum level about the
end of March, after which it gradually sinks. This maximum
level Mr Adams calls the annual spring cleaning of the soil, and
his observations go to show that when the normal movement is
arrested or disturbed, diphtheria becomes active. Now that is
what happens in periods of drought. The underground water
does not rise to its usual level, and there is no spring cleaning.
The hypothesis, then, is this: The diphtheria bacillus lives in the
soil, but is " drowned out " in wet periods by the subsoil water.
In droughty ones it lives and nourishes in the warm, dry soil;
then when rain comes, it is driven out with the ground air into the
houses. This process will continue for some time, so that epidemic
outbreaks may well seem to be associated with wet. But they
begin in drought, and are stopped by long-continued periods of
copious rainfall. This is quite in keeping with the observed fact
that diphtheria is a seasonal disease, always most prevalent in the
last quarter of the year. The summer develops the poison in the
soil, the autumnal rains bring it out. The fact that the same
cause does not produce the same effect in tropical countries may
perhaps be explained by the extreme violence of the alternations,
which are too great to suit this particular micro-organism, or
possibly the regularity of the rainfall prevents its development.
The foregoing hypothesis is supported by a good deal of
evidence, and notably by the concurrence of the great epidemic
or pandemic prevalence in Great Britain, culminating in 1859,
witha prolonged period of exceptionallydeficient rainfall. Again,
the highest death-rate registered since 1865 was in 1893, a year
of similarly exceptional drought. But it is no more than an
hypothesis, and the fate of former theories is a warning against
drawing conclusions from statistics and records extending over
too short a period of time. The warning is particularly necessary
in connexion with meteorological conditions, which are apt to
upset all calculations. As it happens, a period of deficient rain-
fall even greater than that of 1854-18-58 has recently been
experienced. It began in 1893 and culminated in the extra-
ordinary season of 1899. The dry years were 1893, 1895, 1896,
1898 and 1899, and the deficiency of rainfall was not made good
by any considerable excess in 1894 and 1897. It surpassed all
records at Greenwich; streams and wells ran dry all over the
country, and the flow of the Thames and Lea was reduced to
the lowest point ever recorded. There should be, according to
the theory, at least a very large increase in the prevalence of
diphtheria. To a certain extent it has held good. There was a
marked rise in 1893-1896 over the preceding period, though not
so large as might have been expected, but it was followed by a
decided fall in 1897-1898. The experience of 1898 contradicts,
that of 1899 supports, the theory. Further light is therefore
required; but perhaps the failure of the recent drought to produce
results at all comparable with the epidemic of the 'fifties may be
due to variations in the resistance of the disease, which differs
widely in different years. It may also be due in part to improved
sanitation, to the notification of infectious diseases, the use of
isolation hospitals, which have greatly developed in quite recent
years, and, lastly, to the beneficial effects of antitoxin. If these
be the real explanations, then scientific and administrative work
has not been thrown away after all in combating this very painful
and fatal enemy of the young.
The conditions governing the general prevalence of diphtheria,
and its epidemic rise and fall, which have just been discussed, do
not touch the question of actual dissemination. The
contagion is spread by means which are in constant
operation, whether the general amount of disease is
great or small. Water, so important in some epidemic diseases,
is believed not to be one of them, though a negative proof based
on absence of evidence cannot be accepted as conclusive. On
the other hand, milk is undoubtedly a means of dissemination.
Several outbreaks of an almost explosive character, besides minor
extensions of disease from one place to another, have been traced
to this cause. Milk may be contaminated in various ways at
the dairy, for instance, or on the way to customers, but several
cases, investigated by the officers of the Local Government Board
and others, have been thought to point to infection from cows
suffering from a diphtheritic affection of the udder. The part
played by aerial convection is undetermined, but there is no
reason to suppose that the infecting material is conveyed any
distance by wind or air currents. Instances which seem to point
to the contrary may be explained in other ways, and particularly
by the fact, now fully demonstrated, that persons suffering from
minor sore throats, not recognized as diphtheria, may carry the
disease about and introduce it into other localities. Human
intercourse is the most important means of dissemination, the
contagion passing from person to person either by actual contact,
as in kissing, or by the use of the same utensils and articles, or by
mere proximity. In the last case the germs must be supposed to
be air-borne for short distances, and to enter with the breath.
Rooms appear liable to become infected by the presence of
diphtheritic cases, and so spread the disease among other persons
using them. At a small outbreak which occurred at Darenth
Asylum in 1898 the infection clung obstinately to a particular
ward, in spite of the prompt removal of all cases, and fresh ones
continued to occur until it had been thoroughly disinfected, after
which there were no more. The part played by human inter-
course in fostering the spread of the disease suggests that it would
naturally be more prevalent in urban communities, where people
congregate together more, than in rural ones. This is at variance
with the conclusion laid down by some authorities, that in this
country diphtheria used to affect chiefly the sparsely populated
districts, and though tending to become more urban, is still
rather a rural disease. That view is based upon an analysis of the
distribution by counties in England and Wales from 1855 to 1880,
and it has been generally accepted and repeated until it has
become a sort of axiom. Of course the facts of distribution are
facts, but the general inference drawn from them, that diphtheria
peculiarly affects the country and is changing its habitat, may be
erroneous. Dr Newsholme, by taking a wider basis of experience,
has arrived at the opposite conclusion, and finds that diphtheria
does not, in fact, flourish more in sparsely-peopled districts.
" When a sufficiently long series of years is taken," he says, " it
appears clear that there is more diphtheria in urban than in rural
communities." The rate for London has always been in excess of
that for the whole of England and Wales. Its distribution at any
given time is determined by a number of circumstances, and by
their incidental co-operation, not by any property or predilection
for town or country inherent in the disease. There are the
epidemic conditions of soil and rainfall, previously discussed,
which vary widely in different localities at different times; there
is the steady influence of regular intercourse, and the accidental
element of special distribution by various means. These things
may combine to alter the incidence. In short, accident plays
too great a part to permit any general conclusion to be drawn
from distribution, except from a very wide basis of experience.
The variations are very great and sometimes very sudden. For
instance, the county of London for some years headed the list,
DIPHTHERIA
293
having a far higher death-rate than any other. In 1 898 it dropped
to the fifth place, and was surpassed by Rutland, a purely rural
county, which had the lowest mortality of all in the previous year
and very nearly the lowest for the previous ten years. Again,
South Wales, which had had a low mortality for some years,
suddenly came into prominence as a diphtheria district, and in
1898 had the highest death-rate in the country. Staffordshire
and Bedfordshire show a similar rise, the one an urban, the other
a rural, county. All the northern counties, both rural and urban,
namely, Northumberland, Durham, Cumberland, Westmorland,
Lancashire, Yorkshire, Cheshire and Lincolnshire, had a very-
high rate in 1861-1870, and a low one in 1896-1898. It is
obviously unsafe to draw general conclusions from distribution
data on a small scale. Diphtheria appears to creep about very
slowly, as a rule, from place to place, and from one part of a large
town to another; it forsakes one district and appears in another;
occasionally it attacks a fresh locality with great energy, pre-
sumably because the local conditions are exceptionally favourable,
which may be due to the soil or, possibly, to the susceptibility of
the inhabitants, who are, so to speak, virgin ground. But through
it all personal infection is the chief means of spread.
The acceptance of this doctrine has directed great attention to
the practical question of school influence. There is no doubt
whatever that it plays a very considerable part, in spreading
diphtheria. The incidence of the disease is chiefly on children,
and nothing so often and regularly brings large numbers together
in close contact under the same roof as school attendance.
Nothing, in fact, furnishes such constant and extensive oppor-
tunities for personal infection. Many outbreaks have definitely
been traced to schools. In London the subject has been very
fully investigated by Sir Shirley Murphy, the medical officer of
health to the London County Council, and by Dr W. R. Smith,
formerly medical officer of health to the London School Board.
Sir Shirley Murphy has shown that a special incidence on children
of school age began to manifest itself after the adoption of
compulsory education, and that the summer holidays are marked
by a distinct diminution of cases, which is succeeded by an
increase on the return to school. Dr W. R. Smith's observations
are directed rather to minimizing the effect of school influence,
and to showing that it is less important than other factors;
which is doubtless true, as has been already remarked. It
appears that the heaviest incidence falls upon infants under school
age, and that liability diminishes progressively after school age
is reached. But this by no means disposes of the importance of
school influence, as the younger children at home may be infected
by older ones, who have picked up the contagion at school, but,
being less susceptible, are less severely affected and exhibit no
worse symptoms than a sore throat. From a practical point of
view the problem is a difficult one to deal with, as it is virtually
impossible to ensure the exclusion of all infection, on account
of the deceptively mild forms it may assume; but considering
how very often outbreaks of diphtheria necessitate the closing of
schools, it would probably be to the advantage of the authorities
to discourage, rather than to compel, the attendance of children
with sore throats. A fact of some interest revealed by statistics
is that in the earliest years of life the incidence of diphtheria is
greater upon male than upon female children, but from three
years onwards the position is reversed, and with every succeeding
year the relative female liability becomes greater. This is prob-
ably due to the habit of kissing maintained among females, but
more and more abandoned by boys from babyhood onwards.
All these considerations suggest the importance of segregating
the sick in isolation hospitals. Of late years this preventive
measure has been carried out with increasing efficiency, owing to
the better provision of such hospitals and the greater willingness
of the public to make use of them; and probably the improve-
ment so effected has had some share in keeping down the
prevalence of the disease to comparatively moderate proportions.
Unfortunately, the complete segregation of infected persons is
hardly possible, because of the mild symptoms, and even absence
of symptoms, exhibited by some individuals. A further difficulty
arises with reference to the discharge of patients. It has been
proved that the bacillus may persist almost indefinitely in the
air-passages in certain cases, and in a considerable proportion it
does persist for several weeks after convalescence. On returning
home such cases may, and often do, infect others.
Since the antitoxin treatment was introduced in 1894 it has
overshadowed all other methods. We owe this drug originally
to the Berlin school of bacteriologists, and particularly freatment.
to Dr Behring. The idea of making use of serum arose
about 1890, out of researches made in connexion with Mechnikov's
theory of phagocytosis, by which is meant the action of the
phagocytes or white corpuscles of the blood in destroying the
bacteria of disease. It was shown by the German bacteriologists
that the serum or liquid part of the blood plays an equally or more
important part in resisting disease, and the idea of combating
the toxins produced by pathogenic bacteria with resistant serum
injected into the blood presented itself to several workers. The
idea was followed up and worked out independently in France and
Germany, so successfully that by the year 1894 the serum treat-
ment had been tried on a considerable scale with most encourag-
ing results. Some of these were published in Germany in the
earlier part of that year, and at the International Hygienic
Congress, held in Budapest a little later, Dr Roux, of the Institut
Pasteur, whose experience was somewhat more extensive than
that of his German colleagues, read a paper giving the result of
several hundred cases treated in Paris. When all allowance for
errors had been made, they showed a remarkable and even
astonishing reduction of mortality, fully confirming the con-
clusions drawn from the German experiments. This consensus of
independent opinion proved a great stimulus to further trial, and
before long one dinique after another told the same tale. The
evidence was so favourable that Professor Virchow the last man
to be carried away by a novelty declared it " the imperative
duty of medical men to use the new remedy " (The Times, igih
October 1894). Since then an enormous mass of facts has
accumulated from all quarters of the globe, all testifying to
the value of antitoxin in the treatment of diphtheria. The
experience of the hospitals of the London Metropolitan Asylums
Board for five years before and after antitoxin may be given
as a particularly instructive illustration; but the subsequent
reduction in the rate of mortality (12 in 1900, 11-3 in 1901,
10-8 in 1902, 9-3 in 1903, and an average of 9 in 1904-1908) added
further confirmation.
Annual Case Mortality in Metropolitan Asylums Board's
Hospitals.
Before Antitoxin.
Mortality
Year. per cent.
1890 33-55
30-61
29-51
30-42
1891
1892
1893
1894
29-29
After Antitoxin.
Mortality
Year. per cent.
1895 . 22-85
1896 . 21-20
1897 . 17-79
1898 . 15-37
1899 - 15-95
The number of cases dealt with in these five antitoxin years
was 32,835, or an average of 6567 a year, and the broad result
is a reduction of mortality by more than one-half. It is a
fair inference that the treatment saves the lives of about 1000
children every year in London alone. This refers to all cases.
Those which occur in the hospitals as a sequel to scarlet fever, and
consequently come under treatment from the commencement,
show very much more striking results. The case mortality, which
was 46-8% in 1892 and 58-8% in 1893, has been reduced to
3-6% since the introduction of antitoxin. But the evidence is
not from statistics alone. The beneficial effect of the treatment
is equally attested by clinical observation. Dr Roux's original
account has been confirmed by a cloud of witnesses year after
year. " One may say," he wrote, " that the appearance of most
of the patients is totally different from what it used to be.
The pale and leaden faces are scarcely seen in the wards; the
expression of the children is brighter and more lively." Adult
patients have described the relief afforded by inoculation; it acts
like a charm, and lifts the deadly feeling of oppression off like
a cloud in the course of a few hours. Finally, the counteracting
effect of antitoxin in preventing the disintegrating action of the
294
DIPLODOCUS DIPLOMACY
CO
1
diphtheritic toxin on
the nervous tissues has
been demonstrated
pathologically. There
are some who still affect
scepticism as to the
value of this drug.
They cannot be ac-
quainted with the evi-
dence, for if the efficacy
of antitoxin in the treat-
ment of diphtheria has
not been proved, then
neither can the efficacy
of any treatment for
anything be said to be
proved. Prophylactic
properties are also
claimed for the serum;
but protection is neces-
sarily more difficult to
demonstrate than cure,
and though there is
some evidence to sup-
port the claim, it has
not been fully made
out.
AUTHORITIE s.
Adams, Public Health,
vol. vii. ; Thorne Thome,
Milroy Lectures (1891);
Newsholme, Epidemic
Diphtheria ; W. R. Smith,
Harben Lectures (1899);
M urphy ,Report toLondon
County Council (1894);
Sims Woodhead, Report
to Metropolitan Asylums
Board (1901).
DIPLODOCUS, a
gigantic extinct land
reptile discovered in
rocks of Upper JuYassic
age in western North
America, the best-
known example of a
Sauropodous Dinosaur.
The first scattered re-
mains of a skeleton were
found in 1877 by Prof.
S. W. Williston near
Canon City, Colorado;
and the tail and hind-
limb of this specimen
were described in the
following year by Prof.
O. C. Marsh. He
noticed that in the part
of the tail which dragged
on the ground, each
chevron bone below the
vertebral column con-
sisted of a pair of bars;
and as so peculiar an
arrangement for the
protection of the artery
and vein beneath the
tail had not previously
been observed in any
animal, he proposed
the name Diplodocus
(" double beam " or
" double bar ") for the
new reptile, adding the
specific name longus in allusion to the elongated shape of the
tail vertebrae. In 1884 Prof. Marsh described the head,
vertebrae and pelvis of the same skeleton, which is now
in the National Museum, Washington. In 1897 the next
important specimen, a tail associated with other fragments,
apparently of Diplodocus longus, was obtained by the American
Museum of Natural History, New York, from Como Bluffs,
Wyoming. In 1899-1000 large parts of two skeletons of another
species, in a remarkable state of preservation, were disinterred
by Messrs J. L. Wortman, O. A. Peterson and J. B. Hatcher in
Sheep Creek, Albany county, Wyo., and these are now exhibited
with minor discoveries in the Carnegie Museum, Pittsburg. There
are also other specimens in New York, Chicago and the Uni-
versity of Wyoming. In 1901 Mr J. B. Hatcher studied the new
species at Pittsburg, named it Diplodocus carnegii, and published
the first restored sketch of a complete skeleton. Shortly after-
wards plaster casts of the finest specimens were prepared under
the direction of Mr J. B. Hatcher and Dr W. J. Holland, and
these were skilfully combined to form the cast of a completely
reconstructed skeleton, which was presented to the British
Museum by Andrew Carnegie in 1905. This reconstruction is
based primarily on a well-preserved chain of vertebrae, extending
from the second cervical to the twelfth caudal, associated with
the ribs, pelvis and several limb-bones. The tail is completed
from two other specimens in the Carnegie Museum, having caudals
13 to 36 and 37 to 73 respectively in apparently unbroken series.
Prof. Marsh's specimen in Washington supplied the greater part
of the skull; and the fore-foot is copied from a specimen in New
York.
The cast of the reconstructed skeleton of Diplodocus carnegii
measures 84 ft. in length and 12 ft. 9 in. in maximum height at
the hind-limbs. It displays the elongated neck and tail and the
relatively small head so characteristic of the Sauropodous
Dinosaurs. The skull is inclined to the axis of the neck, denot-
ing a browsing animal; while the feeble blunt teeth and flat
expanded snout suggest feeding among succulent water-weeds.
The large narial opening at the highest point of the head probably
indicates an aquatic mode of life, and there seems to have
been a soft valve to close the nostrils when under water. The
diminutive brain-cavity, scarcely large enough to contain a
walnut, is noteworthy. There are 104 vertebrae, namely, 15 in
the neck, n in the back, 5 in the sacrum and 73 in the tail. The
presacral vertebrae are of remarkably light construction, the
plates and struts of bone being arranged to give the greatest
strength with the least weight. The end of the tail is a flexible
lash, which would probably be used as a weapon, like the tail of
some existing lizards. The feet, notwithstanding the weight they
had to support, are as unsymmetrical as those of a crocodile, with
claws only on the three inner toes. There is no external armour.
See O. C. Marsh, Amer. Journ. Sci. ser. 3, vol. xvi. (1878), p. 414,
pi. viii., and loc. cit. vol. xxvii. (1884), p. 161, pis. iii., iv. ;
H. F. Osborn, Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. vol. i. pt. v. (1899);
J. B. Hatcher, Mem. Carnegie Mus. vol. i. No. I (1901), and vol. ii.
No. i (1903); W. J. Holland, Mem. Carnegie Mus. vol. ii. No. 6
(1906). (A. S. Wo.)
. DIPLOMACY (Fr. diplomatic), the art of conducting inter-
national negotiations. The word, borrowed from the French, has
the same derivation as Diplomatic (q.ii.), and, according to the
New English Dictionary, was first used in England so late as 1796
by Burke. Yet there is no other word in the English language
that could supply its exact sense. The need for such a term
was indeed not felt; for what we know as diplomacy was long
regarded, partly as falling under the Jus gentium or international
law, partly as a kind of activity morally somewhat suspect and
incapable of being brought under any system. Moreover, though
in a certain sense it is as old as history, diplomacy as a uniform
system, based upon generally recognized rules and directed by
a diplomatic hierarchy having a fixed international status, is of
quite modern growth even in Europe. It was finally established
only at the congressesof Vienna (1815) and Aix-la-Chapelle (1818),
while its effective extension to the great monarchies of the East,
beyond the bounds of European civilization, was comparatively
an affair of yesterday. So late as 1876 it was possible for the
DIPLOMACY
295
writer on this subject in the gih edition of the Encyclopaedia
Brilannica to say that " it would be an historical absurdity to
suppose diplomatic relations connecting together China, Burma
and Japan, as they connect the great European powers."
Principles. Though diplomacy has been usually treated under
the head of international law, it would perhaps be more consonant
with the facts to place international law under diplomacy. The
principles and rules governing the intercourse of states, denned
by a long succession of international lawyers, have no sanction
save the consensus of the powers, established and maintained
by diplomacy (see BALANCE OF POWER) ; m so far as they have
become, by international agreement, more than mere pious
opinions of theorists, they are working rules established for
mutual convenience, which it is the function of diplomacy to
safeguard or to use for its own ends. In any case they by no
means cover the whole field of diplomatic activity; and, were
they swept away, the art of diplomacy, developed through long
ages of experience, would survive.
This experience may perhaps be called the science, as distinct
from the art, of diplomacy. It covers not only the province of
international law, but the vast field of recorded experience which
we know as history, of which indeed international law is but a
part; for, as Bielfeld in his Institutions politiques (La Haye, 1760,
1. 1. ch. ii. 13) points out, " public law is founded on facts. To
know it we must know history, which is the soul of this science
as of politics in general." The broad outlook on human affairs
implied in " historical sense " is more necessary to the diplomatist
under modern conditions than in the i8th century, when inter-
national policy was still wholly under the control of princes
and their immediate advisers. Diplomacy was then a game of
wits played in a narrow circle. Its objects too were narrower;
for states were practically regarded as the property of their
sovereigns, which it was the main function of their " agents " to
enlarge or to protect, while scarcely less important than the
preservation or rearrangement of territorial boundaries was that
of precedence and etiquette generally, over which an incredible
amount of time was wasted. The haute diplomatic thus resolved
itself into a process of exalted haggling, conducted with an
utter disregard of the ordinary standards of morality, but with
the most exquisite politeness and in accordance with ever
more and more elaborate rules. Much of the outcome of these
dead debates has become stereotyped in the conventions of the
diplomatic service; but the character of diplomacy itself has
undergone a great change. This change is threefold: firstly, as
the result of the greater sense of the community of interests
among nations, which was one of the outcomes of the French
Revolution; secondly, owing to the rise of democracy, with its
expression in parliamentary assemblies and in the press; thirdly,
through the alteration in the position of the diplomatic agent, due
to modern means of communication.
The first of these changes may be dated to the circular of Count
Kaunitz of the tyth of July 1791, in which, in face of the Revolu-
tion, he impressed upon the powers the duty of making common
cause for the purpose of preserving " public peace, the tran-
quillity of states, the inviolability of possessions, and the faith of
treaties." The duty of watching over the common interests of
Europe, or of the world, was thus for the first time officially
recognized as a function of diplomacy, since common action could
only be taken as the result of diplomatic negotiations. It would
be easy to exaggerate the effective results of this idea, even when
it had crystallized in the Grand Alliance of 1814 and been pro-
claimed to the world in the Holy Alliance of the 26th of September
181 sand the declaration of Aix-la-Chapelle. The cynical picture
given by La Bruyere of the diplomatist of the i8th century still
remained largely true : " His talk is only of peace, of alliances,
of the public tranquillity, and of the public interests; in reality
he is thinking only of his own, that is to say, of those of his master
or of his republic." 1 The proceedings of the congress of Vienna
proved how little the common good weighed unless reinforced
by particular interests; but the conception of " Europe " as a
political entity none the Jess survived. The congresses, notably
'La Bruyere, Caracteres, ii. 77 (ed. P. Jouast, Paris, 1881).
the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (q.v.) in 1818, were in a certain
sense European parliaments, and their ostensible object was the
furtherance of common interests. Had the imperial dreamer
Alexander I. of Russia had his way, they would have been
permanently established on the broad basis of the Holy Alliance,
and would have included, not the great powers only, but re-
presentatives of every state (see ALEXANDER I. and EUROPE:
History). Whatever the effective value of that " Concert of
Europe " which was the outcome of the period of the congresses,
it certainly produced a great effect on the spirit and the practice
of diplomacy. In the congresses and conferences diplomacy
assumes international functions both legislative and admini-
strative. The diplomat is responsible, not only to his own
government, but to " Europe." Thus Castlereagh was accused of
subordinating the interests of Great Britain to those of Europe;
and the same charge was brought, perhaps with greater justice,
against Metternich in respect of Austria. Canning's principle of
" Every nation for itself and God for us all!" prevailed, it is
true, over that of Alexander's " Confederation of Europe "; yet,
as one outcome of the congresses, every diplomatic agent, though
he represents the interests of his own state, has behind him the
whole body of the treaties which constitute the public law of
the world, of which he is in some sort the interpreter and the
guardian.
Parallel with this development runs the second process making
for change: the increasing responsibility of diplomacy to public
opinion. To discuss all the momentous issues involved in this is
impossible; but the subject is too important to be altogether
passed over, since it is one of the main problems of modern
international intercourse, and concerns every one who by his vote
may influence the policy of the state to which he belongs. The
question, broadly speaking, is: how far has the public discussion
of international affairs affected the legitimate functions of
diplomacy for better or for worse? To the diplomatist of the
old school the answer seems clear. For him diplomacy was too
delicate and too personal an art to survive the glare and confusion
of publicity. Metternich, the last representative of the old haute
diplomatie, lived to moralize over the ruin caused by the first
manifestations of the " new diplomacy," the outcome of the rise
of the power of public opinion. He had early, from his own point
of view, unfavourably contrasted the " limited " constitutional
monarchies of the west with the " free " autocracies of the east
of Europe, free because they were under no obligation to give a
public account of their actions. He himself was a master of the
old diplomatic art, of intrigue, of veiling his purpose under a cloud
of magniloquence, above all, of the art of personal fascination.
But public opinion was for him only a, dangerous force to be kept
under control; and, even had he realized the necessity for appeal-
ing to it, he had none of the qualities that would have made the
appeal successful. In direct antagonism to him was George
Canning, who may be called the great prototype of the " new
diplomacy," and to Metternich was a " malevolent meteor hurled
by divine providence upon Europe." Canning saw clearly the
immense force that would be added to his diplomatic action if
he had behind him the force of public opinion. In answer to
Metternich's complaint of the tone of speeches in parliament and
of the popular support given in England to revolutionary move-
ments, he wrote, " Our influence, if it is to be maintained abroad,
must be secure in its sources of strength at home: and the sources
of that strength are in the sympathy between the people and the
government; in the union of the public sentiment with the public
counsels; in the reciprocal confidence of the House of Commons
and the crown." 2
It would be a mistake to jump to the conclusion that Canning
was wholly right and Metternich wholly wrong. The conditions
of the Habsburg monarchy were not those of Great Britain, 3
and even if it had been possible to speak of a public opinion in the
Austrian empire at all, it certainly possessed no such organ as
the British parliament. But the argument may be carried yet
2 To Wellesley, in Stapleton's Canning, i. 374.
3 For the motives of Metternich's foreign policy see AUSTRIA-
HUNGARY: History (iii. 332-333).
296
DIPLOMACY
further. In the abstract the success of the policy of a minister
in a democratic state must ultimately rest upon the support of
public opinion; yet the necessity for this support has in the
conduct of foreign affairs its peculiar dangers. In the difficult
game of diplomacy a certain reticence is always necessary. Secret
sources of information would be dried up were they to be lightly
revealed; a plain exposition of policy would often give an undue
advantage to the other party to a negotiation. Thus, even in
Great Britain, the diplomatic correspondence laid before parlia-
ment is carefully edited, and all governments are jealous of
granting access to their modern archives. Yet a representative
assembly is apt to be resentful of such reservations. Its members
know little or nothing of the conditions under which foreign
affairs are conducted, and they are not unnaturally irritated
by explanations which seem to lack candour or completeness.
Canning himself had experience of this in the affair of the capture
of the Danish fleet at Copenhagen; and Castlereagh's diplomacy
was hampered by the bitter attacks of an opposition which
accused him, with little justice, of pursuing a policy which he
dared not reveal in its full scope to parliament. Moreover, the
appeal to public opinion may be used as a diplomatic weapon for
ends no less " selfish " than any aimed at by the old diplomacy.
Bismarck, whose statesmanship was at least as cynical as that of
Metternicb, was a master of the art of taking the world into his
confidence when it suited him to do so; and the " reptile press,"
hired to give a seemingly independent support to his policy,
was one of his most potent weapons. So far the only necessary
consequence of the growth of the power of public opinion on the
art of diplomacy has been to extend the sphere of its application;
it is but one more factor to be dealt with; and experience has
proved that it is subject to the wiles of a skilful diplomatist no
less than were the princes and statesmen with whom the old
diplomacy was solely concerned.
The third factor making for change the revolution in the
means of communication which has brought all the world into
closer touch remains to be discussed. It is obvious that before
the invention of the telegraph, the diplomatic agent was in a far
more responsible position than he is now, when he can, in most
cases, receive immediate instructions from his government on
difficult questions as they arise. When communication was still
slow there was often no time to await instructions, or the instruc-
tions when they arrived were not seldom already out of date and
had to be set aside on the minister's own responsibility. It would,
however, be easy to exaggerate the importance of this change as
affecting the character and status of diplomatic agents. It is true
that the tendency has been for ministers of foreign affairs to hold
the threads of diplomacy in their own hands to a far greater
extent than was formerly the case; but they must still depend
for information and advice on the " man on the spot," and the
success of their policy largely depends upon his qualities of
discretion and judgment. The growth of democracy, moreover,
has given to the ambassador a new and peculiar importance; for
he represents not only the sovereign to the sovereign, but the
nation to the nation; and, as a succession of notable American
ambassadors to Great Britain has proved, he may by his personal
qualities do a large amount to remove the prejudices and
ignorances which stand as a barrier between the nations. It
marks an immense advance in the comity of international
intercourse when the representatives of friendly powers are
no longer regarded as " spies rather than ambassadors," to be
" quickly heard and dismissed," as Philippe de Commines would
have them, but as agreeable guests to be parted from with regret.
As to the qualifications for an ambassador, it is clearly im-
possible to lay down a general rule, for the same qualities are
obviously not required in Washington as in Vienna, nor in Paris
as in Pekin. Yet the effort to depict the ideal ambassador bulks
largely in the works of the earlier theorists, and the demands they
make are sufficiently alarming. Ottaviano Maggi, himself a
diplomatist of the brilliant age of the Renaissance, has left us in
his De legato (Hanoviae, 1596) his idea of what an ambassador
should be. He must not only be a good Christian but a learned
theologian; he must be a philosopher, well versed in Aristotle
and Plato, and able at a moment's notice to solve in correct
dialectical form the most abstruse problems; he must be well
read in the classics, and an expert in mathematics, architecture,
music, physics and civil and canon law. He must not only know
how to write and speak Latin with classical refinement, but he
must be a master of Greek, Spanish, French, German and Turkish.
He must Have a sound knowledge of history, geography and the
science of war; but at the same time is not to neglect the poets,
and never to be without his Homer. Add to this that he must
be well born, rich and of a handsome presence, and we have
a portrait of a diplomatist whose original can hardly have
existed even in that age of brilliant versatility. The Dutchman
Frederikus de Marselaer, in his KijpvKtiov sive legationum
insigne (Antwerp, 1618), is scarcely less exacting than the
Venetian. His ideal ambassador is a nobleman of fine presence
and in the prime of life, famous, rich, munificent, abstemious,
not violent, nor quarrelsome, nor morose, no flatterer, learned,
eloquent, witty without being talkative, a good linguist, widely
read, prudent and cautious, but brave and as he adds somewhat
superfluously many-sided.
With these theoretical perfections one or two instances of the
qualifications demanded by the exigencies of practical politics
may be cited by way of illuminating contrast. At the court of the
empress Elizabeth of Russia good looks were a surer means of
diplomatic success than all the talents and virtues, and the
princess of Zerbst (mother of the empress Catherine II.) wrote to
Frederick of Prussia advising him to replace his elderly am-
bassador by a handsome young man with a good complexion;
and the essential qualification for an ambassador to Switzerland,
Germany, Poland, Denmark and Russia used to be that he should
be able to drink the native diplomatists, seasoned from babyhood
to strong liquors, under the table.
History. In its widest sense the history of diplomacy is that of
the intercourse between nations, in so far as this has not been a
mere brute struggle for the mastery; 1 in a narrower sense, with
which the present article is alone concerned, it is that of the
methods and spirit of diplomatic intercourse and of the character
and status of diplomatic agents. Earlier writers on the office
and functions of ambassadors, such as Gentilis or Archbishop
Germonius, conscientiously trace their origin to God himself,
who created the angels to be his legates; and they fortify their
arguments by copious examples drawn from ancient history,
sacred and profane. But, whatever the influence upon it of
earlier practice, modern diplomacy really dates from the rise of
permanent missions, and the consequent development of the
diplomatic hierarchy as an international institution. Of this the
first beginnings are traceable to the isth century and to Italy.
There had, of course, during the middle ages been embassies and
negotiations; but the embassies had been no more than tem-
porary missions directed to a particular end and conducted by
ecclesiastics or nobles cf a dignity appropriate to each occasion;
there were neither permanent diplomatic agents nor a professional
diplomatic class. To the evolution of such a class the Italy of the
Renaissance, the nursing-ground of modern statecraft, gave the
first impetus. This was but natural; for Italy, with its numerous
independent states, between which there existed a lively inter-
course and a yet livelier rivalry, anticipated in miniature the
modern states' system of Europe. In feudal Europe there had
been little room for diplomacy; but in northern and central Italy
feudalism had never taken root, and in the struggles of the
peninsula diplomacy had early played a part as great as, or greater
than, war. Where all were struggling for the mastery, the
existence of each depended upon alliances and counter-alliances,
of which the object was the maintenance of the balance of power.
In this school there was trained a notable succession of men of
affairs. Thus, in the isth and i4th centuries Florence counted
among her envoys Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio, and later on
could boast of agents such as Capponi, Vettori, Guicciardini and
Machiavelli. Papal Rome, too, as was to be expected, had
always been a fruitful nursing-mother of diplomatists; and some
1 e.g. A History of Diplomacy in the International Development oj
Europe, by D. J. Hill (London and New York, 1905).
DIPLOMACY
297
authorities have traced the beginnings of modern diplomacy to a
conscious imitation of her legatine system. 1
It is, however, in Venice, that the origins of modern diplomacy
are to be sought. 2 So early as the I3th century the republic, with
a view to safeguarding the public interests, began to lay down a
series of rules for the conduct of its ambassadors. Thus, in 1 236,
envoys to the court of Rome are forbidden to procure a benefice
for anyone without leave of the doge and little council ; in 1268
ambassadors are commanded to surrender on their return any
gifts they may have received, and by another decree they are
compelled to take an oath to conduct affairs to the honour and
advantage of the republic. About the same time it was decided
that diplomatic agents were to hand in, on their return, a written
account of their mission; in 1288 this was somewhat expanded by
a law decreeing that ambassadors were to deposit, within fifteen
days of their return, a written account of the replies made to them
during their mission, together with anything they might have seen
or heard to the honour or in the interests of the republic. These
provisions, which were several times renewed, notably in 1296,
1425 and 1533, are the origin of the famous reports of the
Venetian ambassadors to the senate, which are at once a monu-
ment to the political genius of Venetian statesmen and a mine
of invaluable historical material. 3
These are but a few examples of a long series of regulations,
many others also dating to the I3th century, by which the
Venetian government sought to systematize its diplomatic
service. That permanent diplomatic agencies were not estab-
lished by it earlier than was the case is probably due to the
distrust of its agents by which most of this legislation of the
republic is inspired. In the i3th century two or three months
was considered over-long a period for an ambassador to reside at
a foreign court; in the isth century the period of residence was
extended to two years, and in the i6th century to three. This
latter rule continued till the end of the republic; the embassy
had become permanent, but the ambassador was changed every
three years.
The origin of the change from temporary to permanent missions
has been the subject of much debate and controversy. The theory
that it was due, in the first instance, to the evolution of the
Venetian consulates (bajulats) in the Levant into permanent
diplomatic posts, and that the idea was thence transferred to the
West, is disproved by the fact that Venice had established other
permanent embassies before the baylo (q.v.) at Constantinople was
transformed into a diplomatic agent of the first rank. Nor is
the first known instance of the appointment of a permanent
ambassador Venetian. The earliest record 4 is contained in the
announcement by Francesco Sforza, duke of Milan, in 1455, of his
intention to maintain a permanent embassy at Genoa 5 ; and in
1460 the duke of Savoy sent Eusebio Margaria, archdeacon of
Vercelli, as his permanent representative to the Curia. 6 Though,
however, the early records of such appointments are rare, the
practice was probably common among the Italian states. Its
extension to countries outside Italy was a somewhat later develop-
ment. In 1494 Milan is already represented in France by a
permanent ambassador. In 1495 Zacharia Contarini, Venetian
ambassador to the emperor Maximilian, is described by Sanuto
(Diarii, i. 294) as stato ambasciatore; and from the time of
1 For this see Hinschius, Kirchenrecht, i. p. 498.
2 The Venetians, however, in their turn, doubtless learned their
diplomacy originally from the Byzantines, with whom their trade
expansion in the Levant early brought them into close contact. For
Byzantine diplomacy see ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER: Diplomacy.
* See Eugenio Alberi, Le Relazioni degli ambasciatori Veneti al
senato, 15 vols. (Florence, 1839-1863).
4 The apocrisiarii (awoKpiviapioi) or responsales should perhaps be
mentioned, though they certainly did not set the precedent for the
modern permanent missions. They were resident agents, practically
legates, of the popes at the court of Constantinople. They were
established by Pope Leo I., and continued until the Iconoclastic
controversy broke the intimate ties between East and West. See
Luxardo, Das vordekretalische Gesandtschaftsrecht der Papste (Inns-
bruck, 1878) ; also Hinschius, Kirchenrecht, i. 501.
6 N. Bianchi, Le Materie politiche relative all' estero degli archivi di
stato piemontese (Bologna, Modena, 1875), p. 29.
6 Ib. Note 2, teneamus et deputemus ibidem continue mansurum.
Charles V. onwards the succession of ambassadors of the republic
at the imperial court is fairly traceable. In 1496 " as the way to
the British Isles is very long and very dangerous," two merchants
resident in London, Pietro Contarini and Luca Valaressa, were
appointed by the republic subambasciatores; and in June of the
same year Andrea Trevisano arrived in London as permanent
ambassador at the court of Henry VII. 7 Florence, too, from
1498 onwards, was represented at the courts of Charles V. and of
France by permanent ambassadors.
During the same period the practice had been growing up
among the other European powers. Spain led the way in 1487
by the appointment of Dr Roderigo Gondesalvi de Puebla as
ambassador in England. As he was still there in 1500, the
Spanish embassy in London may be regarded as the oldest still
surviving post of the new permanent diplomacy. Other states
followed suit, but only fitfully; it was not till late in the i6th
century that permanent embassies were regarded as the norm.
The precarious relations between the European powers during
the 1 6th century, indeed, naturally retarded the development of
the system. Thus it was not till after good relations had been
established with France by the treaty of London that, in 1519,
Sir Thomas Boleyn and Dr West were sent to Paris as resident
English ambassadors, and, after the renewed breach between the
two countries, no others were appointed till the reign of Elizabeth.
Nine years before, Sir Robert Wingfield, whose simplicity earned
him the nickname of " Summer-shall-be-green," had been sent as
ambassador to the court of Charles V., where he remained from
1510 to 1517; and in 1520 the mutual appointment of resident
ambassadors was made a condition of the treaty between Henry
VIII. and Charles V. In 1517 Thomas Spinelly, who had for
some years represented England at the court of the Netherlands,
was appointed " resident ambassador to the court of Spain,"
where he remained till his death on the 22nd of August 1522.
These are the most important early instances of the new system.
Alone of the great powers, the emperor remained permanently
unrepresented at foreign courts. In theory this was the result
of his unique dignity, which made him superior to all other
potentates; actually it was because, as emperor, he could not
speak for the practically independent princes nominally his
vassals. It served all practical purposes if he were represented
abroad by his agents as king of Spain or archduke of Austria.
All the evidence now available goes to prove that the establish-
ment of permanent diplomatic agencies was not an unconscious
and accidental development of previous conditions, but de-
liberately adopted as an obvious convenience. But, while all the
powers were agreed as to the convenience of maintaining such
agencies abroad, all were equally agreed in viewing the repre-
sentatives accredited to them by foreign states with extreme
suspicion. This attitude was abundantly justified by the
peculiar ethics of the new diplomacy. The old " orators " of the
Summer-shall-be-green type could not long hold their own
against the new men who had studied in the school of Italian
statecraft, for whom the end justified the means. Machiavelli
had gathered in The Prince and The Discourses on Livy the
principles which underlay the practice of his day in Italy;
Francis I., the first monarch to establish a completely organized
diplomatic machinery, did most to give these principles a
European extension. By the close of the 1 6th century diplomacy
had become frankly " Machiavellian," and the ordinary rules of
morality were held not to apply to the intercourse between
nations. This was admitted in theory as well as in practice.
Germonius, after a vigorous denunciation of lying in general,
argues that it is permissible for the safety or convenience
(commodo) of princes, since solus populi suprema lex, and quod
non permittit naturalis ratio, admiUit civilis; and he adduces
in support of this principle the answer given by Ulysses to
Neoptolemus, in the Ajax of Sophocles, and the examples of
Abraham, Jacob and David. Paschalius, while affirming that an
ambassador must study to speak the truth, adds that he is not
7 The first ambassador of Venice to visit England was Zuanne da
Lezze, who came in 1319 to demand compensation for the plundering
of Venetian ships by English pirates.
298
DIPLOMACY
such a " rustic boor " as to say that an " official lie " (officiosum
mendacium) is never to be employed, or to deny that an
ambassador should be, on occasion, splendide mendax. 1 The
situation is summed up in the famous definition of Sir Henry
Wotton, which, though excused by himself as a jest, was held to
be an indiscreet revelation of the truth: " An ambassador is an
honest man sent to lie abroad for the good of his country." 2
The most successful liar, in fact, was esteemed the most successful
diplomatist. " A prime article of the catechism of ambassadors,"
says Bayle in his Dictionnaire critique (1699), " whatever their
religion, is to invent falsehoods and to go about making society
believe them." So universally was this principle adopted that,
in the end, no diplomatist even expected to be believed; and
the best way to deceive was as Bismarck cynically avowed
to tell the truth.
But, in addition to being a liar ex officio, the ambassador was
also " an honourable spy." " The principal functions of an
envoy," says Francois de Callieres, himself an ex-ambassador of
Louis XIV., " are two; the first is to look after the affairs of his
own prince; the second is to discover the affairs of the other."
A clever minister, he maintains, will know how to keep himself
informed of all that goes on in the mind of the sovereign, in the
councils of ministers or in the country; and for this end " good
cheer and the warming effect of wine " are excellent allies. 3
This being so, it is hardly to be wondered at that foreign
ambassadors were commonly regarded as perhaps necessary, but
certainly very unwelcome, guests. The views of Philippe de
Commines have already been quoted above, and they were shared
by a long series of theoretical writers as well as by men of affairs.
Gentilis is all but alone in his protest against the view that all
ambassadors were exploratores magis quam oratores, and to be
treated as such. So early as 1481 the government of Venice had
decreed the penalty of banishment and a heavy fine for any one
who should talk of affairs of state with a foreign envoy, and
though the more civilized princes did not follow the example of
the sultan, who by way of precaution locked the ambassador of
Ferdinand II., Jerome Laski, into " a dark and stinking place
without windows," they took the most minute precautions to
prevent the ambassadors of friendly powers from penetrating
into their secrets. Charles V. thought it safest to keep them as
far away as possible from his court. So did Francis I. ; and, when
affairs were critical, he made his frequent changes of residence
and his hunting expeditions the excuse for escaping from
their presence. Henry VII. forbade his subjects to hold
any intercourse with them, and, later on, set spies upon them
and examined their correspondence a practice by no means
confined to England. If the system of permanent embassies
survived, it is clear that this was mainly due to the belief of the
sovereigns that they gained more by maintaining " honourable
spies " at foreign courts than they lost by the presence of those
of foreign courts at their own. It was purely a question of the
balance of advantage. Neither among statesmen nor among
theorists was there any premonition of the great part to be
played by the permanent diplomatic body in the development
and maintenance of the concert of Europe. To Paschalius the
permanent embassies were " a miserable outgrowth of a miserable
age." 4 Grotius himself condemned them as not only harmful,
1 Germonius, De le.gatis principum et populorum libri tres (Rome,
1627), chap. vi. p. 164; Paschalius, Legatus (Rouen, 1598), p. 302.
fitienne Dolet, who had been secretary to Cardinal Jean du Bellay,
and was burned for atheism in 1546, in his De officio legati (1541)
advises ambassadors to surround themselves with taciturn servants,
to employ vigilant spies, and to set afoot all manner of fictions,
especially when negotiating with the court of Rome or with the
Italian princes.
2 See Pearsall Smith, Sir Henry Wotton, pp. 49, 126 et seq.
3 Frangois de Callieres, De la maniere de negocier aiiec les souverains
(Brussels, 1716). See also A. Sorel, Recueil des instructions donnees
aux ambassadeurs et ministres de France (Paris, 1884), e.g. vol.
Autriche, pp. 77, 88, 102, 112.
4 " Nova res est, quod sciam, et infelicis hujus aetatis infelix
partus. . . . Hinc orin securitatem universorum, hinc stabiliri pacem
gentium. Quae utinam tarn vere dicerentur, quam speciose. Ego
quidem, ne quid dissimulem, ab istis seorsum sentio. Nimirum,
effoeta virtutis, foecunda fraudis haec saecula video peperisse
but useless, the proof of the latter being that they were unknown
to antiquity. 6
Development of the Diplomatic Hierarchy. The history of
the diplomatic body 6 is, like that of other bodies, that of the
progressive differentiation of functions. The middle ages knew
no classification of diplomatic agents; the person sent on mission
is described indifferently as legatus, orator, nuntius, ablegatus,
commissarius, procurator, mandatarius, agens or ambaxator
(ambassator, &c.). In Gundissalvus, De legato (1485), the oldest
printed work on the subject, the word ambasiator, first found in
a Venetian decree of 1268, is applied to any diplomat. Florence
was the first to make distinction; the orator was appointed by
the council of the republic; the mandatorio, with inferior powers,
by the Council of Ten. In 1500 Machiavelli, who held only the
latter rank, wrote from France urging the Signoria to send
ambasiadori. This was, however, rather a question of powers
than of dignity. But the causes which ultimately led to the
elaborate differentiation of diplomatic ranks were rather ques-
tions of dignity than of functions. 7 The breakdown of feudalism,
with the consequent rise of a series of sovereign states or of states
claiming to be sovereign, of very various size and importance, led
to a certain confusion in the ceremonial relation between them,
which had been unknown to the comparatively clearly defined
system of the middle ages. The smaller states were eager to
assert the dignity of their actual or practical independence;
the greater powers were equally bent on "keeping them in their
place." If the emperor, as has been stated above, was too
exalted to send ambassadors, certain of the lesser states were soon
esteemed too humble to be represented at the courts of the great
powers save by agents of an inferior rank. By the second half
of the i6th century, then, there are two classes of diplomatists,
ambassadors and residents or agents, the latter being accounted
ambassadors of the second class. 8 At first the difference of rank
was determined by the status of the sovereign by whom or to
whom the diplomatic agent was accredited; but early in the i6th
century it became fairly common for powers of the first rank to
send agents of the second class to represent them at courts of
an equal status. The reasons were various, and not unamusing.
First and foremost came the question of expense. The am-
bassador, as representing the person of his sovereign, was bound
by the sentiment of the age to display an exaggerated magnifi-
cence. His journeys were like royal progresses, his state entries
surrounded with every circumstance of pomp, and it was held to
be his duty to advertise the munificence of his prince by boundless
largesses. Had this munificence been as unlimited in fact as
in theory, all might have been well, but, in that age of vaulting
ambitions, depleted exchequers were the rule rather than the
exception in Europe; the records are full of pitiful appeals from
ambassadors for arrears of pay, and appointment to an embassy
often meant ruin, even to a man of substance. To give but one
example, Sir Richard Morison, Edward VI.'s ambassador in
Germany, had to borrow money to pay his debts before he could
leave Augsburg (Cal. State Pap. Edio. VI., No. 467), and later
on he writes from Hamburg (April 9, 1552) that he could buy
nothing, because everyone believed that he had packed up in
spissata haec imperia, sive summas potestates, unde, ut e vomitariis,
hae legationes undatim se fundunt." Paschalius, Legatus (1598),
p. 447. So too Felix de la Mothe Le Vayer (1547-1625), in his
Legatus (Paris, 1579), says " Legates tune primum aut npn multura
post institutes fuisse cum Pandora malorum omnium semina in hunc
mundum . . . demisit."
6 De jure belli et pacis (Amsterdam, 1621), ii. c. 18, 3, n. 2.
6 The term corps diplomatique originated about the middle of the
l8th century. " The Chancellor Fiirst," says Ranke (xxx. 47, note),
" does not use it as yet in his report (1754) but he knows it," and it
would appear that it had just been invented at Vienna. " Corps
diplomatique, nom qu'une dame donna un jour a ce corps nombreux
de ministres etrangers a Vienne."
7 So too Pradier-Fodere, vol. i. p. 262.
8 Thus Charles V. would not allow the representatives of the duke
of Mantua, Ferrara, &c., to style themselves " ambassadors," on the
ground that this title could be borne only by the agents of kings and
of the republic of Venice, and not by those of states whose sovereignty
was impaired by any feudal relation to a superior power. (See
Krauske, p. 155.)
DIPLOMACY
299
readiness to flit secretly, for " How must they buy things, where
men know their stuff is ready trussed up, and they fleeting every
day? " (ib. No. 544). But the dignity of ambassador carried
another drawback besides expense; his function of " honourable
spy " was seriously hampered by the trammels of his position.
He was unable to move freely in society, but lived a ceremonial
existence in the midst of a crowd of retainers, through whom alone
it was proper for him to communicate with the world outside. It
followed that, though the office of ambassador was more dignified,
that of agent was more generally useful.
Yet a third cause, possibly the most immediately potent,
encouraged the growth of the lesser diplomatic ranks: the
question of precedence among powers theoretically equal.
Modern diplomacy has settled a difficulty which caused at one
time much heart-burning and even bloodshed by a simple appeal
to the alphabet. Great Britain feels no humiliation in signing
after France, if the reason be that her name begins with G; had
she not been Great, she would sign before. The vexed question of
the precedence of ambassadors, too, has been settled by the rule,
already referred to above, as to seniority of appointment. But
while the question remained unsettled it was obviously best to
evade it; and this was most easily done by sending an agent
of inferior rank to a court where the precedence claimed for an
ambassador would have been refused.
Thus set in motion, the process of differentiation continues
until the system is stereotyped in the igth century. It is un-
necessary to trace this evolution here in any detail. It is mainly
a question of names, and diplomatic titles are no exception to the
general rule by which all titles tend to become cheapened and
therefore, from time to time, need to be reinforced by fresh verbal
devices. The method was the familiar one of applying terms
that had once implied a particular quality in a fashion that
implied actually nothing. The ambassador extraordinary had
originally been one sent on an extraordinary mission; for the
time and purpose of this mission his authority superseded that
of the resident ambassador. But by the middle of the I7th
century the custom had grown up of calling all ambassadors
" extraordinary," in order to place them on an equality with the
others. The same process was extended to diplomatists of the
second rank; and envoys (envoy e for ablegatus) were always
" extraordinary," and as such claimed and received precedence
over mere " residents," who in their day had asserted the same
claim against the agents all three terms having at one time
been synonymous. Similarly a " minister plenipotentiary " had
originally meant an agent armed with full powers (plein-pouwir) ;
but, by a like process, the combination came to mean as little as
" envoy extraordinary " though a plenipotentiary tout simple is
still an agent, of no ceremonially defined dignity, despatched with
full powers to treat and conclude. Finally, the evolution of the
title of a diplomatist of the second rank is crowned by the high-
sounding combination, now almost exclusively used, of " envoy
extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary." The ultimate fate
of the simple title " resident " was the same as that of " agent."
Both had been freely sold by needy sovereigns to all and sundry
who were prepared to pay for what gave them a certain social
status. The " agent " fell thus into utter discredit, and those
"residents" who were still actual diplomatic agents became
" ministers resident " to distinguish them from the common herd.
The classification of diplomatic agents was for the first time
definitively included in the general body of international law by
the Reglement of the igth of March 1815 at Vienna 1 ; and the
whole question was finally settled at the congress of Aix-la-
Chapelle (November 21, 1818) when, the proposal to establish
precedence by the status of the accrediting powers having wisely
been rejected, diplomatic agents were divided into four classes:
(i) Ambassadors, legates, nuncios; (2) Envoys extraordinary
and ministers plenipotentiary, and other ministers accredited
direct to the sovereign; (3) Ministers resident; (4) Charges
d'affaires. With a few exceptions (e.g. Turkey), this settlement
was accepted by all states, including the United States of
America.
1 See Pradier-Fodere, i. 265.
Rights and Privileges of Diplomatic Agents. These are partly
founded upon immemorial custom, partly the result of negotia-
tions embodied in international law. The most important, as it
is the most ancient, is the right of personal inviolability extended
to the diplomatic agent and the members of his suite. This
inviolability is maintained after a rupture between the two
governments concerned, and even after the outbreak of war.
The habit of the Ottoman government of imprisoning in the
Seven Towers the ambassador of a power with which it quarrelled
was but an exception which proved the rule. The second im-
portant right is that of exterritoriality (<?..), a convenient
fiction by which the house and equipages of the diplomatic agent
are regarded as the territory of the power by whom he is ac-
credited. This involves the further principle that the agent is in
no way subject to the receiving government. He is exempt from
taxation and from the payment at least of certain local rates. He
also enjoys immunity (i) from civil jurisdiction, e.g. he cannot be
sued, nor can his goods be seized, for debt; (2) from criminal
jurisdiction, e.g. he cannot be arrested and tried for a criminal
offence. For a crime of violence, however, or for plotting against
the state, he can be placed under the necessary restraint and
expelled the country. 2 These immunities extend to all the
members of an envoy's suite. The difficulties that might be
supposed to arise from such exemptions have not in practice been
found very serious; for though, in the case of crimes committed
by servants of agents of the first or second class the procedure is
not clearly defined, each case would easily be made the subject
of arrangement. In certain cases, e.g. embassies in Turkey, the
exterritoriality of ambassadors implies a fairly extensive criminal
jurisdiction; in other cases the dismissal of the servant would
deprive him of his diplomatic immunity and bring him under
the law of the land. The right of granting asylum claimed by
diplomatic agents in virtue of that of exterritoriality, at one time
much abused, is now strictly limited. A political or criminal
offender may seek asylum in a foreign embassy; but if, after a
request.has been formally made for his surrender, the ambassador
refuses to deliver him up, the authorities may take the measures
necessary to effect his arrest, and even force an entrance into the
embassy for the purpose. The " right of chapel " (droit de
chapelle, or droit de ctdte), enjoyed by envoys in reference to their
exterritoriality, i.e. the right of free exercise of religious worship
within their house, formerly of great importance, has been
rendered superfluous by the spread of religious toleration. (See
L. Oppenheim, Internal. Law (London, 1905), i. p. 441, &c.;
A. W. Hafiter, Das europaische Vdlkerrecht (Berlin, 1888), p.
435, &c.)
The Personnel of the " Corps diplomatique." The establishment
of diplomacy as a regular branch of the civil service is of modern
growth, and even now by no means universal. From old time
states naturally chose as their agents those who would best
serve their interests in the matter in hand. In the middle ages
diplomacy was practically a monopoly of the clergy, who as a
class alone possessed the necessary qualifications: and in later
times, when learning had spread to the laity as well, there were
still potent reasons why the clergy should continue to be employed
as diplomatic agents. Of these reasons the most practical was
that of expense; for the wealth of the church formed an in-
exhaustible reserve which was used without scruple for secular
purposes. Francis I. of France, who by the Concordat with Rome
had in his hands the patronage of all the sees and abbeys in
France, used this partly to reward his clerical ministers, partly as
a great secret service fund for bribing the ambassadors of other
powers, partly for the payment of those high-placed spies at
foreign courts maintained by the elaborately organized system
3 Gentilis, who had been consulted by the government in the case
of the Spanish ambassador, Don Bernardino de Mendoza, expelled
for intriguing against Queen Elizabeth, lays this down definitely.
An ambassador, he says, need not be received, and he may be ex-
pelled. In actual practice a diplomatic agent who has made himself
objectionable is withdrawn by his government on the representations
of that to which he is accredited, and it is customary, before an
ambassador is despatched, to find out whether he is a persona grata
to the power to which he is accredited.
300
DIPLOMATIC
known as the Secret du Roi. 1 None the less, in the i6th century,
laymen as diplomats are already well in evidence. They are
usually lawyers, rarely soldiers, occasionally even simple
merchants. Not uncommonly they were foreigners, like the
Italian Thomas Spinelly mentioned above, drawn from that
cosmopolitan class of diplomats who were ready to serve any
master. Though nobles were often employed as ambassadors
by all the powers, Venice alone made nobility a condition of
diplomatic service. They were professional in the sense that, for
the most part, diplomacy was the main occupation of their lives;
there was, however, no graded diplomatic service in which, as at
present, it was possible to rise on a fixed system from the position
of simple attache to that of minister and ambassador. The
"attache to the embassy" existed 2 ; but he was not, as is
now the case, a young diplomat learning his profession, but an
experienced man of affairs, often a foreigner employed by the
ambassador as adviser, secret service agent and general go-
between, and he was without diplomatic status. 3 The i8th
century saw the rise of the diplomatic service in the modern sense.
The elaboration of court ceremonial, for which Versailles had set
the fashion, made it desirable that diplomatic agents should
be courtiers, and young men of rank about the court began to be
attached to missions for the express purpose of teaching them the
art of diplomacy. Thus arose that aristocratic diplomatic class,
distinguished by the exquisite refinement of its manners, which
survived from the i8th century into the igth. Modern democracy
has tended to break with this tradition, but it still widely prevails.
Even in Great Britain, where the rest of the public services have
been thrown open to all classes, a certain social position is still
demanded for candidates for the diplomatic service and the
foreign office, and in addition to passing a competitive examina-
tion, they must be nominated by someone of recognized station
prepared to vouch for their social qualifications. In America,
where no regular diplomatic service exists, all diplomatic agents
are nominated by the president.
The existence of an official diplomatic service, however, by no
means excludes the appointment of outsiders to diplomatic posts.
It is, in fact, one of the main grievances of the regular diplomatic
body that the great rewards of their profession, the embassies,
are so often assigned to politicians or others who have not passed
through the drudgery of the service. But though this practice
has, doubtless, sometimes been abused, it is impossible to
criticize the wisdom of its occasional application.
A word may be added as to the part played by women in
diplomacy. So far as their unofficial influence upon it is con-
cerned, it would be impossible to exaggerate its importance; it
would suffice to mention three names taken at random from
the annals of the igth century, Madame de Stael, Baroness
von Kriidener, and Princess Lieven. Gentz comments on the
" feminine intrigues " that darkened the counsels of the con-
gresses of Vienna and Aix-la-Chapelle, and from which the powers
so happily escaped in the bachelor seclusion of Troppau. Nor is
it to be supposed that statesmen will ever renounce a diplomatic
weapon so easy of disguise and so potent for use. A brilliant salon
presided over by a woman of charm may be a most valuable
centre of a political propaganda; and ladies are still widely
employed in the secret diplomacy of the powers. Their employ-
ment as regularly accredited diplomatic agents, however, though
not unknown, has been extremely rare. An interesting instance
is the appointment of Catherine of Aragon, when princessof Wales,
as representative of her father, Ferdinand the Catholic, at the
court of Henry VII. (G. A. Bergenroth, Calendar of State Papers
. . . England and Spain in the Archives at Simancas, &c., i. pp.
xxxiii, crix).
LITERATURE. Besides general works on international law (g.t>.)
which necessarily deal with the subject of diplomacy, a vast mass
of treatises on diplomatic agents exists. The earliest printed work
is the Tractatus de legato (Rome, 1485) of Gundissalvus (Gonsalvo de
Villadiego), professor of law at Salamanca, auditor for Spain at the
1 See Zeller. A. O. Meyer, p. 22.
* See the amusing account of the methods of these agents in
Morysine to Cecil (January 23, 1551-1552), Col. Staff, Pap. Edw. VI.,
No. 530.
Roman court of the Rota, and bishop of Oviedo ; but the first really
systematic writer on the subject was Albericus Gentilis,J9e legationibus
hbriiii. (London, 1583, 1585, Hanover, 1596, 1607, 1612). For a full
bibliography of works on ambassadors see Baron Diedrich H. L.von
Ompteda, Litteratur des gesammten sowohl natiirlichen als positiven
Volkerrechts (Regensburg, 1785), p. 534, &c., which was completed and
continued by the Prussian minister Karl Albert von Kamptz, in
Neue Literaiur des Volkerrechts seit_ dem Jahre 1784. (Berlin, 1817),
p. 231. A list of writers, with critical and biographical remarks, is
also given in Ernest Nys's " Les Commencements de la diplomatic et
le droit d'ambassade jusqu'4 Grotius," in the Revue de droit inter-
national, vol. xvi. p. 167. Other useful modern works on the history
of diplomacy are: E. C. Grenville-Murray, Embassies and Foreign
Courts, a History of Diplomacy (2nd ed., 1856) ; I. Zeller, La Diplo-
matie franc,aise yers le milieu du XVI' siecle (Paris, 1881); A. O.
Meyer, Die englische Diplomatie in Deutschland zur Zeit Eduards VI.
und Mariens (Breslau, 1900) ; and, above all, Otto Krauske, Die
Entwickelung der standgien Diplomatie vom fiinfzehnten Jahrhundett
bis zu den Beschlussen von 1815 und 1818, in Gustav Schmoller's
Staats- und socialwissenschaftliche Forschungen,yo\.\. (Leipzig, 1885).
To these may be added, as admirably illustrating in detail the early
developments of modern diplomacy, Logan Pearsall Smith's Life and
Letters of Sir Henry Wotton (Oxford, 1907). Gf works on modern
diplomacy the most important are the Guide diplomatique of Baron
Charles de Martens, new edition revised by F. H. Geffcken, 2 yols.
(Leipzig, 1866), and P. Pradier-Fodere, Cours de droit diplomatique,
2 vols. (Paris, 1881). (W. A. P.)
DIPLOMATIC, the science of diplomas, founded on the critical
study of the " diplomatic " ' sources of history: diplomas,
charters, acts, treaties, contracts, judicial records, rolls, chartu-
laries, registers, &c. The employment of the word " diploma,"
as a general term to designate an historical document, is of com-
paratively recent date. The Roman diploma, so called because
it was formed of two sheets of metal which were shut together
(Gr. 8nr\ovv, to double) like the leaves of a book, was the pass-
port or licence to travel by the public post; also, the certificate
of discharge, conferring privileges of citizenship and marriage
on soldiers who had served their time; and, later, any imperial
grant of privileges. The word was adopted, rather pedantically,
by the humanists of the Renaissance and applied by them to
important deeds and to acts of sovereign authority, to privileges
granted by kings and by great personages; and by degrees the
term became extended and embraced generally the documents of
the middle ages.
History of the Study. The term " diplomatic," the French
diplomatique, is a modern adaptation of the Latin phrase res
diplomatica employed in early works upon the subject, and more
especially in the first great text-book, the De re diplomatica,
issued in 1681 by the learned Benedictine, Dom Jean Mabillon,
of the abbey of St Germain-des-Pres. Mabillon's treatise was
called forth by an earlier work of Daniel van Papenbroeck, the
editor of the Ada Sanctorum of the Bollandists, who, with no
great knowledge or experience of archives, undertook to criticize
the historical value of ancient records and monastic documents,
and raised wholesale suspicions as to their authenticity in his
Propylaeum antiquarium circa veri ac falsi discrimen in vetustis
membranis, which he printed in 1675. This was a rash challenge
to the Benedictines, and especially to the congregation of St Maur,
or confraternity of the Benedictine abbeys of France, whose
combined efforts produced great literary works which still remain
as monuments of profound learning. Mabillon was at that time
engaged in collecting material for a great history of his order. He
worked silently for six years before producing the work above
referred to. His refutation of Papenbroeck's criticisms was
complete, and his rival himself accepted Mabillon's system of
the study of diplomatic as the true one. The De re diplomatica
established the science on a secure basis; and it has been the
foundation of all subsequent works on the subject, although the
immediate result of its publication was a flood of controversial
writings between the Jesuits and the Benedictines, which, how-
ever, did not affect its stability.
In Spain, the Benedictine Perez published, in 1688, a series
of dissertations following the line of Mabillon's work. In Eng-
land, Madox's Formulare Anglicanum, with a dissertation con-
cerning ancient charters and instruments, appeared in 1702, and
in 1705 Hickes followed with his Linguarum septentrionalium
thesaurus, both accepting the principles laid down by the learned
DIPLOMATIC
301
Benedictine. In Italy, Maffei appeared with his Istoria diplo-
matica in 1727, and Muratori, in 1740, introduced dissertations
on diplomatic into his great work, the Antiquilales Italicae. In
Germany, the first diplomatic work of importance was that by
Bessel, entitled Chronicon Gotu-icense and issued in 1732; and
this was followed closely by similar works of Baring, Eckhard
and Heumann.
France, however, had been the cradle of the science, and that
country continued to be the home of its development. Mabillon
had not taken cognizance of documents later than the I3th
century. Arising out of a discussion relative to the origin of the
abbey of St Victor en Caux and the authenticity of its archives,
a more comprehensive work than Mabillon's was compiled by
the two Benedictines, Dom Toustain and Dom Tassin, viz. the
Nouveau Traite de diplomatique, in six volumes, 1750-1765,
which embraced more than diplomatic proper and extended to
all branches of Latin palaeography. With great industry the
compilers gathered together a mass of details; but their arrange-
ment is faulty, and the text is broken up into such a multitude of
divisions and subdivisions that it is tediously minute. However,
its more extended scope has given the Nouveau Traite an ad-
vantage over Mabillon's work, and modern compilations have
drawn largely upon it.
As a result of the Revolution, the archives of the middle ages
lost in France their juridical and legal value; but this rather
tended to enhance their historical importance. The taste for
historical literature revived. The Academic des Inscriptions
fostered it. In 1821 the Ecole des Charles was founded; and,
after a few years of incipient inactivity, it received a further
impetus, in 1829, by the issue of a royal ordinance re-establishing
it. Thenceforth it has been an active centre for the teaching
and for the encouragement of the study ol diplomatic throughout
the country, and has produced results which other nations may
envy. Next to France, Germany and Austria are distinguished
as countries where activity has been displayed in the systematic
study of diplomatic archives, more or less with the support of the
state. In Italy, too, diplomatic science has not been neglected.
In England, after a long period of regrettable indifference to the
study of the national and municipal archives of the country, some
effort has been made in recent years to remove the reproach. The
publications of the Public Record Office and of the department of
MSS. in the British Museum are more numerous and are issued
more regularly than in former times; and an awakened interest
is manifested by the foundation in the universities of a few
lectureships in diplomatic and palaeography, and by the attention
which those subjects receive in such an institution as the London
School of Economics, and in the publications of private literary
societies. But such efforts can never show the systematic results
which are to be attained by a special institution of the character
of the French Ecole des Chartes.
Extent of the Science. The field covered by the study of
diplomatic is so extensive and the different kinds of documents
which it takes into its purview are so numerous and various, that
it is impossible to do more than give a few general indications
of their nature. No nation can have advanced far on the path
of civilization before discovering the necessity for documentary
evidence both in public and in private life. The laws, the
constitutions, the decrees of government, on the one hand, and
private contracts between man and man, on the other, must be
embodied in formal documents, in order to ensure permanent
record. In the case of a nation advancing independently from a
primitive to a later stage of civilization we should have to trace
the origin of its documentary records and examine their develop-
ment from a rudimentary condition. But in an inquiry into the
history of the documents of the middle ages in Europe we do
not begin with primitive forms. Those ages inherited the docu-
mentary system which had been created and developed by the
Romans; and, imperfect and limited in number as are the
earliest surviving charters and diplomas of European medieval
history, they present themselves to us fully developed and cast in
the mould and employing the methods and formulae of the earlier
tradition. Based on this foundation the chanceries of the several
countries of Europe, as they came into existence and were
organized, reduced to method and rule on one general system the
various documents which the exigencies of public and of private
life from time to time called into existence, each individual
chancery at the same time following its own line of practice in
detail, and evolving and confirming particular formulas which
have become characteristic of it.
Classification of Documents. If we classify these documents
under the two main heads of public and private deeds, we shall
have to place in the former category the legislative, adminis-
trative, judicial, diplomatic documents emanating from public
authority in public form: laws, constitutions, ordinances,
privileges, grants and concessions, proclamations, decrees,
judicial records, pleas, treaties; in a word, every kind of deed
necessary for the orderly government of a civilized state. In
early times many of these were comprised under the general
term of " letters," litterae, and to the large number of them
which were issued in open form and addressed to the community
the specific title of " letters patent," litterae patentes, was given.
In contradistinction those public documents which were issued
in closed form under seal were known as " close letters," litterae
ciausae.
Such public documents belong to the state archives of their
several countries, and are the monuments of administrative and
political and domestic history of a nation from one generation to
another. In no country has so perfect a series been preserved as
in our own. Into the Public Record Office in London have been
brought together all the collections of state archives which were
formerly stored in different official repositories of the kingdom.
Beginning with the great survey of Domesday, long series of
enrolments of state documents, in many instances extending
from the times of the Angevin kings to our own day in almost
unbroken sequence, besides thousands of separate deeds of all
descriptions, are therein preserved (see RECORD).
Under the category of private documents must be included, not
only the deeds of individuals, but also those of corporate bodies
representing private interests and standing in the position of
individual units in relation to the state, such as municipal bodies
and monastic foundations. The largest class of documents of
this character is composed of those numerous conveyances of real
property and other title deeds of many descriptions and dating
from early periods which are commonly described by the generic
name of" charters," and which are to be found in thousands, not
only in such public repositories as the Public Record Office and
the British Museum, but also in the archives of municipal and
other corporate bodies throughout the country and in the
muniment-rooms of old families. There are also the records
of the manorial courts preserved in countless court-rolls and
registers; also the scattered muniments of the dissolved
monasteries represented by the many collections of charters
and the valuable chartularies, or registers of charters, which
have fortunately survived and exist both in public and in
private keeping.
It will be noticed that in this enumeration of public and private
documents in England reference is made to rolls. The practice of
entering records on rolls has been in favour in England from a very
early date subsequent to the Norman Conquest; and while in
other countries the comprehensive term of " charters " (literally
" papers ": Gr. \ii.pnft) is employed as a general description of
documents of the middle ages, in England the fuller phrase
" charters and rolls " is required. The master of the rolls,
the Magisler Rotulorum, is the official keeper of the public
records.
From the great body of records, both public and private, many
fall easily and naturally into the class in which the text takes
a simpler narrative form; such as judicial records, laws, decrees,
proclamations, registers, &c., which tell their own story in
formulae and phraseology early developed and requiring little
change. These we may leave on one side. For fuller description
we select those deeds which, conferring grants and favours and
privileges, conform more nearly to the idea of the Roman diploma
and have received the special attention of the chanceries in the
302
DIPLOMATIC
of medie-
val
The Invo-
cation.
development and arrangement of their formulae and in their
methods of execution.
All such medieval deeds are composed of certain recognized
members or sections, some essential, others special and peculiar to
the most elaborate and solemn documents. A deed of
Structure t j^ e raore elaborate character is made up of two principal
divisions: I. the TEXT, in which is set out the object of
the deed, the statement of the considerations and circum-
' stances which have led to it, and the declaration of the will
and intention of the person executing the deed, together with such
protecting clauses as the particular circumstances of the case may
require; 2. the PROTOCOL (originally, the first sheet of a papyrus
roll; Gr. irpwros, first, and roXXai', to glue), consisting of the
introductory and of the concluding formulae: superscription,
address, salutation, &c., at the beginning, and date, formulae of
execution, &c., at the end, of the deed. The latter portion of the
protocol is sometimes styled the eschatocol (Gr. foxaros, last,
and KO\\S.V, to glue). While the text followed certain formulae which
had become fixed by common usage, the protocol was always special
and varied with the practices of the several chanceries, changing in
a sovereign chancery with each successive reign.
The different sections of a full deed, taking them in order under
the heads of Initial Protocol, Text and Final Protocol or Eschatocol,
are as follows: -The initial protocol consists of the Invocation, the
Superscription, the Address and the Salutation. I. The
INVOCATION, lending a character of sanctity to the pro-
ceedings, might be either verbal or symbolic. The verbal
invocation consisted usually of some pious ejaculation, such as In
nomine Dei, In nomine domini nostri Jesu Chnsti; from the 8th cen-
tury, In nomine Sanctoe el individuae Trinilaiis ; and later, In nomine
Patris et Filii et Spiritus Sancti. The symbolic form was usually
the chrismon, or monogram composed of the Greek initials XP of the
name of Christ. In the course of the loth and nth centuries this
symbol came to be so scrawled that it had probably lost all meaning
with the scribes. From the gth century the letter C (initial of
Christus) came gradually into use, and in German imperial diplomas
it superseded the chrismon. Stenographic signs of the system known
as Tironian notes were also sometimes added to this symbol down
to the end of the loth century, expressing such a phrase as Ante
omnia Chrisius, or Christus, or Amen. From the Merovingian period,
too, a cross was often used. The symbol gradually died out after the
I2th century for general use, surviving only in notarial instruments
and wills. 2.The SUPERSCRIPTION (super -scriptio,intilulalio)
expressed the name and titles of the grantor or person
issuing the deed. 3. The ADDRESS. As diplomas were
originally in epistolary form the address was then a
While in Merovingian deeds the old pattern was adhered
to, in the Carolingian period the address was sometimes
omitted. From the 8th century it was not considered neces-
sary, and a distinction arose in the case of royal acts, those
having the address being styled letters, and those omitting it,
charters. The general form of address ran in phrase as- Omnibus
Christi fidelibus presenteslitlerasinspecturis.
SALUTATION was expressed in such words as
Salutem; Salutem et dilectionem; Salutem et apostolicam
benedictionem, but it was not essential.
Then follows the text in five sections : the Preamble, the Notifica-
tion, the Exposition, the Disposition and the Final Clauses. 5. The
PREAMBLE (prologus, arenga) : an ornamental introduction
g enera ."y composed of pious or moral sentiments, a
prefatio ad captandam benevolentiam which facit ad
ornamentum, degenerating into tiresome platitudes. It became
stereotyped at an early age: in the loth and nth
centuries it was a most ornate performance; in tlie
I2th century it was cut short; in the Ijth century it
died out. 6. The NOTIFICATION (notificatio, promulgalio)
the publication of the purport of the deed introduced by
such a phrase as notum sit, &c. 7. The EXPOSITION
set out the motives influencing the issue of the deed. 8. The
DISPOSITION described the object of the deed and the will
and intention of the grantor. 9. The FINAL CLAUSES en-
sured the fulfilment of the terms of the deed; guarded
against infringement, by comminatory anathemas and im-
precations, not infrequently of a vehement description, or
by penalties; guaranteed the validity of the deed ; enumerated the
formalities of subscription and execution ; reserved rights, &c.
Next comes the final protocol or eschatocol comprising: the Date,
the Appreciation, the Authentication. It was particularly in this
portion of the deed that the varying practices of the several
chanceries led to minute and intricate distinctions at
different periods. 10. The DATE. By the Roman law
every act must be dated by the day and the year of execution.
Yet in the middle ages, from the 9th to the I2th century,
a large proportion of deeds bears no date. In the most
ancient charters the date clause was frequently separated from
the body of the deed and placed in an isolated position
at the foot of the_ sheet. From the I2th century it commonly
followed the text immediately. Certain classes of documents,
such as decrees of councils, notarial deeds, &c., began with
The
Super-
scription.
necessity.
The
Address.
The Salu-
tation.
The
Preamble.
The Noti-
fication.
was
The Ex-
position.
The Dis-
position.
The Final
Clauses.
The Date.
the date. The usual formula was data, datum, actum, foclum, scrip-
turn. In the Carolingian period a distinction grew up between
datum and actum, the former applying to the time, the latter
to the place, of date. In the papal chancery from an early period
down to the I2th century the use of a double date prevailed, the first
following the text and being inserted by the scribe when the deed
was written (scriptum), the second being added at the foot of the
deed on its execution (actum), by the chancellor or other high
functionary. From the Roman custom of dating by the consular
year arose the medieval practice of dating by the regnal year of
emperor, king or pope. Special dates were sometimes employed,
such as the year of some great historical event, battle, siege, pesti-
lence, &c. II. The APPRECIATION. The feliciter of the
The Au-
thentica-
tion.
Romans became the medieval feliciter in Domino, or
In Dei nomine feliciter, or the more simple Deo gratias cla " oa -
or the still more simple Amen, for the auspicious closing of a deed.
In Merovingian and Carolingian diplomas it follows the date; in
other cases it closes the text. In the greater papal bulls it appears
in the form of a triple Amen. Benevalete was also employed as the
appreciation in early deeds; but in Merovingian diplomas and in
papal bulls this valedictory salutation becomes a mark of authentica-
tion, as will be noticed below. 12. The AUTHENTICATION was a
solemn proceeding which was discharged by more than
one act. _ The most important was the subscription or
subscriptions of the person or persons from whom the deed
emanated. The laws of the late Roman empire required the
subscriptions and the impressions of the signet seals of the parties
and of the witnesses to the deed. The subscription (subscriptio) com-
prised the name, signature and description of the person signing.
The impression of the signet (not the signature) was the sign-urn,
sometimes signaculum, rarely sigillum. The practice of subscribing
with the autograph signature obtained in the early middle ages, as
appears from early documents such as those of Ravenna. But from
the 7th century it began to decline, and by the I2th century it had
practically ceased. In Roman deeds an illiterate person affixed his
mark, or signum manuale, which was attested. The cross being an
easy form for a mark, it was very commonly used and naturally
became connected with the Christian symbol. Hence, in course of
time, it came to be attached very generally to subscriptions, auto-
graph or otherwise. Great personages who were illiterate required
something more elaborate than a common mark. Hence arose the
use of the monogram, the caracter nominis, composed of the letters of
the name. The emperor Justin, who could not write, made use of
a monogram, as did also Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths. Those
Merovingian kings, likewise, who were illiterate, had their individual
monograms; and at length Charlemagne adopted the monogram as
his regular form of signature. From his reign down to that of Philip
the Fair the monogram was the recognized sign manual of the
sovereigns of France (see AUTOGRAPHS). It was employed by the
German emperors down to the reign of Maximilian I. The royal use
of the monogram was naturally imitated by great officers and
ecclesiastics. But another form of sign manual also arose out of
the subscription. The closing word (usually subscripsi), written or
abbreviated as sub., or M. or s., was often finished off with flourishes
and interfacings, sometimes accompanied with Tironian notes, the
whole taking the shape of a domed structure to which the French
have given the name of ruche or bee-hive. Thus in the early middle
ages we have deeds authenticated by the subscription, usually
autograph, giving the name and titles of the person executing, and
stating the part taken by him in the deed, and closing with the
subscripsi, often in shape of the ruche and constituting the signum
manuale. If not autograph, the subscription might be impersonal
in such foitn as signum (or signum manus) + N. In the Carolingian
period, while phrases were constantly used in the body of the deed
implying that it was executed by autograph subscription, it did
not necessarily follow that such subscription was actually written in
person. The ruche was also adopted by chancellors, notaries and
scribes as their official mark. While autograph subscriptions
continued to be employed, chiefly by ecclesiastics, down to the begin-
ning of the I2th century, the monogram was perpetuated from the
loth century by the notaries. Their marks, simple at first, became
so elaborate from the end of the I3th century that they found it
necessary to add their names in ordinary writing, or also to employ
a less complicated design. This was the commencement of the
modern practice of writing the signature which first came into vogue
in the I4th century.
To lend further weight and authority to the subscription, certain
symbols and forms were added at different periods. Imitating
the corroborative Legi of the Byzantine quaestor and the Legimus
of the Eastern emperors, the Prankish chancery in the West made use
of the same form, notably in the reign of Charles the Bald, in some of
whose diplomas the Legimus appears written in larger letters in red.
The valedictory Benevalete, employed in early deeds as a form of
appreciation (see above), appears in Merovingian and in _
early Carolingian royal diplomas, and also in papal bulls, el
as an authenticating addition to the subscription. In the '
diplomas it was written in cursive letters in two lines, Bene valetf,
just to the right of the incision cut in the sheet to hold fast the seal,
which sometimes even covered part of the word. In the mostancient
papal bulls it was written by the pope himself at the foot of the deed,
DIPLOMATIC
303
in two lines, generally in larger capital or uncial characters, placed
between two crosses. From the beginning of the nth century it
became the fashion to link the letters ; and, dating from the time of
Leo IX., A.D. 1048-1054, the Benevalete was inscribed in fprm of a
monogram. During Leo's pontificate it was also accompanied with
a flourish called the Komma, which was only an exaggeration of the
mark of punctuation (periodus) which from the 9th to the nth
century closed the subscription and generally resembled the modern
semicolon. Leo's successors abandoned the Komma, but the mono-
grammatic Benevalele continued, invariable in form, but from time
to time varying in size. In Leo IX.'s pontificate also was introduced
the Rota. This sign, when it had received its final shape in the
The Rota. IItn century, was in form of a wheel, composed of two
concentric circles, in the space between which was written
the motto or device of the pope (signum papae), usually a
short sentence from one of the Psalms or some other portion of
Scripture; preceded by a small cross, which the pontiff himself
sometimes inscribed. The central space within the wheel was
divided (by cross lines) into four quarters, the two upper ones being
occupied by the names of the apostles St Peter and St Paul, and the
two lower ones by the name of the pope. The Rota was placed on the
left of the subscription, the monogrammatic Benevalete on the right.
The two signs were likewise adopted by certain ecclesiastical
chanceries and by feudal lords, particularly in the 1 2th century.
From the same period also the Spanish and Portuguese monarchs
adopted the Rota, the signo rodado, which is so conspicuous in the
royal charters of the Peninsula.
Besides the subscription, an early auxiliary method of authentica-
tion was by the impression of the seal which, as noticed above, was
Seating. required by the Roman law. But the general use of
the signet gradually failed, and by the 7th century it
had ceased. Still it survived in the royal chanceries, and the
sovereigns both of the Merovingian and of the Carolingian lines had
their seals; and, in the 8th century, the mayors of the palace like-
wise. It is interesting to find instances of the use of antique intaglios
for the purpose by some of them. In England too there is proof that
the Mercian kings Offa and Coenwulf used seals, in imitation of the
Prankish monarchs. In the 7th century, and still more so in the
8th and gth centuries, the royal seals were of exaggerated size : the
precursors of the great seals of the later sovereigns of western Europe.
The waxen seals of the early diplomas were in all cases en placard:
that is, they were attached to the face of the document and not sus-
pended from it, being held in position by a cross-cut incision in the
material, through which the wax was pressed and then flattened at
the back. On the cessation of autograph signatures in subscriptions,
the general use of seals revived, beginning in 'the loth century and
becoming the ordinary method of authentication from the I2th to
the 1 5th century inclusive. Even when signatures had once again
become universal, the seal continued to hold its place; and thus
sealing is, to the present day, required for the legal execution of a
deed. The attachment en placard was discontinued, as a general
practice, in the middle of the nth century; and seals thenceforward
were, for the most part, suspended, leathern thongs being used at
first, and afterwards silken and hempen cords or parchment labels.
In documents of minor importance it was sometimes the custom to
impress the seal or seals on one or more strips of the parchment of the
deed itself, cut, but not entirely detached, from the lower margin,
and left to hang loose. Besides waxen impressions of seals, im-
pressions in metal, bearing a device on both faces, after the fashion
of a coin, and suspended, were employed from an early period. The
most widely known instances are the bullae attached to papal docu-
ments, generally of lead. The earliest surviving papal bulla is one
of Pope Zacharias, A.D. 746, but earlier examples are known from
drawings. The papal bulla was a disk of metal stamped on both sides.
From the time of Boniface V. to Leo IV., A.D. 617-855, the name of
the pontiff, in the genitive case, was impressed on the obverse, and
his title as pope on the reverse, e.g. Bonifati/ papae. After that
period, for some time, the name was inscribed in a circle round a
central ornament. Other variations followed; but at length in the
pontificate of Paschal II., A.D. 1099, the bulla took the form which it
afterwards retained: on the obverse, the heads of the apostles
St Peter and St Paul; on the reverse, the pope's name, title and
number in succession. In the period of time between his election
and consecration, the pope made use of the half-bull, that is, the
obverse only was impressed. It should be mentioned that, in order
to conform to modern conditions and for convenience of despatch
through the post, Leo XIII., in 1878, substituted for the leaden bulla
a red ink stamp bearing the heads of the two apostles with the
name of the pope inscribed as a legend.
The Carolingian monarchs also used metal bullae. None of
Charlemagne's have survived, but there are still extant leaden ex-
amples of Charles the Bald. The use of lead was not persisted in
either in the chancery of France or in that of Germany. Golden
bullae were employed on special occasions by both popes and temporal
monarchs ; for example, they were attached to the confirmations of
the elections of the emperors vn the I2th and I3th centuries; the
bull of Leo X. conferring the title of Defender of the Faith on
Henry VIII. in 1524, and the deed of alliance between Henry and
Francis I. in 1527, had golden bullae ; and other examples could be
cited. But lead has always been the common metal to be thus
employed. In the southern countries of Europe, where the warmth
of the climate renders wax an undesirable material, leaden bullae
have been in ordinary use, not only in Italy but also in the Peninsula,
in southern France, and in the Latin East (see SEALS).
The necessity of conforming to exact phraseology in diplomas and
of observing regularity in expressing formulas naturally led to the
compilation of formularies. From the early middle ages Formti-
the art of composition, not only of charters but also of iari es
general correspondence, was commonly taught in the
monasteries. The teacher was the dictator, his method of teaching
was described by the verb dictare, and his teaching was dictamen or
the ars dictaminis. For the use of these monastic schools, formularies
and manuals comprising formulas and models for the composition
of the various acts and documents soon became indispensable. At
a later stage such formularies developed into the models and treatises
for epistolary style which have had their imitations even in modern
times. The widespread use of the formularies had the advantage of
imposing a certain degree of uniformity on the phrasing of documents
of the western nations of Europe. Those compilations which are
of an earlier period than the I Ith century have been systematically
examined and are published ; those of more recent date still remain
to be thoroughly edited. The early formularies are of the simpler
kind, being collections of formulas without dissertation. The
Formulae Marculfi, compiled by the monk Marculf about the year
650, was the most important work of this nature of the Merovingian
period and became the official formulary of the time; and it con-
tinued in use in a revised edition in the early Carolingian chancery.
Of the same period there are extant formularies compiled at various
centres, such as Angers, Tours, Bourges, Sens, Reichenau, St Gall,
Salzburg, Passau, Regensburg, Cordova, &c. (see Giry, Manuel
de diplomatique, pp. 482-488). The Liber diurnus Romanorum
Pontificum was compiled in the 7th and 8th centuries, and was em-
ployed in the papal chancery to the end of the I ith century. Of the
more developed treatises and manuals of epistolary rhetoric which
succeeded, and which originated in Italy, the earliest example was
the Breviarium de dictamine of the monk Alberic of Monte Cassiro,
compiled about the year 1075. Another well-known work, the
Rationes dictandi, is also attributed to the same author. Of later date
was the Ars dictaminis of Bernard of Chartres of the 12th century.
(Among special works on formularies are: E. de Roziere, Recueil
general des formules usitees dans V empire des Francs (3 vols., Paris,
1861-1871); K. Zeumer, Formulae Merovingici et Karolini aevi
(Hanover; 1886); and L. Rockinger, Brief steller und Formelbiicher
des n bis. 14 Jahrhunderts (Munich, 1863-1864).
Organization. The formalities observed by the different
chanceries of medieval Europe, which are to be learned from a
study of the documents issued by them, are so varied and often so
minute, that it is impossible to give a full account of them within
the limits of the present article. We can only state some of the
results of the investigations of students of diplomatic.
The chancery which stands first and foremost is the papal
chancery. On account of its antiquity and of its steady develop-
ment, it has served as a model for the other chanceries
of Europe. Organized in remote times, it adopted for cftamiy.
the structure of its letters a number of formulas and
rules which developed and became more and more fixed and
precise from century to century. The Apostolic court being
organized from the first on the model of the Roman imperial
court, the early pontiffs would naturally have collected their
archives, as the emperors had done, into scrinia. Pope Julius I.,
A.D. 337-353, reorganized the papal archives under an official
schola nolariorum, at the head of which was a primicerius
notariorum. Pope Damasus, A.D. 366-384, built a record office
at the Lateran, archiirium sanctae Romanae ecdesiae, where the
archives were kept and registers of them compiled. The collec-
tion and orderly arrangement of the archives provided material
for the establishment of regular diplomatic usages, and the
science of formulae naturally followed.
For the study of papal documents four periods have been
defined, each successive period being distinguished from its
predecessor by some particular development of forms and
procedure. The first period is reckoned from the earliest times to
the accession of Leo IX., A.D. 1048. For almost the whole of the
first eight centuries no original papal documents have survived.
But copies are found in canonical works and registers, many
of them false, and others probably not transcribed in full or in
the original words; but still of use, as showing the growth of
formulas. The earliest original document is a fragment of a letter
of Adrian I., A.D. 788. From that date there is a series, but the
documents are rare to the beginning of the nth century, all down
to that period being written on papyrus. The latest existing
304
DIPLOMATIC
papyrus document in France is one of Sergius IV., A.D. ion; in
Germany, one of Benedict VIII., A.D. 1022. The earliest docu-
ment on vellum is one of John XVIII., A.D. 1005. The nomencla-
ture of papa! documents even at an early period is rather wide.
In their earliest form they are Letters, called in the documents
themselves, lilterae, epistola, pagina, scriptum, sometimes decretum.
A classification, generally accepted, divides them into: i. Letters
or Epistles: the ordinary acts of correspondence with persons
of all ranks and orders; including constitutions (a later term) or
decisions in matters of faith and discipline, and encyclicals giving
directions to bishops of the whole church or of individual
countries. 2. Decrees, being letters promulgated by the popes
of their own motion. 3. Decretals, decisions on points of
ecclesiastical administration or discipline. 4. Rescripts (called in
the originals preceptum, auctoritas, privilegium) , granting requests
to petitioners. But writers differ in their terms, and such sub-
divisions must be more or less arbitrary. The comprehensive term
" bull " (the name of the leaden papal seal, bulla, being transferred
to the document) did not come into use until the i3th century.
Copies of papal deeds were collected into registers or bullaria.
Lists showing the chronological sequence of documents are
catalogues of acts. When into such lists indications from
narrative sources are introduced they become regesta (res gestae) :
a term not to be confused with " register."
Clearness and conciseness have been recognized as attributes
of early papal letters; but even in those of the 4th century certain
rhythmical periods have been detected in their composition which
became more marked under Leo the Great, A.D. 440-461, and
which developed into the cursus or prose rhythm of the pontifical
chancery of the nth and i2th centuries.
In the most ancient deeds the pope styles himself Episcopus,
sometimes Episcopus Catholicae Ecclesiae, or Episcopus Romanae
Ecclesiae, rarely Papa. Gregory I., A.D. 590, was the first to
adopt the form Episcopus, servus servorum Dei, which became
general in the pth century, and thenceforth was invariable.
The second period of papal documents extends from Leo IX. to
the accession of Innocent III., A.D. 1048-1 198. At the beginning
of the period formulae tended to take more definite shape and to
become fixed. In the superscription of bulls a distinction arose :
those which conferred lasting privileges employing the words in
perpetuum to close this clause; those whose benefaction was of
a transitory character using the form of salutation, salutem et
apostolicam benedictionem. But it was under Urban II., A.D.
1088-1099, that the principal formulae became stereotyped.
Then the distinction between documents of lasting, and those of
transitory, value became more exactly defined; the former class
being known as greater bulls, bullae majores (also called primlegia) ,
the latter lesser bulls, bullae minores. The leading characteristics
of the greater bulls were these: The first line containing the
superscription and closing with the words in perpetuum (or, some-
times, ad perpetuam, or aeternam, rei memoriam) was written in
tall and slender ornamental letters, close packed; the final
clauses of the text develop with tendency to fixity; the pope's
subscription is accompanied with the rota on the left and the
benevalete monogram on the right; and certain elaborate forms
of dating are punctiliously observed. The introduction of
subscriptions of cardinals as witnesses had gradually become a
practice. Under Victor II., A.D. 1055-1057, the practice became
more confirmed, and after the time of Innocent II., A.D. 1130-
1145, the subscriptions of the three orders were arranged accord-
ing to rank, those of the cardinal bishops being placed in the
centre under the papal subscription, those of the priests under the
rota on the left, and those of the deacons under the benevalete on
the right. In the lesser bulls simpler forms were employed;
there was no introductory line of stilted letters; the salutation,
salutem et apostolicam benedictionem, closed the superscription;
the final clauses were shortened; there was neither papal sub-
scription, nor rota, nor benevalete; the date was simple.
From the time of Adrian I., A.D. 772-795, the system of double
dating was followed in the larger bulls. The first date was written
by the scribe of the document, scriptum per manum N. with the
month (rarely the day of the month) and year of the indiction.
The second, the actual date of the execution of the deed, was
entered (ostensibly) by some high official, data, or datum, per
manum N., and contained the day of the month (according to the
Roman calendar), the year of indiction, the year of pontificate
(in some early deeds, also the year of the empire and the post-
consulate year), and the year of the Incarnation, which, however,
was gradually introduced and only became more common in the
course of the 1 1 th century. For example, a common form of a full
date would run thus: Datum Laterani, per manum N., sanctae
Romanae ecdesiae diaconi cardinalis, xiiii. kl. Mali, indictione V.,
anno dominicae Incarnationis mxcni.,pontijicatus autem domini
papae Urbani secundi X. The simpler form of the date of a
lesser bull might be: Datum Laterani, iii. non. Jan., pontificalus
nostri anno iiii.
By degrees the use of the lesser bulls almost entirely superseded
that of the greater bulls, which became exceptional in the i3th
century and almost ceased after the migration to Avignon in 1309.
In modern times the greater bulls occasionally reappear for very
solemn acts, as bullae consistoriales, executed in the consistory.
The third period of papal documents extends from Innocent III.
to Eugenius IV., A.D. 1198-1431. The pontificate of Innocent
III. was a most important epoch in the history of the development
of the papal chancery. Formulas became more exactly fixed,
definitions more precise, the observation of rules and precedents
more constant. The staff of the chancery was reorganized. The
existing series of registers of papal documents was then com-
menced. The growing use of lesser bulls for the business of the
papal court led to a further development in the i3th century.
They were now divided into two classes : Tituli and Mandamenta.
The former conferred favours, promulgated precepts, judgments,
decisions, &c. The latter comprised ordinances, commissions, &c.,
and were executive documents. There are certain features which
distinguish the two classes. In the tituli, the initial letter of the
pope's name is ornamented with openwork and the other letters
are stilted. In the mandamenta, the initial is filled in solid and
the other letters are of the same size as the rest of the text. In
the tituli, enlarged letters mark the beginnings of the text and of
certain clauses; but not in the mandamenta. In the former the
mark of abbreviation is a looped sign; in the latter it is a
horizontal stroke. In the former the old practice of leaving a gap
between the letters s and t, and c and t, whenever they occur
together in a word (e.g. is te, sane lus), and linking them by
a coupling stroke above the line is continued; in the latter it
disappears. The leaden bulla attached to a litulus (as a permanent
deed) is suspended by cords of red and yellow silks; while that of
a mandamentum (a temporary deed) hangs from a hempen cord.
In the fourth period, extending from 1431 to the present time,
the tituli and mandamenta have continued to be the ordinary
documents in use; but certain other kinds have also arisen.
Briefs (brevia), or apostolic letters, concerning the personal affairs
of the pope or the administration of the temporal dominion, or
conceding indulgences, came into general use in the I3th century
in the pontificate of Eugenius IV. They are written in the italic
hand on thin white vellum; and the name of the pope with his
style as papa is written at the head of the sheet, e.g. Eugenius
papa iiii. They are closed and sealed with Seal of the Fisher-
man, sub anulo Piscatoris. Briefs have almost superseded the
mandamenta. The documents known as Signatures of the court of
Rome or Latin letters, and used principally for the expedition of
indulgences, were first introduced in the 1 5th century They were
drawn in the form of a petition to the pope, which he granted by
the words fiat ut petatur written across the top. They were not
sealed; and only the pontifical year appears in the date. Lastly,
the documents to which the name of Motu proprio is given are also
without seal and are used in the administration of the papal court,
the formula placet et ita motu proprio mandamus being signed by
the pope.
The character of the handwriting employed by the papal
chancery is discussed in the article PALAEOGRAPHY. Here it will
be enough to state that the early style was derived from the
Lombardic hand, and that it continued in use down to the
beginning of the i2th century; but that, from the loth century,
DIPLOMATIC
305
owing to the general adoption of the Caroline minuscule writing,
it began to fail and gradually became so unfamiliar to the un-
initiated, that, whileit still continued in use for papal bulls, it was
found necessary to accompany them with copies written in the
more intelligible Caroline script. The intricate, fanciful character,
known as the Liiera sancti Petri, was invented in the time
of Clement VIII., A.D. 1592-1605, was fully developed under
Alexander VIII., 1689-1691, and was only abolished at the end of
the year 1878 by Leo XIII.
Of the chancery of the Merovingian line of kings as many as
ninety authentic diplomas are known, and, of these, thirty-seven
are originals, the earliest being of the year 625. The
vto/afl most ancient examples were written on papyrus, vellum
chancery, superseding that material towards the end of the 7th
century. All these diplomas are technically letters,
having the superscription and address and, at the foot, close
to the seal, the valedictory benevalete. They commence with a
monogrammatic invocation, which, together with the superscrip-
tion and address written in fanciful elongated letters, occupies the
first line. The superscription always runs in the form, N.
rex Francorum. The most complete kinds of diplomas were
authenticated by the king's subscription, that of the referendarius
(the official charged with the custody of the royal seal), the
impression of the seal, and exceptionally by subscriptions of
prelates and great personages. The royal subscription was
usually autograph; but, if the sovereign were too young or too
illiterate to write, a monogram was traced by the scribe. The
referendary, if he countersigned the royal subscription, added the
word opfulit to his own signature; if he subscribed independently,
he wro c e recognovit et subscripsit, the end of the last word being
usually lost in flourishes forming a ruche. The date gave the
place, day, month and year of the reign. The Merovingian royal
diplomas are of two classes: (i) Precepts, conferring gifts,
favours, immunities and confirmations, entitled in the documents
themselves as praeceptum, praeceplio, auctoritas; some drawn up
in full form, with preamble and ample final clauses; others less
precise and formal. (2) Judgments (indicia), which required no
preamble or final clauses as they were records of the sovereign's
judicial decisions; they were subscribed by the referendary and
were sealed with the royal seal. Other classes of documents were
the cartae de, mundeburde, taking persons under the royal pro-
tection, and indiculi or letters transmitting orders or notifying
decisions; but no examples have survived.
The diplomas of the early Carolingians differed, as was natural,
but little from those of their predecessors. As mayors of the
palace, Charles Martel and Pippin took the style of
wr inluster. On becoming king, Pippin retained it;
chancery. Pippinus, vir Muster, rex Francorum, and it continued
to be part of the royal title till Charlemagne became
emperor. The royal subscription was in form of a sign-manual
or mark; but Charlemagne elaborated this into a monogram of
the letters of his name built up on a cross. In 775 the royal title
of Charlemagne became Carolus, gratia Dei rex Francorum et
Langobardorum, ac patricius Romanorum, the last words being
assumed on his visit to Rome in 774. On becoming emperor in
800, he was styled Imperator, Romanum gubernans imperium, rex
Francorum et Langobardorum. It is to be noticed that thenceforth
his name was spelt with initial K (as it was on the monogram),
having previously been written with C in the deeds. Most of his
diplomas were authenticated by the subscription of the chancellor
and impression of the seal. A novelty in the form of dating was
also introduced, two words, datum (for time) and actum (for
place), being now employed. The character of the writing of the
diplomas, founded on the Roman cursive hand, which had
become very intricate under the Merovingians, improved under
their successors, yet the reform which was introduced into the
literary script hardly affected the cursive writing of diplomatic
until the latter part of Charlemagne's reign. The archaic style
was particularly maintained in judgments, which were issued
by the private chancery of the palace, a department more con-
servative in its methods than the imperial chancery. It was in
the reign of Louis Debonair, A.D. 814-840, that the Carolingian
diploma took its final shape. A variation now appears in the
monogram, that monarch's sign-manual being built up, not on a
cross as previously, but on the letter H., the initial of his name
Hludovicus, and serving as the pattern for successive monarchs of
the name of Louis.
In the Carolingian chancery the staff was exclusively ecclesi-
astical ; at its head was the chancellor, whose title is traced back
to the cancellarius, or petty officer under the Roman empire,
stationed at the bar or lattice (cancelli) of the basilica or other law
court and serving as usher. As keeper of the royal archives
his subscription was indispensable for royal acts. The diplomas
were drawn up by the notaries, an important body, upon whom
devolved the duty of maintaining the formulae and traditions of
the office. It has been observed that in the 9th century the
documents were drawn carefully, but that in the loth century
there was a great degeneration in this respect. Under the early
Capetian kings there was great confusion and want of uniformity
in their diplomas; and it was not until the reign of Louis VI.,
A.D. 1 108, that the formulae were again reduced to rules.
The acts of the imperial chancery of Germany followed the
patterns of the Carolingian diplomas, with little variation down
to the reign of Frederick Barbarossa, A.D. 1152-1190.
The sovereign's style was N. divina favente dementia
rex; after coronation at Rome he became imperator chancery.
augustus. At the end of the icth century, Otto III.
developed the latter title into Romanorum imperator augustus.
Under Henry III., and regularly from the time of Henry V., A.D.
1106-1125, the title before coronation has been Romanorum rex.
The royal monogram did not necessarily contain all the letters of
the name; but, on the other hand, from the year 976, it became
more complicated and combined the imperial title with the name.
For example, the monogram of Henry II. combines the words
Henricus Romanorum imperator augustus. The flourished ruches
also, as in the Prankish chanceries, were in vbgue. Eventually
they were used by certain of the chancellors as a sign-manual, and
took fanciful shapes, such as a building with a cupola, or even a
diptych. They disappear early in the I2th century, the period
when in other respects the chancery of the Holy Roman Empire
largely adopted a more simple style in its diplomas.. Lists of
witnesses, in support of the royal and official subscriptions, were
sometimes added in the course of the nth century, and they
appear regularly in documents a hundred years later.
For the study of diplomatic in England, material exists in two
distinct series of documents, those of the Anglo-Saxon period, and
those subsequent to the Norman Conquest. The Anglo-
Saxon kings appear to have borrowed, partially, the
style of their diplomas from the chanceries of their England.
Prankish neighbours, introducing at the same time
modifications which give those documents a particular character
marking their nationality. In some of the earlier examples we
find that the lines of the foreign style are followed more or less
closely; but very soon a simpler model was adopted which, while
it varied in formulas from reign to reign, lasted in general con-
struction down to the time of the Norman Conquest. The royal
charters were usually drawn up in Latin, sometimes in Anglo-
Saxon, and began with a preamble or exordium (in some instances
preceded by an invocation headed with the chrismon or with a
cross), in the early times of a simple character, but, later, drawn
out not infrequently to great length in involved and bombastic
periods. Then immediately followed the disposing or granting
clause, often accompanied with a few words explaining the motive,
such as, for the good of the soul of the grantor; and the text was
closed with final clauses of varying extent, protecting the deed
against infringement, &c. In early examples the dating clause
gave the day and month (often according to the Roman calendar)
and the year of the indiction; but the year of the Incarnation was
also immediately adopted; and, later, the regnal year also. The
position of this clause in the charter was subject to variation.
The subscriptions of the king and of the personages witnessing
the deed, each preceded by a cross, but all written by the hand
of the scribe, usually closed the charter. A peculiarity was the
introduction, in many instances, either in the body of the charter,
306
DIPOENUS DIPPEL
or in a separate paragraph at the end, of the boundaries of the
land granted, written in the native tongue. The sovereigns of
the several kingdoms of the Heptarchy, as well as those of the
United Kingdom, usually styled themselves rex. But from the
time of ^Ethelstan, A.D. 825-840, they also assumed fantastic
titles in the text of their charters, such as: rexet primicerius, rex
et rector, gubernator el rector, monarchus, and particularly the Greek
basileus, and basileus industrius. At the same time the name of
Albion was also frequently used for Britain.
A large number of documents of the Anglo-Saxon period, dating
from the 7th century, has survived, both original and copies
entered in chartularies. Of distinct documents there are nearly
two hundred; but a large proportion of these must be set aside
as copies (both contemporary and later) or as spurious deeds.
Although there is evidence, as above stated, of the use of seals
by certain of the Mercian kings, the method of authentication of
diplomas by seal impression was practically unknown to the
Anglo-Saxon sovereigns, save only to Edward the Confessor, who,
copying the custom which obtained upon the continent, adopted
the use of a great seal.
With the Norman Conquest the old tradition of the Anglo-
Saxons disappeared. The Conqueror brought with him the
practice of the Roman chancery, which naturally followed the
Capetian model; and his diplomas of English origin differed only
from those of Normandy by the addition of his new style, rex
Anglorum, in the superscription. But even from the first there
was a tendency to simplicity in the new English chancery, not
improbably suggested by the brief formalities of Anglo-Saxon
charters, and, side by side with the more formal royal diplomas,
others of shorter form and less ceremony were issued, which by
the reign of Henry II. quite superseded the more solemn docu-
ments. These simpler charters began with the royal superscrip-
tion, the address, and the salutation, e.g. Willelmus, Dei gratia rex
Anglorum, N. episcopo et omnibus baronibus et fidelibus suis
Francis et Anglis salutem. Then followed the notification and the
grant, e.g. Sciatis me concessisse, &c., generally without final
clauses, or, if any, brief clauses of protection and warranty; and,
at the end, the list of witnesses and the date. The regnal year
was usually cited; but the year of the Incarnation was also
sometimes given. The great seal was appended. To some of the
Conqueror's charters his subscription and those of his queen and
sons are attached, written by the scribe, but accompanied with
crosses which may or may not be autograph. By the reign of
John the simpler form of royal charters had taken final shape,
and from this time the acts of the kings of England have been
classified under three heads: viz. (i) Charters, generally of the
pattern described above; (2) Letters patent, in which the address
is general, Universis presenles litteras inspecturis, &c.; the cor-
roborative clause describes the character of the document, In
cujus rei testimonium has literas nostras fieri fecimus patentes; the
king himself is his own witness, Tesie me ipso; and the great seal
is appended; (3) Close letters, administrative documents convey-
ing orders, the king witnessing, Teste me ipso.
The style of the English kings down to John was, with few
exceptions, Rex Anglorum; thenceforward, Rex Angliae. Henry
II. added the feudal titles, dux Normannorum et Aquitanorum et
comes Andegavorum, which Henry III. curtailed to dux Aquitaniae.
John added the title dominus Hibernme; Edward III., on claim-
ing the crown of France, styled himself rex Angliae et Franciae,
the same title being borne by successive kings down to the year
1801; and Henry VIII., in 1521, assumed the title of fidei
defensor. The formula Dei gratia does not consistently accompany
the royal title until the reign of Henry II., who adopted it in 1173
(see L. Delisle, Memoire sur la chronologic des chartes de Henri II.,
in the Bibl. de I' Ecole des Chartes, Ixvii. 361-401).
The forms adopted in the royal chanceries were naturally
imitated in the composition of private deeds which in all countries
form the mass of material for historical and diplomatic
research. The student of English diplomatic will soon
remark how readily the private charters, especially
conveyances of real property, fall into classes, and how
stereotyped the phraseology and formulae of each class become,
only modified from time to time by particular acts of legislation.
The brevity of the early conveyances is maintained through
successive generations, with only moderate growth as time
progresses through the I2th> I3th and I4th centuries. The
different kinds of deeds which the requirements of society have
from time to time called into existence must be learned by the
student from the text-books. But a particular form of document
which was especially in favour in England should be mentioned.
This was the chirograph (Gr. ydp, a hand, ypcKfrav, to write),
which is found even in the Anglo-Saxon period, and which got its
name from the word chirographum, cirographum or cyrographum
being written in large letters at the head of the deed. At first the
word was written, presumably, at the head of each of the two
authentic copies which the two parties to a transaction would
require. Then it became the habit to use the word thus written
as a tally, the two copies of the deed being written on one sheet,
head to head, with the word between them, which was then cut
through longitudinally in a straight, or more commonly waved or
indented (in modum dentium) line, each of the two copies thus
having half of the word at the head. Any other word, or a series
of letters, might thus be employed; and more than two copies
of a deed could thus be made to tally. The chirograph was the
precursor of the modern indenture, the commonest form of
English deeds, though no longer a tally. In other countries, the
notarial instrument has performed the functions which the
chirograph and indenture have discharged for us.
AUTHORITIES. General treatises, handbooks, &c., areJ.Mabillon,
De re diplomatica (1709); Tassin and Toustain, Nouyeau Traite de
diplomatique (1750-1765) ; T. Madpx, Fprmulare Anglicanum (1702) ;
G. Hickes, Linguarum septentrionalium thesaurus (1703-1705);
F. S.Maffei, Istoria diplomatica (1727) ; G. Marini, I Papiri diplo-
matici (1805); G. Bessel, Chronicon Gotwicense (De diplomatibus
imperatorum ac regum Germaniae) (1732); A. Fumagalli, Dette
istituzioni diplomatiche (1802); M. F. Kopp, Palaeographia crilica
(1817-1829); K. T. G. Schonemann, Versuch eines vollstandigen
Systems der Diplomatik (1818); T. Sickel, Lehre von den Vrkunden
der ersten Karolinger (1867); J. Ficker, Beitrage zur Urkundenlehre
(18771878); A. Gloria, Compendia dette lezioni di paleografia e
diplomatica (1870); C. Paoli, Programma scolastico di paleografia
Lalina e di diplomatica (1888-1890); H. Bresslau, Handbuch der
Urkundenlehre fur Deutschland und Italien (1889); A. Giry, Manuel
de diplomatique (1894); F. Leist, Urkundenlehre (1893); E. M.
Thompson, Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography, cap. xix.
(1906); J. M. Kemble, Codex diplomaticus aevi Saxonici (1839
1848); W. G. Birch, Cartularium Saxonicum (1885-1893); J. Mufioz
y Rivero.Afanwe/ de paleografia diplomatica Espanola (1890);
M. Russi, Paleografia e diplomatica de' documenti dette provincie
Napolitane (1883). Facsimiles are given in J. B. Silvestre, Paleo-
graphie universelle (English edition, 1850); and in the Facsimiles,
&c., published by the Palaeographical Society (1873-1894) and the
New Palaeographical Society (1903, &c.); and also in the following
works: A. Champollion-Figeac, Chartes et manuscrits sur papyrus
(1840); J. A. Letronne, Diplomes et chartes de I'epoque mero-
vingienne (1845-1866); J. Tardif, Archives de I'Empire: Facsimile
de chartes et diplomes merovingiens et carlovingiens (1866);
G. H. Pettz, Schrifttafeln zum Gebrauch bei diplomatischen
Vorlesungen (1844-1869) ; H. von Sybel and T. Sickel, Kaiser-
urkunden in Abbildungen (1880-1891); J. von Pflugk-Harttung,
Specimina selecta chartarum Pontificum Romanorum (1885-1887);
Specimina palaeographica regestorum Romanorum pontificum (1888);
Recueil de joe-similes a V usage de V Ecole des Charles (not published)
(1880, &c.) ; J. Mufioz y Rivero, Chrestomathia palaeographica:
scripturae Hispanae veteris Specimina (1890); E. A. Bond, Fac-
similes of Ancient Charters in the British Museum (1873-1878).'
W. B. Sanders, Facsimiles of Anglo-Saxon Manuscripts (charters)
(1878-1884); G. F. Warner and H. J. Ellis, Facsimiles of Royal and
other Charters in the British Museum (1903). (E. M. T.)
DIPOENUS and SCYLLIS, early Greek sculptors, who worked
together, and are said to have been pupils of Daedalus. Pliny
assigns to them the date 580 B.C., and says that they worked at
Sicyon, which city from their time onwards became one of the
great schools of sculpture. They also made statues for Cleonae
and Argos. They worked in wood, ebony and ivory, and
apparently also in marble. It is curious that no inscription
bearing their names has come to light.
DIPPEL, JOHANN KONRAD (1673-1734), German theologian
and alchemist, son of a Lutheran pastor, was born at the castle of
Frankenstein, near Darmstadt, on the loth of August 1673. He
studied theology at Giessen. After a short visit to Wittenberg
DIPSOMANIA DIPTERA
307
he went to Strassburg, where he lectured on alchemy and chiro-
mancy, and occasionally preached. He gained considerable
popularity, but was obliged after a time to quit the city, owing to
his irregular manner of living. He had up to this time espoused
the cause of the orthodox as against the pietists; but in his two
first works, published under the name " Christianus Democritus,"
Orlhodoxia Orthodoxorum (1697) and Papismus vapulans Pro-
testantium (1698), he assailed the fundamental positions of the
Lutheran theology. He held that religion consisted not in dogma
but exclusively in love and self-sacrifice. To avoid persecution
' he was compelled to wander from place to place in Germany,
Holland, Denmark and Sweden. He took the degree of doctor
of medicine at Leiden in 1711. He discovered Prussian blue,
and by the destructive distillation of bones prepared the evil-
smelling product known as Dippel's animal oil. He died near
Berleburg on the 25th of- April 1734.
An enlarged edition of Dippel's collected works was published at
Berleburg in 1743. See the biographies by J. C. G. Ackermann
(Leipzig, 1781), H. V. Hoffmann (Darmstadt, 1783), K. Henning
(1881) and W. Bender (Bonn, 1882) ; also a memoir by K. Bucher in'
the Historisches Taschenbuch for 1858.
DIPSOMANIA (from Gr. 3i\l/a, thirst, and fiavia, madness),
a term formerly applied to the attacks of delirium (<?.D.) caused
by alcoholic poisoning. It is now sometimes loosely used as
equivalent to the condition of incurable inebriates, but strictly
should be confined to the pathological and insatiable desire for
alcohol, sometimes occurring in paroxysms.
DIPTERA (Sis, double, Trrepa, wings), a term (first em-
ployed in its modern sense by Linnaeus, Fauna Suecica, ist
ed., 1 746, p. 306) used in zoological classification for one of the
Orders into which the Hexapoda, or Insecta, are divided. The
relation of the Diptera (two-winged flies, or flies proper) to the
other Orders is dealt with under Hexapoda (q.v.).
The chief characteristic of the Diptera is expressed in the name
of the Order, since, with the exception of certain aberrant and
apterous forms, flies possess but a single pair of membranous
wings, which are attached to the meso-thorax. Wing-covers and
hind-wings are alike absent, and the latter are represented by a
pair of little knobbed organs, the halteres or balancers, which
have a controlling and directing function in flight. The other
structural characters of the Order may be briefly summarized
as: mouth-parts adapted for piercing and sucking, or for
suction alone, and consisting of a proboscis formed of the labium,
and enclosing modifications of the other usual parts of the mouth,
some of which, however, may be wanting; a thorax fused into
a single mass; and legs with five- join ted tarsi. The wings, which
are not capable of being folded, are usually transparent, but
occasionally pigmented and adorned with coloured spots,
blotches or bands; the wing-membrane, though sometimes
clothed with minute hairs, seldom bears scales; the wing-veins,
which are of great importance in the classification of Diptera,
are usually few in number and chiefly longitudinal, there being
a marked paucity of cross-veins. In a large number of Diptera
an incision in the posterior margin of the whig, near the base,
marks off a small lobe, the posterior lobe or alula, while connected
with this but situated on the thorax itself there is a pair of
membranous scales, or squamae, which when present serve to
conceal the halteres. The antennae of Diptera, which are also
extremely important in classification, are thread-like in the more
primitive families, such as the Tipulidae (daddy-long-legs), where
they consist of a considerable number of joints, all of which
except the first two, and sometimes also the last two, are similar
in shape; in the more specialized families, such as the Tabanidae
(horse-flies), Syrphidae (hover-flies) or Muscidae (house-flies,
blue-bottles and their allies), the number of antennal joints is
greatly reduced by coalescence, so that the antennae appear to
consist of only three joints. In these forms, however, the third
joint is really a complex, which in many families bears in addition
a jointed bristle (arista) or style, representing the terminal joints
of the primitive antenna. Although in the case of the majority
of Diptera the body is more or less clothed with hair, the hairy
covering is usually so short that to the unaided eye the insects
appear almost bare; some forms, however, such as the bee-flies
(Bombylius) and certain robber-flies (Asilidae) are conspicuously
hairy. ' Bristles are usually present on the legs, and in the case of
many families on the body also; those on the head and thorax
are of great importance in classification.
Between 40,000 and 50,000 species of Diptera are at present
known, but these are only a fraction of those actually in existence.
The species recognized as British number some 2700, but to this
total additions are constantly being made. As a rule flies are of
small or moderate size, and many, such as certain blood-sucking
midges of the genus Ceratopogon, are even minute; as extremes
of size may be mentioned a common British midge, Ceratopogon
varius, the female of which measures only ij millimetre, and the
gigantic Mydaidae of Central and South America as well as certain
Australian robber-flies, which have a body i-f in. long, with a
wing-expanse of 3^- in. In bodily form Diptera present two main
types, either, as in the case of the more primitive and generalized
families, they are gnat- or midge-like in shape, with slender
bodies and long, delicate legs, or else they exhibit a more or less
distinct resemblance to the common house-fly, having compact
and stoutly built bodies and legs of moderate length. Diptera
in general are not remarkable for brilliancy of coloration; as a
rule they are dull and inconspicuous in hue, the prevailing body-
tints being browns and greys; occasionally, however, more
especially in species (Syrphidae) that mimic Hymenoptera, the
body is conspicuously banded with yellow; a few are metallic,
such as the species of Formosia, found in the islands of the East
Indian Archipelago, which are among the most brilliant of all
insects. The sexes in Diptera are usually alike, though in a
number of families with short antennae the males are distinguished
by the fact that their eyes meet together (or nearly so) on the
forehead. Metamorphosis in Diptera is complete; the larvae are
utterly different from the perfect insects in appearance, and,
although varying greatly in outward form, are usually footless
grubs; those of the Muscidae are generally known as maggots.
The pupa either shows the appendages of the perfect insect,
though these are encased in a sheath and adherent to the body,
or else it is entirely concealed within the hardened and contracted
larval integument, which forms a barrel-shaped protecting
capsule or puparium.
Diptera are divided into some sixty families, the exact classi-
fication of which has not yet been finally settled. The majority
of authors, however, follow Brauer in dividing the order into
two sections, Orthorrhapha and Cyclorrhapha, according to the
manner in which the pupa-case splits to admit of the escape of the
perfect insect. The general characteristics of the pupae in these
two sections have already been described.
In the Orthorrhapha, in the pupae of which the appendages
of the perfect insect are usually visible, the pupa-case generally
splits in a straight line down the back near the cephalic end ; in
front of this longitudinal cleft there may be a small transverse
one, the two together forming a T-shaped fissure. In the
Cyclorrhapha on the other hand, in which the actual pupa is
concealed within the hardened larval skin, the imago escapes
through a circular orifice formed by pushing off or through the
head end of the puparium. The Diptera Orthorrhapha include
the more primitive and less specialized families such as the
Tipulidae (daddy-long-legs), Culicidae (gnats or mosquitoes),
Chironomidae (midges), Mycetophtiidae (fungus-midges), Tab-
anidae (horse-flies), Asilidae (robber-flies), &c. The Diptera
Cyclorrhapha on the other hand consist of the most highly
specialized families, such as the Syrphidae (hover-flies) , Oestridae
(bot and warble flies), and Muscidae (sensu laliore the house-fly
and its allies, including tsetse-flies, flesh-flies, Tachininae, or flies
the larvae of which are internal parasites of caterpillars, &c.).
It is customary to divide the Orthorrhapha into the two divisions
Nematocera and Brachycera, in the former of which the antennae
are elongate and in a more or less primitive condition, as described
above, while in the latter these organs are short, and, as already
explained, apparently composed of only three joints.
Within the divisions named Orthorrhapha Nematocera,
Orthorrhapha Brachycera and Cyclorrhapha the constituent
families are usually grouped into a series of " superfamilies,"
3 o8
DIPTERAL DIPTYCH
distinguished by features of structure or habit. Certain extremely
aberrant Diptera, which, in consequence of the adoption of a
parasitic mode of life, have undergone great structural modifica-
tion, are further remarkable for their peculiar mode of reproduc-
tion, on account of which the families composing the group are
often termed Pupipara. In these forms the pregnant female,
instead of laying eggs, as Diptera usually do, or even producing
a number of minute living larvae, gives birth at one time but to
a single larva, which is retained within the oviduct of the mother
until adult, and assumes the pupal state immediately on extrusion.
The Pupipara are also termed Eproboscidea (although they
actually possess a well-developed and functional proboscis), and
by some dipterists the Eproboscidea are regarded as a suborder
and contrasted as such with the rest of the Diptera, which are
styled the suborder Proboscidea. By other writers Proboscidea
and Eproboscidea are treated as primary divisions of the
Cyclorrhapha. In reality, however, the families designated
Eproboscidea (Hippoboscidae, Braulidae, Nycteribiidae and
Streblidae) , are not entitled to be considered as constituting either
a suborder, or even a main division of the Cyclorrhapha; they
are simply Cyclorrhapha much modified owing to parasitism, and
in view of the closely similiar mode of reproduction in the tsetse-
flies the special designation Pupipara should be abandoned.
Before leaving the subject of classification it may be noted in
passing that in 1906 Professor Lameere, of Brussels, proposed a
scheme for the classification of Diptera which as regards both the
limits of the families and their grouping into higher categories
differs considerably from that in current use.
Little light on the relationship and evolution of the various
families of Diptera is afforded by fossil forms, since as a rule the
latter are readily referable to existing families. With the excep-
tion of a few species from the Solenhofen lithographic Oolite,
fossi! Diptera belong to the Tertiary Period, during which
the members of this order attained a high degree of development.
In amber, as proved by the deposits on the shores of the Baltic,
the proverbial " fly " is more numerous than any other crea-
tures, and with very few exceptions representatives of all the
existing families have been found. The famous Tertiary beds
at Florissant, Colorado, have yielded a considerable number
or remarkably well-preserved Tipulidae (in which family are
included the most primitive of existing Diptera), as also species
belonging to other families, such as Mycetophilidae and even
Oestridae.
Diptera as an order are probably more widely distributed over
the earth's surface than are the representatives of any similar
division of the animal kingdom. Flies seem capable of adapting
themselves to extremes of cold equally as well as to those of heat,
and species belonging to the order are almost invariably included
in the collections brought back by members of Arctic expeditions.
Others are met with in the most isolated localities; thus the
Rev. A. E. Eaton discovered on the desolate shores of Kerguelen's
Island apterous and semi-apterous Diptera (Tipulidae and
Ephydridae) of a degraded type adapted to the climatic peculi-
arities of the locality. Many bird parasites belonging to the
Hippoboscidae have naturally been carried about the world by
their hosts, while other species, such as the house-fly, blow-fly and
drone-fly, have in like manner been disseminated by human
agency. Most families and a large proportion of genera are
represented throughout the world, but in some cases (e.g. Glossina
see TSETSE-FLY) the distribution of a genus is limited to a
continent. As a rule the general fades as well as dimensions are
remarkably uniform throughout a family, so that tropical species
often differ little in appearance from those inhabiting temperate
regions. Many instances of exaggerated and apparently un-
natural structure nevertheless occur, as in the case of the genera
Pangonia, Nemestrina, Achias, Diopsisund the family Celyphidae,
and, as might be expected, it is chiefly in tropical species that
these peculiarities are found. To a geographical distribution of
the widest extent, Diptera add a range of habits of the most
diversified nature; they are both animal and vegetable feeders,
an enormous number of species acting, especially in the larval
state, as scavengers in consuming putrescent or decomposing
matter of both kinds. The phytophagous species are attached to
various parts of plants, dead or alive; and the carnivorous in like
manner feed on dead or living flesh, or its products, many larvae
being parasitic on living animals of various classes (in Australia
the larva of a species of Muscidae is even a parasite of frogs),
especially the caterpillars of Lepidoptera, which are destroyed in
great numbers by Tachininae. The recent discovery of a blood-
sucking maggot, which is found in native huts throughout the
greater part of tropical and subtropical Africa, and attacks the
inmates when asleep, is of great interest.
It may confidently be asserted that, of insects which directly
or indirectly affect the welfare of man, Diptera form the vast
majority, and it is a moot point whether the good effected by
many species in the rapid clearing away of animal and vegetable
impurities, and in keeping other insect enemies in check, counter-
balances the evil and annoyance wrought by a large section of the
Order. The part played by certain blood-sucking Diptera in the
dissemination of disease is now well known (see MOSQUITO and
TSETSE-FLY), and under the term myiasis medical literature
includes a lengthy recital of instances of the presence of Dipterous
larvae in various parts of the living human body, and the
injuries caused thereby. That Diptera of the type of the common
house-fly are often in large measure responsible for the spread
of such diseases as cholera and enteric fever is undeniable, and
as regards blood-sucking forms, in addition to those to which
reference has already been made, it is sufficient to mention the
vast army of pests constituted by the midges, sand-flies, horse-
flies, &c., from the attacks of which domestic animals suffer
equally with man, in addition to being frequently infested with
the larvae of the bot and warble flies (Gastrophilus, Oestrus and
Hypoderma). Lastly, as regards the phytophagous forms, there
can be no doubt that the destruction of grass-lands by " leather-
jackets " (the larvae of crane-flies, or daddy-long-legs, Tipula
oleracea and T. paludosa), of divers fruits byCeratitis capitata and
species of Dacus, and of wheat and other crops by the Hessian-fly
(Mayetiola destructor) and species of Oscinis, Chlorops, &c., is of
very serious consequence.
With many writers it is customary to treat the fleas as a sub-
order of Diptera, under the title Aphaniptera or Siphonaptera.
Since, however, although undoubtedly allied to the Diptera, they
must have diverged from the ancestral stem at an early period,
before the existing forms of Diptera became so extremely
specialized, it seems better to regard the fleas as constituting
an independent order (see FLEA). (E. E. A.)
DIPTERAL (Gr. for " double-winged "), the architectural term
applied to those temples which have a double range of columns in
the peristyle, as in the temple of Diana at Ephesus.
DIPTYCH (Gr. SiTrnxos, two-folding), (i) A tablet made
with a hinge to open and shut, used in the Roman empire for
letters (especially love-letters), and official tokens of the com-
mencement of a consul's, praetor's or aedile's term of office. The
latter variety of diptych was inscribed with the magistrate's name
and bore his portrait, and was issued to his friends and the public
generally. They were made of boxwood or maple. More costly
examples were in cedar, ivory (q.v.), silver or sometimes gold.
They were often sent as New Year gifts.
(2)In the primitive church when the worshippers brought their
own offerings of bread and wine, from which were taken the
Communion elements, the names of the contributors were
recorded on diptychs and read aloud. To these names were early
added those of deceased members of the community whom it was
desired to commemorate. This custom rapidly developed into
a kind of commemoration of saints and benefactors, living and
dead; especially, in each church, were the names of those who
had been its bishops recorded. The custom was maintained until
the lists became so long that it was impossible to read them
through, and the observance in this form had to be abandoned.
The insertion of a name on the diptych, thereby securing the
prayers of the church, was a privilege from which a person could
be excluded on account of suspicion of heresy or by the intrigues
of enemies. His name could, if written, be expunged under
similar circumstances. The names thus written were read from
DIR DIRECTORS
309
the ambo, in which the diptych was kept. The reading of these
names during the canon of the mass gave rise to the term canoniza-
tion. By various councils it was ordained that the name of the
pope should always be inserted in the diptych list.
The addition of dales resulted from the custom of recording
baptisms and deaths; and thus the diptych developed into a
calendar and formed the germ of the elaborate system of
festologies, martyrologies and calendars which developed in
the church.
The diptych went by various names in the early church
mystical tablets, anniversary books, ecclesiastical matriculation
registers or books of the living. According to the names in-
scribed, bishops, the dead or the living, a diptych might be a
diptycha episcoporum, diptycha mortuorum or diptycha viwrum.
In course of time the list of the names swelled to such propor-
tions that the space afforded by the diptych was insufficient. A
third fold was consequently provided, and the tablet became a
triptych (though the name diptych was retained as a general term
for the object). Further room was afforded by the insertion of
leaves of parchment or wood between the folds. The custom of
reading names from the diptychs died out about the 8th century.
The diptychs, however, were retained as altar ornaments. From
the original consular documents onwards, the outsides of the
folds had always been richly ornamented, and when they ceased
to be of immediate practical use they became merely decora-
tive. Instead of the list of names the inside was ornamented
like the outer, and in the middle ages the best painters of the
day would often paint them. When folded, the portraits
of the donor and his wife might be shown; when open there
would be three paintings, one on each fold, of a religious
character. (R. A. S. M.)
DIR, an independent state in the North- West Frontier Province
of India, lying to the north-east of Swat. Its importance chiefly
arises from the fact that it commands the greater part of the route
between Chitral and the Peshawar frontier. The quarrels and
intrigues between the khan of Dir and Umra Khan of Jandol were
among the chief events that led up to the Chitral Campaign of.
1895. During that expedition the khan made an agreement with
the British Government to keep the road to Chitral open in return
for a subsidy. Including the Bashkars, an aboriginal tribe allied
to the Torwals and Garhuis, who inhabit Panjkora Kohistan, the
population is estimated at about 100,000.
DIRCE, in Greek legend, daughter of Helios the sun-god, the
second wife of Lycus, king of Thebes. She sorely persecuted
Antiope, his first wife, who escaped to Mount Cithaeron, where
her twin sons Amphion and Zethus were being brought up by a
herdsman who was ignorant of their parentage. Having recog-
nized their mother, the sons avenged her by tying Dirce to the
horns of a wild bull, which dragged her about till she died. Her
body was cast into a spring near Thebes, which was ever after-
wards called by her name. Her punishment is the subject of the
famous group called " The Farnese Bull," by Apollonius and
Tauriscus of Tralles, in the Naples museum (see GREEK ART,
Plate I. fig. 51).
DIRECT MOTION, in astronomy, the apparent motion of. a body
of the solar system on the celestial sphere in the direction from
west to east; so called because this is the usual direction of
revolution and rotation of the heavenly bodies.
DIRECTORS, in company law, the agents by whom a trading
or public company acts, the company itself being a legal ab-
straction and unable to do anything. As joint-stock companies
have multiplied and their enterprise has extended, the position of
directors has become one of increasing influence and importance.
It is they who control the colossal funds now invested in trading
companies, and who direct their policy (for shareholders are
seldom more than dividend-drawers). Upon their uprightness,
vigilance and sound judgment depends the welfare of the greatel
part of the trade of the country concerned. It is not to be
wondered at that in view of this influence and independence of
action the law courts have held directors to a strict standard
of duty, and that the parliament of the United Kingdom has
singled out directors from other agents for special legislation in
the Directors Liability Act 1890, the Larceny Act 1861, the
Companies Act 1867 and the Winding-up Act 1890.
The first directors of a company are generally appointed by the
articles of association. Their consent to act must now, under the
Companies Act 1 908, be filed with the registrar of joint-stock com-
panies. Directors other than the first are elected at the annual
general meeting, a certain proportion of the acting directors
usually one-third retiring under the articles by rotation each
year, and their places being filled up by election. A share qualifi-
cation is nearly always required, on the well-recognized principle
that a substantial stake in the undertaking is the best guarantee
of fidelity to the company's interests. A director once appointed
:annot be removed during his term of office by the shareholders,
unless there is a special provision for that purpose in the articles
of association; but a company may dismiss a director if the
articles as is usually the case authorize dismissal. The
authority and powers of directors are prima facie those necessary
for carrying on the ordinary business of the company, but it is
usual to define the more important of such powers in the articles
of association. For instance, it is commonly prescribed how and
when the directors may make calls, to what amount they may
borrow, how they may invest the funds of the company, in what
circumstances they may forfeit shares, or veto transfers, in what
manner they shall conduct their proceedings, and what shall
constitute a quorum of the board. Whenever, indeed, specific
directions are desirable they may properly be given by the articles.
But superadded to and supplementing these specific powers there
is usually inserted in the articles a general power of management
in terms similar to those of clause 55 of the model regulations for
a company, known as Table A (clause 71 of the revised Table).
The powers, whether general or specific, thus confided to directors
are in the nature of a trust, and the directors must exercise them
with a single eye to the benefit of the company. For instance, in
allotting shares they must consult the interests of the company,
not favour their friends. So in forfeiting shares they must not use
the power collusively for the purpose of relieving the shareholder
from liability. To do so is an abuse of the power and a fraud on
the other shareholders.
It would give a very erroneous idea of the position and functions
of directors to speak of them as is sometimes done as trustees.
They are only trustees in the sense that every agent is. They are
" commercial men managing a trading concern for the benefit of
themselves and the other shareholders." They have to carry on
the company's business, to extend and consolidate it, and to do
this they must have a free hand and a large discretion to deal with
the exigencies of the commerical situation. This large discretion
the law allows them so long as they keep within the limits set
by the company's memorandum and articles. They are not to be
held liable for mere errors of judgment, still less for being de-
frauded. That would make their position intolerable. All that
the law requires of them is that they should be faithful to their
duties as agents " diligent and honest," to use the words of Sir
George Jessel , formerly master of the rolls. Thus in the matter of
diligence it is a director's duty to attend as far as possible all
meetings of the board; at the same time non-attendance, unless
gross, will not amount to negligence such as to render a director
liable for irregularities committed by his co-directors in his
absence. A director again must not sign cheques without inform-
ing himself of the purpose for which they are given. A director,
on the same principle, must not delegate his duties to others unless
expressly authorized to do so, as where the company's articles
empower the directors to appoint a committee. Directors may,
it is true, employ skilled persons, such as engineers, valuers or
accountants, to assist them, but they must still exercise their
judgment as business men on the materials before them. Then in
the matter of honesty, a director must not accept a present in cash
or shares or in any other form whatever from the company's
vendor, because such a present is neither more nor less than a bribe
to betray the interests of the company, nor must he make any
profit in the matter of his agency without the knowledge and
consent of his principal, the company. He must not, in other
words, put himself in a position in which his duty to the company
310
DIRECTORY DIRSCHAU
and his own interest conflict or even may conflict. This rule often
comes into play in the case of contracts between a company and a
director. There is nothing in itself invalid in such a contract, but
the onus is on the director if he would keep such a contract to
show that the company assented to his making a profit out of the
contract, and for that purpose he must show that he made full and
fair disclosure to the company of the nature and extent of his
interest under the contract. It is for this reason that when a
company's vendor is also a director he does not join the board
until his co-directors have exercised an independent judgment on
the propriety of the purchase.
A director must also bear in mind what is a fundamental
principle of company management that the funds of the
company are entrusted to the directors for the objects of the
company as defined by the company's memorandum of associa-
tion and authorized by the general law, and that they must not be
diverted from those objects or applied to purposes which are out-
side the objects of the company, ultra vires, as it is commonly
called, or outside the powers of management given by the share-
holders to the directors. This does not abridge the large discre-
tion allowed to directors in carrying on the business of the
company. The funds embarked in a trading company are
intended to be employed for the acquisition of gain, and risk,
greater or less according to circumstances, is necessarily incidental
to such employment; but it is quite another matter when
directors pay dividends out of capital, or return capital to the
shareholders, or spend money of the company in " rigging " the
market, or in buying the company's shares or paying commission
for underwriting the shares of the company except where such
commission is authorized under acts of 1900 and 1907, incorpor-
ated in the Companies Act 1908. Directors who in these or
any other ways misapply the funds of the company are guilty
of what is technically known as " misfeasance " or breach
of trust, and all who join in the misapplication are jointly and
severally liable to replace the sums so misapplied. The remedy of
the company for misfeasance, if the company is a going concern,
is by action against the delinquent directors; but where a
company is being wound up, the legislature has, under the
Winding-up Act 1890, provided a summary mode of proceeding,
by which the official receiver or liquidator, or any creditor or
contributory of the company, may take out what is known as a
misfeasance summons, to compel the delinquent director or officer
to repay the misapplied moneys or make compensation. The
departmental committee of the Board of Trade in its report (July
1906) recommended that the court should be given a discretionary
power, analogous to that it already possesses in the case of
trustees under the Judicial Trustees Act 1896, s. 3, to relieve a
director (or a promoter) in certain cases from liability. This
recommendation has been given effect to by s. 279 of the
Companies Act 1908, which provides that, " If in any proceeding
against a director of a company for negligence or breach of trust
it appears to a court that the director is or may be liable in respect
of the negligence or breach of trust, but has acted honestly and
reasonably and ought fairly to be excused for the negligence
or breach of trust, the court may relieve him either wholly or
partly from his liability on such terms as the court may think
proper."
Directors who circulate a prospectus containing statements
which they know to be false, with intent to induce any person
to become a shareholder, may be prosecuted under 84 of the
Larceny Act 1861. They are also liable criminallyfor falsification
of the company's books, and for this or any other criminal offence
the court in winding up may, on the application of the liquidator,
direct a prosecution. As to the liability of directors for state-
ments or omissions in a prospectus see COMPANY.
In managing the affairs of the company directors must meet
together and act as a body, for the company is entitled to their
collective wisdom in council assembled. Board meetings are held
at such intervals as the directors think expedient. Notice of the
meeting must be given to all directors who are within reach, but
the notice need not specify the particular business to be trans-
acted. The articles usually fix, or give the directors power to fix,
what number shall constitute a quorum for a board meeting.
They also empower the directors to elect a chairman of the board.
The directors exercise their powers by a resolution of the board
which is recorded in the directors' minute-book.
The court will not as a rule interfere with the discretion of
directors honestly exercised in the management of the affairs of
the company. The directors have prima facie the confidence of
the shareholders, and it is not for the court to say that such con-
fidence is misplaced. If the directors are dissatisfied with the
management the remedy is in their own hands they can call a
meeting and elect a new board.
A company's articles usually provide for the payment of a
certain sum to each director for his services during the year.
When this is the case it is an authority to the directors to pay
themselves the amount of such remuneration. The remuneration,
unless otherwise expressly provided, covers all expenses incidental
to the directors' duties. A director, for instance, cannot claim to
be paid in addition to his fixed remuneration his travelling
expenses for attending board meetings.
When a company winds up, the directors' powers of manage-
ment come to an end. Their agency is superseded in favour of
that of the liquidator. (E. MA.)
DIRECTORY, a term meaning literally that which guides or
directs, and so applied to a book or set of rules giving directions
for public worship. The directorium or ordo of the Roman Church
contains regulations as to the Mass and office to be used on each
day throughout the year, and the word is found in the Directory
for the Publick Worship of God drawn up in 1644 at the West-
minster Assembly. The term now usually signifies a book contain-
ing the names, addresses and occupations, &c. of the inhabitants
of a town or district, or of a similar list of the users of a telephone
supply, or of the members of a particular profession or trade.
The name Directoire or Directory was given to the body which
held the executive power in France from October 1795 until
November 1799 (see FRENCH REVOLUTION).
DIRGE, a song or hymn of mourning, particularly one sung at
funerals or at a service in commemoration of the dead. It is
derived from the first word of the antiphon " Dirige, Domine,
Deus meus, in conspectu tuo viam meant " (Guide, O Lord, my
God, my way in Thy sight), of the opening psalm in the office for
the dead in the Roman Church. The antiphon is adapted from
verse 8 of Psalm v.
DIRK, a dagger, particularly the heavy dagger carried by the
Highlanders of Scotland. The dirk as worn in full Highland
costume is an elaborately ornamented weapon, with cairngorms
or other stones set in the head of the handle, which has no guard.
Inserted in the sheath there may be two small knives. The dirk,
in the shape of a straight blade, with a small guard, some 18 in.
long, is worn by midshipmen in the British navy. The origin of
the word is doubtful. The earlier forms were dork and durk, and
the spelling dirk, adopted by Johnson, represents the pronuncia-
tion of the second form. The name seems to have been early
applied to the daggers of the Highlanders, but the Gaelic word is
biodag, and the Irish duirc, often stated to be the origin, is only an
adaptation of the English word. It may be a corruption of the
German Dolch, a dagger. The suggestion that it is an application
of the Christian name " Dirk," the short form of " Dieterich," is
not borne out, according to the New English Dictionary, by any
use of this name for a dagger, and is further disproved by the
earlier English spelling.
DIRSCHAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia,
province of West Prussia, on the left bank of the Vistula, 20 m. S.
from Danzig and at the junction of the important lines of railway
Berlin-Konigsberg and Danzig-Bromberg. Pop. (1905) 14,185.
It has a Roman Catholic and a Protestant church and several
schools. The river is here crossed by two fine iron bridges. The
older structure dating from the year 1857, originally used for the
railway, is now given up to road traffic, and the railway carried
by a new bridge completed in 1891. Dirschau has railway work-
shops and manufactories of sugar, agricultural implements and
cement. During the war with Poland, Gustavus Adolphus made
it his headquarters for many months after its capture in 1626.
DISABILITY DISCIPLES OF CHRIST
DISABILITY, a term meaning, in general, want of ability, and
used in law to denote an incapacity in certain persons or classes of
persons for the full enjoyment of duties or privileges, which, but
for their disqualification, would be open to them; hence, legal
disqualification. Thus, married women, persons under age,
insane persons, convicted felons are under disability to do certain
legal acts. This disability may be absolute, wholly disabling the
person so long as it continues, or partial, ceasing on discontinua-
tion of the disabling state, as attainment of full age.
DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. descharge, modern
dicharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and carricare,
to load, cf. " charge "), a word meaning relief from a load or
burden, hence applied to the unloading of a ship, the firing of
a weapon, the passage of electricity from an electrified body,
the issue from a wound, &c. From the sense of relief from an
obligation, " discharge " is also applied to the release of a soldier
or sailor from military or naval service, or of the crew of a
merchant vessel, or to the dismissal from an office or situation.
In law, it is used of a document or other evidence that can be
accepted as proof of the release from an obligation, as of a receipt,
on payment of money due. Similarly it is applied to the release
in accordance with law of a person in custody on a criminal
charge, and to the legal release of a bankrupt from further
liability for debts provable in the bankruptcy except those
incurred by fraud or debts to the crown. It is also applied to the
reversal of an order of a court. In the case of divorce, where the
rule nisi is not made absolute, the rule is said to be discharged.
DISCHARGING ARCH, in architecture, an arch built over a
lintel or architrave to take off the superincumbent weight. The
earliest example is found in the Great Pyramid, over the lintels of
the entrance passage to the tomb: it consisted of two stones only,
resting one against the other. The same object was attained in
the Lion Gate and the tomb of Agamemnon, both in Mycenae, and
in other examples in Greece, where the stones laid in horizontal
courses, one projecting over the other, left a triangular hollow
space above the lintel of the door, which was subsequently filled
in by vertical sculptured stone panels. The Romans frequently
employed the discharging arch, and inside the portico of the
Pantheon the architraves have such arches over them. In
the Golden Gateway of the palace of Diocletian at Spalato the
discharging arches, semicircular in form, were adopted as archi-
tectural features and decorated with mouldings. The same is
found in the synagogues in Palestine of the 2nd century; and
later, in Byzantine architecture, these moulded archivolts above
an architrave constitute one of the characteristics of the style.
In the early Christian churches in Rome, where a colonnade
divided off the nave and aisles, discharging arches are turned in
the frieze just above the architraves.
DISCIPLE, properly a pupil, scholar (Lat. discipidus, from
discere, to learn, and root seen in pupillus), but chiefly used of
the personal followers of Jesus Christ, including the inner circle
of the Apostles (q.v.).
DISCIPLES OF CHRIST, or CHRISTIANS, an American Pro-
testant denomination, founded by Thomas Campbell, his son
Alexander Campbell (q.v.) and Barton Warren Stone (1772-1844).
Stone had been a Presbyterian minister prominent in the
Kentucky revival of 1801, but had been turned against sectarian-
ism and ecclesiastical authority because the synod had condemned
Richard McNemar, one of his colleagues in the revival, for
preaching (as Stone himself had done) counter to the Westminster
Confession, on faith and the work of the Holy Spirit in conversion.
He had organized the Springfield Presbytery, but in 1804 with his
five fellow ministers signed " The Last Will and Testament of the
Springfield Presbytery," giving up that name and calling them-
selves " Christians." Like Stone, Alexander Campbell had
adopted (in 1812) immersion, and, like him, his two great desires
were for Christian unity and the restoration of the ancient order
of things. But the Campbellite doctrines differed widely from the
hyper-Calvinism of the Baptists whom they had joined in 1813,
especially on the points on which Stone had quarrelled with
the Presbyterians; and after various local breaks in 1825-1830,
when there were large additions to the Restorationists from
the Baptist ranks, especially under the apostolic fervour and
simplicity of the preaching of Walter Scott (1796-1861;, in 1832
the Reformers were practically all ruled out of the Baptist com-
munion. The Campbells gradually lost sight of Christian unity,
owing to the unfortunate experience with the Baptists and to the
tone taken by those clergymen who had met them in debates;
and for the sake of Christian union it was peculiarly fortunate
that in January 1832 at Lexington, Kentucky, the followers of
the Campbells and those of Stone (who had stressed union more
than primitive Christianity) united. Campbell objected to the
name " Christians " as sectarianized by Stone, but " Disciples "
never drove out of use the name " Christians."
During the Civil War the denomination escaped an actual
scission by following the neutral views of Campbell, who opposed
slavery, war and abolition. In 1849 the American Christian
Missionary Society was formed; it was immediately attacked as a
" human innovation," unwarranted by the New Testament, by
literalists led in later ycarsby Benjamin Franklin (secretary of the
missionary society in 1857), who opposed all church music also.
Isaac Errett (1820-1888) was the most prominent leader of the
progressive party, which was considered corrupt and worldly
by the literalists, many of whom, in spite of his efforts, broke off
from the main body, especially in Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee,
Arkansas and Texas.
The main body appointed in 1890 a standing committee on
Christian union; their aim in this respect is not for absorption,
as was clearly shown by their answer in 1887 to overtures from
the Protestant Episcopal Church regarding Christian unity. The
credal position of the Disciples is simple: great stress is put upon
the phrase " the Christ, the Son of the living God," and upon the
recognition by Jesus of this confession as the foundation of His
church; as to baptism, agreement with Baptists is only as to the
mode, immersion; this is considered " the primitive confession
of Christ and a gracious token of salvation," and as being " for
the remission of sins "; the Disciples generally deny the authority
over Christians of the Old Covenant, and Alexander Campbell in
particular held this view so forcibly that he was accused by
Baptists of " throwing away the Old Testament." The Lord's
Supper is celebrated every Sunday, the bread being broken by
the communicants. The Disciples are not Unitarian in fact or
tendency, but they urge the use of simple New Testament
phraseology as to the Godhead. Their church government is
congregational.
The growth of the denomination has been greatest in the states
along the Ohio river, whence they have spread throughout the Union.
In 1908 there were 6673 ministers and 1,285, 123 communicants in the
United States. There are churches in Canada, in Great Britain and
in Australia. Bethany College, at Bethany, West Virginia, was
chartered in 1840, and Alexander Campbell, who had founded it as
Buffalo Seminary, was its president until his death in 1866; other
colleges founded by the sect are : Kentucky University, Lexington,
Ky. ; Hiram College, Hiram, Ohio (1850, until 1867 known as
Western Reserve Eclectic Institute) ; Butler College, Indianapolis,
Indiana (1855); Christian University, Canton, Missouri (1851;
coeducational) ; Eureka College, in Woodford county, Illinois (1855;
coeducational) ; Union Christian College, Merom, Ind. (1859) ;
Texas Christian University, Waco, Texas (1873, founded as Add
Ran College at Thorpe's Springs, removing to Waco in 1895) ; Drake
University, Des Moines, Iowa (1881); MilMgan College, Milligan,
Tennessee (1882); Defiance College, Defiance, O. (1885); Cotner
University, Lincoln, Nebraska (1889); Elon College, Eton, North
Carolina (1890); American University, Harrirnan, Tenn. (1893);
the Virginia Christian College, Lynchburg, Virginia (1903), and for
negroes, the Southern Christian Institute, Edwards, Mississippi
(1877), and the Christian Bible College, Newcastle, Henry County,
Ky. Theological seminaries are the Berkeley Bible Seminary,
Berkeley, California (1896) ; the Disciples' Divinity House, Chicago,
111. (1894); and the Eugene Divinity School, Eugene, Oregon
(1895). Bible chairs " were established in state universities and
elsewhere by the Disciples, at the University of Michigan (1893),
at the University of Virginia (1899), at the University of Calcutta
(1900) and at the University of Kansas (1901). The denomination has
publishing houses in Cincinnati, St Louis, Louisville and Nashville.
See Errett Gates's History of the Disciples of Christ (New
York, 1905), in " The Story of the Churches series, and his Early
Relation and Separation of Baptists and Disciples (Chicago, 1904),
a University of Chicago doctoral thesis; and B. B. Tylers History
of the Disciples of Christ in vol. xii. of " The American Church
History Series " (New York, 1894).
312
DISCLAIMER DISINFECTANTS
DISCLAIMER, a renunciation, denial or refusal; a disavowal
of claims. In law the term is used more particularly in the
following senses : ( i ) In the law of landlord and tenant, the direct
repudiation of that relation by some act on the part of the tenant.
A disclaimer may be verbal or writfen, but in such case it must be
something more than a mere renunciation of the tenant's title, or
it may be an act which is wholly inconsistent with the existence of
such relation, as the setting up by the tenant of a distinct title
either in himself or some third party. (2) In the law of bank-
ruptcy, where any part of the property of a bankrupt consists of
land of any tenure burdened with onerous covenants, of stocks or
shares in companies, of unprofitable contracts, or of any property
that is unsaleable, or not readily saleable, by reason of its binding
the possessor to the performance of any onerous act, the trustee,
notwithstanding that he has endeavoured to sell or has taken
possession of the property, or exercised any act of ownership in
relation to it, may, subject to certain provisions, by writing signed
by him, at any time within twelve months after the first appoint-
ment of a trustee, " disclaim " the property (see BANKRUPTCY).
(3) In the law of trusts, disclaimer is the refusal or renunciation of
the office or duties of a trustee. It is an undisputed rule that no
one is compellable to undertake a trust, so that as soon as a person
knows he has been appointed a trustee under some instrument, he
should determine whether he will accept the office or not. Dis-
claimer of trust should be by deed, as admitting of no ambiguity,
but it maybe by conveyance to other accepting trustees, ororally,
or by written declaration, or even by conduct. (4) In the law of
patents, disclaimer is the renunciation, by amendment of specifica-
tions, of the portion of an inventor's claim to protection.
DISCOUNT, (i) A money-market term for the price paid in
order to obtain immediate realization of a bill not yet due. If a
bill for 100 due six months hence is discounted at the rate of
3 % per annum, its holder will obtain 98, xos. in cash for it.
(2) A Stock-Exchange term applied to a security, not fully paid,
which has fallen below its issue price, and so is said to stand at so
much discount. See PREMIUM.
DISCOVERY, in law, the revealing or disclosing of any matter.
The English common law courts were originally unable to compel
a litigant before a trial to disclose the facts and documents on
which he relied. In equity, however, a different rule prevailed,
there being an absolute right to discovery of all material facts on
which a case was founded. Now the practice is regulated by the
Rules of the Supreme Court, 1883, Order 31. Discovery is of two
kinds, namely, by interrogatories and by affidavit of documents,
provision being also made for the production and inspection of
documents. Where a party to a suit can make an affidavit
stating that in his belief certain specified documents are or have
been in the possession of some other party, the court may make an
order that such party state on affidavit whether he has or ever had
any of those documents in his possession, or if he has parted with
them or what has become of them. A further application may
then be made by notice to the party who has admitted possession
of the documents for production and inspection. Copies also may
be taken of the more important documents. There is also dis-
covery of facts obtained by means of interrogatories, i.e. written
questions addressed on behalf of one party, before trial, to the
other party, who is bound to answer them in writing upon oath.
In order to prevent needless expense the party seeking discovery
must first secure the cost of it by paying into court a sum of
money, generally not less than five pounds. See also EVIDENCE.
DISCUS (Gr. 6icr/ccK, disk), a circular plate of stone, later of
metal, which was used by the ancient Greeks for throwing to a
distance as a gymnastic exercise. Judging from specimens found
by excavators, the ancient discus was about 8 or 9 in. in diameter
and weighed from 4 to 5 Ib, although one of bronze, preserved
in the British Museum, weighs over 8 R>. Sometimes a kind of
quoit, spherical in form, was used, through a hole in which a thong
was passed to assist the athlete in throwing it. The sport of
throwing the discus was common in the time of Homer, who
mentions it repeatedly. It formed a part of the pentathlon, or
quintuple games, in the ancient Olympic Games. Statius, in
Thebais, 646-721, fully describes the use of the discus. In the
British Museum there is a restored copy of a statue by Myron
(see GREEK ART, Plate IV. fig. 68) of a discus-thrower (discobolus)
in the act of hurling the missile; but the investigations of N. E.
Norman Gardiner show that a wrong attitude has been adopted
by the restorer.
Throwing the discus was introduced as an event in modern
athletics at the revived Olympic Games, first held at Athens in
1896, and since that time it has become a recognized event in the
athletic championship meetings of several European nations, as
well as in the United States, where it has become very popular.
According to the American rules the discus must be of a smooth,
hard-wood body without finger-holes, weighted in the centre with
lead disks and capped with polished brass disks, with a steel ring
on the outside. Its weight must be 4^ Ib, its outside diameter
8 in. and its thickness at the centre 2 in. It must be thrown from
a 7-ft. circle, which may not be overstepped in throwing, and the
throw is measured from the spot where the discus first strikes the
ground to the point in the circumference of the circle on a line
between the centre and the point of striking.
DISINFECTANTS, substances employed to neutralize the action
of pathogenic organisms, and prevent the spread of contagious or
infectious disease. The efficiency of any disinfectant is due to
its power of destroying, or of rendering inert, specific poisons or
disease germs. Therefore antiseptic substances generally are to
this extent disinfectants. So also the deodorizers, which act
by oxidizing or otherwise changing the chemical constitution of
volatile substances disseminated in the air, or which prevent
noxious exhalations from organic substances, are in virtue of
these properties effective disinfectants in certain diseases. A
knowledge of the value of disinfectants, and the use of some of the
most valuable agents, can be traced to very remote times ; and
much of the Levitical law of cleansing, as well as the origin of
numerous heathen ceremonial practices, are clearly based on a
perception of the value of disinfection. The means of disinfection,
and the substances employed, are very numerous, as are the
classes and conditions of disease and contagion they are designed
to meet. Nature, in the oxidizing influence of freely circulating
atmospheric air, in the purifying effect of water, and in the
powerful deodorizing properties of common earth, has provided
the most potent ever-present and acting disinfecting media. Of
the artificial disinfectants employed or available three classes may
be recognized : ist, volatile or vaporizabie substances, which
attack impurities in the air; 2nd, chemical agents, for acting on
the diseased body or on the infectious discharges therefrom; and
3rd, the physical agencies of heat and cold. In some of these
cases the destruction of the contagium is effected by the formation
of new chemical compounds, by oxidation, deoxidation or other
reaction, and in others the conditions favourable to life are
removed or life is destroyed by high temperature. Among the
first class, aerial or gaseous disinfectants, formic aldehyde has
of late years taken foremost place. The vapour is a powerful
disinfectant and deodorant, and for the surface disinfection of
rooms, fulfils all requirements when used in sufficient amount.
It acts more rapidly than equal quantities of sulphurous acid, and
it does not affect colours. It is non-poisonous, though irritating
to the eyes and throat. With the exception of iron and steel it
does not attack metals. It can be obtained in paraform tabloids,
and with a specially constructed spirit lamp disinfection can be
carried out by any one. Twenty tabloids must be employed for
every 1000 cubic ft. of space. Disinfection by sulphurous acid
fumes is of great antiquity, and is still in very general use; for
the purpose of destroying vermin it is more powerful than formic
aldehyde. Camphor and some volatile oils have also been
employed as air disinfectants, but their virtues lie chiefly in
masking, not destroying, noxious effluvia. In the 2nd class
non-gaseous disinfecting compounds all the numerous antiseptic
substances may be reckoned; but the substances principally em-
ployed in practice are oxidizing agents, as potassium manganates
and permanganates, " Condy's fluid," and solutions of the so-
called " chlorides of lime," soda and potash, with the chlorides of
aluminium and zinc, soluble sulphates and sulphites, solutions of
sulphurous acid, and the tar products carbolic, cresylic and
DISMAL DISPENSATION
salicylic acids. Of the physical agents heat and cold, the latter,
though a powerful natural disinfectant, is not practically available
by artificial means; heat is a power chiefly relied on for purifying
and disinfecting clothes, bedding and textile substances generally.
Different degrees of temperature are required for the destruction
of the virus of various diseases; but as clothing, &c., can be
exposed to a heat of about 250 Fahr. without injury, provision is
made for submitting articles to nearly that temperature. For the
thorough disinfection of a sick-room the employment of all three
classes of disinfectants, for purifying the air, for destroying the
virus at its point of origin, and for cleansing clothing, &c., may be
required.
DISMAL, an adjective meaning dreary, gloomy, and so a name
given to stretches of swampy land on the east coast of the United
States, as the Dismal Swamp in Virginia and North Carolina.
The derivation has been much discussed. In the early examples
of the use the word is a substantive, especially in the expres-
sion " in the dismal," i.e. in the dismal time or days. Later
it became adjectival, especially in combination with " days." It
has been connected with " decimal," med. Latin decimalis,
belonging to a tithe or tenth, and thus the " dismal days " are the
unpleasant days connected with the extortion and oppression
of exacting payment of tithes. According to the New English
Dictionary, quoting Professor W. W. Skeat, " dismal " is derived,
through an Anglo-Fr. dis mal, from the Lat. dies mali, evil or
unpropitious days. This Anglo-French expression, explained as
les mal jours, is found in a MS. of Rauf de Linham's Art de
Kalender, 1256. These days of evil omen were known as Dies
Aegyptiaci (Du Cange, Glossarium, s.ii.) or Egyptian days, either
as having been instituted by Egyptian astrologers or with refer-
ence to the " ten plagues "; so Chaucer, " I trowe hit was in
the dismal, That were the ten woundes of Egipte " (Book of
the Duchesse, 1206). There were two such days in each month.
See Skeat, Trans. Philol. Soc. (1888), p. 2, and note on the line in
the " Book of the Duchesse," The Complete Works of Geoffrey Chaucer,
vol. i. (1894).
DISORDERLY HOUSE, in law, a house in which the conduct of
its inmates is such as to become a public nuisance, or a house
where persons congregate to the probable disturbance of the public
peace or other commission of crime. In England, by the Dis-
orderly Houses Act 1751, the term includes common bawdy
houses or brothels, 1 common gaming houses, common betting
houses and disorderly places of entertainment. The keeping of
such is a misdemeanour punishable by fine or imprisonment, and
in the case of a brothel also punishable on summary conviction by
the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885; the letting out for gain
for indiscriminate prostitution of a room or rooms in a house will
make it as much a brothel in law as if the whole house were let out
for the purpose. Where, however, a woman occupies a house or
room which is frequented by men for the purpose of committing
fornication with her, she cannot be convicted of keeping a dis-
orderly house. See also PROSTITUTION.
DISPATCH, or DESPATCH, to send off immediately, or by
express; particularly in the case of the sending of official
messages, or of the immediate sending of troops to their destina-
tion, or the like. The word is thus used as a substantive of written
official reports of events, battles and the like, sent by ambassadors,
generals, &c., by means of a special messenger, or of express
correspondence generally. From the primary meaning of the
prompt sending of a message, &c., the word is used of the quick
disposal of business, or of the disposal of a person by violence;
hence the word means to execute or murder. The etymology of
the word has been obscured by the connexion with the Fr.
depecher, and depeche, which are in meaning the equivalents of
1 The etymology of this word has been confuted by the early
adoption into English usage of the O. Fr. bordel. The two words
are in origin quite distinct. Brothel is an O. Eng. word for a person,
not a place. It meant an abandoned vagabond, one who had gone to
ruin (abreothan). Bordel, on the contrary, is a place, literally a small
hut or shelter, especially for fornication, Med. Lat. bordellum,
diminutive of the Late Lat. borda, board. The words were early
confused, and brothel-house, bordel-house, bordel or brothel, are all
used for a disorderly house, while bordel was similarly misused, and,
like brothel in its proper meaning, was applied to a disorderly person.
the Eng. verb and substantive. The Fr. word is made up of the
prefix de-, Lat. dis-, and the root which appears in empecher, to
embarrass, and means literally to disentangle. The Lat. origin
of depecher and empecher is a Low Lat. pedicare, pedica, a fetter.
The Fr. word came into Eng. as depeach, which was in use from
the i sth century until " despatch " was introduced. This word is
certainly direct from the Ital. dispacciare, or Span, despachar,
which must be derived from the Lat. root appearing in pactus,
fixed, fastened, from pangere. The New English Dictionary finds
the earliest instance of " dispatch " in a letter to Henry VIII.
from Bishop Tunstall, commissioner to Spain in 1516-1517.
DISPENSATION, a term with two main applications, (i) to the
action of administering, arranging or dealing out, and (2) to the
action of allowing certain things, rules, &c., to be done away with,
relaxed. Of these two meanings the first is to be derived from the
classical Latin use of dispensare, literally, to weigh out, hence to
distribute, especially of the orderly arrangement of a household
by a steward; thus dispensatio was, in theology, the word chosen
to translate the Greek olKovo/j.la, economy, i.e. divine or
religious systems, as in the Jewish, Mosaic, Christian dispensa-
tions. Dispensation in law is, strictly speaking, the suspension
by competent authority of general rules of law in particular cases.
Its object is to modify the hardships often arising from the
rigorous application of general laws to particular cases, and its
essence is to preserve the law by suspending its operation, i.e.
making it non-existent, in such cases. It follows, then, that dis-
pensation, in its strict sense, is anticipative, i.e. it does not absolve
from the consequences of a legal obligation already contracted,
but avoids a breach of the law by suspending the obligation to
conform to it, e.g. a dispensation or licence to marry within the
prohibited degrees, or to hold benefices in plurality. The term is,
however, frequently used of the power claimed and exercised by
the supreme legislative authority of altering or abrogating in
particular cases conditions established under the existing law
and of releasing individuals from obligations incurred under it,
e.g. dispensations granted by the pope ex plenitudine potestatis
from the obligation of celibacy, from religious and other vows,
from malrimonium ratum, non consummatum, &c.
i. Ecclesiastical Law. In the theory of the canon law the
dispensing power is the corollary of the legislative, the authority
\hat makes laws, and no other, having power to suspend them.
It follows that the law of nature (jus naturae) and a fortiori the
law of God (jus dimnum) are not subject to dispensation of any
earthly authority, and that it is only the disciplinary laws made
by the Church that the Church is empowered to suspend or to
abrogate. Thus, not even the pope could grant a dispensation for
a marriage between persons related in the direct line of ascent
or descent, e.g. father and daughter, or between brother and
sister, while dispensations are granted for marriages within
other prohibited degrees, e.g. uncle and niece.
The dispensing power, like the legislative authority, was
formerly invested in general councils and even in provincial
synods; but in the West, with the gradual centralization of
authority at Rome, it became ultimately vested in the pope as
the supreme lawgiver of the Church. Subject, however, to the
supreme jurisdiction of the pope, the power of dispensation con-
tinued to reside in the other organs of the Church in exact
proportion to their legislative capacities, i.e. in provincial synods
in respect of regional rules laid down by them, and in bishops in
respect of rules laid down by them for their dioceses. According
to Du Cange, the earliest record of the use of the word dispensatio
in this connexion is in the letter of Pope Gelasius I. of the i ith
of March 494, to the bishops of Lucania (in Jaffe, Reg. Pont. Rom.,
ed. 2, torn. i. no. 636): necessaria rerum Dispensatione con-
stringimur, ... sic canonum paternorum decreta librare, . . .
ut quae praesentium necessitas temporum restaurandis Ecclesiis
relaxanda deposcit, adhibita consideratione diligenti, quantum
fieri potest temperemus. 2 Dispensations from the observance
! In this quotation the word dispensatio still has its meaning of
" economy " : " we are bound by the necessary economy of things."
Possibly its use by the pope in this connexion may have led to the
technical meaning of the word dispensatio in the medieval canon law.
3*4
DISPENSATION
of traditional rules were, however, during the early centuries
exceedingly rare, and there are more instances of the popes
repudiating than of their exercising the power to grant them.
Thus Celestine I. (d. 432) wrote: " The rules govern us, not we
the rules: we are subject to the canons, since we are the servants
of the precepts of the canons " (Epist. 3 ad Episcopos Illyrici) ;
and Pope Zozimus wrote even more strongly: " This see
possesses no authority to make any concession or change; for
with us abides antiquity firmly rooted (inconvulsis radicibus),
reverence for which the decrees of the Fathers enjoined." As time
went on, however, and the Church expanded, this rigidly con-
servative attitude proved impossible to maintain, and the
principle of " tempering " the law when forced to do so " by
the exigencies of affairs or of the times " (rerum iiel temporum
angustia), as laid down by Gelasius, was adopted into the canon
law itself. The principle was, of course, singularly open to abuse.
In theory it was laid down from the first that dispensations were
only to be granted in cases of urgent necessity and in the highest
interests of the Church; in practice, from the nth century
onwards, the power of dispensation was used by the popes as one
of the most potent instruments for extending their influence.
Dispensations to hold benefices in plurality formed, with pro-
visions and the papal claim to the right of direct appointment, a
powerful means for extending the patronage of the Holy See and
therefore its hold over the clergy, and from the i3th century
onwards this abuse assumed vast proportions (Hinschius iii. p.
250). Even more scandalous was the almost unrestrained traffic
in licences and dispensations at Rome, which grew up, at least
as early as the I4th century, owing to the fees charged for such
dispensations having come to be regarded by the Curia as a
regular source of revenue (Woker, Das kirchliche Finanzwesen der
Pdpste, Nordlingen, 1878, pp. 75, 160). Loud complaints of these
abuses were raised in the reforming councils of Constance and
Basel in the i5th century, but nothing was done effectually to
check them.
The actual practice'of the Roman Catholic Church is based upon
the decisions of the council of Trent, which left the medieval
theory intact while endeavouring to guard against its abuses.
The proposal put forward by the Gallican and Spanish bishops to
subordinate the papal power of dispensation to the consent of the
Church in general council was rejected, and even the canons of
the council of Trent itself, in so far as they affected reformation
of morals or ecclesiastical discipline, were decreed " saving the
authority of the Holy See " (Sess. xxv. cap. 21, de ref.). At the
same time it was laid down in respect of all dispensations, whether
papal or other, that they were to be granted only for just and
urgent causes, or in view of some decided benefit to the Church
(urgens justaque causa et major quandoque utilitas), and in all
cases gratis. The payment of money for a dispensation was ipso
facto to make the dispensation void (Sess. xxv. cap. 18, de re/.).
Though verbal dispensations are valid, papal dispensations are
given in writing. Before the constitution Sapienti of Pius X.
(1908) all dispensations inforo externo, especially in matrimonial
causes, were dealt with by the Dataria Apostolica, those in foro
interno by the Penitentiary, which latter also possessed in foro
externo the right to grant dispensations in matrimonial causes
to poor people. Since 1908 the Dataria only deals with dispensa-
tions in matters concerning benefices, dispensations in matri-
monial matters having been transferred to the new Congregation
on the discipline of the sacraments (see CURIA ROMANA).
The regular form of dispensation is the forma commissaria
(Trid. Sess. xxii. cap. 5, de ref.), i.e. a mandate to the bishop to
grant the dispensation, after due inquiry, in the pope's name. In
exceptional cases, e.g. sovereigns or bishops, the dispensation is
sent direct to the petitioner (forma gratiosa). Dispensations are
nominally gratuitous; but the officials are entitled to fees for
drawing them up, and there are customary " compositions "
(compositiones) which are destined for charitable objects in Rome.
These fees were and are regulated according to the capacity of
the petitioners to pay, the result being that the abuses which the
council of Trent had sought to abolish continued to flourish. In
the 1 7th century a specially privileged class of bankers (banquiers
expedilionnaires) existed at Rome whose sole business was
obtaining dispensations on commission, and one of these, named
Pelletier, published at Paris in 1677, under the royal imprimatur,
a regular tariff of the sums for which in any given case a dis-
pensation might be obtained. That the " urgent and just cause "
was, in the circumstances, a very minor consideration was to be
expected, and the enlightened pope Benedict XIV., himself a
canon lawyer of eminence, complained " Dispensationem non
raro concedi in Dataria, sine causa, nempe ob eleemosynam quae
praestatur " (Inst. 87, No. 26). It may be added that the worst
abuses of this system have long since disappeared. The bishops
have their own correspondents at Rome, and one of the duties of
the diplomatic representatives of foreign states at the Curia is
to see that their nationals receive their dispensations without
overcharge.
Bishops are by right (jure ordinario) competent to dispense in
all cases expressly reserved to them by the canon law, e.g. in the
matter of publication of banns of marriage. They possess besides
special powers delegated to them by the pope and renewed every
five years (facilitates quinquennales) , or by virtue of faculties
granted to them personally (facultates extraordinariae) , e.g. to
dispense from rules of abstinence, from simple vows, and with
some exceptions from the prohibition of marriage within pro-
hibited degrees.
Church of England. By 2 5 Henry VIII. cap. 21. sec. 2 (1534), it
was enacted that neither the king, his successors, nor any of his
subjects should henceforth sue for licences, dispensations, &c.,
to the see of Rome, and that the power to issue such licences,
dispensations, &c., " for causes not being contrary or repugnant
to the Holy Scriptures and laws of God," should be vested in the
archbishop of Canterbury for the time being, who at his own
discretion was to issue such dispensations, &c., under his seal,
to the king and his subjects. The power of dispensation thus
vested in the archbishops partly fell obsolete, partly has been
curtailed by subsequent statutes, e.g. the Pluralities Act of 1838.
It is now confined to granting dispensations for holding two
benefices at .once, to issuing licences for non-residence, and in
matrimonial cases to the issuing of special licences. The dispens-
ing power of bishops in the Church of England survives only in
the right to grant marriage licences, i.e. dispensations from the
obligation to publish the banns. Though, however, these licences
and dispensations are given under the archiepiscopal and episcopal
seals, they are actually issued by the commissaries of faculties and
vicars-general (chancellors) , independently, in virtue of the powers
conferred on them by their patents. This has led, since the pass-
ing of the Divorce Acts and the Marriage with a Deceased Wife's
Sister Act, to a curiously anomalous position, licences for the
remarriage of divorced persons having been issued under the
bishop's seal, while the bishop himself publicly protested that
such marriages were contrary to " the law of God," but that he
himself had no power to prevent his chancellor licensing them.
See Hinschius, Kirchenrecht (Berlin, 1883), iii. 250, &c. ; article
" Dispensation" by Hinschius in Herzog-Hauck, Rsalencyklopddie
(Leipzig, 1898); article "Dispensation" in Wetzer and Welte's
Kirchenlexikon (2nd ed. Freiburg im Breisgau, 1882-1901);
F. Lichtenberger, Encyclopedic des sciences religieuses (Paris, 1878),
s.v. " Dispense " ; Phillimore, Reel. Law.
2. Constitutional Law. The power of dispensation from the
operation of the ordinary law in particular cases is, of course,
everywhere inherent in the supreme legislative authority, how-
ever rarely it may be exercised. Divorce (in Ireland) by act of
parliament may be taken as an example which still actually
occurs. On the other hand, the dispensing power once vested in
the crown in England is now merely of historical interest, though
of great importance in the constitutional struggles of the past.
This power possessed by the crown of dispensing with the statute
law is said to have been copied from the dispensations or non
obstanle clauses granted by the popes in matters of canon law;'
the parallel between them is certainly very striking, and there can
be no doubt that the principles of the canon law influenced the
decisions of the courts in the matter. It was, for instance, very
generally laid down that the king could by dispensation make it
lawful to do what was malum prohibitum but not to do what was
DISPERSION
malum in se, a principle of the canon law, but one difficult to
reconcile with English legal principles, since no act is legally
malum unless forbidden by law. This was pointed out by Chief
Justice Vaughan in the celebrated judgment in the case of Thomas
v. Sorrell, when he rejected the distinction between mala in se and
mala prohibita as confusing, and attempted to define the dispens-
ing power of the crown by limiting it to cases of individual
breaches of penal statutes where no third party loses a right of
action, and where the breach is not continuous, at the same time
denying the power of the crown to dispense with any general
penallaw. This judgment, asSir William Anson points out, only
showed the extreme difficulty of limiting the power ascribed to the
crown, a standing grievance from the time that parliament had
risen to be a constituent part of the state. So long as the legal
principle by which the law was " the king's law " survived there
was in fact no theoretical basis for such limitation, and the matter
resolved itself into one of the great constitutional questions
between crown and parliament which issued in the Revolution of
1688. The supreme crisis came owing to the use made by James
II. of the dispensing power. His action in dispensing with the
Test Act, in order to enable Roman Catholics to hold office under
the crown, was supported by the courts in the test case of Godden
v. Hales, but it made the Revolution inevitable. By the Bill of
Rights the exercise of the dispensing power was forbidden, except
as might be permitted by statute. At the same time the legality
of its exercise in the past was admitted by the clause maintaining
the validity of dispensations granted in a certain form before
the 23rd of October 1689.
See Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, part i. " Parlia-
ment," jrd ed. pp. 311-319; F. W. Maitland, Const. Hist, of England
(Cambridge, 1908), pp. 302, &c. ; Stubbs, Const. Hist. ss. 290,
291. (W. A. P.)
DISPERSION (from Lat. dispergere, to scatter), the act or
process of separation and distribution. Apart from the technical
use of the term, especially in optics (see below), the expression
particularly applied to the settlements of Jews in foreign
countries outside Palestine. These were either voluntary, for
purposes of trade and commerce, or the results of conquest, such
as the captivities of Assyria and Babylonia. The word diaspora
(Gr. 5ia.o"iropa) is also used of these scattered communities, but
is usually confined to the dispersion among the Hellenic and
Roman peoples, or to the body of Christian Jews outside Palestine
(see JEWS).
DISPERSION, in OPTICS. When a beam of light which is not
homogeneous in character, i.e. which does not consist of simple
vibrations of a definite wave-length, undergoes refraction at the
surface of any transparent medium, the different colours corre-
sponding to the different wave-lengths become separated or
dispersed. Thus, if a ray of white light AO (fig. i ) enters obliquely
into the surface of a block of glass
at O, it gives rise to the divergent
system of rays ORV, varying con-
tinuously in colour from red to
violet, the red ray OR being least
refracted and the violet ray OV
most so. The order of the successive
colours in all colourless transparent
media is red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, indigo and violet. Dispersion
is therefore due to the fact that
rays of different colours possess dif-
ferent refrangibilities.
Air
Glass
FIG. i.
The simplest way of showing dispersion is to refract a narrow
beam of sunlight through a prism of glass or prismatic vessel
containing water or other clear liquid. As the light is twice
refracted, the dispersion is increased, and the rays, after trans-
mission through the prism, form a divergent system, which may
be allowed to fall on a sheet of white paper, forming the well-
known solar spectrum. This method was employed by Sir Isaac
Newton, whose experiments constitute the earliest systematic
investigation of the phenomenon. Let O (fig. 2) represent a
small hole in the shutter of a darkened room, and OS a narrow
FIG. 2.
beam of sunlight which is allowed to fall on a white screen so
as to form an image of the sun at S. If now the prism P
be interposed as in the
figure, the whole beam
is not only refracted up-
ward, but also spread out
into the spectrum RV,
the horizontal breadth of
the band of colours being
the same as that of the
original image S. In an
experiment similar to
that here represented,
Newton made a small hole in the screen and another small hole in
a second screen placed behind the first. By slightly turning the
prism P, the position of the spectrum on the first screen could
be shifted sufficiently to cause light of any desired colour to pass
through. Some of this light also passed through the second hole,
and thus he obtained a narrow beam of practically homogeneous
light in a fixed direction (the line joining the apertures in the two
screens) . Operating on this beam with a second prism, he found
that the homogeneous light was not dispersed, and also that it
was more refracted the nearer the point from which it was taken
approached to the violet end of the spectrum R V. This confirmed
his previous conclusion that the rays increase in refrangibility
from red to violet.
Newton also made use of the method of crossed prisms, which
has been found of great use in studying dispersion. The prism P
(fig. 3) refracts upwards, while the prism Q, which has its refract-
ing edge perpendicular to
that of P, refracts towards
the right. The combined
effect of the two is to pro-
duce a spectrum sloping
up from left to right. The
spectrum will be straight
if the twoprismsaresimilar
in dispersive property, but
if one of them is con- FlG - 3- Method of Crossed Prisms,
structed of a material which possesses any peculiarity in this
respect it will be revealed by the curvature of the spectrum.
The coloured borders seen in the images produced by simple
lenses are due to dispersion. The explanation of the colours of
the rainbow, which are also due to dispersion, was given by
Newton, although it was known previously to be due to refraction
in the drops of rain (see RAINBOW).
According to the wave-theory of light, refraction (q.v.) is due
to a change of velocity when light passes from one medium to
another. The phenomenon of dispersion shows that in dispersive
media the velocity is different for lights of different wave-lengths.
In free space, lightof all wave-lengths is propagated with the same
velocity, as is shown by the fact that stars, when occulted by the
moon or planets, preserve their white colour up to the last
moment of disappearance, which would not be the case if one
colour reached the eye later than another. The absence of colour
changes in variable stars or in the appearance of new stars is
further evidence of the same fact. All material media, however,
are more or less dispersive. In air and other gases, at ordinary
pressures, the dispersion is very small, because the refractivity
is small. The dispersive powers of gases are, however, generally
comparable with those of liquids and solids.
pispersive Power. In order to find the amount of dispersion caused
by any given prism, the deviations produced by it on two rays of any
definite pure colours may be measured. The angle of difference
between these deviations is called the dispersion for those rays.
For this purpose the C and F lines in the spark-spectrum of hydrogen,
situated in the red and blue respectively, are usually employed. . If
6r and 8c are the angular deviations of these rays, then ST &C is
called the mean dispersion of the prism. If the refracting angle of the
prism is small, then the ratio of the dispersion to the mean deviation
of the two rays is the dispersive power of the material of the prism.
Instead of the mean deviation, J (Sp+Sc), it is more usual to take
the deviation of some intermediate ray. The exact position of the
selected ray does not matter much, but the yellow D line of sodium
316
DISPERSION
is the most convenient. If we denote its deviation by S D , then we
may put
Dispersive power = (SF-SC) /So (!)
This quantity may readily be expressed in terms of the refractive
indices for the three colours, for if A is the angle of the prism (sup-
posed small)
where nc, I'D, MF are the respective indices of refraction. This gives
at once
Dispersive power = (/F-MC)/(M>-I) (2).
The second of these two expressions is generally given as the
definition of dispersive power. It is more useful than (i), as the
refractive indices may be measured with a prism of any convenient
angle.
By studying the dispersion of colours in water, turpentine and
crown glass Newton was led to suppose that dispersion is pro-
portional to refraction. He concluded that there could be no
refraction without dispersion, and hence that achromatism was
impossible of attainment (see ABERRATION). This conclusion was
proved to be erroneous when Chester M. Hall in 1733 constructed
achromatic lenses. Glasses can now be made differing considerably
both in refractivity and dispersive power.
Irrationality of Dispersion. If we compare the spectrum produced
by refraction in a glass prism with that of a diffraction grating, we
find not only that the order of colours is reversed, but also that the
same colours do not occupy corresponding lengths on the two spectra,
the blue and violet being much more extended in the refraction
spectrum. The refraction spectra for different media also differ
amongst themselves. This shows that the connexion between the
refrangibility of light and its wave-length does not obey any simple
law, but depends on the nature of the refracting medium. This
property is referred to as the " irrationality of dispersion." In a
diffraction spectrum the diffraction is proportional to the wave-
length, and the spectrum is said to be normal." If the increase
of the angle of refraction were proportional to the diminution of
wave-length for a prism of any material, the resulting spectrum
would also be normal. This, however, is not the case with ordinary
refracting media, the refrangibility generally increasing more and
more rapidly as the wave-length diminishes.
The irrationality of dispersion is well illustrated by C.Christiansen's
experiments on the dispersive properties of white powders. If the
powder of a transparent substance is immersed in a liquid of the same
refractive index, the mixture becomes transparent and a measure-
ment of the refractive index of the liquid gives the refractivity of
the powder. Christiansen found, in an investigation of this kind,
that the refractivity of the liquid could only be got to match that
of the powder for mono-chromatic light, and that, if white light
were used, brilliant colour effects were obtained, which varied in a
remarkable manner when small changes occurred in the refractive
index of the liquid. These effects are due to the difference in dis-
persive power of the powder and the liquid. If the refractive index
is, for instance, the same for both in the case of green light, and a
source of white light is viewed through the mixture, the green com-
, ponent will be completely transmitted, while the other colours are
more or less scattered by multiple reflections and refractions at the
surfaces of the powdered substance. Very striking colour changes
are observed, according to R. W. Wood, when white light is trans-
mitted through a paste made of powdered quartz and a mixture of
carbon bisulphide with benzol haying the same refractive index as
the quartz for yellow light. In this case small temperature changes
alter the refractivity of the liquid without appreciably affecting the
quartz. R. W. Wood has studied the iridescent colours seen when a
precipitate of potassium silicofluoride is produced by adding silico-
fluoric acid to a solution of potassium chloride, and found that they
are due to the same cause, the refractive index of the minute crystals
precipitated being about the same as that of the solution, which
fatter can be varied by dilution.
Anomalous Dispersion. In some media the usual order of the
colours is changed. This curious phenomenon was noticed by
W. H. Fox Talbot about 1840, but does not seem to have become
generally known. In 1860 F. P. Leroux discovered that iodine
vapour refracted the red rays more than the violet, the intermediate
colours not being transmitted; and in 1870 Christiansen found that
an alcoholic solution of fuchsine refracted the violet less than the red,
the order of the successive colours being violet, red, orange, yellow;
the green being absorbed and a dark interval occurring between
the violet and red. A. Kundt found that similar effects occur with
a large number of substances, in particular with all those which
possess the property of " surface colour," i.e., which strongly reflect
light of a definite colour, as do many of the aniline dyes. Such
bodies show strong absorption bands in those colours which they
reflect, while of the transmitted light that which is of a slightly
greater wave-length than the absorbed light has an abnormally
great refrangibility, and that of a slightly shorter wave-length an
abnormally small refrangibility. The name given to this pheno-
menon, " anomalous dispersion " is an unfortunate one, as it has
been found to obey a regular law.
In studying the dispersion of the aniline dyes, a prism with a very
small refracting angle is made of two glass plates slightly inclined
to each other and enclosing a very thin wedge of the dye, which
is either melted between the plates, or is in the form of a solution
retained in position by surface-tension. Only very thin layers are
sufficiently transparent to show the dispersion near or within an
absorption band, and a large refracting angle is not required, the
dispersion usually being very considerable. Another method,
which has been used by R. W. Wood and C. E. Magnusson, is to
introduce a thin film of the dye into one of the optical paths of a
Michelson interferometer, and to determine the consequent displace-
ment of the fringes. E. Mach and J. Arbes have used a method
depending on total reflection (Drude's Theory of Optics, p. 394).
A very remarkable example of anomalous dispersion, which was
first observed by A. Kundt, is that exhibited by the vapour of sodium.
It has not been found practicable to make a prism of this vapour
in the ordinary way by enclosing it in a glass vessel of the required
shape, as sodium vapour attacks glass, quickly rendering it opaque.
A. E. Becquerel, however, investigated the character of the dis-
persion by using prism-shaped flames strongly coloured with sodium.
But the best way of exhibiting the effect is by making use of a
remarkable property of sodium vapour discovered by R. W. Wood
and employed for this purpose in a very ingenious manner. He found
that when sodium is heated in a hard glass tube, the vapour which
is formed is extraordinarily cohesive, only slowly spreading out in
a cloud with well-defined borders, which can be rendered visible by
placing the tube in front of a sodium flame, against which the cloud
appears black. If a long glass tube with plane ends, and containing
some pellets of sodium is heated in the middle by a row of burners,
the cool ends remain practically vacuous and do not become obscured.
The sodium vapour in the middle is very dense on the heated side,
the density diminishing rapidly towards the upper part of the tube,
so that, although not prismatic in form, it refracts like a prism owing
to the variation in density. Thus if a horizontal slit is illuminated
by an arc lamp, and the light rendered parallel by a collimating
lens is transmitted through the sodium tube and focused on the
vertical slit of a spectroscope, the effect of the sodium vapour is to
produce its refraction spec-
trum vertically on the slit.
The image of this seen
through the glass prism of
the spectroscope will appear
as in fig. 4. The whole of the
FIG.
Violet
4-Anomalous Dispersion of
bourhood of the D lines is Sodlum Va P ur -
practically undeviated, so that it illuminates only a very short piece
of the slit and is spread out into the ordinary spectrum. But the
light of slightly greater wave-length than the D lines, being refracted
strongly downward by the sodium vapour, illuminates the bottom of
the slit; while that of slightly shorter wave-length is refracted
upward and illuminates the top of the slit. Fig. 4 represents the in-
verted image seen fn the
telescope. The light corre-
sponding to the D lines
and the space between
them is absorbed, as evi-
denced by the dark inter- '
val. If the sodium is only
gently heated, so as to
produce a comparatively
rarefied vapour, and a grat-
ing spectroscope employed,
the spectrum obtained is like that shown in fig. 5, which was
the effect noticed by Becquerel with the sodium flame. Here the
light corresponding to the space between the D lines is transmitted,
being strongly refracted upward near Di, and downward near D 2 .
The theory of anomalous dispersion has been applied in a very
interesting way by W. H. Julius to explain the " flash spectrum "
seen during a solar eclipse at the moment at which totality occurs.
The conditions of this phenomenon have been imitated in the
laboratory by Wood, and the corresponding effect obtained.
Theories of Dispersion. The first attempt at a mathematical
theory of dispersion was made by A. Cauchy and published in 1835.
This was based on the assumption that the medium in which the
light is propagated is discontinuous and molecular in character, the
molecules being subject to a mutual attraction. Thus, if one mole-
cule is disturbed from its mean position, it communicates the
disturbance to its neighbours, and so a wave is propagated.
The formula arrived at by Cauchy was
n being the refractive index, X the wave-length, and A, B, C, &c.,
constants depending on the material, which diminish so rapidly that
only the first three as here written need be taken into account. If
suitable values are chosen for these constants, the formula can be
made to represent the dispersion of ordinary transparent media
within the visible spectrum very well, but when extended to the
infra-red region it often departs considerably from the truth, and
it fails altogether in cases of anomalous dispersion. There are also
grave theoretical objections to Cauchy's formula.
D'ISRAELI
The modern theory of dispersion, the foundation of which was laid
by W. Sellmeier, is based upon the assumption that an interaction
takes place between ether and matter. Sellmeier adopted the
elastic-solid theory of the ether, and imagined the molecules to be
attached to the ether surrounding them, but free to vibrate about
their mean positions within a limited range. Thus the ether within
the dispersive medium is loaded with molecules which are forced to
perform oscillations of the same period as that of the transmitted
wave. It can be shown mathematically that the velocity of propa-
gation will be greatly increased if the frequency of the light-wave is
slightly greater, and greatly diminished if it is slightly less than the
natural frequency of the molecules ; also that these effects become
less and less marked as the difference in the two frequencies increases.
This is exactly in accordance with the observed facts in the case
of substances showing anomalous dispersion. Sellmeier's theory did
not take account of absorption, and cannot be applied to calculate
the dispersion within a broad absorption band. H. von Helmholtz,
working on a similar hypothesis, but with a frictional term intro-
duced into his equations, obtained formulae which are applicable to
cases of absorption. A modified form of Helmholtz's equation, due
to E. Ketteler and known as the Ketteler-Helmholtz formula, has
been much used in calculating dispersion, and expresses the facts
with remarkable accuracy. P. Drude has obtained a similar formula
based on the electromagnetic theory, thus placing the theory of
dispersion on a much more satisfactory basis. The fundamental
assumption is that the medium contains positively and negatively
charged ions or electrons which are acted on by the periodic electric
forces which occur in wave propagation on Maxwell's theory. The
equations finally arrived at are
-, |
DgX*
where X is the wave-length in free ether of light whose refractive
index is n, and X m the wave-length of light of the same period as the
electron, K is a coefficient of absorption, and D and g are constants.
The sign of summation 2 is used in cases where there are several
absorption bands, and consequently several similar terms on the
right-hand side, each with a different value of X ra . This would occur
if there were several kinds of ions, each with its own natural period.
In a region where there is no absorption, we have /t = o and
therefore g = o, and we have only one equation, namely,
which is identical with Sellmeier's result. As X^ is a wave-length
corresponding to an absorption band, this formula can be used to
find values of X m which satisfy the observed values of n within the
region of transparency, and so to determine where the absorption
bands are situated. In this way the existence of bands in the infra-
red part of the spectrum has been predicted in the case of quartz
and detected by experiments on the selective reflection of the material.
References. For the theory of dispersion see P. Drude, Theory of
Optics (Eng. trans.) ; R. W. Wood, Physical Optics; and A. Schuster,
Theory of Optics. For descriptive accounts, see Wood's Physical
Optics, T. Preston's Theory of Light, E. Edser's Light. The last work
contains an elementary treatment of Sellmeier's theory. (J. R. C.)
D'ISRAELI (or DISRAELI), ISAAC (1766-1848), English man of
letters, father of the earl of Beaconsfield (q.v.) , was born at Enfield
in May 1 766. He belonged to a Jewish family which, having been
driven by the Inquisition from Spain, towards the end of the 1 5th
century, settled as merchants at Venice, and assumed the name
which has become famous; it was generally spelt D 'Israeli until
the middle of the igth century. In 1748 his father, Benjamin
D'IsraeJi, then only about eighteen years of age, removed to
England, where, before passing the prime of life, he amassed
a competent fortune, and retired from business. He belonged
to the London congregation of Spanish and Portuguese Jews,
of which his son also remained a nominal member until after
Benjamin D'Israeli died at the end of 1816.
The strongly marked characteristics which determined Isaac
D'Israeli's career were displayed to a singular degree even in
his boyhood. He spent his time over books and in long day-
dreams, and evinced the strongest distaste for business and all
the more bustling pursuits of life. These idiosyncrasies met with
no sympathy from either of his parents, whose ambitious plans
for his future career they threatened to disappoint. When he was
about fourteen, in the hope of changing the bent of his mind, his
father sent him to live with his agent at Amsterdam, where he
worked under a tutor for four or five years. Here he studied
Bayle and Voltaire, and became an ardent disciple of Rousseau.
Here also he wrote a long poem against commerce, which he
produced as an exposition of his opinions when, on his return to
England, his father announced his intention of placing him in a
commercial house at Bordeaux. Against such a destiny D'Israeli's
mind strongly revolted; and he carried his poem, with a letter
earnestly appealing for advice and assistance, to Samuel Johnson;
but when he called again a week after to receive an answer, the
packet was returned unopened the great Doctor was on his
death-bed. He also addressed a letter to Dr Vicesimus Knox,
master of Tonbridge Grammar School, begging to be received in to
his family, that he might enjoy the benefit of his learning and
experience. How this application was answered we do not know.
The evident firmness of his resolve, however, was not without
effect. His parents gave up their purpose for a time. He was
sent to travel in France, and allowed to occupy himself as he
wished; and he had the happiness of spending some months in
Paris, in the society of literary men, and devoted to the literary
pursuits in which he delighted.
In the beginning of 1 788 he returned home, and in the next year
he attacked Peter Pindar (John Wolcot) in The Gentleman's
Magazine in a poem in the manner of Pope, " On the Abuse of
Satire." The authorship of the poem was much debated, and it
was attributed by some to William Hayley, upon whom it was
actually avenged, with characteristic savageness, by its victim.
It is greatly to Wolcot's credit that, on learning his mistake,
he sought the acquaintance of his young opponent, whose friend
he remained to the end of his life. Through the success of this
satire D'Israeli made the acquaintance of Henry James Pye, who
helped to persuade his father that it would be a mistake to force
him into a business career, and introduced him into literary circles.
D'Israeli dedicated his first book, A Defence of Poetry, to Pye in
1 790. Henceforth his life was passed in the way he best liked in
quiet and almost uninterrupted study. In 1802 he married Maria
Basevi, by whom he had five children, of whom Benjamin (after-
wards Lord Beaconsfield and Prime Minister of England) was the
second. He was able to maintain his strenuous habits of study
till he reached the advanced age of seventy-two, when he was
forced, by paralysis of the optic nerve, to give up work almost
entirely. He lived ten years longer, and died at his seat at Braden-
ham House, Buckinghamshire, on the igth of January 1848.
Isaac D'Israeli is most celebrated as the author of the
Curiosities of Literature (1791, subsequent volumes in 1793, 1817,
1823 and 1834). It is a miscellany of literary and historical
anecdotes, of original critical remarks, and of interesting and
curious information of all kinds, animated by genuine literary
feeling, taste and enthusiasm. With the Curiosities of Literature
may be classed D'Israeli's Miscellanies, or Literary Recreations
(1796), the Calamities of Authors (1812-1813), and theQuarrels of
A uthors (1814). Towards the close of his life D 'Israeli projected a
continuous history of English literature, three volumes of which
appeared in 1841 under the title of the Amenities of Literature.
But of all his works the most delightful is his Essay on the Literary
Character (1795), which, like most of his writings, abounds in
illustrative anecdotes. In the famous " Pope controversy " he
supported Byron and Campbell against Bowles and Hazlitt by
a defence of Pope in the form of a criticism of Joseph Spence's
Anecdotes contributed to the Quarterly Review (July 1820). In
1797 D'Israeli published three novels; one of these, Mejnoun and
Leila, the Arabian Petrarch and Laura, was said to be the first
oriental romance in English. His last novel , Despotism, or the Fall
of the Jesuits, appeared in 1811, but none of his romances was
popular. He also published a slight sketch of Jewish history,
and especially of the growth of the Talmud, entitled the Genius
of Judaism (1833).
He was the author of two historical works a brief defence of
the literary merit and personal and political character of James I.
(1816), and a learned Commentary on the Life and Reign of King
Charles I. (1828-1831). This was recognized by the University
of Oxford, which conferred upon the author the honorary degree
of D.C.L. As an historian D'Israeli is distinguished by two
characteristics. In the first place, he had small interest in politics,
and no sympathy with the passionate fervour, or adequate
appreciation of the importance, of political struggles. And,
secondly, with a laborious zeal then less common than now among
DISS DISTILLATION
historians, he sought to bring to light fresh historical material by
patient search for letters, diaries and other manuscripts of value
which had escaped the notice of previous students. Indeed, the
honour has been claimed for him of being one of the founders of
the modern school of historical research.
Of the amiable personal character and the placid life of Isaac
D'Israeli a charming picture is to be found in the brief memoir
prefixed to the 1849 edition of Curiosities of Literature, by his son
Lord Beaconsfield.
DISS, a market town in the southern parliamentary division of
Norfolk, England; near the river Waveney (the boundary with
Suffolk), 95 m. N.E. by N. from London by the Great Eastern
railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3745. The town lies
pleasantly upon a hill rising above a mere, which drains to the
Waveney, having its banks laid out as public gardens. The church
of St Mary exhibits Decorated and Perpendicular stone and flint
work. There is a corn exchange and the agricultural trade is con-
siderable; brushes and matting are manufactured. The poet
and satirist, John Skelton (d. 1529), was rector here in the later
part of his life, and is doubtfully considered a native.
DISSECTION (from Lat. dissecare, to cut apart), the separation
into parts by cutting, particularly the cutting of an animal or plant
into parts for the purpose of examination or display of its structure.
DISSENTER (Lat. dis-sentire, to disagree), one who dissents
or disagrees in matters of opinion, belief, &c. The term " dis-
senter " is, however, practically restricted to the special sense
of a member of a religious body in England which has, for one
reason or another, separated from the Established Church.
Strictly, the term includes the English Roman Catholics, who in
the original draft of the Relief Act of 1791 were styled " Protest-
ing Catholic Dissenters." It is in practice, however, restricted
to the " Protestant Dissenters " referred to in sec. ii. of the
Toleration Act of 1688. The term is not applied to those bodies
who dissent from the Established Church of Scotland ; and in
speaking of members of religious bodies which have seceded
from established churches abroad it is usual to employ the term
" dissidents " (Lat. dissidere, to dissent). In this connotation
the terms " dissenter " and " dissenting," which had acquired
a somewhat contemptuous flavour, have tended since the middle
of the igth century to be replaced by " nonconformist," a term
which did not originally imply secession, but only refusal to
conform in certain particulars (e.g. the wearing of the surplice)
with the authorized usages of the Established Church. Still
more recently the term " nonconformist " has in its turn, as the
political attack on the principle of a state establishment of
religion developed, tended to give place to the style of " Free
Churches " and " Free Churchman." All three terms are now
in use, "nonconformist" being the most usual, as it is the most
colourless. (See CONGREGATIONALISM, &c.)
DISSOCIATION, a separation or dispersal, the opposite of
association. In chemistry the term is given to chemical
reactions in which a substance decomposes into two or more
substances, and particularly to cases in which associated mole-
cules break down into simpler molecules. Thus the reactions
NH4Cl^NH 3 -|-HCl,andPCl5^PCl3+Cl 2 are instances of the
first type; N 2 4 ^2NO 2 , of the second (see CHEMICAL ACTION).
Electrolytic or ionic dissociation is the separation of a substance
in solution into ions (see ELECTROLYSIS; SOLUTION).
DISSOLUTION (from Lat. dissolve, to break up into parts),
the act of dissolving or reducing to constituent parts, especially
of the bringing to an end an association such as a partnership
. or building society, and particularly of the termination of an
assembly. A dissolution of parliament in England is thus the end
of its existence, brought about by the efflux of time in accordance
with the Septennial Act 1716, or by an exercise of the royal
prerogative. This is done either in person, or by commission, if
parliament is sitting; if prorogued, then by proclamation. The
word is used as a synonym for end or death.
DISTAFF, in the early forms of spinning, the " rock " or short
stick round one end of which the flax, cotton or wool is loosely
wound, and from which it is spun off by the spindle. The word is
derived from the Old English dislaef, the first part of which is
connected with dizen, in modern English seen in " bedizen," to
deck out or embellish, originally " to equip the distaff with flax,
&c.," cf. the German dialectal word Diesse, flax. The last part
of the word is " staff." '' Distaff " from early times has been
used to symbolize woman's work (cf. the use of " spinster " for
an unmarried woman) ; thus the " distaff " or " spindle " side of
a family refers to the female branch, as opposed to the " spear "
or male branch. The 7th of January, the day after Epiphany,
was formerly known as St Distaff's day, as women then began
work again after the Christmas holiday.
DISTILLATION (from the Lat. distillare, more correctly
destillare, to drop or trickle down), an operation consisting in the
conversion of a substance or mixture of substances into vapours
which are afterwards condensed to the liquid form ; it has for its
object the separation or purification of substances by taking
advantage of differences in volatility. The apparatus consists of
three parts: the " retort " or " still," in which the substance is
heated; the " condenser," in which the vapours are condensed;
and the " receiver," in which the condensed vapours are collected.
Generally the components of a mixture will be vaporized in the
order of their boiling-points; consequently if the condensates or
" fractions " corresponding to definite ranges of temperature
be separately collected, it is obvious that a more or less partial
separation of the components will be effected. If the substance
operated upon be practically pure to start with, or the product
of distillation be nearly of constant composition, the operation is
termed "purification by distillation " or "rectification" ; the latter
term is particularly used in the spirit industry. If a complex
mixture be operated upon, and a separation effected by collect-
ing the distillates in several portions, the operation is termed
" fractional distillation." Since many substances decompose
eitherat,or below, their boiling-points underordinary atmospheric
pressure, it is necessary to lower the boiling-point by reducing
the pressure if it be desired to distil them. This variation is
termed " distillation under reduced pressure or in a vacuum."
The vaporization of a substance below its normal boiling-point
can also be effected by blowing in steam or some other vapour;
this operation is termed "distillation with steam." "Dry distilla-
tion" is the term used when solid substances which do not liquefy
on heating are operated upon; " sublimation " is the term used
when a solid distils without the intervention of a liquid phase.
Distillation appears to have been practised at very remote
times. The Alexandrians prepared oil of turpentine by distilling
pine-resin; Zosimus of Panopolis, a voluminous writer of the 5th
century A.D., speaks of the distillation of a " divine water " or
" panacea " (probably from the complex mixture of calcium
polysulphides, thiosulphate, &c., and free sulphur, which is
obtained by boiling sulphur with lime and water) and advises
" the efficient luting of the apparatus, for otherwise the valuable
properties would be lost." The Arabians greatly improved the
earlier apparatus, naming one form the alembic (q.v.); they
discovered many ethereal oils by distilling plants and plant juices,
alcohol by the distillation of wine, and also distilled water. The
alchemists gave great attention to the method, as is shown by
the many discoveries made. Nitric, hydrochloric and sulphuric
acids, all more or less impure, were better studied; and many
ethereal oils were discovered. Prior to about the i8th century
three forms of distillation were practised: (i) destillatio per
ascensum, in which the retort was heated from the bottom, and
the vapours escaped from the top; (2) destillalio per latus, in
which the vapours escaped from the side; (3) destillatio per
descensum, in which the retort was heated at the top, and the
vapours led off by a pipe passing through the bottom. According
to K. B. Hoffmann the earliest mention of destillatio per descensum
occurs in the writings of Aetius, a Greek physician who flourished
at about the end of the 5th century.
In modern times the laboratory practice of distillation was
greatly facilitated by the introduction of the condenser named
after Justus von Liebig; A. Kolbe and E. Frankland introduced
the " reflux condenser," i.e. a condenser so placed that the
condensed vapours return to the distilling flask, a device per-
mitting the continued boiling of a substance with little loss; W.
DISTILLATION
Dittraar and R. Anschiitz, independently of one another, intro-
duced " distillation under reduced pressure "; and " fractional
distillation " was greatly aided by the columns of Wurtz (1855),
E. Linnemann (1871), and of J. A. Le Bel and A. Henninger
(1874). In chemical technology enormous strides have been
made, as is apparent from the coal-gas, coal-tar, mineral oil,
spirits and mineral acids industries.
The subject is here treated under the following subdivisions:
(i) ordinary distillation, (2) distillation under reduced pressure,
(3) fractional* distillation, (4) distillation with steam, (5) theory
of distillation, (6) dry distillation, (7) distillation in chemical
technology and (8) commercial distillation of water.
i. Ordinary Distillation. The apparatus generally used is shown
in fig. i. The substance is heated in a retort a, which consists of a
large bulb drawn out at the top to form a long neck; it may also
FIG. i.
be provided with a tubulure, or opening, which permits the charging
of the retort, and also the insertion of a thermometer b. The retort
may be replaced by a distilling flask, which is a round-bottomed
flask (generally with a lengthened neck) provided with an inclined
side tube. The neck of the retort, or side tube of the flask, is con-
nected to the condenser c by an ordinary or rubber cork, according
to the nature of the substance distilled; ordinary corks soaked in
paraffin wax are very effective when ordinary or rubber corks cannot
be used. Sometimes an " adapter " is used ; this is simply a tapering
tube, the side tube being corked into the wider end, and the condenser
on to the narrower end. The thermometer is placed so that the bulb
is near the neck of the retort or the side tube of the distilling flask.
It generally happens that much of the mercury column is outside the
flask and consequently at a lower temperature than the bulb, hence
a correction of the observed temperature is necessary. If N be the
length of the unheated mercury column in degrees, t the temperature
of this column (generally determined by a small thermometer placed
with its bulb at the middle of the column), and T the temperature
recorded by the thermometer, then the corrected temperature of the
vapour is T+O-OOOI43 (T-/) N (T. E. Thorpe, Journ. Chem. Soc.,
1880, p. 159).
The mode of heating varies with the substance to be distilled.
For highly volatile liquids, e.g. ether, ligroin, &c., immersion of the
flask in warm water suffices; for less volatile liquids a directly
heated water or sand bath is used; for other liquids the flask is
heated through wire gauze or asbestos board, or directly by a Bunsen.
The condensing apparatus must also be conditioned by the volatility.
With difficulty volatile substances, e.g. nitrobenzene, air cooling of
the retort neck or of a straight tube connected with the distilling
flask will suffice; or wet blotting-paper placed on the tube and
the receiver immersed in water may be used. For less volatile liquids
the Liebig condenser is most frequently used. In its original form,
this consists of a long tube surrounded by an outer tube so arranged
that cold water circulates in the annular space between the two.
The vapours pass through the inner tube, and the cold water enters
at the end farthest from the distilling flask. For more efficient
condensation and also for shortening the apparatus the central
tube may be flattened, bent into a succession
of V's, or twisted into a spiral form, the object in
each case being to increase the condensing surface.
Of other common types of condenser, we may
notice the " spiral " or " worm " type, which con-
sists of a glass, copper or tin worm enclosed in
a vessel in which water circulates; and the ball
condenser, which consists of two concentric
spheres, the vapour passing through the inner
sphere and water circulating in the space between
this and the outer (in another form the vapour
circulates in a shell, on the outside and inside of
which water circulates). A very effective type is
shown in fig. 2. The condensing water enters at
the top and is conducted to the bottom of the
inner tube, which it fills and then flows over the
FIG. 2. outside of the outer tube; it collects in the
bottom funnel and is then led off. The vapours
pass between the inner and outer tubes.
Practically any vessel may serve as a receiver test tube, flask,
beaker, &c. If noxious vapours come over, it is necessary to have an
air-tight connexion between the condenser and receiver, and to pro-
vide the latter with an outlet tube leading to an absorption column
or other contrivance in which the vapours are taken up. If the
substances operated upon decompose when heated in air, as, for
example, the zinc alkyls which inflame, the air within the apparatus
is replaced by some inert gas, e.g. nitrogen, carbon dioxide, &c.,
which is led in at the distilling flask before the process is started, and
a slow current maintained during the operation.
2. Distillation under Reduced Pressure. This method is adopted
for substances which decompose at their boiling-points under
ordinary pressure, and, generally, when it is desirable to work at a
lower temperature. The apparatus differs very slightly from that
employed in ordinary distillation. The " receiver must be con-
nected on the one side to the condenser, and on the other to the
exhaust pump. A safety vessel and a manometer are generally
interposed between the pump and receiver. For the purpose of
collecting the distillates in fractions, many forms of receivers have
been devised. Briihl's is one of the simplest. It consists of a
number of tubes mounted vertically on a horizontal circular disk
which rotates about a vertical axis in a cylindrical vessel. This
vessel has two tubulures: through one the end of the condenser
projects so as to be over one of the receiving tubes ; the other leads
to the pump. By rotating the disk the tubes may be successively
brought under the end of the condenser. Boiling under reduced
pressure has one very serious drawback, viz. the liquid boils ir-
regularly or " bumps.' W. Dittmar showed that this may be avoided
by leading a fine, steady stream of dry gas air, carbon dioxide,
hydrogen, &c., according to the substance operated upon through
the liquid by means of a fine capillary tube, the lower end of which
reaches to nearly the bottom of the flask. " Bumping " is common
in open boiling when the liquid is free from air bubbles and the
interior of the vessel is very smooth. It may be diminished by
introducing clippings of platinum foil, pieces of porcelain, glass
beads or garnets into the liquid. " Frothing " is another objection-
able feature with many liquids. When cold, froth can be immediately
dissipated by adding a few drops of ether. In boiling liquids its
formation may be prevented by adding paraffin wax; the wax melts
and forms a ring on the surface of the liquid, which boils tranquilly
in the centre.
3. Fractional Distillation. By fractional distillation is meant the
separation of a mixture having components which boil at neighbour-
ing temperatures. The distilling flask has an elongated neck so that
Wurtz. Linnemann. Le Bel-Henninger. Glynsky. Young. Kreusler.
FIG. 3.
the less volatile vapours are condensed and return to the flask,
while the more volatile component passes over. The success of the
operation depends upon two factors : (i) that the heating be careful,
slow and steady, and (2) that the column attached to the flask be
efficient to sort out, as it were, the most volatile vapour. Three types
of columns are employed: (i) the elongation is simply a straight or
bulb tube; (2) the column, properly termed a " depnlegmator," is
so constructed that the vapours have to traverse a column of
previously condensed vapour; (3) the column is encircled by a jacket
through which a liquid circulates at the same temperature as the
boiling-point of the most volatile component. To the first type
belongs the simple straight tube, and the Wurtz tube (see fig. 3),
which is simply a series of bulbs blown on a tube. These forms are
not of much value. Several forms of the second type are in use. In
the Linnemann column the condensed vapours temporarily collect on
platinum gauzes (a) placed at the constrictions of a bulbed tube.
In the Le Bel-Henninger form a series of bulbs are connected con-
secutively by means of syphon tubes (b) and having platinum gauzes
(a) at the constrictions, so that when a certain amount of liquid
collects in any one bulb it syphons over into the next lower bulb.
The Glynsky form is simpler, having only one syphon tube; at the
constrictions it is usual to have a glass bead. The " rod-and-disk "
form of Sidney Young is a series of disks mounted on a central
spindle and surrounded by a slightly wider tube. The " pear-
shaped " form of the same author consists of a series of pear-shaped
bulbs, the narrow end of one adjoining the wider end of the next
jower one. In this class may also be placed the Hempel tube, which
is simply a straight tube filled with glass beads. Of the third type
is the Warren column consisting of a spiral kept at a constant
temperature by a liquid bath. Improved forms were devised by
320
DISTILLATION
F. D. Brown. Kreusler's form is easily made and manipulated. A
tube closed at the bottom is traversed by an open narrower tube, and
the arrangement is fitted in the neck of the distilling flask. Water
is led in by the inner tube, and leaves by a side tube fused on the
wider tube. Many comparisons of the effectiveness of dephlegmating
columns have been made (see Sidney Young, Fractional Distillation,
1903). The pear-shaped form is the most effective, second in order
is the Le Bel-Henninger, which, in turn, is better than the Glynsky.
The main objection to the Hempel is the retention of liquid in the
beads, and the consequent inapplicability to the distillation of small
quantities.
4. Distillation with Steam. In this process a current of steam,
which is generated in a separate boiler and superheated, if necessary,
by circulation through a heated copper worm, is led into the dis-
tilling vessel, and the mixed vapours condensed as in the ordinary
processes. This method is particularly successful in the case of
substances which cannot be distilled at their ordinary boiling-points
(it will be seen in the following section that distilling with steam
implies a lowering of boiling-point), and which can be readily
separated from water. Instances of its application are found in the
separation of ortho-and para-nitrophenol, the o-compqund distilling
and the p- remaining behind ; in the separation of aniline from the
mixture obtained by reducing nitrobenzene ; of the naphthols from
the melts produced by fusing the naphthalene monosulphonic acids
with potash; and of quinoline from the reaction between aniline,
nitrobenzene, glycerin, and sulphuric acid (the product being first
steam distilled to remove any aniline, nitrobenzene, or glycerin,
then treated with alkali, and again steam distilled when quinoline
comes over). With substances prone to discolorization, as, for
example, certain amino compounds, the operation may be conducted
in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide, or the water may be saturated
with sulphuretted hydrogen. Liquids other than water may be used :
thus alcohol separates a-pipecoline and ether nitropropylene.
5. Theory of Distillation. The general observation that under a
constant pressure a pure substance boils at a constant temperature
leads to the conclusion that the distillate which comes over while
the thermometer records only a small variation is of practically
constant composition. On this fact depends " rectification or
purification by distillation. " A liquid boils when its vapour pressure
equals the superincumbent pressure (see VAPORIZATION); con-
sequently any process which diminishes the external pressure must
also lower the boiling-point. In this we have the theory of " dis-
tillation under reduced pressure." The theory of fractional distilla-
tion, or the behaviour of liquid mixtures when heated to their
boiling-points, is more complex. For simplicity we confine ourselves
to mixtures of two components, in which experience shows that
three cases are to be recognized according as the components are
(i) completely immiscible, (2) partially miscible, (3) miscible in all
proportions.
When the components are completely immiscible, the vapour
pressure of the one is not influenced by the presence of the other.
The mixture consequently distils at the temperature at which the
sum of the partial pressures equals that of the atmosphere. Both
components come over in a constant proportion until one disap-
pears; it is then necessary to raise the temperature in order to distil
the residue. The composition of the distillate is determinate (by
Avogadro's law) if the molecular weights and vapour pressure of the
components at the temperature of distillation be known. If MI, M 2 ,
and Pi, P 2 be the molecular weights and vapour pressures >of the
components A and B, then the ratio of A to B in the distillate is
MiPi/M 2 P 2 . Although, as is generally the case, one liquid (say A)
is more volatile than the other (say B), i.e. Pi greater than P 2 , if the
molecular weight of A be much less than that of B, then it is obvious
that the ratio M 1 Pi/M 2 P 2 need not be very great, and hence the
less volatile liquid B would come over in fair amount. These con-
ditions pertain in cases where distillation with steam is successfully
practised, the relatively high volatility of water being counter-
balanced by the relatively high molecular weight of the other
component ; for example, in the case of nitrobenzene and water the
ratio is I to 5. In general, when the substance to be distilled has a
vapour pressure of only 10 mm. at 100 C., distillation with steam
can be adopted, if the product can be subsequently separated from
the water.
When distilling a mixture of partially miscible components a
distillate of constant composition is obtained so long as two layers
are present, i.e. A dissolved in B and B dissolved in A, since both
of these solutions emit vapours of the same composition (this follows
since the same vapour must be in equilibrium with both solutions,
for if it were not so a cyclic system contradicting the second law
of thermodynamics would be realizable). The composition of the
vapour, however, would not be the same as that of either layer. As
the distillation proceeded one layer would diminish more rapidly than
the other until only the latter would remain ; this would then distil
as a completely miscible mixture.
The distillation of completely miscible mixtures is the most
common practically and the most complex theoretically. A co-
ordination of the results obtained on the distillation of mixtures of
this nature with the introduction of certain theoretical considerations
led to the formation of three groups distinguished by the relative
solubilities of the vapours in the liquid components.
(i.) If the vapour of A be readily soluble in the liquid B, and the
vapour of B readily soluble in the liquid A, there will exist a mixture
of A and B which will have a lower vapour pressure than any other
mixture. The vapour pressure composition curve will be convex
to the axis of compositions, the maximum vapour pressures corre-
sponding to pure A and pure B, and the minimum to some mixture
of A and B. On distilling such a mixture under constant pressure, a
mixture of the two components (of variable composition) will come
over until there remains in the distilling flask the mixture of minimum
vapour pressure. This will then distil at a constant temperature.
Thus nitric acid, boiling-point 68, forms a mixture with water,
boiling point 100, which boils at a constant temperature of 126'
and contains 68% of acid. Hydrochloric acid forms a similar
mixture which boils at 1 10 and contains 20-2 % of acid. Another
mixture of this type is formic acid and water.
(ii.) If the vapours be sparingly soluble in the liquids there will
exist a mixture having a greater vapour pressure than that of any
other mixture. The vapour pressure-composition curve will now be
concave to the axis of composition, the minima corresponding to the
pure components. On distilling such a mixture, a mixture of constant
composition will distil first, leaving in the distilling flask one or
other of the components according to the composition of the
mixture. An example is propyl alcohol and water. At one time it
was thought that these mixtures of constant boiling-point (an ex-
tended list is given in Young's Fractional Distillation) were definite
compounds. The above theory, coupled with such facts as the
variation of the composition of the constant boiling-point fraction
with the pressure under which the mixture is distilled, the pro-
portionality of the density of all mixtures to their composition, &c.,
shows this to be erroneous.
(iii.) If the vapour of A be "readily soluble in liquid B, and the
vapour of B sparingly soluble in liquid A, and if the vapour pressure
of A be greater than that of B, then the vapour pressures of mixtures
of A and B will continually diminish as one passes from ioo%A
to 100% B. The vapour tension may approximate to a linear
function of the composition, and the curve will then be practically
a straight line. On distilling such a mixture pure A will come over
first, followed by mixtures in which the quantity of B continually
increases; consequently by a sufficient number of distillations
A and B can be completely separated.
Examples are water and methyl or ethyl
alcohol.
Van't Hoff (Theoretical and Physical
Chemistry, vol. i. p. 51) illustrates the
five cases on one diagram. In fig. 4 let
AB be the axis of composition, AP be the
vapour pressure of pure A, BQ the vapour
pressure of pure B. For immiscible liquids
the vapour pressure curve is the hori-
zontal line ab, described so that aP = QB
and 6Q = AP. For partially miscible
liquids the curve is PfliiiQ. The hori-
zontal line a\ b\ corresponds to the two
layers of liquid, and the inclined .lines F
and of A in B.
FIG. 4.
Qb t to solutions of B in A
The curves Pa^Q, having a minimum at a t , Pa 3 Q,
having a maximum at 03, and Pa 6 Q, with neither a maximum nor
minimum, correspond to the types i., ii., iii. of completely miscible
mixtures.
6. Dry Distillation. In this process the substance operated upon
is invariably a solid, the vapours being condensed and collected as
in the other methods. When the substance operated upon is of
uncertain composition, as, for example, coal, wood, coal-tar, &c., the
term destructive distillation is employed. A more general designa-
tion is " pyrogenic processes," which also includes such operations
as leading vapours through red-hot tubes and condensing the
products. We may also consider here cases of sublimation wherein
a solid vaporizes and the vapour condenses without the occurrence
of the liquid phase.
Dry distillation is extremely wasteful even when definite sub-
stances or mixtures, such as calcium acetate which yields acetone, are
dealt with, valueless by-products being obtained and the condensate
usually requiring much purification. Prior to 1830, little was known
of the process other than that organic compounds generally yielded
tarry and solid matters, but the discoveries of Liebig and Dumas (of
acetone from acetates), of Mitscherlich (of benzene from benzoates)
and of Persoz (of methane from acetates and lime) brought the opera-
tion into common laboratory practice. For efficiency the operation
must be conducted with small quantities; caking may be prevented
by mixing the substance with sand or powdered pumice, or, better,
with iron filings, which also renders the decomposition more regular
by increasing the conductivity of the mass. The most favourable
retort is a shallow iron pan heated in a sand bath, and provided with
a screwed-down lid bearing the delivery tube. Sidney Young has
suggested conducting the operation in a current of carbon dioxide
which sweeps out the vapours as they are evolved, and also heating
in a vapour bath, e.g. of sulphur.
One of the earliest red-hot tube syntheses of importance was
the formation of naphthalene from a mixture of alcohol and ether
vapours. Such condensations were especially studied by M. P. E.
Berthelot, and shown to be very fruitful in forming hydrocarbons.
DISTILLATION
321
Sometimes reagents are placed in the combustion tube, for example
lead oxide (litharge), which takes up bromine and sulphur. In its
simplest form the apparatus consists of a straight tube, made of
glass, porcelain or iron according to the temperature required and
the nature of the reacting substances, heated in an ordinary com-
bustion furnace, the mixture entering at one end and the vapours
being condensed at the other. Apparatus can also be constructed
in which the unchanged vapours are continually circulated through
the tube. Operating in a current of carbon dioxide facilitates the
process by preventing overheating.
7. Distillation in Chemical Technology. In laboratory practice
use is made of a fairly constant type of apparatus, only trifling
modifications being generally necessary to adapt the apparatus for
any distillation or fractionation ; in technology, on the other hand,
itiany questions have to be considered which generally demand the
adoption of special constructions for the economic distillation of
different substances. The modes of distillation enumerated above
all occur in manufacturing practice. Distillation in a vacuum is
practised in two forms: if the pump draws off steam as well as
air it is termed a " wet " air-pump; if it only draws off air, it is a
" dry " air-pump. In the glycerin industry the lyes obtained by
saponifying the fats are first evaporated with " wet vacuum " and
finally distilled with closed and live steam and a " dry vacuum."
Two forms of steam distillation may be distinguished: in one the
still is simply heated by a steam coil wound inside or outside the
still this is termed heating by dry steam; in the other steam is
injected into the mass within the still this is the distillation with
live steam of laboratory practice. The details of the plant the
material and fittings of the still, the manner of heating, the form
of the condensing plant, receivers, &c. have to be determined for
each substance to be distilled in order to work with the maximum
economy.
For the distillation of liquids the retort is usually a cylindrical pot
placed vertically; cast iron is generally employed, in which case
the bottom is frequently incurved and thicker than the sides in order
to take up the additional wear and tear. Sometimes linings of
enamelled iron or other material are employed, which when worn
can be replaced at a far lower cost than that of a new still. Glass
stills heated by a sand bath are sometimes employed in the final
distillation of sulphuric acid; platinum, and an alloy of platinum
and iridium with a lining of gold rolled on (a discovery due to
Heraeus), are used for the same purpose. Cast iron stills are pro-
vided with a hemispherical head or dome, generally attached to the
body of the still by bolts, and of sufficient size to allow for any
frothing. It is invariably provided with an opening to carry off the
vapours produced. In its more complete form a still has in addition
the following fittings: The b dome is provided with openings to
admit (l) the axis ofthe stirring gear (in some stills the stirring gear
rotates on a horizontal axis which traverses the side and not the head
of the still), (2) the inlet and outlet tubes of a closed steam coil,
(3) a tube reaching to nearly the bottom of the still to carry live
steam, (4) a tube to carry a thermometer, (5) one or more manholes
for charging purposes, (6) sight-holes through which the operation
can be watched, and (7) a safety valve. The body of the still is
provided with one or more openings at different heights to serve for
the discharge of the residue in the still, and sometimes with a glass
gauge to record the quantity of matter in the still. For dry dis-
tillations the retorts are generally horizontal cylinders, the bottom
or lower surface being sometimes flattened. Iron and fireclay are
the materials commonly employed; wrought iron is used in the
manufacture of wood-spirit, fireclay for coal-gas (see GAS : Manu-
facture), phosphorus, zinc, &c. The vertical type, however, is
employed in the manufacture of acetone and of iodine.
Several modes of heating are adopted. In some cases, especially
in dry distillations, the furnace flames play directly on the retorts,
in others, such as in the case of nitric acid, the whole still comes under
the action of the furnace gases to prevent condensation on the upper
part of the still, while in others the furnace gases do not play directly
on the base or upper portion of the still but are conducted around it
by a system of flues (see COAL-TAR). Steam heating, dry or live,
is employed alone and also as an auxiliary to direct firing.
_The condensing plant varies with the volatility of the distillate.
Air cooling is adopted whenever possible. For example, in the less
modern methods for manufacturing nitric acid the vapours were
conducted directly into double-necked bottles (bombonnes) immersed
in water. A more efficient arrangement consists of a stack of
vertical pipes standing up from a main or collecting trough and
connected at the top in consecutive pairs by a cross tube. By
an arrangement of diaphragms in the lower trough the vapours
are circulated through the system. As an auxiliary to air cooling the
stack may be cooled by a slow stream of water trickling down the
outside of the pipes, or, in certain cases, cold water may be injected
into the condenser in the form of a spray, where it meets the ascend-
ing vapours. Horizontal air-cooling arrangements are also employed.
A common type of condenser consists of a copper worm placed in a
water bath; but more generally straight tubes of copper or cast iron
which cross and recross a rectangular tank are employed, since this
form is more readily repaired and cleansed. Wood-spirit, petroleum
and coal-tar distillates are condensed in plant of the latter type.
In cases where the condenser is likely to become plugged there is a
vrn. ii
pipe by means of which live steam can be injected into the condenser.
The supply of water to the condenser is regulated according to the
volatility of the condensate. When the vapours readily condense
to a solid form the condensing plant may take the form of large
chambers; such conditions prevail in the manufacture of arsenic,
sulphur and lampblack: in the latter case (which, however, is not
properly one of distillation) the chamber is hung with sheets on
which the pigment collects. Large chambers are also used in the
condensation of mercury.
Dephlegmation of the vapours arising from such mixtures as coal-
tar fractions, petroleum and the " wash " of the spirit industry, is
very important, and many types of apparatus are employed in order
to effect a separation of the vapours. The earliest form, invented by
C. B._ Mansfield to facilitate the fractionation of paraffin and coal-
tar distillates, consisted in having a pipe leading from the inclined
delivery tube of the still to the still again, so that any vapour which
condensed in the delivery tube was returned to the still. Of really
effective columns Coupler's was one of the earliest. The vapours
rising from the still traverse a tall vertical column, and are then
conveyed through a series of bulbs placed in a bath kept at the
boiling-point of the most volatile constituent. The more volatile
vapours pass over to the condensing plant, while the less volatile ones
condense in the bulbs and are returned to the column at varying
heights by means of connecting tubes. The French column is similar
in action. The Coffey still is one of the most effective and is
employed in the spirit, ammonja, coal-tar and other industries. It
consists of a vertical column divided into a number of sections by
horizontal plates, which are perforated so that the ascending vapours
have to traverse a layer of liquid. Above this '' separator is a
reflux condenser, termed the cooler," maintained at the correct
temperature so that only the more volatile component passes to
the receiver. The success of the operation chiefly depends upon the
proper management of the cooler.
8. Commercial Distillation of Water. Distilled water, i.e. water
free from salts and to some extent of the dissolved gases which are
always present in natural waters, is of indispensable value in many
operations both of scientific and industrial chemistry. The ap-
paratus and process for distilling ordinary water are very simple.
The body of the still is made of copper, with a head and worm, or
condensing apparatus, either of copper or tin. The still is usually
fed continuously by the heated water from the condenser. The
first portion of the distillate brings over the gases dissolved in the
water, ammonia and other volatile impurities, and is consequently
rejected; scarcely two-fifths of the entire quantity of water can be
safely used as pure distilled water.
Apparatus for the economic production of a potable water from
sea-water is of vital importance in the equipment of ships. The
simple distillation of sea-water, and the production thereby of a
certain proportion of chemically fresh water, is a very simple
problem; but it is found that water which is merely evaporated
and recondensed has a very disagreeable flat taste, and it is only after
long exposure to pure atmospheric air, with continued agitation, or
repeated pouring from one vessel to another, that it becomes
sufficiently aerated to lose its unpleasant taste and smell and
become drinkable. The water, moreover, till it is saturated with
gases, readily absorbs noxious vapours to which it may be exposed.
For the successful preparation of potable water from sea-water, the
following conditions are essential: 1st, aeration of the distilled
product so that it may be immediately available for drinking pur-
poses; 2nd, economy of coal to obtain the maximum of water with
the minimum expenditure of fuel; and 3rd, simplicity of working
parts, to secure the apparatus from breaking down, and enable
unskilled attendants to work it with safety. The problem is a com-
paratively old one, for we find that R. Fitzgerald patented a process
in 1683 having for its purpose the " sweetening of sea-water." A
history of early attempts is given in S. Hales s Philosophical Ex-
periments, published in 1739. Among the earlier of the modern forms
of apparatus which came into practical adoption are the inventions
of Dr Normandy and of Chaplin of Glasgow, the apparatus of
Rocher of Nantes, and that patented by Galle and Mazelineof Havre.
Normandy's apparatus, although economical and producing water
of good quality, is very complex in its structure, consisting of very
numerous working parts, with elaborate arrangements of pipes,
cocks and other fittings. It is consequently expensive and requires
careful attention for its working. It was extensively adopted in the
British navy, the Cunard line and many other important emigrant
and mercantile lines. Chaplin's apparatus, which was invented and
patented later, has also since 1 865 been sanctioned for use on emigrant,
troop and passenger vessels. The apparatus possesses the great
merit of simplicity and compactness, in consequence of which it is
comparatively cheap and not liable to derangement. It was adopted
by many important British and continental shipping companies,
among others by the Peninsular & Oriental, the Inman, the North
German Lloyd and the Hamburg American companies.
The modern distilling plant consists of two main parts termed
the evaporator and condenser; in addition there must be a boiler
(sometimes steam is run off the main boilers, but this practice has
several disadvantages), pumps for circulating cold water in the
condenser and for supplying salt water to the evaporator, and a
filter through which the aerated water passes. The evaporator
322
DISTRACTION DISTRESS
consists of a cylindrical vessel having in its lower half a horizontal
copper coil connected to the steam supply. The cylindrical vessel
is filled to a certain level with salt water and the steam turned on.
The water vaporizes and is led from the dome of the evaporator
to the head of the condenser. The water level is maintained in the
evaporator until it contains a certain amount of salt. It is then run
off, and replaced by fresh sea-water. The condenser consists of a
vertical cylinder having manifolds at the head and foot and through
which a number of tubes pass. In some types, e.g. the Weir, the
condensing water circulates upwards through the tubes; in others,
e.g. the Quiggins, the water circulates around the tubes. Various
forms of the tubes have been adopted. In the Pape-Henneberg
condenser, which has been adopted in the German navy, they are
oval in section and tend to become circular under the pressure of
the steam; this alteration in shape makes the tubes self-scaling.
In the Quiggins condenser, which has been widely adopted, e.g. in
the " Lusitania," the steam traverses vertical copper coils tinned
inside and outside ; the coils are crescent-shaped, a form which gives
a greater condensing surface and makes the coils self-scaling. The
aeration of the water is effected by blowing air into the steam before
it is condensed; as an auxiliary, the storage tanks have a false
bottom perforated by fine holes so that if air be injected below it,
the water is efficiently aerated by the air which traverses it in fine
streams. After condensation the water is filtered through charcoal.
The filter is either a separate piece of plant, or, as in the Quiggins
form, it may be placed below the coils in the same outer vessel. In
this plant the aeration is conducted by blowing in air at the base of
the condenser. After filtration the water is pumped to the storage
tanks. Many types of distilling plant are in use in addition to those
mentioned above, for example the Rayner, Kirkaldy, Merlees,
Normand ; the United States navy has adopted a form designed by
the Bureau of Engineering.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The general practice of laboratory distillation is
discussed in all treatises on practical organic chemistry; reference
may be made to Lassar-Cohn, Manual of Organic Chemistry (1896),
and Arbeilsmethoden fur organisch-chemische Laboratorien (1901);
Hans Meyer, Analyse und Konstitutiomrmittlung organischer
Verbindungen (1909). The theory of distillation finds a place in all
treatises on physical chemistry. Of especial importance is Sidney
Young, Fractional Distillation (1903). The history of distillation is
to be studied in E. Gildemeister and F. Hoffmann, Die atherischen
Ole (Berlin, 1899; Eng. tr. by E. Kremers, Milwaukee Press, 1900).
The technology of distillation is best studied in relation to the
several industries in which it is employed; reference should be
made to the articles COAL-TAR, GAS, PETROLEUM, SPIRITS, NITRIC
ACID, &c. (C. E.*)
DISTRACTION (from Lat. distrahere, to pull asunder), a draw-
ing away or apart; a word now used generally of a state of mind,
to mean a diversion of attention, or a violent emotion amounting
almost to madness.
DISTRESS (from the O. Fr. deslrece, destresse, from the past
participle of the Lat. dislringere, to pull apart, used in Late Lat.
in the sense of to punish, hence to distrain), pressure, especially
of sorrow, pain or ill-fortune. As a legal term, the action of
distraining or distraint, the right which a landlord has of seizing
the personal chattels of his tenant for non-payment of rent.
Cattle damage feasant (doing damage or trespassing upon a neigh-
bour's land) may also be distrained, i.e. may be detained until
satisfaction be rendered for injury they have done. The cattle
or other animals thus distrained are a mere pledge in the hands
of the injured person, who has only power to retain them until
the owner appear to make satisfaction for the mischief they have
done. " Distress damage feasant " is also applicable to inanimate
things on the land if doing damage thereto or to its produce;
things in actual use, however, are exempt. Such distress must
be made during the actual trespass, and by whoever is aggrieved
by the damage. Distress for rent was also at one time regarded as
a mere pledge or security; but the remedy, having been found to
be speedy and efficacious, was rendered more perfect by enact-
ments allowing the thing taken to be sold. Blackstone notes that
the lawof distresses in this respect " has been greatly altered within
a few years last past." The legislature, in fact, converted an
ancient right of personal redress into a powerful remedy for the
exclusive benefit of a single class of creditors, viz. landlords.
Now that the relation of landlord and tenant in England has
come to be regarded as purely a matter of contract, the language
of the law-books seems to be singularly inappropriate. The
defaulting tenant is a " wrong-doer," the landlord is the " injured
party,"; any attempt to defeat the landlord's remedy by carry-
ing off distrainable goods is denounced as " fraudulent and
knavish." The operation of the law has, as we shall point out,
been mitigated in some important respects, but it still remains
an almost unique specimen of one-sided legislation.-
At common law distress was said to be incident to rent service,
and by particular reservation to rent charges; but by 4 Geo. II.
c. 28 it was extended to rent seek, rents of assize and chief rents
(see RENT). It is therefore a general remedy for rent certain in
arrear. All personal chattels are distrainable with the following
exceptions: (i) things in which there can be no property, as
animals ferae naturae; (2) ledgers, daybooks, title-deeds, &c.;
(3) things delivered to a person following a public trade, as a horse
sent to be shod, &c.; (4) things already in the custody of the law;
(5) things which cannot be restored in as good a plight as when
distrained, that is, perishable articles; (6) fixtures; (7) beasts of
the plough and instruments of husbandry while there is other
sufficient distress to be found; (8) instruments of a man's trade or
profession in actual use at the time the distress is made. If not in
actual use they are only privileged in case there is other sufficient
distress upon the premises. These exceptions, it will be seen,
imply that the thing distrained is to be held as a pledge merely
not to be sold. They also imply that in general any chattels
found on the land in question are to be available for the benefit of
the landlord, whether they belong to the tenant or not. This
principle worked with peculiar harshness in the case of lodgers,
whose goods might be seized and sold for the payment of the rent
due by their landlord to his superior landlord. By the Lodgers'
Goods Protection Act 1871, however, where a lodger's goods have
been seized by the superior landlord the lodger may serve him
with a notice stating that the intermediate landlord has no
interest in the property seized, but that it is the property or in the
lawful possession of the lodger, and setting forth the amount of
the rent due by the lodger to his immediate landlord. On pay-
ment or tender of such rent the landlord cannot proceed with the
distress against the goods in question. By the Law of Distress
Amendment Act 1908 this protection was extended to under
tenants liable to pay rent by equal quarterly instalments, as well
as to any person whatsoever who is not a tenant of the premises or
any part thereof nor has any beneficial interest therein. The act,
however, excludes certain goods, particularly goods belonging to
the husband or wife of the tenant whose rent is in arrear, goods
comprised in any bill of sale, hire purchase agreement or settle-
ment made by the tenant, goods in the possession or disposition
of a tenant by the consent and permission of the true owner under
such circumstances as to make the tenant reputed owner, goods
of the partner of an immediate tenant, and goods (not being goods
of a lodger) upon premises where any trade or business is carried
on in which both the immediate tenant and the under tenant
have an interest. The act does not apply where an under tenancy
has been created in breach of a covenant or agreement between
the landlord and his immediate tenant. The Law of Distress
Amendment Act 1888 also absolutely exempted from distress the
tools and implements of trade and wearing apparel and bedding
of a tenant and his family to the value of five pounds, and the
Law of Distress Amendment Act 1895 gave power to a court of
summary jurisdiction to direct that such goods, when distrained
upon, should be restored if not sold, or, if sold, to order their
value to be paid by the persons who levied the distress or directed
it to be levied. Originally the landlord could only seize things
actually on the premises, so that the remedy might be defeated by
the things being taken away. But by an act of 1710 , and by the
Distress for Rent Act 1737, he may follow things fraudulently or
clandestinely removed off the premises within thirty days after
their removal, unless-they have been in the meantime bona fide
sold for a valuable consideration. The sixth exception mentioned
above was held to extend to sheaves of corn; but by an act
of 1690 corn, when reaped, as well as hay, was made subject to
distress. That act was modified by the Landlord and Tenant Act
1851, under which growing crops seized by the sheriff and sold
under an execution are liable to distress for rent which becomes
due after the seizure and sale, if there is no other sufficient distress
on the premises.
Excessive or disproportionate distress exposes the distrainer
to an action, and any irregularity formerly made the proceedings
DISTRIBUTION DITHYRAMBIC POETRY
323
void ab initio, so that the remedy was attended with considerable
risk. The Distress for Rent Act 1737, before alluded to, in the
interests of landlords, protected distresses for rent from the
consequences of irregularity. In all cases of distress for rent, if
the owner do not within five days (by the Law of Distress Amend-
ment Act 1888, fifteen days, if the tenant make a request in
writing to the person levying the distress and also give security
for any additional cost that may be occasioned by such extension
of time) replevy the same with sufficient security, the thing dis-
trained may be sold towards satisfaction of the rent and charges,
and the surplus, if any, must be returned to the owner. To
" replevy " is when the person distrained upon applies to the
proper authority (the registrar of the county court) to have
the thing returned to his own possession, on giving security to
try the right of taking it in an action of replevin.
Duties and penalties imposed by act of parliament (e.g. pay-
ment of rates and taxes) are sometimes enforced by distress.
DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out), a term used in
various connexions with the general meaning of spreading out.
In law, the word is used for the division of the personal estate
of an intestate among the next-of-kin (see INTESTACY). The
important scientific question as to the distribution of plants and
animals on the earth is treated under PLANTS: Distribution, and
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION. In economics the word is used
generally for the transference of commodities from person to
person or from place to place, or the dividing up of large quantities
of commodities into smaller quantities; and in a more technical
sense, for the division of the product of industry amongst the
various members or classes of the community. The theory of
economic distribution, i.e. the causes which determine rent, wages,
profits and interest, forms an important subject-matter in all
text-books. Among recent works, see E. Cannan's History of
Theories of Production and Distribution, 1776-1848 (1893), J. R.
Common's Distribution of Wealth (1893), and H. J. Davenport's
Value and Distribution (Chicago, 1908).
DISTRICT, a word denoting in its more general sense, a tract
or extent of a country, town, &c., marked off for administrative
or other purposes, or having some special and distinguishing
characteristics. The medieval Latin districtus (from distringere,
to distrain) is defined by Du Cange as Territorium feudi, seu
tractus, in quo Dominus vassallos et lenentes suos distringere potest;
and as justitiae exercendae in eo tractu facultas. It was also used
of the territory over which the feudal lord exercised his juris-
diction generally. It may be noted that distringere had a wider
significance than " to distrain " in the English legal sense (see
DISTRESS). It is defined by Du Cange as compellere ad aliquid
faciendum per mulctam, poenam, vel capto pignore. In English
usage, apart from its general application in such forms as postal
district, registration district and the like, " district " has specific
usages for ecclesiastical and local government purposes. It is thus
applied to a division of a parish under the Church Building Acts,
originally called a " perpetual curacy," and the church serving
such a division is properly a " district chapel." Under the Local
Government Act of 1894 counties are divided for the purposes of
the act into urban and rural districts. In British India the word
is used to represent the zillah, an administrative subdivision of
a province or presidency. In the United States of America the
word has many administrative, judicial and other applications.
In South Carolina it was used instead of " county " for the chief
division of the state other than in the coast region. In the
Virginias, Tennessee, Georgia, Kentucky and Maryland it answers
to " township " or precinct, elsewhere the principal subdivision of
a county. It is used for an electoral "division," each state be-
ing divided into Congressional and senatorial districts; and also
for a political subdivision ranking between an unorganized and an
organized Territory e.g., the District of Columbia and Alaska.
DISTYLE (from Gr. Si-, two, and <TTV\OS, column), the
architectural term given to a portico which has two columns
between antae, known as distyle-in-antis (see TEMPLE).
DITHMARSCHEN, or DITMARSH (in the oldest form of the
name Thiatntaresgaho, Dietmar's Gau), a territory between the
Eider, the Elbe and the North Sea, forming the western part of
the old duchy of Holstein, and now included in the Prussian
province of Schleswig-Holstein. It contains about 550 sq. m.
with 90,000 inhabitants. The territory consists to the extent of
one half of good pasture land, which is preserved from inroads of
the sea by banks and dams, the other half being mostly waste.
It was originally colonized mainly from Friesland and Saxony.
The district was subjugated and Christianized by Charlemagne
in 804, and ranked as a separate Gau, included perhaps in the
countship of Stade, or Comitatus utriusque ripae. From the same
century, according to one opinion, or from the year 1182, when
the countship was incorporated with their see, according to
another, the archbishops of Bremen claimed supremacy over the
land; but the inhabitants, who had developed and consolidated
a systematic organism for self-government, made obstinate
resistance, and rather attached themselves to the bishop of
Schleswig. Ditmarsken, to use the Scandinavian form of the
name, continued part of the Danish dominions till the disastrous
battle of Bornhb'ved in 1227, when its former independence was
regained. The claims of the archbishop of Bremen were now so
far recognized that he exercised the royal rights of Heerbann and
Blutbann, 1 enjoyed the consequent emoluments, and was repre-
sented first by a single advocatus, or Vogt, and afterwards by one
for each of the five Doffts, or marks, into which the land was
divided after the establishment of Meldorf . The community was
governed by a Landrath of forty-eight elective consuls, or twelve
from each of the four marks; and even in the I4th century the
power of the episcopal advocati was so slight that a chronicler
quoted by Conrad von Maurer says, De Ditmarschen leven sunder
Heren und Hovedt unde dohn ivadt se willen, " the Ditmarschen
live without lord and head, and do what they will." In 1319 and
in 1404 they succeeded in defeating the invasions of the Holstein
nobles; and though in 1474 the land was nominally incorporated
with the duchy by the emperor Frederick III., the attempt of the
Danish king Hans and the duke of Gottorp to enforce the decree
in 1500 resulted only in their complete rout in the marshes of the
Dussend-Diiwels-Warf. During the early part of the century
which began with such prestige for Ditmarsh, it was the scene of
violent internal conflict in regard to the religious questions of
the time; and, thus weakened, it was obliged in 1559 to submit
to partition among its three conquerors King Frederick II. of
Denmark and Dukes John and Adolphus. A new division took
place on Duke John's death in 1581, by which Frederick obtained
South Ditmarsh, with its chief town of Meldorf, and Adolphus
obtained North Ditmarsh, with its chief town of Heide; and this
arrangement continued till 1773, when all the Gottorp possessions
were incorporated with the Danish crown.
See Dahlmann's edition of Neocorus, Chronik von Dithmarschen
(Kiel, 1827), and Geschichte Danemarks (1840-1844); Michelsen,
Urkundenbuch zur Geschichte des Landes Dithmarschen (1834),
Sammlung altdithmarscher Rechtsquellen (1842), and Dithmarschen im
Verhdltniss zum bremischen Erzstift; Kolster, Geschichte Dith-
marschens, nach F. R. Dahlmanns Vorlesungen (1873).
DITHYRAMBIC POETRY, the description of poetry in which
the character of the dithyramb is preserved. It remains quite
uncertain what the derivation or even the primitive meaning
of the Greek word diffvpanpos is, although many conjectures
have been attempted. It was, however, connected from earliest
times with the choral worship of Dionysus. A dithyramb is
defined by Grote as a round choric dance and song in honour
of the wine-god. The earliest dithyrambic poetry was probably
improvised by priests of Bacchus at solemn feasts, and expressed,
in disordered numbers, the excitement and frenzy felt by the
worshippers. This element of unrestrained and intoxicated
vehemence is prominent in all poetry of this class. The dithy-
ramb was traditionally first practised in Naxos; it spread to
other islands, to Boeotia and finally to Athens. Arion is said to
have introduced it at Corinth, and to have allied it to the worship
of Pan. It was thus " merged," as Professor G. G. Murray says,
" into the Satyr-choir of wild mountain-goats" out of which sprang
the earliest form of tragedy. But when tragic drama had so far
developed as to be quite independent, the dithyramb did not, on
* That is, the right of claiming military service, and the right of
bringing capital offenders to justice.
324
DITTERSBACH DITTERSDORF
that account, disappear. It flourished in Athens until after the
age of Aristotle. So far as we can distinguish the form of the
ancient Greek dithyramb, it must have been a kind of irregular
wild poetry, not divided into strophes or constructed with any
evolution of the theme, but imitative of the enthusiasm created
by the use of wine, by what passed as the Dionysiac delirium. It
was accompanied on some occasions by flutes, on others by the
lyre, but we do not know enough to conjecture the reasons of the
choice of instrument. Pindar, in whose hands the ode took such
magnificent completeness, is said to have been trained in the
elements of dithyrambic poetry by a certain Lasus of Hermione.
Ion, having carried off the prize in a dithyrambic contest,
distributed to every Athenian citizen a cup of Chia.n wine. In the
opinion of antiquity, pure dithyrambic poetry reached its climax
in a lost poem, The Cyclops, by Philoxenus of Cythera, a poet of
the 4th century B.C. After this time, the composition of dithy-
rambs, although not abandoned, rapidly declined in merit. It
was essentially a Greek form, and was little cultivated, and always
without success, by the Latins. The dithyramb had a spectacular
character, combining verse with music. In modern literature,
although the adjective " dithyrambic " is often used to describe
an enthusiastic movement in lyric language, and particularly in
the ode, pure dithyrambs have been extremely rare. There are,
however, some very notable examples. The Baccho in Toscana
of Francesco Redi (16261698), which was translated from the
Italian, with admirable skill, by Leigh Hunt, is a piece of genuine
dithyrambic poetry. Alexander's Feast (1698), by Dryden, is
the best example in English. But perhaps more remarkable,
and more genuinely dithyrambic than either, are the astonish-
ing improvisations of Karl Mikael Bellman (1740-1795),
whose Bacchic songs were collected in 1791 and form one of
the most remarkable bodies of lyrical poetry in the literature
of Sweden. (E. G.)
DITTERSBACH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Silesia, 3 m. by rail S.E. from Waldenburg and 50 m. S.W. from
Breslau. It has coal-mines, bleach-fields and match factories.
Population (1905) 9371.
DITTERSDORF, KARL DITTERS VON (1730-1799), Austrian
composer and violinist, was born in Vienna on the 2nd of
November 1 739, his father's name being Ditters. Having shown
as a child marked talent for the violin, he was allowed to play in
the orchestras of St Stephen's and the Schottenkirche, where he
attracted the attention of a notable patron of music, Prince
Joseph Frederick of Hildburghausen (1702-1787), who is also
remembered as a soldier for his disastrous leading of the forces of
the Empire at Rossbach. The prince gave the boy, now eleven
years old, a place in his private orchestra the first of the kind
established in Vienna, and also saw to it that he received
an excellent general education. The Seven Years' War proved
disastrous to both music and morals; and young Ditters, who
had fallen into evil ways, fled from Hildburghausen, whither he
had gone with the prince, to avoid the payment of his gambling
debts. His patron generously forgave and recalled him, but
soon afterwards gave up his orchestra at Vienna. Ditters now
obtained a place in the Vienna opera; but he was not satisfied,
and in 1761 eagerly accepted an invitation to accompany Gluck,
whose acquaintance, as well as that of Haydn, he had made while
in the service of the prince, on a professional journey to Italy.
His success as a violinist on this occasion was equal to that
of Gluck as composer; and on his return to Vienna he was
recognized as the superior of Antonio Lolli, who as virtuoso
had hitherto held the palm. In 1764 he was again associated
with Gluck in the musical part of the ceremonies at Frankfort,
attending the coronation of the archduke Joseph as King of the
Romans. His next appointment was that of conductor of the
orchestra of the bishop of Grosswardein, a Hungarian magnate,
at Pressburg. He set up a private stage in the episcopal palace,
and wrote for it his first " opera buffa," Amore in musica. His
first oratorio, Isaccofigura del Redentore, was also written during
this time; but the scandal of performances of light opera by the
bishop's company, even on fast days and during Advent, out-
weighed this pious effort; the empress Maria Theresa sharply
called the worldly prelate to order ; and he, in a huff, dismissed
his orchestra (1769). After a short interlude, Ditters was again
in the service of an ecclesiastical patron, count von Schafgotsch,
prince bishop of Breslau, at his estate of Johannesberg in Silesia.
Here he displayed so much skill as a sportsman, that the bishop
procured for him the office of forester (Forstmeister) of the
principality of Neisse. He had already, by the same influence,
been made knight of the Golden Spur (1770). At Johannesberg
Ditters also produced a comic opera, II Viaggialore americano,
and an oratorio, Davide. The title rdle of the latter was taken
by a pretty Italian singer, Signora Nicolini, whom Ditters
married. In 1773 he was ennobled as Karl von Dittersdorf, and
at the same time was appointed administrator (Amtshauptmanri)
of Freyenwaldau, an office which he performed by deputy. In
the same year his oratorio Ester was produced in Vienna. During
the War of Bavarian Succession the prince bishop's orchestra
was dissolved, and Dittersdorf employed himself in his office at
Freyenwaldau ; but after the peace of Tetschen (1779) he again
became conductor of the reconstituted orchestra. From this
time forward his output was enormous. In 1780 ten months
sufficed for the production of his Giobbe (Job) and four operas,
three of which were successful ; and besides these he wrote a
large number of " characterized symphonies," founded on the
Metamorphoses of Ovid. He was now at the height of his fame,
and spent the fortune which it brought him in much luxury. But
after a time his patron fell on evil days, the famous orchestra had
to be reduced, and when the bishop died in 1795 his successor
dismissed the composer with a small money gift. Poor and
broken in health, he accepted the asylum offered to him by Ignaz
Freiherr von Stillfried, on his estate' near Neuhaus in Bohemia,
where he spent what strength was left him in a feverish effort
to make money by the composition of operas, symphonies and
pianoforte pieces. He died on the ist of October 1799, praying
" God's reward " for whoever should save his family from
starvation. On his death-bed he dictated j to his son his
Lebensbeschreibung (autobiography) .
Dittersdorf's chief talent was for comic opera and instrumental
music in the sonata forms. In both of these branches his work
still shows signs of life, and it is of great historical interest, since
he was not only an excellent musician and a friend of Haydn but
also a thoroughly popular writer, with a lively enough musical wit
and sense of effect to embody in an amusing and fairly artistic
form exactly what the best popular intelligence of the times saw
in the new artistic developments of Haydn. Thus, while in the
amiable monotony and diffuseness of Boccherini we may trace
Haydn as a force tending to disintegrate the polyphonic suite-
forms of instrumental music, in Dittersdorf on the other hand
we see the popular conception of the modern sonata and dramatic
style. Yet, with all his popularity, the reality of his progressive
outlook may be gauged from the fact that, though he was at
least as famous a violinist as Boccherini was a violoncellist, there
is in his string quartets no trace of that tendency to sacrifice the
ensemble to an exhibition of his own playing which in Boccherini's
chamber music puts the violoncello into the same position as the
first violin in the chamber music of Spohr. In Dittersdorf's
quartets (at least six of which are worthy of their survival at the
present day) the first violin leads indeed, but not more than is
inevitable in such unsophisticated music where the normal place
for melody is at the top. The appearance of greater vitality
in the texture of Boccherini's quintets is produced merely by
the fact that, his special instrument being the violoncello, his
displays of brilliance inevitably occur in the inner parts. Six
of Dittersdorf's symphonies on the Metamorphoses of Ovid were
republished in 1899, the centenary of his death. In them we have
an amusing and sometimes charming illustration of the way in
which at transitional periods music, as at the present day, is ready
to make crutches of literature. The end of the representation of
the conversion of the Lycian peasants into frogs is prophetically
and ridiculously Wagnerian in its ingenious expansion of rhythm
and eminently expert orchestration. Every external feature of
Dittersdorf's style seems admirably apt for success in German
comic opera on a small scale ; and an occasional experimental
DITTO DIVAN
325
performance at the present day of his Doktor und Apotheker is
not less his due than the survival of his best quartets.
See his Lebensbeschreibung, published at Leipzig, 1801 (English
translation by A. D. Coleridge, 1896); an article in the Rwista
musicale, vi. 727; and the article " Dittersdorf " in Grove's
Dictionary of Music and Musicians.
DITTO (from the Lat. dictum, something said, Ital. detto,
aforesaid) , that which has been said before, the same thing. The
word is frequently abbreviated into " do." In accounts, " ditto "
is indicated by two dots or a dash under the word or figure that
would otherwise be repeated. A " suit of dittos," a trade or slang
phrase, is a suit in which coat, trousers and waistcoat are all of
the same material.
DITTON, HUMPHRY (1675-1715), English mathematician,
was born at Salisbury on the zpth of May 1675. He studied
theology, and was for some years a dissenting minister at
Tonbridge, but on the death of his father he devoted himself
to the congenial study of mathematics. Through the influence
of Sir Isaac Newton he was elected mathematical master in
Christ's hospital. He was author of the following memoirs and
treatises: " Of the Tangents of Curves, &c.," Phil. Trans, vol.
xxiii.; "A Treatise on Spherical Catoptrics," published in the
Phil. Trans, vol. xxiv., from which it was copied and reprinted
in the Ada Eruditorum (1707), and also in the Memoirs of the
Academy of Sciences at Paris; General Laws of Nature and
Motion (i 705) , a work which is commended by Wolfius as illustrat-
ing and rendering easy the writings of Galileo and Huygens, and
the Principia of Newton; An Institution of Fluxions, containing
the First Principles, Operations, and Applications of that admirable
Method, as invented by Sir Isaac Newton (1706). In 1709 he
published the Synopsis Algebraica of John Alexander, with many
additions and corrections. In his Treatise on Perspective (1712)
he explained the mathematical principles of that art; and
anticipated the method afterwards elaborated by Brook Taylor.
In 1714 Ditton published his Discourse on the Resurrection of
Jesus Christ; and The New Law of Fluids, or a Discourse concern-
ing the Ascent of Liquids in exact Geometrical Figures, between two
nearly contiguous Surfaces. To this was annexed a tract (" Matter
not a Cogitative Substance ") to demonstrate the impossibility of
thinking or perception being the result of any combination of the
parts pf matter and motion. There was also added an advertise-
ment from him and William Whiston concerning a method for
discovering the longitude, which it seems they had published
about half a year before. Although the method had been ap-
proved by Sir Isaac Newton before being presented to the Board
of Longitude, and successfully practised in finding the longitude
between Paris and Vienna, the board determined against it.
This disappointment, aggravated as it was by certain lines
written by Dean Swift, affected Ditton's health to such a degree
that he died in the following year, on the isth of October 1715.
DIU, an island and town of India, belonging to Portugal, and
situated at the southern extremity of the peninsula of Kathiawar.
Area of district, 20 sq. m. Pop. (1900) 14,614. The anchorage
is fairly protected from the sea, but the depth of water is only 3 to
4 fathoms. The channel between the island on Diu and the main-
land is navigable only by fishing boats and small craft. The town
is well fortified on the old system, being surrounded by a wall
with towers at regular intervals. Many of the inhabitants are
the well-known Banyan merchants of the east coast of Africa and
Arabia. Native spirits are distilled from the palm, salt is made
and fish caught. The trade of the town, however, is decayed.
There are remains of several fine ancient buildings. The cathedral
or Se Matriz, dating from 1601, was formerly a Jesuit college.
The mint, the arsenal and several convents (now ruined or
converted to other uses) are also noteworthy. The Portuguese,
under treaty with Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, built a fort here in
I 53S, but soon quarrelled with the natives and were besieged in
1538 and 1545. The second siege is one of the most famous
in Indo-Portuguese history, and is the subject of an epic by
Jeronymo Corte Real (?..).
See R. S. Whiteway, Rise of the Portuguese Powerin India (1898).
DIURETICS (from Gr. 5iA, through, and ovpeiv, pass urine),
the name given to remedies which, under certain conditions,
stimulate an increased flow of urine. Their mode of action
is various. Some are absorbed into the blood, carried to the
secretory organs (the kidneys), and stimulate them directly,
causing an increased flow of blood; others act as stimulants
through the nervous system. A second class act in congested
conditions of the kidneys by diminishing the congestion. Another
class, such as the saline diuretics, are effectual by virtue of their
osmotic action. A fourth class are diuretic by increasing the blood
pressure within the vessels in general, and the Malpighian tufts
in particular, some, as digitalis, by increasing the strength of
the heart's contractions, and others, as water, by increasing the
amount of fluid circulating in the vessels. Some remedies, as
mercury, although not diuretic themselves, when prescribed along
with those which have this action, increase their effect. The
same remedy may act in more than one way, e.g. alcohol, besides
stimulating the secretory organs directly, is a stimulant to the
circulation, and thus increases the pressure within the vessels.
Diuretics are prescribed when the quantity of urine is much
diminished, or when, although the quantity may be normal, it is
wished to relieve some other organ or set of organs of part of their
ordinary work, or to aid in carrying off some morbid product
circulating in the blood, or to hasten the removal of inflammatory
serous exudations, or of dropsical collections of fluid. Caffeine,
which is far the best true diuretic, acts in nearly every way
mentioned above. Together with digitalis it is the most efficient
remedy for cardiac dropsy. A famous diuretic pill, known as
Guy's pill, consists of a grain each of mercurial pill, digitalis
leaves and squill, made up with extract of henbane. Digitalis,
producing its diuretic effect by its combined action on heart,
vessels and kidneys, is much used in the oedema of mitral disease,
but must be avoided in chronic Bright's disease, as it increases
the tension of the pulse, already often dangerously high.
Turpentine and cantharides are not now recommended as
diuretics, as they are too irritating to the kidneys.
DIURNAL MOTION, the relative motion of the earth and the
heavens, which results from the rotation of our globe on its axis in
a direction from west toward east. The actual motion consists in
this rotation. But the term is commonly applied to the resultant
apparent revolution of the heavens from east to west, the axis of
which passes through the celestial poles, and is coincident in
direction with the axis of the earth.
DIVAN (Arabic diwan), a Persian word, derived probably from
Aramaic, meaning a " counting-house, office, bureau, tribunal ";
thence, on one side, the " account-books and registers " of such
an office, and, on another, the " room where the office or tribunal
sits"; thence, again, from "account-book, register," a "book
containing the poems of an author," arranged in a definite order
(alphabetical according to the rhyme- words), perhaps because of
the saying, " Poetry is the register (divan) of the Arabs," and
from " bureau, tribunal," " a long seat, formed of a mattress laid
against the side of the room, upon the floor or upon a raised
structure or frame, with cushions to lean against " (Lane, Lexicon,
930 f.). All these meanings existed and exist, especially " bureau,
tribunal," "book of poems" and "seat" 1 ; but the order of
derivation may have been slightly different. The word first
appears under the caliphate of Omar (A.D. 634-644). Great
wealth, gained from the Moslem conquests, was pouring into
Medina, and a system of business management and administration
became necessary. This was copied from the Persians and given
the Persian name, " divan." Later, as the state became more
complicated, the term was extended over all the government
bureaus. The divan of the Sublime Porte was for long the
council of the empire, presided over by the grand vizier.
See Von Kremer, Culturgeschichte des Orients, i. 64, 198.
(D. B. MA.)
1 The divan in this sense has been known in Europe certainly since
about the middle of the l8th century. It was fashionable, roughly
speaking, from 1820 to 1850, wherever the romantic movement in
literature penetrated. All the boudoirs of that generation were
garnished with divans; they even spread to coffee-houses, which
were _ sometimes known as divans or "Turkish divans"; and
a " cigar divan " remains a familiar expression.
326
DIVER DIVERS AND DIVING APPARATUS
DIVER, a name that when applied to a bird is commonly used
in a sense even more vague than that of loom, several of the sea
ducks or Fuligulinae and mergansers being frequently so called,
to say nothing of certain of the auks or Alcidae and grebes; but
in English ornithological works the term diver is generally
restricted to the Family known as Colymbidae, a very well-marked
group of aquatic birds, possessing great, though not exceptional,
powers of submergence, and consisting of a single genus Colymbus
which is composed of three, or at most four, species, all confined
to the northern hemisphere. This Family belongs to the
Cecomorphae of T. H. Huxley, and is usually supposed to occupy
a place between the Alcidae and Podicipedidae; but to which of
these groups it is most closely related is undecided. Professor
Brandt in 1837 (Beitr. Naturgesch. Vogel, pp. 124-132) pointed out
the osteological differences of the grebes and the divers, urging
the affinity of the latter to the auks; while, thirty years later,
Professor Alph. Milne-Edwards (Ois.foss. France, i. pp. 279-283)
inclined to the opposite view, chiefly relying on the similarity of a
peculiar formation of the tibia in the grebes and divers, 1 which
indeed is very remarkable, and, in the latter group, attracted the
attention of Willughby more than 230 years ago. On the other
hand Professor Brandt, and Rudolph Wagner shortly after
(Naumann's Vogel Deulschlands, ix. p. 683, xii. p. 395), had
already shown that the structure of the knee-joint in the grebes
and divers differs in that the former have a distinct and singularly
formed patella (which is undeveloped in the latter) in addition to
the prolonged, pyramidally formed, procnemial process which
last may, from its exaggeration, be regarded as a character almost
peculiar to these two groups. 2 The evidence furnished by oology
and the newly-hatched young seems to favour Brandt's views.
The abortion of the reclrices in the gerbes, while these feathers
are fairly developed in the divers, is another point that helps to
separate the two Families.
The commonest species of Colymbus is C. septentrionalis, known
as the red-throated diver from an elongated patch of dark bay
which distinguishes the throat of the adult in summer dress.
Immature birds want the bay patch, and have the back so much
more spotted that they are commonly known as " speckled
divers." Next in size is the black-throated diver, C. arcticus,
having a light grey head and a gular patch of purplish-black,
above which is a semicollar of white striped vertically with black.
Still bigger is the great northern diver, C. glacialis or torquatus,
with a glossy black head and neck, two semicollars of white and
black vertical stripes, and nearly the whole of the black back and
upper surface of the wings beautifully marked with white spots,
varying in size and arranged in belts. 3 Closely resembling this
bird, so as to be most easily distinguished from it by its yellow bill,
is C. adamsi. The divers live chiefly on fish, and are of eminently
marine habit, though invariably resorting for the purpose of
breeding to freshwater lakes, where they lay two dark brown
eggs on the very brink; but they are not unfrequently found far
from the sea, being either driven inland by stress of weather, or
exhausted in their migrations. Like most birds of their build,
they chiefly trust to swimming, whether submerged or on the
surface, as a means of progress, but once on the wing their flight
is strong and they can mount to a great height. In winter their
range is too extensive and varied to be here defined, though it is
believed never to pass, and in few directions to approach, the
northern tropic; but the geographical distribution of the several
forms in summer requires mention. While C. septentrionalis
inhabits the north temperate zone of both hemispheres, C.
arcticus breeds in suitable places from the Hebrides to Scan-
1 The remains of Colymboides minutus, from the Miocene of Langy,
described by this naturalist in the work just cited, seem to show it to
have been a generalized form. Unfortunately its tibia is unknown.
1 A. H. Garrod, in his tentative and chiefly myological arrange-
ment of Birds (Proc. Zoo/. Society, 1874, p. 117), placed the Colym-
bidae and Podicipedidae in one order (Anseriformes) and the Alcidae
in another (Charadriiformes) ; but the artificial nature of this
assignment may be realized by the fact of his considering the other
Families of the former order to be Anatidae and Spheniscidce.
8 The osteology and myology of this species are described by
Dr Coues (Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. History, i. pp. 131-172, pi. 5).
dinavia, and across the Russian empire, it would seem, to Japan,
reappearing in the north-west of North America, 4 though its
eastern limit on that continent cannot be definitely laid down;
but it is not found in Greenland, Iceland, Shetland or Orkney,
C. glacialis, on the contrary, breeds throughout the north-
eastern part of Canada, in Greenland and in Iceland. It has been
said to do so in Scotland as well as in Norway, but the assertion
seems to lack positive proof, and it may be doubted whether, with
the exception of Iceland, it is indigenous to the Old World, 6 since
the form observed in North-eastern Asia is evidently that which
has been called C. adamsi, and is also found in North-western
America; but it may be remarked that one example of this form
has been taken in England (Proc. Zool. Society, 1859, p. 206) and
at least one in Norway (Nyt Mag. for Natunidenskaberne, 1877,
P- 134). (A. N.)
DIVERS and DIVING APPARATUS. To " dive " (Old Eng.
dufan, dyfan; cf. " dip ") is to plunge under water, and in the
ordinary procedure of swimmers is distinguished from simple
plunging in that it involves remaining under the water for an
interval of more or less duration before coming to the surface.
In the article SWIMMING the sport of diving in this sense is
considered. Here we are only concerned with diving as the
function of a " diver," whose business it is to go under water
(in modern times, assisted by specially devised apparatus) in
order to work.
Unassisted or Natural Diving. The earliest reference to the
practice of the art of diving for a purpose of utility occurs in the
Iliad, 16, 745-750, where Patroclus compares the fall of Hector's
charioteer to the action of a diver diving for oysters. Thus it
would seem that the art was known about 1000 years before
the Christian era. Thucydides is the first to mention the employ-
ment of divers for mechanical work under water. He relates that
divers were employed during the siege of Syracuse to saw down
the barriers which had been constructed below the surface of the
water with the object of obstructing and damaging any Grecian
war vessels which might attempt to enter the harbour. At the
siege of Tyre, divers were ordered by Alexander the Great to
impede or destroy the submarine defences of the besieged as they
were erected. The purpose of these obstructions was analogous
to that of the submarine mine of to-day.
The employment of divers for the salvage of sunken property is
first mentioned by Livy, who records that in the reign of Perseus
considerable treasure was recovered from the sea. By a law of
the Rhodians, their divers were allowed a proportion of the value
recovered, varying with the risk incurred, or the depth from which
the treasure was salved. For instance, if the diver raised it from
a depth of eight cubits (12 ft.) he received one-third for himself;
if from sixteen cubits (24 ft.) one half; but upon goods lost near
the shore, and recovered from a depth of two cubits (36 in.), his
share was only one tenth.
These are examples of unassisted diving as practised by the
Ancients. Their primitive method, however, is still in vogue in
some parts of the world notably in the Ceylon pearl fisheries and
in the Mediterranean sponge fisheries, and it may, therefore, be
as well to mention the system adopted by the natural, or naked,
diver of to-day.
The volume and power of respiration of the lungs vary in
different individuals, some persons being able to hold their breath
longer than others, so that it naturally follows that one man may
be able to stay longer under water than another. The longest
time that a natural diver has been known to remain beneath the
surface is about two minutes. Some pearl and sponge divers rub
4 Lawrence's C. pacificus seems hardly to deserve specific
recognition.
6 In this connexion should be mentioned the remarkable occurrence
in Europe of two birds of this species which had been previously
wounded by a weapon presumably of transatlantic origin. One had
" an arrow headed with copper sticking through its neck," and
was shot on the Irish coast, as recorded by J. Vaughan Thompson
(Nat. Hist. Ireland, iii. p. 201); the other, says Herr H. C. Miiller
(Vid. Mead. nat. Foremng, 1862, p. 35), was found dead in Kal-
baksfjord in the Faeroes with an iron-tipped bone dart fast under
its wing.
DIVERS AND DIVING APPARATUS
327
their bodies with oil, and put wool, saturated with oil, in their
ears. Others hold in their mouth a piece of sponge soaked in oil,
which they renew every time they descend. It is doubtful,
however, whether these expedients are beneficial. The men who
dive in this primitive fashion take with them a flat stone with a
hole in the centre; to this is attached a rope, which is secured to
the diving boat and serves to guide them to particular spots below.
When the diver reaches the sea bottom he tears off as much sponge
within reach as possible, or picks up pearl shells, as the case may
be, and then pulls the rope to indicate to the man in the boat that
he wishes to be hauled up. But so exhausting is the work, and so
severe the strain on the system, that, after a number of dives in
deep water, the men often become insensible, and blood some-
time bursts from nose, ears and mouth.
Early Diving Appliances. The earliest mention of any
appliance for assisting divers is by Aristotle, who says that divers
are sometimes provided with instruments for respiration through
which they can draw air from above the water and which thus
enable them to remain a long time under the sea (De Part. Anim.
2, 1 6), and also that divers breathe by letting down a metallic
vessel which does not get filled with water but retains the air
within it (Problem. 32, 5). It is also recorded that Alexander the
Great made a descent into the sea in a machine called a colimpha,
which had the power of keeping a man dry, and at the same time
of admitting light. Pliny also speaks of divers engaged in the
strategy of ancient warfare, who drew air through a tube, one end
of which they carried in their mouths, whilst the other end was
made to float on the surface of the water. Roger Bacon in
1240, too, is supposed to have invented a contrivance for enabling
men to work under water; and in Vegetius's De Re Militari
(editions of 1511 and 1532, the latter in the British Museum) is
an engraving representing a diver wearing a tight-fitting helmet
to which is attached a long leathern pipe leading to the surface,
where its open end is kept afloat by means of a bladder. This
method of obtaining air during subaqueous operations was
probably suggested by the action of the elephant when swim-
ming; the animal instinctively elevates its trunk so that the
end is above the surface of the water, and thus is enabled to
take in fresh air at every inspiration.
A certain Repton invented " water armour " in the year 1617,
but when tried it was found to be useless. G. A. Borelli in the
year 1679 invented an apparatus which enabled persons to go to a
certain depth under water, and he is credited with being the first
to introduce means of forcing air down to the diver. For this
purpose he used a large pair of bellows. John Lethbridge, a
Devonshire man, in the year 1 715 contrived" a watertight leather
case for enclosing the person." This leather case held about half
a hogshead of air, and was so adapted as to give free play to
arms and legs, so that the wearer could walk on the sea bottom,
examine a sunken vessel and salve her cargo, returning to the
surface when his supply of air was getting exhausted. It is said
that Lethbridge made a considerable fortune by his invention.
The next contrivance worthy of mention, and most nearly
resembling the modern diving-dress, was an apparatus invented
by Kleingert, of Breslau, in 1798. This consisted of an egg-ended
metallic cylinder enveloping the head and the body to the hips.
The diver was encased first of all in a leather jacket having tight-
fitting arms, and in leather drawers with tight-fitting legs. To
these the cylinder was fastened in such a way as to render the
whole equipment airtight. The air supply was drawn through a
pipe which was connected with the mouth of the diver by an ivory
mouthpiece, the surface end being held above water after the
manner mentioned in Vegetius, viz. by means of a floating bladder
attached to it. The foul air escaped through another pipe held in
a similar manner above the surface of the water, inhalation being
performed by the mouth and exhalation by the nose, the act of
inhalation causing the chest to expand and so to expel the vitiated
air through the escape pipe. The diver was weighted when going
under water, and when he wished to ascend he released one of
his weights, and attached it to a rope which he held, and it
was afterwards hauled up.
Modern Apparatus. This, or equally cumbersome apparatus,
was the -only diving gear in use up till 1819, in which year
Augustus Siebe (the founder of the firm of Siebe, Gorman & Co.),
invented his " open " dress, worked in conjunction with an air
force pump. This dress consisted of a metal helmet and shoulder-
plate attached to a watertight jacket, under which, fitting more
closely to the body, were worn trousers, or rather a combination
suit reaching to the armpits. The helmet was fitted with an air
inlet valve, to which one end of a flexible tube was attached, the
other end being connected at the surface with a pump which
supplied the diver with a constant stream of fresh air. The air,
which kept the water well down, forced its way between the jacket
and the under-garment, and escaped to the surface on exactly the
same principle as that of the diving bell; hence the term " open "
as applied to this dress.
Although most excellent work was accomplished with this dress
work which could not be attempted before its introduction it
was still far from perfect. It was absolutely necessary for the
diver to maintain an upright, or but very slightly stooping,
position whilst under water; if he stumbled and fell, the water
filled his dress, and, unless quickly brought to the surface, he was
in danger of being drowned. To overcome this and other defects,
Siebe carried out a large number of experiments extending over
several years, which culminated, in the year 1830, in the intro-
duction of his " close " dress in combination with a helmet fitted
with air inlet and regulating outlet valves.
Though, of course, vast improvements have been introduced
since Siebe's death, in 1872, the fact remains that his principle is
in universal use to this day. The submarine work which it has
been instrumental in accomplishing is incalculable. But some
idea of the importance of the invention may be gathered from the
fact that diving apparatus on Siebe's principle is universally used
to-day in harbour, dock, pier and breakwater construction, in
the pearl and sponge fisheries, in recovering sunken ships, cargo
and treasure, and that every ship in the British navy and in most
foreign navies carries one set or more of diving apparatus.
A modern set of diving apparatus consists essentially of six
parts: (i) an air pump, (2) a helmet with breastplate, (3) a
diving dress, (4)
a pair of heavily
weighted boots,
(5) a pair of back
and chest
weights, (6) a
flexible non-col-
lapsible air tube.
Air Pumps.
The type of air
jump varies with
che depth of water
to which the diver
has to descend; it
will be readily un-
derstood that the
greater the depth
the greater the
quantity of air
required by the
diver. The pat-
tern most gener-
ally in favour
amongst divers of
all classes is a
three - cylinder
single-acting
pump, which is FiG. I. Pump out of chest,
suitable for almost Two-cylinder, Double-action Air Pump for Two
every description Divers,
of work which the A> Air . d i stributing ar . D> Cylinders.
rahVd JTnon to rangement, for one E, Pressure gauges.
diver or two divers. F, Nozzles to which
perlorm either in g Watef . fc d; , . ;
wrt P er. r Anohe W r C ' S r- a " d di " are attached." '
most useful type charge valves.
is a two-cylinder double-acting pump (figs. I and 2), which is
designed to supply two divers working simultaneously in moderate
depths of water, or one diver only in deep water. An air-distributing
arrangement is fitted, whereby, when it is desired to send two men
DIVERS AND DIVING APPARATUS
down together, each cylinder supplies air independently of the other;
and when it is required to send one diver into deep water, the two
cylinders are connected and the full volume of air from both is
delivered to the one man. The same duty is also performed by a
four-cylinder single-acting pump. Smaller pumps, having one
double-acting or two single-acting cylinders, are also used for
shallow water work.
In most cases these air pumps are worked by manual power;
this method of working is rendered necessary by the fact that the
machines are usually placed in small boats from which the divers
work and on which other motive power is not available. In cases,
however, where steam or electric power is available the pumps are
sometimes worked by their means more particularly on harbour
and dock works. In such instances the air is not delivered direct
from the pump to the diver, but is delivered into an intermediate
steel receiver to which the diver's air pipe is connected, the object
FIG. 2. Pump in chest, ready for work.
being to ensure a reserve supply of air in case of a breakdown of the
pump. Some of these combinations of pumps and motors are so
arranged that, in the event of an accident to the motor, the pump
can be thrown out of gear with it, and be immediately worked by
hand power. Each pump is fitted with a gauge (or gauges), indi-
cating not only the pressure of air which the pump is supplying,
but also the depth of water at which the diver is working. The
cylinders are water-jacketed to ensure the air delivered to the diver
being cool, the water being drawn in and circulated round the
cylinders by means of a small metal pump worked from an eccentric
on the mam crank-shaft. Filters are sometimes attached to the
suction and delivery sides of the pumps to ensure the inlet of air
being free from dirt, and the discharge of air free from dirt and oil.
Helmet. The helmet and breastplate (fig. 3) are made from highly
planished tinned copper, with gun-metal valves and other fittings.
The helmet is provided with a non-return air inlet valve to which the
diver's air pipe is connected; the air when it lifts the inlet valve
passes through three conduits one having its outlet over the front
glass, the others their outlets over the side glasses. In this way
the diver gets the air fresh as it enters the helmet, and at the same
time it prevents condensation of his breath on the glasses and keeps
them clear. There is a regulating air outlet valve by which the
diver adjusts his supply of airaccording to his requirements in different
depths of water; the valve is usually made to be adjusted by hand,
but sometimes it is so constructed as to be operated by the diver
knocking his head against it, the spindle being extended through to
the inside of the helmet and fitted at its inner extremity with a
button or disk. By unscrewing the valve, the diver allows air to
escape, and thus the dress is deflated; by screwing it up the air
is retained and the dress inflated. Thus the diver can control his
specific gravity and rise or sink at will. In case by any chance the
diver should inflate the dress inadvertently, and wish to ge't rid of the
superfluous air quickly, he can do so by opening an emergency cock,
which is fitted on the helmet. Plate glasses in gun-metal frames are
also fitted to the helmet, two, one on each side, being permanently
fixed, while one in front is made either to screw in and out, or to work
on a hinged joint like a ship's scuttle; the side glasses are usually
protected by metal cross-bars, as is also sometimes the front glass.
Some divers prefer unprotected glasses at the side of the helmet,
instead of protected oval ones.
The breastplate is fitted on its outer edge with metal screws and
bands. The disposition of the screws corresponds with that of the
holes in the india-rubber collar of the diving dress described below.
There are other methods of making a watertight joint between the
diver's breastplate and the diving dress, but, as these are only
mechanical differences, it will suffice to describe the Siebe-Gorman
apparatus, as exclusively adopted by the British government.
Whatever the shape or design of the helmet or dress, Siebe's principle
is the one in universal use to-day.
The metal tabs are for carrying the diver's lead weights, which are
fitted with suitable clips; the hooks one on each side of the helmet
are for keeping the ropes attached to the back weight in position.
The helmet and breastplate are fitted at their lower and upper parts
respectively with gun-metal segmental neck rings, which make it
possible to connect these two main parts together by one-eighth of
a turn, a catch at the back of the helmet preventing any chance of
unscrewing. The small eyes at the top of the helmet are for securing
the diver's air pipe and life line in position and preventing them from
swaying.
Front view of Helmet.
A, Helmet.
B, Breastplate.
F, Emergency cock.
G, Glasses in frames.
H, Metal screws and bands.
I, Metal tabs.
J, Hooks for keeping weight
ropes in position.
L, Eyes to which air pipe and
life line are secured.
Side sectional view of Helmet.
K, Segmental neck rings.
D, Air conduits.
M, Telephone receiver.
N, Transmitter.
O, Contact piece to ring bell.
n G n
J_
Back view of Helmet.
C,
E,
G,
L,
P,
FIG. 3.
Plan of Helmet.
Air inlet valve.
Regulating outlet valve.
Glasses in frames.
Eyes to which air pipe and
life line are secured.
Connexion for telephone
cable.
The Diving Dress is a combination suit which envelops the whole
body from feet to neck. It is made of two layers of tanned twill with
pure rubber between, and is fitted at the neck with a vulcanized
india-rubber collar, or band, with holes punched in it corresponding
to the screws in the breastplate. This collar, when clamped tightly
between the bands and the breastplate by means of the nuts, ensures
a watertight joint. The sleeves of the dress are fitted with vulcanized
india-rubber cuffs, which, fitting tightly round the diver's wrists,
prevent the ingress of water at these parts also.
Boots. These are generally made with leather uppers, beechwcod
inner soles and leaden outer soles, the latter being secured to the others
by copper rivets. Heavy leather straps with brass buckles secure
the boot to the foot. Each boot weighs about 1 6 Ib. Sometimes the
main part of the boot-golosh, toe and heel, are in one brass casting,
with leather upper part, heavy straps and brass buckles.
Lead Weights. These weigh 40 Ib each, and the diver wears one
on his back, another on his chest. These weights and the heavy
boots ensure the diver's equilibrium when under water.
Belt and Knife and Small Tools. Every diver wears a heavy
waist-belt in which he carries a strong knife in metal case, and some-
times other small tools.
Air Pipe. The diver's air pipe is of a flexible, non-collapsible
description, being made of alternate layers of strong canvas and
vulcanized india-rubber, with steel or hard drawn metal wire em-
bedded. At the ends are fitted gun-metal couplings, for connecting
the pipe with the diver's pump and helmet.
DIVERS AND DIVING APPARATUS
329
Signal Line. The diver's signal line (sometimes called life line)
consists of a length of reverse laid Manila rope. In cases where the
telephone apparatus is not used, the diver gives his signals by means
of a series of pulls on the signal line in accordance with a prearranged
code.
Telephonic Apparatus. Without doubt one of the most useful
adjuncts to the modern diving apparatus is the loud-sounding
telephone (fig. 4), introduced by Siebe, Gorman & Co., which enables
the diver to communicate viva voce with his attendant, and vice
versa. In the British navy the type of submarine telephonic
apparatus used is the Graham-Davis system. This is made on two
plans, (i) a single set of instruments, for communication between
one diver and his attendant direct, (2) an intercommunication set
which is used where two divers are employed. With this type the
attendant can speak to No. I or No. 2 diver separately, or with both
at the same time, and yice versa ; and No. I can be put in communi-
cation with No. 2 whilst they are under water, the attendant at
the surface being able to hear what the men are saying. The
advantages of such a system are obvious. It is more particularly
useful where two divers are working one either side of a ship, or
where the divers may be engaged upon the same piece of work, but
out of sight of one another, or out of touch. It would prove its utility
in a marked degree in cases where a diver got into difficulties; a
second diver sent down to his assistance could receive and give verbal
directions and thus greatly expedite the work of rescue.
The telephone instruments in the helmet consist of one or more
loud-sounding receivers placed either in the crown of the helmet,
or one on each side in close proximity to the diver's ears. A trans-
mitter of a special watertight pattern is placed between the front
glass and one of the side glasses, and a contact piece, which, when
the diver presses his chin against it, rings a bell at the surface, is
fitted immediately below the front glass. A buzzer is sometimes
fixed in the helmet to call the diver's attention when the attendant
wishes to speak, but as a rule the voice is transmitted so loudly that
this device is unnecessary. A connexion, through which the insulated
wires connecting the instruments pass, terminates in contact pieces,
and the telephone
cable, embedded in
the diver's signal
line, is connected
with it. The other
end of the signal line
is connected to a
battery box at the
surface. This box
contains, besides
the cells, a receiver
and transmitter for
the attendant, an
electric bell, a ter-
minal box, and a
special switch, by
means of which vari-
ous communications
Q between diver, or
divers, and attend-
ant are made. If,
as is sometimes the
case, the diver hap-
pens to be somewhat
deaf, he can, whilst
he is taking a mes-
sage, stop the vibra-
tion of the outlet
FIG. 4. Diver's Telephone Communication
with the Surface.
Q, Battery, with switch and bell in case.
R. Attendant's receiver and transmitter.
valve and the noise made by the escaping air, by merely pressing
his finger on a spindle which passes through the disk of the valve,
and thus momentarily ensure absolute silence.
Speaking Tube. The rubber speaking tube which was the fore-
runner of the telephonic apparatus is now practically obsolete, though
it is still used in isolated cases.
Submarine Electric Lamps. Various forms of submarine lamps
are used, from a powerful arc light to a self-contained hand lamp,
the former giving about 2000 or 3000 candle-power, and requiring
a steam-driven dynamo to supply the necessary current, the latter
(fig- 5) giving a light of about ip candle-power and haying its own
batteries, so that the diver carries both the light and its source in
his hand. These submarine lamps are all constructed on the same
principle, having the incandescent lamps, or carbons as the case
may be, enclosed in a strong glass globe, the mechanism and con-
nexions being fitted in a metal case above the globe, which is flanged
and secured watertightly to the case.
Self-contained Diving Dress. The object of the self-contained
diving dress is to make the diver independent of air supply from the
surface. The dress, helmet, boots and weights are of the ordinary
pattern already described, but instead of obtaining his air supply
by means of pumps and pipes, the diver is equipped with a knapsack
consisting of a steel cylinder containing oxygen compressed to a
pressure of 120 atmospheres ( = about 1800 ft)) to the square inch,
and chambers containing caustic soda or caustic potash. The
helmet is connected to the chambers by tubes, and the oxygen
cylinder is similarly connected to the chambers. The breath exhaled
by the diver passes through a valve into the caustic soda, which
absorbs the carbonic acid, and it is then again inhaled through
another valve. This process of regeneration goes on automatically,
the requisite amount of oxygen being restored to the breathed air
in its passage through the chambers. This type of apparatus has
been used for shallow water work, but the great majority of divers
prefer the apparatus using pumps as the source of the air supply.
An emergency dress, using this self-contained system for breathing,
has been designed by Messrs Fleuss and Davis, of the firm of Siebe,
Gorman & Co., primarily as a life-saving apparatus, for enabling men
to escape from disabled submarine boats.
The helmet diver is indispensable in connexion with harbour and
dock construction, bridge-building, pearl and sponge fishing, wreck
FIG. 5. Submarine Electric Lamp, with and without
Reflector.
A, Metal case containing C, Stand, which also pro-
electrical fittings. tects the globe.
B, Glass globe and incan- D, Ring for suspending lamp.
descent lamp. E, Reflector.
raising and the recovery of sunken cargo and treasure. Every ship
in the British navy carries one set or more of diving apparatus, for
use in case of emergency, for clearing fouled propellers, cleaning
valves or ship's hull below the water line, repairing hulls if necessary,
and recovering lost anchors, chains, torpedoes, &c.
Greatest Depths attained. The greatest depth at which useful
work has been performed by a diver is 182 ft. From this depth
a Spanish diver, Angel Erostarbe, recovered 9000 in silver bars
from the wreck of the steamer " Skyro," sunk off Cape Finisterre;
Alexander Lambert succeeded in salving 70,000 from the
Spanish mail steamer " Alphonso XII," sunk in 162 ft. of water
off Las Palmas, Grand Canary; W. Ridyard recovered 50,000 in
silver dollars from the " Hamilton Mitchell," sunk off Leuconna
Reef, China, in 150 ft. There are individual cases where much
larger sums have been recovered, but those mentioned are
particularly notable by reason of the great depth involved and
stand out as the greatest depths at which good work has
been done. The sponge fishers of the Mediterranean work
at a maximum depth of about 150 ft., and the pearl divers of
Australia at 120 ft. But submarine operations on the great
majority of the harbour and dock works of the world are
conducted at a depth of from 30 to 60 ft.
The weighted tools employed by divers differ very little from
those used by the workmen on terra firma. Pneumatic tools,
worked by compressed air conveyed from the surface through
flexible tubes, are great aids, particularly in rock removal work.
With the rock drill the diver bores a number of holes to a given
depth, inserts in these the charges of dynamite or other explosive
used, attaches one end of a wire to a detonator which is inserted in
the charge, and then comes to the surface. The boat from which
he works is then moved away from the scene of operations, paying
out the wire attached to the detonators, and when at a safe
distance the free end of the wire is connected to a magneto
exploding machine, which is then set in motion.
A complete set of diving apparatus costs from 75 to 200,
varying with the depth of water for which it is required.
The pay of a diver depends upon the nature of the work upon
which he is engaged, and also upon the depth of the water. On
harbour and dock work the average wage is 25. to zs. 6d. per hour ;
on wreck work from 33. to 55. an hour, according to depth; on
treasure and cargo recovery so much per day, with a percentage
on the value recovered, generally about 5 %. The pearl fishers of
Australia get so much per ton of shell, and the sponge fishers are
also paid by results.
330
DIVERS AND DIVING APPARATUS
A problem which has been exercising the minds of those
engaged in submarine work is the greatest depth at which it is
possible to work, for, as is well known, many a fine vessel with
valuable cargo and treasure is lying out of reach of the diver owing
to the pressure which he would have to sustain were he to attempt
to reach her. Mr Leonard Hill, and Drs Greenwood and J. J. R.
Macleod conducted experiments in conjunction with Messrs
Siebe, Gorman & Co., with a view to solving this problem, and
their efforts have been attended with some considerable success.
Dr J. S. Haldane has also carried out practical experiments for
the British Admiralty, and under his supervision two naval
officers have succeeded in reaching the unprecedented depth of
210 ft., at which depth the pressure is about 90 ft) to the square
inch.
Dh-ing Bells. Every one is familiar with the experiment of
placing an inverted tumbler in a bowl of water, and seeing the
water excluded from the tumbler by the air inside it. Perhaps it
was to some such experiment as this that the conception of the
diving bell was due. As is well known, the pressure of water
increases with the depth, and for all practical purposes this
pressure can be taken at 4$ ft) to every 10 ft. The following
table shows the pressure at different depths below the surface
of the water:
Dept
20 f
40
80
120
160
200
h.
t. . . .81
Pres
Ibto
sure.
the sq.
in.
I7J
34
52:
69;
8?
If a diving bell be sunk to a depth of, say, 33 ft., the air inside
it will be compressed to about half its original volume, and the bell
itself will be about half filled with water. But if a supply of air be
maintained at a pressure equal to the depth of water at which the
bell is submerged, not only will the water be kept down to the
cutting edge, but the bell will be ventilated and it will be possible
for its occupants to work for hours at a stretch.
Tradition gives Roger Bacon, in 1250, the credit for being
the originator of the diving bell, but actual records are lost in
antiquity. Of the records preserved to us, probably one of the
most trustworthy is an account given in Kaspar Schott's work,
Technica curiosa, published in the year 1664, which quoted from
one John Taisnier, who was in the service of Charles V. This
account describes an experiment which took place at Toledo,
Spain, in the year 1538, before the emperor and some thousands
of spectators, when two Greeks descended into the water in a
large " kettle," suspended by ropes, with its mouth downwards.
The "kettle" was equipoised by lead fixed round its mouth.
The men came up dry, and a lighted candle, which they had
taken down with them, was still burning.
Francis Bacon, in the Novum Organum, lib. ii., makes the
following reference to a machine, or reservoir, of air to which
labourers upon wrecks might resort whenever they required to
take breath:
" A hollow vessel, made of metal, was let down equally to the
surface of the water, and thus carried with it to the bottom of the
sea the whole of the air which it contained. It stood upon three
feet like a tripod which were in length something less than the
height of a man, so that the diver, when he was no longer able to
contain his breath, could put his head into the vessel, and having
filled his lungs again, return to his work."
But it was to Dr Edmund Halley, secretary of the Royal
Society, that undoubtedly the honour is due of having invented
the first really practical diving bell. This is described in the
Philosophical Transactions, 1717, in a paper on " The Art of
Living Under Water by means of furnishing air at the bottom of
the sea in any ordinary depth." Halley 's bell was constructed of
wood, and was covered with lead, which gave it the necessary
sinking weight, and was so distributed as to ensure that it kept
a perpendicular position when in the water. It was in the form
of a truncated cone, 3 ft. in diameter at the top, 5 ft. at the
bottom and 8 ft. high. In the roof a lens was introduced for
admitting light, and also a tap to let out the vitiated air. Fresh
air was supplied to the bell by means of two lead-lined barrels,
each having a bung-hole in the top and bottom. To the hole in
the top was fixed a leathern tube, weighted in such a manner that
it always fell below the level of the bottom of the barrel so that no
air could escape. When, however, the tube was turned up by the
attendant in the bell, the pressure of the water rising through the
hole in the bottom of the barrel, forced the air through the tube at
the top and into the diving bell. These barrels were raised and
lowered alternately, with such success that Halley says that he,
with four others, remained at the bottom of the sea, at a depth
of 9 to 10 fathoms, for an hour and a half at a time without
inconvenience of any sort.
This type of bell was used by John Smeaton in repairing the
foundations of Hexham Bridge in 1778, but instead of weighted
FIG. 6. Ordinary Diving Bell.
barrels, he introduced a force pump for supplying the necessary
air. To Smeaton too we are indebted for the first diving bell
plant in the form with which we are familiar to-day, that cele-
brated engineer having designed a square bell of iron, for use on
the Ramsgate harbour works, in 1 788. This bell, which measured
4! ft. in length, 3 ft. in width and 4! ft. in height, and weighed
2 1 tons, was made sufficiently heavy to sink by its own weight.
It afforded room enough for two men to work, and was supplied
with air by a force pump worked from a boat at the surface.
Though the diving bell has been largely superseded by the
modern diving apparatus, it is still used on certain classes of
work the magnitude of which justifies the expense entailed, for
it is not only a question of the cost of the bell, but of the
powerful steam-driven crane which is needed to lower and raise
it, and also of the gantry on which the crane travels. Sometimes
a barge or other vessel is used for working the bell.
At the present day, two types of diving bell are employed
the ordinary bell, and the air-lock bell, which, however, is not so
largely used.
On the new national harbour works at Dover, four large diving
bells of the ordinary type (fig. 6) were employed. These bells, in
each of which from four to six men descended at a time, consisted
of steel chambers, open at the bottom, measuring 17 ft. long by
ioj ft. wide by 7 ft. high, and each weighed 35 tons. The ballast,
which at once gives the necessary sinking weight to the bell and
maintains its equilibrium, consisted of slabs of cast iron bolted to
the walls of the bell, inside. Each bell was fitted with loud-sounding
telephonic apparatus, by means of which the occupants could com-
municate either with the men attending the crane or the men looking
after the air compressors at the surface. Electric lamps, supplied
with current by a dynamo in the compressor room, gave the neces-
sary light inside the bell. Seats and foot rails were provided for the
men, and there were racks and hooks for the various tools. Sus-
pended from the roof was an iron skip into which the men threw the
DIVES-SUR-MER DIVIDEND
excavated material, which was emptied out when the bell was brought
to the surface. Air was supplied to the bells by means of steam-
driven compressors worked in a house erected on the gantry. The
air was delivered into a steel air receiver, and thence it passed through
a flexible tube connected to a gun-metal inlet valve in the roof of the
diving bell ; the pressure of air was regulated according to the depth
at which the bell happened to be working. The maximum depth
on the Dover works was between 60 and 70 ft.,=about 25-30 Ib to
the square inch. A bell was lowered by means of powerful steam-
driven cranes, travelling on a gantry, to within a few feet of the water,
and the men entered it from a boat. The bell then continued its
descent to the bottom, where the men, with pick and shovel, levelled
the sea bed ready to receive the large concrete blocks, weighing from
Fig. 7. Air-lock Diving Bell.
A, Working chamber. E, Tackles suspended from roof
B, Air-lock. for raising and lowering
C, Pulleys and wire ropes for objects.
lowering and raising bell. F, Air supply pipe.
D, Iron ladder.
30 to 42 tons apiece. Having completed one section, the bell was
moved along to another. The concrete blocks were then lowered and
placed in position by helmet diyers. The bell divers, clad in thick
woollen suits and watertight thigh boots, worked in shifts of about
three hours each, and were paid at the rate of from is. to I5d.
per hour.
The cost of an ordinary diving bell, including air compressor,
telephonic apparatus and electric light, is from 600 to 1500,
according to size.
The Air-lock Diving Bell (fig. 7) comprises an iron or steel working
chamber similar to the ordinary diving bell, but with the addition of
a shaft attached to its roof. At the upper end of the shaft is an air-
tight door, and about 8 ft. below this is another similar door. When
the bell divers wish to enter the bell, they pass through the first
door and close it after them, and then open a cock or valve and
gradually let into the space between the two doors compressed air
from the working chamber in order to equalize the pressure ; they
then open the second door and pass down into the working chamber,
closing the door after them. When returning to the surface they
reverse the operation. It can readily be imagined that, owing to its
unwieldy character, the employment of the air-lock bell is resorted
to onjy in those cases where the nature of the sea bed necessitates its
remaining on a given spot for some considerable time, as for instance
in the excavation of hard rock to a given depth.
An air-lock bell supplied to the British Admiralty, for use in
connexion with the laying of moorings at Gibraltar, has a working
chamber measuring 15 ft. long by lof ft. wide, by 7J ft. high, and a
shaft 37$ ft. high by 3 ft. in diameter. It is built of steel plates, with
cast-iron ballast, and its total weight is about 46 tons. The bell is
electrically lighted, and is fitted with telephonic apparatus com-
municating with the air-compressor room and lifting-winch room.
It is worked through a well in the centre of a specially constructed
steel barge 85 ft. long by 40 ft. beam, having a draught of 7 ft. 6 in.
The wire ropes, for lowering and raising the bell, work over pulleys
which are carried on a superstructure erected over the well. Two
sets of air compressors are fitted on the barge one set for supplying
air to the bell, the other set for working a pneumatic rock drift inside
the bell. The greatest depth at which this particular bell will work
is 40 ft. The cost of the whole plant, including barge, was about
14,000.
The diving dress has, however, to a great extent supplanted the
diving bell. This is due not only to the heavier cost of the latter, but
more particularly to the greater mobility of the helmet diver. Bell
divers are naturally limited to the area which their bell for the time
being covers, whereas helmet divers can be distributed over different
parts of a contract and work entirely independently of one another.
The use of the diving bell is, therefore, practically limited to the work
of levelling the sea bed, and the removal of rock.
See also the article CAISSON DISEASE as regards the physiological
effects of compressed air. (R. H. D.*)
DIVES-SUR-MER, a small port and seaside resort of north-
western France on the coast of the department of Calvados, on
theDives, ism. N.E.of Caenbyroad. Pop. (1906) 3286. Dives
is celebrated as the harbour whence William the Conqueror sailed
to England in 1066. In the porch of its church (i4th and isth
centuries) a tablet records the names of some of his companions.
The town has a picturesque inn, adapted from a building dating
partly from the i6th century, and market buildings dating from
the i4th to the i6th centuries. The coast in the vicinity of Dives
is fringed with small watering-places, those of Cabourg (to the
west) and of Beuzeval and Houlgate (to the east) being practically
united with it. There are large metallurgical works with electric
motive power close to the town.
DIVIDE, a word used technically as a noun in America and the
British colonies for any high ridge between two valleys, forming
a water-parting; a dividing range. For special senses of the
verb " to divide " (Lat. di-videre, the latter part of the word
coming from a root seen in Lat. vidua, Eng. " widow "), meaning
generally to split up in two or more parts, see DIVISION. In a
parliamentary sense, to divide (involving a separation into two
sides, Aye and No) is to take the sense of the House by voting
on the subject before it.
DIVIDEND (Lat. dividendum, a thing to be divided), the net
profit periodically divisible among the proprietors of a joint-
stock company in proportion to their respective holdings of its
capital. Dividend is not interest, although the word dividend is
frequently applied to payments of interest; and a failure to pay
dividends to shareholders does not, like a failure to pay interest
on borrowed money, lay a company open to being declared
bankrupt. In bankruptcy a dividend is the proportionate share
of the proceeds of the debtor's estate received by a creditor. In
England, the Companies Act 1862 provided that no dividend
should be payable except out of the profits arising from the busi-
ness of the company, but, in the case of companies incorporated by
special act of parliament for the construction of railways and
other public works which cannot be completed for a considerable
time, it is sometimes provided that interest may during construc-
tion be paid to the subscribers for shares out of capital. Dividends
(excluding occasional distributions in the form of shares) are
ordinarily payable in cash. Most companies divide their capital
into at least two classes, called " preference " shares and
" ordinary " shares, of which the former are entitled out of the
profits of the company to a preferential dividend at a fixed
rate, and the latter to whatever remains after payment of the
preferential dividend and any fixed charges. Before, however, a
dividend is paid, a part of the profits is often carried to a " reserve
332
DIVIDIVI DIVINATION
fund." The dividend on preference shares is either " cumulative "
or contingent on the profits of each separate year or half year.
When cumulative, if the profits of any one year are insufficient
to pay it in full, the deficiency has to be made good out of subse-
quent profits. A cumulative preferential dividend is sometimes
said to be " guaranteed," and preferential dividends payable by
all English companies registered under the Companies Acts 1862
to 1 908 are cumulative unless stipulated to be otherwise. Certain
public companies are forbidden by parliament to pay dividends in
excess of a prescribed maximum rate, but this restriction has
been happily modified in some instances, notably in the case of
gas companies, by the institution of a sliding scale, under which a
gas company may so regulate the price of gas to be charged to
consumers that any reduction of an authorized standard price
entitles the company to make a proportionate increase of the
authorized dividend, and any increase above the standard price
involves a proportionate decrease of dividend. Dividends are
usually declared yearly or half-yearly; and before any dividend
can be paid it is., as a rule, necessary for the directors to submit
to the shareholders, at a general meeting called for the purpose,
the accounts of the company, with a report by the directors on its
position and their recommendation as to the rate of the proposed
dividend. The articles of association of a company usually
provide that the shareholders may accept the director's recom-
mendation as to dividend or may declare a lower one, but may
not declare a higher one than the directors recommend. Directors
frequently have power to pay on account of the dividend for the
year, without consulting the shareholders, an "interim dividend,"
which on ordinary shares is generally at a much lower rate than
the final or regular dividend. An exceptionally high dividend
is often distributed in the shape of a dividend at the usual rate
supplemented by an additional dividend or " bonus." Payment
of dividends is made by means of cheques sent by post, called
" dividend warrants." All dividends are subject to income-tax,
and by most companies dividends are paid " less income-tax,"
in which case the tax is deducted from the amount of dividend
payable to each proprietor. When paid without such deduction
a dividend is said to be " free of income-tax." In the latter case,
however, the company has to make provision for payment of the
tax before declaring the dividend, and the amount of its divisible
profits and the rate of dividend which it is able to declare are
consequently to that extent reduced. In respect of consols and
certain other securities, holders of amounts of less than 1000 may
instruct the Bank of England or Bank of Ireland to receive and
invest their dividends. With few exceptions, the prices of
securities dealt in on the London Stock Exchange include any
accruing dividend not paid up to the date of purchase. At a
certain day, after the dividend is declared, the stock or share is
dealt in on the Stock Exchange, as ex dividend (or "x. d."), which
means that the current dividend is paid not to the buyer but
to the previous holder, and the price of the stock is lower to that
extent. The expression " cum dividend " is used to signify that
the price of the security dealt in includes a dividend which, in
the absence of any stipulation, might be supposed to belong to
the seller of the security. On the New York Stock Exchange the
invariable practice is to sell stock with the " dividend on " until
the company's books are closed, after which it is usually sold
" ex dividend." (S. D. H.)
DIVIDIVI, the native and commercial name for the astringent
pods of Caesalpinia coriaria, a leguminous shrub of the suborder
Caesalpinieae, which grows in low marshy tracts in the West
Indies and the north of South America. The plant is between
20 and 30 ft. in height, and bears white flowers. The pods are
flattened, and curl up in drying; they are about f in. broad, from
2 to 3 in. long and of a rich brown colour. Dividivi was first
brought to Europe from Caracas in 1 768. It contains about 30 %
of ellagitannic acid, whence its value in leather manufacture.
DIVINATION, the process of obtaining knowledge of secret or
future things by means of oracles, omens or astrology. The root
of the word, deus (god) or divus, indicates the supposed source of
the soothsayer's information, just as the equivalent Greek term,
ffi, indicates the spiritual source of the utterances of the seer,
pavns. In classical times the view was, in fact, general, as may
be seen by Cicero's De divinatione, that not only oracles but also
omens were signs sent by the gods; even the astrologer held that
he gained his information, in the last resort, from the same source.
On the side of the Stoics it was argued that if divination was a real
art, there must be gods who gave it to mankind; against this
it was argued that signs of future events may be given without
any god.
Divination is practised in all grades of culture; its votaries
range from the Australian black to the American medium. There
is no general agreement as to the source of the information;
commonly it is held that it comes from the gods directly or
indirectly. In the Bornean cult of the hawk it seems that the
divine bird itself was regarded as having a foreknowledge of
the future. Later it is regarded as no more than a messenger.
Among the Australian blacks, divination is largely employed to
discover the cause of death, where it is assumed to be due to
magic; in some cases the spirit of the dead man is held to give
the information, in others the living magician is the source of the
knowledge. We find moreover as emi-scientific conception of the
basis of divination; the whole of nature is linked together; just
as the variations in the height of a column of mercury serve to
foretell the weather, so the flight of birds or behaviour of cattle
may help to prognosticate its changes; for the uncultured it is
merely a step to the assumption that animals know things which
are hidden from man. Haruspication, or the inspection of
entrails, was justified on similar grounds, and in the case of omens
from birds or animals, no less than in astrology, it was held that
the facts from which inferences were drawn were themselves in
part the causes of the events which they foretold, thus fortifying
the belief in the possibility of divination.
From a psychological point of view divinatory methods may be
classified under two main heads: (A) autoscopic, which depend
simply on some change in the consciousness of the soothsayer;
(B) heteroscopic, in which he looks outside himself for guidance
and perhaps infers rather than divines in the proper sense.
(A) Autoscopic methods depend on (i.) sensory or (ii.) motor
automatisms, or (iii.) mental impressions, for their results,
(i.) Crystal-gazing (q.i>.) is a world-wide method of divining, which
is analogous to dreams, save that the vision is voluntarily initiated,
though little, if at all, under the control of the scryer. Corre-
sponding to crystal-gazing we have shell-hearing and similar
methods, which are, however, less common; in these the informa-
tion is gained by hearing a voice, (ii.) The divining rod (q.v.) is
the best-known example of this class; divination depending on
automatic movements of this sort is found at all stages of culture;
in Australia it is used to detect the magician who has caused the
death of a native; in medieval and modern times water-divining
or dowsing has been largely and successfully used. Similar in
principle is coscinomancy, or divining by a sieve held suspended,
which gives indications by turning; and the equally common
divination by a suspended ring, both of which are found from
Europe in the west to China and Japan in the east. The ordeal by
the Bible and key is equally popular; the book is suspended by a
key tied in with its wards between the leaves and supported on
two persons' fingers, and the whole turns round when the name of
the guilty person is mentioned. Confined to higher cultures on
the other hand, for obvious reasons, is divination by automatic
writing, which is practised in China more especially. The sand
divination so widely spread in Africa seems to be of a different
nature. Trance speaking, on the other hand, may be found in any
stage of culture and there is no doubt that in many cases the
procedure of the magician or shaman induces a state of auto-
hypnotism; at a higher stage these utterances are termed oracles
and are believed io be the result of inspiration (q.v.). (iii.) An-
other method of divination is by the aid of mental impressions;
observation seems to show that by some process of this sort, akin
to clairvoyance (q.v.), fortunes are told successfully by means of
palmistry or by laying the cards; for the same " lie " of the cards
may be diversely interpreted to meet different cases. In other
cases the impression is involuntary or less consciously sought,
as in dreams (?..), which, however, are sometimes induced, for
DIVINING-ROD
333
purposes of divination, by the process known as incubation or
temple sleep. Dreams are sometimes regarded as visits to or
from gods or the souls of the dead, sometimes as signs to be
interpreted symbolically by means of dream-books, which are
found not only in Europe but in less cultured countries like Siam.
(B) In heteroscopic divination the process is rather one of
inference from external facts. The methods are very various,
(i.) The casting of lots, sortilege, was common in classical
antiquity; the Homeric heroes prayed to the gods when they cast
lots in Agamemnon's leather cap, and Mopsus divined with sacred
lots when the Argonauts embarked. Similarly dice are thrown
for purposes of sortilege; the astragali or knucklebones, used
in children's games at the present day, were implements of
divination in the first instance. In Polynesia the coco-nut is
spun like a teetotum to discover a thief. Somewhat different are
the omens drawn from books; in ancient times the poets were
often consulted, more especially Virgil, whence the name sortes
virgUianae, just as the Bible is used for drawing texts in our own
day, especially in Germany, (ii.) In haruspication, or the inspec-
tion of entrails, in scapulomancy or divination by the speal-bone
or shoulder-blade, in divination by footprints in ashes, found
in Australia, Peru and Scotland, the voluntary element is
prominent, for the diviner must take active steps to secure the
conditions necessary to divination, (iii.) In the case of augury
and omens, on the other hand, that is not necessary. The
behaviour and cries of birds, and angang or meeting with ominous
animals, &c., may be voluntarily observed, and opportunities for
observation made; but this is not necessary for success, (iv.) In
astrology we have a method which still finds believers among
people of good education. The stars are held, not only to prog-
nosticate the future but also to influence it; the child born when
Mars is in the ascendant will be war-like; Venus has to do with
love; the sign of the Lion presides over places where wild beasts
are found, (v.) In other cases the tie that binds the subject of
divination with the omen-giving object is sympathy. The name
of the life-index is given to a tree, animal or other object believed
to be so closely united by sympathetic ties to a human being that
the fate of the latter is reflected in the condition of the former.
The Polynesians set up sticks to see if the warriors they stood
for were to fall in battle; on Hallowe'en in our own country the
behaviour of nuts and other objects thrown into the fire is held to
prognosticate the lot of the person to whom they have been
assigned. Where, as in the last two cases, the sympathetic
bond is less strong, we find symbolical interpretation playing
an important part.
Sympathy and symbolism, association of ideas and analogy,
together with a certain amount of observation, are the explana-
tion of the great mass of heteroscopic divinatory formulae. But
where autoscopic phenomena play the chief part the question of
the origin of divination is less simple. The investigations of the
Society for Psychical Research show that premonitions, though
rare in our own day, are not absolutely unknown. Pseudo-
premonitions, due to hallucinatory memory, are not unknown;
there is also some ground for holding that crystal-gazers are able
to perceive incidents which are happening at a distance from
them. Divination of this sort, therefore, may be due to observa-
tion and experiment of a rude sort, rather than to the unchecked
play of fancy which resulted in heteroscopic divination.
See also the articles AUGURS, ORACLE, ASTROLOGY, OMEN, &c.
AUTHORITIES. Bouche Leclercq, Histpire de la divination dans
Vantiquite; Tylor, Primitive Culture, passim; Maury, " La Magie et
1'astrologie," Journ. Anlh. Inst. i. 163, v. 4.36; Folklore, iii. 193;
Ellis, Tshi-speaking Peoples, p. 202; Dictionnaire encyclopedique
des sciences medicales, xxx. 24-96; Journ. of Philology, xiii. 273,
xiv. 113; Deubner, De incubatione; Lenormant, La Divination, et
la science de presages chez les Chaldeens; Skeat, Malay Magic;
J. Johnson, Yoruba Heathenism (1899). (N. W. T.)
DIVINING - ROD. As indicated in the article MAGIC,
Rhabdomancy, or the art of using a divining-rod for discovering
something hidden, is apparently of immemorial antiquity, and
the Roman mrgula diiiina, as used in taking auguries by means of
casting bits of stick, is described by Cicero and Tacitus (see also
DIVINATION) ; but the special form of mrgula furcata, or forked
twig of hazel or willow (see also HAZEL), described by G. Agricola
(De re metallica, 1546), and in Sebastian Munster's Cosmography
in the early part of the i6th century, used specially for discovering
metallic lodes or water beneath the earth, must be distinguished
from the genera] superstition. The " dowsing " or divining-rod,
in this sense, has a modern interest, dating from its use by
prospectors for minerals in the German (Harz Mountains) mining
districts; the French chemist M. E. Chevreul 1 assigns its first
mention to Basil Valentine, the alchemist of the late 1 5th century.
On account of its supposed magical powers, it may be taken
perhaps as an historical analogue to such fairy wands as the
caauceus of Mercury, the golden arrow of Herodotus's " Abaris
the Hyperborean," or the medieval witch's broomstick. But
the existence of the modern water-finder or dowser makes the
divining-rod a matter of more than mythological or superstitious
interest. The Schlagruthe (striking-rod), or forked twig of the
German miners, was brought to England by those engaged in the
Cornish mines by the merchant venturers of Queen Elizabeth's
day. Professor W. F. Barrett, F.R.S., the chief modern in-
vestigator of this subject, regards its employment, dating as it
does from the revival of learning, as based on the medieval
doctrine of " sympathy," the drooping of trees and character of
the vegetation being considered to give indications of mineral
lodes beneath the earth's surface, by means of a sort of attrac-
tion; and such critical works as Robert Boyle's (1663), or the
Mineralogia Cornubiensis of Pryce (1778), admitted its value in
discovering metals. But as mining declined in Cornwall, the use
of the dowser for searching for lodes almost disappeared, and was
transferred to water-finding. The divining-rod has, however,
also been used for searching for any buried objects. In the south
of France, in the i7th century, it was employed in tracking
criminals and heretics. Its abuse led to a decree of the Inquisition
in 1701, forbidding its employment for purposes of justice.
In modern times the professional dowser is a " water-finder,"
and there has been a good deal of investigation into the possibility
of a scientific explanation of his claims to be able to locate under-
ground water, where it is not known to exist, by the use of a
forked hazel-twig which, twisting in his hands, leads him by its
directing-power to the place where a boring should be made.
Whether justified or not, a widespread faith exists, based no doubt
on frequent success, in the dowser's power; and Professor
Barrett (The Times, January 21, 1905) states that "making
a liberal allowance for failures of which I have not heard, I have
no hesitation in saying that where fissure water exists and the
discovery of underground water sufficient for a domestic supply
is a matter of the utmost difficulty, the chances of success with a
good dowser far exceed mere lucky hits, or the success obtained
by the most skilful observer, even with full knowledge of the local
geology." Is this due to any special faculty in the dowser, or
has the twig itself anything to do with it ? Held in balanced
equilibrium, the forked twig, in the dowser's hands, moves with a
sudden and often violent motion, and the appearance of actual
life in the twig itself, though regarded as mere stage-play by
some, is popularly associated with the cause of the water-
finder's success. The theory that there is any direct connexion
(" sympathy " or electrical influence) between the divining-rod
and the water or metal, is however repudiated by modern science.
Professor Barrett, who with Professor Janet and others is satisfied
that the rod twists without any intention or voluntary deception
on the part of the dowser, ascribes the phenomenon to " motor-
automatism " on the part of the dowser (see AUTOMATISM), a
reflex action excited by some stimulus upon his mind, which may
ae either a subconscious suggestion or an actual impression
[obscure in its nature) from an external object or an external
nind; both sorts of stimulus are possible, so that the dowser
limself may make false inferences (and fail) by supposing that
:he stimulus is an external object (like water). The divining-rod
aeing thus " an indicator of any sub-conscious suggestion or
mpression," its indications, no doubt, may be fallacious; but
Professor Barrett, basing his conclusions upon observed successes
and their greater proportion to failures than anything that
1 La Baguette divinatoire (Paris, 1845).
334
DIVISION DIVORCE
chance could produce, advances the hypothesis that some persons
(like the professional dowsers) possess " a genuine super-normal
perceptive faculty," and that the mind of a good dowser, possess-
ing the idiosyncrasy of motor-automatism, becomes a blank or
tabula rasa, so that " the faintest impression made by the object
searched for creates an involuntary or automatic motion of the
indicator, whatever it may be." Like the " homing instinct " of
certain birds and animals, the dowser's power lies beneath the
level of any conscious perception; and the function of the forked
twig is to act as an index of some material or other mental
disturbance within him, which otherwise he could not interpret.
It should be added that dowsers do not always use any rod.
Some again use a willow rod, or withy, others a hazel-twig (the
traditional material), others a beech or holly twig, or one from
any other tree; others even a piece of wire or watch-spring. The
best dowsers are said to have been generally more or less illiterate
men, usually engaged in some humble vocation.
Sir W. H. Preece (The Times, January 16, 1005), repudiating
as an electrician the theory that any electric force is involved,
has recorded his opinion that water-finding by a dowser is due to
" mechanical vibration, set up by the friction of moving water,
acting upon the sensitive ventral diaphragm of certain exception-
ally delicately framed persons." Another theory is that water-
finders are " exceptionally sensitive to hygroraetric influences."
In any case, modern science approaches the problem as one
concerning which the facts have to be accepted, and explained
by some natural, though obscure, cause.
See for further details Professor Barrett's longer discussion in parts
32 (1897) and 38 (1900) of the Proceedings of the Society for Psychical
Research.
DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate) ,
a general term for the action of breaking up a whole into parts.
Thus, in political economy, the phrase " division of labour "
implies the assignment to particular workmen of the various
portions of a whole piece of work; jn mathematics division is
the process of finding how many times one number or quantity,
the " divisor," is contained in another, the " dividend " (see
ARITHMETIC and ALGEBRA); in the musical terminology of the
1 7th and i8th centuries, the term was used for rapid passages
consisting of a few slow notes amplified into a florid passage,
i.e. into a larger number of quick ones. The word is used also in
concrete senses for the parts into which a thing is divided, e.g. a
division of an army, an administrative or electoral division;
similarly, a "division" is taken in a legislative body when votes
are recorded for and against a proposed measure.
In logic, division is a technical term for the process by which
a genus is broken up into its species. Thus the genus " animal "
may be divided, according to the habitat of the various kinds,
into animals which live on land, those which live in water, those
which live in the air. Each of these may be subdivided according
to whether their constituent members do or do not possess certain
other qualities. The basis of each of these divisions is called the
fundamenlum divisionis. It is clear that there can be no division
in respect of those qualities which make the genus what it is.
The various species are all alike in the possession of the generic
attributes, but differ in other respects; they are " variations on
the same theme " (Joseph, Introduction to Logic, 1906); each one
has the generic, and also certain peculiar, qualities (differentiae),
which latter distinguish them from other species of the same
genus. The process of division is thus the obverse of classification
(?..); it proceeds from genus to species, whereas classification
begins with the particulars and rises through species to genus. In
the exact sciences, and indeed in all argument both practical
and theoretical, accurate division is of great importance. It is
governed by the following rules, (i) Division must be exhaustive;
all the members of the genus must find a place in one or other of
the species; a captain who selects for his team skilful batsmen
and bowlers only is guilty of an incomplete division of the whole
function of a cricket team by omitting to provide himself with
good fielders. Rectilinear figures cannot be divided into triangles
and quadrilaterals because there are rectilinear figures which
have more than four sides. On the other hand, triangles can be
divided into equilateral, isosceles and scalene, since no other kind
of triangle can exist, (a) Division must be exclusive, that is, each
species must be complete in itself and not contain members of
another species. No member of a genus must be included in more
than one of the species. (3) In every division there must be but one
principle (fundamentum divisionis). The members of a genus
may differ from one another in many respects, e.g. books may
be divided according to external form into quarto, octavo, &c.,
or according to binding into calf, cloth, paper-backed and so on.
They cannot, however, be divided logically into quarto, paper-
backed, novels and remainders. When more than one principle is
used in a division it is called " cross division." (4) Division must-
proceed gradually (" Divisio non facit saltum "), i.e. the genus
must be resolved into the next highest (" proximate ") species.
To go straight from a summum genus to very small species is of no
scientific value.
It is to be observed that logical division is concerned exclusively
with universals or concepts; division is of genus and species, not
of particulars. Two other kinds of division are recognized:
metaphysical division, the separation in thought of the various
qualities possessed by an individual thing (a piece of lead has
weight, colour, &c.), and physical division or partition, the
breaking up of an object into its parts (a watch is thought of
as being composed of case, dial, works, &c.). Logical division is
closely allied with logical definition (<?..).
DIVORCE (Lat. divortium, derived from dis.-, apart, and
vertere, to turn), the dissolution, in whole or in part, of the tie
of marriage. It includes both the complete abrogation of the
marriage relation known as a divorce a vinculo matrimonii, which
carries with it a power on the part of both parties to the marriage
to remarry other persons or each other, and also that incomplete
severance not involving powers to remarry, which was formerly
known as divorce a mensa et thoro, and.has in England been termed
" judicial separation." Less strictly, divorce is commonly under-
stood to include judicial declarations of nullityof marriage, which,
while practically terminating the marriage relation, proceed in
law on the basis of the marriage never having been legally
established.
The conditions under which, in different communities, divorce
has at different times been permitted, vary with the aspects in
which the relation of marriage (q.v.) has been regarded. When
marriage has been deemed to be the acquisition by the husband
of property in the wife, or when it has been regarded as a mere
agreement between persons capable both to form and to dissolve
that contract, we find that marriage has been dissoluble at the
will of the husband, or by agreement of the husband and wife.
Yet even in these cases the interest of the whole community in
the purity of marriage relations, in the pecuniary bearings of this
particular contract, and the condition of children, has led to the
imposition of restrictions on, and the attachment of conditions to,
the termination of the obligations consequent on a marriage
legally contracted. But the main restrictions on liberty of divorce
have arisen from the conception of marriage entertained by
religions, and especially by one religion. Christianity has had no
greater practical effect on the life of mankind than in its belief
that marriage is no mere civil contract, but a vow in the sight
of God binding the parties by obligations of conscience above
and beyond those of civil law. Translating this conception into
practice, Christianity not only profoundly modified the legal
conditions of divorce as formulated in the Roman civil law, but
in its own canon law defined its own rule of divorce, going so far
as in the Western (at least in its unreformed condition), though
not the Eastern, branch of Christendom to forbid all complete
divorces, that is to say, all dissolutions of marriage carrying with
them the right to remarry.
HISTORY
The Roman Law of Divorce before Justinian. The history of
divorce, therefore, practically begins with the law of Rome. It
took its earliest colour from that conception of the patria potestas,
or the power of the head of the family over its members, which
enters so deeply into the jurisprudence of ancient Rome. The
HISTORY]
DIVORCE
335
wife was transferred at marriage to the authority of her husband,
in manus, and consequently became so far subject to him that
he could, at his will, renounce his rule over her, and terminate his
companionship, subject at least to an adjustment of the pecuniary
rights which were disturbed by such action. So clearly was the
power of the husband derived from that of the father, that for a
long period a father, in the exercise of his potestas, could take his
daughter from her husband against the wishes of both. It may
be presumed that this power, anomalous as it appears, was not
unexercised, as we find that a constitution of Antoninus Pius
prohibited a father from disturbing a harmonious union, and
Marcus Aurelius afterwards limited this prohibition by allowing
the interference of a father for strong and just cause magna et
justa causa inteneniente. Except in so far as it was restrained
by special legislation, the authority of a husband in the matter
of divorce was absolute. As early indeed, however, as the time of
Romulus, it is said that the state asserted its interest in the
permanence of marriage by forbidding the repudiation of wives
unless they were guilty of adultery or of drinking wine, on pain of
forfeiture of the whole of an offender's property, one-half of which
went to the wife, the other to Ceres. But the law of the XII.
Tables, in turn, allowed freedom of divorce. It would appear,
however, that the sense of the community was so far shocked by
the inhumanity of treating a wife as mere property, or the risk of
regarding marriage as a mere terminable contract, that, without
crystallizing into positive enactment, it operated to prevent the
exercise of so harsh and dangerous a power. It is said that for
500 years no husband took advantage of his power, and it
was then only by an order of a censor, however obtained, that
Spurius Carvilius Ruga repudiated his wife for barrenness. We
may, however, be permitted to doubt the genuineness of this
censorial order, or at least to conjecture the influence under which
the censor was induced to intervene, when we find that in another
instance, that of L. Antonius, a censor punished an unjust divorce
by expulsion from the senate, and that the exercise of their power
by husbands increased to a great and alarming extent. Probably
few of the admirers of the greatest of Roman orators have not
regretted his summary and wholly informal repudiation of
Terentia. At last the lex Julia de adulteriis, while recognizing a
power of divorce both in the husband and in the wife, imposed on
it, in the public interest, serious restrictions and consequences.
It required a written bill of divorce (libettus repudii) to be given
in the presence of seven witnesses, who must be Roman citizens
of age, and the divorce must be publicly registered. The act was,
however, purely an act of the party performing it, and no idea of
judicial interference or contract seems to have been entertained.
It was not necessary for either husband or wife giving the bill to
acquaint the other with it before its execution, though it was
considered proper to deliver the bill, when made, to the other
party. In this way a wife could divorce a lunatic husband, or the
paterfamilias of a lunatic wife could divorce her from her husband.
But the lex Julia was also the first of a series of enactments by
which pecuniary consequences were imposed on divorce both by
husbands and wives, whether the intention was to restrain divorce
by penalties of this nature, or to readjust pecuniary relations
settled on the basis of marriage and disturbed by its rupture. It
was provided that if the wife was guilty of adultery, her husband
in divorcing her could retain one-sixth of her dos, but if she had
committed a less serious off ence, one-eighth. If the husband was
guilty of adultery, he had to make immediate restitution of her
dowry, or if it consisted of land, the annual proceeds for three
years; if he was guilty of a less serious offence, he had six months
within which to restore the dos. If both parties were in fault, no
penalty fell on either. The lex Julia was followed by a series of
acts of legislation extending and modifying its provisions. The
legislation of Constantine, A.D. 331, specified certain causes for
which alone a divorce could take place without the imposition of
pecuniary penalties. There were three causes for which a wife
could divorce her husband with impunity: (i) murder, (2)
preparation of poisons, (3) violation of tombs; but if she divorced
him for any other cause, such as drunkenness, or gambling or
immoral society, she forfeited her dowry and incurred the further
penalty of deportation. There were also three causes for which a
husband could divorce his wife without incurring any penalty:
(1) adultery, (2) preparation of poisons, (3) acting as a procuress.
If he divorced her for any other cause, he forfeited all interest in
her dowry; and if he married again, the first wife could take the
dowry of the second.
In A.D. 421 the emperors Honorius and Theodosius enacted
a law of divorce which introduced limitations on the power of
remarriage as an additional penalty in certain cases. As regards a
wife: (i) if she divorced her husband for grave reasons or crime,
she retained her dowry and could remarry after five years;
(2) if she divorced him for criminal conduct or moderate faults,
she forfeited her dowry, became incapable of remarriage, and liable
to deportation, nor could the emperor's prerogative of pardon be
exerted in her favour. As regards a husband: if he divorced his
wife (i) for serious crime, he retained the dowry and could re-
marry immediately; (2) for criminal conduct, he did not retain
the dowry, but could remarry; (3) for mere dislike, he for-
feited the property brought into the marriage and could not
remarry.
In A.D. 449 the law of divorce was rendered simpler and
certainly more facile by Theodosius and Valentinian. It was
provided that a wife could divorce her husband without incurring
any penalty if he was convicted of any one of twelve offences:
(i) treason, (2) adultery, (3) homicide, (4) poisoning, (5) forgery,
(6) violating tombs, (7) stealing from a church, (8) robbery,
(9) cattle-stealing, (10) attempting his wife's life, (u) beating his
wife, (12) introducing immoral women to his house. If the wife
divorced her husband for any other cause, she forfeited her dowry,
and could not marry again for five years. A husband could
divorce his wife without incurring a penalty for any of these
reasons except the last, and also for the following reasons:
(i) going to dine with men other than her relations without
the knowledge or against the wish of her husband; (2) going
from home at night against his wish without reasonable
cause; (3) frequenting the circus, theatre or amphitheatre
after being forbidden by her husband. If a husband divorced
his wife for any other reason, he forfeited all interest in his
wife's dowry, and also any property he brought into the
marriage.
The above sketch of the legislation prior to the time of
Justinian, while it indicates a desire to place the husband and wife
on something like terms of equality as regards divorce, indicates
also, by its forbidding remarriage and by its pecuniary provisions
in certain cases, a sense in the community of the importance in
the public interest of restraining the violation of the contract of
marriage. But to the Roman marriage was primarily a contract,
and therefore side by side with this legislation there always
existed a power of divorce by mutual consent. We must now
turn to those principles of the Christian religion which, in
combination with the legislation above described, produced
the law formulated by Justinian.
The Christian View of Divorce. The Christian law of divorce
as enunciated by its Founder was expressed in a few words,
but these, unfortunately, by no means of agreed interpretation.
To appreciate them it is necessary to consider the enactment of
the Mosaic law, which also was expressed in few words, but of a
meaning involved in much doubt. The phrase in Deut. xxiv. 1-4,
which is translated in the Authorized Version " some unclean-
ness," but in the Revised Version, " some unseemly thing," and
which is the only cause stated to justify the giving of a " bill of
divorcement," was limited by the school of Shanmai to moral
delinquency, but was extended by the rival school of Hillel to
causes of trifling importance or even to motives of caprice. The
wider interpretation would seem to be supported by the words
of Christ (Matt. v. 31), who, in indicating His own doctrine in
contradistinction to the law of Moses, said, " Whosoever shall put
away his wife, saving for the cause of fornication (iropvtlas) ,
cause th her to commit adultery; and whosoever shall marry her
that is divorced committeth adultery." The meaning of these
words of Christ Himself has been involved in controversy, which
perhaps was nowhere carried on with greater acuteness or under
33^
DIVORCE
[HISTORY'
more critical conditions than within the walls of the British
parliament during the passage of the Divorce Act of 1857. That
they justify divorce of a complete kind for moral delinquency
of some nature is supported by the opinion probably of every
competent scholar. But scholars of eminence have sought
to restrict the meaning of the Xoyos iropvdas to antenuptial
incontinence concealed from the husband, and to exclude
adultery. The effect of this view commends itself to the adherents
of the Church of Rome, because it places the right to separation
between husband and wife, not on a cause supervening after
a marriage, which that Church seeks to regard as absolutely
indissoluble, but on invalidity in the contract of marriage itself,
and which may therefore render the marriage liable to be declared
void without impugning its indissoluble character when rightly
contracted. T.he narrower view of the meaning of iropvdas has
been maintained by, among others, Dr Dollinger (First Ages of the
Church, ii. 226); but those who will consider the arguments of
Professor Conington in reply to Dr Dollinger (Contemp. Review,
May 1869) will probably assign the palm to the English scholar.
A more general view points in the same direction. It is quite true
that under the Mosaic law antenuptial incontinence was, as was
also adultery, punishable with death. But when we consider
the effect of adultery not only as a moral fault, but as violating
the solemn contract of marriage and vitiating its objects, it is
inconceivable that Christ, in employing a term of general import,
intended to limit it to one kind, and that the less serious, of
incontinence.
Effect of Christianity on the Law of Rome. The modification
in the civil law of Rome effected by Justinian under the joint
influence of the previous law of Rome and that of Christianity
was remarkable. Gibbon has summed up the change effected in
the law of Rome with characteristic accuracy: " The Christian
princes were the first who specified the just causes of a private
divorce; their institutions from Constantine to Justinian appear
to fluctuate between the customs of the empire and the wishes of
the Church; and the author of the Novels too frequently reforms
the jurisprudence of the Code and Pandects." Divorce by mutual
consent, hitherto, as we have seen, absolutely free, was prohibited
(Nov. 117) except in three cases: (i) when the husband was
impotent; (2) when either husband or wife desired to enter a
monastery; and (3) when either of them was in captivity for a
certain length of time. It is obvious that the two first of these
exceptions might well commend themselves to the mind of the
Church, the former as being rather a matter of nullity of marriage
than of divorce, the latter as admitting the paramount claims of
the Church on its adherents, and not inconsistent with the spirit
of the words of St Paul himself, who clearly contemplated a
separation between husband and wife as allowable in case either
of them did not hold the Christian faith (i Cor. vii. 12). At a later
period Justinian placed a further restriction or even prohibition
on divorce by consent by enacting that spouses dissolving a
marriage by mutual consent should forfeit all their property, and
be confined for life in a monastery, which was to receive one-third
of the forfeited property, the remaining two-thirds going to the
children of the marriage. The cause stated for this remarkable
alteration of the law, and the abandonment of the conception of
marriage as a civil contract ut non Dei judicium contemnatur
(Nov. 134), indicates the influence of the Christian idea of
marriage. That influence, however, did not long continue in its
full force. The prohibitions of Justinian on divorce by consent
were repealed by Justin (Nov. 140) , his successor. " He yielded,"
says Gibbon, " to the prayers of his unhappy subjects, and
restored the liberty of divorce by mutual consent; the civilians
were unanimous, the theologians were divided, and the ambiguous
word which contains the precept of Christ is flexible to any inter-
pretation that the wisdom of a legislature can demand." It was
difficult, the enactment stated, " to reconcile those who once
came to hate each other, and who, if compelled to live together,
frequently attempted each other's lives."
Justinian further re-enacted, with some modifications, the
power of divorce by a husband or wife against the will of the other.
Divorce by a wife was allowed in five cases (Nov. 117): (i) the
husband being party or privy to conspiracy against the state;
(2) attempting his wife's life, or failing to disclose to her plots
against it; (3) attempting to induce his wife to commit adultery;
(4) accusing his wife falsely of adultery; (5) taking a woman to
live in the house with his wife, or, after warning, frequenting
a house in the same town with any woman other than his wife.
If a wife divorced her husband for one of these reasons, she
recovered her dowry and any property brought into the marriage
by her husband for life with reversion to her children, or if there
were no children, absolutely. But if she divorced him for any
other reason, the provisions of the enactment of Theodosius and
Valentinian were to apply. A husband was allowed to divorce his
wife for any one of seven reasons: (i) failure to disclose to her
husband plots against the state; (2) adultery; (3) attempting or
failing to disclose plots against her husband's life; (4) frequenting
dinners or balls with other men against her husband's wishes;
(5) remaining from home against the wishes of her husband
except with her parents; (6) going to the circus, theatre or
amphitheatre without the knowledge or contrary to the pro-
hibition of her husband; (7) procuring abortion. If the husband
divorced his wife for any one of these reasons he retained the
dowry absolutely, or if there were children, with reversion
to them. If he divorced her for any other reason, the enact-
ments of Theodosius and Valentinian applied. In any case of
a divorce, if the father or mother of either spouse had advanced
the dowry and it would be forfeited by an unreasonable divorce,
the consent of the father or mother was necessary to render
the divorce valid.
Effect of Divorce on Children in the Law of Rome. The custody
of the children of divorced parents was dealt with by the Roman
law in a liberal manner. A constitution of Diocletian and
Maximian left it to the judge to determine in his discretion to
which of the parents the children should go. Justinian enacted
that divorce should not impair the rights of children either as to
inheritance or maintenance. If a wife divorced her husband for
good cause, and she remained unmarried, the children were to be
in her custody, but to be maintained by the father; but if the
mother was in fault, the father obtained the custody. If he was
unable, from want of means, to support them, but she was able
to do so, she was obliged to take them and support them. It is
interesting to compare these provisions as to childern with the
practice at present under English law, which in this respect
reflects so closely the spirit of the law of Rome.
The Canon Law of Divorce. The canon law of Rome was based
on two main principles: (i) That there could be no divorce a
vincttlo matrimonii, but only a mensa et thoro. The rule was stated
in the most absolute terms: " Quamdiu mint vir licet adulter sit,
licet sodomita, licet flagitiis omnibus coopertus, et ab uxore propter
haec scelera derelictus, maritus ejus reputatur, cui alterum vivum
accipere non licet " (Caus. 32, Quaest. 7, c. 7). (2) That no
divorce could be had at the will of the parties, but only by the
sentence of a competent, that is to say, an ecclesiastical, court.
In this negation of a right to divorce a vintido matrimonii lies
the broad difference between the doctrines of the Eastern and
Western Churches of Christendom. The Greek Church, under-
standing the words of Christ in thebroadersenseabovementioned,
has always allowed complete divorce with a right to remarry for
the cause of adultery. And it is said that the form at least of
an anathema of the council of Trent was modified out of respect
to difference on the part of the Greek Church (see Pothier 5. 6. 21).
The papal canon law allowed a divorce a mensa et thoro for six
causes: (i) adultery or unnatural offences; (2) impotency;
(3) cruelty; (4) infidelity; (5) entering into religion; (6) con-
sanguinity. The Church, however, always assumed to itself
the right to grant licences for an absolute divorce; and further,
by claiming the power to declare marriages null and void,
though professedly this could be done only in cases where
the original contract could be said to be void, it was, and
is to this day, undoubtedly extended in practice to cases in
which it is impossible to suppose the original contract really
void, but in which a complete divorce is on other grounds
desirable.
ENGLAND]
DIVORCE
337
DIVORCE IN ENGLAND
In England the law of divorce, originally based on the canon
law of Rome, underwent some, though little, permanent change
at the Reformation, but was profoundly modified by the exercise
of the power of the state through legislation. From the canon
law was derived the principle that divorce could legally take
place only by sentence of the court, and never at the will of the
parties. Complete divorce has never been governed by any other
principle than this; and in so far as an incomplete divorce has
become practicable at the will of the parties, it has been by the
intervention of civil tribunals and contrary to the law of the
ecclesiastical courts. Those courts adopted as ground for divorce
a mensa et thoro the main grounds allowed by Roman canon law,
adultery and cruelty (Ayliffe, 22; Co. Lit. 102; i Salk. 162;
Godolphin Abridg. 495). The causes of heresy and of entering
into religion, if ever they were recognized in England, ceased to
exist at the Reformation.
The principles upon which the English ecclesiastical courts
proceeded in divorce a mensa et thoro are those which are still in
force, and which (with some modification by statutory enactment)
have been administered by judicial tribunals down to the present
day. The courts by which the ecclesiastical law, and therefore
the law of divorce, was administered were, until 1857, the courts
of the various dioceses, including that of the archbishop of
Canterbury, known as the Court of Arches, and that of the arch-
bishop of York, known as the Consistory Court of York; but by
statute a suitor was prevented from taking proceedings in any
court except that determined by the residence of the person
against whom proceedings were taken (23 Hen. VIII. c. 9) . From
these courts an appeal lay to delegates appointed in each case by
the crown, until the establishment of the judicial committee of
the privy council in 1836, when the appeal was given to the crown
as advised by that body.
The proof of adultery (to which Isidore in his Book of Ety-
mologies gives the fanciful derivation of " ad alterius thorum ")
was not by the canon law as received in England restricted by the
operation of arbitrary rules. It was never, for example, required,
as by the law of Mahomet, that the act should have been actually
seen by competent witnesses, nor even that the case should be
based on any particular kind of proof. It was recognized that the
nature of the offence almost inevitably precluded direct evidence.
One rule, however, appears to have commended itself to the
framers of the canon law as too general in its application not to
be regarded as a principle. The mere confession of the parties
was not regarded as a safe ground of conviction; and this rule
was formulated by a decretal epistle of Pope Celestine III., and,
following it, by the icsth of the Canons of 1604. This rule has
now been abrogated; and no doubt it is wiser not to fetter the
discretion of the tribunal charged with the responsibility of decid-
ing particular cases, but experience of divorce proceedings tends
to confirm the belief that this rule of the canon law was founded
on an accurate appreciation of human nature.
Although, therefore, with the above exception, no strict rules
of the evidence necessary to establish adultery have ever been
established in the English courts, experience has indicated, and
in former days judges of the ecclesiastical courts often expressed,
the lines upon which such proof may be expected to proceed. It
is necessary and sufficient, in general, to prove two things first
the guilty affection towards each other of the persons accused,
and, secondly, an opportunity or opportunities of which, if so
minded, their passion may have been gratified. It is obvious that
any strong proof on either of these points renders strict proof on
the other less needful; but when proof on both is afforded, the
common sense of a tribunal, acting with a knowledge of human
nature, may be trusted to draw the inevitable conclusion.
The definition of cruelty accepted by the ecclesiastical courts
as that of the canon law is the same as that which prevails at
the present time; and the view of the law taken by the House of
Lords in Russell v. Russell (1897 App. Cas. 395) was expressly
based on the view of cruelty taken by the authorities of the
ecclesiastical law. The best definition by older English writers
is probably to be found in Clarke's Praxis (p. 144) : " Si maritus
fuerit erga uxorem crudelis et ferax ac mortem comminatus et
machinatus fuerit, vel earn inhumaniter verbis et verberibus
tractaverit, et aliquando venenum loco potus paraverit vel
aliquod simile commiserit, propter quod sine periculo vitae
cum marito cohabitare aut obsequia conjugalia impendere
non audeat . . . consimili etiam causa competit viro contra
mulierem." Lord Stowell, probably the greatest master of the
civil and canon law who ever sat in an English court of justice,
has in one of his most famous judgments (Evans v. Evans, 1790,
i Hagg. Consist. 35) echoed the above language hi words often
quoted, which have constituted the standard exposition of the
law to the present day. " In the older cases," he said, " of this
sort which I have had the opportunity of looking into, I have
observed that the danger of life, limb or health is usually insisted
as the ground upon which the court has proceeded to a separation.
This doctrine has been repeatedly applied by the court in the
cases which have been cited. The court has never been driven
off this ground. It has always been jealous of the inconvenience
of departing from it, and I have heard no one case cited in which
the court has granted a divorce without proof given of a reason-
able apprehension of bodily hurt. I say an apprehension, because
assuredly the court is not to wait till the hurt is actually done;
but the apprehension must be reasonable: it must not be an
apprehension arising from an exquisite and diseased sensibility of
mind. Petty vexations applied to such a constitution of mind
may certainly in time wear out the animal machine, but still
they are not cases of legal relief; people must relieve themselves
as well as they can by prudent resistance, by calling in the
succours of religion and the consolation of friends; but the aid of
courts is not to be resorted to in such cases with any effect." The
risk of personal danger in cohabitation constituted, therefore,
the foundation of legal cruelty. But this does not exclude such
conduct as a course of persistent ill-treatment, though not
amounting to personal violence, especially if such ill-treatment
has in fact caused injury to health. But the person complaining
must not be the author of his or her own wrong. If, accordingly,
one of the spouses by his or her conduct is really the cause of the
conduct complained of, recourse to the court would be had in vain,
the true remedy lying in a reformation of the real cause of the
disagreement.
In addition to a denial of the charge or charges, the canon law
allowed three grounds of answer: (i) Compensatio criminis, a set-
off of equal guilt or recrimination. This principle is no doubt
derived from the Roman law and it had the effect of refusing to
one guilty spouse the remedy of divorce against the other although
equally guilty. It was always accepted in England, although
not in other countries, such as France and Scotland, which also
followed the canon or civil law. In strictness, recrimination
applied to a similar offence having been committed by the party
charging that offence. But a decision (1888) of the English
courts shows that a wife who had committed adultery could not
bring a suit against her husband for cruelty (Otway v. Otway 13 P.
D. 141). (2) Condonation. If the complaining spouse has, in fact,
forgiven the offence complained of, that constitutes a conditional
bar to any proceedings. The main and usual evidence of such
forgiveness is constituted by a renewal of marital intercourse,
and it is difficult perhaps impossible to imagine any case in
which such intercourse would not be held to establish condonation.
But condonation may be proved by other acts, or by words,
having regard to the circumstances of each case. Condonation
is, however, always presumed to be conditional on future good
behaviour, and misconduct even of a different kind revives the
former offence. (3) Connivance constitutes a complete answer to
any charge. Nor need the husband be the active agent of the
misconduct of the wife. Indifference or neglect Lmputable to a
corrupt intention are sufficient. It will be seen presently that
modern statute law has gone further in this direction. It is to be
added that the connivance need not be of the very act complained
of, but may be of an act of a similar kind. A learned judge,
recalling the classical anecdote of Maecenas and Galba, said, " A
husband is not permitted to say non omnibus dormio." The
DIVORCE
[ENGLAND
ecclesiastical courts also considered themselves bound to refuse
relief if there was shown to be collusion between the parties. In
its primary and most general sense collusion was understood to be
an agreement between the parties for the purpose of deceiving the
court by false or fictitious evidence; for example, an agreement
to commit, or appear to commit, an act of adultery. Collusion,
however, is not limited to the imposing of other than genuine
evidence on the court. It extends to an agreement to withhold
any material evidence; and indeed is carried further, and held to
extend to any agreement which may have the effect of concealing
the real and complete truth from the court (see Churchward v.
Churchward, 1894, p. 161). This doctrine was of considerable
importance even in the days when only divorces a mensa et thoro
were granted, because at that time the parties were not permitted
to separate by consent. At the present day it has become, with
regard to divorce a vinculo matrimonii, a rule of greater and of
more far-reaching importance.
The canon law as accepted in England, while allowing divorces
of the nature and for the causes above mentioned, actively inter-
fered to prevent separation between husband and wife in any
other manner. A suit known as a suit for restitution of conjugal
rights could be brought to compel cohabitation; and on evidence
of the desertion of either spouse, the court ordered a return to
the matrimonial home, though it carried no further its authority
as to the matrimonial relations within the home. To this suit an
agreement between the parties constituted no answer. But an
answer was afforded by any conduct which would have supported
a decree of divorce a mensa el thoro. It is a question whether,
indeed, the ecclesiastical courts would not have gone further, and
refused a decree of restitution of conjugal rights on grounds which
might appear adequate to justify such refusal, though not
sufficient on which to ground a decree of divorce. The view of the
court of appeal and the House of Lords has given some colour to
this opinion, and certainly the court of appeal has held, although
perhaps somewhat hastily, that the effect of a modern statute has
been to allow the court to refuse restitution of conjugal rights for
causes falling short of what would constitute ground for divorce
(Russell v. Russell, 1895, p. 315).
The ecclesiastical courts provided for the pecuniary rights of
the wife by granting to her alimony during the progress of the suit,
and a proper allowance after its termination in cases in which she
was successful. Such payments were dependent on the pecuniary
means, or faculties, as they were termed, of the husband, and were
subject to subsequent increase or diminution in proper cases.
But the ecclesiastical courts did not deal with the custody of
the children of the marriage, it being probably considered that
that matter could be determined by the common law rights of
the father, or by the intervention of the court of chancery.
The canon law fixed no period of limitation, either in respect of
a suit for divorce or for restitution of conjugal rights; but, as
regards at least suits for divorce, any substantial delay might lead
to the imputation of acquiescence or even condonation. To that
extent, at least, the maxim vigilantibus non dormientibus jura
subveniunt applied.
It is remarkable that desertion by either party to a marriage,
except as giving rise to a suit for restitution, was not treated as an
offence by canon law in England. It formed no ground for a suit
for divorce, and constituted no answer to such a suit by way of
recrimination. It might indeed deprive a husband of his remedy
if it amounted to connivance, or perhaps even if it amounted only
to culpable neglect.
The canon law, as administered in England, has kept clear the
logical distinction which exists between dissolving a marriage and
declaring it null and void. The result has been that, in England
at least, the two proceedings have never been allowed to pass into
one another, and a complete divorce has not been granted on
pretence of a cause really one for declaring the marriage void ab
initio. But for certain causes the courts were prepared to declare
a marriage null and void on the suit of either party. There is,
indeed, a distinction to be drawn between a marriage void or only
voidable, though in both cases it became the subject of a similar
declaration. It was void in the cases of incapacity of the parties
to contract it, arising from want of proper age, or consanguinity,
or from a previous marriage, or from absence of consent, a state
of things which would arise if the marriage were compelled by
force or induced by fraud as to the nature of the contract entered
into or the personality of the parties. It is to be remarked that,
in England at least, the idea of fraud as connected with the
solemnization of marriage has been kept within these narrow
limits. Fraud of a different kind, such as deception as to the
property or position of the husband or wife, or antecedent
impurity of the wife, even if resulting in a concealed pregnancy,
has not in England (though the last-mentioned cause has in other
countries) been held a ground for the vitiation of a marriage
contract. A marriage was voidable, and could be declared void,
on the ground of physical incapacity of either spouse, the absence
of intercourse between the parties after a sufficient period of
opportunity being almost, if not quite, conclusive on this subject.
With regard to one cause of nullity the legislation interfered
from consideration, it is said, of a case of special hardship.
Before the Marriage Act of 1835 marriages within the prohibited
degrees of consanguinity and affinity were only voidable by a
decree of the court, and remained valid unless challenged during
the lifetime of both the parties. But this act, while providing
that no previous marriage between persons within the pro-
hibited degrees should be annulled by a decree of the ecclesiastical
court pronounced in a suit depending at the time of the passing
of the act, went on to render all such marriages thereafter con-
tracted in England " absolutely null and void to all intents and
purposes whatever."
Another suit was allowed by the ecclesiastical courts which
should be mentioned, although its bearing on divorce is indirect.
This was the suit for jactitation of marriage, which in the case
of any person falsely asserting his or her marriage to another,
allowed such person to be put to perpetual silence by an order
of the court. This suit, which has been of rare occurrence
(though there was an instance, Thompson v. Rourke, in 1892),
does not appear to have been used for the purpose of determining
the validity of a marriage. The legislature, has, however, in the
Legitimacy Declaration Act of 1858, provided a ready means by
which the validity of marriages and the legitimacy of children
can be determined, and the procedure provided has repeatedly
been utilised.
It should be added, as a matter closely akin to the proceedings
in the ecclesiastical courts, that the common law took cognizance
of one phase of matrimonial relations by allowing an action by
the husband against a paramour, known as an action for criminal
conversation. In such an action a husband could recover
damages estimated according to the loss he was supposed to have
sustained by the seduction and loss of his wife, the punishment
of the seducer not being altogether excluded from consideration.
Although this action was not unfrequently (and indeed, for the
purposes of a divorce, necessarily) brought, it was one which
naturally was regarded with disfavour.
Effect of the Reformation. Great as was the indirect effect of
the Reformation upon the law of divorce in England, the direct
effect was small. It might, indeed, have been supposed that the
disappearance of the sacramental idea of marriage entertained by
the Roman Church would have ushered in the greater freedom
of divorce which had been associated with marriage regarded
as a civil contract. And to some extent this was the case. It
was for some time supposed that the sentences of divorce
pronounced by the ecclesiastical courts acquired the effect
of allowing remarriage, and such divorces were in some cases
granted. In Lord Northampton's case in the reign of Edward VI.
the delegates pronounced in favour of a second marriage after a
divorce a mensa et thoro. It was, however, finally decided in
Foljambe's case, in the 44th year of Elizabeth, that a marriage
validly contracted could not be dissolved for any cause. But
the growing sense of the right to a complete divorce for adequate
cause, when no longer any religious law to the contrary could
be validly asserted, in time compelled the discovery of a remedy.
The commission appointed by Henry VIII. and Edward VI. to
reform the ecclesiastical law drew up the elaborate report known
ENGLAND]
DIVORCE
339
as the Reformatio Legum, and in this they recommended that
divorces a mensa et Ihoro should be abolished, and in their place
complete divorce allowed for the causes of adultery, desertion
and cruelty. These proposals, however, never became law. In
1669 a private act of parliament was granted in the case of Lord
de Roos, and this was followed by another in the case of the duke
of Norfolk in 1692. Such acts were, however, rare until the
accession of the House of Hanover, only five acts passing before
that period. Afterwards their number considerably increased.
Between 1715 and 1775 there were sixty such acts, in the next
twenty-five years there were seventy-four, and between 1800 and
1850 there were ninety. In 1829 alone there were seven, and in
1830 nine.
The jurisdiction thus assumed by parliament to grant absolute
divorces was exercised with great care. The case was fully
investigated before a committee of the House of Lords, and not
only was the substance of justice so secured, but the House of
Lords further required that application to parliament should be
preceded by a successful suit in the ecclesiastical courts resulting
in a decree of divorce a mensa et thoro, and in the case of a husband
being the applicant, a successful action at common law and the
recovery of damages against the paramour. In this way, and
also, if needful, on its own initiative, the House of Lords provided
that there should be no connivance or collusion. Care was also
taken that a proper allowance was secured to the wife in cases
in which she was not the offending party. This procedure is still
pursued in the case of Irish divorces.
It is obvious, however, that the necessity for costly proceedings
before the Houses of Parliament imposed great hardship on the
mass of the population, and there can be little doubt that this
hardship was deeply felt. Repeated proposals were made to
parliament with a view to reform of the law, and more than one
commission reported on the subject. It is said that the final
impetus was given by an address to a prisoner by Mr Justice
Maule. The prisoner's wife had deserted him with her paramour,
and he married again during her lifetime. He was indicted for
bigamy, and convicted, and Mr Justice Maule sentenced him in
the following words: " Prisoner at the bar: You have been
convicted of the offence of bigamy, that is to say, of marrying
a woman while you had a wife still alive, though it is true she
has deserted you and is living in adultery with another man.
You have, therefore, committed a crime against the laws of your
country, and you have also acted under a very serious misappre-
hension of the course which you ought to have pursued. You
should have gone to the ecclesiastical court and there obtained
against your wife a decree a mensa et Ihoro. You should then
have brought an action in the courts of common law and re-
covered, as no doubt you would have recovered, damages against
your wife's paramour. Armed with these decrees, you should
have approached the legislature and obtained an act of parliament
which would have rendered you free and legally competent to
marry the person whom you have taken on yourself to marry
with no such sanction. It is quite true that these proceedings
would have cost you many hundreds of pounds, whereas you
probably have not as many pence. But the law knows no dis-
tinction between rich and poor. The sentence of the court upon
you, therefore, is that you be imprisoned for one day, which
period has already been exceeded, as you have been in custody
since the commencement of the assizes. " The grave irony of the
learned judge was felt to represent truly a state of things well-
nigh intolerable, and a reform in the law of divorce was felt to be
inevitable. The hour and the man came in 1857, the man in the
person of Sir Richard Bethell (afterwards Lord Westbury), then
attorney-general.
The Act of 1857. Probably few measures have been conceived
with such consummate skill and knowledge, and few conducted
through parliament with such dexterity and determination.
The leading opponent of the measure was Mr Gladstone, backed
by the zeal of the High Church party and inspired by his own
matchless subtlety and resource. But the contest proved to be
unequal, and after debates in which every line, almost every word,
of the measure was hotly contested, especially in the House of
Commons, the measure emerged substantially as it had been
introduced. Not the least part of the merit and success of the
act of 1857 is due to the skill which, while effecting a great social
change, did so with the smallest possible amount of innovation,
The act (which came into operation on the ist of January 1858)
embodied two main principles: i. The constitution of a lay
court for the administration of all matters connected with
divorce. 2. The transfer to that court, with as little change as
possible, of the powers exercised in matrimonial matters by
(a) the House of Lords, (b) the ecclesiastical courts, (c) the courts
of common law.
The Constitution of the Court. The new court, termed " The
Court for Divorce and Matrimonial Causes," was constituted by
the lord chancellor, the chiefs and the senior puisne judges of the
three courts of common law, and the judge of the court of probate
(which was also established in 1857), but the functions of the
court were practically entrusted to the judge of the court of
probate, termed the " Judge Ordinary," who thus in matters
of probate and divorce became the representative of the former
ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The judge ordinary was empowered
either to sit alone or with one or more of the other judges to
constitute a full court. The parties to a suit obtained the right
of trial by jury of all disputed questions of fact; and the rules
of evidence of the common law courts were made to apply.
An appeal to the full court was given in all matters, which the
judge ordinary was enabled to hear sitting alone.
1. To this court were transferred all the powers of the ecclesi-
astical courts with regard to suits for divorce a mensa et thoro, to
which the name was given of suits for " judicial separation,"
nullity, restitution of conjugal rights, and jactitation of marriage,
and in all such proceedings it was expressly enacted (sec. 22) that
the court should act on principles and rules as nearly as possible
conformable to the principles and rules of the ecclesiastical
courts. Judicial separation could be obtained by either husband
or wife for adultery, or cruelty, or desertion continued for two
or more years.
2. There were also transferred to the court powers equivalent
to those exercised by the legislature in granting absolute divorce.
The husband could obtain a divorce for adultery, the wife could
obtain a divorce for adultery coupled with cruelty or desertion
for two or more years, and also for incestuous or bigamous
adultery, or rape, or unnatural offences. The same conditions
as had been required by the legislature were insisted on. A
petition for dissolution (sec. 30) was to be dismissed in case of
connivance, condonation or collusion; and further, the court
had power, though it was not compelled, to dismiss such petition
if the petitioner had been guilty of adultery, or if there had been
unreasonable delay in presenting or prosecuting the petition, or
if the petitioner had been guilty of cruelty or desertion without
reasonable excuse, or of wilful neglect or misconduct conducing
to the adultery. The exercise of these discretionary powers of
the court, just and valuable as they undoubtedly are, has been
attended with some difficulty. But the view of the legislature
has on the whole been understood to be that the adultery of a
petitioner should not constitute a bar to his or her proceeding,
if it has been caused by the misconduct of the respondent, and
that cruelty should not constitute such a bar unless it has caused
or contributed to the misconduct of the respondent. But the
court, while regarding its powers as those of a judicial and not
an arbitrary discretion, has declined to fetter itself by any fixed
rule of interpretation or practice.
It is to be observed that this act assigned a new force to
desertion. The ecclesiastical law regarded it only as suggestive
of connivance or culpable neglect. But the act of 1857 made it
(1) a ground of judicial separation if continued for two years,
(2) a ground in part of dissolution of marriage if continued for
the same period, (3) a bar, in the discretion of the court, to a
petition for dissolution, though it was not made in a similar way
any bar to a suit for judicial separation. It is also to be observed
that the act was confined to causes of divorce recognized by the
ecclesiastical law as administered in England. It did not either
extend the causes of a suit for nullity by adding such grounds as
340
DIVORCE
[ENGLAND
antenuptial incontinence, even if accompanied with pregnancy,
nor did it borrow from the civil law of Rome either lunacy or
crime as grounds for divorce.
Much comment has been made on the different grounds on
which divorce is allowed to a husband and to a wife, it being
necessary to prove infidelity in both cases, but a wife being
compelled to show either an aggravation of that offence or an
addition to it. Opinions probably will always differ whether the
two sexes should be placed on an equality in this respect, abstract
justice being invoked, and the idea of marriage as a mere contract
pointing in one direction, and social considerations in the other.
But the reason of the legislature for making the distinction is
clear. It is that the wife is entitled to an absolute divorce only
if her reconciliation with her husband is neither to be expected
nor desired. This was no doubt the view taken by the House of
Lords. In 1801 a Mrs Addison claim'ed an absolute divorce on
the ground of her husband's incest with her sister. The matter
was long debated, but Lord Thurlow, who appeared in the House
of Lords for the last time in order to support the bill, turned the
scale by arguing that it was improper that the wife should under
such circumstances return to her husband (see Campbell, Lives
of the Chancellors, vii. 145). " Why do you," he said, " grant to
the husband a divorce for the adultery of the wife? Because he
ought not to forgive her, and separation is inevitable. Where
the wife cannot forgive, and separation is inevitable by reason
of the crime of the husband, the wife is entitled to the like
remedy."
The act (sec. 32) provided, in case of dissolution, for mainten-
ance of the wife by the husband on principles similar to those
recognized by the ecclesiastical courts, and (sec. 45) for the settle-
ment of the property of a guilty wife on her husband or children;
but this enactment was imperfect, as provision was made only
for a settlement and not for payment of an allowance, and none
was made for altering settlements made in view or in consequence
of a marriage. The act (sec. 35) provides also in all divorce
proceedings, and also in those of nullity, for provision for the
custody, maintenance and education of children by the court:
provisions of great value, which were unfortunately for some
time limited by an erroneous view of the court that the age of the
children to which such provisions applied should be considered
limited to sixteen. The act of 1857 also transferred to the new
court the powers exercised by the common law courts in the
action for criminal conversation. It was made obligatory to join
an alleged adulterer in the suit, and damages (sec. 33) might be
claimed against him, and he might be ordered to pay the cost
of the proceedings (sec. 34), the extent depending upon the
circumstances of each case. 1
The act of 1857 in one respect went beyond a transfer of the
powers exercised by the ecclesiastical courts or the legislature.
It provided (sec. 21) that a wife deserted by her husband might
apply to a magistrate in petty sessions and obtain an order
which had the effect of protecting her earnings and property,
and during the currency of such order of protection a wife was
to be in the same position as if she had obtained an order for
judicial separation. The effect of this section appears to have
been small; but the Summary Jurisdiction (Married Women) Act
1895 has afforded a cheap and speedy remedy to all classes.
The framers of the act of 1857 were careful to avoid offending
the scruples of clergymen who disapproved of the complete
dissolution of marriage by a lay court. It was provided (sees.
1 In Constantinidi v. Constantinidi and Lance (1903), in which both
parties were guilty of misconduct, it was held by Sir Francis Jeune
(Lord St Helier) that where a wife has by her misconduct broken
up the home (the husband's misconduct not having conduced to the
wife's adultery) the court would exercise its discretion in favour of
the husband petitioner, and, further, the wife being a rich woman,
it was justifiable to give her husband a portion of her income, in
order to preserve to him the position he would have occupied as her
husband, the broad principle being that a guilty respondent should
not be allowed to profit by divorce. But further litigation concern-
ing this case occurred as to the variation of the marriage settlements
in favour of the husband, and the decision of the court of appeal in
July 1905 considerably modified the decision of Sir Francis Jeune.
Ed. E. B.
57 and 58) that no clergyman should be compelled to solemnize
the marriage of any person whose former marriage had been
dissolved on the ground of his or her adultery, but should permit
any other clergyman to solemnize the marriage in any church or
chapel in which the parties were entitled to be married. It is
to be feared that this concession, ample as it appears, has not
allayed conscientious objections, which are perhaps from their
nature insuperable. The act made no provision as to the name
to be borne by a wife after a divorce; and this omission led to
litigation in the case of a peer's wife, in Cowley v. Cowley, in which
Lady Cowley was allowed to retain her status.
Modifications of the Act of 1857. Subsequent legislation has
made good many of the defects of the act of 1857. In 1859
power was given to the court, after a decree of dissolution or of
nullity of marriage, to inquire into the existence of ante- and
post-nuptial settlements, and to make orders with respect to the
property settled either for the benefit of children of the marriage
or their parents; and a subsequent act (41 & 42 Viet. c. 19, s. 3)
removed a doubt which was entertained whether these powers
could be exercised if there were no children of the marriage. In
1860 a very important change was made, having for its object a
practical mode of preventing divorces in cases of connivance and
collusion or of misconduct of the petitioner. It was provided
that a claim of dissolution (a provision afterwards extended to
decrees of nullity) should in the first instance be a decree nisi,
which should not be made absolute until the expiration of a period
then fixed at not less than three, but by subsequent legislation
enlarged to not less than six, months. During the interval which
elapsed between the decree nisi and such decree being made
absolute, power was given to any person to intervene in the suit
and show cause why the decree should not be made absolute,
by reason of the same having been obtained by collusion, or by
reason of material facts not brought before the court; and it
was also provided that, at any time before the decree was made
absolute, the queen's proctor, if led to suspect that the parties
were acting in collusion for the purpose of obtaining a divorce
contrary to the justice of the case, might under the direction of
the attorney-general intervene and allege such case of collusion.
This enactment (extended in the year 1873 to suits for nullity)
was ill drawn and unskilfully conceived. The power given to
any person whomsoever to intervene is no doubt too wide, and
practically has had little or no useful effect as employed by friends
or enemies of parties to a suit. The limitation in terms of the
express power of the queen's proctor to intervene in cases of
collusion was undoubtedly too narrow. But the queen's proctor,
or the official by whom that officer was afterwards represented,
has in practice availed himself of the general authority given to
any person to show cause why a decree nisi should not be made
absolute, and has thus been enabled to render such important
service to the administration of justice that it is difficult to
imagine the due execution of the law of divorce by a court with-
out such assistance. By the Matrimonial Causes Act 1866
power was given to the court to order an allowance to be paid by
a guilty husband to a wife on a dissolution of marriage. This
act also can hardly be considered to have been drawn with
sufficient care, inasmuch as while it provides that if the husband's
means diminish, the allowance may be diminished or suspended,
it makes no corresponding provision for increase of the allowance
if the husband's means increase; nor, apparently, does it permit
of an allowance in addition to, but only in substitution for, a
settlement. The act makes no provision for allowance to a guilty
wife, and it certainly is a serious defect that the power to grant
an allowance does not extend to cases of nullity. In 1868 an
appeal to the House of Lords was given in cases of decree for
dissolution or nullity of marriage.
The great changes effected by the Judicature Acts included the
court for divorce and matrimonial causes. Under their operation
a division of the high court of justice was constituted, under the
designation of the probate division and admiralty division, to
which was assigned that class of legal administration governed
mainly by the principles and practice of the canon and civil law.
The division consists of a president, and a justice of the high
ENGLAND]
DIVORCE
court, with registrars representing each branch of the juris-
diction. Appeals lie to the court of appeal, and thence to the
House of Lords.
In 1884 the legislature interfered to prevent imprisonment
being the result of disobedience to an order for restitution of
conjugal rights. That mode of enforcing the order of the court
was abolished, and the matter was left to a proper adjustment
of the pecuniary relations of the husband and wife; and a
respondent disobeying such an order was held to be guilty
of desertion without reasonable cause, such desertion having
further given to it a similar effect to that assigned to desertion
for two years or upwards. The effect of this provision has been
that the suit for restitution of conjugal rights is most frequently
brought for the purpose of shortening the time within which a
wife can obtain a decree for dissolution of marriage.
Proceedings in the divorce court have shown the improvement
in the law of evidence which has been effected with regard to other
legal proceedings. The act of 1857 made an inroad on the
former law, which prohibited evidence being given by parties
interested in the proceedings, by allowing a petitioner (sec. 43)
to be called and examined by order of the court, absolving such
petitioner, however, from the necessity of answering any question
tending to show that he or she had been guilty of adultery. In
the next year power was given to the court to dismiss any person,
with whom a party to the suit was alleged to have committed
adultery, from the suit if there should not appear to be sufficient
evidence against him or her, the object being to allow such
person to give evidence; and in 1859 it was provided that, on
a petition by a wife for a divorce on the grounds of cruelty or
desertion with adultery, the husband and wife could be competent
and compellable witnesses as to the cruelty or desertion. A few
years later, however, in 1869, the subject was finally dealt with
by repealing all previous rules which limited the powers to give
evidence on questions of adultery with the safeguard that no
witness in any proceeding can be asked or bound to answer any
question tending to show that he or she has been guilty of
adultery, unless in the same proceeding such witness shall have
given evidence in disproof of his or her alleged adultery. It
has been held that the principles of these enactments apply to
interrogatories as well as to evidence given in court.
It is a most remarkable omission in the act of 1857, especially
when we remember the high legal authority from whom it pro-
ceeded, that the act nowhere defines the class of persons with
regard to whom the jurisdiction of the court should be exercised.
This omission has given rise to a misapprehension of the law
which, though now set at rest, prevailed for a considerable period,
and has undoubtedly led to the granting of divorce in several
cases in which it could not legally be given. It was supposed
that the court could grant a dissolution of marriage to all persons
who had anything more than a casual and fleeting residence
within the jurisdiction of the court; and this view, although its
correctness was doubted by Lord Penzance, the judge of the
divorce court, was upheld by a majority of the judges of the court
of appeal in the case of Niboyet v. Niboyet (4 P. D. i). It was
supposed that such residence gave what was termed a matri-
monial domicile. But this view was undoubtedly erroneous as
regards dissolution of marriage, although probably correct as
regards judicial separation, and the true view is no doubt that
indicated with great learning and ability by Lord Watson in a
judgment given by him in the privy council in the case of Le
Mesurier v. Le Mesurier (1895, App. Cas. 517), that the only
true test of jurisdiction for a decree of divorce altering the
status of the parties to a marriage is to be found in the domicile
of the spouses that is to say, of the husband, as the domicile
of a wife follows that of her husband at the time of the divorce.
Domicile means a person's permanent home, the place at which
he resides with no intention of making his home elsewhere, and,
if he leaves it, with the intention of returning to it.
It is now also clearly recognized as the law of England that the
English courts will not recognize a divorce purporting to be made
by a foreign tribunal with regard to persons domiciled in England.
For a considerable time doubt appears to have clouded the law
on this subject. In a famous case known as Lolley's case, decided
in 1812, the judges of England (the point arose in connexion with
a criminal charge) unanimously held " that no sentence or act
of any foreign country or any state could dissolve an English
marriage a vinculo matrimonii for grounds on which it was not
liable to be dissolved a vinculo matrimonii in England." This
case has been frequently understood as deciding that a marriage
celebrated in England cannot be dissolved elsewhere, and on
this point the courts of Scotland differ from the view supposed
to be taken by the English judges. But the matter has been fully
explained in one of the most masterly of Lord Hannen's judg-
ments (Harvey v. Fairnie, 5. P. D. 154), afterwards upheld by
the House of Lords in 1882 (8 App. Cas. 43) ; and it is now clear
that while the parties are domiciled in this country no decree
of any foreign court dissolving their marriage will be recognized
here, unless it proceed on the grounds on which a divorce may
be obtained in this country, and even the exception just
mentioned appears to rest rather on reasoning and principle than
on the authority of any decided case. This principle received
the highest sanction in the prosecution of Earl Russell for bigamy
before the House of Lords (1901), in which it was held that,
where a divorce had been refused him in England, an American
divorce would not relieve a man from the guilt of marrying again.
Summary Proceedings for Separation. The legislature has
sought to extend the relief afforded by the courts in matrimonial
causes by a procedure fairly to be considered within the reach of
all classes. In 1895 an act was passed which re-enacted in an
improved form the provisions of an act of 1878 of similar effect.
By the act of 1895 power was given to a married woman whose
husband (i) has been guilty of an aggravated assault upon her
within the Offences against the Person Act 1861, or (2) convicted
on indictment of an assault on her and sentenced to pay a fine
of more than 5 or to imprisonment for more than two months,
or (3) shall have deserted her, or (4) been guilty of persistent
cruelty to her or wilful neglect to maintain her or her infant
children, and by such cruelty or neglect shall have caused her
to leave and live apart from him, to apply to a court of summary
jurisdiction and to obtain an order containing all or any of the
following provisions: (i) that the applicant be not forced to
cohabit with her husband, (2) that the applicant have the custody
of any children under sixteen years of age, (3) that the husband
pay to her an allowance not exceeding 2 a week. The act pro-
vides that no married woman guilty of adultery should be granted
relief, but with the very important proviso, altering as it does the
rule of the common law, that the husband has not conduced
or connived at, or by wilful neglect or misconduct conduced to,
such adultery. The provisions of this act 1 have been largely
put in force, and no doubt to the great advantage of the poorer
classes of the community. It will be observed that the act is
unilateral, and affords no relief to a husband against a wife;
and the complaint is often heard that no misconduct of the wife,
except adultery, relieves the husband from the necessity of
maintaining her and allowing her to share his home, unless he
can obtain access to the high court. 2
Separation Deeds. Although nothing in the development of
the law of divorce has tended to give to married persons the right
absolutely to dissolve their marriage by consent, and, on the
contrary, any such agreement would be held to be strong evidence
of collusion, the view of the Church expressed in the ecclesiastical
law has been entirely departed from as regards agreements for
separation. Such agreements were embodied in deeds, and
usually contained mutual covenants not to sue in the ecclesi-
astical courts for restitution of conjugal rights. The ecclesiastical
1 It is to be noted that by a decision of the court of appeal in
Harriman v. Harriman in 1909, where a wife has been deserted by
her husband and has obtained a separation order within two years from
the time when the desertion commenced, she loses her right to plead
desertion under the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857, and is therefore
not entitled to a divorce after two years' desertion, upon proof of
adultery. See also Dodd v. Dodd, 1906, 22 T. L. R. 484.
2 In 1909 a Royal Commission was appointed to inquire into the
law of divorce, with special reference to the position of the poorer
classes.
342
DIVORCE
[OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES
courts, however, wholly disregarded such agreements, and
considered them as affording no answer to a suit for restitution
of conjugal rights. For a considerable period the court of
chancery refused to enforce the covenant in such deeds by re-
straining the parties from proceeding to the ecclesiastical courts.
But at last a memorable judgment of Lord Westbury (1861)
asserted the right (Hunt v. Hunt, 4 De G. F. & J. 221 ; see also
Marshall v. Marshall, 5 P. D. 19) of the court of chancery to
maintain the claim of good faith in this as in other cases, and
restrained a petitioner from suing in the ecclesiastical court con-
trary to his covenant. Thereafter these deeds became common,
and no doubt often afford a solution of matrimonial difficulties
of very great value. When the courts of the country became
united under the Judicature Acts, it became practicable to set
up in the divorce division a separation deed in answer to a
suit for restitution of conjugal rights without the necessity of
recourse to any other tribunal.
Statistics. The statistics of divorce in England have for some
years been regularly published in the volumes of judicial statistics
published annually by the Home Office.
The number of petitions for divorce (including in the term both
divorce a mensa et thoro and divorce a vinculo) for the years from
1858 to 1905 inclusive are as follows:
1858 326 1874 469 1890 644
1859 291 1875 451 1891 632
1860 272 1876 536 1892 629
1861 236 1877 551 1893 645
1862 248 1878 632 1894 652
1863 298 1879 555 1895 683
1864 297 1880 615 1896 772
1865 284 1 88 1 589 1897 781
1866 279 1882 481 1898 750
1867 294 1883 561 1899 727
1868 303 1884 647 1900 698
1869 351 1885 541 1901 848
1870 351 1886 708 1902 987
1871 384 1887 662 1903 914
1872 374 1888 680 1904 822
1873 416 1889 654 1905 844
It is probably mpossible to account for the variations which the
above table discloses. It was no doubt natural that the year im-
mediately succeeding the passing of the act which originated facilities
for divorces a vinculo should exhibit a larger number of divorces than
its successors for a considerable period. But there does not appear
to be any adequate cause for the comparative increase which seems
to have prevailed in the decade between 1878 and 1888, unless it be
found in the increase of marriages which culminated in 1873 and
1883, falling after each of those years. The number of marriages
again rose high in 1891 and 1892, and this may account for the
increased number of divorces in 1896 and the following years. But
it may certainly be said with confidence that as compared with the
growth of population the number of divorces in England has shown
no alarming increase.
The total number of petitions in matrimonial causes presented by
husbands exceed those presented by wives, but in no marked degree.
This excess would seem to be due to the fact that the larger number
of petitions for dissolution presented by husbands, owing no doubt
to the difference in the law affecting the two sexes, is not entirely
counterbalanced by the much larger number of petitions for judicial
separation presented by wives. The following figures for various
years may be taken as typical :
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
1905
Petitions for Dissolution
Presented by husbands .
353
393
414
4OI
383
429
Presented by wives .
220
280
269
243
262
3 2 3
Petitions for Judicial Separa-
tion
Presented by husbands .
4
3
2
4
4
5
Presented by wives .
106
96
96
1 02
78
87
Totals
Presented by husbands .
357
396
416
4<>5
387
434
Presented by wives .
326
376
365
345
34
410
Speaking generally, it may be said that about 70 % of the petitions
presented are successful and result in decrees. This percentage has
a tendency, however, to rise.
Attempts have been made to ascertain the classes which supply
the petitioners for divorce, but this cannot be done with such
certainty as to warrant any but the most general conclusions. It
may, however, safely be said that while all classes, professions and
occupations are represented, it is certainly not those highest in the
scale that are the largest contributors. The principles of the act ol
1857 have beyond question been justified by the relief required by
and afforded to the general community.
OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES
We may now turn to the law of divorce as administered in the
other countries of the modern world. On the main question
whether marriage is to be considered indissoluble they will be
found to range themselves on one side or the other according to
the influence upon them of the Church of Rome and its canon
law.
In Scotland it has long been the law that marriage can be dis-
solved at the instance of either party by judicial sentence on the
grounds of adultery or of desertion, termed non-adherence, and
the spouses could in such case remarry, except with the paramour,
at all events if the paramour was named in the decree (and the
name is sometimes omitted for that reason). A divorce a mensa
et thoro could also be granted for cruelty. By the Court of Session
Act 1830, the jurisdiction in divorce was transferred from a body
of commissaries to the court of session.
By the law of Holland complete divorce could be granted
by judicial sentence on the grounds of adultery or of wilful and
malicious desertion, to which were added unnatural offences and
imprisonment for life, and such divorce gave the power of re-
marriage, except with the person with whom adultery was proved
to have been committed, but there would seem to be a doubt
whether this power extended to the guilty party (Voet, De
divortiis, lit. 24, tit. 2). Divorce a mensa et thoro could be granted
on the grounds allowed by the canon law.
The Code of Prussia of 1794 contained elaborate provisions
which gave great facility of divorce. A complete divorce could
be obtained by judicial sentence for the following causes:
(i) Adultery or unnatural offences; and adultery by a husband
formed no bar to his obtaining a divorce against his wife for
adultery; and even an illicit intimacy, from which a presumption
of adultery might arise, was held sufficient for a divorce. (2) Wil-
ful desertion. (3) Obstinate refusal of the rights of marriage,
which was considered as equivalent to desertion. (4) Incapacity
to perform the duties of marriage, even if arising subsequent to
the marriage; and the same effect was assigned to other incur-
able bodily defects that excited disgust and horror. (5) Lunacy,
if after a year there was no reasonable hope of recovery. (6)
An attempt on the life of one spouse by the other, or gross and
unlawful attack on the honour or personal liberty. (7) Incom-
patibility of temper and quarrelsome disposition, if rising to the
height of endangering life or health. (8) Opprobrious crime for
which either spouse has suffered imprisonment, or a knowingly
false accusation of such crime by one spouse of the other. (9) If
either spouse by unlawful transactions endangers the life, honour,
office or trade of the other, or commences an ignominious em-
ployment. ( 10) Change of religion. In addition to these causes,
marriages, when there were no children, could be dissolved by
mutual consent if there be no reason to suspect levity, precipita-
tion or compulsion; and a judge had also power to dissolve a
marriage in cases in which a strongly rooted dislike appeared to
him to exist. In all cases of divorce, but sometimes subject to
the necessity of obtaining a licence, remarriage was permissible
(see Burge, Commentaries on Colonial and Foreign Law, vol. i.
649).
Before 1876 only a divorce a vinculo could be obtained in
some of the German states, especially if the petitioner were a
Roman Catholic. The only relief afforded was a " perpetual
separation." By the Personal Status Act 1875 perpetual separa-
tion orders were abolished and divorce decrees allowed in cases
where the petitioners would, under the former law, have been
entitled to a perpetual separation order. However, two Drafting
Commissions under the act declined to alter the new rule, but
under pressure from the Roman Catholic party the Reichstag
passed a law introducing a modified separation order, termed
" dissolution of the conjugal community " (Aufhebung der
ehelichen Gemeinschaft). This order can be converted into a
dissolution of the marriage at the option of either party. Under
the Civil Code of 1900 a petitioner can obtain a divorce or judicial
OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES]
DIVORCE
343
separation on " absolute " or " relative " grounds. In the
former case if the facts are established the petitioner is entitled
to the relief prayed for; in the latter case, it is left to judicial
discretion. The absolute grounds are adultery, bigamy, sodomy,
an attempt against the petitioner's life or wilful desertion. The
relative grounds are (a) such grave breach of marital duty or
dishonourable or immoral conduct as would disturb the marital
relation to such an extent that the marriage could not reasonably
be expected to continue; (b) insanity, continued for more than
three years during the marriage, and of so severe a nature that
intellectual community between the parties has ceased and is not
likely to be re-established. A divorced wife, if not exclusively
the guilty party, may retain her husband's name; but if ex-
clusively guilty, her former husband may compel her to resume
her maiden name.
By the law of Denmark, according to the Code of King Christian
the Fifth, complete divorce could be obtained for incest; for
leprosy, whether contracted before or after marriage; for trans-
portation for crime or flight from justice, after three years,
though not for crime itself; and for exile not arising from crime,
after seven years.
In Sweden complete divorce is granted by judicial sentence for
adultery, and in Russia for that cause and also for incompati-
bility of temper (Ayliffe, Par. 49). On the other hand, in Spain
marriage is indissoluble, and the ecclesiastical courts have
retained their exclusive cognizance of matrimonial causes. In
Italy certain articles of the Civil Code deal with separation,
voluntary and judicial, but divorce is not allowed in any form.
In France the law of divorce has had a chequered history.
Before the Revolution the Roman canon law prevailed, marriage
was considered indissoluble, and only divorce a mensa et thoro,
known as la separation d' habitation, was permitted; though it
would appear that in the earliest age of the monarchy divorce a
vinculo malrimonii was allowed. La separation d 1 habitation was
granted at the instance of a wife for cruelty by her husband or
false accusation of a capital crime, or for habitual treatment with
contempt before the inmates of the house; but a wife could not
obtain a separation for adultery by her husband, although he
had his remedy in case of adultery by his wife. In every case
the sentence of a judicial tribunal, which took precautions against
collusion, was necessary. But the Revolution may be said to
have swept away marriage among the institutions which it over-
whelmed, and by the law of the 2oth of September 1792 so great
facility was given for divorce a vinculo matrimonii as practically
to terminate the obligations of marriage. A reaction came with
the Code Napoleon, yet even under that system of law divorce
remained comparatively easy. Mutual consent, expressed in
the manner and continued for a period specified by the law, was
cause for a divorce (the principle of the Roman law being adopted
on this point), but such consent could not take place unless the
husband was twenty-five years of age and the wife twenty-one,
unless they had been married for two years, nor after twenty
years of marriage, nor after the wife had completed her forty-fifth
year; and further, the approval of the parents of both parties
was required. In case of divorce by consent, the law required
that a proper agreement should be made for the maintenance
of the wife and the custody of the children. A husband could
obtain a divorce a vinculo matrimonii for adultery, but the wife
had no such power unless the husband had brought his mistress
to the home. Both husband and wife could claim divorce on the
ground of outrage, or grievous bodily injury, or condemnation
for an infamous crime. If the divorce was for adultery, the
erring party could not marry the partner of his or her guilt. A
divorce a mensa et thoro could be obtained on the same grounds as
a divorce a vinculo, but not by mutual consent; and if the divorce
a mensa et thoro continued in force for three years, the defendant
party could claim a divorce a vinculo. On the restoration of
royalty in 1816 divorce a vinculo was abolished, and pending suits
for divorce a vinculo were converted into suits for separation only.
Divorce in France, after the repeal of the provisions respecting
it in the Code Napoleon in 1816, was re-enacted by a law of the
27th of July 1884, the provisions of which were simplified by
laws of 1886 and 1907. But a wide departure was made by these
laws from the terms of the Code Napoleon. Divorce by consent
disappeared, and the following became the causes for which
divorce Was allowed: (i) Adultery by either party to the
marriage at the suit of the other, without, in the case of adultery
by the husband, the aggravation of introduction of the concubine
into the home required by the Cede; (2) violence (exces) or
cruelty (sevices); (3) injures graves; and (4) peine afflictive et
infamante. Exces is defined by Lode as " a generic expression
comprising all acts tending to compromise the safety of the
person, without distinction as to their object or motive, pre-
meditation as well as furious anger, attempts upon life as well as
serious woundings." Sevices are acts of ill-treatment less grave
in character, which, while not endangering life, render existence
in common intolerable (Kelly's French Law of Marriage, p. 122).
Injures graves, as to which the courts have considered themselves
entitled to exercise a wide discretion, have been defined as acts,
writings or words which reflect upon the honour or the reputation
of the party against whom they are directed. The courts have
held that retraction at the trial does not relieve the party from
the consequences of an injure grave, and that publicity is an aggra-
vating but not a necessary element. A letter from one spouse to
the other may constitute an injure and the courts have further
held themselves at liberty to consider letters written after
divorce proceedings have been commenced. Injures graves have
also been considered to include material injuries, and among
these have been classed habitual and groundless refusal of
matrimonial rights, communication of disease and refusal to
consent to a religious ceremony of marriage. Habitual but not
occasional drunkenness has also been held to fall within the
definition of an injure grave. Peine afflictive et infamante signifies
a legal punishment involving corporal confinement and moral
degradation. 1
In addition to its recognition of full divorce, the French law
recognizes separation of two kinds, one separation de biens and the
other separation de corps. The effect of separation de biens is
merely to put an end to the community of goods between the
spouses. It necessarily follows, but may be decreed independently
of separation de corps. The grounds of separation de corps are the
same as those for a divorce; and if a separation de corps has
existed for three years, it may be turned into a divorce upon the
application of either party to the court.
Until 1893 a wife siparfe de corps obtained only the capacity
attaching to a concomitant separation de biens; that is to say,
she recovered the enjoyment and management of her separate
property, but could not deal with real property, nor take legal
proceedings, without the sanction of her husband or of the court.
But by a law of the 6th of February 1893 a wife stparte de corps
obtains "the full exercise of her civil capacity, so that she shall
not need to resort to the authority of her husband or of the court."
In case of reconciliation, the wife returns to the limited capacity
of a wife separee de biens, and after the prescribed notification of
such change of status it becomes binding on third persons.
The provisions of French law with regard to the custody of
the children of a dissolved marriage, and with regard to property,
do not differ materially from those prescribed by the English acts.
The custody of children is given to the party who has obtained
the divorce, unless the court, on the application of the family, or
the ministere public, consider it better, in the interests of the
children, that custody should be given to the other party or a
third person; but in every case the right of both father and
mother to supervise the maintenance and education of the
children, and their liability to contribute to their support, are
continued.
1 It is interesting to observe how, according to the latest decisions
of the House of Lords, cruelty, according to English law, includes
some but not others of the forms of injury for which, under the term
of injures graves, the French law affords a remedy. It may well
be doubted whether the view taken by the minority of the peers in
Russell v. Russell, which would have included in the definition of
cruelty all, or nearly all, of that which the French law deems either
sevices or injures graves, would not have better satisfied both the
principles of English jurisprudence and the feelings of modern life.
344
DIVORCE
[UNITED STATES
The law in France as to property on a divorce has been
accurately stated as follows :
" Divorce in France effects a dissolution of the matrimonial regime
of property as well as of the marriage itself. The decree appoints a
notary, who is charged with the settlement of the pecuniary interests
of the parties. By a stereotyped form of procedure the appointment
is made invariably for the purpose of liquidating la communaute
ayant existe entre les epoux, irrespective of whether the regime really
was that of community or another. In the case of aliens, therefore,
married under the rule of separate property, it is necessary carefully
to set this out in the notarial deed of liquidation, in order to defeat
the presumption which might be raised by the wording of the decree
that a community really did exist. The party against whom the
divorce has been pronounced loses the benefit of all settlements made
upon him or her by the other party, either by the marriage contract
or since the marriage. On the other hand, the party in whose favour
the divorce has been pronounced preserves the benefit of all settle-
ments made in his or her favour by the unsuccessful party. If no
such settlements were made, or if those made appear inadequate to
ensure the subsistence of the successful party, the court may grant
him or her permanent alimony out of the property of the other party,
not to exceed one-third of the income, and revocable in case it ceases
to be necessary " (Kelly, p. 130).
On a divorce both parties are at liberty to remarry. The
husband could remarry at once; but the wife (art. 296 of the
Code) was only allowed to remarry after an interval of ten months.
By the act of 1907, this article was abolished, and the wife
allowed to remarry as soon as the judgment or decree granting
the divorce has been entered, providing 300 days have elapsed
since the first judgment was pronounced. A divorced husband
may remarry his divorced wife, but if he does so, he cannot be
again divorced, except on the ground of a sentence to a peine
afflictive et infamante passed on one of them since their remarriage.
There is, however, this limitation on the power of remarriage of
divorced persons, that the party to the marriage against whom
the decree has been pronounced is not allowed to marry the
person with whom his or her guilt has been established. Such
person, however, has no such rights as are recognized in him or
her according to English law, and cannot take any part in the
proceedings. But his or her name is referred to in the proceed-
ings only by an initial; and French law goes even further in the
avoidance of publicity, inasmuch as the publication of divorce
proceedings in the press is forbidden, under heavy penalties.
By a law of the 6th of February 1893 French jurisprudence,
more complete at least, and perhaps wiser, than English, dealt
with a matter previously in controversy, and decided that after a
divorce the wife shall resume her maiden name, and may not
continue to use the name of her divorced husband; nor may the
husband, for business or other purposes, continue to use the name
of his wife.
By the law of 1886 the special procedure in divorce previously
in force under the Code and under the law of 1884 was abolished,
and it was provided that matrimonial causes should be tried
according to the ordinary rules of procedure. The action there-
fore, when brought, follows the methods of procedure common to
other civil proceedings. But there still remain certain neces-
sary preliminaries to an action of divorce. A petition must be
presented by a petitioner in person to the president of the court
sitting in chambers, with the object of a reconciliation being
effected. This is known as the premiere comparation. If the
petitioner still determines to proceed, there follows the seconds
comparation, on which occasion both parties appear before the
president. If the president fails to effect a reconciliation, he
makes an order permitting the petitioner to proceed, and deals
with the matters necessary to be dealt with pendente lite, such
matters being (i) separate residence, (2) alimony, (3) possession of
personal effects, (4) custody of children. As regards residence,
the wife is compelled to adhere during the proceedings to the
residence assigned to her, but no similar restriction is placed
on the husband. [Alimony pendente lite is in the discretion of
the court, having regard to the means of the parties, and
includes a proper provision for costs. As regards the custody of
children, the Code and the law of 1884 gave it to the husband,
unless the court otherwise orders, but the law of 1886 leaves
the matter wholly in the discretion of the court.
There are certain technical rules of evidence on the trial of
a divorce action. It is a general principle of the French law of
evidence that documentary evidence is the best evidence, and oral
testimony only secondary. In divorce cases adultery flagrante
delicto can be proved by the official certificate of the commissary
of police. Letters between the husband and wife are admissible
in evidence. As to letters between the parties and third persons,
the law, which has been doubtful, now appears to be that the wife
may produce only such letters from third parties to her husband
as have come into her possession accidentally, and without any
ruse or artifice on her part; but the husband may put in evidence
any letters written to or by his wife which he has obtained by any,
short of criminal, means. If the documents put in evidence are
not sufficient to satisfy the court, there follows an investigation
by means of witnesses, termed an enquete. A schedule of allega-
tions is drawn up, and a judge, termed a juge-commissaire, is
specially appointed to conduct the inquiry. Relatives and ser-
vants, though not competent witnesses in ordinary civil actions,
are so in divorce proceedings. Cross petitions may be entered;
the substantiation of a cross petition, however, does not have the
effect, in some cases given to it by English law, of barring a
divorce, but a divorce may be, and often is, granted in favour
of and against both parties pour torts reciproques. When a case
comes on for trial, it is in the power of the court to order an
adjournment for a period not exceeding six months, which is termed
a temps d'epreme, in order to afford an opportunity for reconcilia-
tion. It is said, however, that this power is seldom exercised.
An appeal may be brought against a decree of divorce within two
months; and a decree made on appeal is subject to revision by
the court of cassation within two months. Both references to
the court of appeal and the court of cassation operate as a stay of
execution. A decree must, by the law of 1886, be transcribed on
the register of marriages within two months from its date, and
failing this transcription, the decree is void. The transcription
must be made at the place of celebration of the marriage, or, if the
parties are married abroad, at the place where the parties were
last domiciled in France. If the parties, after having married
abroad, return to France, it has been provided, by a circular of
the Procureur de la Republique in 1887, that the transcription may
be made at the place of their actual domicile at the time of action
brought, a rule which has been held to apply to the divorce of
aliens in France. The effect of transcription does not relate back
to the date of the decree.
Opinions may differ as to the relative merits of the English and
French law relating to divorce. But it cannot be denied that the
French law presents a singularly complete and well-considered
system, and one which, obviously with the English system in view, has
endeavoured to graft on it provisions supplementing its omissions,
and modifying certain of its terms in accordance with the light
afforded by experience and the changed feelings of the modern world.
The effect of the laws of 1884 and 1886 in France has been great. The
act of 1907 dealing with divorce, coupled with that of the 2 1st of July
of the same year dealing with marriage, may also be said to mark an
epoch in the laws relating to women. During the five years from
1884 to 1888 the courts granted divorces in 21,064 cases, rejecting
applications for divorce in 1524. In addition, there were 12,242
applications for judicial separation, of which 10,739 were granted.
A distinguished French writer, the author of a work of singular
completeness and accuracy on the judicial system of Great Britain
has compared these figures with the corresponding result of the
English act of 1857. His conclusion is expressed in these words:
" On voit qu'en cinq annees nos tribunaux ont prononce trois fois
plus de divorces que la haute cour d'Angleterre n'en a prononce en
trente ans. Je n'insiste pas sur les conclusions morales a tirer de ce
rapprochement " (Comte de Franqueville, Le Systeme judiciaire_ de
la Grande-Bretagne, ii. p. 171). It is, however, practically impossible
to compare the number of divorces in France and in England with
exact justice, because, as will have been seen above, the causes of
divorce in France materially exceed those recognized by English
law; and the absence in France of any official performing the
functions assigned to the king's proctor in England cannot but have
great influence on the number of applications for divorce, as well as
on their results. (Sx H.)
UNITED STATES
According to American practice, divorce is the termination
by proper legal authority, sometimes legislatively but usually
judicially, of a marriage which up to the time of the decree
was legal and binding. It is to be distinguished from a decree of
UNITED STATES]
DIVORCE
345
nullity of marriage, which is simply a legal determination that
no legal marriage has ever existed between the two parties. It is
also to be distinguished from a decree of separation, which permits
or commands the parties to live apart, but does not completely
and for all purposes sever the marriage tie. The matrimonial law
of England, as at the time of the declaration of independence,
forms part of the common law of the United States. But as no
ecclesiastical courts have ever existed there, the law must be
considered to have been inoperative. There is no Federal
jurisdiction in divorce, and it is a question for the law of each
separate state; and though it is competent to Congress to
authorize divorces in the Territories, still it appears that this
subject like others is usually left to the territorial legislature. In
the different states, and in England, divorces were at first granted
by the legislatures, whether directly or by granting special
authority to the tribunals to deal with particular cases. This
practice fell into general disrepute, and by the constitution of
some states such divorces are expressly prohibited.
Upon the subject of divorce in the United States, and, to some
extent, in foreign countries, a careful investigation was made by
the American Bureau of Labour, and its report covered the years
1867 to 1886; a further report for the period 1887 to 1906 has
also been published by the Federal Census Bureau. The number
of divorces was in 1886 over 25,000, and in 1906 was over 72,000,
about double the number reported for that year from all the
rest of the Christian world. As divorce presupposes a legal
marriage, the amount of divorce, or the divorce-rate, is best stated
as the ratio between the number of divorces decreed during a year
and the number of subsisting marriages or married couples. The
usual basis is 100,000 married couples. In 1898-1002 the divorce-
rate was 200 divorces (400 people) to 100,000 married couples.
This is equivalent to more than one divorce annually to each 1400
people. The several states differ in divorce-rate, from South
Carolina, with no provision for legal divorce, to Montana and
Washington, where the rate is two and a half times the average for
the country. In general the rate is about the same in the North
as in the South, but greater in the Central states than in the East,
and in the Western than in the Central states; but to this rule
the New England states, Louisiana, New Mexico and Arizona
are exceptions. The New England states have a higher rate than
their geographical position would lead one to expect, and the
other three, owing doubtless, in part at least, to the influence of
the Roman Catholic Church, have a lower rate than the states
about them. The several state groups had in 1900 the following
divorce-rates per 100,000: South Atlantic, 196; North Atlantic,
200; South Central, 558; North Central, 510; Western, 712.
The divorce-rate in the United States increased rapidly and
steadily in forty years from 27 in 1867 to 86 in 1906. But distinct
tendencies are traceable in different regions. In the North Atlantic
group the rate rose by 58 %, in the North Central by 1 58 %, in the
Western by 2 23 %, in the South Atlantic by 43 7 %, and in the South
Central by 685 %. The great increase in the South was mainly
due to the spread of divorce among the emancipated negroes.
Each state determines for itself the causes for which divorce may
be granted, and no general statement is therefore possible.
The ground pleaded for a divorce is seldom an index to the
motives which caused the suit to be brought. This is determined
by the character of the law rather than by the state of mind of the
parties; and so far as the individuals are concerned, the ground
alleged is thus a cloak rather than a clue or revelation. Still
those causes which have been enacted into law by the various
state legislatures do indicate the pleas which have been endorsed
by the social judgment of the respective communities. In the
United States exclusive of Alaska and the recent insular accessions
there are forty-nine different jurisdictions in the matter of divorce.
Six out of every seven allow divorce for desertion, adultery or
cruelty; and of the 945,625 divorces reported with their causes
during the twenty years 1887-1906 nearly 78% were granted for
some one of these three causes, viz. 39% for desertion, 22% for
adultery, and 16% for cruelty. Probably nearly 9% more were
for some combination of these causes. Three other grounds for
divorce are admitted as legal in many or most American states, viz.
imprisonment in 39, habitual drunkenness in 38, and neglect to
provide in 22. About 98 % of American divorces are granted on
some one or more of these six grounds. In general the legislation
on the subject of the causes allowed for divorce is most restrictive
in the states on the Atlantic coast, from New York to South Caro-
lina inclusive, and is least so in the Western states. The slight
expense of obtaining a divorce in many of the states, and the lack
of publicity which is given to the suit, are also important reasons
for the great number of decrees issued. The importance of the
former consideration is reflected in the fact that the divorce-rate
for the United States as a whole shows clearly, in its fluctuations,
the influences of good and bad times. When times are good
and the income of the working and industrial classes likely to be
assured, the divorce-rate rises. In periods of industrial depression
it falls, fluctuating thus in the same way and probably for the
same reason that the marriage-rate in industrial communities
fluctuates. In two-thirds of the divorce suits the wife is the
plaintiff, and the proportion slightly increased in the forty years.
In the Northern states the percentage issued to wives (1887-1906)
was 71, while in the Southern states it was only 56. But where
both parties desire a decree, and each has a legal ground to urge,
a jury will usually listen more favourably to a woman's suit.
Divorce is probably especially frequent among the native
population of the United States, and among these probably more
common in the city than in the country. This statement cannot
be established absolutely, since statistics afford no means of
distinguishing the native from the foreign-born applicants. It is,
however, the most obvious reason for explaining the fact that,
while in Europe the city divorce-rate is from three to five times
as great as that of the surrounding country, the difference in the
United States between the two regions is very much less. In
other words, the great number of foreigners in American cities
probably tends to obscure by a low divorce-rate the high rate of
the native population. Divorce is certainly more common in the
New England states than in any others on the Atlantic coast
north of Florida, and it is not unlikely that wherever the New
England families have gene divorce is more frequent than else-
where. For example, it is much more common in the northern
counties of Ohio settled largely from New England than in the
southern counties settled largely from the Middle Atlantic states.
There are two statements frequently made regarding divorce in
the United States which do not find warrant in the statistics on
the subject. The first is, that the real motive for divorce with
one or both parties is the desire for marriage to a third person.
The second is, that a very large proportion of divorces are granted
to persons who move from one jurisdiction to another in order
to avail themselves of lax divorce laws. On the first point the
American statistics are practically silent, since, in issuing a
marriage licence to parties one or both of whom have been
previously divorced, no record is generally made of the fact. In
Connecticut, however, for a number of years this information was
required; and, if the statements were trustworthy, the number
of persons remarrying each year was about one-third the total
number of persons divorcing, which is probably a rate not widely
different from that of widows and widowers of the same age.
Foreign figures for Switzerland, Holland and Berlin indicate that
in those regions the proportion of the divorced who remarry
speedily is about the same as that of widows and widowers.
What statistical evidence there is on the subject therefore tends
to discredit this popular opinion. The evidence on the second
point is more conclusive, and has gone far towards decreasing
the demand for a constitutional amendment allowing a federal
marriage and divorce law. About four-fifths of all the divorces
granted in the United States were issued to parties who were
married in the state in which the decree of divorce was later
made; and when from the remaining one-fifth are deducted those
in which the parties migrated for other reasons than a desire to
obtain an easy divorce, the remainder would constitute a very
small, almost a negligible, fraction of the total number.
It is difficult, perhaps impossible, to say how far the frequency of
divorce in the United States has been or is a social injury; how far
it has weakened or undermined the ideal of marriage as a lifelong
DIWANIEH DIX
union between man and woman. In this respect the question
is very like that of illegitimacy; and as the most careful students
of the latter subject agree that almost no trustworthy inference
regarding the moral condition of a community can be derived
from the proportion of illegitimate children born, so one may say
regarding the prevalence of divorce that from this fact almost no
inferences are warranted regarding the moral or social condition
of the population. It is by no means impossible, for example,
that the spread of divorce among the negro population in the
South marks a step in advance from the condition of largely
unregulated and illegal unions characteristic of the race im-
mediately after the war. The prevalence of divorce in the United
States among the native population, in urban communities,
among the New England element, in the middle classes of society,
and among those of the Protestant faith, indicates how closely
this social phenomenon is interlaced with much that is character-
istic and valuable in American civilization. In this respect, too,
the United States perhaps represent the outcome of a tendency
which has been at work in Europe at least since the Reformation.
Certainly the divorce-rate is increasing in nearly every civilized
country. Decrees of nullity of marriage and decrees of separation
not absolutely terminating the marriage relation are relatively
far less prevalent than they were in the medieval and early
modern period, and many persons who under former conditions
would have obtained relief from unsatisfactory unions through
one or the other of these avenues now resort to divorce. The
increasing proportion of the community who have an income
sufficient to pay the requisite legal fees is also a factor of great
importance. The belief in the family as an institution ordained
of God, decreed to continue " till death us do part," and in its
relations typifying and perpetuating many holy religious ideas,
probably became weakened in the United States during the igth
century, along with a weakening of other religious conceptions;
and it is yet to be determined whether a substitute for these ideas
can be developed under the guidance of the motive of social
utility or individual desire. In this respect the United States is,
as Mr Gladstone once wrote, a tribus praerogativa, but one who
knows anything of the family and home life of America will not
readily despond of the outcome.
The great source of American statistical information is the
governmental report of over 1000 pages, A Report on Marriage and
Divorce in the United States 1867 to 1886, including an Appendix
relating to Marriage and Divorce in Certain Countries of Europe, by
Carroll D. Wright, Commissioner of Labour; together with the
further report for 1887 to 1906. The statistics contained in the
former volume have been analysed and interpreted in W. F. Willcox's
The Divorce Problem: A Study in Statistics (Columbia University,
New York, 1891, 1897). Further interpretations are contained in
an article in the Political Science Quarterly for March 1893, entitled
" A Study in Vital Statistics." The best legal treatise is probably
Bishop on Marriage, Divorce, and Judicial Separation. See also
I. P. Lichtenberger, Divorce: A Study in Social Causation (New
York, 1909). (W. F. W.)
DIWANIEH, a small town in Turkish Asia, about 40 m. below
Hillah, on both banks of the Euphrates (31 58' 47" N., 44 58'
18" E.), which is here spanned by a floating bridge. Formerly
a military post for the control of the Affech territory, and a
telegraph station, it was in 1893 made the capital of the sanjak,
instead of Hillah, on account of its more strategical position.
This transfer of the seat of government represented a step in the
development of Turkish control over the central regions of Irak.
DIX, DOROTHEA LYNDE (1802-1887), American philan-
thropist, was born at Hampden, Maine, on the 4th of April 1802.
Her parents were poor and shiftless, and at an early age she was
taken into the home in Boston of her grandmother, Dorothea
Lynde, wife of Dr Elijah Dix. Here she was reared in a dis-
tinctly Puritanical atmosphere. About 1821 she opened a school
in Boston, which was patronized by the well-to-do families;
and soon afterwards she also began teaching poor and neglected
children at home. But her health broke down, and from 1824
to 1830 she was chiefly occupied with the writing of books of
devotion and stories for children. Her Conversations on Common
Things (1824) had reached its sixtieth edition by 1869. In 1831
she established in Boston a model school for girls, and conducted
this successfully until 1836, when her health again failed. In
1841 she became interested in the condition of gaols and alms-
houses, and spent two years in visiting every such institution
in Massachusetts, investigating especially the treatment of the
pauper insane. Her memorial to the state legislature dealing
with the abuses she discovered resulted in more adequate
provision being made for the care and treatment of the insane,
and she then extended her work into many other states. By 1847
she had travelled from Nova Scotia to the Gulf of Mexico, and
had visited 18 state penitentiaries, 300 county gaols and houses
of correction, and over 500 almshouses. Her labours resulted
in the establishment of insane asylums in twenty states and in
Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, and in the founding of many
additional gaols and almshouses conducted on a reformed plan.
In 1853 she secured more adequate equipment for the life-saving
service on Sable Island, then rightly called " the graveyard of
ships." In 1854 she secured the passage by Congress of a bill
granting to the states 12,250,000 acres of public lands, to be
utilized for the benefit of the insane, deaf, dumb and blind;
but the measure was vetoed by President Pierce. After this dis-
appointment she went to England for rest, but at once became
interested in the condition of the insane in Scotland, and her
report to the home secretary opened the way for sweeping
reforms. She extended her work into the Channel Islands, and
then to France, Italy, Austria, Greece, Turkey, Russia, Sweden,
Norway, Denmark, Holland, Belgium and a part of Germany.
Her influence over Arinori Mori, the Japanese charge d'affaires at
Washington, led eventually to the establishment of two asylums
for the insane in Japan. At the outbreak of the Civil War she
offered her services to the Federal government and was appointed
superintendent of women nurses. In this capacity she served
throughout the war, without a day's furlough; and her labours
on behalf of defectives were continued after the war. After a
lingering illness of six years she died at Trenton, New Jersey, on
the I7th of July 1887.
See Francis Tiffany, Life of Dorothea Lynde Dix (Boston, 1892).
DIX, JOHN ADAMS (1798-1879), American soldier and
political leader, was born at Boscawen, New Hampshire, on the
24th of July 1798. He studied at Phillips Exeter Academy in
1810-1811 and at the College of Montreal in 1811-1812, and as
a boy took part in the War of 1812, becoming a second lieutenant
in March 1814. In July 1828, having attained the rank of cap-
tain, he resigned from the army, and for two years practised law
at Cooperstown, New York. In 1830-1833 he was adjutant-
general of New York. He soon became prominent as one of the
leaders of the Democratic party in the state, and for many years
was a member of the so-called " Albany Regency," a group of
Democrats who between about 1820 and 1850 exercised a
virtual control over their party in New York, dictating nomina-
tions and appointments and distributing patronage. From 1833
to 1839 he was secretary of state and superintendent of schools
in New York, and in this capacity made valuable reports con-
cerning the public schools of the state, and a report (1836) which
led to the publication of the Natural History of the State of New
York (1842-1866). In 1842 he was a member of the New York
assembly. In 1841-1843 he was editor of The Northern Light, a
literary and scientific journal published in Albany. From 1845
to 1849 he was a United States senator from New York; and
as chairman of the committee on commerce was author of the
warehouse bill passed by Congress in 1846 to relieve merchants
from immediate payment of duties on imported goods. In 1848
he was nominated for governor of New York by the Free Soil
party, but was defeated by Hamilton Fish. His acceptance of
the nomination, however, earned him the enmity of the southern
Democrats, who prevented his appointment by Pierce as secretary
of state and as minister to France in 1853. In this year Dix was
for a few weeks assistant U.S. treasurer in New York city. In
May 1860 he became postmaster of New York city, and from
January until March 1861 he was secretary of the treasury of the
United States, in which capacity he issued (January 29, 1861) to
a revenue officer at New Orleans a famous order containing the
words, " if any one attempts to haul down the American flag,
DIXON, G. DIXON
347
shoot him on the spot." He rendered important services in
hurrying forward troops in 1861, was appointed major-general
of volunteers in June 1861, and during the Civil War commanded
successively the department of Maryland (July i86i-May 1862),
Fortress Monroe (May 1862- July 1863), and the department of
the East (July 1863- July 1865). He was minister to France
from 1866 to 1869, and in 1872 was elected by the Republicans
governor of New York, but was defeated two years later. He had
great energy and administrative ability, was for a time president
of the Chicago & Rock Island and of the Mississippi & Missouri
railways, first president of the Union Pacific in 1863-1868, and
for a short time in 1872 president of the Erie. He died in New
York city on the 2ist of April 1879. Among his publications are
A Winter in Madeira and a Summer in Spain and Florence (1850),
and Speeches and Occasional A ddr esses ( 1 864) . He wrote excellent
English versions of the Dies irae and the Stabat mater.
His son, MORGAN Dix (1827-1908), graduated at Columbia in
1848 and at the General Theological Seminary in 1852, and was
ordained deacon (1852) and priest (1853) in the Protestant
Episcopalian church. In 1855-1859 he was assistant minister,
and in 1859-1862 assistant rector, of Trinity Church, New York
city, of which he was rector from 1862 until his death. He
published sermons and lectures; A History of the Parish of
Trinity Church, New York City (4 vols., 1898-1905); and a
biography of his father, Memoirs of John Adams Dix (2 vols.,
New York, 1883).
DIXON, GEORGE (1755 ?-i8oo), English navigator. He
served under Captain Cook in his]third expedition, during which
he had an opportunity of learning the commercial capabilities
of the north-west coast of North America. After his return from
Cook's expedition he became a captain in the royal navy. In the
autumn of 1785 he sailed in the " Queen Charlotte," in the service
of the King George's Sound Company of London, to explore the
shores of the present British Columbia, with the special object of
developing the fur trade. His chief discoveries were those of
Queen Charlotte's Islands and Sound (the latter only partial),
Port Mulgrave, Norfolk Bay, and Dixon's Entrance and Archi-
pelago. After visiting China, where he disposed of his cargo,
he returned to England (1788), and published (1799) A Voyage
round the World, but more particularly to the North-West Coast of
America, the bulk of which consists of descriptive letters by
William Beresford, his supercargo. His own contribution to the
work included valuable charts and appendices. He is usually,
though not with absolute certainty, identified with the George
Dixon who was author of The Navigator's Assistant (1791) and
teacher of navigation at Gosport.
DIXON, HENRY HALL (1822-1870), English sporting writer
over the nom de plume " The Druid," was born at Warwick
Bridge, Cumberland, on the i6th of May 1822, and was educated
at Rugby and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated
in 1846. He took up the profession of the law, but, though called
to the bar in 1853, soon returned to sporting journalism, in which
he had already made a name for himself, and began to write
regularly for the Sporting Magazine, in the pages of which
appeared three of his novels, Post and Paddock (1856), Silk and
Scarlet (1859), and Scott and Sebright (1862). He also published
a legal compendium entitled The Law of the Farm (1858), which
ran through several editions. His other more important works
were Field and Fern (1865), giving an account of the herds and
flocks of Scotland, and Saddle and Sirloin (1870), treating in the
same manner those of England. He died at Kensington on the
i6th of March 1870.
See Hon. Francis Lawley, Life and Times of" The Druid " (London,
1895)-
DIXON, RICHARD WATSON (1833-1900), English poet and
divine, son of Dr James Dixon, a Wesleyan minister, was born
on the 5th of May 1833. He was educated at King Edward's
school, Birmingham, and on proceeding to Pembroke College,
Oxford, became one of the famous " Birmingham group " there
who shared with William Morris and Burne- Jones in the Pre-
Raphaelite movement. He took only a second class in modera-
tions in 1854, and a third in Lilerae Humaniores in 1856; but in
1858 he won the Arnold prize for an historical essay, and in 1863
the English Sacred Poem prize. He was ordained in 1858, was
second master of Carlisle high school, 18631868, and successively
vicar of Hayton, Cumberland, and Warkworth, Northumberland.
He became minor canon and honorary librarian of Carlisle in
1868, and honorary canon in 1874, he was proctor in convocation
(1890-1894), and received the honorary degree of D.D. from
Oxford in 1899. He died at Warkworth on the 23rd of January
1900. Canon Dixon's first two volumes of verse, Christ's
Company and Historical Odes, were published in 1861 and 1863
respectively; but it was not until 1883 that he attracted
conspicuous notice with Mono, an historical poem in tersa
rima, which was enthusiastically praised by Mr Swinburne. This
success he followed up by three privately printed volumes, Odes
and Eclogues (1884), Lyrical Poems (1886), and The Story /
Eudocia (1888). Dixon's poems were during the last fifteen
years of his life recognized as scholarly and refined exercises,
touched with both dignity and a certain severe beauty, but he
never attained any general popularity as a poet, the appeal of
his poetry being directly to the scholar. A great student of
history, his studies in that direction colour much of his poetry.
The romantic atmosphere is remarkably preserved in Mono, a
successful metrical exercise in the difficult terza rima. His typical
poems have charm and melody, without introducing any new
note or variety of rhythm. He is contemplative, sober and
finished in literary workmanship, a typical example of the Oxford
school. Pleasant as his poetry is, however, he will probably be
longest remembered by the work to which he gave the best years
of his life, his History of the Church of England from the Abolition
of the Roman Jurisdiction (1878-1902). At the time of his death
he had completed six volumes, two of which were published
posthumously. This fine work, covering the period from 1529 to
1570, is built upon elaborate research, and presents a trustworthy
and unprejudiced survey of its subject.
Dixon's Selected Poems were published in 1909 with a memoir of
the author by Robert Bridges.
DIXON, WILLIAM HEPWORTH (1821-1879), English author
and traveller, was born at Great Ancoats, Manchester, on the
3oth of June 1821, a member of an old Lancashire family.
Beginning life as a clerk at Manchester, he decided, in 1846, to
take up literature as a career. After gaining some journalistic
experience at Cheltenham he settled in London, on the recom-
mendation of Douglas Jerrold, and contributed to the Athenaeum
and Daily News. His series of papers " The Literature of the
Lower Orders " in the last-named journal, and a further series,
" London Prisons," were widely noticed. In 1849 appeared his
John Howard and the Prison World of Europe, which proved a
great popular success. These were followed by a Life of William
Penn (1851), in which he replied to Macaulay's attack on Penn;
Life of Blake (1852); and Personal History of Lord Bacon (1861),
supplemented by The Story of Lord Bacon's Life (1862). From
1853 to 1869 he was editor of the Athenaeum. In 1863 he visited
the East, and on his return helped to found the Palestine
Exploration Fund, and published (1865) The Holy Land. In
1866 he travelled through the United States, publishing, in 1867,
New America, and, the following year, Spiritual Wives, two supple-
mentary volumes. In the autumn of 1867 he journeyed through
the Baltic Provinces, publishing an account of his trip in Free
Russia (1870). In 1871 he was in Switzerland, and in 1872 in
Spain, where he wrote the greater part of his History of Two
Queens. In 1874 he revisited the United States, giving the
impressions of his tour in The White Conquest (1875). His other
works, besides some fiction, were British Cyprus (1879) and
Royal Windsor. He died on the 26th of December 1879. His
daughter, Ella N. Hepworth Dixon, became known as a journalist
and novelist.
DIXON, a city and the county seat of Lee county, Illinois,
U.S.A., on the Rock river, in the N.W. part of the state. Pop.
(1890) 5161; (1900) 7917 (879 foreign-born); (1910) 7216. It
is served by the Chicago & North-Western and the Illinois
Central railways, and is connected with Sterling by an electric
line; freight is shipped over the Hennepin Canal. The city
DIZFUL DMITRIEV
has two parks of 159 and 6 acres respectively, and there is a
Chautauqua Park, where an annual Chautauqua Assembly is
held. Dixon is the seat of the Northern Illinois normal school
(incorporated in 1884), and of the Rock River military academy.
The river furnishes water power for the street railways, electric
lighting and a number of manufacturing establishments.
Among the manufactures are condensed milk, boxes, wire screens
and wire cloth, lawn mowers, gas engines, cement, agricultural
implements, shoes and wagons. The place was laid out in
1835 by John Dixon (1784-1876), the first white settler of Lee
county. A bronze tablet in the Howells Building, at the inter-
section of First and Peoria Streets, marks the site of his cabin,
and in the city cemetery a granite shaft has been erected to his
memory. Dixon was chartered as a city in 1859.
DIZFUL, or Diz-PuL (" fort-bridge "), a town of Persia, in the
province of Arabistan, 36 m. N.W. of Shushter, in 32 25' N.,
48 28' E. Pop. about 25,000. It has post and telegraph offices.
It is situated on the left bank of the Dizful river, a tributary
of the Karun, crossed by a fine bridge of twenty-two arches, 430
yds. in length, constructed on ancient foundations. Dizful is
the chief place of a small district of the same name and the
residence of the governor of Arabistan during the winter months.
The district has twelve villages and a population of about 35,000
(5000 Arabs of the Ali i Kethir tribe), and pays a yearly tribute
of about 6000. The city was formerly known as Andamish, and
in its vicinity are many remains of ancient canals and buildings
which afford conclusive proof of former importance. 16 m. S.W.
are the ruins of Susa, and east of them and half-way between
Dizful and Shushter stood the old city of Junday Shapur.
DJAKOVO (sometimes written Djakovar, Hungarian Diakovar) ,
a city of Croatia-Slavonia, Hungary; in the county of Virovitica,
100 m. E. by S. of Agram. Pop. (1900) 6824. Djakovo is a
Roman Catholic episcopal see, whose occupant bears the title
" Bishop of Bosnia, Slavonia and Sirmium." During the life of
Bishop Strossmayer (1815-1905) it was one of the chief centres of
religious and political activity among the Croats. The cathedral,
a vast basilica built of brick and white stone, with a central dome
and two lofty spires above the north entrance, was founded in
1866 and consecrated in 1882. Its style is Romanesque, chosen
by Strossmayer as symbolical of the position of his country
midway between east and west. The interior is magnificently
decorated with mosaics, mural paintings and statuary, chiefly
the work of local artists. Other noteworthy buildings are the
nunnery, ecclesiastical seminary and episcopal palace. Djakovo
has a thriving trade in agricultural produce. Many Roman
remains have been discovered in the neighbourhood, but the
earliest mention of the city is in 1244, when Bela IV. of Hungary
confirmed the title-deeds of its owners, the bishops of Bosnia.
For a full description of the cathedral, in Serbo-Croatian and
French, see the finely illustrated folio Stolna Crkva u Djakovu, pub-
lished by the South Slavonic Academy (Agram, 1900).
DLUGOSZ, JAN [JOHANNES LONGINUS] (1415-1480), Polish
statesman and historian, was the son of Jan Dlugosz, burgrave
of Bozeznica. Born in 1415, he graduated at the university of
Cracow and in 1431 entered the service of Bishop Zbygniew
Olesnicki (1389-1455), the statesman and diplomatist. He
speedily won the favour of his master, who induced him to take
orders and made him his secretary. His preferment was rapid.
In 1436 we find him one of the canons of Cracow and the ad-
ministrator of Olesnicki's vast estates. In 1 440, on returning from
Hungary, whither his master had escorted King Wladislaus II.,
Dlugosz saved the life of Olesnicki from robbers. The prelate
now employed Dlugosz on the most delicate and important
political missions. Dlugosz brought Olesnicki the red hat from
Rome in 1449, and shortly afterwards was despatched to Hungary
to mediate between Hunyadi and the Bohemian condottiere
Giszkra, a difficult mission which he most successfully ac-
complished. Both these embassies were undertaken contrary to
the wishes of King Casimir IV., who was altogether opposed to
Olesnicki's ecclesiastical policy. B ut though he thus sacrificed his
own prospects to the cardinal's good pleasure, Dlugosz was far too
sagacious to approve of the provocative attitude of Olesnicki, and
frequently and fearlessly remonstrated with him on his conduct.
In his account, however, of the quarrel between Casimir and
Olesnicki concerning the question of priority between the cardinal
and the primate of Poland he warmly embraced the cause of the
former, and even pronounced Casimir worthy of dethronement.
Such outbursts against Casimir IV. are not infrequent in
Dlugosz's Hisloria Polonica, and his strong personal bias must
certainly be taken into consideration in any critical estimate of
that famous work. Yet as a high-minded patriot Dlugosz had
no sympathy whatever with Olesnicki's opposition to Casimir's
Prussian policy, and steadily supported the king during the whole
course of the war with the Teutonic knights. When Olesnicki
died in 1455 he left Dlugosz his principal executor. The office of
administering the cardinal's estate was a very ungrateful one, for
the family resented the liberal benefactions of their kinsman to
the Church and the univesity, and accused Dlugosz of exercising
undue influence, from which charge he triumphantly vindicated
himself. It was in the year of his patron's death that he began to
write his Historia Polonica. This great book, the first and still
one of the best historical works on Poland in the modern sense of
the word, was only undertaken after mature consideration and
an exhaustive study of all the original sources then available,
some of which are now lost. The principal archives of Poland
and Hungary were ransacked for the purpose, and in his account of
his own times Dlugosz's intimate acquaintance with the leading
scholars and statesmen of his day stood him in good stead. The
style is modelled on that of Livy, of whom Dlugosz was a warm
admirer. As a proof of the thoroughness and conscientiousness of
Dlugosz it may be mentioned that he learned the Cyrillic alphabet
and took up the study of Ruthenian, " in order that this our
history may be as plain and perfect as possible." The first of the
numerous imprints of the Historia Polonica appeared in 1614, the
first complete edition in 1711.
Dlugosz's literary labours did not interfere with his political
activity. In 1467 the generous and discerning Casimir IV.
entrusted Dlugosz with the education of his sons, the eldest of
whom, Wladislaus, at the urgent request of the king, he ac-
companied to Prague when in 1471 the young prince was elected
king of Bohemia. Dlugosz refused the archbishopric of Prague
because of his strong dislike of the land of the Hussites; but seven
years later he accepted the archbishopric of Lemberg. His last
years were devoted to his history, which he completed in 1479.
He died on the igth of May 1480, at Piatek.
See Aleksander Semkowicz, Critical Considerations of the Polish
Works of Dlugosz (Pol.; Cracow, 1874); Michael Bqbrzynski and
Stanislaw Smolka, Life of Dlugosz and his Position in Literature (Pol. ;
Cracow, 1893). (R. N. B.)
DMITRIEV, IVAN IVANOVICH (1760-1837), Russian states-
man and poet, was born at his father's estate in the government of
Simbirsk. In consequence of the revolt of Pugachev the family
had to flee to St Petersburg, and there Ivan was entered at the
school of the Semenov Guards, and afterwards obtained a post
in the military service. On the accession of Paul to the imperial
throne he quitted the army with the title of colonel; and
his appointment as procurator for the senate was soon after
renounced for the position of privy councillor. During the four
years from 1810 to 1814 he served as minister of justice under the
emperor Alexander; but at the close of this period he retired into
private life, and though he lived more than twenty years, he never
again took office, but occupied himself with his literary labours
and the collection of books and works of art. In the matter of
language he sided with Karamsin, and did good service by his
own pen against the Old Slavonic party. His poems include songs,
odes, satires, tales, epistles, &c., as well as the fables partly
original and partly translated from Fontaine, Florian and Arnault
on which his fame chiefly rests. Several of his lyrics have
become thoroughly popular from the readiness with which they
can be sung; and a short dramatico-epic poem on Yermak, the
Cossack conqueror of Siberia, is well known.
His writings occupy three volumes in the first five editions; in the
6th (St Petersburg, "1823) there are only two. His memoirs, to
which he devoted the last years of his life, were published at Moscow
in 1866.
DNIEPER DOBBS FERRY
349
DNIEPER, one of the most important rivers of Europe (the
Borysthenes of the Greeks, Danapris of the Romans, Uz i or Uzu of
the Turks, Eksi of the Tatars, Elice of Visconti's map (1381),
Lerene of Contarini (1437), Luosen of Baptista of Genoa (1514),
and Lussem in the same century). It belongs entirely to Russia,
and rises in the government of Smolensk, in a swampy district
(alt. 930 ft.) at the foot of the Valdai Hills, not far from the
sources of the Volga and the Dvina, in 55 52' N. and 33 41' E.
Its length is about 1410 m. and it drains an area of 202, 140 sq. m.
In the first part of its course, which may be said to end at
Dorogobuzh, it flows through an undulating country of Carbon-
iferous formation; in the second it passes west to Orsha, south
through the fertile plain of Chernigov and Kiev, and then south-
east across the rocky steppe of the Ukraine to Ekaterinoslav.
About 45 m. S. of this town it has to force its way across the same
granitic offshoot of the Carpathian mountains which interrupts
the course of the Dniester and the Bug, and for a distance of about
25m. rapid succeeds rapid. The fall of the river in that distance
is 155 ft. The Dnieper, having got clear of the rocks, continues
south-west through the grassy plains of Kherson and Taurida,
and enters the Black Sea, or rather a liman or bay of the Black
Sea, by a considerable estuary in 46 30' N. and 32 20"' E. On
this ramifying liman, into which the Bug also pours its waters,
stand Nikolaiev and the fortified town of Ochakov. Navigation
extends as far up as Dorogobuzh, where the depth is about 12 ft.,
and rafts are floated down from the higher reaches. The banks
are generally high, more particularly the left bank. About the
town of Smolensk the breadth is 455 ft., at the confluence of the
Pripet 1400, and in some parts of the Ekaterinoslav district more
than 1 1 m. In the course above the rapids the channel varies
very greatly in nature and depth, and it is not infrequently
interrupted by shallows. The rapids, or porogs, form a serious
obstacle to navigation; it is only for a few weeks when the river
is in flood that they are passable, and even then the venture is not
without risk and can only be undertaken with the assistance of
special pilots. It is from these falls that the Cossacks of the
Ukraine came to be known as Zaporogian Cossacks. As early
as 1732 an attempt was made to improve the channel. A canal,
which ultimately proved too small for use, was constructed at
Nenasitets in 1780 at private expense; blastings were carried out
in 1798 and 1799 at various parts; in 1805 a canal was formed at
Kaindatski, and the channel straightened at Sursk; by 1807 a
new canal was completed at Nenasitets; in 1833 a passage was
cleared through the Staro-kaindatski porog; and in the period
1843 to 1853 numerous ameliorations were effected. The result
has been not only to diminish greatly the dangers of the natural
channel, but also to furnish a series of artificial canals by which
vessels can make their way when the river is low. Of the
tributaries of the Dnieper the following are navigable, the
Berezina and the Pripet from the right, and the Sozh and the
Desna from the left. By means of the Dnieper-Bug (King's)
canal, and the Berezina and Oginski canals, this river has a sort
of water connexion with the Baltic Sea. In the estuary the
fisheries give employment to large numbers of people* At Kiev
the river is free from ice on an average of 234 days in the year, at
Ekaterinoslav 270 and at Kherson 277. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
DNIESTER (Tyras and Danaster or Danastris of classical
authors, Nislrul of the Rumanians, and Turin of the Turks), a
river of south-eastern Europe belonging to the basin of the Black
Sea. It rises on the northern slope of the Carpathian mountains
in Austrian Galicia, and belongs for the first 350 m. of its course
to Austrian, for the remaining 515 m. to Russian, territory. It
drains an area of 29,670 sq. m., of which 16,500 sq. m. belong to
Russia. It is excessively meandering, and the current in most
parts even during low water is decidedly rapid as compared with
Russian rivers generally, the mean rate being calculated at i-frm.
per hour. The average width of the channel is from 500 to 750 ft.,
but in some places it attains as much as 1400 ft.; the depth is
various and changeable. The principal interruption in the
navigable portion of the river, besides a sprinkling of rocks in the
bed and the somewhat extensive shallows, is occasioned by a
granitic spur from the Carpathians, which gives rise to the Yampol
Rapids. For ordinary river craft the passage of these rapids is
rendered possible, but not free from danger, by a natural channel
on the left side, and by a larger and deeper artificial channel on
the right; for steamboats they form an insuperable barrier. The
river falls into the sea by several arms, passing through a shallow
liman or lagoon, a few miles S.W. of Odessa. There are two
periodical floods, the earlier and larger caused by the breaking
up of the ice, and occurring in the latter part of February or in
March; and the later due to the melting of the snows in the
Carpathians, and taking place about June. The spring flood
raises the level of the water 20 ft., and towards the mouth of
the river submerges the gardens and vineyards of the adjacent
country. In some years the general state of the water is so low
that navigation is possible only for three or four weeks, while
in other years it is so high that navigation continues without
interruption; but in recent years considerable improvements
have been effected at government expense. In consequence
the traffic has increased, the Dniester tapping regions of great
productiveness, especially in cereals and timber, namely, Galicia,
Podolia and Bessarabia. Steamboat traffic was introduced in the
lower reaches in 1840. The fisheries of the lower course and of
the estuary are of considerable importance; and these, together
with those of the lakes which are formed by the inundations,
furnish a valuable addition to the diet of the people in the shape
of carp, pike, tench, salmon, sturgeon and eels. Its tributaries
are numerous, but not of individual importance, except perhaps
the Sereth in Galicia. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
DOAB, DUAB or DOOAB, a name, like the Greek Mesopotamia,
applied in India, according to its derivation (do, two, and ab,
river), to the stretch of country lying bet ween any two rivers, as
the Bari Doab between the Sutlej and the Ravi, the Rechna Doab
between the Ravi and the Chenab, the Jech Doab between the
Chenab and Jhelum, and the Sind Sagar Doab between the
Jhelum and the Indus, but frequently employed, without any
distinctive adjunct, as the proper name for the region between
the Ganges and its great tributary the Jumna. In like manner
the designation of Doab canal is given to the artificial channel
which breaks off from the Jumna near Fyzabad, and flows almost
parallel with the river till it reunites with it at Delhi.
DOANE, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1799-1859), American
churchman, Protestant Episcopal bishop of New Jersey, was born
in Trenton, New Jersey, on the 27th of May 1799. He graduated
at Union College, Schenectady, New York, in 1818, studied
theology and, in 1821, was ordained deacon and in 1823 priest by
Bishop Hobart, whom he assisted in Trinity church, New York.
With George Upfold (1796-1872), bishop of Indiana from 1849
to 1872, Doane founded St Luke's in New York City. In 1824-
1828 he was professor of belles-lettres in Washington (now
Trinity) College, Hartford, Connecticut, and at this time he was
one of the editors of the Episcopal Watchman. He was assistant
in 1828-1830 and rector in 1830-1832 of Christ church, Boston,
and was bishop of New Jersey from October 1832 to his death at
Burlington, New Jersey, on the 27th of April 1859. The diocese
of New Jersey was an unpromising field, but he took up his work
there with characteristic vigour, especially in the foundation of
St Mary's Hall (1837, for girls) and Burlington College (1846) as
demonstrations of his theory of education under church control.
His business management of these schools got him heavily into
debt, and in the autumn of 1852 a charge of lax administration
came before a court of bishops, who dismissed it. The schools
showed him an able and wise disciplinarian, and his patriotic
orations and sermons prove him a speaker of great power.
He belonged to the High Church party and was a brilliant
controversialist. He published Songs by the Way (1824), a
volume of poems; and his hymns beginning " Softly now the
light of day " and " Thou art the Way " are well known.
See Life and Writings of George Washington Doane (4 vols., New
York, 1860-1861), edited by his son, William Croswell Doane
(b. 1832), first bishop of Albany.
DOBBS FERRY, a village of Westchester county, New York,
on the E. bank of the Hudson river 2 m. N. of Yonkers. Pop.
(1890) 2083; (1900) 2888; (1910 U. S. census) 3455. Dobbs
350
DOBELL DOBEREINER
Ferry is served by the Hudson River division of the New York
Central railway. There are many fine country places, two private
schools the Mackenzie school for boys and the Misses Masters'
school for girls and the children's village (with about thirty
cottages) of the New York juvenile asylum. The name of the
village was derived from a Swede, Jeremiah Dobbs, whose family
probably moved hither from Delaware, and who at the begin-
ning of the last quarter of the i8th century had a skiff ferry,
which was kept up by his family for a century afterwards.
Because Dobbs Ferry had been a part of Philipse Manor all lands
in it were declared forfeit at the time of the War of American
Independence (see YONKERS), and new titles were derived from
the commissioners of forfeitures. The position of the village
opposite the northernmost end of the Palisades gave it importance
during the war. The region was repeatedly raided by camp
followers of each army; earthworks and a fort, commanding
the Hudson ferry and the ferry to Paramus, New Jersey, were
built; the British army made Dobbs Ferry a rendezvous, after
the battle of White Plains, in November 1776, and the conti-
nental division under General Benjamin Lincoln was here at the
end of January 1777. The American army under Washington
encamped near Dobbs Ferry on the 4th of July 1781, and started
thence for Yorktown in the following month. In the Van Brugh
Livingston house on the 6th of May 1783, Washington and
Governor George Clinton met General Sir Guy Carleton, after-
wards Lord Dorchester, to negotiate for the evacuation by the
British troops of the posts they still held in the United States.
In 1873 the village was incorporated as Greenburgh, from the
township of the same name which in 1788 had been set apart
from the manor of Phillipsburgh; but the name Dobbs Ferry
was soon resumed.
DOBELL, SYDKEY THOMPSON (1824-1874), English poet
and critic, was born on the sth of April 1824 at Cranbrook, Kent.
His father was a wine merchant, his mother a daughter of Samuel
Thompson (1766-1837), a London political reformer. The
family moved to Cheltenham when Dobell was twelve years old.
He was educated privately, and never attended either school or
university. He refers to this in some lines on Cheltenham College
in imitation of Chaucer, written in his eighteenth year. After
a five years' engagement he married, in 1844, Emily Fordham, a
lady of good family. An acquaintance with Mr (subsequently Sir
James) Stansfeld and with the Birmingham preacher-politician,
George Dawson (1821-1876), which afterwards led to the
foundation of the Society of the Friends of Italy, fed the young
enthusiast's ardour for the liberalism of the day. Meanwhile,
Dobell wrote a number of minor poems, instinct with a passionate
desire for political reform. The Roman appeared in 1850, under
the nom de plume of " Sydney Yendys." Next year he travelled
through Switzerland with his wife; and after his return he
formed friendships with Robert Browning, Philip Bailey, George
MacDonald, Emanuel Deutsch, Lord Houghton, Ruskin, Holman
Hunt, Mazzini, Tennyson and Carlyle. His second long poem,
Balder, appeared in 1854. The three following years were spent
in Scotland. Perhaps his closest friend at this time was Alexander
Smith, in company with whom he published, in 1855, a number
of sonnets on the Crimean War, which were followed by a
volume on England in Time / War. Although by no means
a rich man he was always ready to help needy men of letters,
and it was through his exertions that David Gray's poems
were published. In 1869 a horse, which he was riding, fell and
rolled over with him. His health, which had for several years
necessitated his wintering abroad, was seriously affected by this
accident, and he was from this time more or less of an invalid,
until his death on the 22nd of August 1874.
As a poet Dobell belongs to the " spasmodic school," as it was
named by Professor Aytoun, who parodied its style in Firmilian.
The epithet, however, was first applied by Carlyle to Byron.
The school includes George Gilfillan, Philip James Bailey, John
Stanyan Bigg (1826-1865), Dobell, Alexander Smith, and,
according to some critics, Gerald Massey. It was characterized
by an under-current of discontent with the mystery of existence,
by vain effort, unrewarded struggle, sceptical unrest, and an
uneasy straining after the unattainable. It thus faithfully
reflected a certain phase of ipth century thought. The pro-
ductions of the school are marked by an excess of metaphor
and a general extravagance of language. On the other hand,
they exhibit freshness and originality often lacking in more
conventional writings. Dobell's poem, The Roman, dedicated
to the interests of political liberty in Italy, is marked by
pathos, energy and passionate love of freedom, but it is over-
laid with monologue, which is carried to a dreary excess in
Balder, relieved though the latter is by fine descriptive passages,
and by some touching songs. Dobell's suggestive, but too
ornate prose writings were collected and edited with an intro-
ductory note by Prof essor J. Nichol ( Thoughts on Art, Philosophy
and Religion) in 1876. In his religious views Dobell was a
Christian of the Broad Church type; and socially he was one of
the most amiable and true-hearted of men. His early interest
in the cause of oppressed nationalities, shown in his friendship
with Kossuth, Emanuel Deutsch and others, never lessened,
although his views of home politics underwent some change from
the radical opinions of his youth. In Gloucestershire Dobell
was well known as an advocate of social reform, and he was a
pioneer in the application of the co-operative system to private
enterprise.
The standard edition of his poems (1875) by Professor Nichol
includes a memoir.
DOBELN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, on
the (Freiberg) Mulde, two arms of which embrace the town as
an island, 35m. S.E. from Leipzig by rail, and at the junction of
lines to Dresden, Chemnitz, Riesa and Oschatz. Pop. (1905)
including the garrison, 18,907. It has two Evangelical churches,
of which the Nikolai-kirche, dating in its present form from 1485,
is a handsome edifice; a medieval town hall, a former Benedictine
nunnery and a monument to Luther. There are an agricultural
and a commercial school. The industries include wool-spinning,
iron-founding, carriage, agricultural implement, and metal-
printing and stamping works.
DOBERAN, or DOBBERAN, a town of Germany, in the grand-
duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, about 2 m. from the shores of
the Baltic and 7 W. of Rostock by rail. Pop. 5000. Besides the
ruins of a Cistercian abbey founded by Pribislaus, prince of
Mecklenburg, in 1173, and secularized in 1552, it possesses an
Evangelical Gothic church of the i4th century, one of the finest in
north Germany, a grand-ducal palace, a theatre, an exchange and
a concert hall. Owing to its delightful situation amid beech
forests and to its chalybeate waters, Doberan has become a
favourite summer resort. Numerous villa residences have been
erected and promenades and groves laid out. In 1793 Duke
Frederick Francis caused the first seaside watering-place in
Germany to be established on the neighbouring coast, 4 m.
distant, at the spot where the Heiligen-Damm, a great bank of
rocks about 1000 ft. broad and 15 ft. high, stretches out into the
sea and forms an excellent bathing ground. Though no longer
so popular as in the early part of the igth century, it is still
frequented, and is connected with Doberan by a tramway.
DflBEREINER, JOHANN WOLFGANG (1780-1849), German
chemist, was born near Hof in Bavaria on the isth of December
1780. After studying pharmacy at Miinchberg, he started a
chemical manufactory in 1803, and in 1810 was appointed
professor of chemistry, pharmacy and technology at Jena,
where he died on the 24th of March 1849. The Royal Society's
Catalogue enumerates 171 papers by him on various chemical
topics, but his name is best known for his experiments on
platinum in a minute state of division and on the oxidation
products of alcohol. In 1822 he showed that when a mass
of platinum black, supplied with alcohol by a wick is enclosed
in a jar to which the air has limited access, acetic acid and water
are produced; this experiment formed the basis of the Schiit-
zenbach Quick Vinegar Process. A year later he noticed that
spongy platinum in presenceof oxygen canbringabout the ignition
of hydrogen, and utilized this fact to construct his " hydrogen
lamp," the prototype of numerous devices for the self -ignition of
coal-gas burners. He studied the formation of aldehyde from
DOBREE DOBRUDJA
alcohol by various methods, also obtaining its crystalline com-
pound with ammonia, and he was the discoverer of furfurol.
An early observation of the diffusion of gases was recorded by
him in 1823 when he noticed the escape of hydrogen from a
cracked jar, attributing it to the capillary action of fissures.
His works included treatises on pneumatic chemistry (1821-1825)
and the chemistry of fermentation (1822).
A correspondence which he carried on with Goethe and Charles
August, grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar, was collected and published
at Weimar by Schade in 1856.
DOBREE, PETER PAUL (1782-1825), English classical scholar
and critic, was born in Guernsey. He was educated at Reading
school under Richard Valpy and at Trinity College, Cambridge,
where he was elected fellow. He was appointed regius professor
of Greek in 1823, and died in Cambridge on the 24th of September
1825. He was an intimate friend of Person, whom he took as his
model in textual criticism, although he showed less caution in
conjectural emendation. After Person's death (1808) Dobree
was commissioned with Monk and Blomfield to edit his literary
remains, which had been bequeathed to Trinity College. Illness
and a subsequent journey to Spain delayed the work until 1820,
when Dobree brought out the Plutus of Aristophanes (with his
own and Person's notes) and all Person's Aristophanica. Two
years later he published the Lexicon of Photius from Person's
transcript of the Gale MS. in Trinity College library, to which he
appended a Lexicon rhetoricum from the margin of a Cambridge
MS. of Harpocration. James Scholefield, his successor in the
Greek professorship, brought out selections from his notes
(Adversaria, 1831-1833) on Greek and Latin authors (especially
the orators), and a reprint of the Lexicon rhetoricum, together
with notes on inscriptions (1834-1835). The latest edition of the
Adversaria is by William Wagner (in Bohn's Collegiate Series,
1883).
An appreciative estimate of Dobree as a scholar will be found in
J. Bake's Scholica hypomnemata, ii. (1839) and in the Philological
Museum, i. (1832) by J. C. Hare.
DOBRENTEI, 6ABOR [GABRIEL] (1786-1851), Hungarian
philologist and antiquary, was born at Nagyszollos in 1786.
He completed his studies at the universities of Wittenberg and
Leipzig, and was afterwards engaged as a tutor in Transylvania.
At this period he originated and edited the Erdelyi Muzeum,
which, notwithstanding its important influence on the develop-
ment of the Magyar language and literature, soon failed for want
of support. In 1820 Dobrentei settled at Pest, and there he spent
the rest of his life. He held various official posts, but continued
zealously to pursue the studies for which he had early shown a
strong preference. His great work is the Ancient Monuments of
the Magyar Language (Regi Magyar Nyehemlekek), the editing
of which was entrusted to him by the Hungarian Academy. The
first volume was published in 1838 and the fifth was in course
of preparation at the time of his death. Dobrentei was one of
the twenty-two scholars appointed in 1825 to plan and organize,
under the presidency of Count Teleki, the Hungarian Academy.
In addition to his great work he wrote many valuable papers
on historical and philological subjects, and many biographical
notices of eminent Hungarians. These appeared in the Hungarian
translation of Brockhaus's Conversations-Lexikon. He translated
into Hungarian Macbeth and other plays of Shakespeare, Sterne's
letters from Yorick to Eliza (1828), several of Schiller's tragedies,
and Moliere's A tare, and wrote several original poems. Dobrentei
does not appear to have taken any part in the revolutionary
movement of 1848. He died at his country house, near Pest,
on the 28th of March 1851.
DOBRITCH, or HAJIOLUPAZARJIK, the principal town in the
Bulgarian Dobrudja. Pop. (1901) 13,436. The town is noted
for its panair or great fair, chiefly for horses and cattle, held
annually in the summer, which formerly attracted a large
concourse from all parts of eastern Europe, but has declined in
importance.
DOBRIZHOFFER, MARTIN (1717-1791), Austrian Roman
Catholic missionary, was born at Gratz, in Styria. He joined the
Society of Jesus in 1736, and in 1749 proceeded to Paraguay,
where for eighteen years he worked devotedly first among the
Guaranis, and then among the Abipones. Returning to Europe
on the expulsion of the Jesuits from South America, he settled at
Vienna, obtained the friendship of Maria Theresa, survived the
extinction of his order, composed the history of his mission, and
died on the tythof July 1791. The lively if rather garrulous book
on which his title to remembrance rests, appeared at Vienna in
1784, in the author's own Latin, and in a German translation by
Professor Krail of the university of Pest. Of its contents some idea
may be obtained from its extended title : Historic, de A biponibus,
Equestri Bellicosaque Paraguariae Natione, locupletala Copiosis
Barbararum Gentium, Urbium, Fluminum, Ferarum, Amphibi-
orum, Insectorum, Serpenlium praecipuorum, Piscium, Avium,
Arborum, Plantarumaliarumqueejusdem Provincial Proprietatum
Obsenationibus. In 1822 there appeared in London an anony-
mous translation sometimes ascribed to Southey, but really the
work of Sara Coleridge, who had undertaken the task to defray
the college expenses of one of her brothers. A delicate compli-
ment was paid to the translator by Southey in the third canto of
his Tale of Paraguay, the story of which was derived from the
pages of Dobrizhoffer's narrative.
" And if he could in Merlin's glass have seen
By whom his tomes to speak our tongue were taught,
The old man would have felt as pleased, I ween,
As when he won the ear of that great Empress Queen."
DOBROWSKY, JOSEPH (1753-1829), Hungarian philologist,
was born of Bohemian parentage at Gjermet, near Raab, in
Hungary. He received his first education in the German school
at Bischofteinitz, made his first acquaintance with Bohemian
at the Deutschbrod gymnasium, studied for some time under
the Jesuits at Klattau, and then proceeded to the university of
Prague. In 1772 he was admitted among the Jesuits at Briinn;
but on the dissolution of the order in 1773 he returned to Prague
to study theology. After holding for some time the office of tutor
in the family of Count Nostitz, he obtained an appointment first
as vice-rector, and then as rector, in the general seminary at
Hradisch; but in 1790 he lost his post through the abolition
of the seminaries throughout Austria, and returned as a guest
to the house of the count. In 1792 he was commissioned by
the Bohemian Academy of Sciences to visit Stockholm, Abo,
Petersburg and Moscow in search of the manuscripts which had
been scattered by the Thirty Years' War; and on his return
he accompanied Count Nostitz to Switzerland and Italy. His
reason began to give way in 1795, and in 1801 he had to be
confined in a lunatic asylum; but by 1803 he had completely
recovered. The rest of his life was mainly spent either in Prague
or-at the country seats of his friends Counts Nostitz and Czernin;
but his death took place at Briinn, whither he had gone in 1828
to make investigations in the library. While his fame rests
chiefly on his labours in Slavonic philology his botanical studies
are not without value in the history of the science.
The following is a list of his more important works, Fragmentum
Pragense evangelii S. Marci, vulgo autographi (1778); a periodical
for Bohemian and Moravian Literature (1780-1787); Scriptures
rerum Bohemicarum (2 vols., 1783); Geschichte der bohm. Sprache
und altern Literatur (1792) ; Die Bildsamkeit der slaw. Sprache (1799) ;
a Deutsch-bohm. Worterbuch compiled in collaboration with Leschka-
Puchmayer and Hanka (1802-1821) ; Entwurf eines Pflanzensystems
nach Zahlen und Verhdltnissen (1802); Glagolitica (1807); Lehr-
gebdude der bohm. Sprache (1809) ; Institutions linguae slavicae dia-
lecti veteris (1822); Entwurf zu einem allgemeinen Etymologikon der
slaw. Sprachen (1813); Slowanka zur Kenntniss der slaw. Literatur
(1814); and a critical edition of Jordanes, De rebus Geticis, for
Pertz's Monumenta Germaniae historica. See Palacky, J. Dobrowskys
Leben undgelehrtes Wirken (1833).
DOBRUDJA (Bulgarian Dobritch, Rumanian Dobrogea), also
written DOBEUDSCHA, and DOBRUJA, a region of south-eastern
Europe, bounded on the north and west by the Danube, on the
eastby the Black Sea, and on the south by Bulgaria. Pop. (1900)
267,808; area, 6000 sq. m. The strategic importance of this
territory was recognized by the Romans, who defended it on
the south by " Trajan's Wall," a double rampart, drawn from
Constantza, on the Black Sea, to the Danube. In later times it
was utilized by Russians and Turks, as in the wars of 1828, 1854
352
DOBSINA DOBSON, H. A.
and 1878, when it was finally wrested from Turkey. By the treaty
of Berlin, in 1878, the Russians rewarded their Rumanian allies
with this land of mountains, fens and barren steppes, peopled by
Turks, Bulgarians, Tatars, Jews and other aliens; while, to add
to the indignation of Rumania, they annexed instead the fertile
country of Bessarabia, largely inhabited by Rumans. After 1 880,
however, the steady decrease of aliens, and the development of
the Black Sea ports, rendered the Dobrudja a source of prosperity
to Rumania.
DOBSINA (Ger. Dobschau) , a, town of Hungary, 165 m. N.E. of
Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 5109. It is situated in the county
of Gb'mor, at the foot of the Radzim (3200 ft. high) in the central
Carpathians, and lies to the south of the beautiful Straczena
valley, watered by the river Gollnitz, and enclosed on all sides
by mountains. In the vicinity are mines of iron, cobalt, copper
and mercury, some of them being very ancient. But the most
remarkable feature is a large cavern some 3$ m. N.W., in which
is an icefield nearly 2 acres in extent, containing formations
which are at once most curious and strikingly beautiful. This
cavern, which lies in the above-mentioned Straczena valley,
was discovered in 1870. The place was founded in the first half
of the I4th century by German miners.
DOBSON, HENRY AUSTIN (1840- ), English poet and man
of letters, was born at Plymouth on the i8th of January 1840,
being the eldest son of George Clarisse Dobson, a civil engineer,
and on his grandmother's side of French descent. When he was
about eight years old the family moved to Holyhead, and his
first school was at Beaumaris, in the Isle of Anglesea. He was
afterwards educated at Coventry, and the Gymnase, Strassburg,
whence he returned at the age of sixteen with the intention
of becoming a civil engineer. He had a taste for art, and in
his earlier years at the office continued to study it at South
Kensington, at his leisure, but without definite ambition. In
December 1856 he entered the Board of Trade, gradually rising to
a principalship in the harbour department, from which he with-
drew in the autumn of 1901. He married in 1868 Frances Mary,
daughter of Nathaniel Beardmore of Broxbourne, Herts, and
settled at Baling. His official career was industrious though
uneventful, but as poet and biographer he stands among the most
distinguished of his time. The student of Mr Austin Dobson's
work will be struck at once by the fact that it contains nothing
immature: there are no juvenilia to criticize or excuse. It was
about 1864 that Mr Dobson first turned his attention to composi-
tion in prose and verse, and some of his earliest known pieces
remain among his best. It was not until 1868 that the appearance
of St Paul's, a magazine edited by Anthony Trollope, afforded
Mr Dobson an opportunity and an audience; and during the next
six years he contributed to its pages some of his favourite poems,
including " Tu Quoque," " A Gentleman of the Old School," " A
Dialogue from Plato," and " Une Marquise." Many of his poems
in their original form were illustrated some, indeed, actually
written to support illustrations. By the autumn of 1873 Mr
Dobson had produced sufficient verse for a volume, and put forth
his Vignettes in Rhyme, which quickly passed through three
editions. During the period of their appearance in the magazine
the poems had received unusual attention, George Eliot, among
others, extending generous encouragement to the anonymous
author. The little book at once introduced him to a larger public.
The period was an interesting one for a first appearance, since-
the air was full of metrical experiment. Swinburne's bold and
dithyrambic excursions into classical metre had given the clue
for an enlargement of the borders of English prosody; and, since
it was hopeless to follow him in his own line without necessary loss
of vigour, the poets of the day were looking about for fresh forms
and variations. It was early in 1876 that a small body of English
poets lit upon the French forms of Theodore de Banville, Marot
and Villon, and determined to introduce them into English verse.
Mr Austin Dobson, who had already made successful use of the
triolet, was at the head of this movement, and in May 1876 he
published in The Prodigals the first original ballade written in
English. This he followed by English versions of the rondel,
rondeau and villanelle. An article in the Cornhill Magazine by
Mr Edmund Gosse, " A Plea for Certain Exotic Forms of Verse,"
appearing in Julyi877, simultaneously with Mr Dobson's second
volume, Proverbs in Porcelain, drew the general eye to the
possibilities and achievements of the movement. The experiment
was extremely fortunate in its introduction. Mr Dobson is above
all things natural, spontaneous and unaffected in poetic method;
and in his hands a sheaf of metrical forms, essentially artificial
and laborious, was made to assume the colour and bright
profusion of a natural product. An air of pensive charm, of
delicate sensibility, pervades the whole of these fresh revivals;
and it is perhaps this personal touch of humanity which has
given something like stability to one side of a movement other-
wise transitory in influence. The fashion has laded, but the
flowers of Mr Dobson's French garden remain bright and
scented.
In 1883 Mr Dobson published Old-World Idylls, a volume which
contains some of his most characteristic work. By this time his
taste was gradually settling upon the period with which it has
since become almost exclusively associated; and the spirit of
the i8th century is revived in " The Ballad of Beau Brocade "
and in " The Story of Rosina," as nowhere else in modern English
poetry. In " Beau Brocade," indeed, the pictorial quality of his
work, the dainty economy of eloquent touches, is at its very
best: every couplet has its picture, and every picture is true and
vivacious. The touch has often been likened to that of Randolph
Caldecott, with which it has much in common; but Mr Dobson's
humour is not so " rollicking," his portraiture not so broad, as
that of the illustrator of " John Gilpin." The appeal is rather
to the intellect, and the touches of subdued pathos in the
" Gentleman " and " Gentlewoman of the Old School " are
addressed directly to the heart. We are in the i8th century, but
see it through the glasses of to-day; and the soft intercepting
sense of change which hangs like a haze between ourselves and
the subject is altogether due to the poet's sympathy and sensi-
bility. At the Sign of the Lyre (1885) wasthenextof Mr Dobson's
separate volumes of verse, although he has added to the body of
his work in a volume of Collected Poems (1897) . At the Sign of the
Lyre contains examples of all his various moods. The admirably
fresh and breezy " Ladies of St James's " has precisely the
qualities we have traced in his other 18th-century poems; there
are baMades and rondeaus, with all the earlier charm; and in
" A Revolutionary Relic," as in " The Child Musician " of the
Old-World Idylls, the poet reaches a depth of true pathos which
he does not often attempt, but in which, when he seeks it, he
never fails. At the pole opposite to these are the light occasional
verses, not untouched by the influence of Praed, but also quite
individual, buoyant and happy. But the chief novelty in At the
Sign of the Lyre was the series of " Fables of Literature and Art,"
founded in manner upon Gay, and exquisitely finished in
scholarship, taste and criticism. It is in these perhaps, more than
in any other of his poems, that we see how with much felicity Mr
Dobson interpenetrates the literature of fancy with the literature
of judgment. After 1885 Mr Dobson was engaged principally
upon critical and biographical prose, by which he has added very
greatly to the general knowledge of his favourite i8th century.
His biographies of Fielding (1883), Bewick (1884), Steele (1886),
Goldsmith (1888), Walpole (1890) and Hogarth (1879-1898) are
studies marked alike by assiduous research, sympathetic pre-
sentation and sound criticism. It is particularly noticeable that
Mr Dobson in his prose has always added something, and often a
great deal, to our positive knowledge of the subject in question,
his work as a critic never being solely aesthetic. In Four French-
women (1890), in the three series of Eighteenth-Century Vignettes
(1892-1894-1896), and in The Paladin of Philanthropy (1899),
which contain unquestionably his most delicate prose work,
the accurate detail of each study is relieved by a charm of
expression which could only be attained by a poet. In 1901
he collected his hitherto unpublished poems in a volume en-
titled Carmina Voliva. Possessing an exquisite talent of defined
range, Mr Austin Dobson may be said in his own words to
have " held his pen in trust for Art " with a service sincere and
distinguished.
DOBSON, W. DOCK
353
DOBSON, WILLIAM (1610-1646), English portrait and
historical painter, was born in London. His father was master of
the alienation office, but by improvidence had fallen into reduced
circumstances. The son was accordingly bound an apprentice
to a stationer and picture dealer in Holborn Bridge; and while
in his employment he began to copy the pictures of Titian and
Van Dyck. He also took portraits from life under the advice
and instruction of Francis Cleyn, a German artist of considerable
repute. Van Dyck, happening to pass a shop in Snow Hill where
one of Dobson's pictures was exposed, sought out the artist, and
presented him to Charles I., who took Dobson under his protec-
tion, and not only sat to him several times for his own portrait,
but caused the prince of Wales, Prince Rupert and many others
to do the same. The king had a high opinion of his artistic ability,
styled him the English Tintoretto, and appointed him Serjeant-
painter on the death of Van Dyck. After the fall of Charles,
Dobson was reduced to great poverty, and fell into dissolute
habits. He died at the early age of thirty-six. Excellent
examples of Dobson's portraits are to be seen at Blenheim,
Chatsworth and several other country seats throughout England.
The head in the " Decollation of St John the Baptist " at Wilton
is said to be a portrait of Prince Rupert.
DOCETAE, a name applied to those thinkers in the early
Christian Church who held that Christ, during his life, had not
a real or natural, but only an apparent (dontiv, to appear) or
phantom body. Other explanations of the SiKTjats or appear-
ance have, however, been suggested, and, in the absence of any
statement by those who first used the word of the grounds on
which they did so, it is impossible to determine between them
with certainty. The name Docetae is first used by Theodoret
(Ep. 82) as a general description, and by Clement of Alexandria
as the designation of a distinct sect, 1 of which he says that Julius
Cassianus was the founder. Docetism, however, undoubtedly
existed before the time of Cassianus. The origin of the heresy is
to be sought in the Greek, Alexandrine and Oriental philosophiz-
ing about the imperfection or rather the essential impurity of
matter. Traces of a Jewish Docetism are to be found in Philo ;
and in the Christian form it is generally supposed to be combated
in the writings of John, 2 and more formally in the epistles of
Ignatius. 3 It differed much in its complexion according to the
points of view adopted by the different authors. Among the
Gnostics and Manichaeans it existed in its most developed type,
and in a milder form it is to be found even in the writings of the
orthodox teachers. The more thoroughgoing Docetae assumed
the position that Christ was born without any participation of
matter; and that all the acts and sufferings of his human life,
including the crucifixion, were only apparent. They denied
accordingly, the resurrection and the ascent into heaven. To this
class belonged Dositheus, Saturninus, Cerdo, Marcion and their
followers, the Ophites, Manichaeans and others. Marcion, for
example, regarded the body of Christ merely as an " umbra," a
" phantasma." His denial (due to his abhorrence of the world)
that Jesus was born or subjected to human development, is in
striking contrast to the value which he sets on Christ's death on
the cross. The other, or milder school of Docetae, attributed to
Christ an ethereal and heavenly instead of a truly human body.
Amongst these were Valentinus, Bardesanes, Basilides, Tatian
and their followers. They varied considerably in their estimation
of the share which this body had in the real actions and sufferings
of Christ. Clement and Origen, at the head of the Alexandrian
school, took a somewhat subtle view of the Incarnation, and
Docetism pervades their controversies with the Monarchians.
Hilary especially illustrates the prevalence of naive Docetic views
as regards the details of the Incarnation. Docetic tendencies
I Not a distinct sect, but a continuous type of Christology. Hippo-
lytus, however (Fhilosophumena, viii. 8-1 1), speaks of a definite party
who called themselves Docetae.
I 1 Ep. iv. 2, ii. 22, v. 6, 20; 2 Ep. 7, cf. Jerome (Dial. adv.
Lucifer. 23 " Apostolis adhuc in saeculo superstitibus, adhuc apud
Judaeam Christ! sanguine recenti, phantasma Domini corpus
asserebatur ").
'Ad Trail. 9 f., Ad Smyrn. 2, 4, Ad Ephes. 7. Cf. Polycarp,
Ad Phil. 7.
vni. 12
have also been developed in later periods of ecclesiastical history,
as for example by the Priscillianists and the Bogomils, and also
since the Reformation by Jacob Boehme, Menno Simons and a
small fraction of the Anabaptists. Docetism springs from the
same roots as Gnosticism, and the Gnostics generally held
Docetic views (see GNOSTICISM).
DOCHMIAC (from Gr. dox^, a hand's breadth), a form of
verse, consisting of rfoc/wm or pentasyllable feet(usually O._0-).
DOCK, a word applied to (i) a plant (see below), (2) an
artificial basin for ships (see below), (3) the fleshy solid part of
an animal's tail, and (4) the railed-in enclosure in which a
prisoner is placed in court at his trial. Dock (i) in O.E. is
docce, represented by Ger. Dockea-blatter, O.Fr. docque, Gael.
dogha; Skeat compares Gr. SauKos, a kind of parsnip. Dock (2)
appears in Dutch (dok) and English in the i6th century; thence
it was adopted into other languages. It has been connected with
Med.Lat. doga,ca,p, Gr. Soxy, receptacle, from 5ex^<", to receive.
Dock (3), especially used of a horse or dog, appears in English
in the I4th century; a parallel is found in Icel. docke, stumpy
tail, and Ger. Docke, bundle, skein, is also connected with it.
This word has given the verb " to dock," to cut short, curtail,
especially used of the shortening of an animal's tail by severing
one or more of the vertebrae. The English Kennel Club (Rules,
1905, revised 1907) disqualifies from prize-winning dogs whose
tails have been docked; several breeds are, however, excepted,
e.g. varieties of terriers and spaniels, poodles, &c., and such
foreign dogs as may from time to time be determined by the
club. The prisoners' dock (4) is apparently to be referred to
Flem. dok, pen or hutch. It was probably first used in thieves'
slang; according to the New English Dictionary it was known
after 1610 in " bail-dock," a room at the corner of the Old
Bailey left open at the top, " in which during the trials are put
some of the malefactors " (Scots. Mag., 1753).
DOCK, in botany, the name applied to the plants constituting
the section Lapathum of the genus Rumex, natural order Polygon-
aceae. They are biennial or perennial herbs with a stout root-
stock, and glabrous linear-lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate leaves
with a rounded, obtuse or hollowed base and a more or less wavy
or crisped margin. The flowers are arranged in more or less
crowded whorls, the whole forming a denser or looser panicle;
they are generally perfect, with six sepals, six stamens and a
three-sided ovary bearing three styles with much-divided stigmas.
The fruit is a triangular nut enveloped in the three enlarged
leathery inner sepals, one or all of which bear a tubercle. In the
common or broad-leaved dock, Rumex obtusifolius, the flower-
stem is erect, branching, and 18 in. to 3 ft. high, with large radical
leaves, heart-shaped at the base, and more or less blunt; the
other leaves are more pointed, and have shorter stalks. The
whorls are many-flowered, close to the stem and mostly leafless.
The root is many-headed, black externally and yellow within.
The flowers appear from June to August. In autumn the whole
plant may become of a bright red colour. It is a troublesome
weed, common by roadsides and in fields, pastures and waste
places throughout Europe. The great water dock, R. hydro-
lapatltum, believed to be the herba britannica of Pliny (Nat. Hist.
xxv. 6), is a tall-growing species; its root is used as an anti-
scorbutic. Other British species are R. crispus; R. conglomerates,
the root of which has been employed in dyeing; R. sanguineus
(bloody dock, or bloodwort); R. paluslris; R. pulcher (fiddle
dock), with fiddle-shaped leaves; R. maritimus; R. aquaticus;
R. pratensis. The naturalized species, R. alpinus, or " monk's
rhubarb," was early cultivated in Great Britain, and was ac-
counted an excellent remedy for ague, but, like many ether such
drugs, is now discarded.
DOCK, in marine and river engineering. Vessels require to
lie afloat alongside quays provided with suitable appliances in
sheltered sites in order to discharge and take in cargoes con-
veniently and expeditiously; and a basin constructed for this
purpose, surrounded by quay walls, is known as a dock. The
term is specially applied to basins adjoining tidal rivers, or close
to the sea-coast, in which the water is maintained at a fairly
uniform level by gates, which are closed when the tide begins to
354
DOCK
fall, as exemplified by the Liverpool and Havre docks (figs, i
and 2). Sometimes, however, at ports situated on tidal rivers
near their tidal limit, as at Glasgow (fig. 3), Hamburg and
Low-lying land adjoining a tidal river or estuary frequently
provides suitable sites for docks; for the position, being more
or less inland, is sheltered ; the low level reduces the excavation
SCALE 2 0,OOO. FIG. I. Liverpool Docks, North End.
Rouen, and at some ports near the sea-coast, such as Southampton
(fig. 4) and New York, the tidal range is sufficiently moderate
for dock gates to be dispensed with, and for open basins and river
quays to serve for the accommodation of vessels. For ports
SCALE 50000.
FIG. 2. Havre Docks and Outer Harbour.
established on the sea-coast of tideless seas, such as the Medi-
terranean, on account of the rivers being barred by deltas at
their outlets, like the Rhone and the Tiber, ana thus rendered
inaccessible, open basins, provided with quays and protected by
required for forming the docks, and enables the .excavated
materials to be utilized in raising the ground at the sfteg ^
sides for quays; and the river furnishes a sheltered Docks.
approach channel. Notable instances of these are the
docks of the ports of London, Liver-
pool, South Wales, Southampton,
Hull, Belfast, St Nazaire, Rotter-
dam, Antwerp and Hamburg. Some-
times docks are partially formed on
foreshores reclaimed from estuaries,
as at Hull, Grimsby, Cardiff, Liver-
pool, Leith and Havre; whilst at
Bristol, a curved portion of the river
Avon was appropriated for a dock,
and a straight cut made for the river.
By carrying docks across sharp bends
of tidal rivers, upper and lower en-
trances can be provided, thereby con-
veniently separating the inland and
sea-going traffic; and of this the
London, Surrey Commercial, West
India, and Victoria and Albert docks
are examples on the Thames and
Chatham dockyard on the Medway.
Occasionally, when a small tidal river
has a shallow entrance, or an estuary exhibits signs of silting up,
SCALE 20,000.
FIG. 3. Glasgow Docks.
breakwaters, furnish the necessary commercial requirements for
sea-going vessels, as for example at Marseilles (fig. 5), Genoa,
Naples and Trieste. These open basins, however, are precisely
the same as closed docks, except for the absence of dock gates;
and the accommodation for shipping at the quays round basins
in river ports is so frequently supplemented by river quays,
that closed docks, open basins and river quays are all naturally
included in the general consideration of dock works.
SCALE 20,000.
FIG. 4. Southampton Docks and River Quays.
docks alongside, formed on foreshores adjoining the sea-coast,
are provided with a sheltered entrance direct from the sea,
DOCK
355
as exemplified by the Sunderland docks adjacent to the
mouth of the river Wear, and the Havre docks at the outlet
of the Seine estuary (fig. 2). Some old ports, originally estab-
lished on sandy coasts where a creek, maintained by the influx
and efflux of the tide from low-lying spaces near the shore,
afforded some shelter and an outlet to the sea across the beach,
have had their access improved by parallel jetties and dredging;
and docks have been readily formed in the low-lying land only
of suction dredgers in sand (see DREDGE), together with the
increasing draught of vessels, has resulted in a considerable
increase being made in the available depth of rivers and channels
leading to docks, and has necessitated the making of due
allowance for the possibility of a reasonable improvement in
determining the depth to be given to a new dock. On the other
hand, there is a limit to the deepening of an approach channel,
depending upon its length, the local conditions as regards
SCALE
FIG. 5. Port of Marseilles. Basins and Extensions.
separated by sand dunes from the sea, as ,at Calais, Dunkirk
(fig. 6) and Ostend (see HARBOUR). In sheltered places on
the sea-coast, docks have sometimes been constructed on low-
lying land bordering the shore, with direct access to the sea,
as at Barrow and Hartlepool; whilst at Mediterranean ports
open basins have been formed in the sea, by establishing quays
along the foreshore, from which wide, solid jetties, lined with
quay walls, are carried into the sea at intervals at right angles to
the shore, .being sheltered by an outlying break-
water parallel to the coast, and reached at each
end through the openings left between the projecting
jetties and the breakwater, as at Marseilles (fig. 5)
and Trieste, and at the extensions at Genoa (see
HARBOUR) and Naples. Where, however, the basins
are formed within the partial protection of a bay,
as in the old ports of Genoa and Naples, the re-,
quisite additional shelter has been provided by
converging breakwaters across the opening of the
bay; and an entrance to the port is left between
the breakwaters. The two deep arms of the sea at
New York, known as the Hudson and East rivers,
are so protected by Staten Island and Long Island
that it has been only necessary to form open basins
by projecting wide jetties or quays into them from
the west and east shores of Manhattan Island, and
from the New Jersey and Brooklyn shores, at in-
tervals, to provide adequate accommodation for Atlantic liners
and the sea-going trade of New York.
The accessibility of a port depends upon the depth of its
approach channel, which also determines the depth of the docks
A or basins to which it leads; for it is useless to give a
channels, depth to a dock much in excess of the depth down to
which there is a prospect of carrying the channel by
which it is reached. The great augmentation, however, in the
power and capacity for work of modern dredgers, and especially
silting, and the resources and prospects of trade of the port, for
every addition to the depth generally involves a corresponding
increase in the cost of maintenance.
At tidal ports the available depth for vessels should be
reckoned from high water of the lowest neap tides, as the standard
which is certain to be reached at high tide; and the period
during which docks can be entered at each tide depends upon the
nature of the approach channel, the extent of the tidal range and
u
10
o
50,000.
FIG. 6. Dunkirk Docks and Jetty Channel.
the manner in which the entrance to the docks is effected. Thus
where the tidal range is very large, as in the Severn estuary, the
approach channels to some of the South Wales ports are nearly
dry at low water of spring tides, and it would be impossible to
make these ports accessible near low tide; whereas at high
water, even of neap tides, vessels of large draught can enter their
docks. At Liverpool, with a rise of 31 ft. at equinoctial spring
tides, owing to the deep channel between Liverpool and
Birkenhead and into the outer estuary of the Mersey in Liverpool
356
DOCK
Bay, maintained by the powerful tidal scour resulting from the
filling and emptying of the large inner estuary, access to the
river by the largest vessels has been rendered possible, at any
state of the tide, by dredging a channel through the Mersey bar;
but the docks cannot be entered till the water has risen above
half -tide level, and the gates are closed directly after high water.
A large floating
landing-stage,
however, about
half a mile in
length, in front of
the. centre of the
docks, connected
with the shore by
several hinged
bridges and rising
and falling with
the tide, enables
Atlantic liners to
come alongsideand
tXN^^^^v \ 1 take on board or
^^-O^AW'-N^, W disembark their
Y"~~-~3^y^-' ^^V/ passengers at any
V / .. ....... >/ time.
Comparatively
small tidal rivers
offer the best
opportunity of a
considerable im-
provement in the
approach channel
to a port; for they
can be converted into artificially deep channels by dredging,
and their necessary maintenance is somewhat aided by the
increased influx and efflux of tidal water due to the lowering
of the low-water line by the outflow of the ebb tide being facili-
tated by the deepening. Thus systematic, continuous dredging
THAMES.
SCALE 20POO.
FlG. 7. Tilbury Docks
SCALE 20,000
CHANNEL.
FIG. 8. Barry Docks.
in the Tyne and the Clyde has raised the Tyne ports and
Glasgow into first-class ports. In large tidal rivers and estuaries,
docks should be placed alongside a concave bank which the deep
navigable channel hugs, as effected at Hull and Antwerp, or
close to a permanently deep channel in an estuary, such as chosen
for Garston and the entrance to the Manchester ship canal at
Eastham in the inner Mersey estuary, and for Grimsby and the
authorized Illingham dock in the Humber estuary; for a channel
carried across an estuary to deep water requires constant dredging
to maintain its depth. Occasionally, extensive draining works
and dredging have to be executed to form an adequately deep
channel through a shifting estuary and shallow river to a port,
as for instance on the Weser to Bremerhaven and Bremen, on
the Seine to Honfleur and Rouen, on the Tees to Middlesborough
and Stockton, on the Kibble to Preston, on the Maas to Rotterdam
and on the Nervion to Bilbao (see RIVER ENGINEERING) . South-
ampton possesses the very rare combination of advantages of a
well-sheltered and fairly deep estuary, a rise of only 12 ft. at
spring tides, and a position at the head of Southampton Water
at the confluence of two rivers (fig. 4), so that, with a moderate
amount of dredging and the construction of quays along the lower
ends of the river with a depth of 35 ft. in front of them at low
water, it is possible for vessels of the largest draught to come
alongside or leave the quays at any state of the tide. This
circumstance has enabled Southampton to attract some of the
Atlantic steamers formerly running to Liverpool.
Ports on tideless seas have to be placed where deep water
approaches the shore, and where there is an absence of littoral
drift. The basins of such ports are always accessible for vessels
of the draught they provide for; but they require most efficient
protection, and, unlike tidal ports, they are not able to ex-
ceptional occasions to admit a vessel of larger draught than the
basins have been formed to accommodate. Occasionally, an old
port whose approach channel has become inadequate for modern
vessels, or from which the sea has receded, has been provided
with deep access from the sea by a ship canal, as exemplified by
Amsterdam and Bruges; whilst Manchester has become a sea-
port by similar works (see MANCHESTER SHIP CANAL). In such
cases, however, perfectly sheltered open basins are formed inland
at the head of the ship canal, in the most convenient available
site; and the size of vessels that can use the port depends wholly
on the dimensions and facility of access of the ship canal.
Docks require to be so designed that they may provide the
maximum length of quays in proportion to the water area consistent
with easy access for vessels to the quays; but often the space
available does not admit of the adoption of
the best forms, and the design has ;_ ol
to be made as suitable as practi-
cable under the existing conditions.
On this account, and owing to the small size
of vessels in former times, the docks of old
ports present a great variety in size and
arrangement, being for the most part narrow
and small, forming a sort of string of docks
communicating with one another, and pro-
vided with locks or entrances at suitable
points for their common use, as noticeable
in the older London and Liverpool docks.
Though narrow timber jetties were introduced
in some of the wider London docks for in-
creasing the length of quays by placing
vessels alongside them, no definite arrange-
ment of docks was adopted in carrying out
the large Victoria and Albert docks between
1850 and 1880; whilst the Victoria dock was
made wide with solid quays, provided with
warehouses, projecting from the northern
quay wall, thereby affording a large accom-
modation for vessels lying end on to the
north quay, the Albert dock subsequently
constructed was given about half the width
of the earlier dock, but made much longer, so
that vessels lie alongside the north and south
quays in a long line. This change of form,
however, was probably dictated by the
advantage of stretching across the remainder
of the wide bend, in order to obtain a second
entrance in a lower reach of the river. The
Tilbury docks, the latest and lowest docks
on the Thames, were constructed on the most approved modern
system, consisting of a series of branch docks separated by wide,
well-equipped solid quays, and opening straight into a main dock
or basin communicating with the entrance lock, in which vesa
can turn on entering or leaving the docks (fig. 7). The mos
recently constructed Liverpool docks, also, at the northern e
have been given this form; and the older docks adjoining them
to the south have been transformed by reconstruction into a
similar series of branch docks opening into a dock alongside the
river wall, leading to a half-tide basin or river entrances (ng. I}.
DOCK
357
Tldalaad
halt-tide
basins.
The Manchester and Salford docks were laid out on a precisely
similar system, which was also adopted for the most recent docks
at Dunkirk (fig. 6) and Prince's dock at Glasgow (fig. 3), and
at some of the principal Rhine ports; whilst the Alexandra dock at
Hull resembles it in principle. The basins in tideless seas have
naturally been long formed in accordance with this system (fig. 5).
The Barry docks furnish an example of the special arrangements
for a coal-shipping port, with numerous coal-tips served by sidings
(fig. 8).
Tidal basins, as they are termed, are generally interposed in the
docks of London between the entrance locks and the docks, with the
object of facilitating the passage of vessels out of and into
the docks before and after high water, by lowering the
water in the basin as soon as the tide has risen sufficiently,
and opening the lock gates directly a level has been
formed with the tide in the river. Then the vessels which have
collected in the basin, when level with the dock, are readily passed
successively into the river. The incoming vessels are next brought
into the basin, and the gates are closed ; and the water in the basin
having been raised to the level in the dock, the gates shutting off
the basin from the dock when the water was lowered are opened, and
the vessels are admitted to the dock. In this manner, by means of
an inner pair of gates, the basin can be used as a large lock without
unduly altering the water-level in the dock, and saves the delay of
locking most of the vessels out and in, the lock being only used for
the smaller vessels leaving early or coming in late on the tide. Similar
tidal basins have also been provided at Cardiff .Penarth, Barry (fig. 8) ,
Sunderland, Antwerp and o_ther docks.
The large half-tide docks introduced at the most modern Liverpool
docks (fig. i) serve a similar purpose as tidal basins; but being much
larger, and approached by entrances instead of locks, the exit and
entrance of vessels are effected by lowering their water-level on a
rising tide, and opening the gates, which are then closed at high water
to prevent the lowering of the water-level in the dock, and to avoid
closing the gates against a strong issuing current.
The tidal basins outside the locks at Tilbury and Barry are
quite open to the tide, and have been carried down to 24 ft. and 16 ft.
respectively below low water of spring tides, in order to afford vessels
a deep sheltered approach to the lock in each case, available at or
near low water (figs. 7 and 8). Such basins, however, open to a
considerable tidal range where the water is densely charged with
silt, are exposed to a large deposit in the fairly still water, and their
depth has to be constantly maintained by sluicing or dredging.
Where the range of tide is moderate, or on large inland rivers,
docks or basins are usefully supplemented by river quays, which
though subject to changes in the water-level, and exposed
to currents in the river, are very convenient for access,
quays. an( j are sometimes very advantageously employed in
regulating a river and keeping up its banks when deepened by
dredging. Generally 10 to 12 ft. is the limit of the tidal range con-
venient for the adoption of open basins and river quays; but the
banks of the Tyne have been utilized for quays, jetties and coal-
staiths, with a somewhat larger maximum tidal range; and a long
line of quays stretching along the right bank of the Scheldt in front
of Antwerp, constructed so as to regulate this reach of the river,
accommodates a large sea-going traffic, with a rise at spring tides
of 15 ft.
When a dock has to be formed on land, the excavation is effected
by men with barrows and powerful steam navvies, loading into
wagons drawn in trains by locomotives to the place of
^ v *' deposit, usually to raise the land at the sides for forming
locks"' <1 ua y s - Directly the underground water-level is reached,
the water has to be removed from the excavations by
pumps raising the inflowing water from sumps, lined with timber,
sunk down below the lowest foundations at suitable positions, so
that the lower portions of the dock walls and sills of the lock or
entrance maybe built out of water. A cofferdam has to be constructed
extending out from the bank of the river or approach channel
in front of the site of the proposed entrance or lock, so that the
excavations for the entrance to the dock may be pushed forwards,
and the lock or entrance built under its protection. Sometimes the
lowest portion of the excavation for the dock can be accomplished
economically by dredging, after the dock walls and lock have been
completed and the water admitted.
Where a dock is partially or wholly constructed on reclaimed land,
the reclamation bank for enclosing the site and excluding the tide
has to be undertaken first by tipping an embankment from each
end with wagons, protected and consolidated along its outer toe
by rubble stone or chalk. When the ends of the embankments are
approaching one another, it is essential to connect them by a long
low bank of selected materials brought up gradually in successive
layers, and retaining the water in the enclosure to the level of this
bank, so that the influx and efflux of the tide, filling and emptying
the reclaimed area, may take place over a long length, and in smaller
volume as the low bank is raised. In this way a reduction is effected
of the tidal current in and out, which in the case of a large enclosure
d a considerable tidal range, would create such a scour in the
narrowing gap between two high embankments as to wash away
their ends and prevent the closing of the gap. Occasionally the final
closure is effected by lowering timber panels in grooves between
a series of piles driven down at intervals across the gap. On the
closing of the reclamation bank the water is pumped out; and
the excavation is carried on in the ordinary manner. It is very
important that such an embankment should be carried well above
the level of the highest tide which might be raised by a high wind ;
and in exposed sites, the outer slope of the bank should be protected
by pitching from the action of waves, for any overtopping or erosion
of the bank might result in a large breach through it, and the flooding
of the works inside.
Docks are generally surrounded by walls retaining the quays,
alongside which vessels lie for discharging and taking in cargoes.
In order to ascertain the nature of the strata upon which
these walls have to be founded, borings are taken at the Foun a "
outset to the requisite depth at intervals near the line *J O/I * or
of the walls, but inside the dock area if the piercing of aot * waus -
quicksand is anticipated, as in excavating for the foundations, these
holes might give rise to the outflow, under pressure, of underlying
quicksand into the foundations. As docks are generally formed near
rivers or estuaries, these strata are commonly alluvial; but being
situated at some depth below the surface, they are usually fairly
hard. When they consist of gravel, clay or firm sand, the walls
can be founded on the natural bottom excavated a few feet below
the bottom of the dock, their weight being somewhat distributed by
making them rest on a broad bed of concrete filling up the excava-
tion at the bottom. When, however, fine sand or silt charged with
water, or quicksand is met with at the required depth, the necessary
pumping and excavation for the foundations might occasion the
influx of sand or silt with the water into the excavations, leading
to settlement and slips; or the soft stratum might be too thick to
remove. The wall may then be founded on bearing piles driven down
to a solid stratum, and having their tops joined together by walings
and planking, or by a layer of concrete, upon which the wall is built.
Or the soft stratum can be enclosed with a double row of sheet piling
along the front and back of the line of wall, by which it sometimes
becomes sufficiently confined and consolidated to sustain the weight
of the wall on a broad foundation of concrete ; or it can be excavated
without any danger of sand or silt running in from outside; whilst
the sheet piling at the back relieves the wall to some extent from
the pressure of the earth behind it, and in front retains the wall from
sliding forwards. Firmer foundations have been obtained by sinking
brick, concrete or masonry wells through soft ground to a solid
stratum, upon which the dock wall is built. Clusters of small concrete
cylinders, in sets of three in front, and a line of double cylinders at
the back, were used for the foundations of the walls of Prince's dock
at Glasgow. Wells of rubble masonry were sunk in the silty fore-
shore of the Seine estuary for the walls of the Bellot docks at Havre ;
and they served as piers, connected by arches, for the foundations of a
continuous dock wall above, being carried down to a considerable
depth through alluvium at the St Nazaire, Bordeaux and Rochefort
docks. These well foundations, derived from the old Indian system,
are built up upon a curb, sometimes furnished with a cutting edge
underneath, and gradually sunk by excavating inside; and eventu-
ally the central hollow is filled up solid with concrete or masonry.
The walls round a dock serve as retaining walls to keep up the
quays; and though they have the support of the water in front of
them when the docks are in use, they have to sustain the full pressure
of the filling at the back on the completion of the dock before the
water is admitted. They have, accordingly, to be increased in
thickness downwards to support the pressure increasing
with the depth. This pressure, with perfectly dry material,
would be represented by the weight of half the prism of walls.
filling between the natural slope of the material behind and the back
of the wall ; but the pressure is often increased by the accumulation
of water at the back, which, with fine silty
backing, is liable to exert a sort of fluid
pressure against the wall proportionate to
the density of the mixture of silt and water.
The increase of thickness towards the base
used formerly to be effected by a batter on
the face, as well as by steps put at the back ;
but the vertical form now given to the sides
of large vessels necessitates a corresponding
fairly vertical face for the wall, to prevent
the upper part of the vessel being kept
unduly away from the quay. Examples of
the most modern types of dock walls are
given in figs. 9 to 12.
The height of a dock wall depends upon
the depth of water always available for
vessels, at tideless sea-ports and at ports
removed from tidal influences, such as Man-
chester, Bruges and the ports on the Rhine ;
SCALE 400.
FIG. 9. Havre Bellot
Dock Wall.
this depth should not be less than 28 to 30 ft. for large sea-going
vessels, together with a margin of 5 to 8 ft. above the normal water-
level for the quays, and the foundations below. At tidal ports,
however, an addition has to be made equal to the difference in
height between the high- water levels of spring and neap tides; so
that at ports with a large tidal range, such as the South Wales
ports on the Severn estuary and Liverpool, specially high dock
walls are necessary. Under normal conditions, a dock wall should
358
DOCK
be given a width at a height half-way between dock-bottom and
quay-level, equal to one-third of its height above dock-bottom, and
a width of half this height at dock-bottom.
Dock walls are constructed of masonry,
brickwork or concrete, or of concrete with a
facing of masonry or brickwork. Masonry is
adopted where large stone quarries are readily
accessible, in the form of rubble masonry with
dressed stone on the face, as for instance at
the Hull and Barry docks, and forms a very
durable wall; but strong overhead staging
carrying powerful gantries is necessary for
laying large blocks. Brickwork has been often
used where bricks are the ordinary building
material of the district or can be made on the
works, and requires only ordinary scaffolding;
and harder or pressed bricks are employed for
the facework. Concrete is very commonly
resorted to now where sand and stones are
readily procured; and where clean, sharp
sand and gravel are found in thick layers in
the excavations for a dock, as in the alluvial
strata bordering the Thames, dock walls can
^ e constructed cheaply and economically with
concrete deposited within timber framing,
dispensing with regular scaffolding and skilled
FIG. 10. _ Liverpool
Dock Wall.
labour. Such walls require to be given a facing of stronger con-
crete, or of blue bricks, as at Tilbury, to guard against abrasion
by vessels, chains and ropes; and dock walls are commonly pro-
vided at the top with granite or other hard stone coping where the
wear is greatest. The foundations for dock walls are excavated in
a trench below dock- bottom, only lined
. ...-^_ - with timbering where the faces of the
T'"mt - v'llJr* trench cannot stand for a short time
IVr*^" without support, and with sheet piling
' ' through very unstable silt or sand ; and
the trench is conveniently filled up solid
withconcrete.carriedoutinshortlengths
in untrustworthy ground. To reduce
the amount of filling behind the wall.the
excavation at the back above dock-
bottom, preparatory for the trench, is
given as steep a slope as practicable,
__^_ supported sometimes towards the base
'-' >~ , ,'. '|T^ by timbering and struts ; but occasion-
f y^- aa - *-* ?^ ally the walj is built within a timbered
-== r-r. ' '. 'i'f-r- trench carried down to the required
depth, before the excavation for the
dock in front of it has been executed, as
effected at Tilbury. The filling at the
back is thus reduced to a minimum, and
the lower portion of the excavation can
be accomplished by dredging, if expedi-
ent, after the admission of the water, the
dock wall in this way being exposed to the least possible pressure behind.
The walls of open basins are often constructed out of water
precisely like dock walls, as in the case of the basins forming the
Manchester, Bruges and Glasgow docks; and basin walls open
to the tide, as at Glasgow and in the tidal basin outside Tilbury
docks (fig. 7), differ only from dock
walls in being exposed to variations
in the pressure at the back resulting
from the lowering of the water-level
in front, which is, indeed, shared to
some extent by the walls round closed
docks where the difference in the high-
water levels of springs and neaps
is considerable. The walls, however,
round basins in tideless seas, such as
Jiilf^?! Marseilles, occasionally those inside
^harbours, and especially quay walls
..along rivers and round open basins
^alongside rivers, have to be constructed
^" 'under water.
At Marseilles, the simple expedient
was long ago adopted of constructing
the quay walls lining the basins formed
in the sea, by depositing tiers of large
concrete blocks on a rubble foundation,
one on top of the other, till they
SCALE
FIG. ii. Tilbury Basin
Wall.
' LIAS SHALE.
SCALE 400.
FIG. 12. Barry Dock
Wall.
reached sea-level, and then building a solid masonry quay wall
_ . . out of water on the top up to quay-level, faced with ashlar
art ^' ! 3)> the wall being backed by rubble for some distance
behind up to the water-level. The same system was em-
ployed for the quay walls at Trieste, and at Genoa and
other Italian ports. A quay wall inside Marmagao har-
bour, on the west coast of India, was erected on a founda-
tion layer of rubble by the sloping-block system, to
provide against unequal settlement on the soft bottom (see BREAK-
WATER). The quay walls alongside the river Liffey, and round the
quay walls
founded
under
water.
adjacent basins below Dublin, were erected under water by building
rubble-concrete blocks of 360 tons on staging carried out into the
water, from which they
were lifted one by one by a
powerful floating derrick,
which conveyed the block
to the site, and deposited
it on a levelled bottom at
low tide in a depth of 28
ft., raising the wall a little
above low water. After a
row of these blocks had
been laid, and connected
together by filling the
grooves formed at the sides
and the interstices between
the blocks with concrete,
a continuous masonry wall
faced with ashlar was built
on the top out of water. A
quay wall was built up to
a little above low water on
SCALE
FIG. 13. Marseilles Quay Wall.
a similar principle at Cork, with three smaller blocks as a founda-
tion, in lengths of 8 ft. Cylindrical well foundations have been
extensively used for the foundations of the quay walls along the
Clyde, formerly made of brick, but subsequently of concrete, sunk
through a considerable variety of alluvial strata, but mostly sand
and gravel fully
charged with water.
Compressed air in
bottomless caissons
has been increas-
ingly employed in
recent years for
carrying down the
subaqueous founda-
tions of river quay
walls, through allu-
vial deposits, to a
solid stratum.
About 1880, a long
line of river quays -
was commenced in '~
front of Antwerp,
extending in the
central portion a
considerable dis-
tance out into the
Scheldt, with the
object of regulating
the width of the
river simultaneously 5CAUE 4OO
of deS%r y V s S fo n r F ^ ^-Antwerp Quay Wall, founded by
sea-going vessels; compressed air.
and the quay wall was erected, out of water, on the flat tops of a
series of wrought-iron caissons, 82 ft. long and 2f)\ ft. wide, con-
structed on shore, floated out one by one to their site in the river
between two barges, and gradually lowered as the wall was built up
inside a plate-iron enclosure round the roof of the caisson, which
was eventually sunk by
aid of compressed air
through the bed of the
river to a compact
stratum (fig. 14). The
weight of the wall
counteracted the ten-
dency of the caisson
and the enclosure
above it to float; and
the caisson, furnished
with seven circular
wrought - iron shafts,
provided with air-locks
at the top for the ad-
mission of men and
materials and for the
removal of the excava-
tions, was gradually
SCALE aoo.
FIG. 15. Caracciolo Jetty Quay
Genoa.
Wall,
was
carried down by ex-
cavating inside the
working chamber at
the bottom, d\ ft. high, till a good foundation was reached. The
working chamber was then filled with concrete through some of the
shafts, the plate-iron sides of the upper enclosure were removed to
be used for another length of wall, the shafts were drawn out and
the hollows left by them filled with concrete, the apertures between
adjacent lengths were closed at each face with wooden panels and
filled with concrete, and a continuous quay wall was completed
above. The most recent quay walls constructed in the old harbour
DOCK
359
at Genoa were founded under water on a rubble mound in a similar
manner by the aid of compressed air (fig. 15). Quay walls also on
the Clyde have been founded on caissons, consisting of a bottom-
less steel structure, surmounted by a brick superstructure having
hollows filled with concrete, in lengths of 80 ft. and 27 ft., and
widths of 1 8 ft. and 21 ft. respectively, carried down by means of
compressed air from 54 to 70 ft. below quay-level, on the top
of which a continuous wall of concrete, faced with brickwork,
d having a
granite coping,
was built up from
near low -water
level (fig. 1 6). In
many cases where
soft strata extend
to considerable
depths, river
quays and basin
walls have been
constructed by
building a light
quay wall upon a
series of bearing
and raking piles
driven into, and
SCALE
FIG. 16. Glasgow River Quay Wall.
the walls along the Seine, and round the basins at Rouen, were built
upon bearing piles carried down through the alluvial bed of the river
to the chalk. The lower portion of the quay wall was constructed
of concrete faced with brickwork within water-tight timber caissons,
resting upon the piles at a depth of 9! ft. below low water; and upon
this a rubble wall faced with bricks was erected from low water to
quay-level, backed by rubble stone laid on a timber flooring sup-
ported by piles, together with chalk, to form a quay right back to
the top of the slope of the bank of the deepened river (fig. 17). The
quay walls of the open
basins bord e r i n g the
Hudson river at New
York have had, in cer-
tain parts, to be founded
on bearing piles com-
bined with raking piles,
driven into a thick bed
of soft silt where no firm
stratum could be reached,
and where, therefore, the
weight could only be
borne by the adherence
of the long piles in the
silt. Before driving the
piles, however, the silt
round the upper part of
the piles and under the
quay wall was consoli-
dated by depositing small
stones in a trench dredged
to a depth of 30 ft. below
low water; the piles
were driven through these stones, and were further kept in place
by a long toe of rubble stone in front and a backing of rubble stone
behind carried nearly up to quay-level, behind which a light filling
of ashes and earth was raised to quay-level. The slight quay wall
resting upon the front rows of bearing piles was carried up under
water by 7O-ton concrete blocks deposited by means of a floating
derrick; and the upper part of the wall was built of concrete faced
with ashlar masonry (fig. 18). The basin and quay walls at Bremen,
Bremerhaven and Hamburg were built on a series of bearing and
raking piles driven down to a firm stratum, the wall being begun
a few feet below low water. At Southampton, ferro-concrete piles
were employed in constructing the deep quays; and a wharfing of
timber pilewqrk has been frequently used for river quays.
Where the increase of trade is moderate and the conditions of the
traffic permit, and also at coal-shipping ports, economy in construc-
tion is obtained by giving sloping sides to a portion of a dock in place
of dock walls, the slope being pitched where necessary with stone;
and the length of the slope projecting into a dock is sometimes
reduced by substituting sheet piling for the slope at the toe up to
a certain height. By this arrangement jetties can be carried out
across the slope_as required, enabling vessels to lie against their
ends; and coal-tips are very conveniently extended out across the
slope at suitable intervals (fig. 8).
As dock walls, especially before the admission of water into the
dock, constitute high retaining walls, not infrequently founded upon
soft or slippery strata, and backed up with the excavated materials
Failures f ' rom a " uv i a l beds, into which water is liable to percolate,
dock wall* tney are natura "y exposed under unfavourable conditions
to the danger of failure. A dock wall erected on un-
satisfactory foundations is liable, where the bottom is soft, to
FIG. 17. Rouen Quay Wall.
settle down at its toe, owing to the pressure at the back, and to
fall forwards into the dock, as occurred at Belfast; or where the
silty bottom slips forward under the weight of the backing, the
wall may follow the slip at the bottom and settle down at the back,
falling to some extent backwards, as exemplified by the failure of
the Empress basin wall at Southampton. The most common form,
however, of failure is the sliding forwards of a dock wall, with little
or no subsidence, on a silty or slippery stratum under the pressure
imposed by the backing. Thus the Kidderpur dock walls furnish an
instance of sliding forwards on muddy silt, and part of the South
West India dock walls on two underlying, detached, slippery seams
of London clay.
To avoid these failures with untrustworthy foundations, great care
has to be exercised in selecting the best hard material available,
unaffected by water, for the backing, which should be brought up
in thin, horizontal layers carefully consolidated; and where there
is a possibility of water accumulating at the back, pipes should be
introduced at intervals near the bottom right through the wall in
building it, and rubble stone deposited close to the back of the wall,
so as to carry off any water from behind, these pipes being stopped up
just before the water is let into the dock. These precautions, more-
over, are assisted by reducing the amount of backing to a minimum
in the construction of the wall, best effected by building the wall
inside a timbered trench. The liability to slide forwards can be
obviated by carrying down the foundations of the wall sufficiently
below dock-bottom to provide an efficient buttress of earth in front
of the wall, and also by making the base of the wall slope down
SCALE <T5b.
FIG. 18. New York Quay Wall, Hudson river.
towards the back, thereby forcing the wall in sliding forwards to
mount the slope, or to push forward a larger mass of earth ; whilst
a row of sheet piling in front of the foundations offers a very effectual
impediment to a forward movement, and, in combination with
bearing piles, prevents settlement at the toe in soft ground. In
very treacherous foundations it may be advisable to defer the
completion of the backing till after the admission of the water ; but
the additional stability given to a retaining wall or reservoir dam by
an ample batter in front, is precluded in dock walls by the modern
requirements of vessels.
Silt accumulates in docks where the lowering of the water-level
by locking, the drawing down of half-tide basins, and the raising of
the water at spring tides, involve the admission of con- .. .
siderable volumes of tidal water heavily charged with silt,
which is deposited in still water and has to be periodically deo/A
removed by dredging. To avoid this, the water is some-
times replenished from some clear inland source, an arrangement
adopted at some of the South Wales ports opening into the muddy
Severn estuary, and at the Alexandra dock, Hull, to exclude the
silty waters of the Humber. At the Kidderpur docks on the Hugli,
the water from the river for replenishing the docks is conducted by a
circuitous canal, in which it deposits its burden of silt before it is
pumped into the docks.
In order to deal expeditiously with the cargoes and goods
brought into and despatched from docks, numerous sidings
communicating with the railways of the district are
arranged along the quays, which are also provided
with steam, hydraulic or electric travelling cranes at
intervals alongside the docks, basins or river, for discharging
or loading vessels, and with sheds and warehouses for the storage
of merchandise, &c., the arrangements depending largely upon
the special trade of the port. Though different sources of power
are sometimes made use of at different parts of the same port,
as for example at Hamburg, where the numerous cranes are
worked by. steam, hydraulic power or most recently by elec-
tricity, and a few by gas engines, it is generally most convenient
to work the various installations by one form of power from a
central station. Water-pressure has been very commonly used
360
DOCK
as the motive power at docks, being generated by a steam-
engine and stored up by one or more accumulators, from which
the water is transmitted under pressure through strong cast-iron
pipes to the hydraulic engines which actuate the cranes, lifts,
coal-tips, capstans, swing-bridges and gate machinery through-
out the docks (see POWER TRANSMISSION: Hydraulic). The
intermittent working of the machinery in docks results in a
considerable variation in the power needed at different times;
but economical working is secured by arranging that when the
accumulators are full, steam is automatically shut off from the
pumping engines, but is supplied again as soon as water is drawn
off. Electricity affords another means for the economical trans-
mission of power to a distance suited for intermittent working;
as far back as 1902 it was being adopted at Hamburg as the
source of power for the machinery of the extensive additional
basins then recently opened for traffic.
At ports where the principal trade is the export of coal from
neighbouring collieries, special provision has to be made for its
Coaltl s rapid shipment. Coal-tips, accordingly, are erected
at the sides of the dock in these ports, with sidings on
the quays at the back for receiving the trains of coal trucks, from
which two lines of way diverge to each coal-tip, one serving for
the conveyance of the full wagons one by one to the tip, after
passing over a weigh-bridge, and the other for the return of the
empty wagons to the siding where the empty train is made up
for returning to the colliery (fig. 8). Each full wagon is either
run at a low level upon a cradle at the tip, then raised on the
cradle within a wrought-iron lattice tower to a suitable height,
and lastly, tipped up at the back for discharging the coal; or it
is brought along a high-level road on to a cradle raised to this
level on the tower, and tipped up at this or some slightly modified
level. The coal is discharged down an adjustable iron shoot,
gradually narrowed so as to check the fall; and on first dis-
charging into the hold of a vessel, an anti-breakage box is sus-
pended below the mouth of the shoot. When full, this is lowered
to the bottom of the hold and emptied, thereby gradually forming
a cone of coal upon which the coal can be discharged directly
from the shoot without danger of breakage. Other contrivances
are also adopted with the same object.
In designing dock works, it is expedient to make provision, as
far as possible, for future extensions as the trade of the port increases.
Generally this can be effected alongside tidal rivers and estuaries
by utilizing sites lower down the river, as carried out on
B ejt i the Thames for the port of London, or reclaiming unoccu-
>lls ' pied foreshores of an estuary, as adopted for extensions
of the ports of Liverpool, Hull and Havre. At ports on the sea-coast
of tideless seas, it is only necessary to extend the outlying break-
water parallel to the shore line, and form additional basins under its
shelter, as at Marseilles (fig. 5) and Genoa (see HARBOUR). Quays
also along rivers furnish very valuable opportunities of readily
extending the accommodation of ports. Ports, however, established
inland like Manchester, though extremely serviceable in converting
an inland city into a seaport, are at the disadvantage of having to
acquire very valuable land for any extensions that may be required ;
but, nevertheless, some compensation is afforded by the complete
shelter in which the extensions can be carried out, when compared
with Liverpool, where the additions to the docks can only be effected
by troublesome reclamation works along the foreshore to the north,
in increasingly exposed situations.
Dock Entrances and Locks. The size of vessels which a port
can admit depends upon the depth and width of the entrance
to the docks; for, though the access of vessels is also governed
by the depth of the approach channel, this channel is often
capable of being further deepened to some extent by dredging;
whereas the entrance, formed of solid masonry or concrete,
cannot be adapted, except by troublesome and costly works
sometimes amounting to reconstruction, to the increasing
dimensions of vessels. Accordingly, in designing new dock
works with entrances and locks, it is essential to look forward
to the possible future requirements of vessels. The necessity for
such forethought is illustrated by the rapid increase which has
taken place in the size of the largest ocean liners. Thus the
" City of Rome," launched in 1881, is 560 ft. long, and 52 } ft. beam,
and has a maximum recorded draught of 27^ ft. ; the " Campania "
and " Lucania," in 1893, measure 600 ft. by 65 ft. ; the " Oceanic,"
in 1899, 685^ ft. by 68} ft., with a maximum draught of 31 J ft;
the " Baltic," in 1903, 709 ft. by 75 ft., with a maximum draught
of 3iJ ft.; and the " Lusitania " and " Mauretania," launched in
1906, 787 J ft. by 88 ft.
The width and depth of access to docks are of more importance
than the length of locks; for docks which are reached through
entrances with a single pair of gates have to admit Dlmea .
vessels towards high water when the water-level in the sioas of
dock is the same as in the approach channel, or through entrance*
a half-tide basin drawn down to the level of the water andlock *-
outside, and are therefore accessible to vessels of any length,
provided the width of the entrance and depth over the sill are
adequate; whilst at docks which are entered through locks,
vessels which are longer than the available length of the lock can
get in at high water when both pairs of gates of the lock are open.
Open basins are generally given an ample width of entrance, and
river quays also are always accessible to the longest and broadest
vessels; but in a tidal river the available depth has to be reckoned
from the lowest low water of spring tides, instead of from the
lowest high water of neap tides, if the vessels in the open basins
and alongside the river quays have to be always afloat.
Many years ago the Canada lock at Liverpool, the outer North
lock at Birkenhead, the Ramsden lock and entrance at Barrow-
in-Furness, and the Eure entrance at Havre, were given a width
of 100 ft. Probably this was done with the view of admitting
paddle steamers, since subsequent entrances at Liverpool were
given widths of 80 and 65 ft.; whereas none of the locks in
the port of London has been made wider than 80 ft., which has
been the standard maximum width since the completion of the
Victoria dock in 1866. The widest locks at Cardiff are 80 ft., and
tHe entrance to the Barry docks is the same; but the lock of the
Alexandra dock, Hull, opened in 1885, was made 85 ft. wide.
At Liverpool, where the access to the docks is mainly through
entrances, on account of the small width between the river and
the high ground rising at the back, and where ample provision
has to be made for the largest Atlantic liners, though the entrances
to the Langton dock, completed in 1881, leading to the latest
docks at the northern end were made 65 ft. wide, with their sills
3 ft. below low water of spring tides and 2oJ ft. below high water
of the lowest neap tides, the two new entrances to the deepened
Brunswick dock near the southern end, giving access to the
adjacent reconstructed docks, completed in 1906, were made 80
and loo ft. wide, with sills 28 ft. below high water of the lowest
neap tides. Moreover, the three new entrances to the new Sandon
half- tide dock, completed in 1906, communicating ( with the
reconstructed line of docks to the south of the Canada'basin, and
with the latest northern extensions of the Liverpool docks, were
made 40 ft. wide with a depth over the sill of 24^ ft., and 80 and
100 ft. wide on each end of the central entrance, with sills 29 ft.
below high water of the lowest neap tides, each entrance being
provided with two pairs of gates, in case of any accident occur-
ring to one pair, according to the regular custom at Liverpool.
Powers were also obtained in 1906 for the construction of a half-
tide dock and two branch docks to the north of the Hornby dock,
which are to be reached from the river by two entrances designed
to be 130 ft. wide, with sills 38^ ft. below high water of the lowest
neap tides, so as to meet fully the assumed future increase in the
beam and draught of the largest vessels; whilst the authorized
extension of the river wall northwards will enable additional
docks to be constructed in communication with these entrances
when required.
Though, with the exception of Southampton and Dover, other
British ports do not aim, like Liverpool, at accommodating the
largest Atlantic liners at all times, the depths of the sills at the
principal ports have been increased in the most recent extensions.
Thus at the port of London the sills of the first lock of the Albert
dock were 265 ft. below high water of neap tides, and of the
second lock adjoining, 325 ft. deep; whilst the sills of the lock
of the Tilbury docks are 405 ft. below high water of neap tides.
Moreover, in spite of the great range of tide at the South Wales
ports on the Severn estuary, the available depth at high water
of neap tides of 23 ft. at the Roath lock, Cardiff, was increased
DOCK
361
in the lock of the new dock to 31^ ft.; the depth at the entrance
to the Barry docks, opened in 1889, was 29! ft., but at the lock
opened in 1896 was made 41 ft.; whilst a depth of 34 ft. has
been proposed for the new lock of the Alexandra dock extension
at Newport, nearly 10 ft. deeper than the existing lock sills there.
Similar improvements in depth have also been made or designed
at other ports to provide for the increasing draught of vessels.
The length of locks has also been increased, from 550 ft. at the
Albert dock, to 700 ft. at Tilbury in the port of London, from
300 ft. to 550 ft. at Hull, and from 350 ft. to 660 ft. at Cardiff.
The lock at the Barry docks is 647 ft. long, though only 65 ft.
wide. A lock constructed in connexion with the improvement
works at Havre, carried out in 1896-1907, was given an available
length of 805 ft. and a width of 98! ft., with a depth over the sills
of 34$ ft. at high water of neap tides.
Entrances with a single pair of gates, closing against a raised sill
at the bottom and meeting in the centre, have to be made long
1
i
-THHHKKHHHlfHKKKHHHl
1
SCALE 400.
FIG. 19. Barry Docks, Entrance.
enough to provide a recess in each side wall at the back to receive
the gates when they are opened, and to form a buttress in front on
each side to bear the thrust of the gates when closed
a" * CCS a S amst a head of water inside. A masonry floor is laid
on the bottom in continuation of the sill, serving as an
apron against erosion by water leaking between or under the gates,
and by the current through the sluiceways in the gates, when
opened for scouring the entrance channel or to assist in lowering the
water in a half-tide dock for opening the gates (fig. 19). A sluice-
way in each side wall, closed by a vertical sluice-gate, generally
provided in duplicate in case of accidents and worked by a machine
actuated by hydraulic pressure, enables the half-tide basin to be
brought down to the level of the approach channel outside with a
rising tide, so that vessels may be brought into or passed out of the
basin towards high water. The advantages of these entrances are,
that they occupy comparatively little room where the space is limited,
and are much less costly than locks; whilst in conjunction with a
half-tide basin they serve the same purpose as a lock with a rising
tide. Vessels also pass more readily through the short entrances
than through locks; and as entrances are only used towards high
water, their sills need not be placed so low as the outer sills of locks
to accommodate vessels of large draught. On the other hand, they
are accessible for a more limited period at each tide than locks;
and they do not allow of the exclusion of silt-bearing tidal water,
and therefore necessitate a greater amount of dredging in the docks,
and especially in half-tide basins, for maintenance. Entrances,
however, at large ports are frequently supplemented by the addition
of a lock at some convenient site, rendering the ports accessible for
the smaller class of vessels for some time before and after high water,
as for instance at Liverpool, Barry, Havre and St Nazaire. A
small basin with an entrance at each end an arrangement often
adopted is in reality, for all practical purposes, a lock with a very
large lock-chamber. An entrance or passage with gates has also to
be provided at the inner end of a large half-tide basin like the basins
adopted at Liverpool, to shut off the half-tide basin from the docks
to which it gives access, and maintain their water-level when the
water is drawn down in the basin to admit vessels before high tide.
Reverse gates pointing outwards are sometimes added in passage;
to docks and at entrances, to render the water-level in one set of
docks independent of adjacent docks, to exclude silty tidal water and
very high tides, and also to protect the gates of outer entrances in
exposed situations from swell, which might force them open slightly
and lead to a damaging shock on their closing again.
Locks differ from entrances in having a pair of gates with ar-
rangements similar to an entrance at each end, separated from one
another by a lock-chamber, which should be large enough
to receive the longest and broadest vessel coming regularly ~L
to the port. These dock locks are similar in principle to
locks on canals and canalized rivers, but are on a much larger scale.
The lock-chamber has its water raised or lowered in proportion to
the difference in level between the water-level in the dock and the
water in the entrance channel, by passing water, when the gates are
closed at both ends, from the dock into the lock-chamber or from
the lock-chamber into the entrance channel, through large sluiceways
in the side walls, controlled, as at entrances, by vertical sluice-gates.
In this way the vessel is raised or lowered in the chamber, till, when
a level has been reached, the intervening pair of gates is opened
and the vessel is passed into the dock or out to the channel. Gener-
ally the upper and lower sills of a lock are at the same level, a foot
or two higher than dock-bottom; and the depth at which they are
laid is governed by the same considerations as the sill of an entrance.
Vessels longer than the available length between the two pairs of
gates can be admitted close to high water, when the water in the
dock and outside is at the same level, and both pairs of gates can be
opened. When the range of tide at a port is large, and the depth in
the approach channel is sufficient to allow vessels to come up or go out
some time before and after high water, and also where the water in
the dock is kept up to a high level from an inland source to exclude
very silty tidal water, it is expedient to reduce the cost of construc-
tion by limiting the depth of the excavations for the dock, and
consequently also the height of the dock walls, to what is necessary
to provide a sufficient depth of water below high water of the lowest
neap tides, or below the water-level to which the water in the dock is
always maintained, for the vessels of largest draught frequenting the
port, or those which may be reasonably expected in the near future.
The upper sill of the lock is then determined by the level of dock-
bottom ; but the lower sill is taken down approximately to the depth
of the bottom of the approach channel, or to the depth to which it
can be carried by dredging, so as to enable the lock to admit or let
out at any time all vessels which can navigate the approach channel.
Thus, for instance, the outer and intermediate sills of the lock at the
Barry docks are 9 ft. lower then the upper sill.
The foundations for the sill and side walls at each end of a lock,
and also for the side walls and invert commonly enclosing the lock-
chamber at the sides and bottom, are generally constructed simul-
taneously with the dock works, under shelter of a cofferdam across
the entrance channel, and in the excavations kept dry by means of
pumps. The foundations under the sills and adjacent side walls are
carried down to a lower level than the rest, and if possible to a water-
tight stratum, to prevent infiltration of water under them owing to
the water-pressure on the upper side of the gates; or sometimes one
or two rows of sheet piling have been driven across the lock under the
sills to an impermeable stratum, to stop any flow. The foundations
for the sills consist usually of concrete deposited in a trench extended
out under the adjoining side walls. The sill, projecting generally
about 2 ft. above the adjacent gate floor over which the gates turn,
is built of granite ; and the same material is also used for the hollow
quoins in which the heelpost, or pivot, of the dock gates turns, and
which, together with the sills, are exposed to considerable wear.
The side walls of the lock-chamber are very similar in construction
to the dock walls; but they are strengthened against the loss of
water-pressure in front of them when the water is lowered in the
chamber by an inverted arch of masonry, brickwork or concrete,
termed an " invert," laid across the bottom of the chamber along
its whole length, against which the toe of each side wall abuts and
effectually prevents any forward movement. The side walls also,
alongside the gates at each end, abut against a thick level gate floor
and apron, and, moreover, are considerably widened to provide space
for the sluiceways and gate machinery.
The new Florida lock (fig. 20), forming the main entrance through
the new approach harbour and tidal harbour to the Eure dock and
other docks of the port of Havre, is the largest lock hitherto con-
structed. It has an available length of chamber between the gates
of 805 ft., a width of 98! ft., and depths over the sills of 15! Ft. at
the lowest low water of spring tides, 23^ ft. at low water of neap tides,
35 ft. at high water of neap tides, and 40^ ft. at high water of spring
tides. Owing to the alluvial stratum at the site of the lock close to
the Seine estuary, of which it doubtless at one time formed part, the
foundations for the sill and side walls or heads at each end of the
lock were executed by aid of compressed air. The foundations for
these heads were carried down to an impermeable stratum by means
of two bottomless caissons, filled eventually with concrete, 213$ ft.
362
DOCK
long across the lock and 105 ft. wide in the line of the lock at the upper
eno, and 2o6J ft. long and I i6J ft. wide at the lower end, to a depth
of 18 ft. below the sill at the upper end, and 41 ft. at the lower end,
owing to the dip down seawards and southward of the water-tight
stratum. These caissons were provided for their sinkage with
temporary dams of masonry closing the opening of the lock at the
extremities of each caisson, enabling the gates to be subsequently
erected under their shelter. The junctions between the foundations
the side walls, 6yJ ft. apart, and provide for the filling and emptying
of the chamber.
The gates closing the entrances and locks at docks are made of
wood or of iron. In iron gates, the heelpost, or a vertical closing strip
attached to the outer side of the gate close to the heelpost,
the meeting-post at the end of each gate closing against
each other when the gates are shut, and the sill piece fitting
against the sill are generally made of wood. Wooden gates consist of
D t
Longitudinal Section, Lower End.
Cross Section on AB.
Longitudinal Section, Upper End.
IL TT JL T JL
===.-^--'i r= ==*!=^J-*=-!a=l=^-=-?S=
-. -kJ-
3oo FZ
FIG. 20. Florida Lock, Havre Docks, Sections and Plan.
of the heads and the adjacent foundations were effected by small
movable caissons carried down in recesses provided in the buried
caissons. The connexions with the adjacent quay walls were ac-
complished by two supplementary side caissons at the end of each
head ; and the north side wall of the lock was founded by means of
seven bottomless caissons sunk by aid of compressed air, on account
of the proximity of the tidal harbour on that side. The south side
wall was founded for a length of about 200 ft. at its western end in
an excavated trench kept dry by pumping; but the greater portion
a series of horizontal framed beams, made thicker and put closer to-
gether towards the bottom to resist the water-pressure increasing with
the depth, fastened to the heelpost and meeting-post at the two ends
and to intermediate uprights, and supporting water-tight planking on
the inner face (fig. 21). Iron gates have generally an outer as well as an
inner skin of iron plates braced vertically and horizontally by plate-
iron ribs, the horizontal ribs being placed nearer together and the
plates made thicker towards the bottom (figs. 22 and 23). Green-
heart is the wood used fjr gates exposed to salt water, as it resists
the attack of the teredo in temperate climates.
As cellular iron gates are made water-tight, and
have to be ballasted with enough water to
prevent their flotation, or are provided with
air chambers below and are left open to the
rising tide on the outer side above, the gates
are light in the water and are easily moved;
whereas greenheart gates with their fastenings
are considerably heavier than water, so that
a considerable weight has to be moved when
the water is somewhat low in the dock and the
gates therefore only partially immersed. On
the other hand, wooden gates are less liable
than iron gates to be seriously damaged if run
into by a vessel.
Dock gates are sometimes made straight,
closing against a straight sill (figs. 20 and 23) ;
and occasionally they are made segmental with
the inner faces forming a continuous circular
arc and closing against a sill corresponding to
the outer curves of the gates (fig. 22), or by
means of a projecting sill piece against a
straight sill (fig. 21). More frequently the
gates, curved on both faces, meet at an angle
SCALE
F7.10 5 O
I I I I I I I I I I I
50F.T
FIG. 21. Wooden
Dock Gate.
FIG. 22. Iron Segmental
Dock Gate.
was founded in a dredged trench in which bearing piles were driven
under water, on which the masonry was built in successive layers,
about 3J ft. thick, in a movable caisson 93! ft. long and 37 j ft. wide;
whilst a bottomless caisson, left in the work, was^ employed for
founding about 100 ft. of wall at the eastern end. The bed of con-
crete also, 10 ft. thick, forming the floor of the chamber, was_ carried
out for 82 ft. at the western end in the open air, and the remainder in
the same movable caisson as used for the south wall. Two sluiceways
on each side running the whole length of the lock, differing^ 6J ft.
in level, communicate with the lock-chamber through openings in
forming a Gothic arch in plan, and close by
aid of a projecting piece against a straight sill,
which in the Barry entrance gates is modified
by making the outer faces nearly straight
(fig. 19), giving an unusual width to the centre
of the gates. The pressures produced by a
head of water against these gates when closed
depends not only on the form of the gates, but
also upon the projection given to the angle of
the sill in proportion to the width of the lock,
which is known as the rise, and is generally
placed at a distance along the centre line of
the lock, from a line joining the centres of the
heel-posts, of about one-fourth the width. With straight gates, the
stresses consist, first of a transverse stress due to the water-pressure
against the gate, which increases with the head of water and
length of the gate; and secondly, of a compressive stress along
the gate, resulting from the pressure of the other gate against its
meeting-post, which is equal to half the water-pressure on the gate
multiplied by the tangent of half the angle between the closed gates,
varying inversely with the rise. Though an increase in the rise
reduces this stress, it increases the length of the gate and the trans-
verse stress, and also the length of the lock. By curving the gates
FIG. 23. Straight
Iron Dock Gate.
DOCK
363
suitably, the transverse stress is reduced and the longitudinal com-
pressive stress is augmented, till at last, when the gates form a
horizontal segmental arch, the stresses become wholly compressive
and uniform in each horizontal section, increasing with the depth;
LW.o.51;
SCALE 200.
FlG. 24. Sliding
Caisson.
FlG. 25. Ship Caisson.
B B
and the total stress is equal to the pressure on a unit of surface
multiplied by the radius of curvature. Though the water-pressure
is most uniformly and economically borne by cylindrical gates, they
are longer, and encroach more upon the lines of quay with their
curved recesses than straighter gates; and, consequently, Gothic-
arched gates are
often preferred.
Straight gates afford
the greatest simpli-
city in construction.
Gates in wide
entrances or locks
are generally sup-
ported towards their
outer end by a roller
running along a cast-
iron roller-path on
the gate floor (figs.
19, 21 and 22), as
well as by the heel-
post, fitted over a
steel pivot at the
j Zeebrugge lock, at the entrance to the Bruges ship canal, are drawn
across the lock or into their chamber by electricity in two minutes.
A caisson is specially useful in cases where there may be a head of
water on either side, as then it takes the place of two pairs of gates
pointing in opposite directions, or for closing an entrance against
a current. A caisson, however, requires a much larger amount of
material than a pair of dock gates, and a considerable width on one
side for its chamber, so that under ordinary conditions gates are
generally used at docks.
A ship caisson, so called from its presenting some resemblance in
section to the hull of a vessel, occupies too much time in being towed,
floated into position, and sunk into grooves at the bottom and sides
of an entrance for closing it, and then refloated and towed away for
opening the entrance again, to be used at entrances and locks to
docks (fig. 25). Being, however, simple in construction, taking up
little space, and requiring no chamber or machinery for moving it,
this form of caisson is generally used for closing the entrance to a
graving dock, where it remains for several days in place during
the execution of repairs to a vessel in the dock. A ship caisson only
requires the admission of sufficient water to sink it when in position
across the entrance to a graving dock; and this water has to be
pumped put before it can be floated, and removed to some vacant
position in the neighbouring dock till it is again required. Like a
sliding or rolling caisson, it prov'.des a bridge for crossing over the
entrance of the graving dock when in position.
Graving Docks. Provision has to be made at ports for the
repairs of vessels frequenting them. The simplest arrangement is
a timber gridiron, on which a vessel settles with a falling tide, and
can then be inspected and slightly cleaned and repaired till the
tide floats it again. Inclined slipways are sometimes provided,
up which a vessel resting in a cradle on wheels can be drawn out
of the water; and they are also used for shipbuilding, the vessel
when ready for launching being allowed to slide down them into
the water. Graving or dry docks, however, opening out of a dock,
are the usual means provided for enabling the cleaning and
repairs of vessels to be carried out.
A graving dock consists of an enclosure, surrounded by side walls
stepped on the face, and paved at the bottom with a thick floor
SCALE 2.000.
FIG. 26. Plan of Southampton Graving Dock.
bottom, and tied back against the hollow quoins at the top by
anchor straps and bolts, on which the gate turns. In some cases, by
placing the water ballast in iron gates close to the heelpost, a roller
has been dispensed with, even, for instance, at the wide entrance
at Havre (fig. 23). The gates are opened and closed, either by an
opening and a closing chain for each gate, fastened on either side
and worked from opposite side walls by hydraulic power, or
by a single hydraulic piston or bar hinged to the inner side
of each gate (figs. 19 and 20). The latter system has the
advantages of being simpler and occupying less space in the
side walls, of avoiding the slight loss of available depth
over the sill due to the two closing chains crossing on the
sill when the gates are open, and especially of keeping the
gates closed against a swell in exposed sites. '
A sliding or rolling caisson is occasionally placed across '
each end of a lock in place of a pair of dock gates, being
Caissons drawn back into a recess at the side for opening
tor docks. tne 'ck. As a caisson chamber has to be covered
over to provide a continuous quay or roadway
on the top, a lowering platform is supplied to enable the
caisson to pass under the small girders spanning the top of
the chamber, or the caisson is sunk down sufficiently (fig.
24). The caisson is furnished with an air chamber to give
it flotation, which is adjusted by ballast according to the depth of
water. The advantages of a caisson, as compared with a pair of
gates, are that the gate recesses, gate floor, hollow quoins and
arrangements for working in the side walls are dispensed with, so
that the lock can be made shorter, and the work at each head is
rendered less complicated. The caisson itself also serves as a very
strong movable bridge, and therefore is often preferred at dockyards
to dock gates. By improvements in the hauling machinery, a caisson
can open or close a lock as quickly as dock gates; the caissons at
sloping slightly down from the centre to drains along the sides, long
enough to receive the longest vessel likely to come to the port. Its
entrance, at the end adjoining the dock, is just wide enough to admit
the vessel of greatest beam, and deep enough over the sill to receive
the vessel of greatest draught, when light, at the lowest water-level
of the dock (figs. 26 and 27). Graving docks are constructed of
ft
I25..0
i n
S
*%_ ^
l^-f
SCALE eoo.
FIG. 27. Cross Section of Southampton Graving Dock.
masonry, brickwork or concrete, or formerly in America of timber;
they should be founded on a solid impervious stratum, or, where
that is impracticable, they should be built upon bearing piles and
enclosed within sheet piling, to prevent settlement and the infiltra-
tion of water under pressure below the dock. Keel blocks are laid
along the centre line of the dock, for the keel of the vessel to rest on
when the water is pumped out; and the vessel is further supported
on each side by timber shores supported on the steps or " altars " of
the side walls, which are lined with granite or other hard stone, or
DOCKET DOCKYARDS
blue bricks, or, when constructed of concrete, with a facing of stronger
concrete, to enable these altars to withstand the wear and shocks
to which they are subjected. Steps and slides are provided at con-
venient places at the sides to give access for men and materials to
the bottom of the dock; and culverts and drains lead the water
to pumps for removing the water from the dock when the entrance
has been closed, and to keep it dry whilst a vessel is under repair.
Culverts in the side walls of the entrance enable water to be admitted
for filling the dock to let the vessel out. Graving docks are generally
closed by ship caissons; but where they open direct on to a tidal
river, and there is some exposure, gates are adopted, or sometimes
sliding caissons.
The dimensions of graving docks vary considerably with the
nature of the trade and the date of construction; and sometimes
an intermediate entrance is provided to accommodate two smaller
.vessels. The sizes of some of the largest graving docks are as follows :
Liverpool, Canada dock, 9255 ft. long, Q<J. ft. width of entrance, and
29 ft. depth at the ordinary water-level in the dock; Southampton,
851* ft. by 90 ft., and 29 ft. depth at high-water neaps (figs. 26 and
27); Tilbury, 875 ft. by 70 ft. by 31$ ft.; and Glasgow, 880 ft. by
So ft. by 26| ft.
Floating Dry Docks. Where there is no site available for a graving
dock, or the ground is very treacherous, floating dry docks, built
originally of wood, but more recently of iron or steel, have occasion-
ally been resorted to. The first Bermuda dock towed across the
Atlantic in 1869, and the new dock launched in 1902, 545 ft. by 100 ft.,
are notable examples. Water is admitted into the pontoon at the
bottom to sink the dock sufficiently to admit a vessel at its open end ;
and then the water is pumped out of compartments in the pontoon
till the vessel is raised out of water. It is only necessary to find a
sheltered site, with a sufficient depth of water, for conducting the
operations. (L. F. V.-H.)
DOCKET (perhaps from " dock," to curtail or cut short, with
the diminutive suffix et, but the origin of the word is obscure; it
has come into use since the i sth century) , in law, a brief summary
or digest of a case, or a memorandum of legal decisions; also
the alphabetical list of cases down for trial, or of suits pending.
Such cases are said to be " on the docket." In commercial use, a
docket is a warrant from the custom-house, stating that the duty
on goods entered has been paid, or the label fastened to goods,
showing their destination, value, contents, &c., and, generally,
any indorsement on the back of a document, briefly setting out
its contents.
DOCK WARRANT, in law, a document by which the owner of a
marine or river dock certifies that the holder is entitled to goods
imported and warehoused in the docks. In the Factors Act 1889
it is included in the phrase " document of title " and is denned
as any document or writing, being evidence of the title of any
person therein named ... to the property in any goods or
merchandise lying in any warehouse or wharf and signed or
certified by the person having the custody of the goods. It
passes by indorsement and delivery and transfers the absolute
right to the goods described in it. A dock warrant is liable to a
stamp duty of threepence, which may be denoted by an adhesive
stamp, to be cancelled by the person by whom the instrument is
executed or issued.
DOCKYARDS. In the fullest meaning of the word, a " dock-
yard " (or " navy yard " in America) is a government establish-
ment where warships of every kind are built and repaired, and
supplied with the men and stores required to maintain them in
a state of efficiency for war. Thus a dockyard in this extended
sense would include slips for building ships, workshops for
manufacturing their machinery, dry docks for repairing them,
stores of arms, ammunition, coal, provisions, &c., with basins in
which they may lie while being supplied with such things, and an
establishment for providing the personnel necessary for manning
them. But in practice few, if any, existing dockyards are of so
complete a nature; many of them, for instance, do not undertake
the building of ships at all, while others are little more than
harbours where a ship may replenish her stores of coal, water and
provisions and carry out minor repairs. Private firms are relied
upon for the construction of many ships down to an advanced
stage, the government dockyards completing and equipping them
for commission.
Great Britain. Previous to the reign of Henry VIII., the
kings of England had neither naval arsenals nor dockyards, nor
any regular establishment of civil or naval officers to provide
ships of war, or to man them. There are, however, strong evi-
dences of the existence of dockyards, or of something answering
thereto, at very early dates, at Rye, Shoreham and Winchelsea.
In November 1243 the sheriff of Sussex was ordered to enlarge
the house at Rye in which the king's galleys were kept, so that it
might contain seven galleys. In 1238 the keepers of some of the
king's galleys were directed to cause those vessels to be breamed,
and a house to be built at Winchelsea for their safe custody. In
1254 the bailiffs of Winchelsea and Rye were ordered to repair
the buildings in which the king's galleys were kept at Rye. At
Portsmouth and at Southampton there seem to have been
at all times depots for both ships and stores, though there was
no regular dockyard at Portsmouth till the middle of the i6th
century. It would appear, from a curious poem in Hakluyt's
Collection called " The Policie of Keeping the Sea," that Little-
hampton, unfit as it now is, was the port at which Henry VIII.
built
" his great Dromions
Which passed other great shippes of the commons."
The " dromion," " dromon," or " dromedary " was a large war-
ship, the prototype of which was furnished by the Saracens.
Roger de Hoveden, Richard of Devizes and Peter de Longtoft
celebrate the struggle which Richard I., in the " Trench the Mer,"
on his way to Palestine, had with a huge dromon, " a marvellous
ship 1 a ship than which, except Noah's ship, none greater was
ever read of." This vessel had three masts, was very high out
of the water, and is said to have had 1500 men on board. It
required the united force of the king's galleys, and an obstinate
fight, to capture the dromon.
The foundation of a regular British navy, by the establishment
of dockyards, and the formation of a board, consisting of certain
commissioners for the management of its affairs, was first laid
by Henry VIII., and the first dockyard erected during his reign
was that of Woolwich. Those of Portsmouth, Deptford, Chatham
and Sheerness followed in succession. Plymouth was founded by
William III. Pembroke was established in 1814, a small yard
having previously existed at Milford.
The most important additions yet made at any one period to
the dockyard and harbour works required to meet the necessities
of the British fleet were those sanctioned by the Naval Works
Acts of 1895 and subsequent years, the total estimated cost, as
stated in the act of 1899, being over 23^ millions sterling. The
works proposed under these acts were classified under three heads,
viz. (a) the enclosure and defence of harbours against torpedo
attacks; (b) adapting naval ports to the present needs of the
fleet; (c) naval barracks and hospitals. Under the first heading
were included the defensive harbours at Portland, Dover and
Gibraltar. Under heading (b) were included the deepening of
harbours and approaches, the dockyard extensions at Gibraltar,
Keyham (Devonport), Simons Bay, and Hong-Kong, with
sundry other items. Under heading (c) were included the naval
barracks at Chatham, Portsmouth and Keyham; the naval
hospitals at Chatham, Haslar and Haulbowline; the colleges
at Keyham and Dartmouth; and other items.
Great Britain possesses dockyards at Portsmouth, Devonport,
Chatham, Malta and Gibraltar, each in charge of an admiral-
superintendent, and at Sheerness and Pembroke in charge of a
captain-superintendent, together with establishments at Ascen-
sion. Bermuda, Simons Town (Cape of Good Hope), Queenstown
(Haulbowline); Hong-Kong, Portland, Sydney and Weihaiwei.
The Indian Government has dockyards at Bombay and Calcutta.
The medical establishments include Ascension, Bermuda, Cape
of Good Hope, Chatham, Dartmouth, Deal, Gibraltar, Haslar,
Haulbowline, Hong-Kong, Malta, Osborne, Plymouth, Portland,
Portsmouth, Sheerness, Sydney, Yarmouth, Yokohama and
Weihaiwei.
The arrangements for the administrative control of the dock-
yards have varied with those adopted for the regulation of the
navy as a whole. (See ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION; and NAVY:
History.) At the present time, whether at home or abroad, they
lie within the province of the controller of the navy (the third lord
of the board of admiralty) ; and the director of dockyards, whose
office, replacing that of surveyor of dockyards was created in
DOCKYARDS
365
December 1885, is responsible to the controller for the building of
ships, boats, &c., in dockyards, and for the maintenance and
repair of ships and boats, and of all steam machinery in ships,
boats, dockyards and factories. The director of naval construc-
tion, who is also deputy-controller, is responsible, not only for
the design of ships, but for their construction, in the sense that he
approves great numbers of working drawings of structural parts
prepared at the dockyards. But the director of dockyards is
the admiralty official under whose instructions the work goes
on, involving the employment and supervision of an army of
artisans and labourers. Instructions, therefore, emanate from
the admiralty, but the details lie with the dockyard officials, and
in practice there is a considerable decentralization of duties.
The chief function of a dockyard is the building and maintain-
ing of ships in efficiency. The constructive work is carried out
under the care of the chief constructor of the yard, in accordance
with plans sent down from the admiralty. The calculations for
displacement, involving the draught of water forward and aft,
have already been made, and, in order to ensure accuracy in the
carrying out of the design, an admirable system has been devised
for weighing everything that is built into the new ships or that
goes on board; and it is astonishing how very closely the actual
displacement approximates to that which was intended, par-
ticularly when the tendency of weights to increase, in perfecting
a ship for commission, is considered.
The ship having been built to her launching weight, the duty of
putting her into the water devolves upon the chief constructor of
the yard, and failures in this matter are so extremely rare that
it may almost be said they do not occur. As soon as the ship
is water-borne the responsibility falls upon the king's harbour
master, who has charge of her afloat and of moving her into the
fitting basins. When the ship has been brought alongside the
wharf, the responsibility of the chief constructor of the yard
is resumed, and the ship is carried forward to completion by
the affixing of armour plating (if that has not been done before
launching), the mounting of guns, the instalment of engines,
boilers, and electrical and hydraulic gear, and the fitting of cabins
for officers, mess places for men, and storerooms, and a vast
volume of other work unnecessary to be specified. In regard to
the complicated details of guns and torpedoes, the captains of the
gunnery and torpedo schools have a function of supervision. The
captain of the fleet reserve also closely watches the work, because,
when the heads of all departments have reported the ship to be
ready, she has to be inspected by the commander-in-chief at
the port, and then passed into the fleet reserve as ready for sea,
and there the captain of the fleet reserve is responsible for her
efficiency. Other important officers of a dockyard are the chief
engineer; the superintendent civil engineer, who has charge of
the work involved in keeping all buildings, docks, basins, caissons,
roads, &c., in repair; the naval store officer, who has charge of
most of the stores in the dockyard; and the cashier of the yard,
whose name sufficiently expresses his duties.
The system of conducting business at the dockyards is analogous
to that which prevails at the admiralty. There is personal com-
munication between the officers responsible for the work, and
facilities are afforded for coming to rapid decisions upon matters
that are in hand, and the operations are conducted with an ease
which contributes much to efficiency. In 1844 the custom was
introduced of all the principal officers of the dockyard meeting
at the superintendent's office at 9.30 A.M. every day, to hear the
orders from the admiralty and discuss the work of the day. But
this system of " readings " was abolished at the beginning of
1906, the naval establishments inquiry committee considering
that the assembling of the officials was unnecessary since the
communications after reception are copied and sent to the
departments concerned.
The police force necessary in a dockyard is in some cases
supplied from the London metropolitan police, and is under
the orders of the superintendent of the yard for duties connected
with it, and under the commissioner of police for the discipline
and disposition of the force. The charges are, of course, paid by
the admiralty, and the system answers well.
United States. The shore stations under control of the
Navy Department (see also ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION), and
collectively known as naval stations, are under different names
according to their nature. Of those called Navy Yards, and
intended for the general purpose of sources of supply and for
repairs of ships, there are within the United States eight in
number. Two of them are on the Pacific coast, situated on Puget
Sound, at Bremerton, Washington; and at Mare Island, near
San Francisco. The other six are on the Atlantic coast, and
are situated at Portsmouth, N.H.; Boston, Mass.; Brooklyn,
N.Y.; Philadelphia, Pa.; Washington, D.C.; and Norfolk. Va.
There are also naval stations at Port Royal and Charleston, S.C. ;
Key West and Pensacola, Fla.; New Orleans, La.; Guan-
tanamo, Cuba; Culebra and San Juan, Porto Rico; Honolulu,
H.I.; Cavite, P.I.; Tutuila, Samoa; and Island of Guam, in
the Ladrones Islands. The floating dock Dewey, having a lifting
capacity of 18,500 gross tons with a free-board of 2 ft., was
stationed in the Philippine Islands in 1906.
Besides these, there are important naval stations established
for special purposes, which in some cases are also available for
ports of supply and for repairs. These are: the U.S. Naval
Academy, Annapolis, Md., for the instruction of naval cadets;
the training stations at Newport, R.I., and Yerba Buena Island,
Cal., for the instruction of apprentices; the proving ground at
Indian Head, Md., on the Potomac river, where all government-
built ordnance is tested; the War College at Newport, R.I., for
the instruction of officers; the torpedo station at Newport, for
the instruction of officers and men in torpedoes, electricity and
submarine diving; the naval observatory at Washington; and
the marine post at Sitka, Alaska. Coaling dep6ts have been
established at Honolulu, Pago Pago, Samoan Islands, and at
Manila, P.I. Naval hospitals are located at the Portsmouth,
Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Washington, Norfolk and Mare
Island yards; at Las Animas, Colo.; at Newport, R.I.; Cafiacao,
P.I.; Sitka, Alaska; and Yokohama, Japan.
The commandant of a navy yard and station, who is usually
a rear-admiral, is its commander-in-chief. His official assistants
are called heads of departments. The captain of the yard, who
is next in succession to command, has general charge of the water
front and the ships moored there, and of the police of the navy
yard; it is his duty to keep the commandant informed as to the
nature and efficiency of all work in progress. The equipment
officer has charge of anchors, chains, rigging, sails and the electric
generating plant. The other heads of departments are the
ordnance officer, the naval constructor, the engineering officer,
the general storekeeper, the paymaster of the yard, the surgeon
and the civil engineer. The clerks and draughtsmen employed
by these officers are appointed under civil service rules, and
their employment is continuous so long as funds are available.
The foremen are selected by competitive examination, and their
number is fixed. In the employment of mechanics and labourers,
veterans are given preference, after which follow persons previ-
ously employed who have displayed especial efficiency and good
conduct. The rates of wages are determined semi-annually by
a board of officers, who ascertain the wages paid by private
establishments in the vicinity of the navy yard. Eight hours
constitute the legal work day. When emergencies necessitate
longer hours the workmen are paid at the ordinary rate plus
50%.
The nature and extent of work to be performed upon naval
vessels is determined by the secretary of the navy; the com-
mandant then issues the necessary orders. The material required
is obtained by a system of requisitions, which provide for the
purchase from the lowest bidder after open competition. Heads
of departments initiate the purchase of materials which are
peculiar to their own work; ordinary commercial articles,
however, are usually carried in a special stock called the " Naval
Supply Fund," which may be drawn upon by any head of depart-
ment. All materials are inspected, both as to quantity and
quality, by a board of inspectors consisting of three officers.
France. The French coast is divided into five naval arrondisse-
ments, which have their headquarters at the five naval ports of
3 66
DOCTOR
which Cherbourg, Brest and Toulon are the most important, Lorient
and Rochef ort being of lesser degree. All are building and fitting-out
yards. Corsica, which has naval stations at Ajaccio, Porto Vecchio,
Bonifacio and other places, is a dependency of the arsenal at Toulon.
On the African coast there are docking facilities in Algeria. Bizerta,
the Tunisian port, has been made a naval base by the deepening
and fortifying of the canal which is the approach to the inner
lake. There are arsenals also at Saigon and Hai-phong, and an
establishment at Diego Suarez.
The subsidiary establishments in France are the gun foundry at
Ruelle ; the steel and iron works at Guerigny, where anchors, chains
and armour-plate are made; and the works at Indret, on an island
in the lower Loire, where machinery is constructed. There are
many private shipbuilding establishments in the country, the most
important being the Forges et Chantiers de la Mediterranee at La
Seyne, on the lesser roadstead at Toulon where many French and
foreign warships of the largest classes have been built. The same
company has a building yard at Havre. Other establishments are
the Ateliers et Chantiers de la Loire, at Saint Nazaire ; the Normand
Yard, at Havre ; and the Chantiers de la Gironde, near Bordeaux.
Each of the arrondissements above mentioned is divided into
sous-arrondissements, having their centres in the great commercial
ports, but this arrangement is purely for the embodiment of the men
of the Inscription Maritime, and has nothing to do with the dock-
yards as naval arsenals. In each arrondissement the vice-admiral,
who is naval prefect, is the immediate representative of the minister
of marine, and has full direction and command of the arsenal, which
is his headquarters. He is thus commander-in-chief , as also governor-
designate for time of war, but his authority does not extend to ships
belonging to organized squadrons or divisions. The naval prefect is
assisted by a rear-admiral as chief of the staff (except at Lorient and
Rochefort, where the office is filled by a captain) , and a certain number
of officers, the special functions of the chief of the staff having
relation principally to the efficiency and personnel of the fleet, while
the " major-general," who is usually a rear-admiral, is concerned
chiefly with the materiel. There are also directors of stores, of naval
construction, of the medical service and of the submarine defences
(which are concerned with torpedoes, mines and torpedo-boats),
as well as of naval ordnance and works. The prefect directs the
operations of the arsenal, and is responsible for its efficiency and for
that of the ships which are there in reserve. In regard to the consti-
tution and maintenance of the naval forces, the administration of the
arsenals is divided into three principal departments, the first con-
cerned with naval construction, the second with ordnance, including
gun-mountings and small-arms, and the third with the so-called
submarine defences, dealing with all torpedo materiel.
Germany. With the expansion of the German navy considerable
additions have been made to the two principal dockyards. These
are Wilhelmshaven, the naval headquarters on the North Sea, and
Kiel, the headquarters on the Baltic, Danzig being an establishment
of lesser importance, and Kiao-chau an undeveloped base in the
Shantung peninsula, China. The chief official at each home dock-
yard is the superintendent (Oberwerftdirektor), who is a rear-admiral
or senior captain directly responsible to the naval secretary of state.
Under the superintendent's orders are the chief of the Ausrustung
department, or captain of the fleet reserve, the directors of ordnance,
torpedoes, navigation, naval construction, engineering and harbour
works, with some other officers. The chiefs of the constructive and
engineering departments are responsible for the building of ships and
machinery, and for the maintenance of the hulls and machinery of
existing vessels; while the works department has charge of all work
on the quays, docks, &c., in the dockyard and port. A great advance
has been made in increasing the efficiency and capabilities of the
imperial dockyards by introducing a system of continuous work in
the building of new ships and effecting alterations in others, and
German material is exclusively used. The Schichau Works at
Elbing and Danzig, the Vulkan Yard at Bredow, near Stettin, the
Weser Company at Bremen, and the establishment of Blohm and
Voss at Hamburg, are important establishments which have built
many vessels for the German navy, as well as for foreign states.
Italy. The principal Italian state dockyards are Spezia, Naples
and Venice, the first named being by far the most important. It
covers an area, including the water spaces, of 629 acres, and there
are five dry docks, three being 433 ft. long and 105 ft. wide, and two
361 ft. long and 98 ft. 6 in. wide. The dockyard is very completely
equipped with machinery of the best British, German and Italian
makes, and it has built several of the finest Italian ships. The
number of hands employed in the yard averages 4000. There are
two building slips, and for smaller vessels there are two in the
neighbouring establishment of San Bartolommeo (which is the head-
quarters for submarine mining), and one at San Vito, where is a
Government gun factory. Castellammare di Stabia is subsidiary
to Naples. A large dry dock has been built at Taranto. There is
a small naval establishment at Maddalena Island on the Strait of
Bonifacio. The Italian Government has no gun or torpedo factories,
nearly all the ordnance coming from the Armstrong factory at
Pozzuoli near Naples, and the torpedoes from the Schwarzkopf
factory at Venice, while armour-plates are produced at the im-
portant works at Terni. Machinery is supplied by the firms of
Ansaldo, Odero, Orlando, Guppy & Hawthorn and Pattison. The
three establishments first named have important shipbuilding yards,
and have constructed vessels for the Italian and foreign navies.
The Orlando Yard at Leghorn is Government property, but is
leased by the firm, and possesses five building slips.
Austria-Hungary. The naval arsenal is on the well-protected
harbour of Pola, in Istria, which is the headquarters of the national
navy, and includes establishments of all kinds for the maintenance
of the fleet. There are large building and docking facilities, and a
number of warships have been built there. There is a construction
yard also at Trieste. A new coaling and torpedo station is at Teodo,
large magazines and stores are at Vallelunga, and the mining establish-
ment is at Ficella. The shipbuilding branch of the navy is under the
direction of a chief constructor (Oberster-Ingenieur), assisted by seven
constructors, of whom two are of the first class. The engineering and
ordnance branches are similarly organized.
Spain. The Spanish dockyards are of considerable antiquity, but
of diminishing importance. There is an establishment at Ferrol,
another at Cartagena, and a third at Cadiz. They are well equipped
in all necessary respects, but are not provided with continuous work.
A recent airangement is the specialization of the yards, Ferrol being
designed for larger, and Carthagena for smaller, building work. The
ordnance establishment is at Carraca.
Russia. In Russia the naval ports are of two classes. The most
important are Kronstadt, St Petersburg and Nikolayev. Of lesser
importance are Reval, Syeaborg, Sevastopol, Batum, Baku and
Vladivostok. The administration of the larger ports, except St
Petersburg, which is under special regulations, is in the hands of
vice-admirals, who are commanders-in-chief, while the smaller ports
are under the direction of rear-admirals. All are directly under the
minister of marine, except that the Black Sea ports and Astrabad,
on the Caspian, are subordinate to the commander-in-chief at
Nikolayev. Sevastopol has grown in importance, and become
mainly a naval harbour, the commercial harbour being removed to
Theodosia. The Russian government has also proposed to remodel
the harbour works at St Petersburg and Kronstadt. The Emperor
Alexander III. Port at Libau, on the Baltic, is in a region less liable
to be icebound in the winter. There are no strictly private yards for
the building of large vessels in Russia, except that of the Black Sea
Company at Nikolayev. Messrs Creighton build torpedo-boats at
Abo in Finland, and the admiralty has steel works at Ijora, where
some torpedo-boats have been built. Other ordnance and steel
works are at Obukhov and Putilov.
Japan. The principal Japanese dockyard, which was established
by the Shogunate in 1866, is Yokosuka. French naval constructors
and engineers were employed, and several wooden ships were built.
The Japanese took the administration into their own hands in 1875,
and built a number of vessels of small displacement in the yard.
The limit of size was about 5000 tons, but the establishment has been
enlarged so that vessels of the first class may be built there. There
is a first -class modern dry dock which will take the largest battleship.
Shipbuilding would be undertaken to a larger extent but for the fact
that nearly all material has to come from abroad. Down to 1905
all the important vessels of the Japanese navy were built in Great
Britain, France, Germany and the United States, but at the end of
that year a first-class cruiser of 13,500 tons (the " Tsukuba ") was
launched from the important yard at Kure. There are other yards
at Sassebo and Maisuru.
DOCTOR (Lat. for " teacher "), the title conferred by the
highest university degree. Originally there were only two
degrees, those of bachelor and master, and the title doctor was
given to certain masters as a merely honorary appellation.
The process by which it became established as a degree superior
to that of master cannot be clearly traced. At Bologna it seems
to have been conferred in the .faculty of law as early as the
1 2th century. Paris conferred the degree in the faculty of
divinity, according to Antony Wood, some time after 1150. In
England it was introduced in the I3th century; and both in
England and on the continent it was long confined to the faculties
of law and divinity. Though the word is so commonly used as
synonymous with " physician," it was not until the I4th century
that the doctor's degree began to be conferred in medicine. The
tendency since has been to extend it to all faculties; thus in
Germany, in the faculty of arts, it has replaced the old title of
magister. The doctorate of music was first conferred at Oxford
and Cambridge.
Doctors of the Church are certain saints whose doctrinal writ-
ings have obtained, by the universal consent of the Church
or by papal decree, a special authority. In the case of the great
schoolmen a characteristic qualification was added to the title
doctor, e.g. " angelicus " (Aquinas), " mellifluus " (Bernard).
The doctors of the Church are: for the East, SS. Athanasius,
Gregory of Nazianzus, Basil the Great, John Chrysostom; for
the West, SS. Hilary, Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, Gregory the
DOCTORS' COMMONS DODD
367
Great, Anselm, Bernard, Bonaventura and Thomas Aquinas.
To these St Alphonso dei Liguori was added by Pope Pius IX.
DOCTORS' COMMONS, the name formerly applied to a
society of ecclesiastical lawyers in London, forming a distinct
profession for the practice of the civil and canon laws. Some
members of the profession purchased in 1567 a site near St Paul's,
on which at their own expense they erected houses (destroyed in
the great fire, but rebuilt in 1672) for the residence of the judges
and advocates, and proper buildings for holding the ecclesiastical
and admiralty courts. In 1768 a royal charter was obtained
by virtue of which the then members of the society and their
successors were incorporated under the name and title of " The
College of Doctors of Law exercent in the Ecclesiastical and
Admiralty Courts." The college consisted of a president (the
dean of Arches for the time being) and of those doctors of law
who, having regularly taken that degree in either of the uni-
versities of Oxford or Cambridge, and having been admitted
advocates in pursuance of the rescript of the archbishop of
Canterbury, were elected fellows in the manner prescribed by
the charter. There were also attached to the college thirty-four
proctors, whose duties were analogous to those of solicitors.
The judges of the archiepiscopal courts were always selected
from this college. By the Court of Probate Act 1857 the
college was empowered to sell its real and personal estate and
to surrender its charter, and it was enacted that on such
surrender the college should be dissolved and the property
thereof belong to the then existing members as tenants in
common for their own use and benefit. The college was ac-
cordingly dissolved, and the various ecclesiastical courts which
sat at Doctors' Commons (the Court of Arches, the Prerogative
Court, the Faculty Court and the Court of Delegates) are now
open to the whole bar.
DOCTRINAIRES, the name given to the leaders of the moderate
and constitutional Royalists in France after the second restora-
tion of Louis XVIII. in 1815. The name, as has often been the
case with party designations, was at first given in derision, and
by an enemy. In 1816 the Nainjaune rffugie, a French paper
published at Brussels by Bonapartist and Liberal exiles, began
to speak of M. Royer-Collard as the " doctrinaire " and also as
le pere Royer-Collard de la doctrine chretienne. The peres^e la
doctrine chretienne, popularly known as the " doctrinaires," were
a French religious order founded in 1592 by Cesar de Bus. The
choice of a nickname for M. Royer-Collard does credit to the
journalistic insight of the contributors to the Nainjaune refugie,
for he was emphatically a man who made it his business to preach
a doctrine and an orthodoxy. The popularity of the name and
its rapid extension to M. Royer-Collard's colleagues is the suffi-
cient proof that it was well chosen and had more than a personal
application. These colleagues came, it is true, from various
quarters. The due de Richelieu and M. de Serre had been Royalist
emigres during the revolutionary and imperial epoch. MM.
Royer-Collard himself, Laine, and Maine de Biran had sat in the
revolutionary Assemblies. MM. Pasquier, Beugnot, de Barante,
Cuvier, Mourner, Guizot and Decazes had been imperial officials.
But they were closely united by political principle, and also by a
certain similarity of method. Some of them, notably Guizot and
Maine de Biran,were theorists and commentators on the principles
of government. M. de Barante was an eminent man of letters.
All were noted for the doctrinal coherence of their principles and
the dialectical rigidity of their arguments. The object of the
party as defined by M. (afterwards the due) Decazes was to
" nationalize the monarchy and to royalize France." The means
by which they hoped to attain this end were a loyal application
of the charter granted by Louis XVIII., and the steady co-opera-
tion of the king with the moderate Royalists to defeat the
extreme party known as the Ultras, who aimed at the complete
undoing of the political and social work of the Revolution. The
Doctrinaires were ready to allow the king a large discretion in
the choice of his ministers and the direction of national policy.
They refused to allow that ministers should be removed in
obedience to a hostile vote in the chamber. Their ideal in fact
was a combination of a king who frankly accepted the results
of the Revolution, and who governed in a liberal spirit, with the
advice of a chamber elected by a very limited constituency, in
which men of property and education formed, if not the whole,
at least the very great majority of the voters. Their views were
set forth by Guizot in 1816 in his treatise Du gouvernement
representatif et de Vetat actuel de la France. The chief organs of
the party in the press were the Independent, renamed the Con-
stitutionnel in 1817, and the Journal des debats. The supporters
of the Doctrinaires in the country were chiefly ex-officials of the
empire, who believed in the necessity for monarchical govern-
ment but had a lively memory of Napoleon's tyranny and a
no less lively hatred of the ancien regime, merchants, manu-
facturers and members of the liberal professions, particularly the
lawyers. The history of the Doctrinaires as a separate political
party began in 1816 and ended in 1830. In 1816 they obtained
the co-operation of Louis XVIII., who had been frightened by
the violence of the Ultras in the Chambre introuvable of 1815.
In 1830 they were destroyed by Charles X. when he took the
Ultra prince de Polignac as his minister and entered on the con-
flict with Liberalism in France which ended in his overthrow.
During the revolution of 1830 the Doctrinaires became absorbed
in the Orleanists, from whom they had never been separated on
any ground of principle (see FRANCE: History).
The word " doctrinaire " has become naturalized in English
terminology, as applied, in a slightly contemptuous sense, to a
theorist, as distinguished from a practical man of affairs.
See Duvergier de Hauranne, Histoire du gouvernement parle-
mentaireen France (Paris, 1857-1871), vol. iii.
DOCUMENT, strictly, in law, that which can serve as evidence
or proof, and is written or printed, or has an inscription or any
significance that can be " read "; thus a picture, authenticated
photograph, seal or the like would furnish " documentary
evidence." More generally the word is used for written or printed
papers that provide information or evidence on a subject. The
Latin documentum, from which the word is derived, meant, in
classical times, a lesson, example or proof (docere, to teach), and
only in medieval Latin came to be applied to an instrumentum, or
record in writing. The classical Latin use is found in English;
thus Jeremy Taylor (Works, ed. 1835, i- 8l 5) speaks of punish-
ment being a " single and sudden document if instantly in-
flicted " (see DIPLOMATIC; and EVIDENCE).
DODD, WILLIAM (1720-1777), English divine, was born at
Bourne in Lincolnshire in May 1729. He was admitted a sizar
of Clare Hall, Cambridge, in 1745, and took the degree of B.A.
in 1750, being fifteenth wrangler. On leaving the university he
married a young woman of a more than questionable reputation,
whose extravagant habits helped to ruin him. In 1751 he
was ordained deacon, and in 1753 priest, and he soon became a
popular and celebrated preacher. His first preferment was the
lectureship of West-Ham and Bow. In 1754 he was also chosen
lecturer of St Olave's, Hart Street; and in 1757 he took the
degree of M.A. at Cambridge, subsequently becoming LL.D.
He was a strenuous supporter of the Magdalen hospital, founded
in 1758, and soon afterwards became preacher at the chapel of
that charity. In 1763 he obtained a prebend at Brecon, and in
the same year he was appointed one of the king's chaplains,
soon after which the education of Philip Stanhope, afterwards
earl of Chesterfield, was committed to his care. In 1768 he had
a fashionable congregation and was held in high esteem, but
indiscreet ambition led to his ruin. On the living of St George's,
Hanover Square, becoming vacant in 1774, Mrs Dodd wrote
an anonymous letter to the wife of the lord chancellor, offering
three thousand guineas if, by her assistance, Dodd were promoted
to the benefice. This letter having been traced, a complaint was
immediately made to the king, and Dodd was dismissed from his
office as chaplain. After residing for some time at Geneva and
Paris, he returned to England in 1776. He still continued to
exercise his clerical functions, but his extravagant habits soon
involved him in difficulties. To meet his creditors he forged
a bond on his former pupil Lord Chesterfield for 4200, and
actually received the money. He was detected, committed to
prison, tried at the Old Bailey, found guilty, and sentenced to
3 68
DODDER DODDRIDGE
death; and, in spite of numerous applications for mercy, he was
executed at Tyburn on the 27th of June 1777. Samuel Johnson
was very zealous in pleading for a pardon, and a petition from
the city of London received 23,000 signatures. Dr Dodd was a
voluminous writer and possessed considerable abilities, with but
little judgment and much vanity. He wrote one or two comedies,
and his Beauties of Shakespeare, published in 1752, was long a
well-known work; while his Thoughts in Prison, a poem in blank
verse, written between his conviction and execution, naturally
attracted much attention. He published a large number of
sermons and other theological works, including a Commentary
on the Bible (1765-1 77) A list of his fifty-five writings and an
account of the writer is included in the Thoughts in Prison.
See also P. Fitzgerald, A Famous Forgery (1865).
DODDER (Frisian dodd, a bunch; Dutch dot, ravelled thread),
the popular name of the annual, leafless, twining, parasitic plants
forming the genus
Cuscuta, formerly
regarded as repre-
senting a distinct
natural order
Cuscutaceae, but
now generally
ranked as a tribe
of the natural
order Convolvu-
laceae. The genus
contains nearly
100 species and is
widely distributed
in the temperate
and warmer parts
of the earth. The
slender thread-like
stem is white,
yellow, or red in
colour, bears no
leaves, and at-
taches itself by
suckers to the stem
or leaves of some
other plant round
which it twines
and from which it
derives its nourish-
ment. It bears
clusters of small
fl o w e r s with a
four- or five-
toothed calyx, a
cup-shaped corolla
with four or five
stamens inserted
on its tube, and
sometimes a ring
of scales below the
stamens; the two-
celled ovary becomes when ripe a capsule splitting by a ring
just above the base. The seeds are angular and contain a
thread-like spirally coiled embryo which bears no cotyledons.
On coming in contact with the living stem of some other plant
the seedling dodder throws out a sucker, by which it attaches
itself and begins to absorb the sap of its foster-parent; it then
soon ceases to have any connexion with the ground. As it
grows, it throws out fresh suckers, establishing itself firmly on
the host-plant (fig. 2). After making a few turns round one stem
the dodder finds its way to another, and thus it continues twining
and branching till it resembles " fine, closely-tangled, wet cat-
gut." The injury done to flax, clover, hop and bean crops by
species of dodder is often very great. C. europaea, the greater
dodder (fig. i) is found parasitic on nettles, thistles, vetches and
the hop; C. Epilinum, on flax; C. Epithymum, on furze, ling
FIG. i. Cuscuta europaea, Dodder,
i. Flower removed from 2, Calyx.
3. Ovary cut across.
4. Fruit enveloped by a persistent corolla.
5. Seed.
6. Embryo. 1-6 enlarged.
and thyme. C. Trifolii, the Clover Dodder, is perhaps a sub-
species of the last mentioned.
DODDRIDGE, PHILIP (1702-1751), English Nonconformist
divine, was born in London on the 26th of June 1702. His
father, Daniel Doddridge, was a London merchant, and his
mother the orphan daughter of the Rev. John Bauman, a
Lutheran clergyman who had fled from Prague to escape religious
persecution, and had held for some time the mastership of the
grammar school at Kingston-upon-Thames. Before he could
read, his mother taught him the history of the Old and New
Testament by the assistance of some blue Dutch chimney-tiles.
He afterwards went to a private school in London, and in 1712
to the grammar school
at Kingston-upon- ^d&Hii^ ft
Thames. About 1715
he was removed to a
private school at St
Albans, where he was
much influenced by the
Presbyterian minister,
Samuel Clarke. He de-
clined offers which would
have led him into the
Anglican ministry or the
bar, and in 1719 entered
the very liberal academy
for dissenters at Kib-
worth in Leicestershire,
taught at that time by
the Rev. John Jennings,
whom Doddridge suc-
ceeded in the ministry
at that place in 1723, FlG _ 2 ._ C uscuta s i omera ta.
declining overtures from through union between parasite and host.
Coventry, Pershore and c, stem of host.
London (Haberdashers' d, stem of Cuscuta.
Halll Tn -non at a " haustona.
1729, at a (After Dodel-Port.)
general meeting of Non-
conformist ministers, he was chosen to conduct the academy
established in that year at Market Harborough. In the same
year he received an invitation from the independent congrega-
tion at Northampton, which he accepted. Here he continued
his multifarious labours; but the church seems to have de-
creased, and his many engagements and bulky correspondence
interfered seriously with his pulpit work, and with the discipline
of his academy, where he had some 200 students to whom he
lectured on philosophy and theology in the mathematical or
Spinozistic style. In 1751 his health, which had never been
good, broke down, and he sailed for Lisbon on the 3Oth of
September of that year; but the change was unavailing, and
he died there on the 26th of October. His popularity as a
preacher is said to have been chiefly due to his " high suscepti-
bility, joined with physical advantages and perfect sincerity."
His sermons were mostly practical in character, and his great
aim was to cultivate in his hearers a spiritual and devotional
frame of mind. He laboured for the attainment of a united
Nonconformist body, which should retain the cultured element
without alienating the uneducated. His principal works are,
The Rise and Progress of Religion in the Soul (1745), which best
illustrates his religious genius, and has been widely translated;
The Family Expositor (6 vols., 1739-1756), Life of Colonel
Gardiner (1747); and a Course of Lectures on Pneumatology,
Ethics and Divinity (1763). He also published several courses
of sermons on particular topics, and is the author of many well-
known and justly admired hymns, e.g. " O God of Bethel, by
whose hand." In 1736 both the universities at Aberdeen gave
him the degree of D.D.
See Memoirs, by Rev. Job Orton (1766); Letters to and from
Dr Doddridge, by Rev. Thomas Stedman (1790) ; and Correspondence
and Diary, in 5 vols., by his grandson, John Doddridge Humphreys
(1829). The best lite is Stanford's Philip Doddridge (1880). Dodd-
ridge's academy is now represented by New College, Hampstead, in
the library of which there is a large collection of his manuscripts.
DODDS DODGSON
369
DODDS, ALFRED AM^DEE (1842- ), French general, was
born at St Louis, Senegal, on the 6th of February 1842; his
father's family was of Anglo-French origin. He was educated at
Carcassonne and at St Cyr, and in 1864 joined the marine infantry
as a sub-lieutenant. He was promoted captain for his services
during the disturbances in Reunion in 1868-69, in the course
of which he was wounded. He served as a company commander
in the Franco-German War, was taken prisoner at Sedan but
escaped, and took part in the campaigns of the Loire and of the
East. In 1872 he was sent to West Africa, and/except when on
active service in Cochin China (1878) and Tong-King (1883), he
remained on duty in Senegal for the next twenty years, taking
a prominent part in the operations which brought the countries
of the Upper Senegal and Upper Niger under French rule. He
led the expeditions against the Boal and Kayor (1889), the
Serreres (1890) and the Futa (1891), and from 1888 to 1891 was
colonel commanding the troops in Senegal. At the close of 1891
he returned to France to command the eighth marine infantry
at Toulon. In April 1892 Dodds was selected to command the
expeditionary force in Dahomey; he occupied Abomey, the
hostile capital, in November, and in a second campaign (1894)
he completed the subjugation of the country. He was then
appointed inspector-geheral of the marine infantry, and after a
tour of the French colonies was given the command of the XX.
(Colonial) Army Corps, subsequently becoming inspector-general
of colonial troops and a member of the Conseil superieur de
guerre.
DODECAHEDRON (Gr. 5d>Se/ca, twelve, and tdpa, a face
or base) , in geometry, a solid enclosed by twelve plane faces. The
" ordinary dodecahedron " is one of the Platonic solids (see
POLYHEDRON) . The Greeks discovered that if a line be divided in
extreme and mean proportion, then the whole line and the greater
segment are the lengths of the edge of a cube and dodecahedron
inscriptible in the same sphere. The '' small stellated dode-
cahedron," the " great dodecahedron " and the " great stellated
dodecahedron " are Kepler-Poinsot solids; and the " truncated "
and " snub dodecahedra " are Archimedean solids (see POLY-
HEDRON). In crystallography, the regular or ordinary dode-
cahedron is an impossible form since the faces cut the axes in
irrational ratios; the " pentagonal dodecahedron " of crystal-
lographers has irregular pentagons for faces, while the geometrical
solid, on the other hand, has regular ones. The " rhombic
dodecahedron," one of the geometrical semiregular solids, is
an important crystal form. Many other dodecahedra exist as
crystal forms, for which see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.
DODECASTYLE (Gr. 5oo5eca, twelve, and orDXos, column),
the architectural term given to a temple where the portico has
twelve columns in front, as in the portico added to the temple
of Demeter at Eleusis, designed by Philo, the architect of the
arsenal at the Peiraeus.
DODERLEIN, JOHANN CHRISTOPH WILHELM LUDWIG
(1791-1863), German philologist, was born at Jena on the igth
of December 1791. His father, Johann Christoph Doderlein,
professor of theology at Jena, was celebrated for his varied
learning, for his eloquence as a preacher, and for the import-
ant influence he exerted in guiding the transition movement
from strict orthodoxy to a freer theology. Ludwig Doderlein,
after receiving his preliminary education at Windsheim and
Schulpforta (Pforta), studied at Munich, Heidelberg, Erlangen
and B erlin. He devoted his chief attention to philology under the
instruction of such men as F. Thiersch, G. F. Creuzer, J. H. Voss,
F. A. Wolf, August Bockh and P. K. Buttmann. In 1815, soon
after completing his studies at Berlin, he accepted the appoint-
ment of ordinary professor of philology in the academy of Bern.
In 1819 he was transferred to Erlangen, where he became second
professor of philology in the university and rector of the
gymnasium. In 1827 he became first professor of philology and
rhetoric and director of the philological seminary. He died on
the gth of November 1 863. Doderlein's most elaborate workasa
philologist was marred by over-subtlety, and lacked method
and clearness. He is best known by his Lateinische Synonymen
und Etymologien (1826-1838), and his Homerisches Glossarium
(1850-1858). To the same class belong his Lateinische Wort-
bildung (1838), Handbuch der lateinischen Synonymik (1839),
and the Handbuch der lateinischen Etymologic (1841), besides
various works of a more elementary kind intended for the use
of schools and gymnasia. Most of the works named have been
translated into English. To critical philology Doderlein con-
tributed valuable editions of Tacitus (Opera, 1847; Germania,
with a German translation) and Horace (Epistolae, with a German
translation, 1856-1858; Satirae, 1860). His Reden und Aufsiilze
(Erlangen, 1843-1847) and Offentliche Reden (1860) consist
chiefly of academic addresses dealing with various subjects in
paedagogy and philology.
DODGE, THEODORE AYRAULT (1842-1909), American
soldier and military writer, was born at Pittsfield, Massachusetts,
on the 28th of May 1842. He received a military education in
Germany and subsequently studied at Heidelberg and London
University, returning to the United States in 1861. At the out-
break of the Civil War he at once enlisted in the federal army, and
he soon rose to commissioned rank. He served in the Army of
the Potomac until Gettysburg, where he lost a leg. Incapacitated
for further active service, he continued to be employed in admini-
strative posts to the end of the war, and for several years there-
after he served at army headquarters, becoming captain in 1866
and brevet lieutenant-colonel in 1867. He retired in 1870. His
works include The Campaign of Chancellor sville (1881), A Bird's
Eye View of our Civil War (1882, later edition 1897), a complete,
accurate and remarkably concise account of the whole war,
Patroclusand Penelope, aChatinthe Saddle (1883), Great Captains
(1886), a series of lectures, Riders of Many Lands (1893), and
a series of large illustrated volumes entitled A History of the A rt of
War, being livesof " Great Captains, " including Alexander ( 2 vols. ,
1888), Hannibal (2 vols., 1889), Caesar (2 vols., 1892), Gustavus
Adolphus (2 vols., 1896) and Napoleon (4 vols., 1904-1907). He
died in France, at Versailles, on the 26th of October 1909.
DODGSON, CHARLES LUTWIDGE ["LEWIS CARROLL"]
(1832-1898), English mathematician and author, son of the Rev.
Charles Dodgson, vicar of Daresbury, Cheshire, was born in that
village on the 27th of January 1832. The literary life of " Lewis
Carroll " became familiar to a wide circle of readers, but the
private life of Charles Lutwidge Dodgson was retired and practic-
ally uneventful. After four years' schooling at Rugby, Dodgson
matriculated at Christ Church, Oxford, in May 1850; and from
1852 till 1870 held a studentship there. He took a first class in
the final mathematical school in 1854, and the following year was
appointed mathematical lecturer at Christ Church, a post he
continued to fill till 1881. In 1861 he was ordained deacon, but
he never took priest's orders, possibly because of a stammer which
prevented reading aloud. His earliest publications, beginning
with A Syllabus of Plane Algebraical Geometry (1860) and The
Formulae of Plane Trigonometry (1861), were exclusively mathe-
matical; but late in the year 1865 he published, under the
pseudonym of " Lewis Carroll," Alice's Adventures in Wonderland,
a work that was the outcome of his keen sympathy with the
imagination of children and their sense of fun. Its success was
immediate, and the name of " Lewis Carroll " has ever since been
a household word. A dramatic version of the " Alice " books by
Mr Savile Clarke was produced at Christmas, 1886, and has since
enjoyed many revivals. Mr Dodgson was always very fond of
children, and it was an open secret thiit the original of " Alice "
was a daughter of Dean Liddell. Alice was followed (in the
" Lewis Carroll " series) by Phantasmagoria, in 1869; Through
the Looking-Glass, in 1871; The Hunting of the Snark (1876);
Rhyme and Reason (1883); A Tangled Tale (1885); and
Sylvie and Bruno (in two parts, 1889 and 1893). He wrote skits
on Oxford subjects from time to time. The Dynamics of a
Particle was written on the occasion of the contest between
Gladstone and Mr Gathome Hardy (afterwards earl of
Cranbrook) ; and The New Belfry in ridicule of the erection put
up at Christ Church for the bells that were removed from the
Cathedral tower. While " Lewis Carroll " was delighting
children of all ages, C. L. Dodgson periodically published mathe-
matical works An Elementary Treatise on Determinants (1867);
370
DODO
Euclid, Book V., proved Algebraically (1874); Euclid and his
Modern Rivals (1879), the work on which his reputation as a
mathematician largely rests; and Curiosa Malhematica (1888).
Throughout this dual existence Mr Dodgson pertinaciously
refused to acquiesce in being publicly identified with " Lewis
Carroll." Though the fact of his authorship of the " Alice "
books was well known, he invariably stated, when occasion called
for such a pronouncement, that " Mr Dodgson neither claimed nor
acknowledged any connexion with the books not published under
his name." He died at Guildford, on the I4th of January 1898.
His memory is appropriately kept green by a cot in the Children's
Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London, which was endowed
perpetually by a public subscription.
See S. D. Collingwood, Life and Letters of Lewis Carroll (1898).
DODO (from the Portuguese D6udo, a simpleton), a large bird
formerly inhabiting the island of Mauritius, but now extinct
the Didus ineptus of Linnaeus. When, in 1507, the Portuguese
discovered the island which we now knowas Mauritius they named
it Ilha do Cerne, from a notion that it must be the island of that
name mentioned by Pliny; but most authors have insisted that
it was known to the seamen of that nation as Ilha do Cisne
perhaps but a corruption of Cerne, and brought about by their
finding it stocked with large fowls, which, though not aquatic,
they likened to swans, the most familiar to them of bulky birds.
In 1598 the Dutch, under Van Neck, took possession of the island
and renamed it Mauritius. A narrative of this voyage was
published in 1601, if not earlier, and has been often reprinted.
Here we have birds spoken of as big as swans or bigger, with large
heads, no wings, and a tail consisting of a few curly feathers. The
Dutch called them Walgvogels (the word is variously spelled), i.e.
nauseous birds, either because no cooking made them palatable,
or because this island-paradise afforded an abundance of fare so
much superior. De Bry gives two admirably quaint prints of
the doings of the Hollanders, and in one of them the Walgvogel
appears, being the earliest published representation of its un-
wieldy form, with a footnote stating that the voyagers brought
an example alive to Holland. Among the company there was a
draughtsman, and from a sketch of his, Clusius, a few years after,
gave a figure of the bird, which he vaguely called " Gallinaceus
Callus peregrinus," but described rather fully. Meanwhile two
other Dutch fleets had visited Mauritius. One of them had rather
an accomplished artist on board, and his drawings fortunately still
exist (see article BIRD). Of the other a journal kept by one of
the skippers was subsequently published. This in the main
corroborates what has been before said of the birds, but adds the
curious fact that they were now called by some Dodaarsen and by
others Dronten. 1
Henceforth Dutch narrators, though several times mentioning
the bird, fail to supply any important fact in its history. Their
navigators, however, were not idle, and found work for their
naturalists and painters. Clusius says that in 1605 he saw at
Pauw's House in Leyden a dodo's foot, 2 which he minutely
describes. In a copy of Clusius's work in the high school of
Utrecht is pasted an original drawing by Van de Venne super-
scribed " Vera effigies huius avis Walghvogel (quae & a nautis
Dadaers propter foedam posterioris partis crassitiem nuncupatur),
qualis viua Amsterodamum perlata est ex insula Mauritii. Anno
M.DC.XXVI." Now a good many paintings of the dodo drawn
from life by Roelandt Savery (1576-1639) exist; and the paint-
ings by him at Berlin and Vienna dated 1626 and 1628 as
1 The etymology of these names has been much discussed. That of
the latter, which has generally been adopted by German and French
authorities, seems to defy investigation, but the former has been
shown by Prof. Schlegel (Versl. en Mededeel. K. Akad. Wetensch.
ii. pp. 255 et seq.) to be the homely name of the dabchick or little
grebe (Podiceps minor), of which the Dutchmen were reminded by
the round stern and tail diminished to a tuft that characterized
the dodo. The same learned authority suggests that dodo is a
corruption of Dodaars, but, as will presently be seen, we herein think
him mistaken.
1 What has become of the specimen (which may have been a relic
of the bird brought home by Van Neck's squadron) is not known.
Broderip and Dr Gray have suggested its identity with that now in
the British Museum, but on what grounds is not apparent.
well as the picture by Goiemare, belonging to the duke of
Northumberland, dated 1627, may be with greater plausibility
than ever considered portraits of a captive bird. It is even
probable that this was not the first example painted in Europe.
In the private library of the emperor Francis I. of Austria was a
series of pictures of various animals, supposed to be by the Dutch
artist Hoefnagel, who was born about 1545. One of these
represents a dodo, and, if there be no mistake in Von Frauenfeld's
ascription, it must almost certainly have been painted before
1626, while there is reason to think that the original may have
been kept in the vivarium of the emperor Rudolf II., and that the
portion of a dodo's head, which was found in the museum at
Prague about 1850, belonged to this example. The other pictures
by Roelandt Savery, like those in the possession of the Zoological
Society of London and others, are undated, but were probably all
painted about the same time 1626-1628. The large picture in
the British Museum, once belonging to Sir Hans Sloane, by an
unknown artist, but supposed to be by Roelandt Savery, is also
undated; while the still larger one at Oxford (considered to be by
the younger Savery) bears a much later date, 1651. Undated also
is a picture in Holland said to be by Pieter Holsteyn.
In 1628 we have the evidence of the first English observer of
the bird one Emanuel Altham, who mentions it in two letters
written on the same day from Mauritius to his brother at home
(Proc. Zool. Soc. 1874, pp. 447-449). In one he says: " You
shall receue ... a strange fowle: which I had at the Hand
Mauritius called by ye portingalls a Do Do: which for the rare-
ness thereof I hope wilbe welcome to you." The passage in the
other letter is to the same effect, with the addition of the words
" if it Hue." In the same fleet with Altham sailed Sir Thomas
Herbert, whose Travels ran through several editions. It is plain
that he could not have reached Mauritius till 1629, though 1627
has been usually assigned as the date of his visit. The fullest
account he gives of the bird is in his edition of 1638: " The Dodo
comes first to a description: here, and in Dygarrois* (and no
where else, that ever I could see or heare of) is generated the Dodo
(a Portuguize name it is, and has reference to her simpleness,) a
Bird which for shape and rareness might be call'd a Phoenix
(wer't in Arabia:) " &c. Herbert was weak as an etymologist,
but his positive statement, corroborated as it is by Altham,
cannot be set aside, and hence we do not hesitate to assign a
Portuguese derivation for the word. 4 Herbert also gave a figure
of the bird.
Proceeding chronologically we next come upon a curious bit
of evidence. This is contained in a MS. diary kept between 1626
and 1640, by Thomas Crossfield of Queen's College, Oxford, where,
under the year 1634, mention is casually made of one Mr Gosling
" who bestowed the Dodar (a blacke Indian bird) vpon ye
Anatomy school." Nothing more is known of it. About 1638,
Sir Hamon Lestrange tells us, as he walked London streets he saw
the picture of a strange fowl hung out on a cloth canvas, and
going in to see it found a great bird kept in a chamber "somewhat
bigger than the largest Turky cock, and so legged and footed, but
shorter and thicker." The keeper called it a dodo and showed
the visitors how his captive would swallow " large peble stones
... as bigge as nutmegs."
In 1651 Morisot published an account of a voyage made by
Francois Cauche, who professed to have passed fifteen days in
Mauritius, or " 1'isle de Saincte Apollonie," as he called it, in
1638. According to De Flacourt the narrative is not very
trustworthy, and indeed certain statements are obviously
inaccurate. Cauche says he saw there birds bigger than swans,
which he describes so as to leave no doubt of his meaning dodos;
but perhaps the most important facts (if they be facts) that he
* i-e. Rodriguez ; an error.
4 Hence we venture to dispute Prof. Schlegel's supposed origin of
" Dodo." The Portuguese must have been the prior nomenclators,
and if, as is most likely, some of their nation, or men acquainted
with their language, were employed to pilot the Hollanders, we see
at once how the first Dutch name Walghvogel would give way. The
meaning of Doudo not being plain to the Dutch, they would, as is
the habit of sailors, convert it into something they did understand.
Then Dodaers would easily suggest itself.
DODO
37 1
relates are that they had a cry like a gosling (" il a un cry comme
1'oison "), and that they laid a single white egg (" gros comme un
pain d'un sol ") on a mass of grass in the forests. He calls them
" oiseaux de Nazaret," perhaps, as a marginal note informs us,
from an island of that name which was then supposed to lie more
to the northward, but is now known to have no existence.
In the catalogue of Tradescant's Collection of Rarities, preserved
at South Lambeth, published in 1656, we have entered among the
FIG. i. Skeleton of a Dodo, Didus ineptus. Museum of Zoology,
Cambridge, and cast of a Head in Oxford.
" Whole Birds," a " Dodar from the island Mauritius; it is not
able to flie being so big." This specimen may well have been the
skin of the bird seen by Lestrange some eighteen years before, but
anyhow we are able to trace the specimen through Willughby,
Edward Llwyd and Thomas Hyde, till it passed in or before 1684
to the Ashmolean collection at Oxford. In 1755 it was ordered
to be destroyed, but, in accordance with the original orders of
Ashmole, its head and right foot were preserved, and still orna-
ment the museum of that university. In the second edition of a
Catalogue of many Natural Rarities, &c., " to be seen at the place
formerly called the Music House, near the West End of St Paul's
Church," collected by one Hubert alias Forbes, and published in
1665, mention is made of a " legge of a Dodo, a great heavy bird
that cannot fly; it is a Bird of the Mauricius Island." This is
supposed to have subsequently passed into the possession of the
Royal Society. At all events such a specimen is included in
Crew's list of their treasures which was published in 1681. This
was afterwards transferred to the British Museum. It is a left
foot, without the integuments, but it differs sufficiently in size
from the Oxford specimen to forbid its having been part of the
same individual. In 1666 Olearius brought out the Gottorffische
Kunst Kammer, wherein he describes the head of a Walghvb'gel,
which some sixty years later was removed to the museum at
Copenhagen, and is now preserved there, having been the means
of first leading zoologists, under the guidance of Prof. J. Th.
Reinhardt, to recognize the true affinities of the bird.
We have passed over all but the principal narratives of voyagers
or other notices of the bird. A compendious bibliography, up to
the year 1848, will be found in Strickland's classical work, 1 and
the list was continued by Von Frauenfeld 2 for twenty years later.
' The Dodo and its Kindred, by H. E. Strickland and A. G. Melville
(London, 1848, 4to).
2 Neu aufeefundene Abbildung des Dronte, by Georg Ritter von
Frauenfeld (Wien, 1868, fol.).
The last evidence we have of the dodo's existence is furnished by a
journal kept by Benj. Harry, and now in the British Museum
(MSS. Addit. 3668. 1 1. D). This shows its survival till 1681, but
the writer's sole remark upon it is that its " fflesh is very hard."
The successive occupation of the island by different masters
seems to have destroyed every tradition relating to the bird, and
doubts began to arise whether such a creature had ever existed.
Dr Henry Duncan, Scottish minister and journalist, in 1828,
showed how ill-founded these doubts were, and some ten years
later William John Broderip with much diligence collected all the
available evidence into an admirable essay, which in its turn was
succeeded by Strickland's monograph just mentioned. But in
the meanwhile little was done towards obtaining any material
advance in our knowledge, Prof. Reinhardt's determination of its
affinity to the pigeons (Columbae) excepted ; and it was hardly
until George Clark's discovery in 1865 of a large number of dodos'
remains in the mud of a pool (the Mare aux Scnges) that zoologists
generally were prepared to accept that affinity without question.
The examination of bone after bone by Sir R. Owen (Trans.
Zool. Soc. vi. p. 49) confirmed the judgment of the Danish
naturalist.
In 1889 Th. Sauzier, acting for the government of Mauritius,
sent a great number of bones from the same swamp to Sir Edward
Newton. 3 From these the first correctly restored and properly
mounted skeleton was prepared and sent to Paris, to be forwarded
to the museum of Mauritius. Good specimens are in the British
Museum, at Paris and at Cambridge, England.
The huge blackish bill of the dodo terminated in a large, horny
hook; the cheeks were partly bare, the stout, short legs yellow.
The plumage was dark
ash - coloured, with
whitish breast and
tail, yellowish white
wings (incapable of
flight). The short tail
formed a curly tuft.
The dodo is said to
have inhabited forests
and to have laid one
large white egg on a
mass of grass. Besides
man, hogs and other
imported animals
seem to have exter-
minated it. But the
dodo is not the only
member of its family
that has vanished.
The little island which
has successively borne
the name of Mas-
caregnas, England's
Forest, Bourbon and
Reunion, and lies to
the southward of
Mauritius, had also an
allied bird, now dead
and gone. Of this not
a relic has been
handled by any natur-
alist Thp latpt HP FlG - 2 - The Solitaire of Rodriguez
. ' . l " (Pezophaps solitarius). From Leguat's
scnption of it, by Du fig ure .
Bois in 1674, is very
meagre, while Bontekoe (1646) gave a figure, apparently intended
to represent it. It was originally called the " solitaire," but this
name was also applied to Pezophaps solitarius of Rodriguez by
the Huguenot exile Leguat, who described and figured it about
1691.
The solitaire, Did us solitarius of Gmelin, referred by Strickland
to. a district genus Pezophaps, is supposed to have lingered in the
E. Newton and H. Gadow, Trans. Zool. Soc. xiii. (1893) pp.
281-302, pis.
372
DODONA
island of Rodriguez until about 1761. Leguat 1 has given a
delightful description of its quaint habits. The male stood about
2 ft. g in. high; its colour was brownish grey, that of its mate
more inclined to brown, with a whitish breast. The wings were
rudimentary, the tail very small, almost hidden, and the thigh
feathers were thick and curled " like shells." A round mass of
bone, " as big as a musket ball," was developed on the wings of
the males, and they used it as a weapon of offence while they
whirled themselves about twenty or thirty times in four or five
minutes, making a noise with their pinions like a rattle. The
mien was fierce and the walk stately, the birds living singly or
in pairs. The nest was a heap of palm leaves a foot high, and
contained a single large egg which was incubated by both parents.
The food consisted of seeds and leaves, and the birds aided
digestion by swallowing large stones; these were used by the
FIG. 3. Skeleton of a male Solitaire, Pezophaps solitarius,
Museum of Zoology, Cambridge.
Dutch sailors to sharpen their knives with. One of these stones,
nearly an inch and a half in length, of extremely hard volcanic
rock, is in the Cambridge museum. The fighting knobs mentioned
above, are very interesting, large exostoses on one of the wrist-
bones of either wing; they were undoubtedly covered with a
thick, callous skin. Thousands of bones of this curious flightless
pigeon were collected through Sir E. Newton's 2 exertions, and
by H. H. Sclater on behalf of the Royal Society of London. The
results are several almost complete skeletons of both sexes,
composed however out of the enormous mass of the dissociated
bones. (A.N.; H.F.G.)
DODONA, in Epirus, the seat of the most ancient and venerable
of all Hellenic sanctuaries. Its ruins are at Dramisos, near
Tsacharovista. In later times the Greeks of the south looked on
the inhabitants of Epirus as barbarians; nevertheless for Dodona
they always preserved a certain reverence, and the temple there
was the object of frequent missions from them. This temple was
dedicated to Zeus, and connected with the temple was an oracle
1 Voyage et aventures de Fran(ois Leguat, &c. (2 vols., London,
1708). An English translation, edited with many additional illus-
trations by Captain Oliver, has been published by the Hakluyt
Society (2 vols., 1891).
1 E. Newton and J. W. Clark, Phil. Trans, clix. (1869), pp. 327-362 ;
clxviii. (1879), pp. 448-451.
which enjoyed more reputation in Greece than any other save
that at Delphi, and which would seem to date from earlier times
than the worship of Zeus; for the normal method of gathering
the responses of the oracle was by listening to the rustling of
an old oak tree, which was supposed to be the seat of the deity.
We seem here to have a remnant of the very ancient and widely
diffused tree-worship. Sometimes, however, auguries were taken
n other manners, being drawn from the moaning of doves in the
aranches, the murmur of a fountain which rose close by, or the
resounding of the wind in the brazen caldrons which formed
circle all round the temple. Croesus proposed to the oracle
lis well-known question; Lysander sought to obtain from it a
sanction for his ambitious views; the Athenians frequently
appealed to its authority during the Peloponnesian War. But
;he most frequent votaries were the neighbouring tribes of the
Acarnanians and Aetolians, together with the Boeotians, who
claimed a special connexion with the district.
Dodona is not unfrequently mentioned by ancient writers. It is
spoken of in the Iliad as the stormy abode of Selli who sleep on the
jround and wash not their feet, and in the Odyssey an imaginary
visit of Odysseus to the oracle is referred to. A Hesiodic fragment
rives a complete description of the Dodonaea or Hellopia, which
is called a district full of corn-fields, of herds and flocks and
of shepherds, where is built on an extremity (iir' kaxo.rl'fi)
Dodona, where Zeus dwells in the stem of an oak (^yos). The
priestesses were called doves (ireXeieu) and Herodotus tells a
story which he learned at Egyptian Thebes, that the oracle of
Dodona was founded by an Egyptian priestess who was carried
away by the Phoenicians, but says that the local legend sub-
stitutes for this priestess a black dove, a substitution in which
be tries to find a rational meaning. From inscriptions and later
writers we learn that in historical times there was worshipped,
together with Zeus, a consort named Dione (see further ZEUS;
ORACLE; DIONE).
The ruins, consisting of a theatre, the walls of a town, and some
other buildings, had been conjectured to be those of Dodona by
Wordsworth in 1832, but the conjecture was changed into
ascertained fact by the excavations of Constantin Carapanos. In
1875 he made some preliminary investigations; soon after, an
extensive discovery of antiquities was made by peasants, digging
without authority; and after this M. Carapanos made a system-
atic excavation of the whole site to a considerable depth. The
topographical and architectural results are disappointing, and
show either that the site always retained its primitive simplicity,
or else that whatever buildings once existed have been very
completely destroyed.
To the south of the hill, on which are the walls of the town, and
to the east of the theatre, is a plateau about 200 yds. long and 50
yds. wide. Towards the eastern end of this terrace are the scanty
remains of a building which can hardly be anything but the
temple of Zeus; it appears to have consisted of pronaos, naos
or cella, and opisthodomus, and some of the lower drums of the
internal columns of the cella were still resting on their founda-
tions. No trace of any external colonnade was found. The
temple was about 130 ft. by 80 ft. It had been converted into a
Christian church, and hardly anything of its architecture seems to
have survived. In it and around it were found the most interest-
ing products of excavation statuettes and decorative bronzes,
many of them bearing dedications to Zeus Nams and Dione, and
inscriptions, including many small tablets of lead which contained
the questions put to the oracle. Farther to the west, on the same
terrace, were two rectangular buildings, which M. Carapanos
conjectures to have been connected with the oracle, but which
show no distinguishing features.
Below the terrace was a precinct, surrounded by walls and
flanked with porticoes and other buildings; it is over 100 yds. in
length and breadth, and of irregular shape. One of the buildings
on the south-western side contained a pedestal or altar, and is
identified by M. Carapanos as a temple of Aphrodite, on the
insufficient evidence of a single dedicated object; it does not
seem to have any of the characteristics of a temple. In front of
the porticoes are rows of pedestals, which once bore statues and
DODS DODSWORTH
373
other dedications. At the southern corner of the precinct is a
kind of gate or propylaeum, flanked with two towers, between
which are placed two coarse limestone drums. If these are in situ
and belong to the original gateway, it must have been of a very
rough character; it does not seem probable that they carried,
as M. Carapanos suggests, the statuette and bronze bowl by
which divinations were carried on.
The chief interest of the excavation centres in the smaller
antiquities discovered, which have now been transferred from
M. Carapanos's collection to the National Museum in Athens.
Among the dedications, the most interesting historically are a
set of weapons dedicated by King Pyrrhus from the spoils of
the Romans, including characteristic specimens of the pilum.
The leaden tablets of the oracle contain no certain example of a
response, though there are many questions, varying from matters
of public policy or private enterprise to inquiries after stolen
goods.
The temple of Dodona was destroyed by the Aetolians in 219
B.C., but the oracle survived to the times of Pausanias and even of
the emperor Julian.
See C. Wordsworth, Greece (1839), p. 247; Constantin Carapanos,
Dodone et ses mines (Paris, 1878). For the oracle inscriptions, see
E. S. Roberts in Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. i. p. 228. (E. G-R.)
DODS, MARCUS (1834-1909), Scottish divine and biblical
scholar, was born at Belford, Northumberland, the youngest son
of Rev. Marcus Dods, minister of the Scottish church of that town.
He was trained at Edinburgh Academy and Edinburgh Univer-
sity, graduating in 1854. Having studied theology for five years
he was licensed in 1858, and in 1864 became minister of Renfield
Free Church, Glasgow, where he worked for twenty-five years. In
1889 he was appointed professor of New Testament Exegesis in
the New College, Edinburgh, of which he became principal on the
death of Dr Rainy in 1907. He died in Edinburgh on the 26th of
April 1 9(59. Throughout his life, both ministerial and professorial,
he devoted much time to the publication of theological books.
Several of his writings, especially a sermon on Inspiration
delivered in 1878, incurred the charge of unorthodoxy, and
shortly before his election to the Edinburgh professorship he
was summoned before the General Assembly, but the charge was
dropped by a large majority, and in 1891 he received the honorary
degree of D.D. from Edinburgh University. He edited Lange's
Life of Christ in English (Edinburgh, 1864, 6 vols.), Augustine's
works (1872-1876), and, with Dr Alexander Whyte, Clark's
" Handbooks for Bible Classes " series. In the Expositor's
Bible series he edited Genesis and i Corinthians, and he was also a
contributor to the 9th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica
and Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible. Among other important
works are: The Epistle to the Seven Churches (1865) ; Israel's Iron
Age (1874); Mohammed, Buddha and Christ (1877); Handbook
on Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi (1879); The Gospel according
to St John (1897), in the Expositor's Greek Testament; The
Bible, its Origin and Nature (1904), the Bross Lectures, in which
he gave an able sketch of the use of Old Testament criticism, and
finally set forth his Theory of Inspiration. Apart from his great
services to Biblical scholarship he takes high rank among those
who have sought to bring the results of technical criticism within
the reach of the ordinary reader.
DODSLEY, ROBERT (1703-1764), English bookseller and
miscellaneous writer, was born in 1703 near Mansfield,
Nottinghamshire, where his father was master of the free school.
He is said to have been apprenticed to a stocking-weaver in
Mansfield, from whom he ran away, taking service as a footman.
In 1729 Dodsley published his first work, Servitude; a Poem . . .
written by a Footman, with a preface and postscript ascribed to
Daniel Defoe; and a collection of short poems, A Muse in Livery,
or the Footman's Miscellany, was published by subscription in
1732, Dodsley 's patrons comprising many persons of high rank.
This was followed by a satirical farce called The Toyshop (Covent
Garden, 1735), in which the toyman indulges in moral observa-
tions on his wares, a hint which was probably taken from Thomas
Randolph's Conceited Pedlar. The profits accruing from the sale
of his works enabled Dodsley to establish himself with the help of
his friends Pope lent him 100 as a bookseller at the " Tully's
Head " in Pall Mall in 1735. His enterprise soon made him one
of the foremost publishers of the day. One of his first publica-
tions was Dr Johnson's London, for which he gave ten guineas in
1738. He published many of Johnson's works, and he suggested
and helped to finance the English Dictionary. Pope also made
over to Dodsley his interest in his letters. In 1738 the publica-
tion of Paul Whitehead's Manners, voted scandalous by the Lords,
led to a short imprisonment. Dodsley published for Edward
Young and Mark Akenside, and in 1751 brought out Thomas
Gray's Elegy. He also founded several literary periodicals: The
Museum (1746-1767, 3 vols.); The Preceptor containing a general
course of education (1748, 2 vols.), with an introduction by Dr
Johnson; The World (1753-1756, 4 vols.); and The Annual
Register, founded in 1758 with Edmund Burke as editor. To
these various works, Horace Walpole, Akenside, Soame Jenyns,
Lord Lyttelton, Lord Chesterfield, Burke and others were
contributors. Dodsley is, however, best known as the editor of
two collections: Select Collection of Old Plays (12 vols., 1744;
2nd edition with notes by Isaac Reed, 12 vols., 1780; 4th edition,
by W. C. Hazlitt, 1874-1876, 15 vols.); and A collection of Poems
by Several Hands (1748, 3 vols.), which passed through many
editions. In 1737 his King and the Miller of Mansfield, a
" dramatic tale " of King Henry II., was produced at Drury
Lane, and received with much applause; the sequel, Sir John
Cockle at Court, a farce, appeared in 1 738. In 1745 he published a
collection of his dramatic works, and some poems which had been
issued separately, in one volume under the modest title of Trifles.
This was followed by The Triumph of Peace, a Masque occasioned
by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapette (1749); a fragment, entitled
Agriculture, of a long tedious poem in blank verse on Public
Virtue (1753); The Blind Beggar of Bethnal Green (acted at
Drury Lane 1739, printed 1741); and an ode, Melpomene (1757).
His tragedy of Cleone (1758) had a long run at Covent Garden,
2000 copies being sold on the day of publication, and it passed
through four editions within the year. Lord Chesterfield is,
however, almost certainly the author of the series of mock
chronicles of which The Chronicle of the Kings of England by
" Nathan ben Saddi " (1740) is the first, although they were
included in the Trifles and " ben Saddi " was received as Dodsley's
pseudonym. The Economy of Human Life ( 1 7 50) , a collection of
moral precepts frequently reprinted, is also by Lord Chesterfield.
In 1759 Dodsley retired, leaving the conduct of the business to his
brother James (1724-1797), with whom he had been many years
in partnership. He published two more works, The Select Fables
of Aesop translated by R. D. (1764) and the Works of William
Shenstone (3 vols., 1764-1769). He died at Durham while on
a visit to his friend the Rev. Joseph Spence, on the 23rd of
September 1764.
See also Shadows of the Old Booksellers, by Charles Knight (1865),
pp. 189-216; " At Tully's Head " in Eighteenth Century Vignettes,
2nd series, by Austin Dobson (1894); E. Solly in The Bibliographer,
y. (1884) pp. 57-61. Dodsley's poems are reprinted with a memoir
in A. Chalmers's Works of English Poets, vol. xv. (1810).
DODSWORTH, ROGER (1585-1654), English antiquary, was
born near Oswaldkirk, Yorkshire. He devoted himself early to
antiquarian research, in which he was greatly assisted by the
fact that his father, Matthew Dodsworth, was registrar of York
cathedral, and could give him access to the records preserved
there. He married the widow of Laurence Rawsthorne of Hutton
Grange, where he subsequently resided till his death in August
1654. At various times in his life he was enabled to study the
records in the library of Sir Robert Cotton, in Skipton Castle,
and in the Tower of London. He collected a vast store of
materials for a history of Yorkshire, a Monasticon Anglicanum,
and an English baronage. The second of these was published
with considerable additions by Sir William Dugdale (2 vols.,
1655 and 1661). The MSS. were left to Thomas, third Lord
Fairfax, who by his will bequeathed them (160 volumes in all) to
the Bodleian Library at Oxford. Portions have been printed
by the Yorkshire Archaeological Society (Dodsworth's Yorkshire
Notes, 1884) and the Chetham Society (copies of Lancashire post-
mortem inquisitions, 1875-1876).
374
DODWELL DOG
DODWELL, EDWARD (1767-1832), English traveller and
writer on archaeology. He belonged to the same family as
Henry Dodwell the theologian, and was educated at Trinity
College, Cambridge. He travelled from 1801 to 1806 in Greece,
and spent the rest of his life for the most part in Italy, at Naples
and Rome. He died at Rome on the 1 3th of May 1832, from the
effects of an illness contracted in 1830 during a visit of explora-
tion to the Sabine Mountains. His widow, a daughter of Count
Giraud, thirty years his junior, subsequently became famous as
the " beautiful " countess of Spaur, and played a considerable
r61e in the political life of the papal city. He published A
Classical and Topographical Tour through Greece (1819), of which
a German translation appeared in 1821; Views in Greece, thirty
coloured plates (1821); and Views and Descriptions of Cyclopian
or Pelasgic Remains in Italy and Greece (London and Paris, with
French text, 1834).
DODWELL, HENRY (1641-1711), scholar, theologian and
controversial writer, was born at Dublin in October, 1641. His
father, having lost his property in Connaught during the rebellion,
settled at York in 1648. Here Henry received his preliminary
education at the free school. In 1654 he was sent by his uncle
to Trinity College, Dublin, of which he subsequently became
scholar and fellow. Having conscientious objections to taking
orders he relinquished his fellowship in 1666, but in 1688 he was
elected Camden professor of history at Oxford. In 1691 he was
deprived of his professorship for refusing to take the oath of
allegiance to William and Mary. Retiring to Shottesbrooke in
Berkshire, and living on the produce of a small estate in Ireland,
he devoted himself to the study of chronology and ecclesiastical
polity. Gibbon speaks of his learning as " immense," and says
that his " skill in employing facts is equal to his learning,"
although he severely criticizes his method and style. DodwelFs
works on ecclesiastical polity are more numerous and of much
less value than those on chronology, his judgment being far
inferior to his power of research. In his earlier writings he was
regarded as one of the greatest champions of the non-jurors; but
the doctrine which he afterwards promulgated, that the soul is
naturally mortal, and that immortality could be enjoyed only
by those who had received baptism from the hands of one set
of regularly ordained clergy, and was therefore a privilege from
which dissenters were hopelessly excluded, did not strengthen
his reputation. Dodwell died at Shottesbrooke on the 7th of
June 1711. His chief works on classical chronology are: A
Discourse concerning Sanchoniathon's Phoenician History (1681);
Annales Thucydidei et Xenophontei (1702); Chronologia Graeco-
Romana pro hypothesibus Dion. Halicarnassei (1692); Annales
Velleiani, Quinlilianei, Statiani (1698); and a larger treatise
entitled De veleribus Graecorum Romanorumque Cyclis (1701).
His eldest son Henry (d. 1784) is known as the author of
a pamphlet entitled Christianity not founded on Argument,
to which a reply was published by his brother William (1709-
1785), who was besides engaged in a controversy with Dr
Conyers Middleton on the subject of miracles.
See The Works of H. D. . . . abridg'd with an account of his life,
by F. Brokesby (2nd ed., 1723) and Thomas Hearne's Diaries. .
DOG, the English generic term for the quadruped of the
domesticated variety of Canis (Fr. Men) . The etymology of the
word is unknown; " hound " represents the common Teutonic
term (Ger. Hund), and it is suggested that the " English dog "
for this was a regular phrase in continental European countries
represented a special breed. Most canine experts believe that
the dog is descended from the wolf, although zoologists are less
certain (see CARNIVORA); the osteology of one does not differ
materially from that of the other: the dog and the wolf breed
with each other, and the progeny thus obtained will again breed
with the dog. There is one circumstance, however, which seems
to mark a difference between the two animals: the eye of the
dog of every country and species has a circular pupil, but the
position or form of the pupil is oblique in the wolf. W. Youatt
says there is also a marked difference in the temper and habits
of the two. The dog is generally easily managed, and although
H. C. Brooke of Welling, Kent, succeeded in making a wolf
fairly tractable, the experience of others has been the reverse of
encouraging. G. Cuvier gives an interesting account of a young
wolf which, having been trained to follow his master, showed
affection and submission scarcely inferior to the domesticated
dog. During the absence from home of his owner the wolf was
sent to a menagerie, but pined for his master and would scarcely
take any food for a considerable time. At length, however, he
became attached to his keepers and appeared to have forgotten
his former associate. At the end of eighteen months his master
returned, and, the moment his voice was heard, the wolf recog-
nized him and lavished on him the most affectionate caresses.
A still longer separation followed, but the wolf again remembered
his old associate and showed great affection upon his return.
Such an association proves that there is very little difference
between the dog and the wolf in recognition of man as an object
of affection and veneration. H. C. Brooke succeeded in training
his wolf so well that it was no uncommon sight to see the latter
following his master like a dog. The wolf did not like strangers,
however, and was very shy in their presence.
In the Old and New Testaments the dog is spoken of almost with
abhorrence; it ranked amongst the unclean beasts: traffic in it
was considered as an abomination, and it was forbidden to be
offered in the sanctuary in the discharge of any vow. Part of
the Jewish ritual was the preservation of the Israelites from the
idolatry which at that time prevailed among every other people.
Dogs were held in considerable veneration by the Egyptians,
from whose tyranny the Israelites had just escaped; figures of
them appeared on the friezes of most of the temples, and they
were regarded as emblems of the divine being. Herodotus,
speaking of the sanctity in which some animals were held by
the Egyptians, says that the people of every family in which a
dog died shaved themselves their expression of mourning
adding that this was a custom of his own time.
The cause of this attachment to and veneration for the dog is.
however, explained in a far more probable and pleasing way than
by many of the fables of ancient mythology. The prosperity of
Lower Egypt, and almost the very subsistence of its inhabitants,
depended upon the annual overflowing of the Nile; and they
looked for it with the utmost anxiety. Its approach was an-
nounced by the appearance of a certain star, Sirius, and as soon
as that star was seen above the horizon the people hastened to
remove their flocks to the higher ground and abandoned the
lower pastures to the fertilizing influence of the stream. They
hailed it as their guard and protector; and, associating with its
apparent watchfulness the well-known fidelity of the dog, they
called it the " dog-star " and worshipped it. It was in far later
periods and in other countries that the appearance of the dog-
star was regarded as the signal of insufferable heat or prevalent
disease. In Ethiopia, not only was great veneration paid to the
dog, but the inhabitants used to elect a dog as their king. It
was kept in great state, and surrounded by a numerous train of
officers and guards: when it fawned upon them it was supposed
to be pleased with their proceedings; when it growled, it dis-
approved of the manner in which their government was con-
ducted. Such indications of will were implicitly obeyed, or were
translated by the worshippers as their own caprice or interest
indicated.
Even 1000 years after this period, the dog was highly esteemed
in Egypt for its sagacity and other excellent qualities; for
when Pythagoras, after his return from Egypt, founded a new
sect in Greece, and at Croton in southern Italy, he taught, with
the Egyptian philosophers, that at the death of the body the soul
entered into that of various animals. After the death of any of
his favourite disciples he would hold a dog to the mouth of the
man in order to receive the departing spirit, saying that there
was no animal which could perpetuate his virtues better than
that quadruped. It was in order to preserve the Israelites from
errors and follies of this kind, and to prevent the possibility of
such idolatry being established, that the dog was afterwards
regarded with utter abhorrence amongst the Jews, and this
feeling prevailed during the continuance of the Israelites in
Palestine.
DOG
PLATE I.
GREAT DANE.
DALMATIAN.
MASTIFF.
COLLIE.
CHOW.
SAINT BERNARD
OLD ENGLISH SHEEP DOG
NEWFOUNDLAND.
'^flfc
fl
POODLE.
VIII. 374.
BULL DOG. FRENCH BULL DOG.
(From Photos by Bowden Bros.)
TYPICAL NON-SPORTING DOGS.
From "Country Life in America*
BOSTON TERRIER.
PLATE II.
DOG
ENGLISH SETTER.
IRISH SETTER.
FLAT-COATED RETRIEVER.
IRISH TERRIER.
POINTER.
LABRADOR RETRIEVER.
IRISH WOLF-HOUND.
DACHSHUND. ROUGH-COATED FOX TERRIER.
(From Photos by Bowden Bros.)
TYPICAL SPORTING DOGS.
FIELD SPANIEL.
DOG
375
The Hindus also regard the dog as unclean, and submit to
various purifications if they accidentally come in contact with it,
believing that every dog is animated by a wicked and malignant
spirit condemned to do penance in that form for crimes committed
in a previous state of existence. In every Mahommedan and
Hindu country the most scurrilous epithet bestowed on a Euro-
pean or a Christian is " a dog," and that accounts for the fact
that in the whole of the Jewish history there is not a single
allusion to hunting with dogs. Mention is made of nets and
snares, but the dog does not seem to have been used in the
pursuit of game.
In the early periods of the history of other countries this seems
to have been the case even where the dog was esteemed and
valued, and had become the companion, the friend and the
defender of man and his home; and in the and century of the
Christian era Arrian wrote that " there is as much difference
between a fair trial of speed in a good run, and ensnaring a poor
animal without an effort, as between the secret piratical assaults
of robbers at sea and the victorious naval engagements of the
Athenians at Artemisium and at Salamis." The first hint of the
employment of the dog in the pursuit of other animals is given by
Oppian in his Cynegelica, who attributes it to Pollux about 200
years after the promulgation of the Levitical law. The precise
species of dog that was cultivated in Greece at that early period
cannot be affirmed, although a beautiful piece of sculpture in the
possession of Lord Feversham at Buncombe Hall, representing
the favourite dog of Alcibiades, differs but little from the New-
foundland dog of the present day. In the British Museum is
another piece of early sculpture from the ruins of the villa of
Antoninus, near Rome. The greyhound puppies which it repre-
sents are identical with a brace of saplings of the present day.
In the early periods of their history the Greeks depended too
much on their nets to capture game, and it was not until later
times that they pursued their prey with dogs, and then not with
greyhounds, which run by sight, but with beagles, the dwarf hound
which is still very popular. Later, mention is made of large
and ferocious dogs which were employed to guard sheep and
cattle, or to watch at the door of the house, or even to act as a
companion, and G. Cuvier expresses the opinion that the dog
exhibits the most complete and the most useful conquest that
man has made. Each individual is entirely devoted to his master,
adopts his manners, distinguishes and defends his property, and
remains attached to him even unto death; and all this springs
not from mere necessity nor from constraint, but simply from
gratitude and true friendship.
The swiftness, the strength and the highly developed power
of scent in the dog, have made it a powerful ally of man against
the other animals; and perhaps these qualities in the dog were
necessary to the establishment of society. Instances of dogs
having saved the lives of their owners by that strange intuition
of approaching danger which they appear to possess, or by their
protection, are innumerable: their attachment to man has
inspired the poet and formed the subject of many notable books,
while in Daniel's Rural Sports is related a story of a dog dying
in the fulness of joy caused by the return of his master after a
two years' absence from home.
It is not improbable that all dogs sprang from one common
source, but climate, food and cross-breeding caused variations
of form which suggested particular uses, and these being either
designedly or accidentally perpetuated, the various breeds of
dogs arose, and became numerous in proportion to the progress
of civilization. Among the ruder or savage tribes they possess
but one form; but the ingenuity of man has devised many
inventions to increase his comforts; he has varied and multiplied
the characters and kinds of domestic animals for the same
purpose, and hence the various breeds of horses, cattle and dogs.
The parent stock it is now impossible to trace; but the wild dog,
wherever found on the continent of Asia, or northern Europe, has
nearly the same character, and bears no inconsiderable resem-
blance to the British dog of the ordinary type; while many of
those from the southern hemisphere can scarcely be distinguished
from the cross-bred poaching dog, the lurcher.
Dogs were first classified into three groups: (i) Those having
the head more or less elongated, and the parietal bones of the
skull widest at the base and gradually approaching towards
each other as they ascend, the condyles of the lower jaw being
on the same line with the upper molar teeth. The greyhound and
all its varieties belong to this class. (2) The head moderately
elongated and the parietals diverging from each other for a
certain space as they rise upon the side of the head, enlarging the
cerebral cavity and the frontal sinus. To this class belong most
of the useful dogs, such as the spaniel, the setter, the pointer
and the sheepdog. (3) The muzzle more or less shortened, the
frontal sinus enlarged, and the cranium elevated and diminished
in capacity. To this class belong some of the terriers and most
of the toy dogs.
Later, however, "Stonehenge" Q. H. Walsh), in British Rural
Sports, classified dogs as follows: (a) Dogs that find game for
man, leaving him to kill it himself the pointer, setters, spaniels
and water spaniels, (b) Dogs which kill game when found for
them the English greyhound, (c) Dogs which find and also
kill their game the bloodhound, the foxhound, the harrier,
the beagle, the otterhound, the fox terrier and the truffle dog.
(d) Dogs which retrieve game that has been wounded by man
the retriever, the deerhound. (e) Useful companions of man
the mastiff, the Newfoundland, the St Bernard dog, the bulldog,
the bull terrier, terriers, sheepdogs, Pomeranian or Spitz, and
Dalmatian dogs. (/) Ladies' toy dogs King Charles spaniel, the
Blenheim spaniel, the Italian greyhound, the pug dog, the
Maltese dog, toy teniers, toy poodles, the lion dog, Chinese and
Japanese spaniels. In 1894 Modern Dogs (Rawdon B. Lee) was
issued, the simple classification of sporting and non-sporting
dog terriers and toy dogs, being adopted; but although there
had been an understanding since 1874, when the first volume of
the Kennel Club Stud Book (Frank C. S. Pearce) was issued, as
to the identity of the two great divisions of dogs, an incident at
Altrincham Show in September 1900 an exhibitor entering a
Russian wolfhound hi both the sporting and non-sporting com-
petitions made it necessary for authoritative information to be
given as to how the breeds should be separated. Following
petitions to the Kennel Club from exhibitors at the club's own
show at the Crystal Palace, and also at the show of the Scottish
Kennel Club in Edinburgh during the autumn of 1900, the
divisions were decided upon as follows:
Sporting. Bloodhound, otterhound, foxhound, harrier, beagle,
basset hound (smooth and rough), dachshund, greyhound,
deerhound, Borzoi, Irish wolfhound, whippet, pointer, setter
(English, Irish and black and tan), retriever (flat-coated, curly-
coated and Labrador), spaniel (Irish water, water other than Irish,
Clumber, Sussex, field, English springer, other than Clumber,
Sussex and field: Welsh springer, red and white and Cocker);
fox terriers (smooth- and wire-coated) ; Irish terrier, Scotch
terrier, Welsh terrier, Dandie Dinmont terrier, Skye terrier
(prick-eared and drop-eared), Airedale terrier and Bedlington
terrier.
Non-Sporting. Bulldog, bulldog (miniature), mastiff, Great
Dane, Newfoundland (black, white and black, or other than
black), St Bernard (rough and smooth), Old English sheepdog,
collie (rough and smooth), Dalmatian, poodle, bull terrier, white
English terrier, black and tan terrier, toy spaniel (King Charles
or black and tan, Blenheim, ruby or red and tricolour), Japanese,
Pekingese, Yorkshire terrier, Maltese, Italian greyhound, chow-
chow, black and tan terrier (miniature), Pomeranian, pug (fawn
and black), Schipperke, Griffon Bruxellois, foreign dogs
(bouledogues francais, elk-hounds, Eskimos, Lhasa terriers,
Samoyedes and any other varieties not mentioned under this
heading).
On the 4th of May 1898 a sub-committee of the Kennel Club
decided that the following breeds should be classified as "toy
dogs ": Black and tan terriers (under 7 Ib), bull terriers (under
8 Ib), griffons, Italian greyhounds, Japanese, Maltese, Pekingese,
poodles (under 15 in.), pugs, toy spaniels, Yorkshire terriers and
Pomeranians.
All these varieties were represented at the annual show of the
DOG
Kennel Club in the autumn of 1903, and at the representative
exhibition of America held under the management of the West-
minster Kennel Club in the following spring the classification was
substantially the same, additional breeds, however, being Boston
terriers practically unknown in England, Chesapeake Bay
dogs, Chihuahuas, Papillons and Roseneath terriers. The latter
were only recently introduced into the United States, though well
known in Great Britain as the West Highland or Poltalloch
terrier; an application which was made (1900) by some of their
admirers for separate classification was refused by the Kennel
Club, but afterwards it was granted, the breed being classified as
the West Highland white terrier.
The establishment of shows at Newcastle-on-Tyne in June
1859 secured for dogs attention which had been denied them up
to that time, although sportsmen had appreciated their value for
centuries and there had been public coursing meetings since
the reign of Charles I. Lord Orford, however, established the first
club at Marham Smeeth near Swaffham, where coursing is still
carried on, in 1776. The members were in number confined to
that of the letters in the alphabet; and when any vacancy
happened it was filled up by ballot. On the decease of the founder
of the club, the members agreed to purchase a silver cup to be run
for annually, and it was intended to pass from one to the other,
like the whip at Newmarket, but before starting for it, in the year
1792, it was decided that the winner of the cup should keep it
and that one should be annually purchased to be run for in
November. At the formation of the club each member assumed a
colour, and also a letter, which he used as the initial of his dog's
name. The Newcastle dog show of 1859 was promoted by Mr
Pape a local sporting gunmaker and Mr Shorthose, and
although only pointers and setters were entered for in two classes
immense interest was taken in the show. But neither the
promoters nor the sportsmen who supported it could have had
the faintest idea as to how popular dog shows would become.
The judges at that historic gathering were: Messrs J. Jobling
(Morpeth), T. Robson (Newcastle-on-Tyne) and J. H. Walsh
(London) for pointers, and E. Foulger (Alnwick), R. Brailsford
(Knowsley) and J. H. Walsh for the setters. Sixty dogs were
shown, and it was said that such a collection had not been seen
together before; while so even was the quality that the judges
had great difficulty in making their awards. The prizes were
sporting guns made by Mr Pape and presented by him to the
promoters of the show. So great a success was scored that other
shows were held in the same year at Birmingham and Edinburgh;
while the Cleveland Agricultural Society also established a show
of foxhounds at Redcar, the latter being the forerunner of that
very fine show of hounds which is now held at Peterborough
every summer and is looked upon as the out-of-season society
gathering of hunting men and women.
Mr Brailsford was the secretary of the show at Birmingham,
and he had classes for pointers, English and Irish setters, retrievers
and Clumber spaniels. Another big success was scored, and the
National Dog Show Society was established for the purpose of
holding a show of sporting dogs in Birmingham every winter.
Three years later proposals were made in The Field to promote
public trials of pointers and setters over game, but it was not
until the i8th of April 1865 that a further step was taken in the
recognition of the value of the dog by the promotion of working
trials. They were held at Southill, near Bedford, on the estate of
S. Whitbread, M.P., and they attracted great interest. The order
of procedure at the early field trials was similar to what it is
to-day, only the awards were given in accordance with a scale of
points as follows: nose, 40; pace and range, 30; temperament,
10; staunchness before, 10; behind, 10. Style of working was
also taken into consideration. In 1865 a show was held in Paris,
and after the National Dog Club not the Birmingham society
had failed, as the result of a disastrous show at the Crystal
Palace, a further exhibition was arranged to be held in June 1870
under the management of G. Nutt and a very strong committee,
among whom were many of the most noted owners of sporting
dogs of that time. The details of the show were arranged by
S. E. Shirley and J. H. Murchison, but the exhibition, although a
most interesting one, was a failure, and the guarantors had to face
a heavy loss. A second venture proved to be a little more
encouraging, although again there was a loss; but in April 1873, the
Kennel Club, which is now the governing body of the canine world,
was founded by S. E. Shirley, who, after acting as its chairman for
many years, was elected the president, and occupied that position
until his death in March 1904. His successor was the duke of
Connaught and Strathearn; the vice-presidents including the
duke of Portland, Lord Algernon Gordon Lennox, J. H. Salter
and H. Richards. The progress of the club has been remarkable,
and that its formation did much to improve the conditions of
the various breeds of dogs, to encourage their use in the field by
the promotion of working trials, and to check abuses which were
common with regard to the registration of pedigrees, &c., cannot
be denied. The abolition of the cropping of the ears of Great
Danes, bull terriers, black and tan terriers, white English terriers,
Irish terriers and toy terriers, in 1889 gained the approval of all
humane lovers of dogs, and although attempts have been made to
induce the club to modify the rule which prohibits the exhibition
of cropped dogs, the practice has not been revived; it is declared,
however, that the toy terriers and white English terriers have lost
such smartness by the retention of the ears that they are becoming
extinct. The club has control over all the shows held in the
United Kingdom, no fewer than 519 being held in 1905, the actual
number of dogs which were entered at the leading fixtures being:
Kennel Club show 1789, Cruft's 1768, Ladies' Kennel Association
1306, Manchester 1190, Edinburgh 896 and Birmingham 892.
In 1906, however, no fewer than 1956 dogs were entered at the
show of the Westminster Kennel Club, held in Madison Square
Garden, New York; a fact proving that the show is as popular
in America as it is in the United Kingdom, the home of the move-
ment. The enormous sum of i 500 has been paid for a collie, and
1000 guineas for a bulldog, both show dogs pure and simple;
while 500 is no uncommon price for a fox terrier. Excepting for
greyhounds, however, high prices are rarely offered for sporting
dogs, 300 guineas for the pointer " Coronation " and 200 guineas
for the retriever " High Legh Blarney " being the best reported
prices for gun dogs during the last few years.
The foreign and colonial clubs which are affiliated to the Kennel
Club are: the Guernsey Dog Club, the Italian Kennel Club, the
Jersey Dog Club, La Societe Centrale (Paris), Moscow Gun Club
of the Emperor Alexander II., New South Wales Kennel Club,
Nimrod Club (Amsterdam), Northern Indian Kennel Association,
Royal St Hubert's Society (Brussels) and the South African
Kennel Club (Cape Town). Its ramifications therefore extend
to all parts of the world; while its rules are the basis of those
adopted by the American Kennel Club, the governing body of
the " fancy " in the United States. A joint conference between
representatives of the two bodies, held in London in 1900, did
much towards securing the uniformity of ideas which is so essential
between associations having interests in common.
Most of the leading breeds have clubs or societies, which have
been founded by admirers with a view to furthering the interests
of their favourites; and such combinations as the Bulldog Club
(incorporated), the London Bulldog Society, the British Bulldog
Club, the Fox Terrier Club, the Association of Bloodhound
Breeders under whose management the first man-hunting trials
were held, the Bloodhound Hunt Club, the Collie Club, the
Dachshund Club, the Dandie Dinmont Terrier Club, the English
Setter Club, the Gamekeepers' Association of the United
Kingdom, the International Gun Dog League, the Irish Terrier
Club, the Irish Wolfhound Club, the St Bernard Club, the National
Terrier Club, the Pomeranian Club, the Spaniel Club, the Scottish
Terrier Club and the Toy Bulldog Club have done good work in
keeping the claims of the breeds they represent before the dog-
owning public and encouraging the breeding of dogs to type.
Each club has a standard of points; some hold their own shows;
while others issue club gazettes. All this has been brought about
by the establishment of a show for sporting dogs at Newcastle-
on-Tyne in the summer of 1859.
America can claim a list of over twenty specialist clubs, and
in both countries women exhibitors have their independent
DOG
377
associations, Queen Alexandra having become one of the chief
supporters of the Ladies' Kennel Association (England). There
is a ladies' branch of the Kennel Club, and the corresponding
clubs in America are the Ladies' Kennel Association of America
and the Ladies' Kennel Association of Massachusetts.
The Gazette is the official organ of the Kennel Club. The Field,
however, retains its position as the leading canine journal, the
influence of J. H. Walsh (" Stonehenge "), who did so much
towards establishing the first dog shows and field trials, having
never forsaken it: the work he began was carried on by its kennel
editor, Rawdon B. Lee (d. 1908), whose volumes on Modern Dogs
(sporting, non-sporting and terriers) are the standard works on
dogs. Our Dogs, The Kennel Magazine, and The Illustrated Kennel
News are the remaining canine journals in England. Several
weekly papers published on the continent of Europe devote a
considerable portion of their space to dogs, and canine journals
have been started in America, South Africa and even India:
while apart from Lee's volumes and other carefully compiled
works treating on the dog in general, the various breeds have been
written about, and the books or monographs have large sales. At
the end of 1905 E. W. Jaquet wrote The Kennel Club: a History
and Record of its Work, and an edition de luxe of Dogs is edited by
Mr Harding Cox; Mr Sidney Turner, the chairman of the Kennel
Club committee, edited The Kennel Encyclopaedia, the first
number of which was issued in 1907. Dog lovers are now
numbered by their tens of thousands, and in addition to shows
of their favourites, owners are also liberally catered for in the
shape of working trials, for during the season competitions for
bloodhounds, pointers, setters, retrievers, spaniels and sheepdogs
are held.
Breeds of Dog.
Nothing is known with certainty as to the origin of the vast
majority of breeds of dogs, and it is an unfortunate fact that the
progressive changes which have been made within comparatively
recent times by fanciers have not been accurately recorded by the
preservation, in museums or collections, of the actual specimens
considered typical at different dates. No scientific classification
of the breeds of dogs is at present possible, but whilst the division
already given into " sporting " and " non-sporting " is of some
practical value, for descriptive purposes it is convenient to make
a division into the six groups: wolf dogs, greyhounds, spaniels,
hounds, mastiffs and terriers. It is to be remembered, however,
that all these types interbreed freely, and that many intermediate,
and forms of wholly doubtful position, occur.
Wolfhounds. Throughout the northern regions of both
hemispheres there are several breeds of semi-domesticated dogs
which are wolf-like, with erect ears and long woolly hair. The
Eskimo dog has been regarded as nothing more than a reclaimed
wolf, and the Eskimo are stated to maintain the size and strength
of their dogs by crossing them with wolves. The domestic dogs
of some North American Indian tribes closely resemble the
coyote; the black wolf dog of Florida resembles the black wolf of
the same region; the sheepdogs of Europe and Asia resemble the
wolves of those countries, whilst the pariah dog of India is closely
similar to the Indian wolf. The Eskimo dog has small, upright
ears, a straight bushy tail, moderately sharp muzzle and rough
coat. Like a wolf , it howls but does not bark. It occurs through-
out the greater part of the Arctic regions, the varieties in the
old and new world differing slightly in colour. They are fed on
fish, game and meat. They are good hunters and wonderfully
cunning and enduring. Their services to their owners and to
Arctic explorers are well known, but Eskimo dogs are so rapacious
that it is impossible to train them to refrain from attacking sheep,
goats or any small domesticated animals. The Hare Indian dog
of the Great Bear Lake and the Mackenzie river is more slender,
gentle and affectionate than the Eskimo dog, but is impatient of
restraint, and preserves many of the characters of its wild ally,
the coyote, and is practically unable to bark.
The Pomeranian dog is a close ally of the Eskimo breed and
was formerly used as a wolfdog, but has been much modified.
The larger variety of the race has a sharp muzzle, upright
pointed ears, and a bushy tail generally carried over the back.
It varies in colour from black through grey to reddish brown and
white. The smaller variety, sometimes known as the Spitz, was
formerly in some repute as a fancy dog, a white variety with a
black tip to the nose and a pure black variety being specially
prized. Pomeranians have been given most attention in Germany
and Belgium, while the so-called Spitz has been popular in
England and America.
The sheepdogs and collies are still further removed from the
wolf type, and have the tip of the ear pendent. The tail is thick
and bushy, the feet and legs particularly strong, and there is
usually a double dew-claw on each hind limb. The many varieties
found in different countries have the same general characters.
The bark is completely dog-like, and the primitive hunting
instincts have been cultivated into a marvellous aptitude for
herding sheep and cattle. The training takes place during the
first year, and the work is learned with extreme facility. The
Scotch collie is lighter and more elegant, and has a sharper
muzzle. Since it became popular as a pet dog, its appearance
has been greatly improved, and whilst it has lost its old sullen
concentration, it has retained unusual intelligence and has
become playful and affectionate. The wolfdogs all hunt chiefly
by scent.
Greyhounds. These are characterized by slight build, small
ears falling at the tips, elongated limbs and tails and long
narrow muzzles. They hunt entirely by sight, the sense of smell
being defective. The English greyhound is the most conspicuous
and best-known member of the group, and has been supposed to
be the parent of most of the others. The animal is thoroughly
adapted for extreme speed, the long, rat-like tail being used in
balancing the body in quick turns. The favourite colour is a
uniform sandy, or pale grey tone, but characters directly related
to capacity for speed have received most attention. The Italian
greyhound is a miniature greyhound, still capable of considerable
speed but so delicate that it is almost unable to pull down even
a rabbit, and is kept simply as a pet. The eyes are large and soft,
and a golden fawn is the colour most prized. The Scotch deer-
hound is a larger and heavier variety of the English greyhound,
with rough and shaggy hair. It has been used both for deer
stalking and for coursing, and several varieties exist. The Irish
wolfhound is now extinct, but appears to have been a powerful
race heavier than the deerhound but similar to it hi general
characters. Greyhounds have been bred from time immemorial
in Eastern Europe and Western Asia, while unmistakable
representatives are figured on the monuments of ancient Egypt.
The existing Oriental varieties are in most cases characterized by
silky hair. The hairless dogs of Central Africa are greyhounds
employed chiefly in hunting antelopes, and there are somewhat
similar varieties in China, Central and South America.
The whippet is a local English dog, used chiefly in rabbit
coursing and racing, and is almost certainly a cross between
greyhounds and terriers.
The lurcher is a dog with the general shape of a greyhound,
but with a heavier body, larger ears and rougher coat. Lurchers
are cross-bred dogs, greyhounds and sheepdogs, or deerhounds
and collies, being the parents.
Spaniels are heavily built dogs with short and very wide
skulls rising suddenly at the eyes. The brain is relatively large
and the intelligence high. The muzzle is short, the ears large and
pendent, the limbs relatively short and heavy, and the coat thick
and frequently long. It is supposed, from their name, that they
are of Spanish origin. They may be divided into field spaniels,
water spaniels and the smaller breeds kept as pets. Field
spaniels are excellent shooting dogs, and are readily trained
to give notice of the proximity of game. The Clumber, Sussex,
Norfolk and Cocker breeds are the best established. The
Clumber is long, low and heavy. It is silent when hunting, and
has long ears shaped like vine leaves. The ground colour of the
coat is white with yellow spots. The Sussex is a lighter, more
noisy animal, with a wavy, golden coat. The Cockers are smaller
spaniels, brown, or brown-and-white in the Welsh variety, black
in the more common modern English form. The head is short,
DOG
and the coat silky and wavy. Of the water spaniels the Irish
breeds are best known. They are relatively large dogs, with
broad splay feet, and silky oily coats.
The poodle is probably derived from spaniels, but is of slighter,
more graceful build, and is pre-eminent even among spaniels for
intelligence. The best known pet spaniels are the King Charles
and the Blenheim, small dogs with fine coats, probably descended
from Cockers.
Setters owe their name to their having been trained originally
to crouch when marking game, so as to admit of the net with
which the quarry was taken being drawn over their heads.
Since the general adoption of shooting in place of netting or
bagging game, setters have been trained to act as pointers.
They are pre-eminently dogs for sporting purposes, and special
strains or breeds adapted to the peculiarities of different kinds
of sporting have been produced. Great Britain is probably the
country where setters were first produced, and as early as the
iyth century spaniels were used in England as setting dogs. It
is probable that pointer blood was introduced in the course of
shaping the various breeds of setter. The English setter should
have a silky coat with the hair waved but not curly; the legs and
toes should be hairy, and the tail should have a bushy fringe of
hairs hanging down from the dorsal border. The colour varies
much, ranging according to the strains, from black-and-white
through orange-and-white and liver-and-white to pure white,
whilst black, white, liver, and red or yellow self-coloured setters
are common. The Irish setter is red without trace of black, but
occasionally flecked with white. The Gordon setter, the chief
Scottish variety, is a heavier animal with coarser hair, black-and-
tan in colour. The Russian setter has a woolly and matted coat.
The retriever is a large dog used for retrieving game on land,
as a water spaniel is used for the same purpose in water. The
breed is almost certainly derived from water-spaniels, with a
strong admixture of Newfoundland blood. The colour is black
or tan, and the hair of the face, body and tail is close and curly,
although wavy-coated strains exist.
The Newfoundland is simply an enormous spaniel, and shows
-its origin by the facility with which it takes to water and the
readiness with which it mates with spaniels and setters. It has
developed a definite instinct to save human beings from drown-
ing, this probably being an evolution of the retrieving instinct
ef the original spaniels. The true Newfoundland is a very
large dog and may reach 31 in. in height at the shoulder. The
coat is shaggy and oily, and is preferred with as little white as
possible, but the general black coloration may have rusty
shades. The eyes and ears are relatively small, and the forehead
white and dome-shaped, giving the face the well-known appear-
ance of benignity and intelligence. Although these dogs were
originally brought to Great Britain from Newfoundland and
are still bred in the latter country, greater size, perfection and
intelligence have been attained in England, where Newfound-
lands for many years have been the most popular large dogs.
They are easily taught to retrieve on land or water, and their
strength, intelligence and fidelity make them specially suitable
as watchdogs or guardians. The Landseer Newfoundland is
a black and white variety brought into notice by Sir Edwin
Landseer, but the exact ancestry of which is unknown. The
Labrador Newfoundland is a smaller black variety with a less
massive head. It occurs both in Newfoundland and England,
and has been used largely in producing crosses, being almost
certainly one parent of the retriever.
The St Bernard is a large breed taking its name from the
monastery of Mount St Bernard in the Alps, and remarkable
for high intelligence and use in rescuing travellers from the snow.
The origin of the breed is unknown, but undoubtedly it is closely
related to spaniels. The St Bernard attains as great a size as
that of any other breed, a fine specimen being between 60 and
70 in. from the tip of the nose to the root of the tail. The
colour varies, but shades of tawny-red and white are more
frequent than in Newfoundlands. In the rough-haired breed
the coat is long and wavy, but there exists a smooth breed with
a nearly smooth coat.
Hounds. These are large dogs, hunting by smell, with massive
structure, large drooping ears, and usually smooth coats, without
fringes of hair on the ears, limbs or tail. The bloodhound is
probably the stock from which all the English races of hounds
have been derived. The chief character is the magnificent head,
narrow and dome-like between the huge pendulous ears, and
with transverse puckers on the forehead and between the eyes.
The prevailing colour is tan with large black spots. Blood-
hounds, or, as they are sometimes termed, sleuthhounds, have
been employed since the time of the Romans in pursuing and
hunting down human beings, and a small variety, known as the
Cuban bloodhound, probably of Spanish origin, was used to
track fugitive negroes in slaveholding times. Bloodhounds
quest slowly and carefully, and when they lose the scent cast
backwards until they recover the original trail and make a
fresh attempt to follow it.
Staghounds are close derivatives of the bloodhound, and
formerly occurred in England in two strains, known respectively
as the northern and southern hounds. Both breeds were large
and heavy, with pendulous ears and thick throats with dewlaps.
These strains seem to be now extinct, having been replaced by
foxhounds, a large variety of which is employed in stag-hunting.
The modern English foxhound has been bred from the old
northern and southern hounds, and is more lightly built, having
been bred for speed and endurance. The favourite and most
common colour is black-white-and-tan. The ears are usually
artificially clipped so as to present a rounded lower margin.
Their dash and vigour in the chase is much greater than that
of the bloodhound, foxhounds casting forwards when they have
lost the trail.
Harriers are a smaller breed of foxhounds, distinguished by
their pointed ears, as it is not the custom to trim these. They
are used in the pursuit of hares, and, although they are capable
of very fast runs, have less endurance than foxhounds, and
follow the trail with more care and deliberation.
Otterhounds are thick, woolly harriers with oily underfur.
They are savage and quarrelsome, but are naturally excellent
water-dogs.
Beagles are small foxhounds with long bodies and short limbs.
They have a full bell-like cry and great cunning and perseverance
in the tracking of hares and rabbits. They are relatively slow,
and are followed on foot.
Turnspits were a small, hound-like race of dogs with long bodies,
pendulous ears, out-turned feet and generally black-and-tan
coloration. They were employed as animated roasting jacks,
turning round and round the wire cage in which they were
confined, but with the employment of mechanical jacks their
use ceased and the race appears to be extinct.
Basset hounds are long and crooked-legged dogs, with pendu-
lous ears. They appear to have been produced in Normandy
and the Vendee, where they were employed for sporting purposes,
and originally were no very definite breed. In comparatively
recent times they have been adopted by English fanciers, and a
definite strain with special points has been produced.
The dachshund, or badger hound, is of German origin, and like
the basset hound was originally an elongated distorted hound
with crooked legs, employed in baiting and hunting badgers, but
now greatly improved and made more definite by the arts of the
breeder. The colour is generally black-and-tan or brownish, the
body is extremely long and cylindrical; the ears are large and
pendulous, the legs broad, thick and twisted, with everted paws.
The coat is short, thick and silky, and the tail is long and tapering.
The pointers, of which there are breeds slightly differing in
most European countries, are descendants of the foxhound which
have been taught to follow game by general body scent, not by
tracking, nose to the ground, the traces left by the feet of the
quarry, and, on approaching within sight of the game, to stand
rigid, " pointing " in its direction. The general shape is like that
of the foxhound, but the build is lighter and better knit, ajid the
coat is soft, whilst white and spotted colorations are preferred.
Pointers are employed to mark game for guns, and are especially
useful in low cover such as that afforded by turnip fields.
DOG
PLATE III.
BORZOI.
GREYHOUND.
DEERHOUND.
BLOODHOUND.
FOX HOUND.
HARRIER.
OTTER HOUND.
AUSTRALIAN TERRIER.
VIII. 378-
SKYE TERRIER. SCOTCH TERRIER.
(From Photos by Bowden Bros.)
TYPICAL SPORTING DOGS.
BEDLINGTON TERRIER.
PLATE IV.
DOG
Photo, Bowden Bros.
POMERANIAN.
Plwto, Thus. Fall.
ITALIAN GREYHOUND.
Photo, Birwden Bros.
TOY BULL TERRIER.
Photo, Bowden Bros.
TOY SPANIEL.
I
Photo, Walter.
BLENHEIM.
Photo, Thos. Fall.
PAPILLON.
Photo, Bowden Bros.
SCHIPPERKE.
Photo, Bowden Bros.
MALTESE.
Photo, Thos. Fall.
TOY BLACK AND TAN.
Photo, Bowden Bros.
YORKSHIRE TERRIER.
Photo, Bowden Bros.
PUG.
Photo, Bowden Bros.
GRIFFON.
Photo, Bowden Bros.
JAPANESE.
Photo, Bowden Bros.
PEKINGESE.
TYPICAL TOY DOGS.
DOGE
379
The Dalmatian or coach dog (sometimes called the plum-
pudding dog) is a lightly built pointer, distinguished by its
spotted coloration, consisting of evenly disposed circular black
spots on a white ground. The original breed is said to have been
used as a pointer in the country from which it takes its name,
but has been much modified by the fancier's art, and almost
certainly the original strain has been crossed with bull-terriers.
Mastiffs are powerful, heavily built dogs, with short muzzles,
frequently protruding lower jaws, skulls raised above the eyes,
ears erect or pendulous, pendulous upper lips, short coats and
thin tails. The English mastiff is a huge and powerful dog with
pendent ears but short and silky coat. Fawn and brindle are the
colours preferred. The Tibetan mastiff is equally powerful, but
has still larger pendent ears, a shaggy coat and a long brush-like
tail. Mastiffs are employed for fighting or as watchdogs, and for
the most part are of uncertain temper and not high intelligence.
The bulldog is a small, compact but extremely heavily built
animal of great strength, vigour and tenacity. The lower jaw
should be strongly protruding, the ears should be small and erect,
the forehead deeply wrinkled with an indentation between the
eyes, known as the " stop." The coat should be thick, short and
very silky, the favourite colours being white and white marked
with brindle. Bulldogs were formerly employed in bull-baiting,
and the tenacity of their grip is proverbial. Their ferocious
appearance, and not infrequently the habits of their owners,
have given this breed a reputation for ferocity and low intelli-
gence. As puppies, however, bulldogs are highly intelligent and
unusually docile and affectionate, and if well trained retain
throughout life an unusual sweetness of disposition, the universal
friendliness of which makes them of little use as guardians.
The German boarhound is one of the largest races of dogs,
originally used in Germany and Denmark for hunting boars
or deer, but now employed chiefly as watchdogs. The build is
rather slighter than that of the English mastiff, and the ears are
small and carried erect.
The Great Dane is somewhat similar in general character, but
is still more gracefully built, with slender limbs and more pointed
muzzle. The ears, naturally pendent at the tips, are always
cropped. It is probable that the strain contains greyhound
blood.
The bull-terrier, as its name implies, is a cross between the
bulldog and the smooth terrier. It is a clever, agile and powerful
dog, extremely pugnacious in disposition.
The pugdog is a dwarf race, probably of mastiff origin, and
kept solely as a pet. The Chinese pug is slender legged, with
long hair and a bushy tail.
Terriers are small dogs of agile and light build, short muzzles,
and very highly arched skulls. The brains are large, and the
intelligence and educability extraordinarily high. The number
of breeds is very large, the two extreme types being the smooth
fox-terrier with compact shape, relatively long legs, and the long-
bodied, short-legged Skye terrier, with long hair and pendent ears.
All the well-known breeds of dogs are highly artificial and
their maintenance requires the constant care of the breeder in
mating, and in rejecting aberrant progeny. The frequency with
which even the most highly cultivated strains produce degenerate
offspring is notorious, and is probably the reason for the profound
belief in telegenic action asserted by most breeders. When
amongst the litter of a properly mated, highly bred fox-terrier,
pups are found with long bodies and thick short legs and feet,
breeders are disposed to excuse the result by the supposition
that the bitch has been contaminated by some earlier mating.
There is ample evidence, however, that such departures from
type are equally frequent when there was no possibility of
earlier mismating (see TELEGONY).
Glossary of Points of the Dog.
Apple Head. A rounded head, instead of flat on top.
Blaze. A white mark up the face.
Brisket. The part of body in front of the chest.
Brush. The tail, usually applied to sheepdogs.
Butterfly Nose. A spotted nose.
Button Ear. Where the tip falls over and covers the orifice.
Cat Foot. A short round foot, knuckles high and well developed.
Cheeky. When the cheek bumps are strongly defined.
Chest. Underneath a dog from brisket to belly.
Chops. The pendulous lip of the bulldog.
Cobby. Well ribbed up, short and compact in proportion.
Couplings. Space between tops of shoulder blades and tops of hip
joints.
Cow Hocks. Hocks that turn in.
Dew Claw. Extra claw, found occasionally on all breeds.
Dewlap. Pendulous skin under the throat.
Dish Faced. When nose is higher than muzzle at the stop.
Dudley Nose. A yellow or flesh-coloured nose.
Elbow. The joint at the top of the forearm.
Feather. The hair at the back of the legs and under the tail.
Flag. A term for the tail, applied to a setter.
Flews. The pendulous lips of the bloodhound and other breeds.
Forearm. Part of foreleg extending from elbow to pastern.
Frill. A mass of hair on the chest, especially on collies.
Hare Foot. A long narrow foot, carried forward.
Haw. Red inside eyelid, shown in bloodhounds and St Bernards.
Height. Measured at the shoulder, bending head gently down.
Hocks. The hock joints.
Hucklebones. Tops of the hip joints.
.Knee. The joint attaching fore-pastern and forearm.
Leather. The skin of the ear.
Occiput. The projecting bone or bump at the back of the head.
Overshot. The upper teeth projecting beyond the under.
Pastern. Lowest section of leg, below the knee or hock.
Pig Jaw. Exaggeration of overshot.
Pily. A term applied to soft coat.
Rose Ear. Where the tip of ear turns back, showing interior.
Septum. The division between the nostrils.
Smudge Nose. A nose which is not wholly black, but not spotted.
Stifles. The top joints of the hind legs.
Stop. The indentation below the eyes, most prominent in bulldogs.
Tulip Ear. An erect or pricked ear.
Undershot. The lower teeth projecting in front of the upper ones.
(W. B.; P. CM.)
DOGE (a modified form of the Ital. duca, Lat. dux, a leader, or
duke), the title of the chief magistrate in the extinct republics
of Venice and Genoa.
In Venice the office of doge was first instituted about 700.
John the Deacon, referring to this incident in his Chronicon
Venetum, written about 1000, says " all the Venetian cities
(omnes Venetiae) determined that it would be more honourable
henceforth to be under dukes than under tribunes." The result
was that the several tribunes were replaced by a single official
who was called a doge and who became the head of the whole state.
The first doge was Paolo Lucio Anafesto, and some authorities
think that the early doges were subject to the authority of the
emperors of Constantinople, but in any case this subordination
was of short duration. The doge held office for life and was
regarded as the ecclesiastical, the civil and the military chief; his
duties and prerogatives were not defined with precision and the
limits of his ability and ambition were practically the limits of his
power. About 800 his independence was slightly diminished
by the appointment of two assistants for judicial work, but these
officers soon fell into the background and the doge acquired a
greater and more irresponsible authority. Concurrently with
this process the position was entrusted to members of one or other
of the powerful Venetian families, while several doges associated a
son with themselves in the ducal office. Matters reached a climax
after the fall of the Orseole family in 1026. In 1033, during the
dogeship of Dominico Flabianico, this tendency towards a
hereditary despotism was checked by a law which decreed that
no doge had the right to associate any member of his family with
himself in his office, or to name his successor. It was probably
at this time also that two councillors were appointed to advise the
doge, who must, moreover, invite the aid of prominent citizens
when discussing important matters of state. In 1172 a still more
important change was introduced. The ducal councillors were
increased in number from two to six; universal suffrage, which
theoretically still existed, was replaced by a system which
entrusted the election of the doge to a committee of eleven, who
were chosen by a great council of 480 members, the great council
being nominated annually by twelve persons. When a new doge
was chosen he was presented to the people with the formula "this
is your doge, if it please you." Nominally the citizens confirmed
the election, thus maintaining as a constitutional fiction the right
of the whole people to choose their chief magistrate. Five years
3 8o
DOG-FISHDOGGER BANK
later this committee of eleven gave way to a committee of forty
who were chosen by four persons selected by the great council.
After the abdication of Doge Pietro Ziani in 1229 two com-
missions were appointed which obtained a permanent place in the
constitution and which gave emphatic testimony to the fact
that the doge was merely the highest servant of the community.
The first of these commissions consisted of five Correttori della
promissione ducale, whose duty was to consider if any change
ought to be made in the terms of the oath of investiture
(promissione) administered to each incoming doge, this oath,
which was prepared by three officials, being a potent factor in
limiting the powers of the doge. The second commission con-
sisted of three inquisitori sopra il doge defunto, their business being
to examine and pass judgment upon the acts of a deceased
doge, whose estate was liable to be mulcted in accordance with
their decision. In consequence of a tie at the election of 1 2 29 the
number of electors was increased from forty to forty-one. The
official income of the doge was never large, and from early times
many holders of the office were engaged in trading ventures.
One of the principal duties of the doge was to celebrate the
symbolic marriage of Venice with the sea. This was done by
casting a precious ring from the state ship, the " Bucentaur," into
the Adriatic. In its earlier form this ceremony was instituted to
commemorate the conquest of Dalmatia by Doge Pietro Orseole
II. in looo, and was celebrated on Ascension day. It took its
later and more magnificent form after the visit of Pope Alexander
III. and the emperor Frederick I. to Venice in 1177.
New regulations for the elections of the doge were introduced
in 1268, and, with some modifications, these remained in force
until the end of the republic. Their object was to minimize as far
as possible the influence of the individual families, and this was
effected by a very complex machinery. Thirty members of the
great council, chosen by lot, were reduced, again by lot, to nine;
the nine chose forty and the forty were reduced by lot to twelve,
who chose twenty-five. The twenty-five were reduced by lot to
nine and the nine elected forty-five. Then the forty-five were
reduced by lot to eleven, and the eleven chose the forty-one, who
actually elected the doge. As the oligarchical element in the con-
stitution developed, the more important functions of the ducal
office were assigned to other officials, or to administrative boards,
and he who had once been the pilot of the ship became little more
than an animated figurehead, properly draped and garnished.
On state occasions he was surrounded by an increasing amount
of ceremonial, and in international relations he had the status of a
sovereign prince of the first rank. But he was under the strictest
surveillance. He must wait for the presence of other officials
before opening despatches from foreign powers; he was for-
bidden to leave the city and was not allowed to possess any
property in a foreign land. To quote H. F. Brown, " his pomp
was splendid, his power limited; he appears as a symbol rather
than as a factor in the constitution, the outward and visible sign
of the impersonal oligarchy." The office, however, was main-
tained until the closing days of the republic, and from time to
time it was held by men who were able to make it something more
than a sonorous title. The last doge was Lodovico Manin, who
abdicated in May 1797, when Venice passed under the power of
Napoleon.
In Genoa the institution of the doge dates from 1339. At
first he was elected without restriction and by popular suffrage,
holding office for life; but after the reform effected by Andrea
Doria in 1528 the term of his office was reduced to two years. At
the same time plebeians were declared ineligible, and the appoint-
ment of the doge was entrusted to the members of the great and
the little councils, who employed for this purpose a machinery
almost as complex as that of the later Venetians. The Napoleonic
Wars put an end to the office of doge at Genoa.
See Cecchetti, // Doge di Venezia (1864); Musatti, Storia della
promissione ducale (Padua, 1888); and H. F. Brown, Venice: a
Historical Sketch (1893).
DOG-FISH, a name applied to several species of the smaller
sharks, and given in common with such names as hound and
beagle, owing to the habit these fishes have of pursuing or hunt-
ing their prey in packs. The small-spotted dog-fish or rough
hound (Scyllium canicula) and the large-spotted or nurse hound
(Scyllium catulus) are also known as ground-sharks. They
keep near the sea bottom, feeding chiefly on the smaller fishes
and Crustacea, and causing great annoyance to the fishermen by
the readiness with which they take bait. They differ from the
majority of sharks, and resemble the rays in being oviparous.
The eggs are enclosed in semi-transparent horny cases, known on
the British coasts as " mermaids' purses," and these have tendril-
like prolongations from each of the four corners, by means of
which they are moored to sea-weed or some other fixed object near
the shore, until the young dog-fish is ready to make its exit. The
larger of these species attains a length of 4 to 5 ft., the smaller
rarely more than 30 in. The picked dog-fish (Acanthias vulgaris,
formerly known as Squalus acanthias) is pre-eminently the dog-
fish. It is the most abundant of the British sharks, and occurs in
the temperate seas of both northern, and southern hemispheres.
It attains a length of 4 ft., but the usual length is 2 to 3 ft., the
female, as in most sharks, being larger than the male. The body is
round and tapering, the snout projects, and the mouth is placed
ventrally some distance from the end of the snout. There are
two dorsal fins, each of which is armed on its anterior edge with a
sharp and slightly curved spine, hence its name " picked." This
species is viviparous, the female producing five to nine young at a
birth; the young when born are 9 to 10 in. long and quite similar
to the parents in all respects except size. It is gregarious, and
is abundant at all seasons everywhere on the British coasts. In
1858 an enormous shoal of dog-fish, many square miles in extent,
appeared in the north of Scotland, when, says J. Couch, " they
were to be found floating in myriads on the surface of every
harbour." They are the special enemies of the fisherman,
injuring his nets, removing the hooks from his lines, and spoiling
his fish for the market by biting pieces out of them as they hang
on his lines. They are however eaten, both fresh and salted, by
fishermen, especially on the west coast of England, and they are
sold regularly in the French markets.
DOGGER BANK, an extensive shoal in the North Sea, about 60
m. E. of the coast of Northumberland, England. Over its most
elevated parts there is a depth of only about six fathoms, but the
depth is generally from ten to twenty fathoms. It is well known
as a fishing ground. The origin of the name is obscure ; but the
middle Dutch dogger signifies a trawling vessel, and was formerly
applied generally to the two-masted type of vessel employed in
the North Sea fisheries, and also to their crews (doggermen) and
the fish taken (dogger-fish). Off the south end of the bank an
engagement took place between English and Dutch fleets in 1781.
On the night of the 2ist of October 1904 during the Russo-
Japanese War, some British trawlers of the Hull fishing fleet were
fired upon by vessels of the Russian Baltic fleet under Admiral
Rozhdestvensky on its voyage to the Far East, one trawler being
sunk, other boats injured, two men killed and six wounded. This
incident created an acute crisis in the relations between Russia
and England for several days, the Russian version being that they
had seen Japanese torpedo-boats, but on the 28th Mr Balfour,
the English prime minister, announced that the tsar had expressed
regret and that an international commission would investigate
the facts with a view to the punishment of any responsible
parties. The terms were settled on 25th November, the com-
mission being composed of five officers (British, Russian, American
and French, and one selected by them) , to meet in Paris. On the
22nd of December the four original members, Vice-admiral Sir
Lewis Beaumont, Vice-admiral Kaznakov (afterwards replaced by
Vice-admiral Dubassov), Rear-admiral Davis and Vice-admiral
Fournier, met and chose Admiral Baron von Spaun (Austria-
Hungary) as the fifth. Their report was issued on the 25th of
February 1905. While recognizing that the information received
as to a possible attack led the admiral to mistake the trawlers for
theenemy, the majorityof thecommissioners held Rozhdestvensky
responsible for the firing and its results, and " being of opinion
that there were no torpedo-boats either among the trawlers nor
anywhere near " concluded that " the opening of fire was not
justifiable," though they absolved him and his squadron from
DOGGETT DOGMA
discredit either to their " military qualities " or their " humanity."
The affair ended in compensation being paid by the Russian
government.
DOGGETT (or DOGGET), THOMAS (d. 1721), English actor, was
born in Dublin, and made his first appearance in London in 1691
as Nincompoop in D'Urfey's Love for Money. In this part, and as
Solon in the same author's Marriage-hater matched, he gained the
favour of the public. He followed Betterton to Lincoln's Inn
Fields, creating the part of Ben, especially written for him, in
Congreve's Love for Love, with which the theatre opened (1695);
and next year played Young Hobb in his own The Country Wake.
He was associated with Gibber and others in the management
of the Haymarket and Drury Lane, and he continued to play
comedy parts at the former until his retirement in 1713. Doggett
is highly spoken of by his contemporaries, both as an actor and
as a man, and is frequently referred to in The Taller and Spectator.
It was he who in 1715 founded the prize of " Doggett's Coat and
Badge " in honour of the house of Hanover, " in commemoration
of his Majesty King George's happy Accession to the Brittish
Throne." The prize was a red coat with a large silver badge on
the arm, bearing the white horse of Hanover, and the race had
to be rowed annually on the ist of August on the Thames, by six
young watermen who were not to have exceeded the time of their
apprenticeship by twelve months. Although the first contest
took place in 1715, the names of the winners have only been
preserved since 1791. The race is still rowed each year, but
under modified conditions.
See Thomas Doggett, Deceased (London, 1908).
DOGMA (Gr. doyfta, from SOKUV, to seem; literally " that
which seems, sc. good or true or useful " to any one), a term which
has passed through many senses both general and technical, and
is now chiefly used in theology. In Greek constitutional history
the decision of " that which seemed good to " an assembly was
called a 56-yna (i.e. decree), and throughout its history the word
has generally implied a decision, or body of decisions or opinions,
officially adopted and regarded by those who make it as possess-
ing authority. As a technical term in theology, it has various
shades of meaning according to the degree of authority which is
postulated and the nature of the evidence on which it is based.
Thus it has been used broadly of all theological doctrines, and
also in a narrower sense of fundamental beliefs only, confession
of which is insisted upon as a term of church communion. By
sceptics the word " dogma " is generally used contemptuously,
for an opinion grounded not upon evidence but upon assertion;
and this attitude is so far justified from the purely empirical
standpoint that theological dogmas deal with subjects which,
by their very nature, are not susceptible of demonstration by the
methods of physical science. Again, popularly, an unproved
ex cathedra statement of any kind is called " dogmatic," with
perhaps an insinuation that it is being obstinately adhered to
without, or beyond, or in defiance of, obtainable evidence. But
again to " dogmatize " may mean simply to assert, instead of
hesitating or suspending judgment.
Three pre-Christian or extra-ecclesiastical usages are recorded
by a half-heretical churchman, Marcellus of Ancyra (in Eusebius
of Caesarea, Contra Marcellum, i. 4); words which Adolf
Harnack has placed on the title-page of his larger History of
Dogma. First there is a medical usage empirical versus dogmatic
medicine. On this old-world technical controversy we need not
dwell. Secondly, there is a philosophical usage (e.g. Cicero,
Seneca and others). First principles speculative or practical-
are Soynara, Lat. decreta, scita or placita. The strongest state-
ment regarding the inviolability of such dogmas is in Cicero's
Academics, ii. chap. 9. But we have to remember that this is
dialogue; that the speaker, Hortensius, represents a more
dogmatic type of opinion than Cicero's own; that it is the
maxims of " wisdom," not of any special school, which are
described as unchangeable. 1 Marcellus's third type of dogma is
1 Sextus Empiricus (c. A.D. 240) denounces all forms of dogmatism,
even perhaps the scepticism of definite denial. Blaise Pascal and
Immanuel Kant, among others, have Sextus's grouping in mind
when they oppose themselves to "dogmatism" and "scepticism"
legal or political, the decree (says Marcellus) of the legislative
assembly; but it might also be of the emperor (Luke ii. i; Acts
xvii. 7), or of a church gathering (Acts xvi. 4), or of Old Testa-
ment law; so especially in Philo the Jew, and in Flavius Josephus
(even perhaps at Contra Apionem, i. 8).
While the New Testament knows only the political usage of
, the Greek Fathers follow one which is more in keeping
with philosophical tradition. With few and early
exceptions, such as we may note in the Epistle of
Barnabas, chap, i., they confine the word to doctrine.
Either dogma (sing.) or dogmas (plural) may be spoken of.
Actually, as J. B. Lightfoot points out, the best Greek com-
mentators among the Fathers are so dominated by this new usage,
that they misinterpret Col. ii. 14 (20) and Eph. ii. 15 of Christian
doctrines. Along with this goes the fundamental Catholic view of
" dogmatic faith " the expression is as old as Cyril of Jerusalem
(died 386), if not older according to which it consists in obedient
assent to the voice of authority. All doctrines are " dogmas " to
the Greek Fathers, not simply the central teachings of their
system, as with the philosophers. Very noteworthy is Cyril of
Jerusalem's fourth Catechetical Discourse on the " Ten Dogmas "
(we might render " Ten Great Doctrines "). The figure ten may
be taken from the commandments, 2 as in Gregory Nazianzen's
later, and more incidental, decalogue of belief. In any case,
Cyril marks out the way for the subsequent division of the creeds
into twelve or fourteen " articles " or heads of belief (see below).
In saying that all doctrines rank as " dogmas " during the Greek
period, we ought to add a qualification. They do so, in so far
as they are held to be of authority. Clement of Alexandria or
Origen would not call his speculations dogmas. Yet these
audacious spirits start from a basis of authority, and insist upon
bpOoTOn'ia doyfiaruv (Stromata, vii. 763). The " dogma " or
" dogmas " of heretics are frequently mentioned by orthodox
writers. There can be no question of confining even orthodox
" dogma " to conciliar decisions in an age when definition is so
incomplete; still, we do meet with references to the Nicene
" dogma " (e.g. letter in Theodoret, H.E. ii. 15). But dogma
is not yet technical for what is Christian or churchly. The
word which emerges in Greek for that purpose is " orthodox,"
" orthodoxy," as in John of Damascus (d. 760), or as in the
official title still claimed by the Holy Orthodox Church of the
East.
Latin Fathers borrow the word " dogma," though sparingly,
and employ it in all the Greek usages. Something novel is added
by Jerome's phrase (in the De viris illustribus, cc.
xxxi., cix.) ecclesiastica dogmata, found again in the
title of the treatise now generally ascribed to Gennadius,
and occurring once more in another writer of southern Gaul. 3
The phrase is a serviceable one, contrasting church teachings
with heretical " dogmas." But the main Latin use of dogma in
patristic times is found in Vincent of Lerins (d. c. 450) in his brief
but influential Commonitorium; again from southern Gaul.
Thereafter the usage gradually drops. In Thomas
Aquinas 4 it does not once occur. On the other hand * fed/eva/
Thomas has his own technical name doctrine (sing.)
or rather sacra doctrina; and this expression holds its ground,
though the usage of Abelard, Theologia, was destined to an even
more important place (see THEOLOGY). Another medieval usage
of importance is the division of the creed into twelve articles
corresponding to the number of the apostles, who, according to a
legend already found in Rufinus (d. 410) On the Apostles' Creed,
composed that formula by contributing each a single sentence.
alike. A new shade of condemnation for dogmas as things merely
assumed comes to be noticeable here, especially in Kant.
2 But there is a variant reading eleven supported by a different
arrangement.
3 Quoted by C. H. Turner in Journal of Theol. Studies (Oct. 1906,
and cf. Oct. 1905). G. Elmenhorst's statement, that Musanus and
Didymus in an earlier age wrote treatises with the name De ecclesi-
asticis dogmatibus, seems a plain blunder, if we compare Jerome's
Latin with Eusebius's Greek.
* " So viel uns bekannt " J. B. Heinrich, " Dogma," in Wetzer
and Welte's (Catholic) Kirchenlexikon.
3 82
DOGMA
The division is found applied also to the " Nicene-Constantino-
politan " creed, both in East and West. Sometimes fourteen
articles are detected (in either creed), 7+7; the sacred number
twice over. 1
The Reformation set up a new idea of faith, or recurred to one
of the oldest of all. Faith was not belief in authoritative teach-
ings; it was trust in the promises of God and in Jesus
format/on. Christ as their fulfilment. But the Protestant view
was apt to seem intangible, and the influence of the
learned tradition was strong for a time, indeed, doctrine was
more cultivated among Protestants than in the Church of Rome.
The result was a structure which is well named the Protestant
scholasticism. The new view of faith is bracketed with the old,
and practically neutralized by it; as was already the case in
Melanchthon's theological definitions in the 1552-1553 edition of
Loci Communes, also printed in other works by him. This brings
back again the Catholic view of " dogmatic faith."
The word " article " for a time holds the field. Pope Leo X.
in 1520 condemns among other propositions of Martin Luther's
the twenty-seventh " Cerium est in manu Papae, out
ecclesiae, prorsus non esse statuere articulos fidei (imo nee
leges morum seu bonorum operum)." The Augsburg Confession
(1530) is divided into numerous "articles," while Luther's
Lesser Catechism gathers Christianity under three " articles "
Creation, Redemption, Sanctification. Where moderns would
speak of the " doctrine " of this or that, Lutherans especially,
but also churchmen of other communions, wrote upon this or
that " article." Nikolaus Hunnius (Sider/ce^is, &c., 1626), A.
Quenstedt (c. 1685) and others in a controversial interest, to
blacken the Calvinists still more distinguished which articles
were " fundamental." Modern Lutheranism (G. Thomasius,
Dogmengeschichte, 1874-1876, influenced by T. F. D. Kliefoth
1839) speaks rather of "central dogmas"; 2 and the Roman
Catholic J. B. Heinrich 3 is willing to speak of "fundamental
dogmas," those which must be known for salvation; those for
which " implicit " faith does not suffice. When Addis and
Arnold's Catholic Dictionary denounces the conception of central
dogmas, what they desire to exclude as uncatholic is the belief
that dogmas lying upon the circumference may be questioned or
perhaps denied. 4 This suggests the great ambiguity both in
Roman Catholic and Protestant writers of the I7th century as to
the relation between " articles " and " dogmas." Many writers
in each communion felt that an "article" is a higher thing.
Others, in each communion, made the identification absolute.
Perhaps the Roman theologians of that age were more concerned
than the Protestants to draw a line round necessary truths. This
attempt was made by Dr Henry Holden (Div. Fidei Analysis,
1652) in connexion with the word " articles. 5 "
Another term to be considered is decretum, the old Latin
equivalent for 66-y/m- Another of Luther's assertions branded
Decreta ^7 t^ 6 PP e in I 5 2 the twenty-ninth claimed
liberty judicandi conciliorum decreta. On the other
hand, the Augsburg Confession protests its loyalty to the decretum
of Nice. What Protestantism saw in the distant past, Trent
naturally recognized in the present. Every one of its own find-
ings is a decretum except five, among the sacramental chapters,
each of which is headed doctrina. Holden again quotes the
(indefinite) decretum of the Council of Basel regarding the
Immaculate Conception.
The word " dogma " was however to revive, and, with more
or less success, to differentiate itself from " doctrine." Early
writers of the modern period, Protestant or Roman Catholic, use
1 See G. Hoffmann, Fides implicita, vol. i. (1903), pp. 82, &c. ; and
cf. the 17th-century creed of Bishop Mogilas adopted by the whole
Greek Church.
_ 2 A. Schweizer's Protestant Central Dogmas (1854-1856) was an
historical study of Reformed, i.e. Calvinist-Zwinglian theology.
" Dogma,' &c., in Wetzer and Welte's Kirchenlexikon.
4 The distinction^ of pure and mixed articles those of revelation
and those taught in common by revelation and natural theology
-^reappears in modern Roman Catholic theology as a distinction
between pure and mixed dogmas.
* Luther's Schmalkalden Articles and the Thirty-Nine Articles of
the Church of England should also be mentioned.
in revived
use.
it frequently of heretics; thus the Augsburg Confession protests
that the Protestants have carefully avoided nova dogmata.
A Roman Catholic writer, Jan Driedo of Louvain,
revives the reference to Ecclesiaslica dogmata De D z mat *
ecclesiasticis scripturis el dogmatibus (1533) using
the word, though not exclusively yet emphatically, of
teachings extra canonem scripturae sacrae. Philip Melanchthon's
preface to his Loci communes (ed. 1535) protests that he has
not expressed himself de ullo dogmate on any point of doctrine
without careful consideration of what has been said before him.
Richard Hooker (d. 1600) in bk. viii. of Eccl. Polity (pub. 1648
or perhaps 1651) quotes Thomas Stapleton, the Roman Catholic
(De principiis doctrinalibus fidei, 1579), on the royal right or
duty to enforce " dogmas," and adds a gloss of his own " very
articles of the faith," a surprising and probably isolated usage.
Many identified Dogmas and Articles by levelling down or
broadening out; but Hooker levels up. The statement of the
Council of Trent (1545-1562) may be quoted here. The Council
will rely chiefly upon Scripture * in reformandls dogmatibus et
instaurandis in ecclesia moribus; the Roman reply to the two
sets of articuli of Augsburg, and the Roman counterpart to
the (later) Protestant assertion that the Bible 7 is the "only rule
of faith and practice." At Trent, therefore, once more, dogma
means doctrine. It still means " doctrine " when the collected
decreta of Trent bear on their title-page (1564) reference to an
Index dogmatum et reformations; but here " dogma " is already
verging towards the narrower and more precise sense truth de-
fined by church authority. In other words, it is already edging
away from its identification with (all or any) doctrines. On the
Protestant side the identity is still clear in the Lutheran Formula
of Concord (1577). This creed formulates its relation to Scripture
over and over, as the one regula by which all dogmata are to be
tried. That characteristic Protestant assertion had been still
earlier pushed to the front in " Reformed " creeds, e.g. the First
Helvetic Confession (1536), and more notably in the Second
(1566).
Protestant creeds had clearly affirmed that nothing possessed
authority which was not in Scripture: in a short time, Protestant
theologians following an impulse common to all
Christian communions define more sharply the
identity of what is authoritative with the letter of
Scripture, and call these entire contents dogmas. Here
then, under Protestant scholasticism (Lutheran and
Reformed), we have the first perfectly definite conception of
dogma, and the most definite ever reached. Dogma is the whole
text of the Bible, doctrinal, historical, scientific, or what not.
Thus dogma is revealed and is infallibly true. Dogma is doctrine,
viz. that body of doctrines and related facts which God Himself
has propounded for dogmatic faith. Every true dogma, says
Johann Gerhard 8 the most representative figure of Lutheran
scholasticism occurs in plain terms somewhere in Scripture.
Over against these sweeping assumptions and deductions, the
Roman Catholic Church had to build up its own statement of the
basis of belief. Its early controversialists like Driedo
or Cardinal Bellarmine meet assertions such as
Gerhard's with a flat denial. The great dogmas are not,
literally and verbally, in the Bible. Along with the
Bible we must accept unwritten traditions; the Council of Trent
makes this perfectly clear. But not any and every tradition;
only such as the church stamps with her approval. And that
raises the question whether the church has not a further part to
play? A. M. Fairbairn holds that D. Petavius's great work De
theologicis dogmatibus (especially the ist vol., 1644) made the
word " dogma " current for doctrines which were authoritative as
formulated by the church. We must keep in mind, however, that
the question is not simply one as to the meaning of a word. The
equation holds, more firmly than ever; dogma = the contents of
6 That seems to be what is meant.
7 Early Protestantism lived too much in the thought of j ustification
to mark out the boundaries of creed with this scholastic precision.
8 Loci communes (1610-1622), on Interpretation of Sacred
Scripture, ix. 149.
Definition
In Pro-
testaat
scholas-
ticism.
replies.
DOGMA
383
faith. It has to be established on the Roman Catholic side
that faith (or dogma; the two are inseparable) deals with divine
truths historically revealed long ago but now administered with
authority, according to God's will, by the church. The English-
man Henry Holden (see above), the Frenchman Veronius
(Francois Veron, S.J., 1575-1649) in his Regie generate de la foy
catholique (1652), the German Philipp Neri Chrismann, 1 in his
Regulafidei catholicae et collectio dogmalum credendorum (1792),*
all work at this task. Dogmas or articles of faith (taken as
synonymous) depend upon revelation in Scripture or tradition,
as confirmed by the church whether acting in general councils or
through the pope (in some undefined way; Holden) in general
councils or by universal consent (Chrismann; of bishops ? the
definite Gallican theory?). Veronius is willing to waive the
difficult point of church infallibility as the Council of Trent did
not define it. Holden insists strongly upon infallibility. Church
traditions are infallible; and church dogmas reach us (from the
original revelation) through an infallible medium, the Catholic
Church, which the Protestants sadly lack. In Chrismann the
word " dogma " has superseded the word " article "; Holden uses
both, though " article " has the preponderance. All three writers
seek to draw a sharp line round what is " of faith." Hence in
Chrismann (who is in other respects the most definite of the
three) we have a view of dogma almost as clear-cut as that of
the Protestant schoolmen. Dogmas are revealed; dogmas are
infallible; the church is infallible on dogmas (for this statement
he cites Muratori) and on nothing else.
This whole period of theology, Protestant and Roman Catholic,
is statical. Men are defining and protecting the positions they
have inherited; they do not think of progress. And yet the
Roman Catholic Church had upon its hands one great unsettled
question the thesis of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin.
This became the standing type of an assertion which, while
favoured by the church and on the very verge of dogma, was yet
not a dogma 3 till the definition came through Pius IX. in
1854. Here then the frontier of dogma had unquestionably
moved forward. Its conception must become dynamic; there
was need of some theory of development like J. H. Newman's
(1845). It does not happen, however, that the papal definition of
1854 employs the word " dogma "; that honour was withheld
from the word until the Vatican decrees of 1870 affirmed the
personal infallibility of the pope as divinitus revclalum dogma.
With this, one line of tendency in Roman Catholic doctrine
reached its climax; the pope and the council use " dogma " in a
distinctive sense for what is definitely formulated by authority.
But there is another line of tendency. The same council defines
not indeed dogma but faith inseparable from dogma as 4
(1) revealed, (a) in Scripture or (6) in unwritten tradition, and
(2) taught by the church, (a) in formulated decrees, or (6) in
her ordinary magisterium. This is a correction of Chrismann.
Not only does the correction involve the substitution of papal
authority for a universal consent of " pastors " and " the
faithful "; it also deliberately ranks the unformulated teachings
of the church on points of doctrine as no less de fide than those
formulated. This amounts to a serious warning against trying to
draw a definite line round dogma. The modern Roman Catholic
temper must be eager to believe and eager to submit. New
dogmas have been precipitated more than once during the igth
century; there may still be others held in solution in the church's
teaching. If so, these are likely one day to crystallize into full
dogmas; and, even while not yet " declared," they have the
same claim upon faith.
Thus there seems to be a measure of uncertainty as to what the
Church of Rome now calls " dogma " only in part relieved by
1 Three writers mentioned in Wetzer's and Welte's Kirchenlexikon.
'Also quoted as having appeared 1745, but that is an error; he
quotes F. A. Blau, On the Rule of Faith (Mainz, 1780). See further
the sketch of Chrismann in Allgemeine deutsche Biographic, supple-
ment.
* G. Perrone, e.g. De immaculate B. V. Mariae conceptu; an
dogmatico decreto definiri possil? (1847).
4 These divisions and subdivisions are not numbered in the
Decrees, as for clearness they have been numbered above.
the distinction between " dogmas strictly " and mere " dogmatic
truths." Again, the assertion that the church is infallible upon
some questions, not belonging to the area of revelation (properly
so-called in Roman Catholic theology), destroys the identification
of " dogmas " with " infallible certainties " which we noted both
in the Protestant schoolmen and in Chrismann. The identifica-
tion of dogma with revelation remains, with another distinction
in support of it, between " material dogmas " (all scriptural or
traditional truth) and " formal " or ecclesiastically formulated
dogmas. 6 On the other hand, there is absolute certainty on a
point long disputed. Questions about church authority are
henceforth questions about the pope's authority. What he calls
heresy, under the sanction of excommunication or that more
formal excommunication known as anathema, is heresy. What
he finds it necessary to condemn even in milder terms as bad
doctrine is infallibily condemned; that is certain, Roman
Catholic theologians tell us, though not yet de fide.
Finally we have to glance at a new list of definitions which
perhaps in some cases seek more or less to formulate modern
Protestant ideas, but which in general represent rather the world
of disinterested historical scholarship. That world of the learned
offers us non-dogmatic definitions, drawn up from the outside;
definitions which do not share the root assumptions either of
Catholicism or of post-Reformation Protestant orthodoxy. It
might have been best to surrender the term " dogma " to the
dogmatists; but few scholars have consented to do so.
1. We may brush aside the view 6 for which J. C. Doderlein,
J. A. A. Tittmann, and more recently C. F. A. Kahnis are
quoted. According to this definition, " dogma " means the
opinion of some individual theologian of distinction. That might
be a conceivable development of usage. It has been said that
persons who dislike authority often show great devotion to
" authorities "; and the word dogma might make a similar
transition. But, in its case, such a usage would constitute a
violent break with the past.
2. Though there is no formal definition in the passage, it is
worth recording that, towards the end of his Chief End of Revela-
tion (1881), A. B. Bruce sharply contrasts " dogmas of theology "
with "doctrines of faith." 7 While he manifests no wholesale
dislike to doctrine, such as is seen in the Broad Church school,
Bruce inverts the Catholic estimate. Dogma stands lowest, not
highest. It seems hardly better than a cap-ut mortuum, out of
relation to the original faith or the original facts that are held
to have given it birth. There is more than a touch of Matthew
Arnold in this; though, while Arnold held nothing in religious
experience beyond morality to be objectively genuine, Bruce
believed in God's " gracious " purpose. 8
3. Much more like Chrismann's view is the " generally
accepted position " among Protestant scholars, as its leading
representative to-day, F. Loofs, has called it; 9 the doctrine
enforced within any one church community is dogma. This
definition is significant. It means that historians recognize
the peculiar importance of those beliefs which are constitutive of
church agreement; and it finds some support from the philo-
sophical and political associations of ancient " dogma." Also
Roman Catholic writers could accept the definition in so far as
6 Three zones apparently (i) the church's formal decrees, (2) the
church's general teaching, (3) points of revelation which the church
may not yet have overtaken. Per contra, much that was only
" implicit ' in the deposit of faith has become " explicit " in dogma.
(The reader must note that " implicit " is used here in a different
sense from that referred to earlier in this article. Here, church dogma
has explicated what was implicit in revelation. There, the un-
learned accept by implication, i.e. by a general acceptance of church
belief and teaching, dogmas they perhaps have never heard of.
Both usages are current in Roman Catholic theology.)
6 Or the view of D. Schenkel, that dogma is what is enforced by
civil and criminal law.
7 Cf. also preface to 2nd ed. pp. ix., x.
8 Cf. pp. 279, 280; the undogmatic words of religious emotion are
" thrown out," not at " a cloud mistaken for a mountain," but at a
" majestic " and " veritable mountain range."
9 See art. " Dogmengeschichte " in Herzog-Hauck's Realencykl.
fiir prot. Theol. Cf. also Prof. Loofs's Leitfaden zum Studium der
Dogmengeschichte.
DOGMATIC THEOLOGY
their own church's authoritative teachings are concerned. But
can a historian separate the opinions which rose to authority
in the church from the other opinions which succumbed? Or
the accepted modifications of a theory from those which were
rejected? Again, can we substitute church authority for that
which is always the background of " dogma " as interpreted from
inside divine authority? 1 Or, again, can we say definitely
which doctrines are " enforced " in Protestant communions and
so are " dogmas "? It has even been asserted by A. Schweizer
(Chrislliche Glaubenslehre nach prot. Grundsatzen, 1863-1872)
that Protestantism ought not to speak of dogmas at all, except
as things of its imperfect past. * And historically it seems plain
that since the age of Protestant scholasticism there has been
nothing in Protestant church life to which the name " dogma "
can be assigned, without dropping a good deal of its original
connotation. Dogma is no longer 3 held to be of immediate
divine authority. Hence Catholic, and scientific or historical,
definitions of dogma are on different planes. They never properly
meet. 4
4. A. Harnack varies in his usage. He is not prepared
to exclude the great medieval pronouncements, or the modern
Roman Catholic definitions, from the list of dogmas; but on the
whole he prefers to keep in view " one historical species " Loofs
suggests that he ought perhaps rather to say one individual type
that greatest group of Christian dogmas which " was created by
the Greek spirit upon the soil of the gospel " (Hist, of Dogma, Eng.
tr., vol. i. pp. 17, 21, 22). Thus Harnack agrees with Catholic
theologians in holding that, in the fullest sense, there is no dogma
except the Catholic. He differs, of course, in holding dogma to be
obsolete now. While Protestants, he thinks, have undermined it
by a deeper conception of faith, 6 Roman Catholics have come to
attach more value to obedience and " implicit belief " than
to knowledge; and even the Eastern Church lives to-day by
the cultus more than by the vision of supernatural truth. Again,
Harnack gravely differs from Catholic dogmatists in assigning
a historical origin to what in their view is essentially divine
supernatural in origin, supernatural even in its declaration by the
church. If they do not deny that Greek philosophy has entered
into Christian doctrine, they consider it a colourless medium used
in fixing the contents of revelation. In all this, Harnack speaks
from a point of view of his own. He is no friend of Catholicism
or of dogma. Perhaps his detachment makes for clearness of
thought; Loofs's friendliness towards dogma, but in a much
humbler sense than the Catholic, involves the risk of confusion.
Both Loofs and Harnack contrast with " dogma " the work
of individual thinkers, calling the latter " theology." Hence
they and other authorities wish to see " History of Dogma "
supplemented by " Histories of Theology." Our usual English
phrase " History of Doctrine " ignores that distinction.
5. A place must be made for the definition proposed by a
philosopher, J. M. E. McTaggart. In Some Dogmas of Religion
(1906), he uses " dogma " of affirmations, whether supported
by reasoning or merely asserted, if they claim " metaphysical "
value, metaphysics being defined as " the systematic study of the
ultimate nature of reality." Briefly, a dogma is what claims
ultimate, not relative, truth. This agrees with one feature in
ordinary literary usage the contrast between " dogmatizing "
and suspending judgment, or taking refuge in conjecture. But it
1 It should be noted that Loofs does not speak merely as a historian.
He places himself in a sense within the dogmatic circle by his declara-
tion that guidance is to be expected from developments in a " free
Protestant evangelical spirit "-^-out of the old confessions of the
Protestant churches. This belief may be called what Loofs has
called Harnack's definition of dogma individuell berechtigt, and
perhaps nur individuell. Others, who hold no less strongly to
theological progress by evolution, not revolution, will hesitate to
grant that the line of advance passes through the symbolical books.
* Cf. DOGMATIC THEOLOGY, and the footnote above.
* Unless in certain confined circles.
4 When Loofs declares (art. "Dogmengeschichte " in Herzog-
Hauck's Realencykl., 1898) that dogma is historically equivalent to
regula fidei, he is in flat contradiction to the " dogma " of his own
church as stated in the Formula of Concord. See above.
6 Here perhaps Harnack speaks from inside his own type of
religious faith ; but not from inside dogma.
ignores another quality marked out in common speech that in
respect of which " dogmatism " is opposed to proof. Also it omits
the political or social reference so much insisted on by Loofs and
others. There are materials for misunderstanding here.
6. A very different view is implied in the symbolo-fideisme of
Athanase Sabatier and some other French Protestants: religious
dogma consists of symbols in contrast to a scientific gnosis of
reality. This is a radical version of the early Protestant idea of
faith, and yields a theory of what in English we call " doctrine."
More precisely, it is a theory of what doctrine ought to be, or a
deeper analysis of its nature; it is not a statement of what
doctrine has been held to be in the past. And therefore the
definition does not proceed from historical scholarship. Nor yet
does it throw light upon " dogma," if dogma is to be distinguished
somehow from doctrine.
LITERATURE. Matthew Arnold's Literature, and Dogma (1873)13
important for literary usage: cf. A. B. Bruce, op.cit. Classical and
early Christian usages, E. Hatch, Hibbert Led. (1888), pp. 119. 120;
J. B. Lightfoot on Colossians ii. 14 (20); W. Schmidt, Dogmatik,
vol. i. (1895) many quotations in extenso; C. Stange, Das Dogma
und seine Beurleilung in der neueren Dogmengeschichte (1898) a
pamphlet protesting against what Loofs terms the " generally
accepted view." Articles in the (Roman Catholic) Kirchenlexikon of
WetzerandWelte.znded; (by Hergenrother and Kaulen), 1882-1901,
Arts. " Dogmatik " (J. KSstlin), " Dogmengeschichte " (F. Loofs)
in Herzog-Hauck's Encykl. f. prot. Theol. (vol. iv., 1898). Art.
" Glaubensartikel " in previous ed. (Herzog-Plitt, vol. v., 1879) by
C. F. Kline; and L. F. Schoeberlein. For works on the history of
dogma see THEOLOGY. See also DOGMATIC THEOLOGY. (R. MA.)
DOGMATIC THEOLOGY, the name usually given in modern
times to the systematic study of Christian doctrine or of dogma
in the widest sense possible (see DOGMA). Among the many
terms used in the early days of Protestant theology to denote the
great systems, three deserve special notice Thetic Theology,
Positive Theology, Dogmatic Theology. " Thetic theology " is
connected with academic life. It recalls the literal and original
meaning of graduation " theses," also Martin Luther's memorable
theses and the replies made to him. " Thetic theology," a name
now obsolete, naturally included the whole of doctrine, i.e. what-
ever would be argued for or against; and " dogmatic theology "
came into use absolutely as a synonymous expression. " Positive
theology " is also a term employed by Petau (De theologicis
dogmatibus, 1644-1650), and more or less current even to-day in
Roman Catholic scholarship (e.g. Joseph Turmel, Histoire de la
theologie positive, 1906). " Dogmatic theology " proved to have
most vitality in it. After some partial precedents of early date
(e.g. F. Turrianus one of the papal theologians at the Council of
Trent, Dogmaticus (liber?) de Justification, 1557), the title was
used in 1659 by the Lutheran Lukas Friedrich Reinhard (1623-
1688), professor of theology at Altdorf (Synopsis theologiae
dogmaticae, eds. 1659, 1660, 1661), and his influence is already
seen on the Reformed theologian Andreas van Essen (Essenius,
1618-1677), who, in 1659, published his Systematis theologiae pars
prior, the tomus secundus in 1661, but Systematis dogmalici
tomus tertius et ultimus in 1665. The same author published
a shorter Compendium theologiae dogmaticum in 1669. A. M.
Fairbairn holds that it was the fame of Petau which gave currency
to the new coinage " dogmatic theology "; and though the same
or kindred phrases had been used repeatedly by writers of less
influence since Reinhard and Essenius, F. Buddeus (Instiluliones
theol. dogmat., 1723; Compendium, 1728) is held to have given
the expression its supremacy. Noel Alexandre, the Gallican
divine, possibly introduced it in the Roman Catholic Church
(1693; Theologia dogmatica et moralis). Both Roman Catholic
and Protestant authorities agree that the expression was con-
nected with the new habit of distinguishing dogmatics from
Christian ethics or moral theology, though A. Schweizer denies
this of Reinhard. In another direction dogmas and dogmatic
theology were also contrasted with truths of reason and natural
theology. 6 F. E. D. Schleiermacher, in his Kurze Darstellung
des theologischen Stadiums, and again in his great System, Der
chrislliche Glaube . . . dargestellt, ingeniously proposed to treat
dogmatic as an historical statement, or report, of beliefs held in
6 For " mixed articles " see DOGMA.
DOGRA DOLABELLA
35
the writer's communion at the time of writing. He also insisted,
however, upon personal conviction in writers on dogmatic. The
expression Glaubenslehre doctrine of faith which he did much
to bring into a wider currency, and which Schweizer, the most
loyal of all his disciples, holds to be alone fitted for Protestant use,
emphasizes the latter requirement. But " dogmatic " has also
continued in use among Protestant theologians of the Left no
less than among the orthodox. When we consider the different
attitude towards dogma of Roman Catholicism, we feel con-
strained to question whether the expression " dogmatic theology "
can be equally suitable for both communions. Roman theologians
may properly define dogmatic as the scientific study of dogmas;
Protestant scholars have come to use " dogma " hi ways which
make that impossible. Indeed, many of them bid us regard
" dogmatic " as falling under the history of theology and not of
dogma (see DOGMA). Still, usage is decisive. It will be im-
possible to uproot the phrase " dogmatic theology " among
Protestants. When A. Harnack 1 praises Schbiermacher's
description of dogmatic as " historical," he rather strains the
meaning of the remark, and creates fresh confusion. Harnack's
point is that " dogmatic theology " ought to be used in a sense
corresponding to what he regards as the true meaning of
" dogma " Christian belief in its main traditional outlines.
This claim is an innovation, and finds no precedent in
Schleiermacher. The latter regarded dogmatic as stating in
scientific connexion "the doctrine prevailing in a (single)
Christian church at a given time " as " not merely historical
(geschichtlich) ," but containing an " apologetic element " as
" not confined to the symbolical books, but " including all even
local expressions of the common faith which produce no breach of
harmony and as having for its " very business and task " to
"purify and perfect" doctrine (Der christliche Glattbe, 19).
The one merit which " dogmatic " may claim as a term in
Protestant theology is that it contrasts positive statements
of belief with mere reports (e.g. Biblical theology; history of
doctrine) of what has been taught in the past. (See DOGMA;
and THEOLOGY.)
DOGRA, a race of Hill Rajputs in India, inhabiting Kashmir
and the adjacent valleys of the Himalayas. They form the ruling
race in Kashmir. " Dogra " is the name given to the country
round Jammu, and is said to be derived from a word meaning
the " two lakes," as the original home of the Dogra people was
situated between the lakes of Siroensar and Mansar. There are
numerous castes in the Dogra country, and the Hindu, Mahom-
medan and Sikh religions are represented. All, whether Hindus
or Mahommedans, whether high-born Rajputs of the Maharaja's
caste or low-born menials, are known as Dogras. At the time of
the first Sikh War the Dogras had a great reputation as soldiers,
which they have worthily maintained in the ranks of the Indian
native army. They are classed as fighting men with the Sikh
and Punjabi Mahommedan. They distinguished themselves in
the Hunza Nagar Expedition and the affair at Chilas in 1891, and
in the Tirah campaign of 1897-98.
DOGS, ISLE OF, a district of London, England, on the north
bank of the Thames, which surrounds it on three sides. It falls
within the metropolitan borough of Poplar. It is occupied by
docks, riverside works and poor houses. The origin of the name
is not known. The suggestion that it is corrupted from the Isle of
Docks falls to the ground on the question of chronology; another,
that there were royal kennels here, is improbable, though they
were situated at Deptford in the i7th century. (See POPLAR.)
DOG-TOOTH (the French dent-de-scie) , in architecture, an
ornament found in the mouldings of medieval work of the
commencement of the I2th century, which is thought to have
been introduced by the Crusaders from the East. The earliest
example is found in the hall at Rabbath-Ammon in Moab (c. A.D.
614) built by the Sassanians, where it decorates the arch mould-
ing of the blind arcades and the string courses. In the apse
of the church at Murano, near Venice, it is similarly employed.
In the i zth and I3th centuries it was further elaborated with
carving, losing therefore its primitive form, but constituting a
1 Hist, of Dogma; Eng. trans, i. p. 21, footnote,
vni. 13
most beautiful decorative feature. In Elgin cathedral the dog-
tooth ornament in the archivolt becomes a four-lobed leaf, and
in Stone church, Kent, a much more enriched type of flower.
The term has been supposed to originate in a resemblance to the
dog-tooth violet, but the original idea of a projecting tooth is a
sufficient explanation.
DOGWOOD (i.e. wood of the dog-tree; referred by the New
English Dictionary to " dog," apparently as indicating inferiority;
but by others connected with " dag," " dagger," and by Prior
with A.S. dole, a brooch-pin), the name applied to plants of the
genus Cornus, of the natural order Cornaceae. The common
dogwood, prick-wood, skewer-wood, cornel or dogberry, C.
sanguined, is a shrub reaching a height of 8 or 9 ft., common in
hedges, thickets and plantations in Great Britain. Its branches
are dark red; the leaves egg-shaped, pointed, about 2 in. long
by 15 broad, and turning red in autumn; the flowers are dull
white, in terminal clusters. The berries are small, of a black-
purple, bitter and one-seeded, and contain a considerable per-
centage of oil, which in some places is employed for lamps, and in
the manufacture of soap. The wood is white and very hard, and
like that of other species of the genus is used for making ladder-
spokes, wheel-work, skewers, forks and other implements, and
gunpowder charcoal. The red berries of the dwarf species, C.
suecica, of the Scottish Highlands, are eaten, and are reputed to
be tonic in properties. C. mas, the Cornelian cherry, a native of
Europe and Northern Asia, bears a pulpy and edible fruit, which
when unripe contains much tannin. It is a good garden plant, as
is also the North American speciesC.florida, one of the commonest
trees of the deciduous forests of the middle and southern states.
Professor C. S. Sargent (Silva of North America) describes it as
" one of the most beautiful of the small trees of the American
forests, which it enlivens in early spring with the whiteness of its
floral leaves and in autumn with the splendour of its foliage and
the brilliancy of its fruit. No tree is more desirable in the garden
or park in regions where the summer's sun is sufficiently hot to
ensure the production of its flowers through the perfect develop-
ment of the branchlets." The Jamaica dogwood, the root-bark
of which is poisonous, is the species Piscidia Erythrina, of the
natural order Leguminosae.
DOL, a town of north-western France, in the department of
Ille-et-Vilaine, 36 m. N. of Rennes on the Western railway. Pop.
(1906) 3543. Dol is situated to the south-west of the rich agri-
cultural district known as the marsh of Dol, where market-
gardening is especially flourishing. The streets are still rendered
picturesque by houses of the i4th and isth centuries, which form
deep arcades by the projection of their upper storeys: and, high
above all, rises the grey granite of the cathedral, mainly of the
I3th century, which in the middle ages ranked as the metropolitan
church of all Brittany, and still keeps fresh the name of Bishop
St Samson, who, having fled, as the legend tells, from the Saxon
invaders of England, selected this spot as the site of his monastery.
To the architect it is interesting for the English character of its
design, and to the antiquarian, for its stained-glass windows of
the I3th century, and for the finely sculptured tomb of Bishop
Thomas James (d. 1504). About i^ m. from the town is the
pierre de Champ Dolent, a menhir some 30 ft. in height; not
far off stands the great granite rock of Mont Dol, over 200 ft. in
height, surmounted by the statue and chapel of Notre-Dame
de 1'Esperance. Dol has trade in grain, vegetables and fruit,
tobacco is cultivated in the neighbourhood and there are salt-
marshes. Tanning and leather-currying are carried on in the
town. The town was unsuccessfully besieged by William the
Conqueror, taken by Henry II. in 1164 and by Guy de Thouars
in 1204. In 1793 it witnessed the defeat of the republican forces
by the Vendeans who had taken refuge within its walls. The
bishopric established in the 6th century was suppressed in 1790.
DOLABELLA, PUBLIUS CORNELIUS, Roman general and
son-in-law of Cicero, was born about 70 B.C. He was by far the
most important of the Dolabellae, a family of the patrician gens
Cornelia. In the civil wars he at first took the side of Pompey,
but afterwards went over to Caesar, and was present at the battle
of Pharsalus. To escape the urgent demands of his creditors, he
386
DOLBEN DOLE
introduced (as one of the tribunes) a bill proposing that all debts
should be cancelled. This was strongly resisted by his colleagues,
and led to serious disturbances in the city. Caesar, on his return
from Alexandria, seeing the expediency of removing Dolabella
from Rome, took him as one of his generals in the expedition
to Africa and Spain. On Caesar's death Dolabella seized the
insignia of the consulship (which had already been conditionally
promised him), and, by making friends with Brutus and the
other assassins, was confirmed in his office. When, however,
M. Antonius offered him the command of the expedition against
the Parthians and the province of Syria he changed sides at once.
His journey to the province was marked by plundering, extortion
and the murder of C. Trebonius, proconsul of Asia, who refused to
allow him to enter Smyrna. He was thereupon declared a public
enemy and superseded by C. Cassius(the murderer of Caesar), who
attacked him in Laodicea. On the capture of the place, Dolabella
ordered one of his soldiers to kill him (43). Throughout his life
he was a profligate and a spendthrift.
See Cicero's Letters (ed. Tyrrell and Purser) ; G. Boissier, Cicero
and his Friends (Eng. trans., 1897); Orelli, Onomasticon Tullianum;
Dio Cassius xli. 40, xlii. 29, xliii. 51, xliv. 22, xlvi. 40, xlvii. 30;
Appian, Bell. civ. Hi. 7, iv. 60.
DOLBEN, JOHN (1625-1686), English divine, was the son of
William Dolben (d. 1631), prebendary of Lincoln and bishop-
designate of Gloucester. He was educated at Westminster under
Richard Busby and at Christ Church, Oxford. He fought on the
royalist side at Marston Moor, 1644. Subsequently he took
orders and maintained in private the proscribed Anglican service.
At the Restoration he became canon of Christ Church (1660) and
prebendary of St Paul's, London (1661). As dean of Westminster
(1662-1683) he opposed an attempt to bring the abbey under
diocesan rule. In 1666 he was made bishop of Rochester, and in
1683 archbishop of York; he distinguished himself by reforming
the discipline of the cathedrals in these dioceses. His son John
Dolben (1662-1710) was a barrister and politician; he was M.P.
for Liskeard from 1707 to 1710 and manager of Sacheverell's
impeachment in 1709.
DOLCE, LUDOVICO, or LUIGI (1508-1568 or 1569), Italian
writer, was a native of Venice, and belonged to a family of
honourable tradition but decadent fortune. He received a good
education, and early undertook the task of maintaining himself
by his pen. Translations from Greek and Latin epics, satires,
histories, plays and treatises on language and art followed each
other in rapid succession, till the whole number amounted to
upwards of seventy works. But he is now mainly memorable
as the author of Marianna, a tragedy from the life of Herod,
which was recast in French by Tristan and by Voltaire, and still
keeps a place on the stage. Four licentious comedies, // Ragazzo
(1541), 77 Capitano (1545), // Mariio (1560), // Kuffiano (1560),
and seven of Seneca's tragedies complete the list of his dramatic
efforts. In one epic to translate the title-page " he has
marvellously reduced into otiava rima and united into one
narrative the stories of the Iliad and the Aeneid "; in another
he devotes thirty-nine cantos to a certain Primaleone, son of
Palmerius; in a third he celebrates the first exploits of Count
Orlando; and in a fourth he sings of the Paladin Sacripante. A
life of the emperor Charles V. and a similar account of Ferdinand
I., published respectively in 1560 and 1566, are his chief historical
productions; and among his minor treatises it is enough to
mention the Osservazioni sulla lingua wlgare (1550); the Dialogo
della p'Mura (1557) ; and the Dialogo nel quale si ragiona del modo
di accrescar la memoria (1552).
DOLCI, CARLO, or CARLINO (1616-1686), Italian painter, was
born in Florence in May 1616. He was the grandson of a painter
on the mother's side, and became a disciple of Jacopo Vignali;
and when only eleven years of age he attempted a whole figure of
St John, and a head of the infant Christ, which received extra-
ordinary approbation. He afterwards painted a portrait of his
mother, and displayed a new and delicate style which brought
him into notice, and procured him extensive employment at
Florence (from which city he hardly ever moved) and in other
parts of Italy. Dolci used his pencil chiefly in sacred subjects,
and bestowed much labour on his pictures. In his manner of
working he was remarkably slow. It is said that his brain was
affected by seeing Luca Giordano, in 1682, despatch more business
in four or five hours than he could have executed in as many
months, and that he hence fell into a state of hypochondria, which
compelled him to relinquish his art, and soon brought him to the
grave. His works are not very numerous. He generally painted
in a small size, although there are a few pictures by him as large
as life. He died in Florence in January 1686, leaving a daughter
(Agnese), who arrived at some degree of excellence in copying the
works of her father.
Carlo Dolci holds somewhat the same rank in the Florentine
that Sassoferrato does in the Roman school. Without the
possession of much genius, invention or elevation of type, both
these artists produced highly wrought pictures, extremely
attractive to some tastes. The works of Dolci are easily
distinguishable by the delicacy of the composition, and by an
agreeable tint of colour, improved by judicious management
of the chiaroscuro, which gives his figures a striking relief; he
affected the use of ultramarine, much loaded in tint. " His
pencil," says Pilkington, " was tender, his touch inexpressibly
neat, and his colouring transparent; though he has often been
censured for the excessive labour bestowed on his pictures, and
also for giving his carnations more of the appearance of ivory
than the look of flesh." All his best productions are of a devout
description; they frequently represent the patient suffering of
Christ or the sorrows of the Mater Dolorosa. Dolci was, in fact,
from early youth, exceedingly pious; it is said that during
passion week every year he painted a half-figure of the Saviour.
His sacred heads are marked with pathetic or at least strongly
sentimental emotion. There is a want of character in his pictures,
and his grouping lacks harmonious unison, but the general tone
accords with the idea of the passion portrayed. Among the best
works of this master are the " St Sebastian "; the " Four
Evangelists," at Florence; " Christ Breaking the Bread," in the
marquess of Exeter's collection at Burleigh; the " St Cecilia " in
Dresden; an " Adoration of the Magi "; and in especial " St
Andrew praying before his Crucifixion," in the Pitti gallery, his
most important composition, painted in 1646; also several
smaller pictures, which are highly valued, and occupy honourable
places in the richest galleries. (W. M. R.)
DOLDRUMS (a slang term, dol = dull; cf. tantrum), the
region of calms near the equator where the trade- winds die away,
a region of constant precipitation in which the weather is close,
hot, vaporous and extremely dispiriting. In the old days of
sailing vessels, a becalmed ship sometimes lay helpless for weeks.
A letter from this region saying " we are in the doldrums " (" in
the dumps ") seems to have been regarded as written from " The
Doldrums," which thus became the name of this undesirable
locality.
DOLE, a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement
in the department of Jura, 29 m. S.E. of Dijon on the Paris-Lyon
railway. Pop. (1906) 11,166. It occupies the slope of a hill over-
looking the forest of Chaux, on the right bank of the Doubs, and
of the canal from the Rhone to the Rhine which accompanies that
river. The streets, which in general are steep and narrow,
contain many old houses recalling, in their architecture, the
Spanish occupation of the town. The principal buildings are the
church of Notre Dame, a Gothic structure of the i6th century;
the college, once a Jesuit establishment, which contains the
library and a museum of paintings and has a chapel of the
Renaissance period; the H6tel-Dieu and h6tel de ville, both 17th-
century buildings; and the law court occupying an old convent of
the Cordeliers. In the courtyard of the h6tel de ville there stands
an old tower dating from the isth century. The birth of Louis
Pasteur (1822) in the town is commemorated by a monument,
and there is also a monument to Jules GreVy. D61e is the seat of
a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce
and a communal college. Metal-founding and the manufacture
of fire-pumps, kitchen-ranges and other iron goods, chemical
products, machinery, leather, liqueurs and pastry, are among the
industries. There is a good trade in agricultural produce and
DOLE DOLET
387
live stock, and in wood, iron, coal and the stone of the vicinity.
Wine is largely grown in the district.
D61e, the ancient Dola, was in Roman times the meeting place
of several roads, and considerable remains have been found there;
in the later middle ages and till 1648 it was the capital of Tranche
Comt6 and seat of a parlement and a university; but in the
year 1479 the town was taken by the forces of Louis XI., and
so completely sacked that only the house of Jean Vurry, as
it is still called, and two other buildings were left standing. It
subsequently came into the hands of Maximilian of Austria, and
in 1530 was fortified by Charles V. In 1668 and 1674 it was
captured by the French and lost its parlement and its university,
both of which were transferred by Louis XIV. to Besancon.
DOLE (from Old Eng. dal, cf. mod. " deal "), a portion, a
distribution of gifts, especially of food and money given in charity.
The derivation from 0. Fr. doel, Late Lat. dolium, " grief,"
suggested by the custom of funeral doles, is wrong. In early
Christian days, St Chrysostom says: " doles were used at funerals
to procure the rest of the soul of the deceased, that he might find
his judge propitious." The distribution of alms to the local poor
at funerals was a universal custom in the middle ages. The
amount of doles was usually stated in the will. Thus in 1399
Eleanor, duchess of Gloucester, ordered that fifteen poor men
should carry torches at her funeral, " each having a gown and
hood lined with white, breeches of blue cloth, shoes and a shirt,
and twenty pounds amongst them." Later doles usually took
the form of bequests of land or money, the interest or rent of
which was to be annually employed in charity. Often the
distribution took place at the grave of the donor. Thus one
William Robinson of Hull at his death in 1 708 left money to buy
annually a dozen loaves, costing a shilling each, to be given to
twelve poor widows at his grave every Christmas. Lenten doles
were also formerly common. A will of 1537 bade a barrel of
white herrings and a case of red herrings be given yearly to the
poor of Clavering, Essex, to help them tide over the fast. One or
two London doles are still distributed, e.g. that of St Peter's,
Walworth, where a Christmas dinner is each year served to 300
parish poor in the crypt. No one under sixty is eligible, and the
dinner is unique in that it is cooked in the church. A pilgrim's
dole of bread and ale can be claimed by all wayfarers at the
Hospital of St Cross, Winchester. This is said to have been
founded by William of Wykeham. Emerson, when visiting
Winchester, claimed and received the dole. What were known as
Scrambling Doles, so called because the meat and bread distributed
were thrown among the poor to be scrambled for, were not
uncommon in England. Such a dole existed at St Briavel's,
Gloucestershire, baskets of bread and cheese cut into small
squares being thrown by the churchwardens from the gallery into
the body of the church on Whit Sunday. At Wath near Ripon
a testator in 1810 ordered that forty penny loaves should be
thrown from the church leads at midnight on every Christmas eve.
The best known dole in the United States is the " Leake Dole of
Bread." John Leake, a millionaire dying in 1792, left 1000
to Trinity Church, New York, the income to be laid out in
wheaten loaves and distributed every Sabbath morning after
service. The dole still survives, though the day has been altered
to Saturday, each week sixty-seven loaves being given away.
DOLERITE (from Gr. SoXepos, deceptive), in petrology,
the name given by Haiiy to those basaltic rocks which are
comparatively coarse grained and nearly, if not quite, holo-
crystalline. As may be inferred from their highly crystalline
state they are very often intrusive, and occur as dikes and sills,
but many of them form lava flows. Their essential minerals are
those of basalt, viz. olivine, augite and plagioclase felspar, while
hornblende, ilmenite, apatite and biotite are their commonest
accessory ingredients. The chemical and microscopic features of
these minerals agree generally with those presented in the basalts,
and only their exceptional pecuh'arities need be mentioned here.
Many dolerites are porphyritic and carry phenocrysts of olivine,
augite and plagioclase felspar (or of one or more of these) . Others,
probably the majority, are non-porphyritic,and these are generally
coarser grained than the ground-mass of the former group, though
lacking their large conspicuous phenocrysts. The commonest
type of structure in dolerite is the ophitic, which results from
the felspar of the rock having crystallized before the augite; the
latter mineral forms shapeless masses in which the idiomorphic
felspars lie. The augite enclosing the felspars is well crystallized,
though its continuity is interrupted more or less completely by
the numerous crystals of felspar which it envelops, and in
polarized light the former often behaves as a single individual
over a considerable area, while the latter mineral consists of
independent crystals. This structure may be so coarse as to be
easily detected by the unaided eye, or so fine that it cannot be
seen except in microscopic sections. Some of the porphyritic
dolerites have ophitic ground-masses; in others this structure
is imperfect (subophitic) ; while in many the augite, like the
felspar, occurs as small and distinct individuals, which react
differently on polarized light, and have the outlines of more or
less perfectly shaped crystals. Ophitic structure is commonest
in olivine-dolerites, though the olivine takes no part in it.
The quartz-dolerites are an important group, hardly less
common than the olivine-dolerites. They contain a small amount
of quartz, and often micropegmatite, as the last element to
consolidate, filling up little angular interspaces between the
felspars and pyroxenes, which had previously crystallized. They
rarely contain olivine, but pleochroic hypersthene is by no means
rare in them (hypersthene-dolerites). Some contain larger in-
dividuals of pale green, rather pleochroic augite (the so-called
sahlite), and a little brown mica, and brownish-green hornblende
may also be present.
Allied to these are olivine-free dolerites with more or less of
interstitial glassy base (tholeites, &c.). In the rocks of this group
ophitic structure is typically absent, and the presence of an
interstitial finely crystalline or amorphous material gives rise to
the structure which is known as " intersertal." Transitions to
the porphyritic dolerites and basalts arise by increase in the
proportion of this ground-mass. The edges of dolerite sills and
dikes often contain much dark brown glass, and pass into
tachylytes, in which this material preponderates.
Another interesting group of doleritic rocks contains analcite.
They may be ophitic, though often they are not, and they usually
contain olivine, while their augite has distinctly purple shades,
and a feeble dichroism.
Their characteristic feature is the presence of a small amount of
analcite, which never shows crystalline outlines but fills up the
interspaces between the other minerals. Some writers held that
this mineral has resulted from the decomposition of nepheline;
others regard it as a primary mineral. Usually it can be clearly
shown to be secondary to some extent, but there is reason to
suppose that it is really a pneumatolytic deposit. These rocks
are known as teschenites, and have a wide distribution in
England, Scotland, on the continent and in America. Often they
are comparatively rich in brown hornblende. This last-named
mineral is not usually abundant in dolerites, but in a special
group, the proterobases, it to a large extent replaces the
customary augite. A few dolerites contain much brown mica
(mica-dolerites). Nepheline may appear in these rocks, as in the
basalts. Typical nepheline-dolerites are scarce, and consist of
idiomorphic augite, surrounded by nepheline. Examples are
known from the Tertiary volcanic districts of the Rhine.
Dolerites have a very wide distribution, as they are found
wherever basalts occur in any number. It is superfluous to cite
localities for them as they are among the commonest of igneous
rocks. They are much employed for road-mending apd for kerb-
stones, though their dark colour and the tendency they have to
weather with a dingy brown crust make them unsuitable for the
better classes of architectural work. (J. S. F.)
DOLET, ETIENNE (1509-1546), French scholar and printer,
was born at Orleans on the 3rd of August 1509. A doubtful
tradition makes him the illegitimate son of Francis I.; but it is
evident that he was at least connected with some family of rank
and wealth. From Orleans he was taken to Paris about 1521;
and after studying under Nicolas B6rauld, the teacher of Coligny,
he proceeded in 1526 to Padua. The death of his friend and
3 88
DOLGELLEY DOLICHOCEPHALIC
master, Simon de Villanova, led him, in 1530, to accept the post
of secretary to Jean de Langeac, bishop of Limoges and French
ambassador to the republic of Venice; he contrived, however,
to attend the lectures of the Venetian scholar Battista Egnazio,
and found time to write Latin love poems to some Venetian
Elena. Returning to France soon afterwards he proceeded to
Toulouse to study law; but there he soon became involved in
the violent disputes between the different " nations " of the uni-
versity, was thrown into prison, and finally banished by a decree
of the parlement. In 1535 he entered the lists against Erasmus
in the famous Ciceronian controversy, by publishing through
Sebastien Gryphe (Gryphius) at Lyons a Dialogus de imitatione
Ciceroniana; and the following year saw the appearance of his
two folio volumes Commentariorum linguae Latinae. This work
was dedicated to Francis I., who gave him the privilege of print-
ing during ten years any works in Latin, Greek, Italian or
French, which were the product of his own pen or had received
his supervision; and accordingly, on his release from an imprison-
ment occasioned by his justifiable homicide of a painter named
Compaing, he began at Lyons his typographical and editorial
labours. That he was not altogether unaware of the dangers
to which he was exposed from the bigotry of the time is shown
not only by the tone of his mottoes Preserve moi, Seigneur, des
calomnies des hommes, and Durior est spectatae virtutis quam
incognitae conditio but also by the fact that he endeavoured first
of all to conciliate his opponents by publishing a Goto christianus,
or Christian moralist, in which he made profession of his creed.
The catholicity of his literary appreciation, in spite of his ultra-
Ciceronianism, was soon displayed by the works which proceeded
from his press ancient and modern, sacred and secular, from the
New Testament in Latin to Rabelais in French. But before the
term of his privilege expired his labours were interrupted by his
enemies, who succeeded in imprisoning him (1542) on the charge
of atheism. From a first imprisonment of fifteen months Dolet
was released by the advocacy of Pierre Duchatel, bishop of Tulle;
from a second (1544) he escaped by his own ingenuity; but,
venturing back from Piedmont, whither he had fled in order
that he might print at Lyons the letters by which he appealed
for justice to the king of France, the queen of Navarre and the
parlement of Paris, he was again arrested, branded as a relapsed
atheist by the theological faculty of the Sorbonne, and on the 3rd
of August 1546 put to the torture, strangled and burned in the
Place Maubert. On his way thither he is said to have composed
the punning pentameter Non dolet ipse Dolet, sed pia turba dolet.
Whether Dolet is to be classed with the representatives of
Protestantism or with the advocates of anti-Christian rationalism
has been frequently disputed; by the principal Protestants of
his own time he was not recognized, and by Calvin he is formally
condemned, along with Agrippa and his master Villanova, as
having uttered execrable blasphemies against the Son of God;
but, to judge by the religious character of a large number of the
books which he translated or published, such a condemnation is
altogether misplaced. His repeated advocacy of the reading of
the Scriptures in the vulgar tongue is especially noticeable. A
statue of Dolet was erected on the Place Maubert in 1889.
See J. F. Nee de la Rochelle, Vie d'&tienne Dolet (1779); Joseph
Boulmier, E. Dolet, so. vie, ses ceuvres, son martyre (1857) ; A. F. Didot,
Etssai iur la typographic (1852) and article in the Nouvelle]Biographie
generate; L. Michel. Dolet: sa statue, place Maubert: ses amis, ses
ennemis (1889); R. C. Christie, fctienne Dolet, the Martyr of the
Renaissance (2nd ed., 1889), containing a full bibliography of works
published by him as author or printer; O. Galtier, tLtienne Dolet
(Paris, 1908). The ptoces, or trial, of Dolet was published (1836) by
A. H. Taillandier from the registers of the parlement of Paris.
DOLGELLEY (Dolgellau, dale of hazels), a market town and
the county town of Merionethshire, North Wales, situated on the
streams Wnion and Aran at the north base of Cader Idris, on
the Cambrian and Great Western railways, 232 m. from London.
Pop. of urban district (1901) 2437. It consists of small squares
and narrow streets, with a free grammar school (1665), market
hall, assize hall, county gaol, &c. The . so-called parliament
house (1404) of Owen Glendower's members has been demolished.
There is some trade in coarse flannel and tweed. Glendower's
treaty with Charles of France (Owinus D.G. princeps Walliae. . .
Datum apitd Dolguelli . . . ) was dated here. The families of
county rank in the neighbourhood include those of Nannau,
Hengwrt (the famous Hengwrt Welsh MSS. are at Peniarth),
Caerynwch, Fronwnion, Bron-y-gadair, Brynygwin, Brynadda,
Abergwynnant, Garthangharad. The county family, Vaughan,
claims descent from Rodric Fawr, king of North Wales,
Glendower's kinsman and enemy lived at Nannau. Scott
(Marmion. vi. canto, note) refers to the demon oak at Nannau
in 1813. Among neighbouring hills are Moel OSrwm (or
Orthrwm of sacrifice or of oppression) and Moel Cynwch.
DOLGORUKI, VASILY LUKICH, COUNT (1672-1739), Russian
diplomatist and minister, was one of the first batch of young
Russians whom Peter the Great sent abroad to be educated.
From 1687 to 1700 he resided at Paris, where he learned
thoroughly the principal European languages, acquired the
superficial elegance of the court of Versailles, and associated with
the Jesuits, whose moral system he is said to have appropriated.
On his return home he entered the diplomatic service. From
1706 to 1707 he represented Russia in Poland; and from 1707
to 1720 he was her minister at Copenhagen, where he succeeded
in persuading King Frederick IV. to join the second coalition
against Charles XII. At the end of 1720 he was transferred to
Versailles, in order to seek the mediation of France in the pro-
jected negotiations with Sweden and obtain the recognition of
Peter's imperial title by the French court. In 1 724 he represented
Russia at Warsaw and in 1726 at Stockholm, the object of the
latter mission being to detach Sweden from the Hanoverian
alliance, in which he did not succeed. During the reign of
Peter II. (1727-1730) Dolgoruki was appointed a member of
the supreme privy council, and after procuring the banishment of
Menshikov he appropriated the person of the young emperor,
whom he would have forced to marry his niece Catherine but for
Peter's untimely death. He then drew up a letter purporting to
be the last will of the emperor, appointing Catherine Dolgoruki
his successor, but shortly afterwards abandoned the nefarious
scheme as impracticable, and was one of the first to support the
election of Anne of Courland to the throne on condition that she
first signed nine " articles of limitation," which left the supreme
power in the hands of the Russian council. Anne, who repudiated
the " articles " on the first opportunity, never forgave Dolgoruki
for this. He was deprived of all his offices and dignities on the
1 7th of April 1730, and banished first to his country seat and
then to the Solovetsky monastery. Nine years later the charge of
forging the will of Peter II. was revived against him, and he was
tortured and then beheaded at Novgorod on the 8th of November
1739-
See Robert Nisbet Bain, The Pupils of Peter the Great (London,
1895). (R. N. B.)
DOLHAIN, the most eastern town of Belgium, situated on the
Vesdre, N. E. of Verviers and close to the Prussian frontier. Pop.
(1904) 4757. It is quite a modern town, occupying the site of the
lower town of the ancient city of Limburg, which was destroyed
by Louis XIV. in 1675. On a rocky eminence above Dolhain
are still to be seen the fine ruins of the old castle of Limburg, the
cradle of the ancient family of that name from which sprang
the Luxemburg family and several emperors of Germany. The
Gothic church of St George of the i3th century has been restored.
At a short distance from Dolhain is the famous dam of the Gileppe,
the vast reservoir constructed to supply Verviers with water free
from lime for its cloth manufactures. The aqueduct from Gileppe
to Verviers is nearly 5^ m. in length.
DOLICHOCEPHALIC (long-headed), a term invented by
Andreas Retzius to denote (as opposed to " brachycephalic ")
those skulls the diameter of which from side to side, or the
transverse diameter, is small in comparison with the longitudinal
diameter or that from front to back. Retzius, though inventing
the term, did not define it precisely. Paul Broca applied it to
skulls having a cephalic index of seventy-five and under, and this
limit is generally adopted. Dolichocephaly, according to Retzius,
was the distinctive cranial feature of the earliest inhabitants
of Europe. To-day it is characteristic of the negro races, of the
DOLL DOLLAR
389
Papuans, the Polynesians and the Australians, though among the
negritos and some of the pigmy races of Africa brachycephalic
skulls are the rule. Of the yellow races the Eskimo is the most
dolichocephalic. Of white races the Arabs and Kabyles of
Algeria, and the Guanchos of the Canary Islands, are most
notable for dolichocephalic tendency. Dolichocephaly is some-
times frontal, as among adult whites, sometimes occipital or
confined to the back of the head, as among inferior negro-races,
Australians, Papuans and newly-born whites.
DOLL, a child's plaything in the shape of a human figure or
taken as representing one. The word " doll " was not in common
use in the middle ages, " children's babies " and other terms being
substituted for it; the commonly accepted view is that it is
abbreviated from the name Dorothy (cf. Scottish "Doroty").
" Idol " has also been connected with it; but the accent is held to
tell against this. Another derivation is from Norse da-ul (woman) ,
with which may be compared O.H.G. toccha, M.H.G. docke, a girl,
doll, used also in the sense of butterfly, nightmare, &c., thus
connecting the doll with magic and superstition. The same
connexion is found in Asia Minor, South India, among the Pueblo
peoples and in South Africa; philology apart, therefore, the
derivation from " idol " has much to recommend it, and some
side influence from this word may well have caused the selection
of the form " doll." Dolls proper should be distinguished from
(a) idols, (6) magical figurines, (c) votive offerings, (d) costume
figures. The festival figures of Japan, like the bambino of Italy,
given to the child only on certain saints' days, hardly come
within the category of dolls.
Dolls were known in ancient Egypt(XVIIIthDynasty)and Asia
Minor; they were common both in Greece and Rome; Persius
mentions that girls vowed them to Venus when they got married;
dolls found in the catacombs are preserved in the Vatican and
the Museum Carpegna. The vtvp6o-!raffTOi> (Lat. crepundia) of
Greek finds of the 6th and later centuries B.C. was a marionette.
Dolls were in use among the Arabs at the time of Mahomet, and
the prophet's nine-year-old wife Ayesha is said to have induced
him to join her in her play with them. Although Mahommedan-
ism prohibits the making of figures in human shape, dolls do not
seem to have disappeared from Mahommedan countries, though
substitutes for them are perhaps more common there than
elsewhere.
Dolls are extremely common in Africa. There seem to be
forms peculiar to different regions, such as the flat, spade-shaped
figure on the Gold Coast. Among the Wasaramo the girls carry
from the age of puberty till the birth of their first child an object
indistinguishable from the ordinary doll; it is called mwana ya
kiti (stool-child) because it is placed on a stool at home; it
probably has a magical significance. The same may be said of
the Australian figurines; others, made of cane, are undoubtedly
children's dolls; excellently moulded wax figures are also found.
In Asia dolls properly so-called are apparently rare; but there are
specimens in museums from the Malay peninsula, Persia and
South India, and in Asia Minor children use cushions, &c., as
surrogates. They are found in Alaska among the Eskimo. Most
Red Indian tribes had them; a mother who has lost her child
carries its dolls and other playthings. Cortes is said to have found
Montezuma and his court playing with elaborate dolls; they
have been dug up from prehistoric Peruvian graves. In the Gran
Chaco metacarpal bones of the rhea are in use, wrapped in a
blanket when they represent male, in a petticoat when they
are female.
But little attention has been paid to the psychological side
of dolls. Though many boys play with them, dolls are mainly
confined to girls; and female dolls predominate in the proportion
of twelve to one. The culmination of the doll instinct is between
the age of eight and nine; but they are not entirely dropped till
much later; in fact unmarried and childless women sometimes
keep it up for years. In children it is said by Hall to be by no
means always a manifestation of the maternal instinct; for dolls
are not always regarded as children, and the proportion of adults
increases with the age of the children. But the important point
is whether the child regarded itself as older or younger than the
doll. There is, on the other hand, a tendency to neglect dolls for
babies and a reverse current of love of dolls which arises out of
love of babies.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For a list of works see A. MacDonald, Man and
Abnormal Man (U. S. Senate Document, 1905), vol. ix. No. 187,
p. 275); see also Andree, Ethnogiaphische Parallelen N. F. ;
Schlegel, Indische iBibliothek. i. 139; Brandenburgia, xi. 28;
Delineator, Iviii. 927; Globus, Ixxv. 354, Ixxx. 205; Internal.
Archiv f. Ethnog. vii. 45; Ladies' Home Journ. xvi. ; Weslermann's
Monalshefte (Feb. 1899, &c.) ; Man (1903, No. 22). For the psycho-
logical side see Paedagogical Seminary, iv. 129, discussed in Con-
temporary Rev. Ixxv. 58; Mrs F. H. Burnett, "The One I know
best of all "; Sully, Studies of Childhood; G. Sand, Histoire de ma
vie. (N. W. T.)
DOLLAR, a town of Clackmannanshire, Scotland, 6 m. N.E. of
Alloa by the North British railway, not far from the Devon.
Pop. (1901) 1619. The village, which is beautifully situated,
contains several handsome stone villas occupied by families
attracted to the town by its educational facilities. The academy,
housed in a fine mass of buildings of the Grecian order (opened
about 1819), was founded by Captain John McNab (1732-1802), a
native who began life as a herdboy, and afterwards became a rich
shipowner. From the burn of Dollar (or Dolour), which runs
through the ravine of Dollar Glen, the town draws its water-
supply. On an isolated hill above the junction of the parent
streams, named Sorrow and Care, stands the ruin of Castle
Campbell, known also as Gloom Castle, an old stronghold of the
Argyll family. The castle was burned by the Macleans in 1644,
in the interest of the marquess of Montrose, and not again
restored. Although a ruin it is carefully preserved. The Rev. Dr
James Aitken Wylie (1808-1890), the historian of Protestantism,
was a minister in Dollar for several years. Patrick Gibson, the
etcher and landscape-painter, was drawing-master at the academy
from 1824 to 1829, and William Tennant, the author of Anster
Fair, was a teacher of classics from 1819 till 1834, when he was
appointed to the chair of Hebrew in St Andrews University.
Harviestoun Castle, about midway between Dollar and
Tillicoultry, once belonged to the Tait family, and here Archibald
Campbell Tait, archbishop of Canterbury, spent some of his
boyhood.
DOLLAR, a silver coin at one time current in many European
countries, and adopted under varying forms of the name else-
where. The word " dollar " is a modified form of thaler, which,
with the variant forms (daler, dalar, daalder, tallero, &c.), is said
to be a shortened form of Joachimsthaler. This Joachimsthaler
was the name given to a coin intended to be the silver equivalent
of the gold gulden, a coin current in Germany from the i4th
century. In 1516 a rich silver mine was discovered in
Joachimsthal (Joachim's dale), a mining district of Bohemia, and
the count of Schlitz, by whom it was appropriated, caused a
great number of silver coins to be struck (the first having the date
1518), bearing an effigy of St Joachim, hence the name. The
Joachimsthaler was also sometimes known as the Schlickenthaler.
The first use of the word dollar in English was as applied to this
silver coin, the thaler, which was current in Germany at various
values from the i6th century onwards, as well as, more particu-
larly, to the unit of the German monetary union from 1857 to
1873, when the mark was substituted for the thaler. The Spanish
piece-of-eight (reals) was also commonly referred to as a dollar.
When the Bank of England suspended cash payments in 1797,
and the scarcity of coin was very great, a large number of these
Spanish coins, which were held by the bank, were put into
circulation, after having been countermarked at the Mint with
a small oval bust of George III., such as was used by the Gold-
smiths' Company for marking plate. Others were simply over-
stamped with the initials G.R. enclosed in a shield. In 1804
the Maundy penny head set in an octagonal compartment was
employed. Several millions of these coins were issued. These
Spanish pieces-of-eight were also current in the Spanish-American
colonies, and were very largely used in the British North American
colonies. As the reckoning was by pounds, shillings and pence
in the British- American colonies, great inconveniences naturally
arose, but these were to some extent lessened by the adoption of a
tariff list, by which the various gold and silver coins circulating
390
DOLLING DOLLINGER
were rated. In 1787 the dollar was introduced as the unit in
the United States, and it has remained as the standard of value
either in silver or gold in that country. For the history of the
various changes in the weights and value of the coin see
NUMISMATICS. The Spanish piece-of-eight was also the ancestor
of the Mexican dollar, the Newfoundland dollar, the British
dollar circulating in Hong Kong and the Straits Settlements, and
the dollar of the South American republics, although many of
them are now dollars only in name.
DOLLING, ROBERT WILLIAM RADCLYFFE (1851-1902),
English divine, known as Father Dolling, was born at Magheralin,
Co. Down, and educated at Harrow and Cambridge. From 1878
to 1882 he was warden of one of the houses of the Postmen's
League, started by Father Stanton of St Alban's, Holborn. He
was ordained in 1 883 to a curacy at Corscombe, Dorset, but resided
in London as head of St Martin's mission, Stepney. In 1885 a
difficulty as to the relation of his mission to Holy Trinity parish,
Stepney, led to his resignation, and he next accepted the charge
of St Agatha's, Landport, the Winchester College mission. The
remarkable reforms he accomplished there may be ascertained
from his Ten years in a Portsmouth slum (London 1896). In 1885
he again resigned, owing to the bishop of Winchester's refusal to
sanction the extreme ritual used in the service at St Agatha's.
In 1897 he visited America, where his preaching made a great im-
pression. He returned to England in the following year as vicar
of St Saviour's, Poplar, and retained that living until his death.
An account of Polling's person and missi'onary work among the
poor is given in The Life of Father Dolling (London, 1903), by the
Rev. C. E. Osborne.
DOLLINGER, JOHANN JOSEPH IGNAZ VON (1799-1890),
German theologian and church historian, was born at Bamberg,
Bavaria, on the 28th of February 1799. He came of an in-
tellectual stock, his grandfather and father having both been
physicians of eminence and professors of one or other of the
branches of medical science; his mother too belonged to a family
not undistinguished in intellectual power. Young Dollinger was
first educated in the gymnasium at Wiirzburg, and then began to
study natural philosophy at the university in that city, where his
father now held a professorship. In 1817 he began the study of
mental philosophy and philology, and in 1818 turned to the study
of theology, which he believed to lie beneath every other science.
He particularly devoted himself to an independent study of
ecclesiastical history, a subject very indifferently taught in
Roman Catholic Germany at that time. In 1820 he became
acquainted with Victor Aime Huber (1800-1869), a f act which
largely influenced his life. On the sth of April 1822 he was
ordained priest, after studying at Bamberg, and in 1 823 he became
professor of ecclesiastical history and canon law in the lyceum
at Aschaffenburg. He then took his doctor's degree, and in
1826 became professor of theology at Munich, where he spent the
rest of his life. About this time Dollinger brought upon himself
the animadversion of Heine, who was then editor of a Munich
paper. The unsparing satirist described the professor's face as
the " gloomiest " in the whole procession of ecclesiastics which
took place on Good Friday.
It has been stated that in his earlier years Dollinger was a
pronounced Ultramontane. This does not appear to have been
altogether the case; for, very early in his professorial career
at Munich, the Jesuits attacked his teaching of ecclesiastical
history, and the celebrated J. A, Mohler (q.v.) who afterwards
became his friend, on being appealed to, pronounced on the whole
in his favour. He also entered into relations with the well-known
French Liberal Catholic Lamennais, whose views on the reconcilia-
tion of the Roman Catholic Church with the principles of modern
society had aroused much suspicion in Ultramontane circles. In
1832 Lamennais, with his friends Lacordaire and Montalembert,
visited Germany, and obtained considerable sympathy in their
attempts to bring about a modification of the Roman Catholic
attitude to modern problems. Dollinger seems to have regarded
favourably the removal, by the Bavarian government, in 1841,
of Professor Kaiser from his chair, because he had taught the
infallibility of the pope. On the other hand, he published a
treatise in 1838 against mixed marriages, and in 1843 wrote
strongly in favour of requiring Protestant soldiers to kneel at
the consecration of the Host when compelled officially to be
present at Mass. Moreover, in his works on The Reformation
(3 vols. Regensburg, 1846-1848) and on Luther (1851, Eng, tr.,
1853) he is very severe on the Protestant leaders, and he also
accepts, in his earlier works, the Ultramontane view then current
on the practical condition of the Church of England, a view which
in later days he found reason to change. Meanwhile he had
visited England, where he was well received; and he afterwards
travelled in Holland, Belgium and France, acquainting himself
with the condition and prospects of the Roman Catholic Church.
In 1842 he entered into correspondence with the leaders of the
Tractarian movement in England, and some interesting letters
have been preserved which were exchanged between him and
Pusey, Gladstone and Hope Scott. When the last-named joined
the Church of Rome he was warmly congratulated by Dollinger on
the step he had taken. He, however, much regretted the gradual
and very natural trend of his new English allies towards extreme
Ultramontane views, of which Archdeacon, afterwards Cardinal.
Manning ultimately became an enthusiastic advocate. In 1845
Dollinger was made representative of his university in the second
chamber of the Bavarian legislature. In 1847, in consequence of
the fall from power of the Abel ministry in Bavaria, with which he
had been in close relations, he was removed from his professorship
at Munich, but in 1849 he was invited to occupy the chair of
ecclesiastical history. In 1848, when nearly every throne in
Europe was shaken by the spread of revolutionary sentiments,
he was elected delegate to the national German assembly at
Frankfort, a sufficient proof that at this time he was regarded as
no mere narrow and technical theologian, but as a man of wide
and independent views.
It has been said that his change of relations to the Papacy dated
from the Italian war in 1859, but no sufficient reason has
been given for this statement. It is more probable that, like
Grosseteste, he had imbibed in early youth an enthusiastic
sentiment of attachment to the Papacy as the only centre of
authority, and the only guarantee for public order in the Church,
but that his experience of the actual working of the papal
system (and especially a visit to Rome in 1857) had to a certain
extent convinced him how little correspondence there was between
his ideal and the reality. He may also have been unfavourably
impressed with the promulgation by Pius IX. in 1854 of the dogma
of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin. But what-
ever may have been his reasons, he ultimately became the leader
of those who were energetically opposed to any addition to, or
more stringent definition of, the powers which the Papacy had
possessed for centuries. In some speeches delivered at Munich in
1 86 1 he outspokenly declared his view that the maintenance of
the Roman Catholic Church did not depend on the temporal
sovereignty of the pope. His book on The Church and the
Churches (Munich, 1861) dealt to a certain extent with the same
question. In 1863 he invited 100 theologians to meet at Malines
and discuss the question which Lamennais and Lacordaire had
prematurely raised in France, namely, the attitude that should
be assumed by the Roman Catholic Church towards modern ideas.
His address to the assembled divines was " practically a declara-
tion of war against the Ultramontane party." He had spoken
boldly in favour of freedom for the Church in the Frankfort
national assembly in 1848, but he had found the authorities of his
Church claiming a freedom of a very different kind from that for
which he had contended. The freedom he claimed for the Church
was freedom to manage her affairs without the interference of
the state; the champions of the papal monarchy, and notably
the Jesuits, desired freedom in order to put a stop to the dis-
semination of modern ideas. The addresses delivered in the
Catholic congress at Malines were a declaration in the direction
of a Liberal solution of the problem of the relations of Church
and State. The pope for a moment seemed to hesitate, but
there could be little doubt what course he would ultimately
pursue, and after four days' debate the assembly was closed at
his command. On the Sth of December 1864 Pius IX. issued
DOLLINGER
39 1
the famous Syllabus, in which he declared war against modern
science and progress (see SYLLABUS). It was in connexion with
this question that Bellinger published his Past and Present of
Catholic Theology (1863) and his Universities Past and Present
(Munich, 1867).
We now approach the critical period of Bellinger's life. It was
about this time that some of the leading theologians of the Roman
Catholic Church, conceiving that the best way of meeting present
perils was to emphasize, as well as to define more clearly, the
authority of the pope, advised him to make his personal infalli-
bility a dogma of the Church, and urged strenuously on him
the necessity of calling a council for that purpose. There was
considerable opposition in various quarters. Many bishops and
divines considered the proposed definition a false one. Others,
though accepting it as the truth, declared its promulgation to
be inopportune. But the headquarters of the opposition was
Germany, and its leader was Bellinger, whose high reputation and
vast stores of learning placed him far above any other member of
the band of the theological experts who now gathered around him.
Among them were his intimate friends Johann Friedrich (q.v.)
and J. N. Huber, in Bavaria. In the rest of Germany he found
many supporters, chiefly professors in the Catholic faculty of
theology at Bonn: among these were the famous canonist von
Schulte, Franz Heinrich Reusch, the ecclesiastical historian
Joseph Langen, as well as J.H. Reinkens, afterwards bishop of the
Old Catholic Church in Germany, Knoodt, and other distinguished
scholars. In Switzerland, Professor Edward Herzog, who became
Old (or, as it is sometimes called, Christ-) Catholic bishop in
Switzerland, and other learned men supported the movement.
Early in 1869 the famous Letters of Janus (which were at once
translated into English; 2nd ed. Das Papsttum, 1891) began to
appear. They were written by Bellinger in conjunction with
Huber and Friedrich, afterwards professor at Munich. In these
the tendency of the Syllabus towards obscurantism and papal
despotism, and its incompatibility with modern thought, were
clearly pointed out ; and the evidence against papal infallibility,
resting, as the Letters asserted, on the False Becretals, and
accepted without controversy in an age of ignorance, was ably
marshalled for the guidance of the council. When, on the 8th of
Becember 1869, it had actually assembled, the world was kept
informed of what was going on in the Letters of Quirinus, written
by Bellinger and Huber while the debates of the council were
proceeding. Some of these letters appeared in the German
newspapers, and an English translation was published by
Rivington. Augustin Theiner, the librarian at the Vatican, then
in disgrace with the pope for his outspoken Liberalism, kept his
German friends well informed of the course of the discussions.
The proceedings of the council were frequently very stormy, and
the opponents of the dogma of infallibility complained that they
were not unfrequently interrupted, and that endeavours were
made to put them down by clamour. The dogma was at length
carried by an overwhelming majority, and the dissentient bishops,
who with the exception of two had left the council before the
final division, one by one submitted (see VATICAN COUNCIL).
Bollinger, however, was not to be silenced. He headed a protest
by forty-four professors in the university of Munich, and gathered
together a congress at Nuremberg, which met in August 1870 and
issued a declaration adverse to theVatican decrees. An immense
ferment took place. In Bavaria, where Bellinger's influence was
greatest, the strongest determination to resist the resolutions of
the council prevailed. But the authority of the council was held
by the archbishop of Munich to be paramount, and he called upon
Bollinger to submit. Instead of submitting, Bollinger, on the
28th of March 1871, addressed a memorable letter to the arch-
bishop, refusing to subscribe the decrees. They were, he said,
opposed to Holy Scripture, to the traditions of the Church for
the first 1000 years, to historical evidence, to the decrees of the
general councils, and to the existing relations of the Roman
Catholic Church to the state in every country in the world. " As
a Christian, as a theologian, as an historian, and as a citizen," he
added, " I cannot accept this doctrine."
The archbishop replied by excommunicating the disobedient
professor. This aroused fresh opposition. Bollinger was almost
unanimously elected rector-magnificus of the university of
Munich, and Oxford, Edinburgh and Marburg universities
conferred upon him the honorary degree of doctor of laws and
Vienna that of philosophy. The Bavarian clergy invited Bishop
Loos of the Jansenist Church in Holland, which for more than 150
years had existed independent of the Papacy and had adopted
the name of " Old Catholic," to hold confirmations in Bavaria.
The offer was accepted, and the bishop was received with
triumphal arches and other demonstrations of joy. The three
Butch Old Catholic bishops declared themselves ready to con-
secrate a bishop, if it were desired. The momentous question was
discussed at a meeting of the opponents of the Vatican decrees,
and it was resolved to elect a bishop and ask the Butch bishops to
consecrate him. Bollinger, however, voted against the proposi-
tion, and withdrew from any further steps towards the promotion
of the movement. This was the critical moment in the history of
the resistance to the decrees. Had Bollinger, with his immense
reputation as a scholar, as a divine and as a man, allowed himself
to be consecrated bishop of the Old Catholic Church, it is
impossible to say how wide the schism would have been. But
he declined to initiate a schism. His refusal lost Bavaria to the
movement; and the number of Bavarian sympathizers was still
further reduced when the seceders, in 1878, allowed their priests
to marry, a decision which Bollinger, as was known, sincerely
regretted. The Old Catholic Communion, however, was formally
constituted, with Reinkens at its head as bishop, and it still
continues to exist (see OLD CATHOLICS).
Bellinger's attitude to the new community was not very
clearly defined. It may be difficult to reconcile the two declara-
tions made by him at different times: " I do not wish to join a
schismatic society; I am isolated," and " As for myself, I
consider that I belong by conviction to the Old Catholic com-
munity." The latter declaration was made some years after the
former, in a letter to Pastor Widmann. The nearest approach to
a reconciliation of the two statements would appear to be that
while, at his advanced age, he did not wish to assume the
responsibility of being head of a new denomination, formed
in circumstances of exceptional difficulty, he was unwilling to
condemn those who were ready to hazard the new departure.
" By conviction " he belonged to the Old Catholics, but he never
formally joined them. Yet at least he was ready to meet their
leaders, to address them, and to discuss difficult problems with
them. His addresses on the reunion of the Churches, delivered
at the Bonn Conference of 1872, show that he was by no means
hostile to the newly formed communion, in whose interests these
conferences were held. In 1874 and again in 1875, he presided
over the Reunion Conferences held at Bonn and attended by
leading ecclesiastics from the British Isles and from the Oriental
Church, among whom were Bishop Christopher Wordsworth of
Lincoln; Bishop Harold Browne of Ely; Lord Plunket, arch-
bishop of Bublin; Lycurgus, archbishop of Syros and Tenos;
Canon Liddon; and Professor Ossinine of St Petersburg. At the
latter of these two conferences, when Bollinger was seventy-
six years of age, he delivered a series of marvellous addresses in
German and English, in which he discussed the state of theology
on the continent, the reunion question, and the religious condition
of the various countries of Europe in which the Roman Catholic
Church held sway. Not the least of his achievements on this
occasion was the successful attempt, made with extraordinary
tact, ability, knowledge and perseverance, to induce the Orientals,
Anglicans and Old Catholics present to accept a formula of con-
cord, drawn from the writings of the leading theologians of the
Greek Church, on the long-vexed question of the Procession of the
Holy Spirit. This result having been attained, he passed the rest
of his days in retirement, emerging sometimes from his retreat
to give addresses on theological questions, and also writing, in
conjunction with his friend Reusch, his last book, Geschichte
der Moralstreitigkeiten in der romisch-katholischen Kirche seit
dem sechzehnten Jahrhundert mil Beitrdgen zur Geschichte und
Charakteristik des Jesuitenordens (Nordlingen, 1889), in which he
deals with the moral theology of St Alfonso de' Liguori. He died
392
DOLLOND DOLOMIEU
in Munich, on the I4th of January 1890, at the age of ninety-one.
Even in articulo mortis he refused to receive the sacraments
from the parish priest at the cost of submission, but the last
offices were performed by his friend Professor Friedrich.
In addition to the works referred to in the foregoing sketch, we may
mention The Eucharist in the First Three Centuries (Mainz, 1826) ; a
Church History (1836, Eng. trans. 1840); Hifpolytus and Callistus
(1854, Eng. trans., 1876); First Age of Christianity (1860); Lectures
en the Reunion of the Churches; The Vatican Decrees; Studies in
European History (tr. M. Warre, 1890) ; Miscellaneous Addresses
(tr. M. Warre, 1894).
See Life by J. Friedrich (3 vols. 1899-1901); obituary notice in
The Times, nth January 1890; L. von Kobell, Conversations of
Dr DoUinger (tr. by K. Gould, 1892). (J. J. L.*)
DOLLOND, JOHN (1706-1761), English optician, was the son
of a Huguenot refugee, a silk-weaver at Spitalfields; London,
where he was born on the loth of June 1706. He followed his
father's trade, but found time to acquire a knowledge of Latin,
Greek, mathematics, physics, anatomy and other subjects. In
1752 he abandoned silk- weaving and joined his eldest son, Peter
Dollond (1730-1820), who in 1750 had started in business as a
maker of optical instruments. His reputation grew rapidly,
and hi 1761 he was appointed optician to the king. In 1738 he
published an " Account of some experiments concerning the
different refrangibility of light " (Phil. Trans., 1758), describing
the experiments that led him to the achievement with which his
name is specially associated, the discovery of a means of construct-
ing achromatic lenses by the combination of crown and flint
glasses. Leonhard Euler in 1 747 had suggested that achromatism
might be obtained by the combination of glass and water lenses.
Relying on statements made by Sir Isaac Newton, Dollond
disputed this possibility (Phil. Trans., 1753), but subsequently,
after the Swedish physicist, Samuel Klingenstjerna (1698-1765),
had pointed out that Newton's law of dispersion did not harmonize
with certain observed facts, he began experiments to settle the
question. Early in 1757 he succeeded in producing refraction
without colour by the aid of glass and water lenses, and a few
months later he made a successful attempt to get the same result
by a combination of glasses of different qualities (see TELESCOPE) .
For this achievement the Royal Society awarded him the Copley
medal in 1758, and three years later elected him one of its fellows.
Dollond also published two papers on apparatus for measuring
small angles (Phil. Trans., 1753, 1754). He died in London, of
apoplexy, on the 3Oth of November 1761.
An account of his life, privately printed, was written by the Rev.
John Kelly (1750-1809), the Manx scholar, who married one of his
granddaughters.
DOLMAN (from Turk, dolaman), originally a long and loose
garment left unfastened in front, and with narrow sleeves. It is
worn generally by the Turks, and is not unlike a cassock in shape.
The name was given to the uniform jacket, worn by hussars, and
slung from the shoulders with the sleeves hanging loose; and it is
also used for a similar garment worn by ladies, with wide cape-
like arrangements instead of sleeves.
DOLNJA TUZLA, or DONJI Sou, the capital of the Dolnja
Tuzla district, in Bosnia, beautifully situated on the Jala or Julia,
a small stream flowing into the Spreia, which joins the Bosna
at Doboj, 39 m. W.N.W.; and on a branch railway from Doboj.
Pop. (1895) 10,227; almost all, including a permanent colony
of gipsies, being Moslems. Dolnja Tuzla is the seat of a district
court and an Orthodox bishop; with several churches, many
mosques, a hospital, gymnasium and commercial school. Besides
large alkali works, it has a vigorous trade in grain, livestock,
timber and coal, from the surrounding hills, where there is a colony
of Hungarian miners; while the salt springs, owned by the state
both at Dolnja, or Lower, and Gornja, or Upper Tuzla, 6 m. E.,
are without a rival in the Balkan Peninsula.
Dolnja Tuzla was called by the Romans Ad Salinas.
Constantine Porphyrogenitus mentions it, in the loth century, as
Salenes; in other medieval documents it appears as Sou, Sow or
Soli. Its modern name is derived from the Turkish tuz, " salt."
In 1690 the Austrians routed the Turks at Gornja Tuzla, and
removed the Franciscan friars, with about 3000 other Roman
Catholics, into Slavonia.
DOLOMIEU, DEODAT GUY SILVAIN TANCREDE GRATET
DE (1750-1801), French geologist and mineralogist, was born at
Dolomieu, near Tour-du-Pin,in the department of Isere in France,
on the 24th of June 1 7 50. He was admitted in his infancy a mem-
ber of the Order of Malta. In his nineteenth year he quarrelled
with a knight of the galley on which he was serving, and in the
duel that ensued killed him. He was condemned to death for his
crime, but in consideration of his youth the grand master granted
him a pardon, which, at the instance of Cardinal Torrigiani, was
confirmed by Pope Clement XIII., and after nine months'
imprisonment he was set at liberty. Throughout that period he
had solaced himself with the study of the physical sciences, and
during his subsequent residence at Metz he continued to devote
himself to them. In 1775 he published his Recherches sur la
pesanteur des corps a differences distances du centre de la terre,
and two Italian translations of mineralogical treatises by A. F.
Cronstedt (1702-1765) and T. O. Bergman (1735-1784). These
works gained for him the honour of election as a corresponding
member of the Academic des Sciences at Paris. To obtain leisure
to follow his favourite pursuits Dolomieu now threw up the
commission which, since the age of fifteen, he had held in the
carabineers, and in 1777 he accompanied the bailli (afterwards
Cardinal L. R. E.) de Rohan to Portugal. In the following year
he visited Spain, and in 1780 and 1781 Sicily and the adjacent
islands. Two months of the year 1782 were spent in examining
the geological structure of the Pyrenees, and in 1783 the earth-
quake of Calabria induced him to go to Italy. The scientific
results of these excursions are given in his Voyage aux ties de
Lipari (1783); Memoire sur le tremblement de terre de la Calabre
(1784); Memoire sur les ties Ponces, et catalogue raisonni des
produits de I' Etna (1788) and other works. In 1789 and 1790 he
busied himself with an examination of the Alps, his observations
on which form the subject of numerous memoirs published in the
Journal de physique. The mineral dolomite, which was named
after him, was described by Dolomieu in 1791. He returned
to France in that year, bringing with him rich collections of
minerals. On the i4th of September 1792 the due de la Roche-
foucauld, with whom he had been for twenty years on terms of
the closest intimacy, was assassinated at Forges, and Dolomieu
retired with the widow and daughter of the duke to their estate of
Roche Guyon, where he wrote several important scientific papers.
The events of^the 9th Thermidor (July 27, 1794) having restored
the country to some tranquillity, Dolomieu recommenced his
geological tours, and visited various parts of France with which
he had been previously unacquainted. He was in 1 796 appointed
engineer and ptofessor at the school of mines, and was chosen a
member of the Institute at the time of its formation. At the end
of 1797 he joined the scientific staff which in 1798 accompanied
Bonaparte's expedition to Egypt. He had proceeded up the Nile
as far asCairo when ill-health made his return toEurope necessary,
and on the 7th of March 1799 he set sail from Alexandria. His
ship proving unseaworthy put into Taranto, and as Naples was
then at war with France, all the French passengers were made
prisoners. On the 2 2nd of May they were carried by ship to Mes-
sina, whence, with the exception of Dolomieu, they embarked
for the coast of France. Dolomieu had been an object of the
hatred of the Neapolitan court since 1783, when he revealed to
the grand master of his order its designs against Malta, and the
calumnies of his enemies on that island served now as a pretext for
his detention. He was confined in a pestilential dungeon, where,
clothed in rags, and having nothing but a little straw for a bed, he
languished during twenty-one months. Dolomieu, however, did
not abandon himself to despair. Deprived of writing materials,
he made a piece of wood his pen, and with the smoke of his lamp
for ink he wrote upon the margins of a Bible, the only book he
still possessed, his treatise Sur la philosophic mintralogique et sur
I'espece minerale (1801). Friends entreated, but in vain, for his
liberty; it was with difficulty that they succeeded in furnishing
him with a little assistance, and it was only by virtue of a special
clause in the treaty between France and Naoles that, on the isth
of March 1801, he was released. On his arrival in France he
commenced the duties of the chair of mineralogy at the museum
DOLOMITE
393
of natural history, to which, after the death of Daubenton,
he had been elected in January 1800. His course of lectures
concluded, he revisited Switzerland. Returning thence he reached
the residence of his brother-in-law at Chateau-Neuf, in the
department of Sa6ne-et-Loire, where he was seized with a fever,
to which in a few days he succumbed, on the 26th of November
1801.
Dolomieu's geological theories are remarkable for originality
and boldness of conception. The materials constituting the
primordial globe he held to have arranged themselves according
to their specific gravities, so as to have constituted a fluid central
sphere, a solid crust external to this, next a stratum of water,
and lastly the atmosphere. Where water penetrated through the
crust, solidification took place in the underlying fluid mass, which
enlarging in consequence produced rifts in the superincumbent
rocks. Water rushing down through the rifts became decom-
posed, and the resulting effervescence occasioned submarine
volcanoes. The crust of the earth he believed to be continually
increasing in thickness, owing to the deposition of aqueous rocks,
and to the gradual solidification of the molten interior, so that
the volcanic eruptions and other geological phenomena of former
must have been of far greater magnitude and frequency than
those of recent times.
See Lacpde, " filoge historique de Dolomieu," in Memoires de la
classe des sciences de I'Institut (1806) ; Thomson, in Annals of Philo-
sophy, vol. xii. p. 161 (1808). .
DOLOMITE, a mineral species consisting of calcium and
magnesium carbonate, CaMg (COa)2, and occurring as rhombo-
hedral crystals or large rock-masses. Analyses of most well-
crystallized specimens correspond closely with the above
formula, the two carbonates being present in equal molecular
proportions (CaCO3,S4-35; MgCO3,4S-65%). Normal dolomite
is thus not an isomorphous mixture of calcium and magnesium
carbonates, but a double salt; and any variations in composition
are to be explained by the isomorphous mixing of this double
salt with carbonates of calcium, iron, magnesium, manganese,
and rarely of zinc and cobalt.
In crystalline form dolomite is very similar to calcite, belonging
to the same group of rhombohedral carbonates; the primitive
^--~.^ rhombohedron, r (100), parallel to
./^/"^^^ tne faces of which there are perfect
^r I \^ cleavages, has interfacial angles of
I r I r > 73 4S '> t ^ le an 8te f tne cleavage
/ [^ /'rhombohedron of calcite being 74
[ jS ^-^^ / 55'. A specially characteristic feature
\/ r ^^~^/ is that this rhombohedron is fre-
^^-^^ ^^ quently the only form present on the
^^vv^ crystals (in calcite it is rare except
FIG. i. in combination with other forms);
the faces are also usually curved
(fig. i ), sometimes to an extraordinary degree giving rise to saddle-
shaped crystals (fig. 2). Crystals with plane faces are usually
twinned, there being an interpenetration of two rhombohedra
with the vertical axes parallel. The secondary twin-lamination,
parallel to the obtuse rhombohedron
e (no), so common in calcite, does not
exist in dolomite. In the degree of
symmetry possessed by the crystals there
is, however, an important difference be-
tween calcite and dolomite; the former
has the full number of planes and axes
of symmetry of a rhombohedral crystal,
whilst the latter is hemihedral with
parallel faces, having only an axis of
triad symmetry and a centre of sym-
metry. This lower degree of symmetry, which is the same as
that of dioptase and phenacite, is occasionally shown by the
presence of an obliquely placed rhombohedron, and also by
the want of symmetry in the etching and elasticity figures
on the faces of the primitive rhombohedron.
Dolomite is both harder (H. = 3|-4) and denser (sp. gr. 2-85)
than calcite. The two minerals may also be readily distinguished
FIG. 2.
by the fact that dolomite is not acted upon by cold, dilute acids
(see below, Dolomite Rock). Crystals of dolomite vary from
transparent to translucent, and often exhibit a pearly lustre,
especially when the faces are curved; the colour is usually white
or yellowish.
The crystallized mineral was first examined chemically by
P. Woulfe in 1779, and was named compound-spar by R. Kirwan
in 1784; other early names are bitter-spar, rhomb-spar and
pearl-spar (but these included other rhombohedral carbonates).
The name dolomite (dolomie of N. T. de Saussure, 1792) is in
honour of the French geologist, D. G. Dolomieu, who in 1791
noted that certain Tyrolese calcareous rocks and Italian marbles
effervesce only slightly in contact with acid; this name was for
many years applied to the rock only, but was later extended to
the crystallized mineral, first in the form dolomite-spar.
In the white crystalline dolomite-rock of the Binnenthal near
Brieg in Switzerland beautiful water-clear crystals of dolomite
are found; and crystallized masses occur embedded in serpentine,
talc-schist and other magnesian silicate rocks. The best crystal-
lized specimens are, however, usually found in metalliferous
deposits; for example, in the iron mines of Traversella near
Ivrea in Piedmont (as large twinned rhombohedra) and Cleator
Moor in Cumberland; in the deposits of lead and zinc ores at
Alston in Cumberland, Laxey in the Isle of Man, Joplin in
Missouri; and in the silver veins of Schemnitz in Hungary and
Guanajuato in Mexico.
Several varieties of dolomite have been distinguished, depending
on differences in structure and chemical composition. Miemite
is a crystallized or columnar variety, of a pale asparagus-green
colour, from Miemo near Volterra in Tuscany; taraspite is a
similar variety from Tarasp in Switzerland. Gurhofite, from
Gurhof near Aggsbach in Lower Austria, is snow-white, compact
and porcellanous. Brossite, from the Brosso valley near Ivrea in
Piedmont, and tharandite, f rom Tharand in Saxony, are crystal-
lized varieties containing iron. Closely related is the species
ankerite (q.v.). (L. J. S.)
Dolomite Rock. The rock dolomite, also known as dolomitic
or magnesian limestone, consists principally of the mineral of the
same name, but often contains admixture of other substances,
such as calcite, quartz, carbonate and oxides of iron, argillaceous
material, and chert or chalcedony. Dolomites when very pure
and well crystallized may be snowy white (e.g. some examples
from the eastern Alps), but are commonly yellow, creamy,
brownish or grey from the presence of impurities. They tend
to be crystalline, though on a fine scale, and appear under the
microscope composed of small sharply angular rhombohedra,
with a perfect cleavage and very strong double refraction. They
can be often recognized by this, but are most certainly dis-
tinguished from similar limestones or marbles by tests with weak
acid. Dolomite dissolves only very slowly in dilute hydrochloric
acid in the cold, but readily when the acid is warmed; limestones
are freely attacked by the acid in either state. Magnesian lime-
stones, which contain both dolomite and calcite, may be etched
by exposing polished surfaces for a brief time to cold weak acid;
the calcite is removed, leaving small pits or depressions. The
distribution of the calcite may be rendered more clear by using
ferric chloride solution. This is decomposed, leaving a yellow
stain of ferric hydrate where the calcite occurred. Alternatively,
a solution of aluminium chloride will serve; this precipitates
gelautinous alumina on contact with calcite and the film can be
stained with aniline dyes (Lemberg's solution). The dolomite is
not affected by these processes.
Dolomites of compact structure have a higher specific gravity
than Kmestones, but they very often have a cavernous or drusy
character, the walls of the hollows being lined with small crystals
of dolomite with a pearly lustre and rounded faces. They are also
slightly harder, and for these and other reasons they last better
as building stones and wear better when used for paving or road-
mending. Dolomites are rarely fossiliferous, as the process of
dolomitization tends to destroy any organic remains originally
present. As compared with limestones they are less frequently
well bedded, but there are exceptions to this rule. Many
394
DOLOMITES DOLPHIN
dolomites, particularly those of the north of England, show a very
remarkable concretionary structure. The beds look as if made up
of rounded balls of all sizes from a foot or two in diameter down-
wards. Often they are stuck together like piles cf shot or bunches
of grapes. They are composed of fibrous radiate calcite crystals,
which by some kind of concretionary action have segregated from
the dolomitic material and grouped themselves together in this
way. Other concretions from these beds resemble bunches of
corals, tufts of plants, or present various strange imitative forms.
Dolomite, unlike calcite, is not secreted by marine animals to
build up the hard parts of their skeletons, and it is generally
agreed also that dolomite is only very rarely and under excep-
tional conditions deposited directly from solution in water. On
the other hand, there is much evidence to show that limestones
may absorb or be partly replaced by magnesium carbonate, and
the double salt dolomite substituted for calcite by one of those
processes which are described as " metasomatic." Thus the
Carboniferous limestones of various parts of Britain pass into
dolomites along lines of joint, fissure or fault, or occasionally
along certain bedding planes. At the same time the rock becomes
crystalline, its minute structure is altered, its fossils are effaced,
and as dolomite has a higher specific gravity than limestone,
contraction results and cavities are formed. The prevalence of
crystalline, concretionary and drusy structures in dolomite can
thus be simply explained. The process may actually be studied
in many " magnesian limestones," in which by means of the
microscope we may trace the gradual growth of dolomite crystals
taking place simultaneously with the destruction of the original
features of the limestone. Recent investigations in coral reefs
show that these changes are going on at the present day at no
considerable depths and in rocks which have not long con-
solidated.
All this goes to prove that the double carbonate of calcium and
magnesium is under certain conditions a more stable salt than
either of the simple carbonates, and that these conditions recur in
nature with considerable frequency. Experiments have proved
that at moderately high temperatures (100 to 200 C.) solutions
of magnesium salts will convert calcite into dolomite in the
laboratory, and that aragonite is even more readily affected than
calcite. The analogy with dolomitization of limestones is strong
but not complete, as the latter process must take place at ordinary
temperatures and approximately under atmospheric pressures.
No completely satisfactory explanation of the change, from the
standpoint of the geologist, has as yet been advanced, though
much light has been thrown upon the problem. Many limestones
are rich in aragonite, but this in course of time tends to re-
crystallize as calcite. Magnesium salts are abundant in sea- water,
and in the waters of evaporating enclosed coral lagoons and of
many bitter lakes. Calcite is more soluble than dolomite in water
saturated with carbonic acid and would tend to be slowly removed
from a limestone, while the dolomite increased in relative propor-
tion. Dolomite also being denser than calcite may be supposed to
replace it more readily when pressure is increased. These and
many other factors probably co-operate to effect the transmuta-
tion of limestones into dolomites.
Examples of dolomitization may be obtained in practically
every geological formation in which limestones occur. The
oldest rocks are most generally affected, e.g. the Cambrian lime-
stones of Scotland, but the change occurs, as has already been
stated, even in the upraised coral reefs of the Indian and Pacific
oceans which are very recent formations. It is very interesting to
note that dolomites are very frequent among rocks which indicate
that desert or salt-lake conditions prevailed at the time of their
deposit. The dolomite or magnesian limestone of the English
Permian is an instance of this. The explanation may be found
in the fact that the waters of bitter lakes are usually rich in
magnesium salts which, percolating through beds of limestone,
would convert them into dolomite. Among the most famous
dolomites are those of the Dolomite Alps of Tirol. They are of
Triassic age and yield remarkably picturesque mountain scenery;
it is believed that some were originally coral reefs; they are now
highly crystalline and often contain interesting minerals and ores.
The galena limestone of the North American Trenton rocks is
mostly a dolomite.
Dolomites furnish excellent building stones, and those of the
north-east of England (Mansfield stone, &c.) have long been
regarded with great favour on account of their resistance to
decomposition. They vary a good deal in quality, and have not
all proved equally satisfactory in practice. Part of the Houses of
Parliament at Westminster is built of dolomite. (J. S. F.)
DOLOMITES, THE, a mountain district in the South Tirolese
Alps, though sometimes it is erroneously considered to form part
of some other chain than the Alps. The distinguishing feature of
this district is that it is composed of magnesian limestone, which
rises in peaks of a most singular degree of sharpness and streaked
by veins of the most startling colours. Nowadays it has become
well known to tourists, who, however, keep mainly to a few great
centres, though most of the more striking peaks were first
ascended in the late sixties and early seventies of the ipth century
by English mountaineers. Roughly speaking the Dolomite
region lies between the Brenner railway from Franzensfeste
to Trent (W.) and the road over the Monte Croce Pass from
Innichen in the Drave valley by way of the Sexten glen and
the Piave valley to Belluno and Feltre (E.). On the north it is
limited by the railway line from Innichen to Franzenfeste, and
on the south by the railway and road from Trent to Feltre. The
highest summit is the Marmolata (10,972 ft.), but far more
typical are the Sorapiss, the Cimon della Pala, the Langkofel,
the Pelmo, the Drei Zinnen, the Sass Maor and the Rosengarten
(see ALPS). Among the chief tourist resorts are St Ulrich (in
the Groden valley), San Martino di Castrozza (near Primiero),
Caprile and Cortina d'Ampezzo.
Besides the Dolomites included in the above region there are
several other Dolomite groups (though less extensive) in the Alps.
N. W. of Trent rises the Tosa group, while in Switzerland there are
the Piz d'Aela group, S.W. of Bergun on the Albula Pass route,
and the curious little group N. of the village of Splugen, besides
other isolated peaks between the St Gotthard and Lukmanier
Passes. In Dauphine itself (the home of the geologist Dolomieu)
the mountain districts of the Royannais, of the Vercors, and of
the Devoluy (all S.W. of Grenoble) are more or less Dolomitic in
character.
See J. Gilbert and G. C. Churchill, The Dolomite Mountains
(London, 1864); Miss L. Tuckett, Zigzagging among Dolomites
(London, 1871); P. Grohmann, Wanderungen in den Dolomiten
(Vienna, 1877) ; L. Sinigaglia, Climbing Reminiscences of the Dolo-
mites (London, 1896); The Climbs of Norman-Neruda (London,
1899); V. Wolf von Glanvell, Dolomitenfuhrer (Vienna, 1898);
J. Ball, Western Alps (new ed., London, 1898, section 9, Rte. P.
French Dolomites). (W. A. B. C.)
DOLPHIN, a name properly belonging to the common cetacean
mammal known as Delphinus delphis, but also applied to a
number of more or less nearly allied species. The dolphins,
bottle-noses, or, as they are more commonly called, " porpoises,"
are found in abundance in all seas, while some species are
inhabitants of large rivers, as the Amazon. They are among the
The Common Dolphin (Delphinus delphis).
smaller members of the cetacean order, none exceeding 10 ft. in
length. Their food is chiefly fish, for the capture of which their
long narrow beaks, armed with numerous sharp-pointed teeth,
are well adapted, but some also devour crustaceans and molluscs.
They are mostly gregarious, and the agility and grace of their
movements in the water are themes of admiration to the
spectators when a " school of porpoises " is playing round the
bows of a vessel at sea.
The type of the group is the common dolnhin (D. delphis) of the
Mediterranean and Atlantic, which usually measures 6 to 8 ft. in
length, and is thickest near the centre, whe/e the back fin rises to
DOMAT DOMBROWSKI
395
a height of 9 or 10 in., and whence the body tapers towards both
extremities. The forehead descends abruptly to the base of the
slightly flattened beak, which is about 6 in. long, and is separated
from the forehead by a transverse depression. The mouth is
armed with sharp, slightly curved teeth, of uniform size, varying
in number from forty to fifty on each side of both jaws. The aper-
ture of the ear is exceedingly minute; the eyes are of moderate
size and the blow-hole is crescent-shaped. The colour of the upper
surface is black, becoming lighter on the flanks, and perfectly
white below. Dolphins are gregarious, and large herds oftenfollow
ships. They exhibit remarkable agility, individuals having been
known to leap to such a height out of the water as to fall upon
the deck. Their gambols and apparent relish for human society
have attracted the attention of mariners in all ages, and have
probably given rise to the many fabulous stories told of dolphins.
Their appearance at sea was regarded as a good omen, for although
it presaged a tempest, yet it enabled the sailors to steer for a place
of safety. The dolphin is exceedingly voracious, feeding on fish,
cuttlefishes and crustaceans. On the south coast of England it
lives chiefly on pilchard and mackerel, and when in pursuit of
these is often taken in the nets. The female brings forth a single
young one, which she nurses most carefully. Her milk is
abundant and rich, and during the operation of suckling, the
mother floats in a slightly sidelong position, so as to allow of the
necessary respiration in herself and her young. The dolphin was
formerly supposed to be a fish, and allowed to be eaten by Roman
Catholics when the use of flesh was prohibited, and it seems to
have been esteemed as a delicacy by the French. Among the
seafaring population of Britain the name " dolphin " is most
usually given to the beautifully coloured fish Coryphaena hippuris
the dorado of the Portuguese, and it is to the latter the poet
is alluding when he speaks of " the dying dolphin's changing
hues."
Many other allied genera, such as Prodelphinus, Sieno,
Lagenorhynchus, &c., are also included in the family Ddphinidae,
some of which live wholly in rivers.
Beside these there is another group of largely freshwater species,
constituting the family Platanistidae, and typified by the susu
(Platanista gangetica), extensively distributed throughout nearly
the whole of the river-systems of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and
Indus, ascending as high as there is water enough to swim in, but
never passing out to sea. It is about 8 ft. long, blind and feeds
on small fish and crustaceans for which it gropes with its long
snout in the muddy waters at the bottom. Into, geoffroyensis,
the single species of its genus, frequents the Amazon, and reaches
an extreme length of 8 ft. It is wholly pink or flesh-coloured, or
entirely black, or black above and pink beneath. A third is the
La Plata dolphin, Stenodelphis blainvillei, a species about 5 ft.
in length. Its colour is palish brown, which harmonizes with the
brown-coloured water of the estuary of the Rio de la Plata. See
CETACEA. (R. L.*)
DOMAT, or DAUMAT, JEAN (1625-1696), French jurisconsult,
was born at Clermont in Auvergne, on the 3oth of November
1625. He was closely in sympathy with the Port-Royalists, was
intimate with Pascal, and at the death of that celebrated philo-
sopher was entrusted with his private papers. He is principally
known from his elaborate legal digest, in three volumes 410,
under the title of Lois civiles dans leur ordre naturd (1689), an
undertaking for which Louis XIV. settled on him a pension
of 2000 livres. A fourth volume, Le Droit public, was published
in 1697, a year after his death. This is one of the most important
works on the science of law that France has produced. Domat
endeavoured to found all law upon ethical or religious principles,
his motto being L'komme estfait par Dieu et pour Dieu. Besides
the Lois Civiles, Domat made in Latin a selection of the most
common laws in the collections of Justinian, under the title of
Legum ddectus (Paris, 1700; Amsterdam, 1703); it was sub-
sequently appended to the Lois civiles. His works have been
translated into English. Domat died in Paris on the I4th of
March 1696.
In the Journal des savants for 1843 are several papers on Domat
by Victor Cousin, giving much information not otherwise accessible.
DOMBES, a district of eastern France, formerly part of the
province of Burgundy, now comprised in the department of Ain,
and bounded W. by the Sa6ne, S. by the Rhone, E. by the Ain
and N. by the district of Bresse. The region forms an undulating
plateau with a slight slope towards the north-west, the higher
ground bordering the Ain and the Rhone attaining an average
height of about 1000 ft. The Dombes is characterized by an
impervious surface consisting of boulder clay and other relics of
glacial action. To this fact is due the large number of rain-water
pools, varying for the most part from 35 to 250 acres in size which
cover some 23,000 acres of its total area of 282,000 acres. These
pools, artificially created, date in many cases from the isth
century, some to earlier periods, and were formed by landed
proprietors who in those disturbed times saw a surer source
of revenue in fish-breeding than in agriculture. Disease and
depopulation resulted from this policy and at the end of the
1 8th century the Legislative Assembly decided to reduce the area
of the pools which then covered twice their present extent.
Drainage works were continued, roads cut, and other improve-
ments effected during the igth century. Large numbers of fish,
principally carp, pike and tench are still reared profitably, the
pools being periodically dried up and the ground cultivated.
The Dombes (Lat. Dumbae) once formed part of the kingdom of
Aries. In the 1 1 th century, when the kingdom began to break up,
the northern part of the Dombes came under the power of the
lords of Bauge, and in 1218, by the marriage of Marguerite de
Bauge with Humbert IV. of Beaujeu, passed to the lords of
Beaujeu. The southern portion was held in succession by the
lords of Villars and of Thoire. Its lords took advantage of the
excommunication of the emperor Frederick II. to assert their
complete independence of the Empire. In 1400, Louis II., duke
of Bourbon, acquired the northern part of the Dombes, together
with the lordship of Beaujeu, and two years later bought the
southern part from the sires de Thoire, forming the whole into a
new sovereign principality of the Dombes, with Trevoux as its
capital. The principality was confiscated by King Francis I. in
1523, along with the other possessions of the Constable de
Bourbon, was granted in 1527 to the queen-mother, Louise of
Savoy, and after her death was held successively by kings
Francis I., Henry II. and Francis II., and by Catherine de'
Medici. In 1561 it was granted to Louis, duke of Bourbon-
Montpensier, by whose descendants it was held till, in 1682,
" Mademoiselle," the duchess of Montpensier, gave it to Louis
XIV.'s bastard, the duke of Maine, as part of the price for the
release of her lover Lauzun. The eldest son of the duke of Maine,
Louis Auguste de Bourbon (1700-1755), prince of Dombes, served
in the army of Prince Eugene against the Turks (1717), took part
in the War of the Polish Succession (1733-1734), and in that of the
Austrian Succession (1742-1747). He was made colonel-general
of the Swiss regiment, governor of Languedoc and master of the
hounds of France. He was succeeded, as prince of Dombes, by
his brother the count of Eu (q.i>.), who in 1762 surrendered the
principality to the crown. The little principality of Dombes
showed in some respects signs of a vigorous life; the prince's
mint and printing works at Trevoux were long famous, and the
college at Thoissey was well endowed and influential.
See A. M. H. J. Stokvis, Manuel d'histoire (Leiden, 1889);
Guichenon, Histoire de Dombes (1863, 1872) ; and various works by
M. C. Guigue, including Bibliotheca Dumbensis (with Valentin Smith)
(1856-1885).
DOMBROWSKI, JAN HENRYK (1755-1818), Polish general,
was born at Pierszowice in the palatinate of Cracow, on the 29th
of August 1755. Brought up in Saxony, he served for some years
in the Saxon army; but when, in 1791, the Polish diet recalled
all Poles serving abroad, he returned to his native land. Under
Poniatowski, he took part in the campaign of 1792 against the
Russians. In 1794 he distinguished himself under Kosciusko in
the defence of Warsaw. For two years thereafter he lived in
retirement, declining the offers of high ranks in their armies made
to him by Russia and Prussia. He then went to Paris, and in
January 1797 was authorized by the government of the Cisalpine
Republic to organize a Polish legion. This task he executed at
39 6
DOME
Milan. In command of his legion he played an important part in
the war in Italy, entered Rome in May 1798, and distinguished
himself greatly at the Trebbia (June 19, 1799), and in other
battles and combats of 1799-1801. After the peace of Amiens
he passed, as general of division, into the service of the Italian
republic. Summoned by Napoleon in 1806 to promote a rising in
Poland, he organized several divisions of Poles, and distinguished
himself at Danzig and at Friedland. In 1809 he served in the
Polish campaign and in 1812 he commanded a Polish division in
the Grande Armee, being wounded at the passage of the Beresina.
He fought under Marmont at the battle of Leipzig (1813), and
in the following year returned to Poland. He was one of the
generals entrusted by the tsar with the reorganization of the
Polish army, and was named in 1815 general of cavalry and
senator palatine of the new kingdom of Poland. He retired,
however, in the following year, to his estates in Posen. General
Dombrowski died at his seat of Wina-Gora in Posen on the 26th
of June 1818. He wrote several military historical works in the
Polish language.
DOME (Lat domus, house; Ital. duomo, cathedral), an archi-
tectural term, derived from a characteristic feature of Italian
cathedrals, correctly applied only to a spherical or spheroidal
vault, the horizontal plan of which is always a circle. It may be
supported on a circular wall, as in the Pantheon at Rome; or on
a drum, as in the later Byzantine churches and generally so in the
Renaissance styles; or be carried over a square or polygonal area,
in which case the base of the dome is connected to the lines of the
main wall by pendentives, squinches, corbels or a series of con-
centric arches, or two of these combined. Its section may be semi-
circular, pointed, ovoid or segmental; in the latter case it is
usually termed a cupola, although the pendentives which carry
it continue, on the diagonal lines, the complete spherical dome, as
in the entrance vestibule on the south side of the Sanctuary at
Jerusalem, attributed to Herod, or in those crowning the bays of
the Golden Gateway by Justinian. The dome may be constructed
in horizontal courses, as in the " beehive " tombs at Mycenae,
with joints radiating to the centre, or a compromise between the
two, in a series of small segments of circles, as in the Temple of
Jupiter in Diocletian's palace at Spalato, or again with the lower
portion in horizontal courses and the upper portion with arches,
as in the Pantheon at Rome.
The dome is probably one of the earliest forms of covering
invented by man, but owing probably to its construction in
ephemeral materials, such as the unburnt bricks in Chaldaea,
there are no examples existing. But in a bas-relief (see ARCHI-
TECTURE, fig. 10), brought by Layard from Kuyunjik, are
representations of semicircular and ovoid domes, which show
that the feature was well known in Assyria, and as they build
domes of the same nature down to the present day and without
centring of any kind, it suggests that they may have existed
from the remotest ages. The most ancient examples in Europe
are those of the " beehive " tombs at Mycenae and elsewhere in
Greece, ascribed generally to the nth century B.C. In a sense,
they are not true domes, because they are built in horizontal
courses of stone, which act like the voussoirs of an arch in resist-
ing the thrust of the earth at the back. This did not exist in the
Choragic Monument of Lysicrates or other circular buildings
in Greece, because their vertical sections were not portions of
circles. For this reason, the conical vault of the Baths in Pompeii
is not a dome. The circular Laconicon in the Baths of Titus (A. D.
72) may have been domed, and the great hemicycles in the
Thermae must certainly have been roofed with semi-domes.
The earliest Roman domes are those of the great circular halls
at Baiae near Naples, described as temples, but really forming
part of the immense bathing establishments there, the favourite
place of resort of the Romans during the latter part of the
Republic. The largest on the east side of the Lake of Avernus,
known as the Temple of Apollo, is a circular hall with an internal
diameter of looft. Those of Diana, Mercury and Venus at Baiae,
were 96, 66 and 60 ft. respectively. The vaults were all built in
tufa with horizontal courses in brick and cement. Half of the
dome of the Temple of Mercury had fallen down, showing the
section to have been nearly that of an equilateral arch. From the
fact that there were pierced openings or windows in all these
domes, they probably constituted the frigidaria of the baths.
The first example still existing in Rome is that of the Pantheon
(A.D.I 1 2), where a circular dome, 142 ft. in diameter, rests on a
circular wall, its height being about equal to its diameter. The
lower courses of this dome, built in the Roman brick or tile, were,
up to the top of the third coffer, all laid in horizontal courses;
above that, the construction is not known for certain; externally
a series of small arches is shown, but they rested on a shell
already built. The so-called Temple of Minerva Medica (now
recognized as the Nymphaeum of the Baths of Gallienus, A. D. 366)
is the next dated example. The Nymphaeum was decagonal on
plan, so that small pendentives were required to carry the brick
dome.
The domed Laconicon of the Thermae of Diocletian (A.D. 302)
still exists as the vestibule of the church of Santa Maria degli
Angeli. Of Constantine's time there are two small domed
examples in the tomb of S. Costanza and the Baptistery of the
Lateran, both in Rome, and one in the tomb of Galla Placidia at
Ravenna (c. A.D. 450). From these we pass to the Sassanian
domes at Serbistan and Firuzabad, of the 4th and 5th centuries
respectively. These were built in brick and rested on square
pendentives. In section they were ovoid. In Syria, the dome
over the octagonal church at Esra, built in stone and dated
A.D. 515, is also ovoid, its height being equal to its diameter, i.e.
28 ft. This, as well as the Sassanian domes, was built without
centring. The next example is that of the church of Sta Sophia
at Constantinople, the finest example existing, both in its con-
ception and execution. It was built by Justinian (537-552)
f rom the designs of Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus.
The dome is 104 ft. in diameter, and is carried on pendentives over
a square area. The construction is of brick and stone in alternate
courses, and the lower part of the dome is pierced with forty
windows, which give it an extraordinary lightness. The height
from the pavement of the church to the soffit of the dome is 179 ft.
No dome of similar dimensions was ever again attempted by
the Byzantine architects, and the principal difference in later
examples was the raising of the dome on a circular drum pierced
with windows.
In order to lighten the dome erected over the church of San
Vitale, at Ravenna, it was constructed with hollow cylindrical
jars, fitted, the end of one into the mouth of the other; a similar
contrivance was adopted in the tomb of the empress Helena
(the Torre Pignatiara), the vaults of the Circus of Maxentius on
the Via Appia, and the outer aisles of San Stefano, all at Rome,
thus dispensing with the buttresses of Sta Sophia.
The domes of the earlier mosques in Cairo were built on the
model of Sta Sophia, with windows pierced round the base of
the dome and external buttresses between them; these domes
were all built in brick coated over with cement or stucco. At a
later date, and when built in stone, the upper portion was raised
in height and terminated with a point on which a finial was placed.
These are the domes inside and outside Cairo, which are carved
with an infinity of geometrical patterns interwoven with con-
ventional floral decoration. The upper portion of the dome is
very thin, so that there is little weight and comparatively no
thrust, and it is to these facts that we probably owe their
preservation.
In India, in the " great mosque " of Jama Masjid (A.D. 1560)
and the Gol Gumbaz, or tomb of Mahommed Adil Shah (A. D. 1 630)
at Bijapur, the domes are carried on pendentives consisting of
arches crossing one another and projecting inwards, and their
weight counteracts any thrust there may be in the dome. It is
possibly for a similar reason that in the Jama Masjid of Shah
Jahan at Delhi (1632-1638) and the Taj Mahal (A.D. 1630) the
domes assume a bulbous form, the increased thickness of the
dome below the haunches by its weight served as a counterpoise
to any thrust the upper part of the dome might exert. The form
is not much to be admired, and when exaggerated, as it is in the
churches of Russia, where it was introduced by the Tatars, at
times it became monstrous.
DOMENICHINO
397
From these we pass to the domes of Perigord and La Charente,
the earliest of which date from the commencement of the nth
century. Of the western dome of St Etienne at Perigueux
(A.D. 14) only the pendentives remain, sufficient, however, with
later examples, to show that these French domes were different
from the Byzantine both in construction and form. The
pendentives are built on horizontal courses of stone, and the
voussoirs of the pointed arches which carried them form part
of the pendentives ; a few feet above the top of the arches is a
moulding and a ledge, above which the dome, ovoid in section,
is built. The principal examples following St Etienne are those
of S. Jean-de-Cole, Cahors, Souidac,Solignac,Angoule'me,Fontev-
rault, and lastly St Front at Perigueux, built about 1150, in
imitation of St Mark's at Venice. The domes of the latter church
were introduced into the old basilica about 1063, and were based
on the church of the Apostles at Constantinople, which was pulled
down in the isth century, so that we have only the clear descrip-
tion of Procopius to go by. The domes over the north and south
transepts and the choir of St Mark's are smaller than those over
the nave and crossing, because they had to be fitted in between
more ancient structures. The construction of the domes of
St Mark's is not known, but at St Front the general design
only was copied, and they built them in the Perigordian manner.
The masons from Perigord are also responsible for the domes of
the Crusaders' churches in Palestine and for some of the early
churches still remaining in Cyprus. The domes of San Cyriaco
at Ancona and Sant' Antonio at Padua were based upon those
of St Mark's at Venice.
In central Italy we have the dome (elliptical in plan) of the
cathedral of Pisa, and it was a favourite feature over the crossing
of the churches throughout Italy, being generally carried on
squinch pendentives. The domes of the baptisteries of Florence,
Parma, Trieste and Piacenza, are only internal, being enclosed
with vertical walls and a sloping roof. In Sicily, on account of
the strong Saracenic influence, the squinches are simple versions
of the stalactite pendentives described under ARCHITECTURE:
Mahommedan (q.v.), the earliest example being found in the
church of San Giovanni-dei-Leprosi (A.D. 1072), all the domes
being ovoid in section.
Except in Perigord and La Charente, domes are not found in
the churches in France, but in Spain they were introduced over
the crossing at Burgos, Tarragona and Salamanca cathedrals, and
were made architectural features externally. This is rarely found
in Germany, for although in the cathedrals of Worms, Spires and
Mainz, and in the churches of St Martin and Sankt Maria im
Capitol at Cologne, the crossings are covered by domes, always
carried on squinch pendentives, externally they built lanterns
round them.
In the Renaissance styles, the dome was at once accepted as the
principal characteristic feature, and its erection over the crossing
of Santa Maria del Fiore at Florence was the first important work
entrusted to Brunelleschi. The dome was begun in 1422, and
finished in 1431, with the exception of the lantern, begun the
year of his death in 1444, and completed in 1471. The dome,
which is octagonal on plan, is 139 ft. in diameter, and is built
with an inner and outer casing, concentric one with the other,
tied together by ribs between them: the lower portion is stone,
the upper part is brick.
The double shell was also employed by Michelangelo in the
dome of St Peter's at Rome, the outer shell being raised higher
than the lower and connected by ribs one with the other. The
diameter is 140 ft. and the construction in brick, similar to that
at Florence, but the ribs are in stone from Tivoli. In both these
cases the weight of the lantern was a very important considera-
tion, and is responsible for the repeated repairs required and the
introduction of additional ties.
In this respect Sir Christopher Wren solved the difficulty at
St Paul's cathedral, London, in another way: he provided three
shells, the lower one with an eye in the centre forming the inner
dome as seen from the interior; the middle one of conical form,
and the outer one framed in timber and covered with lead. The
conical shell carries the lantern, the weight of which is carried
direct to the base, bound with iron ties, with such additional
strength as may be given by the portico round.
In all these cases these domes are built on lofty drums, so that
externally they present quite a different appearance to those of
the Pantheon at Rome, or Sta Sophia in Constantinople.
Of other examples, the domes of the Invalides in Paris, by
Mansard ( 1 706) , and of the Pantheon by Soufflot (1735), have each
three shells, the former having a graceful outline. In Spain the
dome of the cathedral at Granada (i 530) and the Escurial (i 563) ;
in Italy those of Sta Maria della Salute at Venice, the small
example of Bramante at Todi (1480) and of the Carignano at
Genoa, are worth recording, as also the dome of the Suleimanie
mosque at Constantinople (1550). See plates illustrating
ARCHITECTURE; and INDIAN ARCHITECTURE. (R. P. S.)
DOMENICHINO (or DOHENICO), ZAHPIERI (1581-1641),
Italian painter, born at Bologna, on the zist of October 1581,
was the son of a shoemaker. The diminutive form of Christian
name by which he is constantly known indicates his short
stature. He was placed, when young, under the tuition of
Denis Calvart; but having been treated with great severity by
that master, he left him, and became a pupil in the academy
of the Caracci, under Agostino. Towards the beginning of the
1 7th century he went to Rome, at the invitation of his fellow-
pupil and intimate Albani, and prosecuted his studies under
Annibale Caracci. The faculty ot Domenichino was slow in its
development. He was at first timid and distrustful of his powers ;
while his studious, unready and reserved manners were mis-
understood by his companions for dulness, and he obtained
the nickname of the " Ox " (Bue). But Annibale Caracci, who
observed his faculties with more attention, predicted that the
apparent slowness of Domenichino's genius would in time produce
what would be an honour to the art of pain ting. When his early
productions had brought him into notice, he studied with extreme
application, and made such advance as to raise his works into a
comparison with those of the most admired masters of the time.
From his acting as a continual censor of his own works, he
became distinguished amongst his fellow-pupils as an accurate
and expressive designer; his colours were the truest to nature;
Mengs, indeed, found nothing to desire in his works, except a
somewhat larger proportion of elegance. That he might devote
his whole powers to the art, Domenichino shunned all society;
or, if he occasionally sought it in the public theatres and walks,
this was in order better to observe the play of the passions in
the features of the people those of joy, anger, grief, terror and
every affection of the mind and to commit them vividly to his
tablets;thus, saysBellori, it was that he succeeded in delineating
the soul, in colouring life, and calling forth heartfelt emotions,
at which all his works aim. In personal character he is credited
with temperance and modesty; but, besides his want of socia-
bility, he became somewhat suspicious, and jealous of his master.
In Rome, Domenichino obtained employment from Cardinals
Borghese, Farnese and Aldobrandini, for all of whom he painted
works in fresco. The distinguished reputation which he had
acquired excited the envy of some of his contemporaries.
Lanfranco in particular, one of his most inveterate enemies,
asserted that his celebrated " Communion of St Jerome "
(painted for the church of La Carita towards 1614, for a pittance
of about ten guineas, now in the Vatican Gallery, and ordinarily,
but most irrationally, spoken of as the second or third best oil
picture in the world) was an imitation from Agostino Caracci;
and he procured an engraving of this master's picture of the same
subject (now in the Gallery of Bologna), copies of which were
circulated for the purpose of proving that Domenichino was a
plagiarist. There is in truth a very marked resemblance between
the two compositions. The pictures which Zampieri painted
immediately afterwards, representing subjects from the life of
St Cecilia, only increased the alarm of his competitors, and
redoubled their injustice and malignity. Disgusted with these
cabals, he left Rome for Bologna, where he remained until he was
recalled by Pope Gregory XV., who appointed him principal
painter and architect to the pontifical palace. In this archi-
tectural post he seems to have done little or nothing, although he
398
DOMESDAY BOOK
was not inexpert in the art. He designed in great part the Villa
di Belvedere at Frascati, and the whole of the Villa Ludovisi, and
some other edifices. From 1630 onwards Domenichino was
engaged in Naples, chiefly on a series of frescoes (never wholly
completed) of the life of St Januarius in the Cappella del Tesoro.
He settled in that city with his family, and opened a school.
There the persecution against him became far more shameful
than in any previous instance. The notorious so-called " Cabal
of Naples " the painters Corenzio, Ribera and Caracciolo
leagued together as they were to exclude all alien competition,
plagued and decried the Bolognese artist in all possible ways;
for instance, on returning in the morning to his fresco work, he
would find not infrequently that someone had rubbed out the
performance of the previous day. Perpetual worry is believed
to have brought the life of Domenichino to a close; contemporary
suspicion did not scruple to speak broadly of poison, but this
has remained unconfirmed. He died in Naples, after two days'
illness, on the isth of April 1641.
Domenichino, in correctness of design, expression of the
passions, and simplicity and variety in the airs of his heads,
has been considered little inferior to Raphael; but in fact there
is the greatest gulf fixed between the two. Critics of the i8th
century adulated the Bolognese beyond all reason or toleration;
he is now regarded as commonplace in mind and invention,
lacking any innate ideality, though undoubtedly a forcible,
resolute and learned executant. " We must," says Lanzi,
" despair to find paintings exhibiting richer or more varied
draperies, details of costume more beautifully adapted, or more
majestic mantles. The figures are finely disposed both in place
and action, conducing to the general effect; whilst a light
pervades the whole which seems to rejoice the spirit, growing
brighter and brighter in the aspect of the best countenances,
whence they first attract the eye and heart of the beholder. The
persons delineated could not tell their tale to the ear more plainly
than they speak it to the eye. The ' Scourging of St Andrew,'
which he executed in competition with Guido Reni at Rome
(a fresco in the church of San Gregorio), is a powerful illustration
of this truthful expression, Of the two works of these masters,
Annibale Caracci preferred that of Domenichino. It is said that
in painting one of the executioners the artist actually wrought
himself into a passion, using threatening words and actions, and
that Annibale Caracci, surprising him at that moment, embraced
him, exclaiming with joy, ' To-day, my dear Domenichino, thou
art teaching me.' So novel, and at the same time so natural, it
appeared to him that the artist, like the orator, should feel within
himself all that he is representing to others." Domenichino is
esteemed the most distinguished disciple of the Caracci, or second
only to Guido Reni. Algarotti preferred him to the greatest
masters; and Nicolas Poussin considered the painter of the
" Communion of St Jerome " to be the first after Raphael. His
pictures of " Adam and Eve," and the " Martyrdom of St Agnes,"
in the Gallery of Bologna, are amongst his leading works. Others
of superior interest are his first known picture, a fresco of the
" Death of Adonis, "in the Loggia of the Giardino Farnese, Rome;
the " Martyrdom of St Sebastian," in Santa Maria degli Angeli;
the " Four Evangelists," in Sant' Andrea della Valle; " Diana
and her Nymphs," in the Borghese gallery; the " Assumption of
the Virgin," in Santa Maria di Trastevere; and frescoes in the
neighbouring abbey of Grotta Ferrata, lives of SS. Nilus and
Bartholomew. His portraits are also highly reputed. It is
admitted that in his compositions he often borrowed figures
and arrangements from previous painters. Domenichino was
potent in fresco. He excelled also in landscape painting. In that
style (in which he was one of the earliest practitioners) the natural
elegance of his scenery, his trees, his well-broken grounds, the
character and expression of his figures, gained him as much
public admiration as any of his other performances.
See Bolognini, Life of Domenichino (1839); C. Landon, Works of
Domenichino, with a Memoir (1823). (W. M. R.)
DOMESDAY BOOK, or simply DOMESDAY, the record of the
great survey of England executed for William the Conqueror.
We learn from the English Chronicle that the scheme of this
survey was discussed and determined in the Christmas assembly
of 1085, and from the colophon of Domesday Book that the
survey (descriptio) was completed in 1086. But Domesday Book
(liber) although compiled from the returns of that survey, must
be carefully distinguished from them; nor is it certain that it
was compiled in the year in which the survey was made. (jFor
the making of the survey each county was visited by a group of
royal officers (legati), who held a public inquiry, probably in the
great assembly known as the county court, which was attended
by representatives of every township as well as of the local lords.
The unit of inquiry was the Hundred (a subdivision of the county
which had then an administrative entity), and the return for each
Hundred was sworn to by twelve local jurors, half of them
English and half Normans. What is believed to be a full tran-
script of these original returns is preserved for several of the
Cambridgeshire Hundreds, and is of great illustrative importance).
ThelnquisitioEliensiSjthe " Exon Domesday " (so called from the
preservation of the volume at Exeter) , and the second volume of
Domesday Book, also all contain the full details which the original
returns supplied.
The original MS. of Domesday Book consists of two volumes,
of which the second is devoted to the three eastern counties,
while the first, which is of much larger size, comprises the rest of
England except the most northerly counties. Of these the north-
westerly portion, which had Carlisle for its head, was not con-
quered till some years after the survey was made; but the
omission of Northumberland and Durham has not been satis-
factorily explained. There are also no surveys of London,
Winchester and some other towns. \For both volumes the
contents of the returns were entirely rearranged and classified
according to fiefs. Instead of appearing under the Hundreds and
townships they now appeared under the names of the local
" barons," i.e. those who held the lands directly of the crown in
fee. In each county the list opened with the holding of the king
himself (which had possibly formed the subject of separate
inquiry); then came those of the churchmen and religious
houses; next were entered those of the lay tenants-in-chief
(barones) ; and last of all those of women, of the king's Serjeants
(servientes) , of the few English " thegns " who retained land, and
so forth. In some counties one or more principal towns formed
the subject of a separate section; in some the clamor es (disputed
titles to land) were similarly treated apart. But this description
applies more specially to the larger and principal volume; in
the smaller one the system is more confused, the execution less
perfect. The two volumes are distinguished even more sharply
by the exclusion, in the larger one, of certain details, such as the
enumeration of the live stock, which would have added greatly
to its size. It has, indeed, been suggested that the eastern
counties' volume represents a first attempt, and that it was found
impossible, or at least inconvenient, to complete the work on the
same scale.j
For the object of the survey we have three sources of informa-
tion: (i) the passage in the English Chronicle, which tells us why
it was ordered, (2) the list- of questions which the jurors were
asked, as preserved in the Inquisitio Eliensis, (3) the contents
of Domesday Book and the allied records mentioned above.
Although these can by no means be reconciled in every detail, it
is now generally recognized that the primary object of the survey
was to acertain and record the fiscal rights of the king. These
were mainly (i) the national land-tax (geldum), paid on a fixed
assessment, (2) certain miscellaneous dues, (3) the proceeds
of the crown lands. After a great political convulsion such as
the Norman conquest, and the wholesale confiscation of landed
estates which followed it, it was William's interest to make sure
that the rights of the crown, which he claimed to have inherited,
had not suffered in the process. More especially was this the case
as his Norman followers were disposed to evade the liabilities
of their English predecessors. The Domesday survey therefore
recorded the names of the new holders of lands and the assess-
ments on which their tax was to be paid. But it did more than
this; by the king's instructions it endeavoured to make a
national valuation list, estimating the annual value of all the
DOMESTIC RELATIONS DOMFRONT
399
land in the country, (i) at the time of King Edward's death,
(2) when the new owners received it, (3) at the time of the survey,
and further, it reckoned, by command, the potential value as
well. It is evident that William desired to know the financial
resources of his kingdom, and probable that he wished to compare
them with the existing assessment, which was one of considerable
antiquity, though there are traces that it had been occasionally
modified. /The great bulk of Domesday Book is devoted to the
somewhat arid details of the assessment and valuation of rural
estates, which were as yet the only important source of national
wealth. After stating the assessment of the manor, the record
sets forth the amount of arable land, and the number of plough-
teams (each reckoned at eight oxen) available for working it,
with the additional number (if any) that might be employed;
then the river-meadows, woodland, pasture, fisheries (i.e. weirs
in the streams), water-mills, saltpans (if by the sea) and other
subsidiary sources of revenue; the peasants are enumerated in
their several classes; and finally the annual value of the whole,
past and present, is roughly estimated. It is obvious that, both
in its values and in its measurements, the survey's reckoning is
very crude/
/ Apart from the wholly rural portions, which constitute its
bulk, Domesday contains entries of interest concerning most of
the towns, which were probably made because of their bearing
on the fiscal rights of the crown therein. These include fragments
of custumals, records of the military service due, of markets,
mints, and so forth. From the towns, from the counties as
wholes, and from many of its ancient lordships, the crown was
entitled to archaic dues in kind, such as honey. The information
of most general interest found in the great record is that on
political, personal, ecclesiastical and social history, which only
occurs sporadically and, as it were, by accident. Much of this was
used by E. A. Freeman for his work on the Norman Conquest.
Although unique in character and of priceless value to the
student, Domesday will be found disappointing and largely
unintelligible to any but the specialist. Even scholars are unable
to explain portions of its language and of its system. This is
partly due to its very early date, which has placed between it
and later records a gulf that is hard to bridge,/
But in the Dialogus de scaccario (temp. Hen. II.) it is spoken of
as a record from the arbitrament of which there was no appeal
(from which its popular name of " Domesday " is said to be
derived). In the middle ages its evidence was frequently in-
voked in the law-courts; and even now there are certain cases
in which appeal is made to its testimony. To the topographer,
as to the genealogist, its evidence is of primary importance;
for it not only contains the earliest survey of a township or
manor, but affords in the majority of cases the clue to its subse-
quent descent. The rearrangement, on a feudal basis, of the
original returns (as described above) enabled the Conqueror and
his officers to see with ease the extent of a baron's possessions;
but it also had the effect of showing how far he had enfeoffed
" under-tenants," and who those under-tenants were. This was
of great importance to William, not only for military reasons,
but also because of his firm resolve to make the under-tenants
(though the " men " of their lords) swear allegiance directly to
himself. As Domesday normally records only the Christian name
of an under-tenant, it is vain to seek for the surnames of families
claiming a Norman origin; but much has been and is still being
done to identify the under-tenants, the great bulk of whom bear
foreign names.
/ *T)omesday Book was originally preserved in the royal treasury
at Winchester (the Norman kings' capital), whence it speaks of
itself (in one later addition) as Liber de Wintonia. When the
treasury was removed to Westminster (probably under Henry II.)
the book went with it. Here it remained until the days of
Queen Victoria, being preserved from 1696 onwards in the
Chapter House, and only removed in special circumstances, as
when it was sent to Southampton for photozincographic repro-
duction. It was eventually placed in the Public Record Office,
London, where it can be seen in a glass case in the museum.
In 1869 it received a modern binding. The ancient Domes-
day chest, in which it used to be kept, is also preserved in the
building.
The printing of Domesday, in " record type," was begun by
government in 1773, and the book was published, in two volumes
fol. in 1783; in 1811 a volume of indexes was added, and in 1816
a supplementary volume, separately indexed, containing (i) the
" Exon Domesday " (for the south-western counties), (2) the
Inquisitio Eliensis, (3) the Liber Winton (surveys of Winchester
early in the I2th century), and (4) the Boldon Book a survey of
the bishopric of Durham a century later than Domesday. Photo-
graphic facsimiles of Domesday Book, for each county separately,
were published in 1861-1863, a l so by government.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The following are the more important works to be
consulted: R. Kelham, Domesday Book, illustrated (1788) ; H. Ellis,
General Introduction to Domesday Book (1833), 2 vols., containing valu-
able indexes to the names of persons ; N. E. S. A. Hamilton, Inquisitio
Cantabrigiensis (1876), containing the only transcripts of the original
returns and the text of the Inquisitio Eliensis ; E. A. Freeman, History
of the Norman Conquest, vols. iv. and v. ; F. Seebohm, The English
Village Community (1883); Domesday Studies, 2 vols. (1888, 1891),
on the occasion of the Domesday Commemoration (1886), by various
writers, witli bibliography to date; J. H. Round, Feudal England
(1895); F. W. Maitland, Domesday Book and Beyond (1897);
P. Vinogradoff, Villainage in England (1892) and Growth of the
Manor; A. Ballard, The Domesday Boroughs (1904) and The Domes-
day Inquest (1906), an excellent summary ; W. H. Stevenson, " A con-
temporary description of the Domesday Survey " in The English
Historical Review (the general index to which should be consulted)
(1907). The Victoria County History contains a translation of the
Domesday text, a map, and an explanatory introduction for each
county. (J. H. R.)
DOMESTIC RELATIONS, a term used to express the legal
relations subsisting between the various units that comprise
the family or domestic group. Those units which go to build
up the domestic structure of modern society are parent, child,
husband, wife, master and servant. The law which deals with
the various relations subsisting between them is made up largely
of the law of agency, of contract and of tort. See HUSBAND
AND WIFE; MASTER AND SERVANT; CHILDREN, LAW RELATING
TO; INFANT.
DOMETT, ALFRED (1811-1887), British colonial statesman
and poet, was born at Camberwell Grove, Surrey, on the 2oth of
May 1811. He entered St John's College, Cambridge, but left
the university in 1833. He published one or two volumes of
poetry and contributed several poems to Black-wood's Magazine,
one of which, " A Christmas Hymn," attracted much admiring
attention. For ten years he lived a life of ease in London, where
he became the intimate friend of Robert Browning, of whose
poem " Waring " he was the subject. An interesting account
of the friendship between the two men appeared in The Con-
temporary Review for January 1905, by W. H. Griffin. (See also
Robert Browning and Alfred Domett, edited by F. G. Kenyon,
1906). In 1842 Domett emigrated to New Zealand where
he filled many important administrative posts, being colonial
secretary for New Munster in 1848, secretary for the colony in
1851, and prime minister in 1862. He returned to England in
1871, was created C.M.G. in 1880, and died on the 2nd of
November 1887. Among his books of poetry, Ranolf and
Amelia, a South Sea Day Dream, is the best known (1872), and
Flotsam and Jetsam (1877) is dedicated to Browning.
DOMFRONT, a town of north-western France, capital of
an arrondissement in the department of Orne, 43 m. W.N.W. of
Alengon by rail. Pop. (1906) of the town, 2215; of the commune,
4663. The town, which is picturesquely situated on a bluff over-
looking the Varenne, has a church, Notre-Dame-sur-1'Eau,
dating from the nth century. In the middle ages it was one
of the chief strongholds in Normandy, and there still remain
several towers of its ramparts, and ruins of the keep of its castle
built in ion, rebuilt in the I2th century by Henry II., king of
England, and dismantled at the end of the i6th century. The
town is the seat of a sub-prefect, and has a tribunal of first
instance and a communal college. Cloth is manufactured, and
there are granite quarries in the vicinity. Domfront is said to
have grown up in the 6th century round the oratory of the hermit
St Front, and played an important part in the wars against the
400
DOMICILE
English and the Religious Wars. In 1574 it was occupied by the
Protestant leader Gabriel de Montgomery, who after a stubborn
siege was forced to yield it to Jacques Goyon, count of Matignon.
DOMICILE (Lat. domicilium, from domus, home), in law, a term
which may be defined generally as the place of a man's permanent
abode; a precise definition is a matter of acknowledged difficulty.
Its use in Roman jurisprudence was to fix the jurisdiction to
which a person was subject generally, not by reason of a par-
ticular circumstance, as the place where a contract was made or
where property is situate. Hence it was admitted that a person
might have as many domiciles as he had residences possessing
some degree of permanence. In the middle ages, when a great
diversity of laws had arisen, questions concerning personal status,
as the age of majority or the capacity to contract a given marriage,
came naturally to depend on the law to which the person was
subject by reason of the general jurisdiction over him; and
questions relating to the various items of his movable property
grouped together, as those of his testamentary capacity or of the
succession on his intestacy, had to be considered from a similarly
personal point of view. There resulted a general agreement that
a man's legal character, so to speak, should be determined by
his domicile, and this introduced a stricter notion of domicile,
allowing each person to have but one. He might be subjected
without great inconvenience to more than one jurisdiction, but
not to more than one law. This is the position which domicile
now holds in English jurisprudence. It is the criterion of the law
appb'cable in a large class of cases, and it must be single for each
person; and English courts have continually to struggle with the
difficulty of selecting his domicile from among the various places
in any of which he may be said to reside.
Since the beginning of the igth century most of the leading
continental states have unified their internal laws; and attach-
ment to a province by domicile having thus become an un-
necessary consideration, they have adopted political nationality
as the criterion of the law to be applied in most of the questions
which used to depend on domicile. Thus as between themselves
they have greatly simplified the determination of those questions,
but a similar elimination of domicile is impossible in what
concerns British subjects, because the British empire continues
to include a great variety of laws, as those of England, Scotland,
the province of Quebec, the Cape Colony, &c. Within the
British dominions domicile is the only available criterion of the
legal character of a British subject, and all British courts continue
to apply the same criterion to British subjects outside those
dominions and to foreigners, so that, for example, the age of
majority of a British subject or of a Frenchman domiciled in
Germany would be referred by a British court to German law.
Indeed so deeply is the principle of domicile seated in British law
that only legislative action could allow a British court to substi-
tute a new principle. And even a French, Italian or German
court, applying political nationality as its new criterion to the
legal character of a British subject, could obtain no definite result
unless it supplemented that criterion by the old one, domicile,
in order to connect the person in question with one of the legal
systems existing in the British dominions.
Again, so long as the change of the criterion has not become
universal, a new question is introduced by its having been made
in some countries only. Denmark being one of those European
states which still adhere to the principle of domicile, we will take
it as an example in order not to complicate the illustration by
such differences of internal law as exist in the British dominions.
Suppose that a Danish court has to decide on the age of majority
of a Danish subject domiciled in France, Italy or Germany. Its
rule refers the question to the law of the domicile, and the law of
the domicile refers it back to the law of the political nationality.
What is to be done? This and all other questions relating to
the application of the principle of domicile, which has been only
summarily indicated, are treated under INTERNATIONAL LAW
(PRIVATE). Here we shall deal briefly with the determination of
domicile itself.
The Roman jurists defined domicile to be the place " ubi quis
larem rerumque ac fortunarum summam constituit; unde
rursus non sit discessurus si nihil avocet: unde cum profectus
est, peregrinari videtur: quo si rediit peregrinari jam destitit."
This makes that place the domicile which may be described as the
headquarters of the person concerned; but a man's habits of life
may point to no place, or may point equally to two places, as his
headquarters, and the connexion of domicile with law requires
that a man shall always have a domicile, and never more than
one. The former of these difficulties is met in the manner
described by Lord Westbury in Udny v. Udny (Law Reports,
i House of Lords, Scottish Appeals). " It is," he said, " a settled
principle that no man shall be without a domicile, and to secure
this end the law attributes to every individual as soon as he is born
the domicile of his father, if the child be legitimate, and the
domicile of his mother, if the child be illegitimate. This is called
the domicile of origin, and is involuntary. It is the creation of the
law, not of the party. It may be extinguished by act of law, as
for example by sentence of death or exile for life, which destroys
the status civilis of the criminal; but it cannot be destroyed by
the will and act of the party. Domicile of choice is the creation of
the party. When a domicile of choice is acquired, the domicile
of origin is in abeyance, but is not absolutely extinguished or
obliterated. When a domicile of choice is abandoned, the
domicile of origin revives, a special intention to revert to it not
being necessary. A natural-born Englishman may domicile
himself in Holland, but if he breaks up his establishment there and
quits Holland, declaring that he will never return, it is absurd to
suppose that his Dutch domicile clings to him until he has set up
his tabernacle elsewhere." If to this we add that legitimate
minors follow the changes of the father's domicile and a married
woman follows the domicile of her husband, also that compulsory
detention will not create a domicile, the outlines of involuntary
domicile will have been sufficiently sketched.
For the establishment of a domicile of choice there must be both
animus saidfactum, intention and fact. The fact need not be more
than arrival in the territory of the new domicile if there be the
necessary intention, while any number of years' continuance there
will not found a domicile if the necessary intention is absent. As
the result of the most recent English and Scottish cases it may be
laid down that the necessary intention is incompatible with the
contemplation by the person in question of any event on the
occurence of which his residence in the territory in question
would cease, and that if he has not formed a fixed and settled
purpose of settling in that territory, at least his conduct and
declarations must lead to the belief that he would have declared
such a purpose if the necessity of making an election between that
territory and his former one had arisen. The word territory,
meaning a country having a certain legal system, is used
advisedly, for neither the intention nor the fact need refer to a
locality. It is possible that a Scotsman or a foreigner may have
clearly established a domicile of choice in England, although it
may be impossible to say whether London, Brighton or a house
in the country is his true or principal residence. What is here laid
down has been gradually attained. In the older English cases
an intention to return to the former domicile was not excluded,
if the event on which the return depended was highly uncertain
and regarded by the person in question as remote. Afterwards
a tendency towards the opposite extreme was manifested by
requiring for a domicile of choice the intention to associate oneself
with the ideas and habits of the new territory Quatenus in illo
exuere patriam, not in the political sense, which it was never
attempted to connect with change of domicile, but in the social
and legal sense. At present it is agreed that the only intention
to be considered is that of residence, but that, if the intention
to reside in the territory be proved to amount to what has been
above stated, a domicile will be acquired from which the legal
consequences will follow, even defeating intentions about them
so clearly expressed as, for instance, by making a will which by
reason of the change of domicile is invalid. The two most
important cases are Douglas v. Douglas, 1871, L. R. 12 Equity
617, before Vice-chancellor Wickens, and Winans v. Alt. Gen.,
1904, Appeal Cases 287, before the House of Lords.
When the circumstances of a person's life point to two territories
DOMINIC
401
as domiciles, the selection of the one which alone can fill that
character often leads to appeals even up to the highest court.
The residence of a man's wife and family as contrasted with his
place of business, his exercise of political or municipal functions,
and any conduct which tends to connect his children with a given
country, as by their education or the start given them in life,
as well as other indications, are often cited as important; but
none of them are in themselves decisive. The situation must
be considered as a whole. When the question is between the
domicile of origin and an alleged one of choice, its solution is
rendered a little easier than it is when the question is between
two alleged domiciles of choice, the burden of proof lying on
the party which contends that the domicile of origin has been
abandoned.
In the state of the law which has been described it will not be
found surprising that an act of parliament, 24 & 25 Viet. c. 121,
recites that by the operation of the law of domicile the expectation
and belief of British subjects dying abroad with regard to the
distribution of their property are often defeated, and enacts that
when a convention to that effect has been made with any foreign
country, no British subject dying in such country shall be
deemed to have acquired a domicile therein, unless he has been
resident in such country for one year previous to death and has
made a declaration in writing of his intention to become domiciled ;
and that British subjects so dying without having so resided and
made such declaration shall be deemed for all purposes of testate
or intestate succession as to movables to retain the domicile they
possessed at the time of going to reside in such foreign country.
Similar exemptions are conferred on the subjects of the foreign
state dying in Great Britain or Ireland. But the act does not
apply to foreigners who have obtained letters of naturalization
in any part of the British dominions. It has not been availed of,
and is indeed an anachronism, ignoring as it does the fact that
domicile has no longer a world-wide importance, owing to the
substitution for it of political nationality as a test of private
law in so many important countries. The United States of
America is not one of those countries, but there the import-
ance of domicile suffers from the habit of referring questions of
capacity to the law of the place of contract instead of to any
personal law. QNO. W.)
DOMINIC, SAINT (1170-1221), founder of the Dominican
Order of Preaching Friars, was born in 1170 at Calaroga in Old
Castile. He spent ten or twelve years in study, chiefly theological,
at Palencia, and then, about 1195, he was ordained and became a
canon in the cathedral chapter of Osma, his native diocese. The
bishop induced his canons to follow the Rule of St Augustine
and thus make themselves Augustinian Canons (?..); and so
Dominic became a canon regular and soon the prior or provost of
the cathedral community. The years from 1195 to 1203 have
been filled up with fabulous stories of missions to the Moors; but
Dominic stayed at Osma, preaching much in the cathedral, until
1 203, when he accompanied the bishop on an embassy in behalf of
the king of Castile to " The Marches." This has commonly been
taken as Denmark, but more probably it was the French or Italian
Marches. When the embassy was over, the bishop and Dominic
repaired to Rome, and Innocent III. charged them to preach
among the Albigensian heretics in Languedoc. For ten years
(1205-1215) this mission in Languedoc was the work of Dominic's
life.
The Albigenses (q.v.) have received much sympathy, as being
a kind of pre-Reformation Protestants; but it is now recognized
that their tenets were an extreme form of Manichaeism. They
believed in the existence of two gods, a good (whose son was
Christ) and an evil (whose son was Satan) ; matter is the creation of
the evil principle, and therefore essentially evil, and the greatest
of all sins is sexual intercourse, even in marriage; sinful also is
the possession of material goods, and the eating of flesh meat,
and many other things. So great was the abhorrence of matter
that some even thought it an act of religion to commit suicide
by voluntary starvation, or to starve children to death (see
article " Neu-Manichaer " by Otto Zockler in .ed. 3 of Herzog's
Redencyklop&die fiir proteslantische Theologie (1903); or c. iii. of
Paul Sabatier's Life of St Francis) . Such tenets were destructive
not only of Catholicism but of Christianity of any kind and of
civil society itself ; and for this reason so unecclesiastical a person
as the emperor Frederick II. tried to suppress the kindred sects
in Italy. In 1208, after the murder of a papal legate, Innocent
III. called on the Christian princes to suppress the Albigensian
heresy by force of arms, and for seven years the south of France
was devastated by one of the most bloodthirsty wars in history,
the Albigenses being slaughtered by thousands and their property
confiscated wholesale.
During this time, it is the judgment of the most recent
Protestant writer on St Dominic that, though keeping on good
terms with Simon de Montfort, the leader, and praying for the
success of the crusaders' arms during the battle of Muret, " yet,
so far as can be seen from the sources, Dominic took no part
in the crusade, but endeavoured to carry his spiritual activity on
the same lines as before. The oldest trustworthy sources know
nothing of his having exercised the office of Inquisitor during the
Albigensian war " (Grutzmacher). This verdict of a fair-minded
and highly competent Protestant church historian on the most
controverted point of Dominic's career is of great value. His
method was to travel over the country on foot and barefooted,
in extreme poverty, simplicity and austerity, preaching and
instructing in highways and villages and towns, and in the castles
of the nobility, controverting and discussing with the heretics.
He used often to organize formal disputations with Albigensian
leaders, lasting a number of days. Many times plots were laid
against his life. Though in his ten years of preaching a large
number of converts were made, it has to be said that the results
were not such as had been hoped for, and after it all, and after the
crusade, the population still remained at heart Albigensian. A
sense of failure appears in Dominic's last sermon in Languedoc :
" For many years I have exhorted you in vain, with gentleness,
preaching, praying and weeping. But according to the proverb
of my country, ' where blessing can accomplish nothing, blows
may avail.' We shall rouse against you princes and prelates, who,
alas, will arm nations and kingdoms against this land . . . and
thus blows will avail where blessings and gentleness have been
powerless." The threat that seems to be conveyed in these words,
of trying to promote a new crusade, was never carried out; the
remaining years of Dominic's life were wholly given up to the
founding of his order.
The Order of Dominicans grew out of the little band of
volunteers that had joined Dominic in his mission among the
Albigenses. He had become possessed with the idea of addressing
wider circles and of forming an order whose vocation should be to
preach and missionize throughout the whole world. By 1214 the
nucleus of such an institute was formed round Dominic and was
known as the " Holy Preaching." In 1 215 the bishop of Toulouse,
Dominic's great friend, established them in a church and house
of the city, and Dominic went to Rome to obtain the permission
of Innocent III. to found his order of preachers. The course of
events is traced in the article DOMINICANS. After three years, in
1218, the full permission he desired was given by Honorius III.
These last years of his life were spent in journeying backwards and
forwards between Toulouse and Rome, where his abode was at
the basilica of Santa Sabina on the Aventine, given to him by the
pope; and then in extended journeys all over Italy, and to Paris,
and into Spain, establishing friaries and organizing the order
wherever he went. It propagated and spread with extraordinary
rapidity, so that by Dominic's death in 1221, only five or six
years after the first practical steps towards the execution of
the idea, there were over 500 friars and 60 friaries, divided into
8 provinces embracing the whole of western Europe. Thus
Dominic was at his death able to contemplate his great creation
solidly established, and well launched on its career to preach to
the whole world.
It appears that at the end of his life Dominic had the idea of
going himself to preach to the heathen Kuman Tatars on the
Dnieper and the Volga. But this was not to be; he was worn
out by the incessant toils and fatigues and austerities of his
laborious life, and he died at his monastery at Bologna, on the
402
DOMINICA DOMINICANS
6th of August 1221. He was canonized in 1234 by Gregory IX.,
who, as Cardinal Ugolino, had been the great friend and supporter
both of Dominic and of Francis of Assisi. As St Dominic's
character and work do not receive the same general recognition
as do St Francis of Assisi 's, it will be worth while to quote from
the appreciation by Prof. Griitzmacher of Heidelberg: " It is
certain that Dominic was a noble personality of genuine and true
piety. . . . Only by the preaching of pure doctrine would he
overcome heretics. ... He was by nature soft-hearted, so that
he often shed tears through warm sympathy. ... In the purity
of his intention and the earnestness with which he strove to carry
out his ideal, he was not inferior to Francis."
The chief sources for St Dominic's life are the account by Jordan
of Saxony, his successor as master-general of the order, and the
evidence of the witnesses at the Process of Canonization, all in the
Bollandists' Acta sanctorum, Aug. 4. Probably the best modern Life
is that by Jean Guiraud, in the series Les Saints (translated into
English by Katharine de Mattos, 1901); the bibliography contains
a useful list of the chief sources for the history of St Dominic and
the order, and of the best modern works thereon. See also the
article " Dominicus " in ed. 2 of Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexicon,
and Griitzmacher's excellent article " Dominikus," in ed. 3 of
Herzog, Realencyklopadie fur protestantische Theologie, already
referred to. (E. C. B.)
DOMINICA, the largest of the five presidencies in the colony of
the Leeward Islands, British West Indies. It lies in 15 30' N.
and 61 20' W., between the French islands of Martinique and
Guadeloupe, at a distance of about 25 m. from each, is 29 m. long,
has a maximum breadth of 16 m. and an area of 291 sq. m. A
range of lofty rugged mountains traverses the island from N. to S.,
broken in the centre by a narrow plain drained by the rivers
Layou and Pagoua, flowing W. and E. respectively. The highest
point is Morne Diablotin (5314 ft.), situated in the northern half
of the range. Signs of volcanic activity abound in the shape of
solfataras, subterranean vapours and hot springs; while in the
south is the greatest natural curiosity, the renowned Boiling Lake.
It lies on the mountain side, 2300 ft. above the sea, its banks are
steep and its depth unknown, being more than 300 ft. at a short
distance from the margin. Its seething waters are often forced 3 ft.
above the normal level by the pressure of the escaping gases; and
the fumes rising from the lake are occasionally poisonous. The
island is botanically remarkable for its great number of peculiar
species, offering in this respect a marked contrast to the poverty
of the adjacent islands. The hills are covered with valuable
timber, while coffee, limes, oranges, india-rubber trees, spices and
all tropical fruits grow luxuriantly in the rich brown mould of the
lowlands. There are some thirty streams of considerable size,
besides numerous mountain torrents, and this abundance of
water renders the island very fertile. The fisheries are pro-
ductive, and honey and wax are furnished by wild bees, originally
introduced from Europe. The temperature varies from 78 to 86
F. in the hot season from August to October, and from 72 to 84
in the cooler months; the rainfall varies in different parts from
50 to 162 in. per annum, but the porous soil soon absorbs the rain,
rendering the atmosphere dry and invigorating.
The manufactures include sugar, lime-juice and essential oils;
the exports are coffee, cocoa, sugar, limes and lime-juice, essential
oils and fruit of all kinds. The inhabitants in 1901 numbered
28,894. The majority are negroes; the whites are of French
and British descent. There are also a few Caribs, the remnant
of the aboriginal population. A French patois is the language of
the peasantry, but English is generally understood. The capital,
Roseau (5764), is a fortified town and a port; Portsmouth, the
only other town, possesses the better harbour in Prince Rupert's
Bay on the north-west. In religion the Roman Catholics
predominate, and a bishop resides at Roseau, but there is no
established church. Education is free and compulsory, and
the Cambridge local examinations are held annually.
Dominica was so named on its discovery by Columbus in 1493,
in commemoration of the date, Sunday (Dies Dominica) the 3rd
of November. Dominica was included in the grant of various
islands in the Caribbean Sea made in 1627 by Charles I. to the
earl of Carlisle, but the first Europeansettlers (1632) wereFrench.
They brought with them negro slaves and lived on terms of
friendship with the Caribs, who were then a numerous body. In
1660 a treaty appears to have been made between the French,
British and the natives assigning St Vincent and Dominica to
the Caribs, but shortly afterwards attempts were made by the
British to gain a foothold in the island. These attempts failed,,
and in 1748 it was once more agreed by France and Great Britain
that Dominica should be left in the undisturbed possession of the
natives. Nevertheless the French settlers increased, and the
island came under the rule of a French governor. It was captured
by the British in 1761 and formally ceded by France at the peace
of Paris, 1763, French settlers being secured in their estates. In
1 7 78 a French force from Martinique seized the island. Rodney's
victory over De Grasse in the neighbouring sea in 1782 was
followed by the restoration of the island to Britain in 1783; in
the interval the trade of Dominica had been ruined. In 1795 a
force from Guadeloupe made an unsuccessful descent on the
island, and in 1805 the French general La Grange, at the head of
4000 troops, took Roseau and pillaged the island an event now
remembered as the most memorable in its history. The French
were, however, unable to make good their hold, and Dominica
has remained since undisturbed in British possession. Its later
history presents few features not common to the other British
West Indian islands.
Since 1872 Dominica has formed part of the colony of the
Leeward Islands, but local affairs are in the hands of an adminis-
trator, aided by an executive council of ten members. In 1898
the local legislature, in consideration of pecuniary assistance
from Great Britain, passed an act abrogating the semi-elective
constitution and providing for a legislative council of twelve
nominated members, six of whom sit ex officio.
DOMINICANS, otherwise called Friars Preachers, and in
England Black Friars, from the black mantle worn over a white
habit, an order of friars founded by St Dominic (q.v.) . Their first
house was in Toulouse, where the bishop established them at the
church of St Remain, 1215. Dominic at once went to Rome to
obtain permission to found an order of preachers whose sphere of
activity should be the whole world, but Innocent III. said they
must adopt one of the existing rules. Dominic returned to
Toulouse and it was resolved to take the Rule of St Augustine,
Dominic himself having been an Augustinian canon at Osma (see
AUGUSTINIAN CANONS). Dominic went again to Rome, and
during the year 1216 he obtained from Honorius III. a series of
confirmations of the community at Toulouse as a congregation of
Canons Regular of St Augustine with a special mission to preach.
Early in 1218 an encyclical bull was issued to the bishops of
the whole Catholic world recommending to them the " Order of
Friars Preachers," followed in 1221 by another ordering them
to give to the friars faculties to preach and hear confessions in
their dioceses. Already in 1217 Dominic had scattered the little
band of seventeen over the world to Paris, into Spain, and one
he took with himself to Rome. Within a few months there were
forty friars in Rome, at Santa Sabina on the Aventine, and thirty
in Paris; and before Dominic's death in 1221 friaries had been
established at Lyons, Limoges, Reims, Metz, Poitiers and
Orleans; at Bologna, Milan, Florence, Verona, Piacenza and
Venice; at Madrid, Palencia, Barcelona and Seville; at
Friesach in Carinthia; at Cracow and Prague; and friars were
on their way to Hungary and England.
The order took definite shape at the two general chapters
held at Bologna in 1220 and 1221. At first it had been but a
congregation of canons regular and had worn the canons' black
cassock with white linen rochet. But now a white woollen habit
with a black cloak or mantle was assumed. The Rule of St
Augustine was supplemented by a body of regulations, adopted
mostly from those of the Premonstratensian canons. At the head
of the order was the master-general, elected for life until recent
times, when the term of office was limited to six and then to
twelve years; he enjoys supreme power over the entire order,
both houses and individuals, all of whom are directly subject to
him. He dwells in Rome and is assisted by a council. The order
is divided into provinces and over each is a provincial, elected for
four years. Each friary has its prior, elected by the community
DOMINIS
403
every four years. The friars belong not to the house or province
in which they make their profession, but to the order; and it
rests with the master-general to assign to each his place of
residence. The manner of life was very austere midnight office,
perpetual abstinence from meat, frequent disciplines, prolonged
fasts and silence. At St Dominic's suggestion, and under his
strong pressure, but not without considerable opposition, the
general chapter determined that the poverty practised in the
order should be not merely individual, as in the monastic orders,
but corporate, as among the Franciscans; so that the order
should have no possessions, except the monastic buildings
and churches, no property, no fixed income, but should live
on charity and by begging. Thus, doubtless in imitation of the
Franciscans, the Dominicans became a mendicant order.
The extraordinarily rapid propagation of the institute suffered
no diminution through the founder's death ; this was mainly due to
the fact that his four immediate successors in the generalate were
men of conspicuous ability and high character. In a few years
the Dominicans penetrated into Denmark, Sweden, Russia,
Prussia and Poland, preaching and missionizing in the still pagan
districts of these countries; and soon they made their way to
Greece and Palestine and thence to central Asia. St Hyacinth, a
Pole received by St Dominic, during missionary journeys extend-
ing over thirty-five years travelled over the north and east of
Europe and into Tatary, Tibet and northern China. In 1252 the
pope addressed a letter to the Dominicans who were preaching
" among the Saracens, Greeks, Bulgarians, Kumans, Syrians,
Goths, Jacobites, Armenians, Jews, Tatars, Hungarians."
From the i4th century until the middle of thei7th the Dominicans
had numerous missions in Persia, India and China, and in the
northern parts of Africa. They followed the Spanish and
Portuguese explorers and conquerors both to the East and to the
West, converting, protecting and civilizing the aborigines. On
these missionary enterprises great numbers of Dominicans laid
down their life for the Gospel.
Another conspicuous field of work of the Dominicans lay in the
universities. It had been St Dominic's policy to aim at founding
houses first of all in the great university towns at Paris,
Bologna, Palencia, Oxford. This policy was adhered to, and the
Dominicans soon became a power in the universities, occupying
chairs in those just named and in Padua, Cologne, Vienna, Prague
and Salamanca. The scholastic doctors Albert the Great and
Thomas Aquinas were the leaders in this side of Dominican
activity, and the order's influence on the course of medieval
theological development was exercised mainly by these doctors
and by the Dominican school of theology, which to this day has
maintained the principles and methods elaborated by St Thomas.
The Dominican name is in an especial way associated with the
Inquisition, the office of Inquisitor in all countries, including
Spain, having usually been held by Dominicans. The vicissitudes
of the order have been much like those of other orders periods
of relaxation being followed by periods of revival and reform;
but there were not any reforms of the same historical importance
as in most other orders, the policy having been to keep all such
movements strictly within the organization of the order. In 1425
Martin V. relaxed for some houses the law of corporate poverty,
allowing them to hold property, and to have fixed sources of
income; and fifty years later Sixtus IV. extended this mitigation
to the entire order, which thereby ceased to be mendicant. This
change caused no troubles, as among the Franciscans, for it was
felt that it did not touch St Dominic's fundamental idea.
The Friars Preachers came to England and were established at
Oxford in 1221, and by the end of the century fifty friaries were
founded ail over England, usually in the towns, and several in
Ireland and Scotland. In London they were first on the site of
Lincoln's Inn, but in 1275 they migrated to that now occupied
by Printing-house Square, and their name survives in Blackfriars
Bridge. The only nunnery was at Dartford. At the Dissolution
there were fifty-seven friaries (see lists in F. A. Gasquet's English
Monastic Life, Catholic Dictionary and C. F. Palmer's Life of
Cardinal Howard, where historical notes are added). In Mary's
reign some of the scattered friars were brought together and
established in Smithfield, and the remnant of the nuns were
restored to Dartford. In 1559 these houses were suppressed and
the nuns and two friars expatriated, and for a hundred years there
was no English Dominican community. But throughout the
reigns of Elizabeth and the early Stuarts there were usually some
Dominicans, either Englishmen professed in foreign monasteries
or foreigners, labouring on the English mission or attached to the
foreign embassies. In 1658 Friar Thomas Howard (afterwards
Cardinal) succeeded in establishing at Bornhem near Antwerp a
house for the English friars. From that time there has always
been an organized body of English Dominicans, again and again
reduced almost to extinction, but ever surviving; it now has
half a dozen thriving friaries. The Irish province also survived
the days of persecution and possesses a dozen friaries. In 1840
Lacordaire restored the French province. In 1900 there were 43 50
Dominicans, including lay brothers, and 300 friaries, scattered
all over the world. Missionary work still holds a prominent
place in Dominican life; there are missions in Annam, Tongking
and China, and in Mesopotamia, Mosul and Kurdistan. They
have also a remarkable school for Biblical studies and research at
Jerusalem, and the theological faculty in the Roman Catholic
university at Fribourg in Switzerland is in their hands. There
have been four Dominican popes: Innocent V. (t 1276),
Benedict XI. (f 1304), Pius V. (t 1572), Benedict XIII.
(t i73o).
The friars form the " First Order " ; the nuns, or Dominicanesses,
the " Second Order." The latter may claim to have chrono-
logical precedence over the friars, for the first nunnery was
established by St Dominic in 1206 at Prouille in the diocese of
Toulouse, as a refuge for women converted from the Albigensian
heresy. The second convent was at San Sisto in Rome, also
founded by Dominic himself. From that time the institute
spread widely. The rule resembled that of the friars, except that
the nuns were to be strictly enclosed and purely contemplative ;
in course of time, however, they undertook educational work. In
1909 there were nearly 100 nunneries of the Second Order, with
some 1500 nuns. They have schools and orphanages in South
Africa, especially in the Transvaal.
A considerable number of other convents for women follow the
Rule of the " Third Order." This rule was not written until the
1 5th century, and it is controverted whether, and in what sense,
it can be held that the " Third Order " really goes back to St
Dominic, or whether it grew up in imitation of the Franciscan
Tertiaries. Besides the conventual Tertiaries, there are con-
fraternities of lay men and women who strive to carry out this
rule while living their family life in the world (see TERTIARIES).
St Catharine of Siena was a Dominican Tertiary.
See the authorities cited in the article DOMINIC, SAINT;
also Helyot, Hist, des ordres religieux (1714), iii. cc. 24-29, and Max
Heimbucher, Orden u. Kongregationen (1896), 86-91 ; and C. F.
Palmer, Life of Cardinal Howard (1867), which gives a special account
of the English Dominican province. (E. C. B.)
DOMINIS, MARCO ANTONIO DE (1560-1624), Italian theo-
logian and natural philosopher, was born of a noble Venetian
family in 1560 in the island of Arbe, off the coast of Dalmatia.
He was educated by the Jesuits in their colleges at Loreto and
Padua, and is supposed by some to have joined their order; the
more usual opinion, however, is that he was dissuaded from doing
so by Cardinal Aldobrandini. For some time he was employed as
a teacher at Verona, as professor of mathematics at Padua, and
professor of rhetoric and philosophy at Brescia. In 1 596 he was
appointed to the bishopric of Segnia (Zengg) in Dalmatia, and two
years later was raised to the archbishopric of Spalato and primacy
of Dalmatia and Croatia. His endeavours to reform the Church
soon brought him into conflict with his suffragans; and the
interference of the papal court with his rights as metropolitan,
an attitude intensified by the quarrel between the papacy and
Venice, made his position intolerable. This, at any rate, is the
account given in his own apology the Consilium profectionis
in which he also states that it was these troubles that led him
to those researches into ecclesiastical law, church history and
dogmatic theology, which, while confirming-him in his love for the
ideal of " the true Catholic Church," revealed to him how far the
404
DOMINOES
papal system was from approximating to it. After a visit to
Rome, when he in vain attempted to gain the ear of Pope Paul V.,
he resigned his see in September 1616, wrote at Venice his
Consilium profectionis, and then went by way of Switzerland,
Heidelberg and Rotterdam to England, where he arrived in
December. He was welcomed by the king and the Anglican
clergy with great respect, was received into the Church of England
in St Paul's cathedral, and was appointed master of the Savoy
(1618) and dean of Windsor (1619); he subsequently presented
himself to the living of West Ilsley, Berkshire. Contemporary
writers give no pleasant account of him, describing him as fat,
irascible, pretentious and very avaricious; but his ability was
undoubted, and in the theological controversies of the time he
soon took a foremost place. His published attacks on the papacy
succeeded each other in rapid succession: the Papatus Romanus,
issued anonymously (London, 1617; Frankfort, 1618), the
Scogli del naufragio Christiana, written in Switzerland (London,
(?) 1618), of which English, French and German translations also
appeared, and a Sermon preached in Italian, &<;., before the king.
But his principal work was the De repuUica ecclesiastica, of which
the first part after revision by Anglican theologians was
published under royal patronage in London (1617), in which he
set forth with a great display of erudition his theory of the church.
In the main it is an elaborate treatise on the historic organization
of the church, its principal note being its insistence on the divine
prerogatives of the Catholic episcopate as against the encroach-
ments of the papal monarchy. In 1619 Dominis published in
London, with a dedication to James I., Paolo Sarpi's Historia del
Concilia Tridentino, the MS. of which he had brought with him
from Venice. It is characteristic of the man that he refused to
hand over to Sarpi a penny of the money present given to him by
the king as a reward for this work.
Three years later the ex-archbishop was back again in Rome,
doing penance for his heresies in St Peter's with a cord round his
neck. The reasons for this sudden revolution in his opinions,
which caused grave scandal in England, have been much debated ;
it is probably no libel on his memory, however, to say that they
were connected with the hopes raised by the elevation of his
kinsman, Alessandro Ludovisi.to the papal throne as Gregory XV.
(1621). It is said that he was enticed back to Rome by the
promise of pardon and rich preferment. If so, he was doomed to
bitter disappointment. He had barely time to publish at Rome
(1623) his Sui reditus ex Angliae consilium, an abject repudiation
of his anti-papal works as written " non ex cordis sinceritate, non
ex bona conscientia, non ex fide," when Gregory died (July 1623).
During the interregnum that followed, the proceedings of the
Inquisition against the archbishop were revived, and they
continued under Urban VIII. Before they were concluded,
however, Dominis died in prison, on the 8th of September 1624.
Even this did not end his trial, and on the zoth of December
judgment was pronounced over his corpse in the church of Santa
Maria sopra Minerva. By order of the Inquisition his body was
taken from the coffin, dragged through the streets of Rome,
and publicly burnt in the Campo di Fiore. By a strange irony of
fate the publication of his Reditus consilium was subsequently
forbidden in Venice because of its uncompromising advocacy
of the supremacy of the pope over the temporal powers. As a
theologian and an ecclesiastic Dominis was thoroughly dis-
credited; as a man of science he was more happy. He was the
first to put forward a true theory of the rainbow, in his De radiis
visus et lucis in iiitris perspectives et iride (Venice, 1611).
See the article by Canon G. G. Perry in the Diet. Nat. Biog., and
that by Benrath in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie (ed. 1898), iv.
p. 781, where a full bibliography is given. Also H. Newland, Life
and Contemporaneous Church History of Antonio de Dominis (Oxford,
1859)-
DOMINOES, a game unknown until the i8th century, and
probably invented in Italy, played with twenty-eight oblong
pieces, or dominoes, known also as cards or stones, having ivory
faces backed with ebony; from this ebony backing, as resembling
the cloak (usually black) called a domino (see MASK), the name
is said to be derived. Cardboard dominoes to be held in the hand
are also in use. The face of each card is divided into two squares
by a black line, and in each square half the value of the card
is indicated by its being either a blank or marked with one or
more black pips, generally up to six, but some sets run as high
as double-nine. There are various ways of playing dominoes
described below.
The Block and Draw Games. The dominoes are shuffled face down-
wards on the table. The lead is usually decided by drawing for the
highest card, but it is sometimes held that any doublet takes pre-
cedence. The cards are then reshuffled, and each player draws at
random the number of cards required for the particular form of the
game, usually seven. The cards left behind are called the stock.
To play a card is known technically as to pose. The leader poses first,
generally playing his highest domino, since at the end the player
loses according to the number of pips in the cards he has left in his
hand. By some rules, a player after playing a double may play
another card which matches it: e.g. if he plays double-six he may
play another card which has a six at one end. The second player
has to match the leader's pose by putting one of his cards in juxta-
position at one end, i.e. if the leader plays four-five, the second player
has to play a card which contains either a four or a five, the five being
applied to the five, or the four to the four. Doublets are placed
a cheval (crosswise). If a player cannot match, he says " go," and
his opponent plays, unless the Draw game the usual game is
being played, in which case the player who cannot match draws from
the stock (two cards must always be left in the stock) till he takes
a card that matches. If a player succeeds in posing all his cards, he
calls " Domino !" and wins the hand, scoring as many points as
there are pips on the cards still held by his opponent. If neither
E layer can match, that player wins who has the fewest pips left in
is hand, and he scores as many points as are left in the two hands
combined (sometimes only the excess held by his opponent); but
when a player has called " Go!" his adversary must match if he can,
in which case the other player may be able to match in turn. A
game is generally loo points.
All Fives (or Muggins). Each player takes five cards. If the
leader poses either double-five, six-four, five-blank, or three-two, he
scores the number of pips that are on the card. If in the course of
play a player can play such a card as makes the sum of the end pips,
5, 10, 15 or 20, he scores that number; e.g. if to two-four he can play
double-four (d cheval) he scores 10; if to six-one he plays six-four he
scores 5. He must pose if he can match; if he cannot, he draws till
be can. Scores are called and taken immediately. At the point of
domino, the winner scores in points the multiple of five which is
nearest to the number of pips in his adversary's hand : e.g. he scores
25 if his adversary has 27 pips, 30 if he has 28. If neither hand can
match, the lowest number of pips wins, and the score is taken as
before, without addition or subtraction, according to the adversary's
pips.
All Threes is played in the same manner as Muggins, save that
three or some multiple of three are aimed at.
Threes-and- Fives is similar, but only one point is scored for each
five or three made at the two ends, though they can be scored in
combination. Thus A plays six-five; B six-one; B scores 2 points
for 5-1 (two threes). A plays one-five; B double five; B now scores
8 more, 5 for five threes and 3 for three fives.
Domino-Whist is played by four players. Partners are drawn for
as at Whist, the player drawing the highest card leading. Each
player takes seven cards. There are no tricks, trumps or honours.
The cards are played as in ordinary dominoes, a hand being finished
when one of the players plays his last card, or when both ends are
blocked. Pips are then counted, and the holder or holders of the
highest number score to their debit the aggregate number of points.
The side that is first debited with 100 points loses the game. Strength
in a suit is indicated by the lead; i.e. a lead of dpuble-blank or
double-six implies strength in blanks or sixes respectively.
Matador (from the Spanish word meaning " killer," i.e. of the bull
in a bull-fight). This is a favourite and perhaps the most scientific
form of the game. It is played on a different principle from the
preceding variations, the object being not to match the end number,
but to pose such a number, as, added to the end, will make seven;
e.g. to a five a two must be played, to a three a four, &c. Seven
dominoes are drawn and the highest double begins. When a player
cannot make a seven on either end he must draw from the stock until
he secures a card that will enable him to make seven, two cards
remaining in the stock. As Matadoris played with dominoes no higher
than six, a blank means the blocking of that end. In this case no
further play can take place at that end excepting by posing a matador,
which may be played at any time. There aie four matadors, the 6-1,
5-2, 4-3 and double-blank. It is often better to draw one or more
fresh cards than to play one's last matador, as it may save the game
at a critical juncture. In posing a double counts as a single number
only, but in scoring the full number of pips is counted. When the
game has been definitely blocked the player whose pips aggregate the
lower number scores the number of the combined hands (sometimes
only the excess in his opponent's hand), the game being usually ipo.
Matador can be played by three persons, inwhichcase the two having
the lowest scores usually combine against the threatening winner;
and also by four, either each for himself or two on a side.
DOMINUS DON
405
Other varieties of the game not often played are the Bergen game,
Sevastopol and Domino Loo.
See Card and Table Games by Hoffmann (London, G. Routledge
& Sons).
DOMINUS (from an Indo-European root dam-, cf. Gr. Sa^dv,
to subdue, and Eng. " tame "), the Latin word for master or
owner. As a title of sovereignty the term under the republic at
Rome had all the associations of the Greek rvpavvos; refused
during the early principate, it finally became an official title of
the Roman emperors under Diocletian. Dominus, the French
equivalent being sieur, was the Latin title of the feudal (superior
and mesne) lords, and also an ecclesiastical and academical title.
The ecclesiastical title was rendered in English " sir," which was
a common prefix before the Reformation for parsons, as in
" Sir Hugh Evans " in Shakespeare's Merry Wives of Windsor. The
academical use was for a bachelor of arts, and so is still used at
Cambridge and other universities. The shortened form " dom "
is used as a prefix of honour for ecclesiastics of the Roman
Church, and especially for members of the Benedictine and other
religious orders. The same form is also a title of honour in
Portugal, as formerly in Brazil, used by members of the blood
royal and others on whom it has been conferred by the sovereign.
The Spanish form " don " is also a title, formerly applicable only
to the nobility, and now one of courtesy and respect applied to
any member of the better classes. The feminine form " donna "
is similarly applied to a lady. The English colloquial use of
" don" for a fellow or tutor of a college at a university is derived
either from an application of the Spanish title to one having
authority or position, or from the academical use of dominus.
The earliest use of the word in this sense appears, according to the
New English Dictionary, in South's Sermons (1660). An English
corruption " dan " was in early use as a title of respect, equiva-
lent to " master." The particular literary application to poets is
due to Spenser's use of " Dan Chaucer, well of English undefyled "
(Faery Queen, IV. ii. 32).
DOMITIAN (TiTtis FLAVIUS DOMITIANUS), Roman emperor
A.D. 81-96, the second son of Titus Flavius Vespasianus and
Flavia Domitilla, twelfth of the Caesars, and third of the Flavian
dynasty, was born at Rome on the 24th of October A.D. 51.
When Vespasian was proclaimed emperor at Alexandria, Domitian
escaped with difficulty from the temple of the Capitol, which had
been set on fire by the Vitellians, and remained in hiding till his
father's party proved victorious. After the fall of Vitellius he
was saluted as Caesar, or prince imperial, by the troops, obtained
the city praetorship, and was entrusted with the administration
of Italy till his father's return from the East. But although in
his father's lifetime he several times filled the office of consul, and
after his death was nominally the partner in the empire with his
brother Titus, he never took any part in public business, but
lived in great retirement, devoting himself to a life of pleasure
and of literary pursuits till he succeeded to the throne. The
death of Titus, if not hastened by foul means, was at least eagerly
welcomed by his brother. Domitian's succession (on the i3th of
September 81) was unquestioned, and it would seem that he had
intended, so far as his weak volition and mean abilities would
allow, to govern well. Like Augustus, he attempted a reforma-
tion of morals and religion. As chief pontiff he inquired rigorously
in to the character of the vestal virgins, three of whom were buried
alive; he enforced the laws against adultery, mutilation, and the
grosser forms of immorality, and forbade the public acting of
mimes. He erected many temples and public buildings (amongst
them the Odeum, a kind of theatre for musical performances) and
restored the temple of the Capitol. He passed many sumptuary
laws, and issued an edict forbidding the over-cultivation of vines
to the neglect of corn-growing. Finally, he took a personal share
in the administration of justice at Rome, checked the activity of
the informers (delatores), and exercised a jealous supervision over
the governors of provinces. Such public virtues at first counter-
balanced his private vices in the eyes of the people. Domitian
was the first emperor who arrogated divine honours in his life-
time, and caused himself to be styled Our Lord and God in public
documents. Doubtless in the poems of writers like Martial this
deification was nothing but fulsome flattery, but in the case of
the provincials it was a sincere tribute to the impersonation of
the Roman Empire, as the administrator of good government
and the peacemaker of the world. Even when Rome and Italy
smarted beneath his proscriptions and extortions, the provinces
were undisturbed.
Though he took the title of imperator more than twenty times,
and enjoyed at least one triumph, Domitian's military achieve-
ments were insignificant. He defeated the Chatti, annexed the dis-
trict of the Taunus, and estabh'shed the Limes as a line of defence;
but he suffered defeats at the hands of the Quadi, Sarmatae and
Marcomanni; in Dacia he received a severe check, and was
obliged to purchase peace (90) from Decebalus by the payment of
a large sum of money and by guaranteeing a yearly tribute the
first instance in Roman history. His jealousy was provoked by
the successes of Agricola in Britain, who was recalled to Rome (85)
in the midst of his conquests, condemned to retirement, and
perhaps removed by poison. The revolt of Antonius Saturninus,
the commander of the Roman forces in Upper Germany (88 or 89) ,
marks the turning-point in his reign (on the date see H. Schiller,
Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit, i. pt. 2, p. 524, note 2). It was
speedily crushed; but from that moment Domitian's character
changed. He got rid of all whom he disliked on the charge of
having taken part in the conspiracy, and no man of eminence was
safe against him. He was in constant fear of assassination and
distrusted all around him. During the last three years of his life
his behaviour was that of a madman. He sentenced to death his
own cousin and nephew by marriage, Flavius Clemens, whose
wife he banished for her supposed leaning towards Judaism
(Christianity). A conspiracy among his own freedmen set on
foot, it is said, by his wife Domitia Longina, who knew her own
life to be threatened cut short his career. He was stabbed in his
bedroom by a freedman of Clemens named Stephanus on the i8th
of September 96.
AUTHORITIES. Ancient. Tacitus, Histories, Hi. iv. ; Suetonius,
Domitian; Dio Cassius Ixvi., Ixvii. ; Tacitus, Agricola, 18-22.
Modern accounts by A. Imhof, T. Flavius Domitianus (Halle, 1857),
which, while not claiming any special originality, is based on a
conscientious study of authorities; A. Halberstadt, De imperatoris
Domitiani moribus et rebus (Amsterdam, 1877), an attempt to
rehabilitate Domitian; S. Gsell, Essai sur le regne de I'empereur
Domitien (1894), very complete in every respect; H. Schiller (as
above), pp. 520-538; C. Meriyale, Hist, of the Romans under the
Empire, ch. 61, 62. For Domitian's attitude towards Christianity
see V. Schultze in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopadie fur protestan-
tische Theologie, iv. (1898); Sir W. M. Ramsay, The Church in the
Roman Empire (1903); E. G. Hardy, Christianity and the Roman
Government (1894); J. B. Bury, Appendix 8 to vol. ii. of his edition
of Gibbon.
DOMR^MY-LA-PUCELLE, a village of eastern France, in the
department of Vosges, on the left bank of the Meuse, 7 m. N. of
Neufchateau by road. Pop. (1906) 233. Domremy was the birth-
place of Joan of Arc, and the cottage in which she was born still
stands. Above the door are the arms of France and of Joan of Arc
and an inscription of 1481 reading " Vive labeur; vive le roi
Louys." There are several monuments to the heroine, and a
modern basilica has been erected in her honour on a neighbouring
hill, where she is said to have heard the voices in obedience to
which she took up the sword. The story of the heroine is annually
celebrated by a play in which the villagers take part.
DON (anc. Tanais), a river of European Russia, called Tuna or
Duna by the Tatars, rising in Lake Ivan (580 ft. above sea-level)
in the government of Tula, where it has communication with
the Volga by means of the Yepifan Canal, which links it with the
Upa, a tributary of the Oka, which itself enters the Volga. The
Don, after curving east through the government of Ryazan,
flows generally south through the governments of Tambov, Orel,
Voronezh and the Don Cossacks territory, describing in the last-
named a sweeping loop to the east, in the course of which it
approaches within 48 m. of the Volga in 49 N. In the middle of
the Don Cossacks territory it turns definitely south-west, and
finally enters the north-east extremity of the Sea cf Azov, form-
ing a delta 130 sq. m. in extent. Its total length is 1325 m., and
its drainage area is calculated at 166,000 sq. m. The average fall
406
DON DONATELLO
of the river is about 5 J in. to the mile. In its upper course, which
may be regarded as extending to the confluence of the Voronezh
in 51 40', the Don flows for the most part through a low-lying,
fertile country, though in the government of Ryazan its banks
are rocky and steep, and in some places even precipitous. In the
middle division, or from the mouth of the Voronezh to the point
where it makes its nearest approach to the Volga, the stream cuts
its way for the most part through Cretaceous rocks, which in many
places rise on either side in steep and elevated banks, and at
intervals encroach on the river-bed. A short distance below the
town of Rostov it breaks up into several channels, of which the
largest and most southern retains the name of the river. Before
it receives the Voronezh the Don has a breadth of 500 to 700, or
even in a few places 1000 ft., while its depth varies from 4 to 20 ft. ;
by the time it reaches its most eastern point the depth has
increased to 8-50 ft., and the ordinary breadth to 700-1000 ft.,
with an occasional maximum of 1400 ft.; in the lowest division
the depth is frequently 70 ft., and the breadth in many places
1870 ft. Generally speaking, the right bank is high and the left
flat and low. Shallow reaches are not uncommon, and there are
at least seven considerable shoals in the south-western part of the
course; partly owing to this cause, and partly to the scarcity of
ship-timber in the Voronezh government, the Don, although
navigable as far up as Voronezh, does not attain any great
importance as a means of communication till it reaches
Kachalinskaya in the vicinity of the Volga. From that point,
or rather from Kalach, where the railway (built in 1862) from the
Volga has its western terminus, the traffic is very extensive. Of
the tributaries of the river, the Voronezh, the Khoper, the
Medvyeditsa and the Donets are navigable the Donets having a
course of 680 m., and during high water affording access to the
government of Kharkov. The Manych, another large affluent on
the left, marks the ancient line of water connexion between the
Sea of Azov and the Caspian Sea. The lower section of the Don is
subject to two annual floods, of which the earlier, known as the
" cold water," is caused by the melting of the snow in the country
of the Don Cossacks, and the later, or the " warm water," is due
to the same process taking place in the region drained by the
upper parts of the stream. About the beginning of June the river
begins to subside with great rapidity; in August the water is very
low and navigation almost ceases; but occasionally after the
September rains the traffic with small craft is again practicable.
Since the middle of the i8th century there have been five floods of
extraordinary magnitude, namely, in 1748, 1786, 1805, 1820 and
1845. The river is usually closed by ice from November or
December to March or April, and at rare intervals it freezes in
October. At Aksai, in the delta, it remains open on the average
for 250 days in the year, at the mouth of the Medvyeditsa for 239,
and at Novo-Cherkask, on another arm of the delta, for 246. This
river supports a considerable fishing population, who despatch
salt fish and caviare all over Russia. Salmon and herrings are
taken in large numbers. (P. A. K.; J.T. BE.)
DON, a river in the south of Aberdeenshire, Scotland, rising in
peat-moss to the east of Glen Avon on the borders of Banffshire,
at a height of nearly 2000 ft. above the sea. It follows a generally
easterly course, roughly parallel with that of the Dee, and a few
miles to the south of it, falling into the North Sea close to Old
Aberdeen, after a run of 82 m. At the mouth the two rivers
are only 2$ m. apart. Like its greater neighbour, the Don is an
excellent salmon stream. On the left its chief affluents are the
Ernan, Nochty, Bucket and Urie; on the right, the Conrie,
Carvie, Deskry and Strow. The principal places of interest
on its banks are Strathdon, Towie, Kildrummy, Alford, Keig,
Monymusk, Inverurie, Kintore and Dyce.
DON AGHADEE, a market town of Co. Down, Ireland, in the
north parliamentary division, near the south of Belfast Lough, on
the Irish Channel, 25 m. E. by N. of Belfast by a branch of the
Belfast and Co. Down railway. Pop. (1901) 2073. It is the
nearest port in Ireland to Great Britain, being 21^ m. S.W. of
Portpatrick in Wigtownshire. Telegraph and telephone cables
join these ports, but a regular passenger route does not exist owing
to the unsuitability of Portpatrick. Donaghadee harbour admits
vessels up to 200 tons. On the north-east side of the town there
is a rath or encampment 70 ft. high, in which a powder magazine
is erected. The parish church dates from 1626. There are two
holy wells in the town. The town is frequented as a seaside
watering-place in the summer months.
DONALDSON, SIR JAMES (1831- ), Scottish classical
scholar, educational and theological writer, was born at Aberdeen
on the 26th of April 1831. He was educated at Aberdeen
University and New College, London. In 1854 he was appointed
rector of the Stirling high school, in 1866 rector of that of
Edinburgh, in 1881 professor of humanity in the university of
Aberdeen, and in 1890 principal of the university of St Andrews,
by the Universities (Scotland) Act. His chief works are:
Modern Greek Grammar (1853) ; Lyra Graeca (1854), specimens of
Greek lyric poetry from Callinus to Soutsos; A Critical History
of Christian Literature and Doctrine from the Death of the Apostles
to the Niccne Council (i.-iii., 1864-1866; new ed. of i. as The
Apostolical Fathers, 1874), a book unique of its kind in England
at the time of its appearance and one which adds materially
to the knowledge of Christian antiquities as deduced from
the apostolic fathers; Lectures on the History of Education in
Prussia and England (1874); The Westminster Confession of
Faith and the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England (1905) ;
Woman, her position and influence in ancient Greece and Rome
(1907). He was knighted in 1907.
DONALDSON, JOHN WILLIAM (1811-1861), English philo-
logist and biblical critic, was born in London on the 7th of June
1811. He was educated at University College, London, and
Trinity College, Cambridge, of which society he subsequently
became fellow. In 1841 he was elected headmaster of King
Edward's school, Bury St Edmunds. In 1855 he resigned his
post and returned to Cambridge, where his time was divided
between literary work and private tuition. He died on the loth
of February 1861. He is remembered as a pioneer of philology
in England, and as a great scholar in his day, though much of
his work is now obsolete. The New Cratylus (1839), the book on
which his fame mainly rests, was an attempt to apply to the
Greek language the principles of comparative philology. It was
founded mainly on the comparative grammar of Bopp, but a
large part of it was original, Bopp's grammar not being completed
till ten years after the first edition of the Cratylus. In the
Varronianus (1844) the same method was applied to Latin,
Umbrian and Oscan. His Jashar (1854), written in Latin as an
appeal to the learned world, and especially to German theologians,
was an attempt to reconstitute the lost biblical book of Jashar
from the remains of old songs and historical records, which,
according to the author, are incorporated in the existing text of
the Old Testament. His bold views on the nature of inspiration,
and his free handling of the sacred text, aroused the anger of the
theologians. Of his numerous other works the most important
are The Theatre of the Greeks; The History of the Literature of
Ancient Greece (a translation and completion of C. O. M tiller's
unfinished work) ; editions of the Odes of Pindar and the Antigone
of Sophocles; a Hebrew, a Greek and a Latin Grammar.
DONATELLO (diminutive of Donate) (c. 1386-1466), Italian
sculptor, was the son of Niccolo di Betto Bardi, a member of the
Florentine Woolcombers' Gild, and was born in Florence probably
in 1386. The date is conjectural, since the scanty contemporary
records of Donatello's life are contradictory, the earliest docu-
mentary reference to the master bearing the date 1406, when
a payment is made to him as an independent sculptor. That
Donatello was educated in the house of the Martelli family, as
stated by Vasari, and that he owed to them his introduction to his
future friend and patron, Cosimo de' Medici, is very doubtful, in
view of the fact that his father had espoused the cause of the
Albizzi against the Medici, and was in consequence banished from
Florence, where his property was confiscated. It is, however,
certain that Donatello received his first training, according to
the custom of the period, in a goldsmith's workshop, and that he
worked for a short time in Ghiberti's studio. He was too young
to enter the competition for the baptistery gates in 1402, from
which Ghiberti issued victorious against Brunelleschi, Jacopo
DONATELLO
407
della Quercia, Niccolo d'Arezzo and other rivals. But when
Brunellcschi in his disappointment left Florence and went to
Rome to study the remains of classic art he was accompanied by
young Donatello. Whilst pursuing their studies and excavations
on classic soil, which made them talked about amongst the
Romans of the day as " treasure seekers," the two young men
made a living by working at the goldsmiths' shops. This Roman
sojourn was decisive for the entire development of Italian art in
the i.sth century, for it was during this period that Brunelleschi
undertook his measurements of the Pantheon dome and of other
Roman buildings, which enabled hkn to construct the nobk
cupola of S. Maria del Fiore in Florence, while Donatello acquired
his knowledge of classic forms and ornamentation. The two
masters, each in his own sphere, were to become the leading
spirits in the art movement of the isth century. Brunelleschi 's
buildings and Donatello's monuments are the supreme expression
of the spirit of the early Renaissance in architecture and sculpture
and exercised a potent influence upon the painters of that age.
Donatello probably did not return to Florence before 1405,
since the earliest works in that city that can be traced to his chisel
are two small statues of " prophets " for the north door of the
cathedral, for which he received payment in November 1406 andin
the beginning of 1408. In the latter year he was entrusted with
the important commissions for the marble " David," now at the
Bargello, and for the colossal seated figure of " St John the
Evangelist," which until 1 588 occupied a niche of theold cathedral
facade, and is now placed in a dark chapel of the Duomo. We
find him next employed at Or San Michele, where between 1340
and 1406 only four of the fourteen niches had been filled. As the
result of a reminder sent by the Signory to the gilds who had
undertaken to furnish the statues, the services of Ciuffagni,Nanni
di Banco, Ghiberti and Donatello were enlisted, and Donatello
completed between 1412 and 1415 the" St Peter," the "St George"
(the original, now in the Bargello, has been replaced by a copy)
and the " St Mark." He probably also assisted Nanni di Banco in
his group of four saints. To this early period in spite of Dr
Bode's contention, who places it about twenty years later
belongs the wooden crucifix in S. Croce, the most striking instance
of Donatello's realism in rendering the human form and his first
attempt at carving the nude. It is said that this crucifix was
executed in rivalry with Brunelleschi 's noble work at S. Maria
Novella, and that Donatello, at the sight of his friend's work,
exclaimed, " It has been left to you to shape a real Christ, whilst I
have made a peasant." In this early group of statues, from the
prophets for the cathedral door to the " St George," can be
followed the gradual advance from Gothic stiffness of attitude and
draping to a forceful rendering of the human form and of move-
ment, which is a distinct approach to the classic ideal; from
the massiveness of the heavily draped figure to easy poise and
muscular litheness. All these figures were carved in marble and
are admirably conceived in relation to their architectural setting.
In fact, so strong is this tendency that the " St Mark," when
inspected at the master's workshop, was disapproved of by the
heads of the Gild of Linen- weavers, but aroused public enthusiasm
when placed in situ, and at a later date received Michelangelo's
unstinted admiration.
Between the completion of the niches for Or San Michele
and his second journey to Rome in 1433, Donatello was chiefly
occupied with statuary work for the campanile and the cathedral,
though from this period dates the bronze figure of the Baptist
for the christening font of Orvieto Cathedral, which was never
delivered and is now among the treasures of the Berlin museum.
This, and the " St Louis of Toulouse," which originally occupied
a niche at Or San Michele and is now badly placed at S. Croce,
were the first works in bronze which owed their origin to the
partnership of Donatello with Michelozzo, who undertook the
casting of the models supplied by his senior. The marble statues
for the campanile, which are either proved to be Donatello's
by documentary evidence or can be recognized as his work
from their style, are the " Abraham," wrought by the master
in conjunction with Giovanni di Bartolo (il Rosso); the
" St John the Baptist"; the so-called " Zuccone " (Jonah?);
"Jeremiah"; " Habakuk " (?); the unknown "prophet"
who is supposed to bear the features of the humanist Poggio
Bracciolini; and possibly he may have had a share in the
completion of the " Joshua " commenced by Ciuffagni in 1415.
All these statues, and the " St John " at the Bargello, mark a bold
departure from the statuesque balance of the " St Mark " and
" St George " to an almost instantaneous impression of life. The
fall of the draperies is no longer arranged in harmonious lines, but
is treated in an accidental, massive, bold manner. At the same
time the heads are no longer, as it were, impersonal, but almost
cruelly realistic character portraits of actual people, just as the
arms and legs and necks are faithfully copied from life with all
their angularities and deviations from the lines of beauty. During
this period Donatello executed some work for the baptismal font
at S. Giovanni in Siena, which Jacopo della Quercia and his
assistants had begun in 1416. Though the Florentine's share in
it is confined to a relief which may have been designed, or even
begun, by Jacopo, and a few statuettes, it is of considerable
importance in Donatello's life-work, as it includes his first
attempt at relief sculptureexcept the marble relief on the socle
of the " St George "his first female figures," Faith " and
" Hope," and his first putti. The relief, " Herod's Feast," shows
already that power of dramatic narration and the skill of express-
ing the depth of space by varying the treatment from plastic
roundness to the finest stiacciato, which was to find its mature
expression in the panels of the altar of S. Antonio in Padua and of
the pulpit of S. Lorenzo in Florence. The casting of the pieces
for the Siena font was probably done by Michelozzo, who is also
credited with an important share in the next two monumental
works, in the designing of which Donatello had to face a new
problem the tomb of John XXIII. in the baptistery (begun
about 1425), and that of Cardinal Brancacci at S. Angelo a Nilo in
Naples (executed in Pisa, 1427). The noble recumbent figure of
the defunct on the former, the relief on the sarcophagus, and the
whole architectural design, are unquestionably due to Donatello;
the figure of the pope is the most beautiful tomb figure of the isth
century, and served as the model on which Rossellino, Desiderio,
and other sculptors of the following period based their treatment
of similar problems. Donatello's share in the Naples monument
is probably confined to the characteristic low relief of the
" Ascension." The baptistery tomb shows how completely
Donatello had mastered the forms of Renaissance architecture,
even before his second visit to Rome. An earlier proof of his
knowledge of classic art is his niche for the " St Louis " at Or S.
Michele, now occupied by Verrocchio's " Christ and St Thomas."
Similar in treatment to the " Ascension " relief is the " Charge to
St Peter " at South Kensington, which is almost impressionistic
in its suggestion of distance and intervening atmosphere expressed
by the extreme slightness of the relief. Another important work
of this period, and not, as Vasari maintains, of Donatello's youth,
is the " Annunciation " relief, with its wealth of delicately
wrought Renaissance motifs in the architectural setting.
When Cosimo, the greatest art patron of his time, was exiled
from Florence in 1433, Michelozzo accompanied him to Venice,
whilst Donatello for the second time went to Rome to drink once
more at the source of classic art. The two works which still
testify to his presence in this city, the " Tomb of Giovanni
Crivelli " at S. Maria in Aracoeli, and the " Ciborium " at St
Peter's, bear the stamp of classic influence. Donatello's return to
Florence in the following year almost coincides with Cosimo's.
Almost immediately, in May 1434, he signed a contract for the
marble pulpit on the facade of Prato cathedral, the last work
executed in collaboration with Michelozzo, a veritable bacchan-
alian dance of half-nude putti, pagan in spirit, passionate in its
wonderful rhythmic movement the forerunner of the " singing
tribune " for Florence cathedral, at which he worked inter-
mittently from 1433 to 1440, and which is now restored to its
original complete form at the museum of the Opera del Duomo.
But Donatello's greatest achievement of his "'classic period " is
the bronze " David " at the Bargello, the first nude statue of the
Renaissance, the first figure conceived in the round, independent
of any architectural surroundings graceful, well-proportioned,
408
DONATI DONATION OF CONSTANTINE
superbly balanced, suggestive of Greek art in the simplification
of form, and yet realistic, without any striving after ideal pro-
portions. The same tendencies are to be noted in the bronze
putto at the Bargello.
In 1443 Donatello was invited to Padua to undertake the
decoration of the high altar of S. Antonio, but in the period
preceding his departure he not only assisted Brunelleschi in the
decoration of the sacristy of S. Lorenzo, towards which the bronze
doors are his chief contribution, but found time to chisel, or model
in wax or terra-cotta, for Cosimo and other private patrons, most
of the portrait busts and small reliefs, which are now distributed
over the museums of the world. His first work in Padua was the
bronze crucifix for the high altar, a work immeasurably superior
to the early wooden crucifix at S. Croce, both as regards nobility
of expression and subtlety of form. In the very year when
Donatello arrived in Padua the famous Condottiere Erasmo de'
Narni, called Gattamelata, had died, and when it was decided to
honour his memory with an equestrian statue, it was only natural
that this master should be chosen to undertake a task from the
difficulties of which all others may well have shrunk had shrunk,
indeed, since classic times. This commission, and the reliefs and
figures for the high altar, kept Donatello in Padua for ten years,
though during that time he visited Venice (where he carved the
wooden " St John " at the Fran) and probably Mantua, Ferrara
and Modena. At least, he was in communication with Borso d'
Este of Modena about a project for an equestrian statue, and had
to give expert opinion about two equestrian statues at Ferrara.
In his workshop in Padua he gathered around him quite a
small army of assistants, stone-carvers, metal-workers, painters,
gilders and bronze-casters. The Gattamelata was finished and
set up in 1453 a work powerful and majestic in its very repose;
there is no striving for dramatic effect, no exaggerated muscular
action, but the whole thing is dominated by the strong, energetic
head, which is modelled with the searching realism of the Zuccone
and the Poggio heads. The high altar, for which Donatello
executed twenty-two reliefs, seven statues and the crucifix, was
completed in 1450, but had subsequently to undergo many
changes, in the course of which the original disposition of the
sculptures was entirely lost sight of, the present arrangement
being due to Camillo Boi to ( 1 89 5) . The chief features of the altar
are the wonderfully animated and dramatic bronze reliefs, four in
number, of the " Miracles of St Anthony."
With the exception of another visit to Siena in 1457, of which
the bronze " St John " in the cathedral is a reminder, Donatello
spent the remaining years of his life in Florence. Closely akin
to the rugged " St John " at Siena, and therefore probably
contemporaneous, is the repulsively ugly, emaciated "Magdalen"
at the baptistery in Florence. The dramatic intensity of the
" Judith " group in the Loggia de' Lanzi, which was originally
placed in the court of the Medici Palace, marks it as belonging
to the post-Paduan period of the master's life. His last work of
importance was the bronze reliefs for the pulpit of S. Lorenzo,
commissioned about 1460, and finished after Donatello's death
by his pupil Bertoldo. The reliefs of the " Flagellation " and
" Crucifixion " at the Victoria and Albert Museum are typical
examples of the master's style at this closing period of his life.
He died on the isth of December 1466.
As happened subsequently to Velazquez and Frans Hals,
Donatello, whose supreme mastery had been acknowledged by
Michelangelo, Raphael and the other giants of the late Renais-
sance, almost sank into oblivion during the i8th and early igth
centuries, and only in comparatively recent times has he been
restored to the eminent position which is his due in the history of
art. The full power of his genius was only revealed to the world
when, at the quincentenary celebration of his birth, the greater
part of his life-work was brought together in Florence. The large
hall at the Bargello has ever since been devoted to the display of
his works, the numerous original bronzes and marbles and terra-
cottas being supplemented by casts of works at other places, such
as the colossal Gattamelata monument.
AUTHORITIES. Before the date of the Florence exhibition in 1886
the only books on the subject of Donatello apart from references in
jeneral histories of art were Pastor's Donatella (Giessen, 1882) and
temper's Donatello, seine Zeit und seine Schide (Vienna, 1875). Since
then the great Florentine sculptor has received attention from many
of the leading art writers, though England has only contributed a
not very complete record of his life and work by Hope Rea, Donatello
[London, 1900), and an excellent critical study by Lord Balcarres,
Donatello (London, 1903), besides a translation of A. G. Meyer's
:ully illustrated and exhaustive monograph in the Knackfuss series
(London, 1904). Other notable books on the subject are: Eugene
Miintz, Donatello (Paris, 1885), and in the series of Les Artistes
celebres (Paris, 1890); Schmarzow, Donatella (Breslau, 1886); Cava-
lucci, Vita ed opere del Donatello (Milan, 1886) ; Tschudi, Donatello
e la critica moderna (Turin, 1887); Reymond, Donatello (Florence,
1899); and Bode, Florentiner Btldhauer der Renaissance (Donatello
als Architekt und Dekorator, Die Madcmnenreliefs Donatellos)
(Berlin, 1902). (P. G. K.)
DONATI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1826-1873), Italian
astronomer, was born at Pisa on the i6th of December 1826. He
entered the observatory of Florence as a student in 1852, became
assistant to G. B. Amici in 1854, and was appointed in 1864 to
succeed him as director. A new observatory at Arcetri near
Florence, built under his supervision, was completed in 1872.
During the ten years 1854-1864 Donati discovered six comets,
one of which, first seen on the 2nd of June 1858, bears his name
(see COMET). He observed the total solar eclipse of the i8th of
July 1860, at Torreblanca in Spain, and in the same year began
experiments in stellar spectroscopy. In 1862 he published a
memoir, Intorno die strie degli spettri stellari, which indicated the
feasibility of a physical classification of the stars; and on the sth
of August 1864 discovered the gaseous composition of comets
by submitting to prismatic analysis the light of one then visible.
An investigation of the great aurora of the 4th of February 1872
led him to refer such phenomena to a distinct branch of science,
designated by him " cosmical meteorology "; but he was not
destined to prosecute the subject. Attending the International
Meteorological Congress of August 1873 at Vienna, he fell ill of
cholera, and died a few hours after his arrival at Arcetri, on the
2oth of September 1873.
See Vierteljahrsschrift der astr. Gesellschaft (Leipzig), ix. 4;
Monthly Notices Roy. Astr. Society, xxxiv. 153; Memorie degli
spettroscopisti italiani, ii. 125 (G. Cacciatore); Nature, viii. 556;
&c. (A. M. C.) ,
DONATIO MORTIS CAUSA (grant in case of death), in law, a
gift of personal property made in contemplation of death and
intended either expressly or impliedly to take_complete effect only
if the donor dies of the illness affecting him at the time of the gift.
The conception as well as the name is borrowed from Roman law,
and the definition given by Justinian (Inst. ii. 7. i) applies equally
to a donatio mortis causa in Roman and English law. A distinction,
however, has arisen between the English and civil codes; by
English law delivery either actual or (when from the nature of the
thing actual delivery is impossible) constructive is essential, and
this delivery must pass not only the possession but the dominion
of the thing given; by the civil law, in some cases at least,
delivery of possession was not essential (see the judgment of Lord
Chancellor Hardwicke in Ward v. Turner, 1751, 2 Ves. sen. 431,
where the whole question is exhaustively discussed). A donatio
mortis causa stands halfway between a gift inter vinos and a
legacy, and has some of the characteristics of each form of
disposition. It resembles a legacy in that (i) it is revocable
during the donor's life, (2) it is subject to legacy and estate duty,
and (3) it is liable to satisfy debts of the testator in default of
other assets. On the other hand, it resembles a gift inter vivas
in that it takes effect from delivery; therefore the consent of the
executor is not necessary. Anything may be the subject of a
donatio mortis causa, the absolute property in which can be made
to pass by delivery after the donor's death either in law or equity;
this will cover bankers' deposit notes, bills of exchange, and notes
and cheques of a third person, but not promissory notes and
cheques of the donor in favour of the donee, for the donor's
signature is merely an authority for his banker to pay, which is
revoked by his death.
DONATION OF CONSTANTINE (Donatio Constantini), the
supposed grant by the emperor Constantine, in gratitude for his
conversion by Pope Silvester, to that pope and his successors.
DONATION OF CONSTANTINE
409
for ever, not only of spiritual supremacy over the other great
patriarchates and over all matters of faith and worship, but also of
temporal dominion over Rome, Italy and " the provinces, places
and civitates of the western regions." The famous document,
known as the Constitutum Constantini and compounded of various
elements (notably the apocryphal Vita S. Silvestri), was forged
at Rome some time between the middle and end of the 8th
century, was included in the pth century in the collection known
as the False Decretals, two centuries later was incorporated in
the Decretum by a pupil of Gratian, and in Gibbon's day was still
" enrolled among the decrees of the canon law," though already
rejected " by the tacit or modest censure of the advocates of
the Roman church." It is now universally admitted to be a
gross forgery. 1 In spite, however, of Gibbon's characteristic
scepticism on this point, it is certain that the Constitutum was
regarded as genuine both by the friends and the enemies of the
papal pretensions throughout the middle ages. 2 Though no use
of it was made by the popes during the gth and loth centuries,
it was quoted as authoritative by eminent ecclesiastics of the
Prankish empire (e.g. by Ado of Vienne and Hincmar of Reims) ,
and it was employed by two Prankish popes, Gregory V. and
Silvester II., in urging certain territorial claims. But not till 1050
was it made the basis of the larger papal claims, when another
Prankish pope, Leo IX., used it in his controversy with the
Byzantines. From this time forward it was increasingly used by
popes and canonists in support of the papal pretensions, and from
the 1 2th century onwards became a powerful weapon of the
spiritual against the temporal powers. It is, however, as Cardinal
Hergenrother points out, possible to exaggerate its importance in
this respect; a charter purporting to be a grant by an emperor to
a pope of spiritual as well as temporal jurisdiction was at best a
double-edged weapon; and the popes generally preferred to base
their claim to universal sovereignty on their direct commission
as vicars of God. By the partisans of the Empire, on the other
hand, the Donation was looked upon as the fans et origo malorum,
and Constantine was regarded as having, in his new-born zeal,
betrayed his imperial trust. The expression of this opinion is not
uncommon in medieval literature (e.g.Walther von derVogelweide,
Pfeiffer's edition, 1880, Nos. Ssand 164), the most famous instance
being in the Inferno of Dante (xix. 115):
" Ahi, Costantin, di questo mal fu matre
Non la tua conversion, ma quella dote
Che da te prese il primo ricco patre ! "
The genuineness of the Constitutum was first critically assailed
by Laurentius Valla in 1440, whose De falso credita et ementita
Constantini donation* dedamatio opened a controversy that lasted
until, at the close of the i8th century, the defence was silenced.
In modern times the controversy as to the genuineness of the
document has been succeeded by a debate scarcely less lively
as to its date, its authorship and place of origin. The efforts of
Roman Catholic scholars have been directed (since Baronius
ascribed the forgery to the Greeks) to proving that the fraud was
not committed at Rome. Thus Cardinal Hergenrother holds
that it was written by a Frank in the 9th century, in order to
prove that the Greeks had been rightfully expelled from Italy
and that Charlemagne was legitimate emperor. This view, with
variations, was maintained by the writer of an article in the
Civiltd catlolicaia 1864 (Serie v. vol. x. pp. 303, &c.) and supported
by Grauert, who maintains that the document was concocted at
the abbey of St Denis, after 840. The evidence now available,
however, confirms those who ascribe an earlier date to the
forgery and place it at Rome. The view held by Gibbon and
Dollinger among others, 3 that the Constitutum is referred to in
1 Dr Hodgkin's suggestion (Italy and her Invaders, vii. p. 153) that
the Constitutum may have been originally a mere pious romance,
recognized as such by its author and his contemporaries, and laid up
in the papal archives until its origin was forgotten, is wholly incon-
sistent with the unquestioned results of the critical analysis of the
text.
8 Leo of Vercelli, the emperor Otto III.'s chancellor, protested that
the Constitutum^ was a forgery, but without effect. The attacks upon
it by the heretical followers of Arnold of Brescia (1152) convinced
neither the partisans of the pope nor those of the emperor.
3 So Langen (1883) and E. Mayer (1904).
the letter of Pope Adrian I. to Charlemagne (778), is now indeed
largely rejected; there is nothing in the letter to make such an
assumption safe, and the same must be said of Friedrich's attempt
to find such reference in the letter addressed in 785 by the same
pope to Constantine VI., emperor of the East, and his mother
Irene. Still less safe is it to ascribe the authorship of the forgery
to any particular pope on the ground of its style; for papal
letters were drawn up in the papal chancery and the style
employed there was apt to persist through several pontificates.
Friedrich's theory that the Constitutum is a composite document,
part written in the 7th century, part added by Paul I. when
a deacon under Stephen II., though supported by a wealth
of learning, has been torn to tatters by more than one critic
(G. Kriiger, L. Loening).
On one point, however, a fair amount of agreement seems now
to have been reached, a result due to the labour in collating
documents of Scheffer-Boichorst, namely, that the style of the
Constitutum is generally that of the papal chancery in the latter
half of the 8th century. This being granted, there is room for
plentiful speculation as to where and why it was concocted. We
may still hold the opinion of Dollinger that it was intended to
impress the barbarian Pippin and justify in his eyes the Frank
intervention in favour of the pope in Italy; or we may share the
view of Loening (rejected by Brunner, Rechtsgeschichte) that the
forgery was a pious fraud on the part of a cleric of the Curia,
committed under Adrian I., 4 with the idea of giving a legal
basis to territorial dominion which that pope had succeeded in
establishing in Italy. The donations of Pippin and Charlemagne
established him as sovereign de facto; the donation of Constantine
was to proclaim him as sovereign dejure. It is significant in this
connexion that it was under Adrian (c. 774) that the papal
chancery ceased to date by the regnal years of the Eastern emperor
and substituted that of the pontificate. Dollinger's view is
supported and carried a step further by H. Bohmer, who by
an ingenious argument endeavours to prove that the Constitutum
was forged in 753, probably by the notary Christophorus, and
was carried with him by Pope Stephen II. to the court of Pippin,
in 754, with an eye to the acquisition of the Exarchate. In
support of this argument it is to be noted that the forged docu-
ment first appears at the abbey of St Denis, where Stephen spent
the winter months of 754. E. Mayer, on the other hand, denies
that the Constitutum can have been forged before the news of the
iconoclastic decrees of the council of Constantinople of 754 had
reached Rome. He lays stress on the relation of the supposed
confession of faith of Constantine, embodied in the forgery, to
that issued by the emperor Constantine V., pointing out the
efforts made by the Byzantines between 756 and the synod of
Gentilly in 767 to detach Pippin from the cause of Rome and the
holy images. The forgery thus had a double object: as a
weapon against Byzantine heresy and as a defence of the papal
patrimony. As the result of an exhaustive analysis of the text
and of the political and religious events of the time, Mayer comes
to the conclusion that the document was forged about 775, i.e. at
the time when Charlemagne was beginning to reverse the policy
by which in 774 he had confirmed the possession of the duchies of
Spoleto and Benevento to the pope.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. See Dollinger, Papstfabeln des Mittelalters
(Munich, 1863; Eng. trans. A. Plummer, 1871); " Janus," Der Pabst
und das Konzil (Munich, 1869; Eng. trans. 1869); Hergenrother,
Catholic Church and Christian State (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1872;
Eng. trans. 2 vols. 1876); W. Martens, Die romische Frage unter
Pippin u. Karl d. Grossen (Stuttgart, 1881), with text; H. Grauert,
" Die Konstantinische Schenkung " in Hist. Jahrb. der Gorres-
Gesellsch. iii. (1882), iv. (1883); Langen, " Entstehung u. Tendenz
der Konst. Schenkungsurkunde " in Sybel's Hist. Zeitschr. 1.
(1883); L. Weiland, "Die Konst. Schenkung" in Zeitschr. f.
Kirchenrecht, xxii. (1887-1888), maintains that the Constitutum was
forged at Rome between 813 and 875, in connexion with the papal
claim to crown the emperors; H. Brunner and K. Zeumer, Die
Konstantinische Schenkungsurkunde (Berlin, 1888; Festgaben fur
R. v. Gneist), with text ; Fnedrich, Die Konst.Schenkung (Nordlingen,
1889), with text; W. Martens, Die falsche Generalkonzession Kon-
stantins des Grossen (Munich, 1889) ; P. Scheffer-Boichorst, " Neue
4 This is also W. Mayer's view in his later work. In his Die
romische Frage (1881) he had placed the forgery in 805 or 806.
DONATISTS
Forschungen iiber die Konst. Schenkung," i. ii. (Mitteilungen des
Instituts fur osterr. Geschichtsforschung, x. (1889), xi. (1890); G.
Kriiger, " Die Frage der Entstehungszeit der Konst. Schenkung," in
Theologische Literatnrzeitung, xiv. (1889); J. Hodgkin, Italy and her
Invaders, vol. vii. p. 135 (Oxford, 1899); article " Konstantinische
Schenkung," G. H. Bohmer, in Herzog-Hauck, Realency>
E. Mayer, " Die Schenkungen Konstantins und Pipms " in
Deutsche Zeitschr. fur Kirchenrecht (Tubingen, 1904). Laurentius
Valla's treatise was issued in a new edition, with French translation
and historical introduction, by A. Bonneau, La Donation de
Constantin (Lisieux, 1879). (W. A. P.)
DONATISTS, a powerful sect which arose in the Christian
church of northern Africa at the beginning of the 4th century. 1
In its doctrine it sprang from the same roots, and in its history
it had in many things the same character, as the earlier Novatians.
The predisposing causes of the Donatist schism were the belief,
early introduced into the African church, that the validity of
all sacerdotal acts depended upon the personal character of the
agent, and the question, arising out of that belief, as to the
eligibility for sacerdotal office of the traditores, or those who had
delivered up their copies of the Scriptures under the compulsion
of the Diocletian persecution; the exciting cause was the election
of a successor to Mensurius, bishop of Carthage, who died in 311.
Mensurius had held moderate views as to the treatment of the
traditores, and accordingly a strong fanatical party had formed
itself in Carthage in opposition to him, headed by a wealthy and
influential widow named Lucilla, and countenanced by Secundus
of Tigisis, episcopus primae sedis in Numidia. There were thus two
parties, each anxious to secure the succession to the vacant see.
The friends of the late bishop fixed their choice on Caecilian, the
archdeacon, and secured his election and his consecration by
Felix, the bishop of Aptunga, before the other party were ready
for action. It had been customary for the Numidian bishops
to be present at the election and consecration of the bishop of
Carthage, who as metropolitan of proconsular Africa occupied a
position of primacy towards all the African provinces. Caecilian's
party, however, had not waited for them, knowing them to be in
sympathy with their opponents. Soon after Caecilian's consecra-
tion, Secundus sent a commission to Carthage, which appointed
an interventor temporarily to administer the bishopric which
they regarded as vacant. Then Secundus himself with seventy
of the Numidian bishops arrived at Carthage. A synod of Africa
was formed, before which Caecilian was summoned; his con-
secration was declared invalid, on the ground that Felix had been
a traditor; and finally, having refused to obey the summons to
appear, he was excommunicated, and the lector Majorinus, a
dependant of Lucilla's, consecrated in his stead. This synod
forbade the African churches to hold communion with Caecilian,
the schism became overt, and in a very short time there were
rival bishops and rival churches throughout the whole province.
It was soon clear, by the exclusion of the " Pars Majorini "
from certain privileges conferred on the African church, that the
sympathies of Constantine were with the other party (Eusebius,
Hist. eccl. x. 6, 7). To investigate the dispute an imperial
commission was issued to five Gallic bishops, under the presidency
of Melchiades, bishop of Rome. The number of referees was
afterwards increased to twenty, and the case was tried at Rome
in 3i3. 2 Ten bishops appeared on each side, the leading re-
presentative of the Donatists being Donatus of Casae Nigrae.
The decision was entirely in favour of Caecilian, and Donatus was
found guilty of various ecclesiastical offences An appeal was
taken and allowed; but the decision of the synod of Aries in
314 not only confirmed the position of Caecilian, but greatly
strengthened it by passing a canon that ordination was not
'There were three prominent men named Donatus connected
with the movement Donatus of Casae Nigrae ; Donatus surnamed
Magnus, who succeeded Majorinus as the Donatist bishop of
Carthage; and Donatus of Bagoi, a leader of the circumcelliones,
who was captured and executed c. 350. The name of the sect was
derived from the second of these. The Donatists themselves
repudiated the designation, which was applied to them by their
opponents as a reproach. They called themselves " Pars Maiorini "
or Pars Donati."
2 The Donatist movement affords a valuable illustration of the
new importance which the changed position of the church under
Constantine gave to the synodal system of ecclesiastical legislation.
invalid because performed by a traditor, if otherwise regular.
Felix had previously been declared innocent after an examination
of records and witnesses at Carthage. A further appeal to the
emperor in person was heard at Milan in 3 16, when all points were
finally decided in favour of Caecilian, probably on the advice of
Hosius, bishop of Cordova. Henceforward the power of the state
was directed to the suppression of the defeated party. Persistent
Donatists were no longer merely heretics; they were rebels
and incurred the confiscation of their church property and the
forfeiture of their civil rights.
The attempt to destroy the sect by force had the result of
intensifying its fanaticism. Majorinus, the Donatist bishop of
Carthage, died in 315, and was succeeded by Donatus, surnamed
Magnus, a man of great force of character, under whose influence
the schism gained fresh strength from the opposition it en-
countered. Force was met with force; the Circumcelliones,
bands of fugitive slaves and vagrant (circum cellas) peasants,
attached themselves to the Donatists, and their violence reached
such a height as to threaten civil war. In 321 Constantine, see-
ing probably that he had been wrong in abandoning his usual
policy of toleration, sought to retrace his steps by granting
the Donatists liberty to act according to their consciences,
and declaring that the points in dispute between them and the
orthodox should be left to the judgment of God. Thiswise policy,
to which he consistently adhered to the close of his reign, was not
followed by his son and successor Constans, who, after repeated
attempts to win over the sect by bribes, resorted to persecution.
The renewed excesses of the Circumcelliones, among whom were
ranged fugitive slaves, debtors and political malcontents of all
kinds, had given to the Donatist schism a revolutionary aspect;
and its forcible suppression may therefore have seemed to
Constans even more necessary for the preservation of the empire
than for the vindication of orthodoxy. The power which they
had been the first to invoke having thus declared so emphatically
and persistently against them, the Donatists revived the old
world-alien Christianity of the days of persecution, and repeated
Tertullian's question, " What has the emperor to do with the
church ? " (Quid est imperatori cum ecclesia ?) Such an attitude
aggravated the lawlessness of the Circumcellion adherents of
the sect, and their outrages were in turn made the justification
for the most rigorous measures against the whole Donatist
party indiscriminately. Many of their bishops fell victims to
the persecution, and Donatus (Magnus) and several others were
banished from their sees.
With the accession of Julian (361) an entire change took place
in the treatment of the Donatists. Their churches were restored
and their bishops reinstated (Parmenianus succeeding the
deceased Donatus at Carthage), with the natural result of greatly
increasing both the numbers and the enthusiasm of the party.
A return to the earlier policy of repression was made under
Valentinian I. and Gratian, by whom the Donatist churches were
again closed, and all their assemblies forbidden. It was not,
however, until the commencement of the 5th century that the
sect began to decline, owing largely to the rise among them of a
group of moderate and scholarly men like the grammarian
Tychonius, who vainly strove to overcome the more fanatical
section. Against the house thus divided against itself both state
and church directed not unsuccessful assaults. In 405 an edict
was issued by the emperor Honorius commanding the Donatists,
under the severest penalties, to return to the Catholic church.
On the other hand, Augustine, bishop of Hippo, after several
years' negotiation, arranged a great conference between the
Donatists and the orthodox, which was held under the authority
of the emperor at Carthage in 411. There were present 286
Catholics and 279 Donatist bishops. Before entering on the
proceedings the Catholics pledged themselves, if defeated, to give
up their sees, while in the other event they promised to recognize
the Donatists as bishops on their simply declaring their adherence
to the Catholic church. The latter proposal, though it was
received with scorn at the time, had perhaps ultimately as much
influence as the logic of Augustine in breaking the strength of the
schism. The discussion, which lasted for three days, Augustine
DONATUS DONCASTER
411
and Aurelius of Carthage being the chief speakers on the one side,
and Primian and Petilian on the other, turned exclusively upon
the two questions that had given rise to the schism first, the
question of fact, whether Felix of Aptunga who consecrated
Caecilian had been a traditor; and secondly, the question of
doctrine, whether a church by tolerance of unworthy members
within its pale lost the essential attributesof purity andcatholicity.
The Donatist position, like that of the Novatians, was that the
mark of the true church is to guard the essential predicate of
holiness by excluding all who have committed mortal sin; the
Catholic standpoint was that such holiness is not destroyed by
the presence of unworthy members in the church but rests upon
the divine foundation of the church and upon the gift of the Holy
Spirit and the communication of grace through the priesthood.
In the words of Optatus of Milevi, sanctitas de sacramentis
colligitur, non de superbia personarum pondera. And the much
wider diffusion of the orthodox church was also taken as practical
confirmation that it alone possessed what was regarded as the
equally essential predicate of catholicity.
The decision of Marcellinus, the imperial commissioner, was in
favour of the Catholic party on both questions, and it was at once
confirmed on an appeal to the emperor. The severest penal
measures were enforced against the schismatics; in 414 they
were denied all civil rights, in 415 the holding of assemblies was
forbidden on pain of death. But they lived on, suffering with
their orthodox brethren in the Vandal invasions of the sth
century, and like them finally disappearing before the Saracen
onslaught two centuries later.
AUTHORITIES. i. Contemporary sources: Optatus Milevitanus
De Schismate Donatistarum adversus Parmenianum, written c. 368
(Dupin's ed., Paris, 1700), and several of the works of Augustine.
2. Modern : C. W. F. Walch, Entwurf einer vollstandigen Historie
der Ketzereien (Leipzig, 1768); Hauck-Herzog, Realencyk. fur prot.
Theol., art. " Donatismus " by N. Bonwetsch, who cites the literature
very fully ; W. Moller, History of the Christian Church (vol. i. pp.
331 ff. t 445 ff.); D. Volter, Der Ursprung des Donatismus (Freiburg,
1883).
DONATUS, AELIUS, Roman grammarian and teacher of
rhetoric, flourished in the middle of the 4th century A.D. The
only fact known regarding his life is that he was the tutor of St
Jerome. He was the author of a number of professional works, of
which there are still extant: Ars grammatica; the larger portion
of his commentary on Terence (a compilation from other com-
mentaries), but probably not in its original form; and a few
fragments of his notes on Virgil, preserved and severely criticized
by Servius, together with the preface and introduction, and life of
Virgil. The first of these works, and especially the section on the
eight parts of speech, though possessing little claim to originality,
and in fact evidently based on the same authorities which were
used by the grammarians Charisius and Diomedes, attained such
popularity as a school-book that in the middle ages the writer's
name, like the French Calepin, became a common metonymy (in
the form donet) for a rudimentary treatise of any sort. On the
introduction of printing editions of the little book were multiplied
to an enormous extent. It is extant in the form of an Ars Minor,
which only treats of the parts of speech, and an Ars Major, which
deals with grammar in general at greater length.
Aelius Donatus is to be distinguished from Tiberius Claudius
Donatus, the author of a commentary (Interpretaliones) on the
Aeneid (of far less value than that of Servius), who lived about
fifty years later.
The best text of the Ars and the commentaries upon it by Servius
and others is in H. Keil, Grammalici Latini, iv. ; of the commentary
on Terence there is an edition by P. Wessner (1902, Teubner series),
with bibliography and full account. of MSS. See generally E. A.
Grafenhan, Geschichte der klassischen Philologie im Altertum, iv.
(1850); P. Rosenstock, De Donate, Terenti . . . explicatore (1886);
H. T. Karsten, De comm. Don. ad Terenti fabulas origine et com-
postttone (Leiden, 1907). For the commentary of Tiberius Donatus
see O. Ribbeck, Prolegomena to Virgil, Grafenhan (as above), and
V. Burkas, De Tiberii Claudii Donati in Aeneidem commentario (1889).
I he text will be found in G. Fabricius's edition of Virgil (1561),
ed. by H. George, i. (1905 foil.).
DONAUWORTH, a town of Germany in the kingdom of
Bavaria, on the left bank of the Danube, at the confluence of the
Wornitz, 25 m. N. of Augsburg by rail and at the junction of lines
to Ulm and Ingolstadt. Pop. 5000. It is an ancient town and
has several medieval buildings of interest. Notable among its
seven churches (six Roman Catholic) are the Kloster-Kirche
(monasterial), a beautiful Gothic edifice with the sarcophagus
of Maria of Brabant, and that of the former Benedictine abbey.
Heilig-Kreuz, with a lofty tower. Remarkable among secular
buildings are the Gothic town hall, and the so-called Tanz-haus,
which now includes both a theatre and a school. The industries
embrace machinery, brewing and saw-milling; the place is of
some importance as a river port, and the centre of a considerable
agricultural trade.
Donauworth grew up in the course of the nth and i2th
centuries under the protection of the castle of Mangoldstein,
became in the i3th a seat of the duke of Upper Bavaria, who,
however, soon withdrew to Munich to escape from the manes of
his wife Maria of Brabant, whom he had there beheaded on an
unfounded suspicion of infidelity. The town received the freedom
of the Empire in 1308, and maintained its position in spite of the
encroachments of Bavaria till 1607, when the interference of the
Protestant inhabitants with the abbot of the Heilig-Kreuz called
forth an imperial law authorizing the duke of Bavaria to inflict
chastisement for the offence. In the Thirty Years' War it was
stormed by Gustavus Adolphus (1632), and captured by King
Ferdinand (1634). In the vicinity, on the Schellenberg, the
Bavarians and French were defeated by Marlborough and
Prince Louis of Baden on the 2nd of July 1704. The imperial
freedom restored to the town by Joseph I. in 1705 was again lost
by reincorporation with Bavaria in 1714. In the neighbourhood
the Austrians under Mack were, on the 6th of October 1805,
decisively defeated by the French under Soult.
See Konigsdorfer, Geschichte des Klosters zum Heiligen Kreuz in
Donauworth (1819-20).
DON BENfTO, a town of western Spain, in the province of
Badajoz; near the left bank of the river Guadiana, on the Madrid-
Badajoz-Lisbon railway. Pop. (1900) 16,565. Don Benito is a
thriving and comparatively modern town; for it dates only from
the i sth century, when it was founded by refugees from Don
Llorente, who deserted their own town owing to the danger of
floods from the Guadiana. Besides manufactures of brandy,
flour, oil, soap, linen and cloth, it has an active trade in wheat,
wine and fruit, especially melons.
DONCASTER, a market-town and municipal borough in the
Doncaster parliamentary division of the West Riding of York-
shire, England, 156 m. N. by W. from London. Pop. (1901)
28,932. It lies in a flat plain on the river Don, with slight hills
rising westward. It is an important station on the Great Northern
railway, whose principal locomotive and carriage works are here,
and it is also served by the North Eastern, Great Eastern, Great
Central, Lancashire & Yorkshire, and Midland railways. The
Don affords intercommunication with Goole and the Humber.
The parish church of St George, occupying the site of an older
structure of the same name, destroyed by fire in 1853, was finished
in 1858 under the direction of Sir G. G. Scott. It is a fine cruciform
structure of Decorated character, with a central tower 170 ft.
high, and contains a particularly fine organ. St James's church
was erected, under the same architect and Lord Grimthorpe, by
the Great Northern railway company. Other important build-
ings are the town hall, mansion house, free library and art school,
corn exchange and markets. The grammar school was founded
in 1553 and reorganized in 1862. Doncaster race-meetings are
widely famous. The racecourse lies i m. S.E. of the town. The
old course is i m. 7 fur. 70 yds. in length, and the Sandall course
of i m. was added in 1892. The grand stand was erected in 1777,
but there are several additional stands. Races have long been
held at Doncaster, and there was a stand on the course before the
year 1615. The St Leger takes its name from Lieut.-General
St Leger, who originated the race in 1776; but it was not so
named till 1778. The meetings are held in the second week of
September. A system of electric tramways connects the town
with its principal suburbs. The agricultural trade is extensive,
and there are iron, brass and agricultural machine works.
Doncaster lies on the outskirts of a populous district extending
412
DON COSSACKS DONEGAL
up the valley of the Don. Two miles S.W. is the urban district
of Balby-with-Hexthorpe (pop. 6781); and 7 m. S. is that of
Tickhill, where there are remains of a Norman castle. Wheatley
(3S79) li es 2 m - N.E. The borough of Doncaster is under a
mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors. Area, 1695 acres.
History. There was a Roman station here, and numerous
remains of the Roman period have been found. In the reign of
Edward the Confessor, Doncaster, as a berewic of the manor of
Hexthorp, belonged to Earl Tostig; but before 1086 it had been
granted to Robert, earl of Mortain, whose successor William was
attainted for treason in the time of Henry I. The overlordship
then fell to the crown,, and the families of Frossard, Mauley and
Salvin successively held the manor as underlords. Doncaster was
evidently a borough held of the crown for a fee farm rent before
1194, when Richard I. granted and confirmed to the burgesses
their soke and town to hold by the ancient rent and by twenty-
five marks yearly. The town was incorporated in 1467 by Edward
IV., who granted a gild merchant and appointed that the town
should be governed by a mayor and two serjeants-at-mace elected
every year by the burgesses. Henry VII., while confirming this
charter in 1505, granted further that the burgesses should hold
their town and soke with all the manors in the soke on payment
of a fee farm. He also by another charter in 1508 confirmed
letters patent granted by Peter de Mauley in 1341, by which the
latter renounced to the inhabitants of Doncaster all the manorial
claims which he had upon them, with the " pernicious customs "
which his ancestors claimed from bakejs, brewers, butchers,
fishers and wind-fallen trees. In 1623 Ralph Salvin tried to
regain the manor of Doncaster from the mayor and burgesses,
who, fearing that the case would go against them, agreed to pay
about 3000, in return for which he gave up his claim to all the
manors in the soke. Charles II. in 1664 gave the town a new
charter, granting that it should be governed by a mayor, twelve
aldermen and twenty-four capital burgesses, but since this was not
enrolled and was therefore of no effect the burgesses obtained
another charter from James II. in 1684 by which the town was
governed until the Municipal Corporation Act. In 1 200 a fair at
Doncaster on the vigil and day of St James the Apostle was con-
firmed to Robert de Turnham, who held the manor in right of
his wife, with the addition of an extra day, for which he had to
give the king two palfreys worth loos. each. By the charter of
1194 the burgesses received licence to hold a fair on the vigil,
feast and morrow of the Annunciation, and this with the fair on
St James's day was confirmed to them by Henry VII. in 1505.
The fairs and markets are still held under these charters.
See Victoria County History, Yorkshire; Edward Miller, The
History and Antiquities of Doncaster (1828-1831); Calendar to the
Records of the Borough of Doncaster, published by the Corporation.
DON COSSACKS, TERRITORY OF THE (Russ. Donskaya
Oblast), a government of S.E. Russia, bounded W. by the govern-
ments of Voronezh, Kharkov and Ekaterinoslav, S.W. by the Sea
of Azov, S. by the governments of Kuban and Stavropol, and E.
by those of Astrakhan and Saratov. Area, 63,532 sq. m. Pop.
1,010,135 in 1867, 2,585,920 in 1897 and 3,125,400 (estimate) in
1906. It belongs almost entirely to the region of the South
Russian steppes, but in the N., W. and S.W. presents more the
aspects of elevated plains gapped with ravine-like river-courses,
while in the S.E., towards the Manych depression, it passes over
into the arid Aral-Caspian steppes (e.g. Zadonsk Steppe), dotted
over with salt lakes. Geologically the region is made up of
Carboniferous limestones, clay slates and sandstones, containing
anthracite and coal; of Cretaceous marls, chalk, sandstone and
greensands chalk cliffs, in fact, accompany the Don for 200 m.;
and of Miocene limestones and clays. The surface, especially W.
of the Don, is the fertile black earth, intermingled here and there,
especially in the Zadonsk Steppe, with clay impregnated with salt.
The government is drained by the Don and its tributaries, of
which the Donets, Chir and Mius enter from the right and the
Khoper and Medvyeditsa from the left. The Don is navigable
throughout the government, and at Kalach is connected by a
railway, 45 m. long, with Tsaritsyn on the Volga, routes by which
an enormous amount of heavy merchandise is transported. The
climate is continental and dry, the average temperatures being
year 43 Fahr., January 13, July 72 at Uryupina (in 50 48'
N.; alt. 92 ft.); and year 48, January 21, July 73 at Taganrog.
The annual rainfall at the same two places is 13-4 and 17 -4 in.
respectively. Foiests cover only 2 % of the area.
Nearly one-half of the population are Cossacks, the other
ethnological groups being (1897) 27,234 Armenians, 2255 Greeks,
1267 Albanians, 16,000 Jews and some 30,000 Kalmuck Tatars,
who are Lamaists in religion. Nearly all the rest of the people,
except the Jews and about 3000 Mahommedans, belong to the
Orthodox Eastern Church. The Cossacks own nearly 30,000,000
acres of land. The government is well provided with schools,
especially on the Cossack territory. Agriculture is the principal
occupation, but the crops vary very greatly from year to year,
owing to deficiency of rain. Vines are cultivated on a large scale,
and tobacco is grown in the south. Cattle-breeding is important,
and there are fine breeds of horses and large flocks of sheep.
Productive fisheries are carried on at the mouth of the Don.
Nearly 13,000 persons are engaged in coal-mining; the coalfields
form part of the vast Donets coal basin (10,420 sq. m., with a
total output of nearly 1 3 ,000,000 tons annually) . Some iron ore,
gypsum, salt and limestone are also produced. The principal
branches of manufacturing industry are flour-milling, potteries,
ironworks and tobacco factories. The exports consist chiefly
of cereals, cattle, horses, sheep, wine, fish and hides. The
government is under the administration of the ministry of
war, and is divided into nine districts Donets (chief town,
Kamenskaya with 23,576 inhabitants in 1897), First Don dis-
trict (Konstantinovskaya, 8800), Second Don district (Nizhne-
Chirskaya, 15,196), Rostov (Rostov-on-Don, 119,889), Salsky
(Velikoknyazheskaya), Taganrog (Taganrog, 58,928 in 1900),
Ust-medvyeditsa (Ust-medvyeditsa, 16,000), Khoper (Uryupina,
9600), Cherkasky (Novo-cherkassk, 52,005). The capital of
the government is Novo-cherkassk. Many of the Cossack
stanitsas (villages) are very populous. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
DONEGAL, a county in the extreme north-west of Ireland, in
the province of Ulster, bounded N. and W. by the Atlantic Ocean,
E. by Lough Foyle and the counties Londonderry and Tyrone,
and S. by Donegal Bay and the counties Fermanagh and Leitrim.
The area is 1,197,153 acres, or about 187 isq. m.,the county being
the largest in Ireland after Cork and Mayo. This portion of the
country possesses little natural wealth; its physical character-
istics are against easy communications, and although its northern
coast affords one or two good natural harbours, there is no
commercial inducement to take advantage of them. The fine
scenery and other natural attractions of Donegal thus remained
practically unknown until late in the igth century, but an effort
was then made by Lord George Hill to introduce wealth from
without into the county, and to develop its resources in this,
almost the only possible direction. The county possesses a large
extent of sea-coast indented by numerous inlets. Ballyshannon
harbour, the most southern of these, is small, and has a bar at
its mouth, as has Donegal harbour farther north. Killybegs
harbour is Veil sheltered, and capable of receiving large vessels.
These, with Bruckles or M'Swiney's Bay, and Teelin harbour,
suitable for small vessels, are arms of the fine inlet of Donegal
Bay. The western shore is beautified by the indentations of
Loughros Beg, Gweebarra, Trawenagh and Inishfree Bays. On
the north is Sheephaven, within which is Dunfanaghy Bay, where
the largest ships may lie in safety, as they may also in Mulroy
Bay and Lough Swilly farther east. Lough Foyle, which divides
Donegal from Londonderry, is a noble sheet of water, but is
shallow and in part dry at ebb tide, contracted at its entrance,
and encumbered with shoals. A few miles west of Malin Head,
the most northerly point of the mainland of Ireland, the varied
and extensive Lough Swilly runs far into the interior. From
these two loughs much land has been reclaimed. Numerous
islands and rocks stud the coast. The largest island is North Aran,
about 15 m. in circumference, with a lofty hill in its centre, and a
gradual declivity down to the sea. On the northern coast are
Tory Island, and, farther east, Inishtrahull, the ultima Thule of
Ireland. The inhabitants of these islands obtain a precarious
DONEGAL
4*3
livelihood by fishing, kelp-burning and rude husbandry, but are
often reduced to extreme destitution.
Mountains and irregular groups of highlands occupy the whole
interior of the county, and a considerable portion is bog and moor-
land. Errigal mountain in the north-west attains an elevation of
2466 ft. and commands from its summit a fine view over a con-
siderable portion of the country. In its vicinity, the Derryveagh
mountains reach 2240 ft. in Slieve Snaght; Muckish is 2197 ft.;
in the south Bluestack reaches 2219 ft.; and hi the Innishowen
peninsula between Loughs Swilly and Foyle, another Slieve
Snaght is 2019 ft. in elevation. At the western extremity of the
north coast of Donegal Bay stands Slieve League, whose western
flank consists of a mighty cliff, descending almost sheer to the
Atlantic, exhibiting beautiful variegated colouring, and reaching
an extreme height of 1972 ft. From these details it will appear
that the scenery of the highlands and the sea-coast often attain a
character of savage and romantic grandeur; whereas the eastern
and southern portions are generally less elevated and more fertile,
but still possess considerable beauty. A considerable portion of
the surface, however, is occupied by bogs, and entirely destitute
of timber.
With the exception of the tidal river Foyle, which forms the
boundary between this county and Tyrone and Londonderry,
the rivers, though numerous, are of small size. The branches of
the Foyle which rise in Donegal are the Derg, issuing from Lough
Derg, and the Finn, rising in the beautiful little lake of the same
name in the highlands, and passing through some of the best
cultivated land in the county. The Foyle, augmented by their
contributions, and by those of several other branches from the
counties Tyrone and Londonderry, proceeds northward, dis-
charging its waters into the southern extremity of Lough Foyle,
at the city of Londonderry. It is navigable for vessels of large
burden to this place, and thence by lighters of fifty tons as far as
Lifford. Boats of fourteen tons can proceed up the Finn river as
far as Castlefinn. The fine river Erne flows from Lough Erne
through the southern extremity of the county into the southern
extremity of Donegal Bay. Its navigation is prevented by a fall
of 12 ft., generally called the Salmon Leap, in the neighbour-
hood of Ballyshannon, and by rapids between Ballyshannon and
Belleek, on the confines of Co. Fermanagh. The Gweebarra, the
Owenea, and the Eask are the only other streams of any note.
Lakes are very numerous in Donegal. The most remarkable, and
also the largest, is Lough Derg, comprising within its waters
several islets, on one of which, Station Island, is the cave
named St Patrick's Purgatory, a celebrated place of resort for
pilgrims and devotees. The circumference of the lake is about
9 m., and the extent of the island to which the pilgrims are
ferried over is less than i acre. The landscape round Lough
Derg is desolate and sombre in the extreme, barren moors and
heathy hills surrounding it on all sides. Salmon, sea-trout and
brown trout afford sport in most of the rivers and loughs, and
Glen ties for the Owenea river, and Gweedore for the Clady, in the
west; Killybegs for the Eanymore and Eask, in the south; and
Rathmelton and Rosapenna for the Owencarrow and Leannan,
in the north, may be mentioned as centres. Ballyshannon and
Bundoran, in the extreme south, are centres for the Erne and
other waters outside the county.
Geology. The dominant feature in the geology of this county is
the north-east and south-west strike forced upon the older rocks
during earth-movements that set in at the close of Silurian times.
The granite that forms characteristically the core of the folds is
probably of the same age as that of Leinster, or may possibly repre-
sent older igneous masses, brought into a general parallelism during
the main epoch of stress. The oldest recognizable series of rocks
is the Dalradian, and its quartzites form the white summits of
Muckish, Errigal and Aghla. The intruding granite, which pre-
dominates in the north-west, has frequently united with the meta-
morphic series to form composite gneiss. In the southern mass near
Pettigo, once regarded as Archaean and fundamental, residual
" eyes " of the hornblendic rocks that are associated with the
Dalradian series remain floating, as it were, in the gneiss. North ol
this, the country is wilder, consisting largely of mica-schist, through
which a grand mass of unfoliated granite rises at Barnesmore. The
course of the Gweebarra, or Glen Beagh, of the Glendowan mountains,
and the Aghla ridge, have all been determined by the general strike
imparted to the country. At Donegal Bay the Lower Carboniferous
sandstone and limestone come in as a synclinal, and the limestone
extends to Bundoran. Small Carboniferous outliers on the summits
of the great cliff of Slieve League show the former extension of these
strata. Bog iron-ore is raised as a gas-purifier; and talc-schist has
been worked for steatite at Crohy Head. In most parts of the west
the patches of glacial drift form the only agricultural 'and. The
fine-grained sandstone of Mount Charles near Donegal is a well-
known building stone, and the granites of the north-west have
attracted much attention.
Industries. The modes of agriculture present little that is
peculiar to the county, and the spade still supplies the place
of the plough where the rocky nature of the surface prevents
the application of the latter implement. The soil of the greater
portion of the county, i.e. the granite, quartz and mica slate
districts, is thin and cold, while that on the carboniferous lime-
stone is warm and friable. Owing to the boggy nature of the soil,
agriculture has not made much progress, although in certain
districts (Gweedore, for instance) much land has been brought
under cultivation through the enteiprise of the proprietors.
Roughly speaking, however, about 45 % of the land is waste,
35 % pasture and 15 % tillage. Wheat and barley are quite
an inconsiderable crop, and in this as well as in other respects
Donegal is much behind the rest of Ulster in the extent of its
crops. It bears, however, a more favourable comparison as
regards its live stock, as cattle, sheep and poultry are extensively
kept.
In Donegal, as in other counties of Ulster, the linen manu-
facture affords employment to a number of inhabitants, especially
at Raphoe, while the manufacture of excellent homespun, woollen
stockings and worked muslin is carried on pretty extensively.
The trade in. these manufactures and in the domestic produce
of the county finds its principal outlets through the port of
Londonderry and the inland town of Strabane, Co. Tyrone.
The deep-sea fisheries are important, and are centred at Killybegs,
Gweedore and Rathmullen. The salmon fishery is also prose-
cuted to a considerable extent, the principal seats of the trade
being at Ballyshannon and Letterkenny.
The railway system includes the County Donegal railway from
Londonderry south-west to Donegal town and Killybegs, with
branches to Glenties, a village near the west coast, and to
Ballyshannon; and the Londonderry and Lough Swilly, serving
Letterkenny, and continuing to Burtonport with a branch north
to Buncrana, a watering-place on Lough Swilly, and Cardonagh
in the Innishowen peninsula. From Letterkenny the line con-
tinues to Dunfanaghy on the north coast, thence to Gweedore
and Burtonport.
Population and Administration. The population (185,635 in
1891; 173,722 in 1901) decreases less seriously than in most Irish
counties, though the proportion of emigrants is large. About
78 % of the population is Roman Catholic, and almost the whole
is rural. The native Erse naturally dies out slowly in this remote
county, and the Donegal dialect is said to be the purest in the
Irish language. The towns are small in extent and importance.
Lifford (pop. 446), the county town, is practically a suburb
of Strabane, in the neighbouring Co. Tyrone. Ballyshannon
(2359) on the river Erne, Letterkenny (2370) at the head of Lough
Swilly, and Donegal (1214) at the head of the bay of that name,
are the other principal towns. The principal watering-places are
Moville on Lough Foyle, Buncrana and Rathmelton on Lough
Swilly; while, following the coast from north to south, Rosapenna,
Dunfanaghy, Gweedore, Dungloe and Ardara, with Bundoran
in the extreme south, are seaside villages frequently visited.
Resorts deserving mention for the attractive scenery for which
they are centres, are Ardara, on the Owenea river, where the
cliffs of the neighbouring coast are particularly fine; Carrick,
Malin Head, the beautiful land-locked bay of Mulroy, Narin on
Boylagh Bay, Portsalon on Lough Swilly, and Stranorlar, a small
market town near the fine mountain pass of Barnesmore.
Donegal contains seven baronies and fifty parishes. Assizes
are held at Lifford, and quarter sessions at Ballyshannon, Bun-
crana, Donegal, Cardonagh, Glenties, Letterkenny and Lifford.
The county is in the Protestant dioceses of Clogher and Deny,
414
DONEGAL DONGOLA
and the Roman Catholic dioceses of Raphoe, Clogher and Derry.
The county returned twelve members to the Irish parliament;
after the Union it returned two; but it is now divided into north,
east, south and west divisions, each returning one member.
History and Antiquities. The greater part of Donegal was
anciently called Tyrconnell (<?..) or the country of Conall; and
it was sometimes called O'Donnell's country, after the head
chieftains of the district. This district was formed into the
county of Donegal in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, in 1585,
by the lord-deputy Sir John Perrott. The most noteworthy
architectural remains of antiquity in the county are to be found
at the head of Lough Swilly, where, situated on the summit of
a hill 802 ft. high, some remarkable remains exist of a fortress
or palace of the northern Irish kings. These are known as the
Grianan of Aileach, and evidently date from a period prior to the
j 2th century. On Tory Island there are one of the best specimens
of a round tower and some other interesting remains. Numerous
ruins of ancient castles along the coast prove that much attention
was formerly paid to the defence of the country from invasion.
The principal are Kilbarron Castle, an ancient stronghold of
the O'Clerys, near Ballyshannon; Donegal Castle, built by the
O'Donnells, anciently their chief residence, and now a fine ruin
standing close to the water's edge; Burt Castle, built in the reign
of Henry VIII. on the shores of Lough Swilly by Sir Cahir
O'Dogherty, to whom is also attributed the erection of Green
Castle, one of the strongholds of the clan on Lough Foyle. Near
the Castle of Doe, or M'Swiney's Castle, at Horn Head, is a
natural perforation in the roof of a cave, called M'Swiney's Gun,
formed by the workings of the ocean into the overhanging cliff.
When the wind blows due north, and the tide is at half flood, the
gun is seen to spout up jets of water to a height of 100 ft., attended
with explosions heard occasionally in favourable weather at an
immense distance. Gulmore Fort, on the coast of Lough Swilly,
supposed to have been erected by the O'Doghertys, having come
into the possession of the crown, was granted in 1609 to the
corporation of London. It was afterwards enlarged or rebuilt,
and acted a prominent part in the celebrated siege of Derry.
Traces of religious houses, some existing only in traditionary or
documental records, are also numerous. The ruins of that of
Donegal, founded in 1474, afford proofs of its ancient grandeur.
At Raphoe, 5 m. N.W. of Lifford, is the cathedral of a former
diocese united to that of Derry in 1835.
DONEGAL, a small seaport and market town of Co. Donegal,
Ireland (not, as its name would suggest, the county town, which
is Lifford), in the south parliamentary division, at the head of
Donegal Bay, and the mouth of the river Eask, on the Donegal
railway. Pop. (1001) 1214. Its trade in agricultural produce
is hampered by the unsatisfactory condition of its harbour, the
approach to which is beset with shoals. Here are the ruins of
a fine Jacobean castle, occupying the site of a fortress of the
O'Donnells of Tyrconnell, but built by Sir Basil Brooke in 1610.
There are also considerable remains of a Franciscan monastery,
founded in 1474 by one of the O'Donnells, and here were compiled
the famous " Annals of the Four Masters," a record of Irish
history completed in 1636 by one Michael O'Clery and his
coadjutors. There is a chalybeate well near the town, and ~ t \ m.
S., at Ballintra, a small stream forms a series of limestone caverns
known as the Pullins. Donegal received a charter from James I.,
and returned two members to the Irish parliament. The name is
said to signify the " fortress of the foreigners," and to allude to a
settlement by the Northmen.
DONELSON, FORT, an entrenched camp at Dover, Tennessee,
U.S.A., erected by the Confederates in the Civil War to guard the
lower Cumberland river, and taken by the Federals on the i6th of
February 1862. It consisted of two continuous lines of entrench-
ments on the land side, and water batteries commanding the river.
After the capture (Feb. 6) of Fort Henry on the lower Tennessee
the Union army (three divisions) under Brigadier- General U. S.
Grant marched overland to invest Donelson, and the gunboat
flotilla (Commodore A. H. Foote) descended the Tennessee and
ascended the Cumberland to meet him. Albert Sidney Johnston,
the Confederate commander in Kentucky, had thrown a large
garrison under General Floyd into Donelson, and Grant was at
first outnumbered; though continually reinforced, the latter had
at no time more than three men to the Confederates' two. The
troops of both sides were untrained but eager.
On the 1 2th and I3th of February 1862 the Union divisions,
skirmishing heavily, took up their positions investing the fort,
and on the I4th Foote's gunboats attacked the water batteries.
The latter received a severe repulse, Foote himself being amongst
the wounded, and soon afterwards the Confederates determined
to cut their way through Grant's lines. On the I5th General
Pillow attacked the Federal division of McClernand and drove it
off the Nashville road; having done this, however, he halted,
and even retired. Grant ordered General C. F. Smith's division
to assault a part of the lines which had been denuded of its
defenders in order to reinforce Pillow. Smith personally led his
young volunteers in the charge and carried all before him. The
Confederates returning from the sortie were quite unable to shake
his hold on the captured works, and, Grant having reinforced
McClernand with Lew 'Wallace's division, these two generals
reoccupied the lost position on the Nashville road. On the i6th,
the two senior Confederate generals Floyd and Pillow having
escaped by steamer, the infantry left in the fort under General
S. B. Buckner surrendered unconditionally. The Confederate
cavalry under Colonel Forrest made its escape by road. The
prisoners numbered about 15,000 out of an original total of
18,000.
DONGA, a Bantu word for a ravine, narrow watercourse or
gully formed by the action of water. Adopted by the European
residents of South Africa from the Kaffirs, the use of the word
has been extended by English writers to ravines or watercourses
of the nature indicated in various other parts of the world. It is
almost equivalent to the Arabic khor, which, however, also means
the dry bed of a stream, or a stream flowing through a ravine.
The Indian word nullah (properly a watercourse) has also the
same significance. The three words are often used interchange-
ably by English writers.
DONGOLA, a mudiria (province) of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.
It lies wholly within the region known as Nubia and extends along
both banks of the Nile from about 18 N. to 20 N. The rainfall
is very slight, and the area of fertility is mainly confined to
the lands watered by the Nile. Beyond stretches eastward the
Nubian desert, westward the Libyan desert. The Wadi el Kab
(Gab), west of and parallel to the Nile, contains, however, a good
deal of arable land. This wadi, which is some 63 m. long, obtains
water by percolation from the Nile. Farther west is the extensive
plateau of Jebel Abiad, and beyond, some 250 m. due west of
Debba, is Bir Natron, or Bir Sultan, a valley whence natron is
obtained. In this desert region is found the addax, the rarest
of Sudan antelopes. The chief grain crops are durra and barley,
and date palms are extensively cultivated. The province is also
noted for a breed of strong, hardy horses. The largest town
is Dongola, but the administrative headquarters of the mudiria
are at New Merawi (Merowe, Meroe), on the left bank of the Nile,
below the 4th cataract. Other towns, also on the Nile, are Debba
and Korti, whence start caravan routes to Kordofan and
Omdurman. At Jebel Barkal, in the neighbourhood of Merawi,
and elsewhere in the mudiria, are ancient ruins (see SUDAN:
Anglo-Egyptian). Old Merawi, on the right bank of the Nile,
and Sanam Abu Dom, on the left bank, indicate the site of
the Ethiopian city of Napata. From Kareima, on the right or
northern bank of the Nile, 6 m. above New Merawi, a railway
(opened in March 1906) runs to Abu Hamed, whence there is
railway connexion with the Red Sea, Khartum and Egypt.
From Kareima downstream the Nile is navigable to Kerma,
just above the 3rd cataract. Between 1896 and 1904 a rail-
way ran between Kerma and Wadi Haifa. In the last-named
year this railway was closed. It had been built for purely
military purposes and was unremunerative as a commerical
undertaking.
The Dongolese (Dongolawi, Danaglas, Danagalehs) are
Nubas in type and language, but have a large admixture of Arab,
Turk and other blood. They are great agriculturists and keen
DONGOLA DONIZETTI
traders, and were notorious slave-dealers. South of Old Dongola
the inhabitants are not Nubians but Shagia (q.v.), and the Nubian
tongue is replaced by Arabic. Of the nomad desert tribes the
chief are the Hawawir and Kabbabish.
The country now forming the mudiria was once part of the
ancient empire of Ethiopia (<?..), Napata being one of its capital
cities. From about the beginning of the Christian era the
chief tribes in the region immediately south of Egypt were the
Blemmyes and the Nobatae. The last named became converted
to Christianity about the middle of the 6th century, through
the instrumentality, it is stated, of the empress Theodora. A
chieftain of the Nobatae, named Silko, between the middle and
the close of that century, conquered the Blemmyes, founded a
new state, apparently on the ruins of that of the southern Meroe
(Bakarawiya), made Christianity the official religion of the
country, and fixed his capital at (Old) Dongola. This state, now
generally referred to as the Christian kingdom of Dongola, lasted
for eight or nine hundred years. Though late in reaching Nubia,
Christianity, after the wars of Silko, spread rapidly, and when
the Arab conquerors of Egypt sought to subdue Nubia also they
met with stout resistance. Dongola, however, was captured by
the Moslems in 652, and the country laid under tribute (bakt)
400 men having to be sent yearly tc Egypt. This tribute was
paid when it could be enforced; at periods the Nubians gained
the upper hand, as in 737 when Cyriacus, their then king, marched
into Egypt with a large army to redress the grievances of the
Copts. There is a record of an embassy sent by a king
Zacharias in the pth century to Bagdad concerning the tribute,
while by the close of the loth century the Nubians seem to have
regained almost complete independence. They did not, however,
possess any part of the Red Sea coast, which was held by the
Egyptians, who, during the 9th and loth centuries, worked the
emerald and gold mines between the Nile and the Red Sea. The
kingdom, according to the Armenian historian Abu Salih, was
in a very flourishing condition in the I2th century. It then
extended from Assuan southward to the 4th cataract, and
contained several large cities. Gold and copper mines were
worked. The liturgy used was in Greek. In 1173 Shams
addaula, a brother of Saladin, attacked the Nubians, captured
the city of Ibrim (Primis), and among other deeds destroyed
700 pigs found therein. The Egyptians then retired, and for
about 100 years the country was at peace. In 1275 the
Mameluke sultan Bibars aided a rebel prince to oust his uncle
from the throne of Nubia; the sultans Kalaun and Nasir also
sent expeditions to Dongola, which was several times captured.
Though willing to pay tribute to the Moslems, the Nubians
clung tenaciously to Christianity, and, despite the raids to which
the country was subjected, it appears during the I2th and ijth
cen turies to have been fairly prosperous. No serious attempt was
made by the Egyptians to penetrate south of Napata, nor is it
certain how far south of that place the authority of the Dongola
kingdom (sometimes known as Mukarra) extended. It was
neighboured on the south by another Christian state, Aloa (Aiwa) ,
with its capital Soba on the Blue Nile.
Cut off more and more from free intercourse with the Copts
in Egypt, the Nubian Christians at length began to embrace
Jewish and Mahommedan doctrines; the decay of the state was
hastened by dissensions between Mukarra and Aloa. Neverthe-
less, the Nubians were strong enough to invade upper Egypt
during the reign of Nawaya Krestos (1342-1372), because the
governor of Cairo had thrown the patriarch of Alexandria
into prison. The date usually assigned for the overthrow of the
Christian kingdom is 1351. Only the northern part of the country
(as far as the 3rd cataract) came under the rule of Egypt. Never-
theless, according to Leo Africanus, at the close of the isth
century Christianity and native states still survived in Nubia,
and in the i6th century the Nubians sent messengers to Abyssinia
to Father Alvarez, begging him to appoint priests to administer
the sacraments to them a request with which he was not able
to comply. Thereafter the Nubian Church is without records.
The Moslems may have extinguished it in blood, for the region
between Dongola and Shendi appears to have been depopulated.
Between Assuan and Hannek the Turks introduced in the
i6th century numbers of Bosnians, whose descendants ruled
the district, paying but a nominal allegiance to the Porte. At
Ibrim, Mahass, and elsewhere along the banks and in the islands
of the Nile, they built castles, now in ruins. South of Hannek
the kings of Sennar became overlords of the country. As the
power of the Sennari declined, the nomad Shagia (or Shaikiyeh)
attained pre-eminence in the Dongola district.
About 1812 Mamelukes fleeing from Mehemet Ali, the pasha
of Egypt, made themselves masters of part of the country,
destroying the old capital and building a new one lower down the
Nile. In 1820 both Mamelukes and Shagia were conquered by
the Egyptians, and the DongoJa province annexed to Egypt.
In consequence of the rising of the Dervishes Egypt evacuated
Dongola in 1 886. The attempt to set up an independent govern-
ment failed, and the Dervishes held the town until September
1896, when it was reoccupied by an Egyptian force.
See J. L. Burckhardt, Travels in Nubia (London, 1819) ; Naum
Bey Shucair, The History and Geography oj the Sudan (in Arabic,
3 vols., Cairo, 1903); E. A. Wallis Budge, The Egyptian Sudan
(2 vols., London, 1907).
DONGOLA, a town of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, which gives
its name to a mudiria. It is situated on the W. bank of the Nile,
about 45 m. above the 3rd cataract, in 19 10' N., 30 29' E.
Pop. about 10,000. It is 1082 m. S. of Cairo by river and 638 m.
N. of Khartum by the same route. Its commerical outlet,
however, is Port Sudan, on the Red Sea, 600 m. E.S.E. by
steamer and railway. It is a thriving, well-built town; an
important agricultural and trading centre. Lignite is found on
the east bank of the Nile opposite the town. Founded c. 1812 by
Mamelukes who fled to Nubia from the persecutions of Mehemet
Ali, the town is called Dongola Makara (New Dongola) to
distinguish it from Dongola Agusa (Old Dongola), which it
supplanted. It is also called El Ordi (the barracks), a
reminiscence of the buildings erected by the Egyptians after
their occupation of the town in 1820. The Mahdi Mahommed
Ahmed was a native of Dongola. In 1884-1885 the town was
the base of the British troops in their advance on Khartum.
Dongola Agusa, 75 m. upstream from New Dongola, now a
heap of ruins, was the capital of the Nubian state usually called
the Christian kingdom of Dongola. An Arab historian of the i ith
century describes it as a large city with many churches, fine
houses and wide streets. It is said to have been finally destroyed
by the Mamelukes. On a hill near the ruins is a mosque in which
is an Arabic inscription stating that the building was opened " on
the 2oth Rabi el Aneh in the year 717 (June i, 1317 A.D.) after
the victory of Sefeddin Abdallah en Nasir over the Infidels."
DONIZETTI, GAETANO (1798-1848), Italian musical composer,
was born at Bergamo in 1798, the son of a government official
of limited means. Originally destined for the bar, he showed at
an early age a strong taste for art. At first, strangely enough,
he mistook architecture for his vocation, and only after an
unsuccessful trial in that direction did he discover his real talent.
He entered the conservatoire of his native city, where he studied
under Simon Mayr, the fertile operatic composer. His second
master was Mattei, the head master of the celebrated music
school of Bologna, where Donizetti resided for three years.
After his return to Bergamo the young composer determined
to devote himself to dramatic music, but his father insisted upon
his giving lessons with a view to immediate gain. The disputes
arising from this cause ultimately led to Donizetti's enlisting
in the army. But this desperate step proved beneficial against
all expectation. The regiment was quartered at Venice, and here
the young composer's first dramatic attempt, an opera called
Enrico comte di Borgogna, saw the light in 1818.
The success of this work, and of a second opera brought out
in the following year, established Donizetti's reputation. He
obtained his discharge from the army, and henceforth his operas
followed each other in rapid and uninterrupted succession at
the rate of three or four a year. Although he had to contend
successively with two such dangerous rivals as Rossini and
Bellini, he succeeded in taking firm hold of the public, and the
416
DONJON DON JUAN
brilliant reception accorded to his Anna Bolena at Milan carried
his name beyond the limits of his own country. In 1835 Donizetti
went for the first time to Paris, where, however, his Marino
Faliero failed to hold its own against Bellini's Purilani, then
recently produced at the Theatre Italien. The disappointed
composer went to Naples, where the enormous success of his
Lucia di Lammermoor consoled him for his failure in Paris. For
Naples he wrote a number of works, none of which is worth
notice. In 1840 the censorship refused to pass his Poliuto, an
Italian version of Corneille's Polyeucte, in consequence of which
the disgusted composer once more left his country for Paris.
Here he produced at the Opera Comique his most popular opera,
La Fille du regiment, but again with little success. It was not till
after the work had made the round of the theatres of Germany
and Italy that the Parisians reconsidered their unfavourable
verdict. A serious opera, Les Martyrs, produced about the same
time with the Daughter of the Regiment, was equally unsuccessful,
and it was reserved to La Favorila, generally considered as
Donizetti's masterpiece, to break the evil spell. His next im-
portant work, Linda di Chamounix, was written for Vienna,
where it was received most favourably in 1842, and the same
success accompanied the production of Don Pasquale after
Donizetti's return to Paris in 1843. Soon after this event the
first signs of a fatal disease, caused to a great extent by overwork,
began to show themselves. The utter failure of Don Sebastian,
a large opera produced soon after Don Pasquale, is said to have
hastened the catastrophe. A paralytic stroke in 1844 deprived
Donizetti of his reason; for four years he lingered on in a state
of mental and physical prostration. A visit to his country was
proposed as a last resource, but he reached his native place only
to die there on the ist of April 1848. - " ..
The sum total of his operas amounts to sixty-four. The large
number of his works accounts for many of their chief defects.
His rapidity of working made all revision impossible. It is said
that he once wrote the instrumentation of a whole opera within
thirty hours, a time hardly sufficient, one would think, to put
the notes on paper. And yet it may be doubted whether more
elaboration would have essentially improved his work; for the
last act of the Favorita, infinitely superior to the preceding ones,
is also said to have been the product of a single night.
There is a strange parallelism observable in the lives of Rossini,
Bellini and Donizetti. They had no sooner established their
reputations on the Italian stage than they left their own country
for Paris, at that time the centre of the musical world. All three
settled in France, and all three were anxious to adapt the style
of their music to the taste and artistic traditions of their adopted
country. The difference which exists between Rossini's Tell and
his Semiramide may, although in a less striking degree, be noticed
between Donizetti's Fille du regiment and one of his earlier
Italian operas. But here the parallel ends. As regards artistic
genius Donizetti can by no means be compared with his illustrious
countrymen. He has little of Bellini's melancholy sweetness, less
of Rossini's sparkle, and is all but devoid of spontaneous dramatic
impulse. For these shortcomings he atones by a considerable
though by no means extraordinary store of fluent melody, and
by his rare skill in writing for the voice. The duet in the last
act of the Favorita and the ensemble in Lucia following upon the
signing of the contract, are masterpieces of concerted music in
the Italian style. These advantages, together with considerable
power of humorous delineation, as evinced in Don Pasquale and
L'Elisir d'amore, must account for the unimpaired vitality of
many of his works on the stage.
DONJON (from a Late Lat. accusative form domnionem,
connected with domnus or dominus, a lord), the French term
for the keep of a medieval castle, used now in distinction to
" dungeon " (q.v.), the prison, which is only an anglicized
spelling (see also KEEP).
DON JUAN, a legendary "character, whose story has found
currency in various European countries. He was introduced into
formal literature in the Spanish El Burlador de Sevilla y convidado
de piedra, a play which was first printed at Barcelona in 1630,
and is usually attributed to Tirso de Molina; but the story of a
profligate inviting a dead man to supper, and finding his invita-
tion accepted, was current before 1630, and is not peculiar to
Spain. A Don Juan Tenorio is said to have frequented the court
of Peter the Cruel, and at a later period another Don Juan
Tenorio, a dissolute gallant, is reported as living at Seville;
but there is no satisfactory evidence of their existence, and it is
unlikely that the Don Juan legend is based on historical facts.
It exists in Picardy as Le Souper de fantdme, and variants of it
have been found at points so far apart as Iceland and the Azores;
the available evidence goes to show that Don Juan is a universal
type, that he is the subject of local myths in many countries,
that he received his name in Spain, and that the Spanish version
of his legend has absorbed certain elements from the French story
of Robert the Devil. Some points of resemblance are observable
between El Burlador de Sevilla and Dineros son calidad, a play of
earlier date by Lope de Vega; but these resemblances are super-
ficial, and the character of Don Juan, the incarnation of perverse
sensuality and arrogant blasphemy, may be considered as the
creation of Tirso de Molina, though the ascription to him of El
Burlador de Sevilla has been disputed. The Spanish drama was
apparently more popular in Italy than in Spain, and was fre-
quently given in pantomime by the Italian actors, who accounted
for its permanent vogue by saying that Tirso de Molina had sold
his soul to the devil for fame. A company of these Italian mimes
took the story into France in 1657, and it was dramatized by
Dorimond in 1659 and by De Villiers in 1661; their attempts
suggested Le Festin de pierre (1665) to Moliere, who, apparently
with the Spanish original before his eyes, substituted prose for
verse, reduced the supernatural element, and interpolated comic
effects completely out of keeping with the earlier conception.
Later adaptations by Rosimond and Thomas Corneille were even
less successful. The story was introduced into England by Sir
Aston Cokain in his unreadable Tragedy of Ovid (1669), and was
the theme of The Libertine (1676), a dull and obscene play by
Shadwell. Goldoni's D. Giovanni Tenorio osia II Dissolute, based
upon the adaptations of Moliere and Thomas Corneille, is one of
his least interesting productions. Tirso de Molina's play was
recast, but not improved, by Antonio de Zamora early in the
i8th century. A hundred years later the character of Don Juan
was endowed with a new name in Espronceda's Estudiante de
Salamanca; Don F61ix de Montemar is plainly modelled on Don
Juan Tenorio, and rivals the original in licentiousness, impiety
and grim humour. But the most curious resuscitation of the
type in Spain is the protagonist in Zorrilla's Don Juan Tenorio,
which is usually played in all large cities during the first week in
November, and has come to be regarded as an essentially national
work. It is hi fact little more than an adaptation of the elder
Dumas' Don Juan de Marana, which, in its turn, derives chiefly
from M6rimee's novel, Les Ames du purgatoire. Less exotic are
Zorrilla's two poems on the same subject El Desafio del diablo
and El Testigo de bronce. Byron's Don Juan presents a Regency
lady-killer who resembles Ulloa's murderer in nothing but his
name.
The sustained popularity of the Don Juan legend is undoubtedly
due in great measure to Mozart's incomparable setting of Da
Ponte's mediocre libretto. In this pale version of El Burlador de
Sevilla the French romantic school made acquaintance with Don
Juan, and hence, no doubt, the works of Merimee and Dumas
already mentioned, Balzac's Elexir d'une longue trie, and Alfred
de Mussel's Une Matinee de Don Juan and Namouna. The
legend has been treated subsequently by Flaubert and Barbey
d'Aurevilly in France, by Landau and Heyse in Germany, and by
Sacher-Masoch in Austria. It has always fascinated composers.
Mozart's Don Giovanni has annihilated the earlier operas of Le
Tellier, Righini, Tritto, Gardiand Gazzaniga; but Gluck's ballet-
music still survives, and Henry Purcell's setting the oldest of
all has saved some of Shadwell's insipid lyrics from oblivion.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. F. de Simone Brouwer, Don Giovanni nella
poesia e nell' arte musicale (Napoli, 1894); A. Farinelli, Don
Giovanni: Note critiche (Torino, 1896) ; A. Farinelli, Cuatro palabras
sobre Don Juan y la literatura donjuanesca del porvenir in the
Homenaje d Menendez y Pelayo (Madrid, 1899), vol. i. pp. 205-
222. (J. F.-K.)
DONKIN DONNE
DONKIN, SIR RUFANE SHAW (1773-1841), British soldier,
came of a military family. His father, who died, a full general,
in 1821, served with almost all British commanders from Wolfe to
Gage. Rufane Donkin was the eldest child, and received his first
commission at the age of five in his father's regiment; he joined,
at fourteen, with eight years' seniority as a lieutenant. Becoming
a captain in 1793, he was on active service in the West Indies in
1 794, and (as major) in 1 796. At the age of twenty-five he became
lieutenant-colonel, and in 1 798 led a light battalion with distinc-
tion in the Ostend expedition. He served with Cathcart in
Denmark in 1807, and two years later was given a brigade in the
army in Portugal, which he led at Oporto and Talavera. He was
soon transferred, as quartermaster-general, to the Mediterranean
command, in which he served from 1810 to 1813, taking part
in the Catalonian expeditions. Sir John Murray's failure at
Tarragona did not involve Donkin, whose advice was proved
to be uniformly ignored by the British commander. In July
1815 Major-General Donkin went out to India, and distinguished
himself as a divisional commander in Hastings' operations
against the Mahrattas (1817-1818), receiving the K.C.B. as his
reward. The death of his young wife seriously affected him, and
he went to the Cape of Good Hope on sick leave. From 1820 to
1821 he administered the colony with success, and named the
rising seaport of Algoa Bay Port Elizabeth in memory of his wife.
In 1821 he became lieutenant-general and G.C.H. The rest of
his life was spent in literary and political work. He was one of
the original fellows of the Royal Geographical Society, and was a
member of the Royal Society and of many other learned bodies.
His theories as to the course of the river Niger, published under
the title Dissertation on the Course and Probable Termination of the
Niger (London, 1829), involved him in a good deal of controversy.
From 1832 onwards he sat in the House of Commons, and in 1835
was made surveyor-general of the ordnance. He committed
suicide at Southampton in 1841. He was then a general, and
colonel of the nth Foot.
See Jerdan, National Portraits, vol. Hi. ; Gentleman's Magazine,
xcii. i. 273.
DONNAY, CHARLES MAURICE (1859- ), French
dramatist, was born of middle-class parents in Paris in 1859. He
made his serious debut as a dramatist on the little stage of the
Chat Noir with Phrynt (1891), a series of Greek scenes. Lysistrata,
a four-act comedy, was produced at the Grand Theatre in 1892
with Mme Rejane in the title part. Later plays were F olle
Entreprise (1894); Pension de famille (1894); Complices (1895),
in collaboration with M. Groselande; Amants (1895), produced
at the Renaissance theatre with Mme Jeanne Granier as Claudine
Rozeray; La Douloureuse (1897); L'A/ranchie (1898); Georgette
Lemeunier (1898); Le Torrent (1899), at the Comedie Franchise;
Education de prince (1900); La Clairiere (1900), and Oiseaux de
passage (1904), in collaboration with L. Descaves; La Bascule
(1901); L'Autre danger, at the Comedie Francaise (1902); Le
Relour de Jerusalem (1903); L' scolade (1904); and Paratlre
(1906). With Amanls he won a great success, and the play was
hailed by Jules Lemaitre as the Berenice of contemporary French
drama. Very advanced ideas on the relations between the sexes
dominate the whole series of plays, and the witty dialogue is
written with an apparent carelessness that approximates very
closely to the language of every day.
DONNE, JOHN (1573-1631), English poet and divine of the
reign of James I., was bom in 1573 in the parish of St Nicholas
Olave, in the city of London. His father was a wealthy merchant,
who next year became warden of the Company of Ironmongers,
but died early in 1576. Donne's parents were Catholics, and his
mother, Elizabeth Heywood, was directly descended from the
sister of the great Sir Thomas More; she was the daughter of
John Heywood the epigrammatist. As a child, Donne's precocity
was such that it was said of him that " this age hath brought
forth another Pico della Mirandola." He entered Hart Hall,
Oxford, in October 1584, and left it in 1587, proceeding for a time
to Cambridge, where he took his degree. At Oxford he began his
friendship with Henry Wotton, and at Cambridge, probably, with
Christopher Brooke. Donne was " removed to London " about
vin. 14
1590, and in 1592 he entered Lincoln's Inn with the intention
of studying the law.
When he came of age, he found himself in possession of a
considerable fortune, and about the same time rejected the
Catholic doctrine in favour of the Anglican communion. He
began to produce Satires, which were not printed, but eagerly
passed from hand to hand; the first three are known to belong
to 1593, the fourth to 1594, while the other three are probably
some years later. In 1596 Donne engaged himself for foreign
service under the earl of Essex, and " waited upon his lordship "
on board the " Repulse," in the magnificent victory of the i ith of
June. We possess several poems written by Donne during this
expedition, and during the Islands Voyage of 1597, in which he
accompanied Essex to the Azores. According to Walton, Donne
spent some time in Italy and Spain, and intended to proceed to
Palestine, " but at his being in the farthest parts of Italy, the
disappointment of company ,or of a safe convoy ,or the uncertainty
of returns of money into those remote parts, denied him that
happiness." There is some reason to suppose that he was on the
continent at intervals between 1595 and the winter of 1597. His
lyrical poetry was mainly the product of his exile, if we are to
believe Ben Jonson, who told Drummond of Hawthornden that
Donne " wrote all his best pieces ere he was 25 years old." At
his return to England he became private secretary hi London to
Sir Thomas Egerton, the lord keeper (afterwards Lord Brackley),
in whose family he remained four years. In 1 600 he found himself
in love with his master's niece, Anne More, whom he married
secretly in December 1601. As soon as this act was discovered,
Donne was dismissed, and then thrown into the Fleet prison
(February 1602), from which he was soon released. His circum-
stances, however, were now very much straitened. His own
fortune had all been spent and " troubles did still multiply
upon him." Mrs Donne's cousin, Sir Francis Wooley, offered
the young couple an asylum at his country house of Pyrford,
where they resided until the end of 1604.
During the latter part of his residence in Sir Thomas Egerton's
house, Donne had composed the longest of his existing poems,
The Progress of the Soul, not published until 1633. In tne spring
of 1605 we find the Donnes living at Camberwell, and a little
later in a small house at Mitcham. He had by this time
" acquired such a perfection " in civil and common law that he
was able to take up professional work, and he now acted as a
helper to Thomas Morton in his controversies with the Catholics.
Donne is believed to have had a considerable share in writing the
pamphlets against the papists which Morton issued between 1604
and 1607. In the latter year, Morton offered the poet certain
preferment in the Church, if he would only consent to take holy
orders. Donne, however, although he was at this time become
deeply serious on religious matters, did not think himself fitted
for the clerical life. In 1607 he started a correspondence with Mrs
Magdalen Herbert of Montgomery Castle, the mother of George
Herbert. Some of these pious epistles were printed by Izaak
Walton. These exercises were not of a nature to add to his
income, which was extremely small. His uncomfortable little
house he speaks of as his " hospital " and his " prison; " his
wife's health was broken and he was bowed down by the
number of his children, who often lacked even clothes and food.
In the autumn of 1608, however, his father-in-law, Sir George
More, became reconciled with them, and agreed to make them a
generous allowance. Donne soon after formed part of the brilliant
assemblage which Lucy, countess of Bradford, gathered around
her at Twickenham; we possess several of the verse epistles he
addressed to this lady. In 1609 Donne was engaged in composing
his great controversial prose treatise, the Pseudo-Martyr, printed
in 1610; this was an attempt to convince Roman Catholics in
England that they might, without any inconsistency, take the
oath of allegiance to James I. In 1611 Donne wrote a curious
and bitter prose squib against the Jesuits, entitled Ignatius his
Conclave. To the same period, but possibly somewhat earlier,
belongs the apology for the principle of suicide, which was not
published until 1644, long after Donne's death. This work, the
Biathanatos, is an attempt to show that " the scandalous disease
DONNE
of headlong dying," to which Donne himself in his unhappy moods
had " often such a sickly inclination," was not necessarily and
essentially sinful.
In 1610 Donne formed the acquaintance of a wealthy gentleman,
Sir Robert Drury of Hawsted, who offered him and his wife an
apartment in his large house in Drury Lane. Drury lost his only
daughter, and in 1611 Donne published an extravagant elegy on
her, entitled An Anatomy of the World, to which he added in 1612
a Progress of the Soul on the same subject; he threatened to
celebrate the " blessed Maid," Elizabeth Drury, in a fresh elegy
on each anniversary of her death, but he happily refrained from
the third occasion onwards. At the close of 1611 Sir Robert
Drury determined to visit Paris (but not, as Walton supposed, on
an embassy of any kind), and he took Donne with him. When
he left London, his wife was expecting an eighth child. It
seems almost certain that her fear to have him absent led him
to compose one of his loveliest poems:
" Sweetest Love, I do not go
For weariness of thee."
He is said to have had a vision, while he was at Amiens, of his
wife, with her hair over her shoulders, bearing a dead child in her
arms, on the very night that Mrs Donne, in London (or more
probably in the Isle of Wight) , was delivered of a still-born infant.
He suffered, accordingly, a great anxiety, which was not removed
until he reached Paris, where he received reassuring accounts of
his wife's health. The Drurys and Donne left Paris for Spa in
May 1612, and travelled in the Low Countries and Germany
until September, when they returned to London. In 1613
Donne contributed to the Lachrymae lachrymarum an obscure
and frigid elegy on the death of the prince of Wales, and wrote
his famous Marriage Song for St Valentine's Day to celebrate the
nuptials of the elector palatine with the princess Elizabeth. About
this time Donne became intimate with Robert Ker, then Viscount
Rochester and afterwards the infamous earl of Somerset, from
whom he had hopes of preferment at court. Donne was now in
weak health, and in a highly neurotic condition. He suggested to
Rochester that if he should enter the church, a place there might
be found for him. But he was more useful to the courtier in his
legal capacity, and Rochester dissuaded him from the ministry.
At the close of 1614, however, the king sent for Donne to Theo-
bald's, and " descended to a persuasion, almost to a solicitation
of him, to enter fnto sacred orders," but Donne asked for a few
days to consider. Finally, early in 1614, King, bishop of London,
" proceeded with all convenient speed to ordain him, first deacon,
then priest." He was, perhaps, a curate first at Paddington, and
presently was appointed royal chaplain.
His earliest sermon before the king at Whitehall carried his
audience " to heaven, in holy raptures." In April, not without
much bad grace, the university of Cambridge consented to make
the new divine a D .D . In the spring of 1 6 1 6, Donne was presented
to the living of Keyston, in Hunts., and a little later he became
rector of Sevenoaks; the latter preferment he held until his
death. In October he was appointed reader in divinity to the
benchers of Lincoln's Inn. His anxieties about money now
ceased, but in August 1617 his wife died, leaving seven young
children in his charge. Perhaps in consequence of his bereave-
ment, Donne seems to have passed through a spiritual crisis,
which inspired him with a peculiar fervour of devotion. In 1618
he wrote two cycles of religious sonnets, La Corona and the Holy
Sonnets, the latter not printed in complete form until by Mr
Gosse in 1899. Of the very numerous sermons preached by Donne
at Lincoln's Inn, fourteen have come down to us. His health
suffered from the austerity of his life, and it was probably in
connexion with this fact that he allowed himself to be persuaded
in May 1619 to accompany Lord Doncaster as his chaplain on an
embassy to Germany. Having visited Heidelberg, Frankfort and
other German cities, the embassy returned to England at the
opening of 1620.
In November 1621, James I., knowing that London was " a
dish " which Donne " loved well," " carved " for him the deanery
of St Paul's. He resigned Keyston, and his preachership in
Lincoln's Inn (Feb., 1622). In October 1623 he suffered from
a dangerous attack of illness, and during a long convalescence
wrote his Devotions, a volume published in 1624. He was now
appointed to the vicarage of St Dunstan's in the West. In April
1625 Donne preached before the new king, Charles I., a sermon
which was immediately printed, and he now published his Four
Sermons upon Special Occasions, the earliest collection of his
discourses. When the plague broke out he retired with his
children to the house of Sir John Danvers in Chiswick, and for
a time he disappeared so completely that a rumour arose that
he was dead. Sir John had married Donne's old friend, Mrs
Magdalen Herbert, for whom Donne wrote two of the most
ingenious of his lyrics, " The Primrose " and " The Autumnal."
The popularity of Donne as a preacher rose to its zenith when he
returned to his pulpit, and it continued there until his death.
Walton, who seems to have known him first in 1624, now became
an intimate and adoring friend. In 1630 Donne's health, always
feeble, broke down completely, so that, although in August of
that year he was to have been made a bishop, the entire break-
down of his health made it worse than useless to promote him.
The greater part of that winter he spent at Abury Hatch, in
Epping Forest, with his widowed daughter, Constance Alley n,
and was too ill to preach before the king at Christmas. It is
believed that his disease was a malarial form of recurrent quinsy
acting upon an extremely neurotic system. He came back to
London, and was able to preach at Whitehall on the i2th of
February 1631. This, his latest sermon, was published, soon
after his demise, as Death's Duel. He now stood for his statue to
the sculptor, Nicholas Stone, standing before a fire in his study
at the Deanery, with his winding-sheet wrapped and tied round
him, his eyes shut, and his feet resting on a funeral urn. This
lugubrious work of art was set up in white marble after his death
in St Paul's cathedral, where it may still be seen. Donne died on
the 3ist of March 1631, after he had lain " fifteen days earnestly
expecting his hourly change." His aged mother, who had lived
in the Deanery, survived him, dying in 1632.
Donne's poems were first collected in 1633, and afterwards in
1635, 1639, 1649, 1650, 1654 and 1669. Of his prose works, the
Juvenilia appeared in 1633; the LXXX Sermons in 1640;
Biathanatos in 1644; Fifty Sermons in 1649; Essays in Divinity,
1651; his Letters to Several Persons of Honour, 1651; Paradoxes,
Problems and Essays, 1652; and Six and Twenty Sermons, 1661.
Izaak Walton's Life of Donne, an admirably written but not
entirely correct biography, preceded the Sermons of 1640. The
principal editor of his posthumous writings was his son, John
Donne the younger (1604-1662), a man of eccentric and
scandalous character, but of considerable talent.
The influence of Donne upon the literature of England was
singularly wide and deep, although almost wholly malign. His
originality and the fervour of his imaginative passion made him
extremely attractive to the younger generation of poets, who saw
that he had broken through the old tradition, and were ready to
follow him implicitly into new fields. In the i8th century his
reputation almost disappeared, to return, with many vicissitudes
in the course of the igth. It is, indeed, singularly difficult to
pronounce a judicious opinion on the writings of Donne. They
were excessively admired by his own and the next generation,
praised by Dryden, paraphrased by Pope, and then entirely
neglected for a whole century. The first impression of an
unbiassed reader who dips into the poems of Donne is unfavour-
able. He is repulsed by the intolerably harsh and crabbed
versification, by the recondite choice of theme and expression,
and by the oddity of the thought. In time, however, he perceives
that behind the fantastic garb of language there is an earnest
and vigorous mind, an imagination that harbours fire within its
cloudy folds, and an insight into the mysteries of spiritual life
which is often startling. Donne excels in brief flashes of wit and
beauty, and in sudden daring phrases that have the full perfume
of poetry in them. Some of his lyrics and one or two of his elegies
excepted, the Satires are his most important contribution to
literature. They are probably the earliest poems of their kind
in the language, and they are full of force and picturesqueness.
Their obscure and knotty language only serves to give peculiar
DONNYBROOK DOOR
419
brilliancy to the not uncommon passages of noble perspica-
city. To the odd terminology of Donne's poetic philosophy
Dryden gave the name of " metaphysics," and Johnson, bor-
rowing the suggestion, invented the title of the " metaphysical
school " to describe, not Donne only, but all the amorous and
philosophical poets who succeeded him, and who employed a
similarly fantastic language, and who affected odd figurative
inversions.
Izaak Walton's Life, first published in 1640, and entirely recast
in 1659, has been constantly reprinted. The best edition of Donne's
Poems was edited by E. K. Chambers in 1896. His prose works have
not been collected. In 1899 Edmund Gosse published in two
volumes The Life and Letters of John Donne, for the first time revised
and collected. (E. G.)
DONNYBROOK, a part of Dublin, Ireland, in the south-east of
the city. The former village of the name was famous for a fair
held under licence from King John in 1204. It gained, however,
such a scandalous notoriety for disorder that it was discontinued
in 1855, the rights being purchased for 3000.
DONOSO CORTES, JUAN, Marquis de Valdegamas (1800-1853),
Spanish author and diplomatist, was born at Valle de la Serena
(Extremadura) on the 6th of May 1809, studied law at Seville,
and entered politics as an advanced liberal under the influence of
Quintana (q.v.). His views began to modify after the rising at La
Granja, and this tendency towards conservatism, which became
more marked on his appointment as private secretary to the
Queen Regent, finds expression in his Lecciones de derecho
politico (1837). Alarmed by the proceedings of the French
revolutionary party in 1848-1849, Donoso Cortes issued his
Ensayo sobre el catolicismo, el liberalismo, y el socialismo con-
siderados en sus principles fundamenlales (1851), denouncing
reason as the enemy of truth and liberalism as leading to social
ruin. He became ambassador at Paris, and died there on the
3rd of May 1853. The Ensayo has failed to arrest the movement
against which it was directed, and is weakened by its extravagant
paradoxes; but, with all its rhetorical excesses, it remains the
finest specimen of impassioned prose published in Spain during
the igth century.
Donoso Cortes' works were collected in five volumes at Madrid
(1854-1855) under the editorship of Gavino Tejado.
DONOVAN, EDWARD (1768-1837), English naturalist, was the
author of many popular works on natural history and botany.
In 1702 appeared the first volume of his Natural History of
British Insects, which extended to sixteen volumes, and was
completed in 1813. He also published Natural Histories of
British Birds, in 10 vols. Svo (1799-1819), of British Fishes, in
5 vols. (1802-1808), of British Shells, in 5 vols. (1800-1804), a
series of illustrated works on The Insects of India, China, New
Holland, &c., in 3 vols. 4to (1798-1805), and Excursions in South
Wales and Monmouthshire (1805). To these works must be added
his periodical entitled The. Naturalist's Repository, a monthly
publication, of which three volumes were completed (1823-1825),
and an Essay on the Minute Parts of Plants in general. Donovan
was author of the articles on natural history in Rees's Cyclopaedia.
In 1833 he published a Memorial respecting my Publications in
Natural History, in which he complains that he had been nearly
ruined by his publishers. He was a fellow of the Linnean Society,
and died in London on the ist of February 1837.
DOOM (Old Eng. ddm, a word common to Teut. languages for
that which is set up or ordered, from " do," in its original meaning
of "place"; cf. Gr. Okfus, from stem of rWinu), originally a
law or enactment, the legal decision of a judge, and particularly
an adverse sentence on a criminal. The word is thus applicable
to the adverse decrees of fate, and particularly to the day of
judgment. The verb " deem," to deliver a judgment, and hence
to give or hold an opinion, is a derivative, and appears also in
various old Teutonic forms. It is seen in " deemster," the name
of the two judges of the Isle of Man.
DOON DE MAYENCE, a hero of romance, who gives his name
to the third cycle of the Charlemagne romances, those dealing
with the feudal revolts. There is no real unity in the geste of
Doon de Mayence. The rebellious barons are connected by the
trouveres with Doon by imaginary genealogical ties, and all are
represented as in opposition to Charlemagne, though their
adventures, in so far as they possess a historical basis, must
generally be referred to earlier or later periods than the reign of
the great emperor. The general insolence of their attitude to
the sovereign suggests that Charlemagne is here only a name for
his weaker successors. The tradition of a traitorous family of
Mayence, which was developed in Italy into a series of stories of
criminals, was however anterior to the Carolingian cycle, for an
interpolator in the chronicle of Fredegarius states (iv. 87) that
the army of Sigebert was betrayed from within its own ranks by
men of Mayence in a battle fought with Radulf on the banks of
the Unstrat in Thuringia. The chief heroes of the poems which
make up the geste of Doon de Mayence are Ogier the Dane (q.v.),
the four sons of Aymon (see RENAUD), and Huon of Bordeaux
(q.v.). It is probable that Doon himself was one of the last
personages to be clearly defined, and that the chanson de geste
relating his exploits was drawn up partly with the view of supply-
ing a suitable ancestor for the other heroes. The latter half of
the poem, the story of Doon's wars in Saxony, is perhaps based on
historical events, but the earlier half, which is really a separate
romance dealing with his romantic childhood, is obviously pure
fiction and dates from the i3th century. Doon had twelve sons:
Gaufrey de Dane Marche (Ardennes?), the father of Ogier;
Doon de Nanteuil, whose son Gamier married the beautiful Aye
d 'Avignon; Griffon d'Hauteville, father of the arch-traitor
Ganelon; Aymon de Dordone or Dourdan, whose four sons were
so relentlessly pursued by Charles; Beuves d'Aigremont, whose
son was the enchanter Maugis; Sevin or Seguin, the father of
Huon of Bordeaux; Girard de Roussillon, and others less known.
The history of these personages is given in Doon de Mayence,
Gaufrey, the romances relating to Ogier, Aye d'Avignon, the
fragmentary Doon de Nanteuil, Gui de Nanteuil, Tristan de
Nanteuil, P arise la Duchesse, Maugis d'Aigremont, Vivien
I'amachour de Monbranc, Renaus de Montauban or Les Quatre Fils
Aymon, and Huon de Bordeaux. Some of this material, which
dates in its existing form from the i2th and i3th centuries,
remains unpublished, but the chief poems are available in the
series of Anciens Poetes de la France (1859, &c.).
See Hist. lilt, de la France, vols. xxii. and xxvi. (1^52 and 1873), for
analyses of these poems by Paulin Paris; also J. Barrois, Elements
carolingiens (Paris, 1846); W. Niederstadt, Alter und Heimat der
altfr. Doon (Greifswald, 1889). The prose romance, La Fleur des
batailles Doolin de Mayence, was printed by Antoine Verard (Paris,
1501), by Alain Lotrian and Denis Janot (Paris, c. 1530), by
N. Bonfons (Paris; no date), by J. Waesbergue (Rotterdam, 1604),
&c. .
DOOR (corresponding to the Gr. Oiipa, Lat. fores or valvae;
the English word, with other forms common in allied languages,
comes from the same Indo-European stem as the Gr. 6vpa and
Lat. fores), in architecture, the slab, flap or leaf forming the
enclosure of a doorway (q.v.) , either in wood, metal or stone. The
earliest records are those represented in the paintings of the
Egyptian tombs, in which they are shown as single or double
doors, each in a single piece of wood. In Egypt, where the
climate is intensely dry, there would be no fear of their warping,
but in other countries it would be necessary to frame them, which
according to Vitruvius (iv. 6.) was done with stiles (scapi) and
rails (impages): the spaces enclosed being filled with panels
(tympana) let into grooves made in the stiles and rails. The stiles
were the vertical boards, one of which, tenoned or hinged, is
known as the hanging stile, the other as the middle or meeting
stile. The horizontal cross pieces are the top rail, bottom rail,
and middle or intermediate rails. The most ancient doors were
in timber, those made for King Solomon's temple being in olive
wood (i Kings vi. 31-35), which were carved and overlaid with
gold. The doors dwelt upon in Homer would appear to have
been cased in silver or brass. Besides olive wood, elm, cedar, oak
and Cyprus were used. All ancient doors were hung by pivots
at the top and bottom of the hanging stile which worked in
sockets in the lintel and cill, the latter being always in some hard
stone such as basalt or granite. Those found at Nippur by Dr
Hilprecht, dating from 2000 B.C., were in dolorite. The tenons of
420
DOORWAY
the gates at Balawat (see fig.) (895-825 B.C.) were sheathed with
bronze (now in the British Museum). These doors or gates were
hung in two leaves, each about 8 ft. 4 in. wide and 27 ft. high; they
were encased with bronze bands or strips, 10 in. high, covered
with repousse decoration of figures, &c. The wood doors would
seem to have been about 3 in. thick, but the hanging stile was
over 14 in. in diameter. Other sheathings of various sizes in
bronze have been found, which proves this to have been the
universal method adopted to protect the wood pivots. In the
Hauran in Syria, where timber is scarce, the
doors were made in stone, and one measuring
5 ft. 4 in. by 2 ft. 7 in. is in the British Museum;
the band on the meeting stile shows that it
was one of the leaves of a double door. At
Kuffeir near Bostra in Syria, Burckhardt found
stone doors, 9 to 10 ft. high, being the entrance
doors of the town. In Etruria many stone
doors are referred to by Dennis.
The ancient Greek and Roman doors were
either single doors (jtovoBvpai., unifores), double
doors (SiOvpM, bifores or geminae) or folding
doors (irrvxts, vafaae); in the last case the
leaves were hinged and folded back one over
Balawat Gates, the other. At Pompeii, in the portico of
sheath and socket. Eumachia, is a painting of a door with three
fTarl is- ' eaves > tne two outer ones of which were
-
, by permission of presumably hung, the inner leaf folding on
Chapman & Hall Ltd. Qne Qr tfae other; hinges connecting the
folding leaves of a door have been found in Pompeii. In the tomb
of Theron at Agrigentum there is a single four-panel door carved
in stone. In the Blundell collection is a bas-relief of a temple
with double doors, each leaf with five panels. Among existing
examples, the bronze doors in the church of SS. Cosmas and
Damiano, in Rome, are important examples of Roman metal
work of the best period; they are in two leaves, each with two
panels, and are framed in bronze. Those of the Pantheon are
similar in design, with narrow horizontal panels in addition,
at the top, bottom and middle. Two other bronze doors of the
Roman period are in the Lateran Basilica.
The doors of the church of the Nativity at Bethlehem (6th
century) are covered with plates of bronze, cut out in patterns:
those of Sta Sophia at Constantinople, of the 8th and gth cen-
tury, are wrought in bronze, and the west doors of the cathedral
of Aix-la-Chapelle (gth century), of similar manufacture, were
probably brought from Constantinople, as also some of those
in St Mark's, Venice.
Of the nth and I2th centuries there are numerous examples
of bronze doors, the earliest being one at Hildesheim, Germany
(1015). Of others in South Italy and Sicily, the following are the
finest: in Sant' Andrea, Amain (1060); Salerno (1099); Canosa
(mi); Troja, two doors (1119 and 1124); Ravello (1179), by
Barisano of Trani, who also made doors for Trani cathedral; and
in Monreale and Pisa cathedrals, by Bonano of Pisa. In all these
cases the hanging stile had pivots at the top and bottom. The
exact period when the hinge was substituted is not quite known,
but the change apparently brought about another method of
strengthening and decorating doors, viz. with wrought-iron bands
of infinite varieties of design. As a rule three bands from which
the ornamental work springs constitute the hinges, which have
rings outside the hanging stiles fitting on to vertical tenons run
into the masonry or wooden frame. There is an early example of
the 1 2th century in Lincoln; in France the metal work of the
doors of Notre Dame at Paris is perhaps the most beautiful in
execution, but examples are endless throughout France and
England.
Returning to Italy, the most celebrated doors are those of the
Baptistery of Florence, which together with the door frames are
all in bronze, the borders of the latter being perhaps the most
remarkable: the modelling of the figures, birds and foliage of the
south doorway, by Andrea Pisano (1330), and of the east doorway
by Ghiberti (1425-1452), are of great beauty; in the north door
(1402-1424) Ghiberti adopted the same scheme of design for the
panelling and figure subjects in them as Andrea Pisano, but in the
east door the rectangular panels are all filled with bas-reliefs, in
which Scripture subjects are illustrated with innumerable figures,
these being probably the gates of Paradise of which Michelangelo
speaks.
The doors of the mosques in Cairo were of two kinds; those
which, externally, were cased with sheets of bronze or iron, cut out
in decorative patterns, and incised or inlaid, with bosses in relief;
and those in wood, which were framed with interlaced designs
of the square and diamond, this latter description of work being
Coptic in its origin. The doors of the palace at Palermo, which
were made by Saracenic workmen for the Normans, are fine
examples and in good preservation. A somewhat similar
decorative class of door to these latter is found in Verona, where
the edges of the stiles and rails are bevelled and notched.
In the Renaissance period the Italian doors are quite simple,
their architects trusting more to the doorways for effect; but in
France and Germany the contrary is the case, the doors being
elaborately carved, especially in the Louis XIV. and Louis XV.
periods, and sometimes with architectural features such as
columns and entablatures with pediment and niches, the doorway
being in plain masonry. While in Italy the tendency was to give
scale by increasing the number of panels, in France the contrary
seems to have been the rule; and one of the great doors at
Fontainebleau, which is in two leaves, is entirely carried out
as if consisting of one great panel only.
The earliest Renaissance doors in France are those of the
cathedral of St Sauveur at Aix (1503); in the lower panels there
are figures 3 ft. high in Gothic niches, and in the upper panels a
double range of niches with figures about 2 ft. high with canopies
over them, all carved in cedar. The south door of Beauvais
cathedral is in some respects the finest in France; the upper
panels are carved in high relief with figure subjects and canopies
over them. The doors of the church at Gisors (1575) are carved
with figures in niches subdivided by classic pilasters superimposed.
In St Maclou at Rouen are three magnificently carved doors;
those by Jean Goujon have figures in niches on each side, and
others in a group of great beauty in the centre. The other doors,
probably about forty to fifty years later, are enriched with bas-
reliefs, landscapes, figures and elaborate interlaced borders.
In England in the i7th century the door panels were raised
with " bolection " or projecting mouldings, sometimes richly
carved, round them; in the i8th century the mouldings worked
on the stiles and rails were carved with the egg and tongue orna-
ment. (R. P. S.)
DOORWAY (corresponding to the Gr. TruXTj, Lat. porta), in
architecture, the entrance to a building, apartment or enclosure.
The term is more generally applied to the framing of the opening
in wood, stone or metal. The representations in painting, and
existing examples, show that whilst the jambs of the doorway
in Egyptian architecture were vertical, the outer side had almost
the same batter as the walls of the temples. In the doorways of
enclosures or screen walls there was no lintel, but a small projec-
tion inwards at the top, to hold the pivot of the door. In Greece
the linings of the earliest doorways at Tiryns were in wood, and in
order to lessen the bearing of the lintel the dressings or jambs
(antepagmenta) sloped inwards, so that the width of the doorway
opening was less at the top than at the bottom. In the entrance
doorway of the tomb of Agamemnon at Mycenae, 18 ft. in height,
the width is about 6 in. less at the top than at the bottom. The
lintel of the Greek doorway projected on either side beyond the
dressings, constituting what are known as the shoulders or knees
(projecturae), a characteristic feature which has been retained
down to our time. The next step was to work a projecting
moulding round the dressings and lintel forming the architrave.
Examples with shoulders in stone exist in the Beule doorway of
the Acropolis at Athens, in the tomb of Theron, and in a temple
at Agrigentum in Sicily; also in the temples of Hercules at Cora,
and of Vesta at Trivoli, and with a peculiar pendant in all the
Etruscan tombs. The most beautiful example of a Greek door-
way is that under the north portico of the Erechtheum (420 B.C.).
There is a slight diminution in the width at the top of the opening,
DOPPLERITE DORCHESTER, VISCOUNT
421
and outside the ordinary architrave mouldings (which here and in
all classic examples are derived from those of the architrave of an
order) is a band with rosettes, which recall the early decorative
features in Crete and Mycenae; the band being carried across the
top of the lintel and surmounted by a cornice supported on each
side by corbels (ancones).
In the Roman doorways, excepting those at Cora and Tivoli,
there is, as a rule, no diminishing of the width, which is generally
speaking half of the height. The dimensions of some of the
Roman doorways are enormous; in the temple of the Sun at
Palmyra the doorway is 15 ft. 6 in. wide and 33 ft. high; and in
the temple of Jupiter at Baalbec, 20 ft. wide and 45 ft. high, the
lintel is composed of three stones forming voussoirs the keystone
measuring 7 ft. at the bottom, 8 ft. at the top, 10 ft. high and 7 ft.
6 in. deep.
All the doorways mentioned above have cornices, and in those
at Palmyra and Baalbec richly carved friezes with side corbels.
In the Pantheon there is a plain convex frieze, but the outer
mouldings of the architrave and the bed-mould of the cornice
are richly carved. In the Byzantine doorways at Sta Sophia,
Constantinople, a bold convex moulding and a hollow take the
place of the fasciae of the classic architrave.
So far we have only referred to square-headed doorways, but
the side openings of the triumphal arches of Titus and Constantine
are virtually doorways, and they have semicircular heads, the
mouldings of which are the same as those of the square-headed
examples. In Saxon doorways, which had semicircular heads,
the outer mouldings projected more boldly than in classic
examples, and were sometimes cut in a separate ring of stone like
the hood mould of later date.
During the Romanesque period hi all countries, the doorway
becomes the chief characteristic feature, and consists of two or
more orders, the term " order " in this case being applied to the
concentric rings of voussoirs forming the door-head. In classic
work the faces of these concentric rings were nearly always flush
one with the other; in Romanesque work the upper one projected
over the ring immediately below, and the employment of a
different design in the carving of each ring produced a magnificent
and imposing effect: in the Italian churches the decoration of the
arch mould is frequently carried down the door jambs, and the
same is found, but less often, in the English and French doorways;
but as a rule each ring or order is carried by a nook shaft, those in
England and France being plain, but in Italy and Sicily elaborately
carved with spirals or other ornaments and sometimes inlaid with
mosaic.
The deeply recessed Norman doorways in English work
required a great thickness of wall, and this was sometimes
obtained by an addition outside, as at Iffley, Adel, Kirkstall and
other churches.
In France, during the Gothic period, the several orders were
carved with figure sculpture, as also the door jambs; and the
great recessing of these doorways brought them more into the
categories of porches. In England much less importance was
given to the Gothic doorways, and although they consisted of
many orders, these were emphasized only by deep hollows and
converse mouldings and always carried on angle or nook shafts.
In the perpendicular period the pointed-arch doorway was often
enclosed within a square head-moulding, the spandrel being
enriched with foliage or quatrefoil tracery.
In the Mahommedan style the doorway itself is comparatively
simple, except that the voussoirs of its lintel are joggled with a
series of curves, and being of different coloured stones have a
decorative effect. These doorways are placed in a rectangular
recess roofed with the stalactite vault.
With the Renaissance architect, the doorway continued as the
principal characteristic of the style; the actual door-frame was
simply moulded, by enclosing it with pilasters or columns,
isolated or semi-detached, raised on pedestals and carrying
an entablature with pediment and other kind of super-doorway;
and great importance was given to the feature. In the Italian
cinquecento period, the panels of the side pilasters were enriched
with the most elaborate carving, and this would seem to have
been an ancient Roman method, to judge by portions of carved
panels now in the museums of Rome. The doorways of Venice
are remarkable in this respect. At Como the two side doorways
of the cathedral, one of which is said to be by Bramante, are of
great beauty, and the same rich decoration is found throughout
Spain and France. In Germany and England the pattern book
too often suggested designs of an extremely rococo character, and
it was under the influence of Palladio, through Inigo Jones, that
in England the architect returned to the simpler and purer
Italian style. (R. P. S.)
DOPPLERITE, a naturally occurring organic substance found
in amorphous, elastic or jelly-like masses, of brownish-black
colour, in peat beds in Styria and in Switzerland. It is tasteless,
insoluble in alcohol and ether, and is described by Dana as an
acid substance, or mixture of different acids, related to humic
acid.
DORAN, JOHN (1807-1878), English author, was born in
London of Irish parentage on the nth of March 1807. He became
tutor in several distinguished families, and while travelling on
the continent contributed journalistic sketches to The Literary
Chronicle, a paper which was afterwards incorporated with The
Athenaeum. His play, Justice or the Venetian Jew, was produced
at the Surrey theatre in 1824, and in 1830 he began to write
translations from French, German, Latin and Italian authors for
The Bath Journal. After some years of travel on the continent
he became in 1841 literary editor of The Church and State
Gazette, and in 1852 under the title of Filia dolorosa produced a
memoir of Maria Therese Charlotte, duchesse d'Angouleme. Two
years later he became a regular contributor to The Athenaeum,
succeeding Hepworth Dixon as editor for a short time in 1869.
until he became editor of Notes and Queries in 1870. His most
elaborate work, Their Majesties' Servants, a history of the English
stage from Betterton to Kean, was published in 1860, and was
supplemented by In and About Drury Lane, which was written
for Temple Bar and was not published in book form till 1885,
after Doran's death. Among his other works may be mentioned
Table Traits and Habits of Men (1854), TheQueens of the House of
Hanover (1855), Knights and their Days (1856). Monarchs retired
from Business ( 1 8 56) , The History of Court Fools ( 1 8 58) , an edition
of the Bentley Ballads (1858), The Last Journals of Horace
Walpole (2 vols., 1859), The Princess of Wales (1860), and the
Memoirs of Queen Adelaide (1861). These were followed by A
Lady of the Last Century (1873), an account of Mrs Elizabeth
Montagu and the blue-stockings; London in Jacobite Times
(1877); and Memories of our Great Towns (1878). Doran died
in London, on the 25th of January 1878.
DORAT, CLAUDE JOSEPH (1734-1780), French man of letters,
was born in Paris on the 3ist of December 1 734. He belonged to
a family whose members had for generations been lawyers, and he
entered the corps of the king's musketeers. He obtained a great
vogue by his Reponse d'Abailard d Heloise, and followed up this
first success with a number of heroic epistles, Les Victimes de
I' amour, ou lettres de quelques amants celebres (1776). Dorat was
possessed by an ambition quite out of proportion to his very
mediocre ability. Besides light verse he wrote comedies, fables
and, among other novels, Les Sacrifices de I 'amour, ou leltres de la
vicomtesse de Senanges et du chevalier de Versenay (1771). He tried
to cover his failures as a dramatist by buying up a great number
of seats, and his books were lavishly illustrated by good artists
and expensively produced, to secure their success. He was
maladroit enough to draw down on himself the hatred both of
the philosophe party and of their arch-enemy Charles Palissot, and
thus cut himself off from the possibility of academic honours.
Le Tartufe litteraire (1777) attacked La Harpe and Palissot, and
at the same time D'Alembert and Mile de Lespinasse. Dorat
died on the 2gth of April 1780 in Paris.
See G. Desnoireterres, Le Chevalier Dorat et les pastes legers au
XVIII' siecle (1887). For the bibliographical value of his works, see
Henry Cohen, Guide de I 'amateur de livres a figures et a vignettes du
XVIII' siecle (editions of Ch. Mehl, 1876, and R. Portalis, 1887).
DORCHESTER, DUDLEY CARLETON, VISCOUNT (1573-1632),
English diplomatist, son of Antony Carleton of Baldwin
422
DORCHESTER, IST BARON DORCHESTER
Brightwell, Oxfordshire, and of Jocosa, daughter of John Goodwin
of Winchington, Buckinghamshire, was born on the loth of
March 1573, and educated at Westminster school and Christ
Church, Oxford, where he graduated M.A. in 1600. He travelled
abroad, and was returned to the parliament of 1604 as member
for St Mawes. Through his connexion as secretary with the earl
of Northumberland his name was associated with the Gunpowder
Plot, but after a short confinement he succeeded in clearing
himself of any share in the conspiracy. In 1610 he was knighted
and was sent as ambassador to Venice, where he was the means
of concluding the treaty of Asti. He returned in 1615, and next
year was appointed ambassador to Holland. The policy of
England on the continent depended mainly upon its relations with
that state, and Carleton succeeded in improving these, in spite of
his firm attitude on the subject of the massacre of Amboyna, the
bitter commercial disputes between the two countries, and the
fatal tendency of James I. to seek alliance with Spain. It was in
his house at the Hague that the unfortunate Elector Frederick
and the princess Elizabeth took refuge in 1621. Carleton
returned to England in 1625 with the duke of Buckingham,
and was made vice-chamberlain of the household and a privy
councillor. Shortly afterwards he took part in an abortive
mission to France in favour of the French Protestants and to
inspire a league against the house of Austria. On his return in
1626 he found the attention of parliament, to which he had been
elected for Hastings, completely occupied with the attack upon
Buckingham. Carleton endeavoured to defend his patron, and
supported the king's violent exercise of his prerogative. It was
perhaps fortunate that his further career in the Commons was
cut short by his elevation in May to the peerage as Baron Carleton
of Imbercourt. Shortly afterwards he was despatched on
another mission to the Hague, on his return from which he was
created Viscount Dorchester in July 1628. He was active in
forwarding the conferences between Buckingham and Contarini
for a peace with France on the eve of the duke's intended
departure for La Rochelle, which was prevented by the latter's
assassination. In December 1628 he was made principal secretary
of state, and died on the isth of February 1632, being buried in
Westminster Abbey. He was twice married, and had children,
but all died in infancy, and the title became extinct. Carleton
was one of the ablest diplomatists of the time, and his talents
would have secured greater triumphs had he not been persistently
hampered by the mistaken and hesitating foreign policy of the
court.
His voluminous correspondence, remarkable for its clear, easy and
effective style, and for the writer's grasp of the main points of policy,
covers practically the whole history of foreign affairs during the
period 1610-1628, and furnishes valuable material for the study of
the Thirty Years' War. His letters as ambassador at the Hague,
January i6l"6 to December 1620, were first edited by Philip Yorke,
afterwards second earl of Hardwicke, with a biographical and
historical preface, in 1757; his correspondence from the Hague in
1627 by Sir Thomas Phillipps in 1841 ; other letters are printed in the
Cabala, and in T. Birch's Court and Times of James I. and Charles I.,
but by far the greater portion remains in MS. among the state papers.
DORCHESTER, GUY CARLETON, ist BARON (1724-1808),
British general, and administrator, was born at Strabane, Co.
Tyrone, Ireland, on the 3rd of September 1724. He served with
distinction on the continent under the duke of Cumberland, and
in 1759 in America as quartermaster-general, under his friend
Wolfe. He was wounded at the capture of Quebec, and promoted
to the rank of brigadier-general. In 1766 he was appointed
governor-general of Canada, which position he held till 1778.
His justice and kindliness greatly endeared him to the recently
conquered French-Canadians, and did much to hold them neutral
during the War of American Independence. He ordered the first
codification of the civil law of the province, and was largely
responsible for the passing of the Quebec Act. On the American
invasion of Canada in 1 77 5 he was compelled to abandon Montreal
and narrowly escaped capture, but defended Quebec (q.v.) with
skill and success. In October of the same year he destroyed the
American flotilla on Lake Champlain. In 1777 he was superseded
in his command of the military forces by Major-General John
Burgoyne, and asked to be recalled. He returned, however, to
America in May 1782 as commander-in-chief, remaining till
November 1783.- In 1786 he was again sent to Canada as
governor-general and commander of the forces, with the title of
Baron Dorchester. Many important reforms marked his rule; he
administered the country with tact and moderation, and kept it
loyal to the British crown amid the ferment caused by the French
Revolution, and by the attempts of American emissaries to
arouse discontent. In 1791 the province was divided into Upper
and Lower Canada by the Constitutional Act. Of this division
Carleton disapproved, as he did also of a provision tending to
create in the new colony an hereditary aristocracy. In 1796
he insisted on retiring, and returned to England. He died on the
loth of November 1808. He married in 1772 a daughter of the
2nd earl of Effingham, and had nine children, being succeeded
in the title by his grandson Arthur. On the death in 1897 of the
4th baron (another grandson) the title became extinct, but was
revived in 1899 for his cousin and co-heiress Henrietta Anne
as Baroness Dorchester.
J. C. Dent's Canadian Portrait Gallery (Toronto, 1880) gives a
sketch of Lord Dorchester's Canadian career. His life by A. G.
Bradley is included in the Makers of Canada series (Toronto). Most
of his letters and state papers, which are indispensable for a know-
ledge of the period, are in the archives department at Ottawa, and
are calendared in Brymner's Reports on Canadian Archives (Ottawa,
1885, seq.). . (W. L. G.)
DORCHESTER, a market town and municipal borough and
the county town of Dorsetshire, England, in the southern par-
liamentary division, 135 m. S.W. by W. from London by the
London & South Western railway; served also by the Great
Western railway. Pop. (1901) 9458. It stands on an eminence
on the right bank of the river Frome, within a wide open tract of
land, containing 3400 acres, held under the duchy of Cornwall,
called Fordington Field. Several of the streets are planted with
trees, and the town is nearly surrounded by fine avenues. St
Peter's church is a Perpendicular building with a fine tower. All
Saints and Holy Trinity churches are modern, but Fordington
church retains Norman and Transitional details. Of public
buildings the principal are the town-hall, with market-house,
shire-hall, county prison and county hospital; there is also a
county museum, containing many local objects of much interest.
The grammar school (founded in 1569) is endowed with
exhibitions tp Oxford and Cambridge. There is a statue to
William Barnes the Dorsetshire poet (1801-1886). The town is
noted also for its ale. It is a place of considerable agricultural
trade, and large sheep and lamb fairs are held annually. The
borough is under a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors.
Area 1648 acres.
History. Durnovaria was here, a Romano-British country
town of considerable size, probably successor to a British tribal
centre of the Durotriges. The walls can be traced in part, and
many mosaics, remains of houses, &c., have been found. The
remains of an amphitheatre are seen at Maumbury Rings, near
the town. Maiden Castle, 2 m. S.W. of the town, is a vast earth-
work considered to have been a stronghold of the tribe of the
Durotriges. There are other such remains in the vicinity. Little
mention of Dorchester (Dornccaster, Dorcestre) occurs in Saxon
annals, but a charter from ^Jthelstan to Milton Abbey in 939 is
dated at villa regalis quae dicitur Doracestria, and at this period it
possessed a mint. According to the Domesday Survey it was a
royal borough, and at the time of Edward the Confessor contained
172 houses, of which 100 had been totally destroyed since
the Conquest. Mention is made of a castle at Dorchester in
records of the I2th and i3th centuries; and the Franciscan
priory, founded some time before 1331, is thought to have been
constructed out of its ruins. The latter was suppressed among
the lesser monasteries in 1536. Edward II. granted the borough
to the bailiffs and burgesses at a fee-farm rent of 20 for five
years, and the grant was renewed in perpetuity by Edward III.
Richard III. empowered the burgesses to elect a coroner and two
constables, to be exempt from tolls, and to try minor pleas in the
king's court within the borough before a steward to be chosen by
themselves. The first charter of incorporation, granted by James
I. in 1610, established a governing council of two bailiffs and
DORCHESTER
423
fifteen capital burgesses. Charles I. in 1629 instituted a mayor,
six aldermen and six capital burgesses, and also incorporated all
the freemen of the borough, for the purposes of trade, under the
government of a council consisting of a governor, assistants and
twenty-four freemen, the governor and four assistants to be
chosen out of the twenty-four by the freemen, and five other
assistants to be chosen by the mayor out of the capital burgesses;
the Council was empowered to hold four courts yearly and
to make laws for the regulation of the markets and trade.
Dorchester returned two members to parliament from 1295, until
the Representation of the People Act of 1868 reduced the number
to one; by the Redistribution Act of 1885 the representation was
merged in the county. Edward III. granted to the burgesses
the perquisites from three fairs lasting one day at the feasts of
Holy Trinity, St John Baptist and St James, and markets
on Wednesday, Friday and Saturday. Elizabeth granted an
additional three days' fair at Candlemas. The days of the fairs
and markets have remained unchanged. The cloth industry
which flourished during the i6th century never recovered from
the depression following on the Civil War. The malting and
brewing industries came into prominence in the lyth century,
when there was also a considerable serge manufacture, which has
since declined.
See Victoria County History, Dorsetshire; John Hutchins, The
History and Antiquities of the Town and Borough of Dorchester (3rd
edition, corrected, augmented and improved by W. Shipp and
J. W. Hodson, Blandford, 1865).
DORCHESTER, a large village in the south parliamentary
division of Oxfordshire, England, 9 m. S.S.E. of Oxford by road,
on the river Thame, i m. from its junction with the Thames.
This is a site of much historical interest. There was a Roman
station near the present village, facing, across the Thames, the
double isolated mound known as Wittenham Hills (historically
Sinodun), on one summit of which are strong early earthworks.
In Dorchester itself the chief point of interest is the abbey church
of St Peter and St Paul. This consists of a nave of great length,
primarily of the transitional Norman period ; a choir with arcades
of the finest Decorated work; north choir aisle of the close of
the i3th century, south choir aisle (c. 1300) and south nave aisle
(c. 1320). The tower (western) is an erection of the late I7th
century. The eastern bay of the choir is considered to have been
added as a Lady chapel, and the north window is a magnificent
example of a " Jesse window," in which the tracery represents
the genealogical tree of Jesse, the complete execution of the design
being carried on in the glass. The sedilia and piscina are very fine.
The Decorated windows on the south side of the church form a
beautiful series, and there are monuments and brasses of great
interest.
Dorchester (Dorcinia, Dornacestre, Dorchecestre) was con-
quered by the West Saxons about 560. It occupied a com-
manding position at the junction of the Thames and the Thame,
and in 635 was made the seat of a bishopric which at its founda-
tion was the largest in England, comprising the whole of Wessex
and Mercia. The witenagemot of Wessex was held at Dorchester
three times in the 9th century, and in 958 ^Ethelstan held a
council here. In the nth century, however, the town is described
as small and ill-peopled and remarkable only for the majesty of
its churches, and in about 1086 William I. and Bishop Remigius
removed the bishop's stool to Lincoln, as a city more worthy of
the distinction. According to the Domesday Survey Dorchester
was held by the bishop of Lincoln; it was assessed at 100
hides and comprised two mills. In 1140 Alexander bishop
of Lincoln founded an abbey of Black Canons at Dorchester,
but the town declined in importance after the removal of the
cathedral, and is described by 16th-century writers as a mere
agricultural village and destitute of trade.
See Victoria County History, Oxfordshire; Henry Addington, Some
Account of the Abbey Church of St Peter and St Paul at Dorchester,
Oxfordshire, reissue with additional notes (Oxford, 1860).
DORCHESTER, a residential and manufacturing district of
Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A., a separate town until 1870,
between the Neponset river on the S. and South Boston and
Boston proper on the N. It is served by three lines of the New
York, New Haven & Hartford railway. A ridge, with an
average height of about 100 ft. above the sea, extends through
the district from N. to S. and commands delightful views of
Boston Bay to the E. and of the Blue Hills to the S. There are
many large private estates, with beautiful lawns, and Franklin
Field and Franklin Park, one of the largest parks of the Boston
park system, are in Dorchester. The Shawmut school for girls
is in the district. Among the landmarks are the Barnard Capen
house, built in the fourth decade of the i;th century and now
probably the second oldest house in New England; and the James
Blake house (1648), now the home of the Dorchester Historical
Society, which has a library and a museum. Opposite the Blake
house formerly stood the house in which Edward Everett was
born. Not far away is the old Dorchester burying ground, which
dates from 1634; it has many curious epitaphs, and contains the
graves of Barnard Capen, who died in 1638 (probably the oldest
marked grave in the United States); of William Stoughton
(1631-1701), chief justice of the court which tried the Salem
" witches " in 1692, lieutenant-governor of the colony from 1692,
acting governor in 1694-1699 and 1700-1701, and founder of the
original Stoughton Hall, Harvard; and of Richard Mather,
pastor of the First Parish church here from 1636 until his death.
In Dorchester Maria Susana Cummins (1827-1866) wrote The
Lamplighter (1854), one of the most popular novels of its time,
and William T. Adams (" Oliver Optic ") and Charles Pollen
Adams (" Yawcob Strauss ") did much of their writing; it
was long the home of Mrs Lucy Stone (Blackwell). Among the
manufactures are cocoa, chocolate, &c. (of the long-established
Walter Baker & Co.), paper, crushing and grinding machinery
(Sturtevant Mill Co.), chemicals, horseshoe nails, valves, organs
and pianos, lumber, automobiles and shoe machinery.
Dorchester was founded by about 140 colonists from Dorset-
shire, England, with whom the movement for planting the colony
in Massachusetts Bay was begun under the leadership of Rev.
John White. They organized as a church while at Plymouth,
England, in March 1630, then embarked in the ship " Mary
ard John," arrived in Boston Bay two weeks before Governor
Winthrop with the rest of the fleet, and in June selected Savin
Hill (E. of what is now Dorchester Avenue and between Crescent
Avenue and Dorchester Bay) as the site for their settlement.
At the time the place was known as Mattapanock, but they named
it Dorchester. Town affairs were at first managed by the church,
but in October 1633 a town government was organized, and the
example was followed by the neighbouring settlements; this
seems to have been the beginning of the town-meeting form of
government in America. Up to this time Dorchester was the
largest town in the colony, but dissatisfaction arose with the
location (Boston had a better one chiefly on account of the deeper
water in its harbour), and in 1635-1637 many of the original
settlers removed to the valley of the Connecticut where they
planted Windsor. New settlers, however, arrived at Dorchester
and in 1639 that town established a school supported by a public
tax; this was the first free school in America supported by direct
taxation or assessment on the inhabitants of a town. 1 In
October 1695, a few of the inhabitants of Dorchester organized a
church and in December removed to South Carolina where they
planted another Dorchester (on the N. bank of the Ashley river,
about 26 m. from Charleston); by 1752 they had become
dissatisfied with their location, which was unhealthy, and they
gradually removed to Georgia, where they settled at Medway
1 In 1635 the general court of the colony of Massachusetts Bay had
granted to Dorchester Thompson's Island, situated near the coast of
the township. By the township of Dorchester this island was ap-
portioned among the freemen of the township. On the 2Oth of May
1639 it was ordered that the proprietors of land in this island should
collectively pay a " rent of twenty pounds a year forever," this rent
" to be paid to such a school-master as shall undertake to teach
English, Latin, and other tongues, and also writing," it being " left
to the discretion of the elders and the seven men for the time being
whether maids shall be taught with the boys or not." In 1642 the
proprietors of the island conveyed it to the township " for and
toward the maintenance of a free school in Dorchester aforesaid for
the instructing and teaching of children and youth in good literature
and learning."
424
DORDOGNE DORfi
(half way between the Ogeechee and Altamaha rivers), their
settlement soon developing into St John's Parish (see GEORGIA:
History). It was the fortification of Dorchester Heights, under
orders from General Washington, on the night of the 4th and sth
of March 1776, that forced the British to evacuate Boston. At
one time Dorchester extended from Boston nearly to the Rhode
Island line; but its territory was gradually reduced by the
creation of new townships and additions to old ones. Dorchester
Neck was annexed to Boston in 1804, Thompson's Island in 1834,
and the remaining portions in 1855 and 1870.
See W. D. Orcutt, Good Old Dorchester (Cambridge, 1893).
DORDOGNE, a river of central and south-western France,
rising at a height of 5640 ft. on the Puy-de-Sancy, a mountain of
the department-of Puy-de-D6me, and flowing to the Garonne with
which it unites at Bee d'Ambes to form the Gironde estuary.
It has a length of 295 m. and the area of its basin is 9214 sq. m.
Descending rapidly from its source, sometimes over cascades,
the river soon enters deep gorges through which it flows as far as
Beaulieu (department of Correze) where it debouches into a wide
and fertile valley and is shortly after joined by the Cere. Enter-
ing the department of Lot, it abandons a south-westerly for a
westerly course and flowing in a sinuous channel traverses the
department of Dordogne, where it receives the waters of the
Vezere. Below the town of Bergerac it enters the department of
Gironde, where at Libourne it is joined by the Isle and widens
out, attaining at its union with the Garonne 45 m. from the
sea a width of nearly 3300 yds. A few miles above this point the
river is spanned by the magnificent bridges of Cubzac-les-
Ponts, which carry a road and railway. Below its confluence
with the Vezere, over the last 112 m. of its course, the river
carries considerable navigation. The influence of the highest
tides is felt at Pessac, a distance of 100 m. from the ocean.
DORDOGNE, an inland department of south-western France,
formed in 1790 from nearly the whole of Perigord, a part of
Agenais, and small portions of Limousin and of Angoumois.
Area 3560 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 447,052. It is bounded N. by
Haute- Vienne, W. by Charente,Charente-Inferieure and Gironde,
S. by Lot-et-Garonne, and E. by Lot and Correze. Situated on
the western slopes of the Massif Central, Dordogne consists in the
north-east and centre of sterile plateaus sloping towards the west,
where they end in a region of pine forests known as the Double.
The greatest altitudes are found in the highlands of the north,
where many points exceed 1300 ft. in height. The department is
intersected by many fertile and beautiful river valleys, which
converge from its northern and eastern borders towards the south-
west. The Dordogne is the principal river of the department and
its chief affluent is the Isle, which crosses the centre of the depart-
ment and flows into the Dordogneat Libourne.in the neighbouring
department of Gironde. The Dronne and the Auvezere, both
tributaries of the Isle, are the other main rivers. The climate is
generally agreeable and healthy, but rather humid, especially in
the north-east. Agriculture flourishes in the south and south-west
of the department, especially in the valleys of the Dordogne and
Isle, the rest of its surface being covered to a great extent by
woods and heath. Pasture and forage amply suffice for the raising
of large flocks and herds. The vine, cultivated mainly in the
neighbourhood of Bergerac, and tobacco are important sources of
profit. Wheat and maize are the chief cereals and potatoes are
largely grown. The truffles of Perigord are famous for their
abundance and quality. The plum and cider-apple yield good
crops. In the forests the prevailing trees are the oak and
chestnut. The fruit of the latter is much used both as food by
the people and for fattening hogs, which are reared in large
numbers. The walnut is extensively grown for its oil. The
department has mines of lignite, and produces freestone, lime,
cement, mill-stone, peat, potter's clay and fireclay. The leather
industry and the preparation of preserved foods are important,
and there are flour-mills, brick and tile works, earthenware
manufactories, printing works, chemical works and a few iron
foundries. Exports consist of truffles, wine, chestnuts and other
fruit, live stock, poultry, and minerals of various kinds. Dordogne
is served by the Orleans railway; the Dordogne, the Isle and the
Vezere furnish nearly 200 m. of navigable waterway. It is divided
into the arrondissements of Perigueux, Bergerac, Nontron,
Riberac and Sarlat, with 47 cantons and 587 communes, and
belongs to the ecclesiastical province of Bordeaux, to the
academic (educational division) of Bordeaux and to the region of
the XII. army corps, which has its headquarters at Limoges. Its
court of appeal is at Bordeaux.
Perigueux, the capital. Bergerac, Sarlat and Brant6me are the
principal towns (see separate articles). There are several other
places of interest. Bourdeilles has two finely preserved chateaux,
one of the i4th century, with an imposing keep, the other in
the Renaissance style of the i6th century. Both buildings are
contained within the same fortified enceinte. The celebrated
chateau of Biron, founded in the nth century, preserves examples
of many subsequent architectural styles, among them a beautiful
chapel of late Gothic and early Renaissance workmanship.
The chateau of Jumilhac-le- Grand belongs to the isth century.
Dordogne possesses several medieval bastides, the most perfect
of which is Monpazier. At Cadouin there are the remains of a
Cistercian abbey. Its church is a fine cruciform building in the
Romanesque style, while the cloister is an excellent example of
Flamboyant architecture. St Jean-de-C61e has an interesting
Romanesque church and a chateau of the isth, i6th and i8th
centuries. In the rocks of the valley of the lower Vezere there
are prehistoric caves of great archaeological importance, in which
have been found tools, and carvings on bone, flint and ivory.
Troglodytic dwellings are to be found in many other places in
Dordogne (see CAVE).
DORDRECHT (abbreviated Dordt, or Dorf), a town and river-
port of Holland, in the province of South Holland, on the south
side of the Merwede, and a junction station 125 m. by rail S.E.
of Rotterdam. Steam ferries connect it with Papendrecht and
Zwyndrecht on the opposite shore, and it has excellent com-
munication by water in every direction. Pop. (1900) 38,386.
Dordrecht presents a picturesque appearance with its busy quays
and numerous canals and windmills, its quaint streets and
curiously gabled houses. The Groote Kerk, of Our Lady, whose
massive tower forms a conspicuous object in the views of the
town, dates from the i4th century and contains some finely
carved stalls (1540) by Jan Terween Aertsz, a remarkable pulpit
UTSQ)) many old monuments and a set of gold communion plate.
In the town museum is an interesting collection of paintings,
chiefly by modern artists, but including also pictures by some of
the older masters, among whom Ferdinand Bol, the two Cuyps,
Nicolas Maes, Godefried Schalcken, and in later times Ary
Scheffer, were all natives of Dordrecht. The celebrated 17th-
century statesman John de Witt was also a native of the town.
Close to the museum is one of the old city gates, rebuilt in 1618,
and now containing a collection of antiquities belonging to the
Oud-Dordrecht Society. The South African Museum (1902)
contains memorials of the Boer War of 1899-1902. The harbour
of Dordrecht still has a large trade, but much has been diverted
to Rotterdam. Large quantities of wood are imported from
Germany, Scandinavia and America. There are numerous
saw-mills, shipbuilding yards, engineering works, distilleries,
sugar refineries, tobacco factories, linen bleacheries and stained
glass, salt and white lead works.
Dordrecht was founded by Count Dirk III. of Holland in 1018,
becoming a town about 1200. One of the first towns in the
Netherlands to embrace the reformed religion and to throw off
the yoke of Spain, it was in 1572 the meeting-place of the de-
puties who asserted the independence of the United Provinces.
In 1618 and 1619 it was the seat of the synod of Dort (q.v.).
DOR6, LOUIS AUGUSTE GUSTAVE (1832-1883), French
artist, the son of a civil engineer, was born at Strassburg on the
6th of January 1832. In 1848 he came to Paris and secured a
three years' engagement on the Journal pour rire. His facility
as a draughtsman was extraordinary, and among the books he
illustrated in rapid succession were Balzac's Contes drolatiques
(1855), Dante's Inferno (1861), Don Quixote (1863), The Bible
(1866), Paradise Lost (1866), and the works of Rabelais (1873).
He painted also many large and ambitious compositions of a
DORIA DORIANS
425
religious or historical character, and made some success as a
sculptor, his statue of Alexandra Dumas in Paris being perhaps
his best-known work in this line. He died on the 25th of January
1883.
DORIA, ANDREA (1466-1560), Genoese condottiere and
admiral, was born at Oneglia of an ancient Genoese family.
Being left an orphan at an early age, he became a soldier of
fortune, and served first in the papal guard and then under various
Italian princes. In 1503 we find him fighting in Corsica in the
service of Genoa, at that time under French vassalage, and he
took part in the rising of Genoa against the French, whom he
compelled to evacuate the city. From that time forth it was as
a naval captain that he became famous. For several years he
scoured the Mediterranean in command of the Genoese fleet,
waging war on the Turks and the Barbary pirates. In the mean-
while Genoa had been recaptured by the French, and in 1522 by
the Imperialists. But Doria now veered round to the French or
popular faction and entered the service of King Francis I., who
made him captain-general; in 1524 he relieved Marseilles, which
was besieged by the Imperialists, and helped to place his native
city once more under French domination. But he was dissatisfied
with his treatment at the hands of Francis, who was mean about
payment, and he resented the king's behaviour in connexion with
Savona, which he delayed to hand back to the Genoese as he had
promised; consequently on the expiry of Doria's contract we
find him in the service of the emperor Charles V. (1528). He
ordered his nephew Filippino, who was then blockading Naples
in concert with a French army, to withdraw, and sailed for
Genoa, where, with the help of some leading citizens, he expelled
the French once more and re-established the republic under
imperial protection. He reformed the constitution in an
aristocratic sense, most of the nobility being Imperialists, and put
an end to the factions which divided the city. He refused the
lordship of Genoa and even the dogeship, but accepted the
position of perpetual censor, and exercised predominant influence
in the councils of the republic until his death. He was given two
palaces, many privileges, and the title of Liberator et Pater
Palriae. As imperial admiral he commanded several expeditions
against the Turks, capturing Corona and Patras, and co-operating
with the emperor himself in the capture of Tunis (1535). Charles
found him an invaluable ally in the wars with Francis, and through
him extended his domination over the whole of Italy. Doria's
defeat by the Turks at Preveza in 1538 was said to be not in-
voluntary, and designed to spite the Venetians whom he detested.
He accompanied Charles on the ill-fated Algerian expedition of
1541, of which he disapproved, and by his ability just saved the
whole force from complete disaster. For the next five years he
continued to serve the emperor in various wars, in which he was
generally successful and always active, although now over seventy
years old; there was hardly an important event in Europe in
which he had not some share. After the peace of Crepy between
Francis and Charles in 1544 he hoped to end his days in quiet.
But his great wealth and power, as well as the arrogance of his
nephew and heir Giannettino Doria, made him many enemies,
and in 1547 the Fiesco conspiracy to upset the power of his house
took place. Giannettino was murdered, but the conspirators were
defeated, and Andrea showed great vindictiveness in punishing
them. Many of their fiefs he seized for himself, and he was
implicated in the murder of Pier Luigi Farnese, duke of Parma
(see FARNESE), who had helped Fiesco. Other conspiracies
followed, of which the most important was that of Giulio Cibo
(1548), but all failed. Although Doria was ambitious and harsh,
he was a good patriot and successfully opposed the emperor
Charles's repeated attempts to have a citadel built in Genoa and
garrisoned by Spaniards; neither blandishments nor threats
could win him over to the scheme. Nor did age lessen his energy,
for in 1550, when eighty-four years old, he again put to sea to
punish the raids of his old enemies the Barbary pirates, but with
no great success. War between France and the Empire having
broken out once more, the French seized Corsica, then admin-
istered by the Genoese Bank of St George; Doria was again
summoned, and he spent two years (1553-1555) in the island
fighting the French with varying fortune. He returned to Genoa
for good in 1555, and being very old and infirm he gave over the
command of the galleys to his great-nephew Giovanni Andrea
Doria, who conducted an expedition against Tripoli, but proved
even more unsuccessful than his uncle had been'at Algiers, barely
escaping with his life. Andrea Doria died on the 25th of
November 1560, leaving his estates to Giovanni Andrea. The
family of Doria-Pamphilii-Landi (q.v.) is descended from him and
bears his title of prince of Melfi. Doria was a man of indomitable
energy and a great admiral. If he appears unscrupulous and even
treacherous he did but conform to the standards of 16th-century
Italy.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. E. Petit's Andre Doria (Paris, 1887) is an ac-
curate and documented biography, indicating all the chief works on
the subject, but the author is perhaps unduly harsh in his judgment of
the admiral ; F. D. Guerrazzi's Vita di Andrea Doria (yd ed., Milan,
1874) ; among the earlier works L. Cappelloni's Vita di Andrea Doria
I Italian edition, Genoa, 1863) and V. Sigonius's VitaAndreaeDoriae
(1576) may be mentioned ; see also " Document; ispano-genovesi del-
1'Archivio di Simancas " in the AM della Societd ligure di Storia patria,
vol. viii. ; the Archivio storico italiano (serie iii. tome iv. parte i.,
1866) contains a bibliography, but a great deal has been published
since that date. (L. V. *)
DORIANS, a name applied by the Greeks to one of the principal
groups of Hellenic peoples, in contradistinction to lonians and
Aeolians. In Hellenic times a small district known as Doris in
north Greece, between Mount Parnassus and Mount Oeta,
counted as " Dorian " in a special sense. Practically all Pelo-
ponnese, except Achaea and Elis, was " Dorian," together with
Megara, Aegina, Crete, Melos, Thera, the Spdrades Islands and
the S.W. coast of Asia Minor, where Rhodes, Cos, Cnidus and
(formerly) Halicarnassus formed a " Dorian " confederacy.
" Dorian " colonies, from Corinth, Megara, and the Dorian
islands, occupied the southern coasts of Sicily from Syracuse to
Selinus. Dorian states usually had in common the " Doric "
dialect, a peculiar calendar and cycle of festivals of which the
Hyacinthia and Carneia were the chief, and certain political
and social institutions, such as the threefold " Dorian tribes."
The worships of Apollo and Heracles, though not confined to
Dorians, were widely regarded as in some sense " Dorian " in
character.
But those common characters are not to be pressed too far.
The northern Doris, for example, spoke Aeolic, while Elis, Phocis,
and many non-Dorian districts of north-west Greece spoke
dialects akin to Doric. Many Dorian states had additional " non-
Dorian tribes "; Sparta, which claimed to be of pure and typical
Dorian origin, maintained institutions and a mode of life which
were without parallel in Peloponnese, in the Parnassian and
in the Asiatic Doris, and were partially reflected in Crete
only.
Most non-Dorian Greeks, in fact, seem to have accepted much
as Dorian which was in fact only Spartan: this was particularly
the case in the political, ethical and aesthetic controversies of the
5th and 4th centuries B.C. Much, however, which was common
(in art, for example) to Olympia, Argolis and Aegina, and might
thus have been regarded as Dorian, was conspicuously absent
from the culture of Sparta.
Traditional History. In the diagrammatic family tree of the
Greek people, as it appears in the Hesiodic catalogue (6th century)
and in Hellanicus (sth century), the " sons of Hellen " are Dorus,
Xuthus (father of Ion and Achaeus) and Aeolus. Dorus' share
of the inheritance of Hellen lay in central Greece, north of the
Corinthian Gulf, between Xuthus in north Peloponnese and
Aeolus in Thessaly. His descendants, either under Dorus or
under a later king Aegimius, occupied Histiaeotis, a district of
northern Thessaly, and afterwards conquered from the Dryopes
the head-waters of the Boeotian Cephissus between Mount
Parnassus and Mount Oeta. This became " Doris " par excellence.
Services rendered to Aegimius by Heracles led (i) to the adoption
of Hyllus, son of Heracles, by Aegimius, side by side with his own
sons Dymas and Pamphylus, and to a threefold grouping of the
Dorian clans, as Hylleis, Dymanes and Pamphyli; (2) to the
association of the people of Aegimius in the repeated attempts
of Hyllus and his family to recover their lost inheritance in
426
DORIANS
Peloponnese (see HERACLIDAE). The last of these attempts
resulted in the " Dorian conquest " of the " Achaeans " and
" lonians " of Feloponnese, and in the assignment of Argolis,
Laconia and Messenia to the Heracleid leaders, Temenus,
Aristodemus and Cresphontes respectively; of Elis to their
Aetolian allies; and of the north coast to the remnants of the
conquered Achaeans. The conquest of Corinth and Megara was
placed a generation later: Arcadia alone claimed to have
escaped invasion. This conquest was dated relatively by
Thucydides (i. 12) at eighty years after the Trojan War and
twenty years after the conquest of Thessaly and Boeotia by the
similar "invaders from Arne"; absolutely by Hellanicus and
his school (sth century) at 1149 B.C.; by Isocrates and Ephorus
(4th century B.C.) at about 1070 B.C.; and by Sosibius,
Eratosthenes (3rd century), and later writers generally, at the
generations from 1125 to noo B.C.
The invasion was commonly believed to have proceeded by way
of Aetolia and Elis, and the name Naupactus was interpreted as
an allusion to the needful " shipbuilding " on the Corinthian
Gulf. One legend made Dorus himself originally an Aetolian
prince; the participation of Oxylus, and the Aetolian claim
to Elis, appear first in Ephorus (4th century). The conquest
of Laconia at least is represented in sth-century tradition as
immediate and complete, though one legend admits the previous
death of the Heracleid leader Aristodemus, and another describes
a protracted struggle in the case of Corinth. Pausanias, however
(following Sosibius) , interprets a long series of conflicts in Arcadia
as stages in a gradual advance southward, ending with the
conquest of Amyclae by King Teleclus (c. 800 B.C.) and of Helos
by King Alcamenes (c. 770 B.C.).
Of the invasion of Argolis a quite different version was already
current in the 4th century. This represents the Argive Dorians
as having come by sea (apparently from the Maliac Gulf, the
nearest seashore to Parnassian Dorib), accompanied by survivors
of the Dryopes (former inhabitants of that Doris), whose traces in
south Euboea (Styra and Carystus), in Cythnus, and at Eion
(Halieis), Hermione and Asine in Argob's, were held to indicate
their probable route.
The Homeric Dorians of Crete were also interpreted by Andron
and others ford century) as an advance-guard of this sea-borne
migration, and as having separated from the other Dorians while
still in Histiaeotis. The 5th-century tradition that the Heracleid
kings of Macedon were Temenid exiles from Argos may belong to
the same cycle.
The fate of the Dorian invaders was represented as differing
locally. In Messenia (according to a legend dramatized by
Euripides in the 5th century, and renovated for political ends in
the 4th century) the descendants of Cresphontes quarrelled
among themselves and were exterminated by the natives. In
Laconia Aristodemus (01 his twin sons) effected a rigid military
occupation which eventually embraced the whole district, and
permitted (a) the colonization of Melos, Thera and parts of Crete
(before 800 B.C.), (b) the reconquest and annexation of Messenia
(about 750 B.C.), (c) a. settlement of half-breed Spartans at
Tarentum in south Italy, 700 B.C. In Argos and other cities of
Argolis the descendants of the Achaean chiefs were taken into
political partnership, but a tradition of race-feud lasted till
historic times. Corinth, Sicyon and Megara, with similar
political compromises, mark the limits of Dorian conquest;
a Dorian invasion of Attica (c. 1066 B.C.) was checked by the
self-sacrifice of King Codrus: "Either Athens must perish or her
king." Aegina was reckoned a colony of Epidaurus. Rhodes,
and some Cretan towns, traced descent from Argos; Cnidus from
Argos and Sparta; the rest of Asiatic Doris from Epidaurus or
Troezen in Argolis. The colonies of Corinth, Sicyon and Megara,
and the Sicilian offshoots of the Asiatic Dorians, belong to historic
times (8th-6th centuries).
Criticism of the Traditional History. The following are the
problems: (i) Was there a Dorian invasion as described in the
legends; and, if not, how did the tradition arise? (2) Who were
the Dorian invaders, and in what relation did they stand to the
rest of the population of Greece? (3) How far do the Dorian
states, or their characteristics, represent the descendants, or the
culture, of the original invaders?
The Homeric poems (i2th-ioth centuries) know of Dorians
only in Crete, with the obscure epithet Tpixaucts, and no hint
of their origin. All those parts of Peloponnese and the islands
which in historic times were " Dorian " are ruled by recently
established dynasties of " Achaean " chiefs; the home of the
Asiatic Dorians is simply " Caria "; and the geographical
"catalogue" in Iliad ii. ignores the northern Doris altogether.
The almost total absence from Homer not only of " Dorians "
but of " lonians " and even of " Hellenes " leads to the conclusion
that the diagrammatic genealogy of the " sons of Hellen " is of
post-Homeric date; and that it originated as ah attempt to
classify the Doric, Ionic and Aeolic groups of Hellenic settlements
on the west coast of Asia Minor, for here alone do the three names
correspond to territorial, linguistic and political divisions. The
addition of an " Achaean " group, and the inclusion of this and
the Ionic group under a single generic name, would naturally
follow the recognition of the real kinship of the " Achaean "
colonies of Magna Graecia with those of Ionia. But the attempt
to interpret, in terms of this Asiatic diagram, the actual distribu-
tion of dialects and peoples in European Greece, led to difficulties.
Here, in the 8th-6th centuries, all the Dorian states were in the
hands of exclusive aristocracies, which presented a marked
contrast to tie subject populations. Since the kinship of the
latter with the members of adjacent non-Dorian states was
admitted, two different explanations seem to have been made,
(i) on behalf of the non-Dorian populations, either that the
Dorians were no true sons of Hellen, but were of some other
northerly ancestry; or that they were merely Achaean exiles;
and in either case that their historic predominance resulted from
an act of violence, ill-disguised by their association with the
ancient claims of the Peloponnesian Heraclidae; (2) on behalf
of the Dorian aristocracies, that they were in some special sense
" sons of Hellen," if not the only genuine Hellenes; the rest of
the European Greeks, and in particular the anti-Dorian Athenians
(with their marked likeness to lonians), being regarded as
Hellenized barbarians of " Pelasgian " origin (see PELASGIANS).
This process of Hellenization, or at least its final stage, was
further regarded as intimately connected with a movement of
peoples which had brought the " Dorians " from the northern
highlands into those parts of Greece which they occupied in
historic times.
So long as the Homeric poems were believed to represent
Hellenic (and mainly Ionian) beliefs of the gth century or later,
the historical value of the traditions of a Dorian invasion was
repeatedly questioned; most recently and thoroughly by J.
Beloch (Gr. Geschichte, i., Strassburg, 1893), as being simply an
attempt to reconcile the political geography of Homer (i.e. of
Sth-century lonians describing 12th-century events) with that of
historic Greece, by explaining discrepancies (due to Homeric
ignorance) as the result of " migrations " in the interval. Such
legends often arise to connect towns bearing identical or similar
names (such as are common in Greece) and to justify political
events or ambitions by legendary precedents; and this certainly
happened during the successive political rivalries of Dorian
Sparta with non-Dorian Athens and Thebes. But in proportion
as an earlier date has become more probable for Homer, the
hypothesis of Ionic origin has become less tenable, and the belief
better founded (i) that the poems represent accurately a well-
defined phase of culture in prehistoric Greece, and (2) that this
" Homeric " or " Achaean " phase was closed by some such
general catastrophe as is presumed by the legends.
The legend of a Dorian invasion appears first in Tyrtaeus, a 7th-
century poet, in the service of Sparta, who brings the Spartan
Heracleids to Peloponnese from Erineon in the northern Doris;
and the lost Epic of Aegimius, of about the same date, seems to
have presupposed the same story. In the sth century Pindar
ascribes to Aegimius the institutions of the Peloponnesian
Dorians, and describes them as the " Dorian folk of Hyilus and
Aegimius," and as " originating from Pindus " (Pyth. v. 75: cf.
Fr. 4). Herodotus, also in the sth century, describes them as the
DORIANS
427
typical (perhaps in contrast to Athenians as the only genuine)
Hellenes, and traces their numerous wanderings from (i) an
original home " in Deucalion's time " in Phthiotis (the Homeric
" Hellas ") in south Thessaly, to (2) Histiaeotis " below Ossa
and Olympus " in north-east Thessaly (note that the historic
Histiaeotis is " below Pindus " in north-west Thessaly): this was
" in the days of Dorus," i.e. it is at this stage that the Dorians
are regarded as becoming specifically distinct from the generic
" Hellene ": thence (3) to a residence " in Pindus," where they
passed as a " Macedonian people." Hence (4) they moved south
to the Parnassian Doris, which had been held by Dryopes:
and hence finally (5) to Peloponnese. Elsewhere he assigns the
expulsion of the Dryopes to Heracles in co-operation not with
Dorians but with Malians. Here clearly two traditions are
combined: one, in which the Dorians originated from Hellas
in south Thessaly, and so are " children of Hellen "; another, in
which they were a " Macedonian people " intruded from the north,
from Pindus, past Histiaeotis to Doris and beyond. It is a note-
worthy coincidence that in Macedonia also the royal family
claimed Heracleid descent; and that "'Pindus " is the name both
of the mountains above Histiaeotis and of a stream in Doris.
It is noteworthy also that later writers (e.g. Andron in Strabo
475) derived the Cretan Dorians of Homer from those of
Histiaeotis, and that other legends connected Cretan peoples and
places with certain districts of Macedon.
Thucydides agrees in regarding the Parnassian Doris as the
" mother-state " of the Dorians (i. 107) and dates the invasion (as
above) eighty years after the Trojan War; this agrees approxi-
mately with the pedigree of the kings of Sparta, as given by
Herodotus, and with that of. Hecataeus of Miletus (considered as
evidence for the foundation date of an Ionian refugee-colony).
Thucydides also accepts the story of Heracleid leadership.
The legend of an organized apportionment of Peloponnese
amongst the Heracleid leaders appears first in the sth-century
tragedians, not earlier, that is, than the rise of the Peloponnesian
League, and was amplified in the 4th century; the Aetolians'
aid, and claim to Elis, appear first in Ephorus. The numerous
details and variant legends preserved by later writers, particu-
larly Strabo and Pausanias, may go back to early sources (e.g.
Herodotus distinguished the " local " from the " poetic " versions
of events in early Spartan history); but much seems to be
referable to Ephorus and the 4th-century political and rhetorical
historians: e.g. the enlarged version of the Heracleid claims in
Isocrates (Archidamus, 1 20) and the theory that the Dorians were
mere disowned Achaeans (Plato, Laws, 3). Moreover, many
independent considerations suggest that in its main outlines
the Dorian invasion is historical.
The Doric Dialects. These dialects have strongly marked
features in common (future in -<reo> -<rto> -<rco; ist pers. plur.
in -/its; KO. for av; -a -ari =i]), but differ more among
themselves than do the Ionic. Laconia with its colonies (includ-
ing those in south Italy) form a clear group, in which -e and -o
lengthen to -)j and -w as in Aeolic. Corinth (with its Sicilian
colonies) , the Argolid towns, and the Asiatic Doris, form another
group, in which -e and -o become -i and -on as in Ionic.
Connected with the latter (e.g. by -ei and -ou) are the " northern"
group: Phocis, including Delphi, with Aetolia, Acarnania,
Epirus and Phthiotis in south Thessaly. But these have also
some forms in common with the " Aeolic " dialect of Boeotia
and Thessaly, which in historic times was spoken also in Doris;
Locris and Elis present similar northern " Achaean-Doric "
dialects. Arcadia, on the other hand, in the heart of Peloponnese,
retained till a late date a quite different dialect, akin to the
ancient dialect of Cyprus, and more remotely to Aeolic.
This distribution makes it clear (i) that the Doric dialects of
Peloponnese represent a superstratum, more recent than the
speech of Arcadia; (2) that Laconia and its colonies preserve
features alike, -i\ and -o> which are common to southern Doric
and Aeolic; (3) that those parts of "Dorian" Greece in which
tradition makes the pre-Dorian population " Ionic," and in which
the political structure shows that the conquered were less
completely subjugated, exhibit the Ionic -a. and -ov; (4) that as
we go north, similar though more barbaric dialects extend far
up the western side of central-northern Greece, and survive also
locally in the highlands of south Thessaly; (5) that east of the
watershed Aeolic has prevailed over the area which has legends
of a Boeotian and Thessalian migration, and replaces Doric in the
northern Doris. All this points on the one hand to an intrusion
of Doric dialect into an Arcadian-and-Ionic-speaking area; on
the other hand to a subsequent expansion of Aeolic over the
north-eastern edge of an area which once was Dorian. But this
distribution does not by itself prove that Doric speech was the
language of the Dorian invaders. Its area coincides also approxi-
mately with that of the previous Achaean conquests; and if the
Dorians were as backward culturally as traditions and archaeology
suggest, it is not improbable that they soon adopted the language
of the conquered, as the Norman conquerors did in England. As
evidence of an intrusion of northerly folk, however, the distribu-
tion of dialects remains important. See GREEK LANGUAGE.
The common calendar and cycle of festivals, observed by all
Dorians (of which the Carneia was chief), and the distribution in
Greece of the worships of Apollo and Heracles, which attained
pre-eminence mainly in or near districts historically " Dorian,"
suggest that these cults, or an important element in them, were
introduced comparatively late, and represent the beliefs of a fresh
ethnic superstratum. The steady dependence of Sparta on the
Delphic oracle, for example, is best explained as an observance
inherited from Parnassian ancestors.
The social and political structure of the Dorian states of
Peloponnese presupposes likewise a conquest of an older highly
civilized population by small bands of comparatively barbarous
raiders. Sparta in particular remained, even after the reforms of
Lycurgus, and on into historic times, simply the isolated camp of
a compact army of occupation, of some 5000 families, bearing
traces still of the fusion of several bands of invaders, and main-
tained as an exclusive political aristocracy of professional soldiers
by the labour of a whole population of agricultural and industrial
serfs. The serfs were rigidly debarred from intermixture or social
advancement, and were watched by their masters with a suspicion
fully justified by recurrent ineffectual revolts. The other states,
such as Argos and Corinth, exhibited just such compromises
between conquerors and conquered as the legends described,
conceding to the older population, or to sections of it, political
incorporation more or less incomplete. The Cretan cities,
irrespective of origin, exhibit serfage, militant aristocracy, rigid
martial discipline of all citizens, and other marked analogies with
Sparta; but the Asiatic Dorians and the other Dorian colonies
do not differ appreciably in their social and political history from
their Ionian and Aeolic neighbours. Tarentum alone, partly from
Spartan origin, partly through stress of local conditions, shows
traces of militant asceticism for a while.
Archaeological evidence points clearly now to the conclusion
that the splendid but overgrown civilization of the Mycenaean
or " late Minoan " period of the Aegean Bronze Age collapsed
rather suddenly before a rapid succession of assaults by com-
paratively barbarous invaders from the European mainland north
of the Aegean; that these invaders passed partly by way of
Thrace and the Hellespont into Asia Minor, partly by Macedon
and Thessaly into peninsular Greece and the Aegean islands;
that in east Peloponnese and Crete, at all events, a first shock
(somewhat later than 1500 B.C.) led to the establishment of a
cultural, social and political situation which in many respects
resembles what is depicted in Homer as the " Achaean " age, with
principal centres in Rhodes, Crete, Laconia, Argolis, Attica,
Orchomenus and south-east Thessaly; and that this regime was
itself shattered by a second shock or series of shocks somewhat
earlier than 1000 B.C. These latter events correspond in character
and date with the traditional irruption of the Dorians and their
associates.
The nationality of these invaders is disputed. Survival of fair
hair and complexion and light eyes among the upper classes in
Thebes and some other localities shows that the blonde type of
mankind which is characteristic of north-western Europe had
already penetrated into Greek lands before classical times; but
428
DORIA-PAMPHILII-LANDI DORION
the ascription of the same physical traits to the Achaeans of
Homer forbids us to regard them as peculiar to that latest wave
of pre-classical immigrants to which the Dorians belong; and
there is no satisfactory evidence as to the coloration of the
Spartans, who alone were reputed to be pure-blooded Dorians
in historic times.
Language is no better guide, for it is not clear that the Dorian
dialect is that of the most recent conquerors, and not rather that
of the conquered Achaean inhabitants of southern Greece; in any
case it presents no such affinities with any non-Hellenic speech
as would serve to trace its origin. Even in northern and west-
central Greece, all vestige of any former prevalence has been
obliterated by the spread of " Aeolic " dialects akin to those of
Thessaly and Boeotia; even the northern Doris, for example,
spoke "Aeolic" in historic times.
The doubt already suggested as to language applies still more
to such characteristics as Dorian music and other forms of art, and
to Dorian customs generally. It is clear from the traditions about
Lycurgus (<?..), for example, that even the Spartans had been a
long while in Laconia before their state was rescued from disorder
by his reforms; and if there be truth in the legend that the new
institutions were borrowed from Crete, we perhaps have here too
a late echo of the legislative fame of the land of Minos. Certainly
the Spartans adopted, together with the political traditions of the
Heracleids, many old Laconian cults and observances such as
those connected with the Tyndaridae.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. K. O. Muller, Die Dorier (ed. F. W. Schneidewin,
Breslau, 1844); G. Gilbert, Studien zur altipartanischen Geschichte
(Gottingen, 1872); H. Gelzer, " Die Wanderzuge der lakedamo-
nischen Dorier," in Rhein. Museum, xxxii. (1877), p. 259; G. Busolt,
Die Lakedaimonier und ihre Bundesgenossen, i. (Leipzig, 1878) ;
S. Beloch, " Die dprische Wanderung, in Rhein. Mus. xlv. (1890),
555 ff. ; H. Collitz, Sammlung der gr. Dialekt-Inschriften, iii.
(Gottingen, 1899-1905) ; R. Meister, " Dorier und Achaer" inAbh. d.
K. Sachs. Ges. Wiss. (Phil.-hist. Kl.), xxiv. 3 (Leipzig, 1904).
(J.I. M.)
DORIA-PAMPHILII-LANDI, a princely Roman family of
Genoese extraction. The founder of the house was Ansaldo
d'Oria, consul of Genoa in the I2th century, but the authentic
pedigree is traced no further back than to Paolo d'Oria (1335).
The most famous member of the family was Andrea Doria (q.v.),
perpetual censor of Genoa in 1528 and admiral to the emperor
Charles V., who was created prince of Melfi (1531) and marquis
of Tursi (in the kingdom of Naples) in 1555. The marquisate of
Civiez and the county of Cavallamonte were conferred on the
family in 1576, the duchy of Tursi in 1594, the principality of
Avella in 1607, the duchy of Avigliano in 1613. In 1760 the title
of Reichsfurst or prince of the Holy Roman Empire was added
and attached to the lordship of Torriglia and the marquisate
of Borgo San Stefano, together with the qualification of Hoch-
geboren. That same year the Dorias inherited the fiefs and titles
of the house of Pamphilii-Landi of Gubbio, patricians of Rome
and princes of San Martino, Valmontano, Val di Toro, Bardi
and Corupiano. The Doria-Pamphilii palace in Rome, a splendid
edifice, was built in the i7th century, and contains a valuable
collection of paintings. The Villa Doria-Pamphilii with its
gardens is one of the loveliest round Rome. During the siege of
1849 it was Garibaldi's headquarters.
DORION, SIR ANTOINE AIM6 1 (1816-1891), Canadian
lawyer and statesman, son of Pierre Dorion and Genevieve
Bureau, was born in the parish of Sainte Anne de la Perade on the
I7th of January 1816. He was educated at Nicolet College, and
in his twenty-second year went to Montreal to read law with
M. Cherrier, an eminent lawyer for whom he retained a lasting
friendship. On the 6th of January 1842 he was admitted to the
bar of the province, became the partner of M. Cherrier, and in the
course of a few years attained the highest rank in his profession.
He married in 1848 Iphigenie, daughter of Dr Jean Baptiste
Trestler, of Vaudreuil. Dorion descended from an old Liberal
family which from early days had supported the reform party in
Canada. His father, a merchant of Sainte Anne, was a member
of the legislative assembly for the county of Champlain, from
1 In the baptismal certificate the name is entered as "Erne"
( = Edme-Aime).
1830 to 1838, and his grandfather, on the maternal side, repre-
sented the county of Saint Maurice in the same body from
1819 to 1830. At the time that Doricn commenced the study of
law, Canada was entering upon a new phase of her political life.
The rebellion of 1837 had resulted in the suspension of the
constitution of 1791, and the union of the provinces, effected
under the Imperial Act of 1840, was framed to compel the
obedience of the refractory population. It was an unsatisfactory
measure, providing a single legislature for two provinces, with an
equal number of representatives from each province, irrespective
of population. At the time the lower province was the larger, but
it was foreseen that a tide of English emigration would eventually
place the upper province in the stronger position. Indeed, at the
date'of the Union, there were many English residents in the lower
province, so that in the aggregate the Engh'sh had then the
majority. From the first it was apparent that representation by
population would become an issue, and for several years there was
a constant struggle for the establishment of responsible govern-
ment, which was only achieved after the contest of 1848, when
the La Fontaine-Baldwin administration was maintained in
power. The difficulty had been avoided during the first years of
the Union by La Fontaine, who succeeded in uniting English and
French Liberals, and by substituting principles for race carried
out a policy based upon a broader conception of human interests.
Although a decisive victory had been gained by La Fontaine and
Baldwin in 1848, they did not press for an immediate overthrow
of institutions which for years had been a cause of contention,
and their influence gradually diminished until, on the 28th of
October 1851, the administration was handed over to Hincks
and Morin. Liberal principles had now become aggressive;
the new leaders did not keep abreast of the spirit of the times,
their majority decreased, and, on the nth of September 1854,
a government was formed by McNab and Morin.
The elections of 1854 had brought new blood into the ranks of
the Liberal party, young men eager to carry out measures of
reform, and Dorion was chosen as leader. Under the coalition
brought about by McNab between the Tories of Upper Canada
and the Liberals of the lower province old abuses were removed,
and, after the abolition of seigneurial tenure and clergy reserves,
it appeared that the political atmosphere was clear. In 1856 the
question of representation by population was again prominent.
Upper Canada had increased, and it contributed a larger share to
the revenue, and demanded proportionate representation. La
Fontaine had pointed out, at the time he was prime minister,
that representation by population would subject the weaker
province to the control of the stronger, and that as he would not
impose the principle upon Upper Canada at the time he would
not concede it, without constitutional restraint, if her position
were reversed. Upper Canada now became aggressive aijd the
question had to be settled. Macdonald, who became prime
minister in 1856, and had formed a new government with Cartier
in 1857, maintained that no amendment to the constitution was
necessary; tha.t existing conditions were satisfactory. Brown,
on the opposite side of the House, declared that representation
by population was imperative, with or without constitutional
changes; and Dorion appears to have suggested the true remedy,
when he gave notice of a motion in 1856:
"That a committee be appointed to inquire into the means that
should be adopted to form a new political and legislative organization
of the heretofore provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, either by
the establishment of their former territorial divisions or by a division
of each province, so as to form a federation, having a federal govern-
ment and a local legislature for each one of the new provinces, and to
deliberate as to the course which should be adopted to regulate the
affairs of united Canada, in a manner which would be equitable to
the different sections of the province."
Dorion was in advance of the time. He understood the true
principle of federative union as applicable to Canada. But he did
not pursue this idea, and in fact his following was never sufficiently
strong to enable him to give effect to the sound measures he was so
capable of formulating. This, perhaps, was his special weakness.
On the 2nd of August 1858 he formed an administration with
Brown, but was forced to resign after being in office three days.
DORIS DORMOUSE
429
When the question of confederation was discussed a few years
later he opposed the scheme, believing there was nothing to
justify the union at the time, although he admitted " that
commercial intercourse may increase sufficiently to render
confederation desirable." In 1873 he accepted the portfolio of
minister of justice in the Mackenzie government, and during the
six months that he was in office passed the Electoral Law of 1874
and the Controverte'd Elections Act. Dorion sat as member of
the assembly for the province of Canada for the city of Montreal
from 1854 to 1861, for the county of Hochelaga from 1862 to 1867;
as member of the House of Commons for the county of Hochelaga
from 1867 to July 1872, and for the county of Napierville from
September 1872 to June 1874, when he was appointed chief
justice of the province. In 1878 he was created a knight bachelor.
He died at Montreal on the 3ist of May 1891. No more able or
upright judge ever adorned the Canadian bench. He had a broad,
clear mind, vast knowledge, and commanded respect from the
loftiness of his character and the strength of his abilities. The
keynote of his life was an unswerving devotion to duty.
See Dorion, a Sketch, by Fennings Taylor (Montreal, 1865) ; and
" Sir Antoine Amie Dorion," by Sir Wilfrid Laurier, in The Week
(1887). (A. G. D.)
DORIS, in ancient geography, a small district in central Greece,
forming a wedge between Mts. Oeta and Parnassus, and contain-
ing the head-waters of the Cephissus, which passes at the gorge of
Dadion into the neighbouring land of Phocis. This little valley,
which nowhere exceeds 4 m. in breadth and could barely give
sustenance to four small townships, owed its importance partly to
its command over the strategic road from Heracleia to Amphissa,
which pierced the Parnassus range near Cytinium, but chiefly
to its prestige as the alleged mother-country of the Dorian
conquerors of Peloponnesus (see DORIANS). Its history is mainly
made up of petty wars with the neighbouring Oetaeans and
Phocians. The latter pressed them hard in 457, when the
Spartans, admitting their claim to be the Dorian metropolis, sent
an army to their aid, and again during the second Sacred War
(356-346). Except for a casual mention of its cantonal league
in 196, Doris passed early out of history, the inhabitants may
have been exterminated during the conflicts between Aetolia
and Macedonia.
See Strabo, pp. 417, 427; Herodotus i. 56, viii. 31; Thucydides
i. 107, iii. 92; Diodorus xii. 29, 33; W. M. Leake, Travels in
Northern Greece, chap. xi. (London, 1835). (M. O. B. C.)
DORISLAUS. ISAAC (1595-1649), Anglo-Dutch lawyer and
diplomatist, was born in 1595 at Alkmaar, Holland, the son of
a minister of the Dutch reformed church. He was educated at
Leiden, removed to England about 1627, and was appointed to a
lectureship in history at Cambridge, where his attempt to justify
the Dutch revolt against Spain led to his early resignation. In
1629 he was admitted a commoner of the College of Advocates.
In 1632 he made his peace at court, and on two occasions acted
as judge advocate, in the bishops' war of 1640 and in 1642 in
the army commanded by Essex. In 1648 he became one of the
judges of the admiralty court, and was sent on a diplomatic
errand to the states general of Holland. He assisted in preparing
the charge of high treason against Charles I.,and,while negotiating
an alliance between the Commonwealth and the Dutch Republic,
was murdered at the Hague by royalist refugees on the loth of
May 1649. His remains were buried in Westminster Abbey, and
moved in 1661 to St Margaret's churchyard.
DORKING, a market town in the Reigate parliamentary
division of Surrey, England, 26 m. S.S.W. of London, on the
London, Brighton & South Coast and the South-Eastern &
Chatham railways. Pop. of urban district (igbi) 7670. It is
pleasantly situated on the river Mole, in a sheltered vale near
the base of Box Hill. It is the centre of an extensive residential
district. The parish church of St Martin's is a handsome edifice
rebuilt in 1873. Lime of exceptionally good quality is burnt to
a large extent in the neighbourhood, and forms an important
article of trade; it is derived from the Lower Chalk formation.
Dorking has long been famous for a finely flavoured breed of fowl
distinguished by its having five toes. Several fine mansions
are in the vicinity of the town, notably that of Deepdene, contain-
ing part of a gallery of sculpture collected here by Thomas Hope,
the author of A nastasius. A Roman road, which crossed from the
Sussex coast to the Thames, passed near the present churchyard of
St Martin.
DORLEANS, LOUIS (1542-1629), French poet and political
pamphleteer, was born in 1 542, in Paris. He studied under Jean
Daurat, and after taking his degree in law began to practise at
the bar with but slight success. He wrote indifferent verses, but
was a redoubtable pamphleteer. After the League had arrested
the royalist members of parliament, he was appointed (1589)
advocate-general. His " Avertissement des catholiques anglais aux
Fran$ais catholiques du danger oil Us sont de perdre la religion et
d' experimenter, comme en Angleterre, la cruaute des ministres s'ils
reQoivent a la couronne un roi qui soil herttique " went through
several editions, and was translated into English. One of his
pamphlets, Le Banquet ou apres-dinSe du comte d' Arete, in which
he accused Henry of insincerity in his return to the Roman
Catholic faith, was so scurrilous as to be disapproved of by many
members of the League. When Henry at length entered Paris,
Dorleans was among the number of the proscribed. He took
refuge in Antwerp, where he remained for nine years. At the
expiration of that period he received a pardon, and returned to
Paris, but was soon imprisoned for sedition. The king, however,
released him after three months in the Conciergerie, and by this
means attached him permanently to his cause. His last years
were passed in obscurity, and he died in 1629.
DORMER (from Lat. dormire, to sleep), in architecture, a
window rising out of the roof and lighting the room in it: some-
times, however, pierced in a small gable built flush with the wall
below, or corbelled out, as frequently in Scotland. In Germany,
where the roofs are very lofty, there are three or four rows of
dormers, one above the other, but it does not follow that the space
in the roof is necessarily subdivided by floors. In some of the
French chateaux the dormers (Fr. lucarne) are highly elaborated,
and in some cases, as in Chambord, they form the principal
architectural features. In these cases they are either placed flush
with the wall or recede behind a parapet and gutter only, so as to
rest on the solid wall, as they are built in stone. In Germany
they assume larger proportions and constitute small gables with
two or three storeys of windows. The term " dormer " arose
from the windows being those of sleeping-rooms. In the phrase
" dormer beam " or " dormant beam," meaning a tie-beam, we
have the same sense as in the modern " sleeper."
DORMITORY (Lat. dormitorium, a sleeping place), the name
given in monasteries to the monks' sleeping apartment. Some-
times it formed one long room, but was more generally subdivided
into as many cells or partitions as there were monks. It was
generally placed on the first floor with a direct entrance into the
church. The dormitories were sometimes of great length; the
longest known, in the monastery of S. Michele in Bosco near
Bologna (now suppressed), is said to have been over 400 ft. In
some of the larger mansions of the Elizabethan period the space
in the roof constitutes a long gallery, which in those days was
occasionally utilized as a dormitory. The name " dormitory " is
also applied to the large bedrooms with a number of beds, in
schools and similar modern institutes.
DORMOUSE (a word usually taken to be connected with Lat.
dormire, to sleep, with " mouse " added, cf. Germ. Schlafratle;
it is not a corruption of Fr. dormeuse; Skeat suggests a connexion
with Icel. dar, benumbed, cf. Eng. " doze "), the name of a small
British rodent mammal having the general appearance of a
squirrel. This rodent, Muscardinus avellanarius, is the sole re-
presentative of its genus, but belongs to a family the Gliridae,
or Myoxidae containing a small number of Old World species.
All the dormice are small rodents (although many of them are
double the size of the British species), of arboreal habits, and for
the most part of squirrel-like appearance; some of their most
distinctive features being internal. In the more typical members
of the group, forming the sub-family Glirinae, there are four pairs
of cheek-teeth, which are rooted and have transverse enamel-folds.
As the characters of the genera are given in the article RODENTIA
it will suffice to state that the typical genus Glis is represented by
430
DORNBIRN DORNOCH
the large European edible dormouse, G. vulgaris (or G. glis), a grey
species with black markings known in Germany as Siebenschldfcr;
the genus ranges from continental Europe to Japan. The common
dormouse Miiscardinus avellanarius, ranging from England to
Russia and Asia, is of the size of a mouse and mainly chestnut-
coloured. The third genus is represented by the continental lerol ,
or garden-dormouse, Eliomys guercinus, which is a large parti-
coloured species, with several local forms either species or races.
Lastly, Graphiurus, of which the species are also large, is solely
African. In their arboreal life, and the habit of sitting up on their
hind-legs with their food grasped in the fore-paws, dormice are like
squirrels, from which they differ in being completely nocturnal.
They live either among bushes or in trees, and make a neat nest for
the reception of their young, which are born blind. The species
inhabiting cold climates construct a winter nest in which they
hibernate, waking up at times to feed on an accumulated store of
nuts and other food. Before retiring they, become very fat, and
at such times the edible dormouse is a favourite article of diet on
the Continent. At the beginning of the cold season the common
dormouse retires to its nest, and curling itself up in a ball, becomes
dormant. A warmer day than usual restores it to temporary
activity, and then it supplies itself with food from its autumn
hoard, again becoming torpid till roused by the advent of spring.
The young are generally four in number, and are produced twice a
year. They are born blind, but in a marvellously short period are
able to cater for themselves; and their hibernation begins later
in the season than with the adults. The fur of the dormouse is
tawny above and paler beneath, with a white patch on the throat.
A second subfamily is represented by the Indian Platacanlhemys
and the Chinese Typhlomys, in which there are only three pairs of
cheek-teeth; thus connecting the more typical members of the
family, with the Muridae. (R. L.*)
DORNBIRN, a township in the Austrian province of the
Vorarlberg, on the right bank of the Dornbirner Ach, at the point
where it flows out of the hilly region of the Bregenzerwald into the
broad valley of the Rhine, on its way to the Lake of Constance.
It is by rail 75 m. S. of Bregenz, and 15 m. N. of Feldkirch. It is
the most populous town in the Vorarlberg, its population in 1900
being 13,052. The name Dornbirn is a collective appellation for
four villages Dornbirn, Hatlerdorf , Oberdorf and Haselstauden
which straggle over a distance of about 3 m. It is the chief
industrial centre in the Vorarlberg, the regulated Dornbirner
Ach furnishing motive power for several factories for cotton
spinning and weaving, worked muslin, dyeing, iron-founding
and so on. (W. A. B. C.)
DORNBURG, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Saxe-
Weimar, romantically situated on a hill 400 ft. above the Saale,
on the railway Grossheringen-Jena and 7 m. N.E. of the latter.
Pop. 700. Dornburg is an ancient town, but is chiefly famous
for its three grand-ducal castles. Of these, the Altes Schloss is
built on the site of an imperial stronghold (Kaiserpfalz), once a
bulwark against the Slavs, often a residence of the emperors Otto
II. and Otto III., and where the emperor Henry II. held a diet in
1005; the Neues Schloss in Italian style of architecture, built
1 728-1 748, with pretty gardens. Here Goethe was often a guest,
" healing the blows of fate and the wounds of the heart in
Dornburg." The third and southernmost of the three is the so-
called Stohmannsches Rittergut, purchased in 1824 and fitted as a
modern palace.
DORNER, ISAAC AUGUST (1800-1884), German Lutheran
divine, was born at Neuhausen-ob-Eck in Wurttemberg on the
zoth of June 1809. His father was pastor at Neuhausen. He was
educated at Maulbronn and the university of Tubingen. After
acting for two years as assistant to his father in his native place
he travelled in England and Holland to complete his studies
and acquaint himself with different types of Protestantism. He
returned to Tubingen in 1834, and in 1837 was made professor
extraordinarius of theology. As a student at the university, one
of his teachers had been Christian Friedrich Schmid (1794-1852),
author of a well-known book, Biblische Theologie des Neuen
Testamentes, and one of the most vigorous opponents of F. C.
Baur. At Schmid's suggestion, and with his encouragement,
Dorner set to work upon a history of the development of the
doctrine of the person of Christ, Entwicklungsgeschichte de,r Lehre
von der Person Christi. He published the first part of it in 1835,
the year in which Strauss, his colleague, gave to the public his
Life of Jesus; completed it in 1839, and afterwards considerably
enlarged it for a second edition (1845-1856). It was an indirect
reply to Strauss, which showed " profound learning, objectivity
of judgment, and fine appreciation of the moving ideasof history "
(Otto Pfleiderer). The author at once took high rank as a
theologian and historian, arid in 1839 was invited to Kiel as
professor ordinarius. It was here that he produced, amongst
other works, Das Princip unserer Kirche nach dem innern
Verhaltniss seiner zwei Seiten betrachtet (1841). In 1843 he
removed as professor of theology to Konigsberg. Thence he was
called to Bonn in 1847, and to Gottingen in 1853. Finally in 1862
he settled in the same capacity at Berlin, where he was a member
of the supreme consistorial council. A few years later (1867) he
published his valuable Geschichte der protestantischen Theologie
(Eng. trans., History of Protestant Theology, 2 vols.,i87i), in which
he " developed and elaborated," as Pfleiderer says, " his own
convictions by his diligent and loving study of the history of
the Church's thought and belief." The theological positions to
which he ultimately attained are best seen in his Christliche
Glaubenslehre, published shortly before his death (1870-1881).
It is "a work extremely rich in thought and matter. It takes the
reader through a mass of historical material by the examination
and discussion of ancient and modern teachers, and so leads up to
the author's own view, which is mostly one intermediate between
the opposite extremes, and appears as a more or less successful
synthesis of antagonistic theses " (Pfleiderer). The companion
work, System der christlichen Siltenlehre, was published by his son
August Dorner in 1886. He also contributed articles to Herzog-
Hauck's Realencyklopadie, and was the founder and for many
years one of the editors of the Jahrbiicher fiir deulsche Theologie.
He died at Wiesbaden on the 8th of July 1884. One of the most
noteworthy of the " mediating " theologians, he has been ranked
with Friedrich Schleiermacher, J. A. W. Neander, Karl Nitzsch,
Julius Miiller and Richard Rothe.
His son, AUGUST (b. 1846), after studying at Berlin and acting
as Repetent at Gottingen (1870-1873), became professor of the-
ology and co-director of the theological seminary at Wittenberg.
Amongst his works is Augustinus, sein Iheologisches System und
seine religionsphilosoph. Anschauung (1873), and he is theauthor
of the article on Isaac Dorner in the Allgemeine deulsche
Biographie.
See Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie; Allgemeine deutsche
Biographie (1904) ; Otto Pfleiderer, The Development of Theology in
Germany since Kant (1890); F. Lichtenberger, History of German
Theology in the Nineteenth Century (1889); Carl Schwarz, Zur
Geschichte der neuesten Theologie (1869). (M. A. C.)
DORNOCH, a royal and police burgh and county town of
Sutherlandshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 624. It lies on the north
shore of Dornoch Firth, an arm of the North Sea, 7! m. S.S.E. of
Mound station on the Highland railway by light railway. Its dry
and bracing climate and fine golf course have brought it into
great repute as a health and holiday resort. Before the Reforma-
tion it was the see of the bishopric of Caithness and Sutherland.
The cathedral, built by Bishop Gilbert de Moravia (Moray)
(d. 1245), the last Scot enrolled in the Calendar of Scottish saints,
was damaged by fire in 1570, during the raid of the Master of
Caithness and Mackay of Strathnaver, and afterwards neglected
till 1837, when it was restored by the 2nd duke of Sutherland,
and has since been used as the parish church. Noticeable for its
high roo'f, low tower and dwarf spire, the church consists of an
aisleless nave, chancel (adorned with Chantrey's statue of the ist
duke) and transepts. It is the burying-place of the Sutherland
family and contains the remains of sixteen earls. Of the ancient
castle, which was also the bishop's palace, only the west tower
exists, the rest of the structure having been destroyed in the out-
rage of 1 570. The county buildings adjoin it. Dornoch became
a royal burgh in 1628, and, as one of the Wick burghs, returns
a member to parliament. It was the scene of the last execution
for witchcraft in Scotland (1722). At Embo, 2 m. N.N.E., a
DOROHOI DORSET, EARLS OF
43 1
sculptured stone commemorates the battle with the Danes in the
i3th century, in which Richard de Moravia was killed. He was
buried in the cathedral, where his effigy was found in the chancel.
Skibo castle, about 4 m. W. of Dornoch, once a residence of the
bishops of Caithness, was acquired in 1898 by Andrew Carnegie.
DOROHOI, or DOROGOI, the capital of the department of
Dorohoi, Rumania; on the right bank of the river Jijia, which
broadens into a lake on the north. Pop. (1900) 12, 701, more than
half being Jews. The Russian frontier is about 30 m. E., the
Austrian 20 m. W. ; and there is railway communication with
Botoshani and Jassy. Dorohoi is a market for the timber and
farm produce of the north Moldavian highlands; merchants
from the neighbouring states flock to its great fair, held on
the 1 2th of June. There is a church built by Stephen the Great
(1458-1504).
DOROTHEUS, a professor of jurisprudence in the law school of
Berytus in Syria,and one of the three commissioners appointed by
the emperor Justinian to draw up a book of Institutes, after the
model of the Institutes of Gaius, which should serve as an intro-
duction to the Digest already completed. His colleagues were
' Tribonian and Theophilus, and their work was accomplished in
533. Dorotheus was subsequently the author of a commentary
on the Digest, which is called the Index, and was published by
him in 542. Fragments of this commentary, which was in the
Greek language, have been preserved in the Scholia appended
to the body of law compiled by order of the emperor Basilius the
Macedonian and his son Leo the Wise, in the gth century, known
as the Basilica, from which it seems probable that the com-
mentary of Dorotheus contained the substance of a course of
lectures on the Digest delivered by him in the law school of
Berytus, although it is not cast in a form so precisely didactic
as the Index of Theophilus.
D'ORSAY, ALFRED GUILLAUME GABRIEL, COUNT (1801-
1852), the famous dandy and wit, was born in Paris on the 4th of
September 1801, and was the son of General D'Orsay, from whom
he inherited an exceptionally handsome person. Through his
mother he was grandson by a morganatic marriage of the king
of Wiirttemberg. In his youth he entered the French army,
and served as a garde du corps of Louis XVIII. In 1822, while
stationed at Valence on the Rhone, he formed an acquaintance
with the earl and countess of Blessington (q.v.) which quickly
ripened into intimacy, and at the invitation of the earl he ac-
companied the party on their tour through Italy. In the spring
of 1823 he met Lord Byron at Genoa, and the published corre-
spondence of the poet at this period contains numerous references
to the count's gifts and accomplishments, and to his peculiar
relationship to the Blessington family. A diary which D'Orsay
had kept during a visit to London in 1821-1822 was submitted to
Byron's inspection, and was much praised by him for the know-
ledge of men and manners and the keen faculty of observation
it displayed. On the ist of December 1827 Count D'Orsay
married Lady Harriet Gardiner, a girl of fifteen, the daughter of
Lord Blessington by his previous wife. The union, if it rendered
his connection with the Blessington family less ostensibly
equivocal than before, was in other respects an unhappy one, and
a separation took place almost immediately. After the death of
Lord Blessington, which occurred in 1829, the widowed countess
returned to England, accompanied by Count D'Orsay, and her
home, first at Seamore Place, then at Gore House, soon became
a resort of the fashionable literary ard artistic society of London,
which found an equal attraction in host and in hostess. The
count's charming manner, brilliant wit, and artistic faculty were
accompanied by benevolent moral qualities, which endeared him
to all his associates. His skill as a painter and sculptor was
shown in numerous portraits and statuettes representing his
friends, which were marked by great vigour and truthfulness, if
wanting in the finish that can only be reached by persistent
discipline. Count D'Orsay had been from his youth a zealous
Bonapartist, and one of the most frequent guests at Gore House
was Prince Louis Napoleon. In 1849 he went bankrupt, and the
establishment at Gore House being broken up, he went to Paris
with Lady Blessington, who died a few weeks after their arrival.
He endeavoured to provide for himself by painting portraits.
He was deep in the counsels of the prince president, but the
relation between them was less cordial after the coup d'etat, of
which the count had by anticipation expressed his strong dis-
approval. His appointment to the post of director of fine arts
was announced only a few days before his death, which occurred
on the 4th of August 1852.
Much information as to the life and character of Count D'Orsay
is to be found in Richard Madden's Literary Life and Correspondence
of the Countess of Blessington (1855).
DORSET, EARLS, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF, English
titles one or more of which have been borne by the families of
Beaufort, Grey and Sackville. About 1070 Osmund, or Osmer,
an alleged son of Henry, count of Seez, by a sister of William the
Conqueror, is said to have been created earl of. Dorset, but the
authority is a very late one and Osmund describes himself simply
as bishop (of Salisbury). William de Mohun of Dunster, a
partisan of the empress Matilda, appears as earl of Dorset or
Somerset, these two shires being in early times united under a
single sheriff. In 1397 John Beaufort, earl of Somerset (d. 1410),
the eldest son of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, and Catherine
Swinford, was created marquess of Dorset; two years later,
however, he was reduced to his former rank of earl of Somerset.
In 1411 his brother Thomas, afterwards duke of Exeter, was
created earl of Dorset, and in 1441 his youngest son Edmund
obtained the same dignity. Two years later Edmund was created
marquess of Dorset and still later duke of Somerset. Edmund's
son Henry, duke of Somerset and marquess of Dorset, was
attainted during the Wars of the Roses, and was beheaded after
the battle of Hexham in May 1464, when the titles became extinct.
In 1475 Thomas Grey, 8th Lord Ferrers of Groby (1451-1501),
a son of Sir John Grey (d. 1 46 1 ) and a stepson of King Edward I V. ,
having resigned the earldom of Huntingdon, which he had
received in 1471, was created marquess of Dorset (see below).
He was succeeded in this title by his son Thomas (1477-1530),
and then by his grandson Henry (c. 1510-1554), who was created
duke of Suffolk in 1551. When in February 1554 Suffolk was
beheaded for sharing in the rising of Sir Thomas Wyat, the
marquessate of Dorset again became extinct; but in 1604
Thomas Sackville (see the account of the family under SACKVILLE,
IST BARON) was created earl of Dorset (see below), and his
descendant the 7th earl was created duke in 1720. In 1843 the
titles became extinct.
THOMAS GREY, IST MARQUESS OF DORSET (1451-1501), was the
elder son of Sir John Grey, 7th Lord Ferrers of Groby (i 43 2- 1461),
by his wife Elizabeth Woodville, afterwards queen of
Edward IV. He fought for Edward at Tewkesbury,
and became Lord Harington and Bonville by right of
his wife Cecilia, daughter of William Bonville, 6th Lord Harington
(d. 1460) ; in 1475 he was created marquess of Dorset, and he was
also a knight of the Garter and a privy councillor. After the
death of Edward IV. Dorset and his brother Richard Grey were
among the supporters of their half-brother, the young king
Edward V.; thus they incurred the enmity of Richard duke of
Gloucester, afterwards Richard III., and Richard Grey having
been arrested, was beheaded at Pontefract in June 1483, while his
elder brother, the marquess, saved his life by flight. Dorset was
one of the leaders of the duke of Buckingham's insurrection, and
when this failed he joined Henry earl of Richmond in Brittany,
but he was left behind in Paris when the future king crossed over
to England in 1485. After Henry's victory at Bosworth the
marquess returned to England and his attainder was reversed,
but he was suspected and imprisoned when Lambert Simnel
revolted; he had, however, been released and pardoned, had
marched into France and had helped to quell the Cornish rising,
when he died on the aoth of September 1501.
Dorset's sixth son, Lord Leonard Grey (c. 1490-1541), went
to Ireland as marshal of the English army in 153 5, being created
an Irish peer as Viscount Grane in the same year, but he never
assumed this title. In 1536 Grey was appointed lord deputy of
Ireland in succession to Sir William Skeffington; he was active in
marching against the rebels and he presided over the important
432
DORSET, EARLS OF
parliament of 1 536, but he was soon at variance with the powerful
family of the Butlers and with some of the privy councillors.
He did not relax his energy in seeking to restore order, but he
was accused, probably with truth, of favouring the family of
the Geraldines, to whom he was related, and the quarrel with the
Butlers became fiercer than ever. Returning to England in 1 540
he was thrown into prison and was condemned to death for
treason. He was beheaded on the 28th of July 1541 (see R.
Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors, vol. i., 1885).
THOMAS GREY, 2ND MARQUESS OF DORSET (1477-1530), the
eldest son of the ist marquess, fled to Brittany with his father
in 1484; after receiving several marks of the royal favour and
succeeding to the title, he was imprisoned by Henry VII., and
remained in prison until 1509. He was on very good terms with
Henry VIII., who in 1512 appointed him to command the English
army which was to invade France in conjunction with the Spanish
forces under Ferdinand of Aragon. In spite of the failure which
attended this enterprise, Dorset again served in France in the
following year, and in 1516 he was made lieutenant of the order
of the Garter. Later he was at the Field of the Cloth of Gold,
and he was warden of the eastern and middle marches towards
Scotland in 1523 and the following years. He received many
other positions of trust and profit from the king, and he helped
to bring about the fall of Cardinal Wolsey, under whom he
had probably been educated. He was famous for his skill in
the tournament. He died on the loth of October 1530.
His eldest son Henry Grey, 3rd marquess of Dorset, was in 1 55 1
created duke of Suffolk (q.v.) . A younger son, Lord Thomas Grey,
was beheaded in April 1554 for sharing in the rebellion of Sir
Thomas Wyat; another son, Lord John Grey, was also sentenced
to death for his share in this rising, but his life was spared owing
to the efforts of his wife Mary, daughter of Sir Anthony Browne.
Under Elizabeth, Lord John, a strong Protestant, was restored to
the royal favour, and he died on the ipth of November 1569. In
1603 his son Henry (d. 1614) was created Baron Grey of Groby,
and in 1628 his great-grandson Henry was made earl of Stamford.
THOMAS SACKVILLE, IST EARL OF DORSET (c. 1530-1608),
English statesman and poet, son of Sir Richard Sackville and
his wife Winifrede, daughter of Sir John Bruges or
vtf/e /toe. " Bridges, lord mayor of London, was born at Buckhurst,
in the parish of Withyham, Sussex. In his fifteenth
or sixteenth year he is said to have been entered at Hart Hall,
Oxford ; but it was at Cambridge that he completed his studies
and took the degree of M.A. He joined the Inner Temple, and
was called to the bar. He married at the age of eighteen Cicely,
daughter of Sir John Baker of Sissinghurst, Kent; in 1558 he
entered parliament as member for Westmorland, in 1559 he
sat for East Grinstead, Sussex, and in 1563 for Aylesbury in
Buckinghamshire. A visit to the continent in 1565 was in-
terrupted by an imprisonment at Rome, caused by a rash
declaration of Protestant opinions. The news of his father's
death on the 2ist of April 1 566 recalled him to England. On his
return he was knighted in the queen's presence, receiving at the
same time the title of baron of Buckhurst. With his mother he
lived at the queen's palace of Sheen, where he entertained in 1568
Odet de Coh'gni, cardinal de Chatillon. In 1571 he was sent
to France to congratulate Charles IX. on his marriage with
Elizabeth of Austria, and he took part in the negotiations for
the projected marriage of Elizabeth with the duke of Anjou. He
became a member of the privy council, and acted as a com-
missioner at the state trials. In 1572 he was one of the peers
who tried Thomas Howard, duke of Norfolk, and in 1586 he was
selected to convey the sentence of death to Mary, queen of Scots,
a task he is said to have performed with great consideration. He
was sent in 1587 as ambassador to the Hague "to expostulate in
favour of peace with a people who knew that their existence
depended on war, to reconcile those to delay who felt that delay
was death, and to heal animosities between men who were
enemies from their cradles to their graves." 1 This task was
further complicated by the parsimony and prevarication of
1 J. L. Motley, Hist, of the United Netherlands (vol. ii. p. 216, ed.
1867).
Elizabeth. Buckhurst carried out under protest the foolish and
often contradictory orders he received. His plain speaking on the
subject of Leicester's action in the Netherlands displeased the
queen still more. She accused him on his return of having
followed his instructions too slavishly, and ordered him to keep
to his own house for nine months. His disgrace was short, for in
1 588 he was presented with the order of the Garter, and was sent
again to the Netherlands in 1589 and 1598. He was elected
chancellor of the university of Oxford in 1591, and in 1599 he
succeeded Lord Burghley as lord high treasurer of England. In
1 60 1 as high steward he pronounced sentence on Essex, who had
been his rival for the chancellorship and his opponent in politics.
James I. confirmed him in the office of lord treasurer, the duties
of which he performed with the greatest impartiality. He was
created earl of Dorset in 1604, and died suddenly on the igth of
April 1608, as he was sitting at the council table at Whitehall.
His eldest son, Robert, the 2nd earl (1561-1609), was a member of
parliament and a man of great learning. Two other sons were
William (c. 1568-1591), a soldier who was killed in the service of
Henry IV. of France, and Thomas (1571-1646), also a soldier.
It is not by his political career, distinguished as it was, that
Sackville is remembered, but by his share in early life in two works,
each of which was, in its way, a new departure in English litera-
ture. In A Myrroure for Magistrates, printed by Thomas
Marshe in 1559, he has sometimes been erroneously credited with
the inception of the general plan as well as with the most valuable
contributions. But there had been an earlier edition, for the
editor, William Baldwin, states in his preface that the work was
begun and partly printed " four years agone." He also says that
the printer (John Wayland) had designed the work as a continua-
tion of Lydgate's Fall of Princes derived from the narrative of
Bochas. Fragments of this early edition are extant, the title page
being sometimes found bound up with Lydgate's book. It runs
A Memoriall of such princes, as since the tyme of Richard the
seconde, have been unfortunate in the realme of England, while the
1559 edition has the running title A brief e memorial of unfortunate
Englysh princes. The disconnected poems by various authors
were given a certain continuity by the simple device of allowing
the ghost of each unfortunate hero " to bewail unto me [Baldwin]
his grievous chances, heavy destinies and woefull misfortunes."
After a delay caused by an examination by Stephen Gardiner,
bishop of Worcester, the book appeared. It contained nineteen
tragic legends by six poets, William Baldwin, George Ferrers,
" Master " Cavyll, Thomas Chaloner, Thomas Phaer and John
Skelton. In 1 563 appeared a second edition with eight additional
poems by William Baldwin, John Dolman, Sackville, Francis
Segar, Thomas Churchyard and Cavyll. Sackville contributed
the Complaint of Henry Stafford, duke of Buckingham, to which
he prefixed an Induction. This was evidently designed as an
introduction to a version of the whole work, and, being arbitrarily
transposed (1610) to the beginning by a later editor, Richard
Niccols, led to the attribution of the general design to Sackville,
an error which was repeated by Thomas Warton. The originators
were certainly Baldwin and his " printer." In 1574 Thomas
Marshe printed a series of new tragedies by John Higgins as the
Firste parte of the Mirour for Magistrates. . . . From the coming
of Brute to the Incarnation. The seventh edition ( 1 578) contained
for the first time the two tragedies of Eleanor Cobham and
Humphrey duke of Gloucester. In 1587, when the original
editor was dead, the two quite separate publications of Baldwin
and Higgins were combined. The primary object of this earliest
of English miscellanies was didactic. It was to be a kind of text-
book of British history, illustrating the evils of ambition. The
writers pretended to historical accuracy, but with the notable
exceptions of Churchyard and Sackville they paid little attention
to form. The book did much to promote interest in English
history, and Mr W. J. Courthope has pointed out that the
subjects of Marlowe's Edward II., of Shakespeare's Henry VI.,
Richard II. and Richard III. are already dealt with in the
Myrroure.
Sackville's Induction opens with a description of the oncoming
of winter. The poet meets with Sorrow, who offers to lead him to
DORSET, EARLS OF
433
the infernal regions that he may see the sad estate of those ruined
by their ambition, and thus learn the transient characterof earthly
joy. At the approaches of Hell he sees a group of terrible abstrac-
tions, Remorse of Conscience, Dread, Misery, Revenge, Care, &c.,
each vividly described. The last of these was War, on whose shield
he saw depicted the great battles of antiquity. Finally, penetrat-
ing to the realm of Pluto himself, he is surrounded by the shades,
of whom the duke of Buckingham is the first to advance, thus
introducing the Complaint. To this induction the epithet
" Dantesque " has been frequently applied, but in truth Sackville's
models were Gavin Douglas and Virgil. The dignity and artistic
quality of the narrative of the fall of Buckingham are in strong
contrast to the crude attempts of Ferrers and Baldwin, and make
the work one of the most important between the Canterbury Tales
and the Faerie Queene.
Sackville has also the credit of being part author with Thomas
Norton of the first legitimate tragedy in the English language.
This was Gorboduc or Ferrex and Porrex, performed as part of the
Christmas festivities (1560-1561) by the society of the Inner
Temple, and afterwards on the i8th of January 1561 before
Elizabeth at Whitehall. The argument is as follows:
" Gorboduc, king of Brittaine, devided his Realme in his lyfe time
to his Sones, Ferrex and Porrex. The Sonnes lell to dyvision and
discention. The yonger kylled the elder. The Mother, that more
dearelv loved thelder, fr revenge kylled the yonger. The people,
moved with the Crueltie of the facte, rose in Rebellion, and Slewe
both father and mother. The Nobilitie assembled, and most terribly
destroyed the Rebelles. And afterwards for want of Issue of the
Prince, wherby the Succession of the Crowne became uncertayne,
they fell to Ciuill warre, in whiche both they and many of their Issues
were slayne, and the Lande for a longe tyme almoste desolate, and
myserablye wasted."
The argument shows plainly enough the didactic intention of
the whole, and points the moral of the evils of civil discord. The
story is taken from Book II. chap. xvi. of Geoffrey of Monmouth's
history. It was first printed (1565) in an unauthorized edition
as The Tragedie of Gorbodw " whereof three Actes were wrytten
by Thomas Nortone, and the two laste by Thomas Sackvyle."
Norton's share has been generally minimized, and it seems safe
to assume that Sackville is responsible for the general design. In
1570 appeared an authentic edition, The Tragedie of Ferrex and
Porrex, with a preface from the printer to the reader stating that
the authors were " very much displeased that she (the tragedy) so
ran abroad without leave." The tragedies of Seneca were now
being translated, and the play is conceived on Senecan lines.
The plot was no doubt chosen for its accumulated horrors from
analogy with the tragic subjects of Oedipus and Thyestes. None
of the crimes occur on the stage, but the action is described in
lofty language by the characters. The most famous and harrow-
ing scene is that in which Marcello relates the murder of Porrex by
his mother (Act IV. sc. ii.). The paucity of action is eked out by
a dumb show to precede each act, and the place of the Chorus
is supplied by four " ancient and sage men of Britain." In the
variety of incident, however, the authors departed from the
classical model. The play is written in excellent blank verse, and
is the first example of the application of Surrey's innovation to
drama. Jasper Heywood in the poetical address prefixed to his
translation of the Thyestes alludes to " Sackvylde's Sonnets
sweetly sauste," but only one of these has survived. It is pre-
fixed to Sir T. Hoby's translation of Castiglione's Courtier.
Sackville's poetical preoccupations are sufficiently marked in the
subject matter of these two works, which remainthe sole literary
productions of an original mind.
The best edition of the Mirror for Magistrates is that of Joseph
Haslewood (1815). Gorboduf was edited for the Shakespeare Society
by W. D. Cooper in 1847; in 1883 by Miss L. Toulmin Smith for
C. Vollmoller's Englische Sprach-und Litteraturdenkmale (Heilbronn,
1883). The Works of Sackville were edited by C. Chappie (1820) and
by the Hon. and Rev. Reginald Sackville-West (1859). See also
A Mirror for Magistrates (1898) by Mr W. F. Trench; an excellent
account in Mr W. J. Courthope's History of English Poetry, vol. i. pp
ii I et seq. ; and an important article by Dr J. W. Cunliffe in the
Cambridge History of English Literature, vol. iii.
EDWARD SACKVILLE, 4 EARL OF DORSET (1501-1652),
son of the 2nd earl, succeeded his brother Richard, the 3rd earl
(1590-1624), in March 1624. He had attained much notoriety by
killing Edward Bruce,2nd Lord Kinloss, in a duel, in August 1613,
the place in the Netherlands where this encounter took place being
called Bruceland in quite recent times, and in 1620 he was one of
the leaders of the English contingent which fought for James I.'s
son-in-law, Frederick V., elector palatine of the Rhine, at the
battle of the White Hill, near Prague. In the House of Commons,
where he represented Sussex, Sackville was active in defending
Bacon and in advocating an aggressive policy with regard to the
recovery of the Rhenish Palatinate; twice he was ambassador
to France, and he was interested in Virginia and the Bermuda
Islands. Under Charles I. he was a privy councillor and lord
chamberlain to Queen Henrietta Maria. He was frequently
employed by the government from the accession of Charles until
the outbreak of the Civil War, when he joined the king at York,
but he disliked the struggle and was constant in his efforts to
secure peace. At Oxford he was lord chamberlain to the king
and lord president of his council, but Charles did not altogether
approve of his pacific attitude, and is said on one occasion to have
remarked to him " Your voice is the voice of Jacob, but your
hands are the hands of Esau." He died on the I7th of July 1652.
His wife Mary (d. 1645), daughter of Sir George Curzon, was
governess to the sons of Charles I., the future kings Charles II.
and James II. His character is thus summed up by S. R.
Gardiner: " Pre-eminent in beauty of person, and in the vigour
of a cultivated intellect, he wanted nothing to fit him for the
highest places in the commonwealth but that stern sense of duty
without which no man can be truly great."
CHARLES SACKVILLE, 6rn EARL OF DORSET (1638-1706),
English poet and courtier, son of Richard Sackville, sth earl
(1622-1677), was born on the 24th of January 1638. His mother
was Frances Cranfield, sister and heiress of Lionel, 3rd earl of
Middlesex, to whose estates and title he succeeded in 1674,
being created Baron Cranfield and 4th earl of Middlesex in 1675.
He succeeded to his father's estates and title in August 1677.
Buckhurst was educated privately, and spent some time abroad
with a private tutor, returning to England shortly before the
Restoration. In Charles II. 's first parliament he sat for East
Grinstead in Sussex. He had no taste for politics, however, but
won a reputation as courtier and wit at Whitehall. He bore his
share in the excesses for which Sir Charles Sedley and the earl of
Rochester were notorious. In 1662 he and his brother Edward,
with three other gentlemen, were indicted for the robbery and
murder of a tanner named Hoppy. The defence was that they
were in pursuit of thieves, and mistook Hoppy for a highwayman.
They appear to have been acquitted, for when in 1663 Sir Charles
Sedley was tried for a gross breach of public decency in Covent
Garden, Buckhurst, who had been one of the offenders, was asked
by the lord chief justice " whether he had so soon forgot his
deliverance at that time." Something in his character made his
follies less obnoxious to the citizens than those of the other rakes,
for he was never altogether unpopular, and Rochester is said to
have told Charles II. that he did not " know how it was, my Lord
Dorset might do anything, yet was never to blame." In 1665 he
volunteered to serve under the duke of York in the Dutch War.
His famous song, " To all you ladies now at Land," was written,
according to Prior, on the night before the victory gained over
" foggy Opdam " off Harwich (June 3, 1665). Dr Johnson, with
the remark that " seldom any splendid story is wholly true,"
says that the earl of Orrery had told him it was only retouched on
that occasion. In 1667 Pepys laments that Buckhurst had lured
Nell Gwyn away from the theatre, and that with Sedley the two
kept " merry house " at Epsom. Next year the king was paying
courttoNell, and her " Charles the First," as she called Buckhurst,
was sent on a " sleeveless errand " into France to be out of the
way. His gaiety and wit secured the continued favour of Charles
II., but did not especially recommend him to James II., who could
not, moreover, forgive Dorset's lampoons on his mistress,
Catharine Sedley, countess of Dorchester. On James's accession,
therefore, he retired from court. He concurred in the invitation
to William of Orange, who made him privy councillor, lord
chamberlain (1689), and knight of the Garter (1692). During
434
DORSETSHIRE
William's absences in 1695-1698 he was one of the lord justices
of the realm.
He was a generous patron of men of letters. When Dryden
was dismissed from the laureateship, he made him an equivalent
pension from his own purse. Matthew Prior, in dedicating his
Poems on Several Occasions (1709) to Dorset's son, affirms that
his opinion was consulted by Edmund Waller; that the duke of
Buckingham deferred the publication of his Rehearsal until he
was assured that Dorset would not "rehearse upon him again ";
and that Samuel Butler and Wycherley both owed their first
recognition to him. Prior's praise of Dorset is no doubt ex-
travagant, but when his youthful follies were over he appears
to have developed sterling qualities, and although the poems he
has left are very few, none of them are devoid of merit. Dryden 's
" Essay on Satire "and the dedication of the "Essay on Dramatic
Poesy " are addressed to him. Walpole (Catalogue of Noble
Authors, iv.) says that he had as much wit as his first master, or his
contemporaries Buckingham and Rochester, without the royal
want of feeling, the duke's want of principles or the earl's want of
thought; and Congreve reported of him when he was dying that
he " slabbered " more wit than other people had in their best
health. He was three times married, his first wife being Mary,
widow of Charles Berkeley, earl of Falmouth. He died at Bath on
the 2gth of January 1706.
The fourth act of Pompey the Great, a tragedy translated out of
French by certain persons of honour, is by Dorset. The satires for
which Pope classed him with the masters in that kind seem to have
been short lampoons, with the exception of A faithful catalogue of
our most eminent ninnies (reprinted in Bibliotheca Curiosa, ed.
Goldsmid, 1885). The Works of the Earls of Rochester, Roscommon and
Dorset, the Dukes of Devonshire, Buckinghamshire, &c., with Memoirs
of their Lives (1731) is catalogued (No. 20841) by H. G. Bonn in 1841.
His P,oems are included in Anderson's and other collections of the
British poets.
LIONEL CRANFIELD SACKVILLE, IST DUKE OF DORSET (1688-
1765), the only son of the 6th earl, was born on the i8th of
January 1688. He succeeded his father as 7th earl of Dorset in
January 1706, and was created duke of Dorset in 1720. He was
lord steward of the royal household from 1725 to 1730, and lord-
lieutenant of Ireland from 1730 to 1737; he was again lord
steward from 1737 to 1745, and was lord president of the council
from 1745 to 1751. In 1750 he was appointed lord-lieutenant of
Ireland for the second time, and after a stormy viceroyalty he
was dismissed from office in 1755. The duke, who was several
times one of the lords justices of Great Britain and -held many
other positions of trust, died on the loth of October 1765. Heleft
three sons: Charles, the 2nd duke; John Philip (d. 1765); and
George, who took the additional name of Germain in 1770, and in
1782 was created Viscount Sackville (<?..).
CHARLES SACKVILLE, 2ND DUKE OF DORSET (1711-1769), an
associate of Frederick, prince of Wales, was a member of parlia-
ment for many years and a lord of the treasury under Henry
Pelham; he died on the 5th of January 1769, when his nephew,
John Frederick (1745-1799), became the 3rd duke. This noble-
man was ambassador in Paris from 1 783 to 1 789, and lord steward
of the household from 1789 to 1799; he died on the i9th of July
1799, and was succeeded by his only son, George John Frederick
(1793-1815). When the 4th duke died unmarried in February
1815, the titles passed to his kinsman, Charles Sackville Germain
(1767-1843), son and heir of the ist Viscount Sackville, who thus
became sth duke of Dorset. When he died on the 2gth of July
1843 the titles became extinct.
DORSETSHIRE (DORSET), a south-western county of England,
bounded N.E. by Wiltshire, E. by Hampshire, S. by the English
Channel, W. by Devonshire and N.W. by Somersetshire. The
area is 987 -9 sq. m. The surface is for the most part broken. A
line of hills or downs, forming part of the system to which the
general name of the Western Downs is applied, enters the county
in the north-east near Shaftesbury, and strikes across it in a
direction generally W. by S., leaving it towards Axminster and
Crewkerne in Devonshire. East of Beaminster in the south-west
another line, the Purbeck Downs, branches S.E. to the coast, which
it follows as far as the district called the Isle of Purbeck in the
south-east of the county. Both these ranges occasionally exceed
a height of 900 ft. Of the principal rivers and streams, the Stour
rises just outside the county in Wiltshire, and flows with a general
south-easterly course to join the Hampshire Avon close to its
mouth. It receives the Cale, Lidden and other streams in its
upper course, and breaches the central hills in its middle course
between Sturminster Newton and Blandford. The Lidden and
Cale are the chief streams of the well-watered and fertile district
known as the Vale of Blackmore. The small river Piddle or Trent
and the larger Frome, rising in the central hills, traverse a plain
tract of open country between the central and southern ranges,
and almost unite their mouths in Poole Harbour. In the north-
west the Yeo, collecting many feeders, flows northward to join the
Parret and so sends its waters to the Bristol Channel. The Char,
the Brit and the Bride, with their feeders, water many picturesque
short valleys in the south-west. The coast is always beautiful,
and in some parts magnificent. In the east it is broken by the
irregular, lake-like inlet of Poole Harbour, pleasantly diversified
with low islands, shallow, and at low tide largely drained. South
of this a bold foreland, the termination of the southern hills (here
called Ballard Down) divides Studland Bay from Swanage Bay,
after which the coast line turns abruptly westward round Durlston
Head. The peninsula thus formed with Poole Harbour on the
north is known as the Isle of Purbeck, an oblong projection
measuring 10 m. by 7. St Albans or Aldhelms Head is the next
salient feature, after which the fine cliffs are indented with many
little bays, of which the most noteworthy is the almost landlocked
Lulworth Cove. The coast then turns southward to embrace
Weymouth Bay and Portland Roads, where a harbour of refuge
with massive breakwaters is protected to the south by the Isle
of Portland. The isle is connected with the mainland by Chesil
Bank, a remarkable beach of shingle. After this the coast is less
broken than before and continues highly picturesque as far as the
confines of the county near Lyme Regis. This small town, with
Charmouth, Bridport, Weymouth, Lulworth Cove and Swanage,
are in considerable favour as watering-places.
Geology. Occupying as it does the central and most elevated
Eart of the county, the Chalk is the most prominent geological
irmation in Dorsetshire. It sweeps in a south-westerly direction,
as a belt of high ground about 12 m. in width, from Cranborne Chase,
through Blandford, Milton Abbas and Frampton to Dorchester;
westward it reaches a point just north of Beaminster. From about
Dorchester the Chalk outcrop narrows and turns south-eastward by
Portisham, Bincombe, to West Lulworth, thence the crop proceeds
eastward as the ridge of the Purbeck Hills, and finally runs out to sea
as the headland between Studland and Swanage Bays.
Upon the Chalk in the eastern part of the county are the Eocene
beds of the Hampshire Basin. These are fringed by the Reading
Beds and London Clay, which occur as a narrow belt from Cranborne
through Wimborne Minster, near Bere Regis and Piddletown ; here
the crop swings round south-eastward through West Knighton,
Winfrith and Lulworth, and thence along the northern side of the
Purbeck Hills to Studland. Most of the remaining Eocene area is
occupied by the sands, gravel and clay of the Bagshot series. The
Agglestone Rock near Studland is a hard mass of the Bagshot forma-
tion ; certain clays in the same series in the Wareham district have a
world- wide reputation for pottery purposes; since they are exported
from Poole Harbour they are often known as " Poole Clay." From
beneath the Chalk the Selbornian or Gault and Upper Greensand
crops out as a narrow, irregular band. The Gault clay is only dis-
tinguishable in the northern and southern districts. Here and
there the Greensand forms prominent hills, as that on which the town
of Shaftesbury stands. The Upper Greensand appears again as
outliers farther west, forming the high ground above Lyme Regis,
Golden Cap, and Pillesden and Lewesden Pens. The Lower Green-
sand crops out on the south side of the Purbeck Hills and may be
seen at Punfield Cove and Worbarrow Bay, but this formation thins
out towards the west. By the action of the agencies of denudation
upon the faulted anticline of the Isle of Purbeck, the Wealden beds
are brought to light in the vale between Lulworth and Swanage; a
similar cause has accounted for their appearance at East Chaldon.
South of the strip of Weald Clay is an elevated plateau consisting of
Purbeck Beds which rest upon Portland Stone and Portland Sand.
Cropping out from beneath the Portland beds is the Kimmeridge Clay
with so-called " Coal " bands, which forms the lower platform near
the village of that name.
The Middle Purbeck building stone and Upper Purbeck Paludina
marble have been extensively quarried in the Isle of Purbeck.^ An
interesting feature in the Lower Purbeck is the " Dirt bed," the
remains of a Jurassic forest, which may be seen near Mupe Bay and
DORSETSHIRE
435
on the Isle of Portland, where both the Purbeck and Portland forma-
tions are well exposed, the latter yielding the well-known freestones.
In the north-west of the county the Kimmeridge Clay crops in a
N.-S. direction from the neighbourhood of Gillingham by Woolland
to near Buckland Newton; in the south, a strip runs E. and W.
between Abbotsbury, Upway and Osmington Mill. Next in order
come the Corallian Beds and Oxford Clay which follow the line of
the Kimmeridge Clay, that is, they run from the north to the south-
west except in the neighbourhood of Abbotsbury and Weymouth,
where these beds are striking east and west.
Below the Oxford Clay is the Cornbrash, which may be seen near
Redipole, Stalbridge and Stourton; then follows the Forest garble,
which usually forms a strong escarpment over the Fuller's Earth
beneath at Thornford the Fuller's Earth rock is quarried. Next
comes the Inferior Oolite, quarried near Sherborne and Beaminster;
the outcrop runs on to the coast at Bridport. Beneath the Oolites are
the Midford sands, which are well exposed in the cliff between
Bridport and Burton Brandstock. Except where the Greensand
outliers occur, the south-western part of the county is occupied by
Lower and Middle Lias beds. These are clays and marls in the upper
portions and limestones below. Rhaetic beds, the so-called " White
Lias," are exposed in Pinhay Bay.
Many of the formations in Dorsetshire are highly fossiliferous,
notably the Lias of Ly me Regis, whence Ichthyosaurus and other large
reptiles have been obtained; remains of the Iguanodon have been
taken from the Wealden beds of the Isle of Purbeck ; the Kimmeridge
Clay, Inferior Oolite, Forest Marble and Fuller's Earth are all
fossil-bearing rocks. The coast exhibits geological sections of
extreme interest and variety; the vertical and highly inclined strata
of the Purbeck anticline are well exhibited at Gad Cliff or near
Ballard Point ; at the latter place the fractured fold is seen to pass
into an " overthrust fault."
Climate and Agriculture. The air of Dorsetshire is remarkably
mild, and in some of the more sheltered spots on the coast semi-
tropical plants are found to flourish. The district of the clays
obtains for trie county the somewhat exaggerated title of the
" garden of England," though the rich Vale of Blackmore and
the luxuriant pastures and orchards in the west may support the
name. Yet Dorsetshire is not generally a well-wooded county,
though much fine timber appears in the richer soils, in some of the
sheltered valleys of the chalk district, and more especially upon
the Greensand. About three-fourths of the total area is under
cultivation, and of this nearly five-eighths is in permanent
pasture, while there are in addition about 26,000 acres of hill
pasturage; the chalk downs being celebrated of old as sheep-
walks. Wheat, barley and oats are grown about equally.
Turnips occupy nearly three-fourths of the average under green
crops. Sheep are largely kept, though in decreasing numbers.
The old horned breed of Dorsetshire were well known, but
Southdowns or Hampshires are now frequently preferred.
Devons, shorthorns and Herefords are the most common breeds
of cattle. Dairy farming is an important industry.
Other Industries. The quarries of Isles of Portland and
Purbeck are important. The first supplies a white freestone
employed for many of the finest buildings in London and else-
where. Purbeck marble is famous through its frequent use by
the architects of many of the most famous Gothic churches in
England. A valuable product of Purbeck is a white pipeclay,
largely applied to the manufacture of china, for which purpose it
is exported to the Potteries of Staffordshire. Industries, beyond
those of agriculture and quarrying, are slight, though some ship-
building is carried on at Poole, and paper is made at several towns.
Other small manufactures are those of flax and hemp in the
neighbourhood of Bridport and Beaminster, of bricks, tiles and
pottery in the Poole district, and of nets (braiding, as the industry
is called) in some of the villages. There are silk-mills at Sherborne
and elsewhere. There are numerous fishing stations along the
coast, the fishing being mostly coastal. There are oyster beds in
Poole Harbour. The chief ports are Poole, Weymouth, Swanage,
Bridport, and Lyme Regis. The harbour of refuge at Portland,
under the Admiralty, is an important naval station, and is
fortified.
Communications. The main line of the London & South
Western railway serves Gillingham and Sherborne in the north
of the county. Branches of this system serve Wimborne, Poole
Swanage, Dorchester, Weymouth and Portland. The two last
towns, with Bridport, are served by the Great Western railway
the Somerset & Dorset line (Midland and 'South Western joint)
'ollows the Stour valley by Blandford and Wimborne; and Lyme
Regis is the terminus of a light railway from Axminster on the
South Western line.
Population and Administration. The area of the ancient
county is 632,270 acres, with a population in 1891 of 194,517, and
n 1901 of 202,936.. The area of the administrative county is
625, 578 acres. The county contains 35 hundreds. It is divided
nto northern, eastern, southern and western parliamentary
divisions, each returning one member. In contains the following'
municipal boroughs Blandford Forum (pop. 3649), Bridport
(5710), Dorchester, the county town (9458), Lyme Regis (2095),
Poole (19,463), Shaftesbury (2027), Wareham (2003), Weymouth
and Melcombe Regis (19,831). The following are other urban
districts Portland (15,199), Sherborne (5760), Swanage (3408),
Wimborne Minster (3696) . Dorsetshire is in the western circuit,
and assizes are held at Dorchester. It has one court of quarter
sessions, and is divided into nine petty sessional divisions. The
boroughs of Bridport, Dorchester, Lyme Regis, Poole, and
Weymouth and Melcombe Regis have separate commissions of
the peace, and the borough of Poole has in addition a separate
court of quarter sessions. There are 289 civil parishes. The
ancient county, which is almost entirely in the diocese of
Salisbury, contains 256 ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly
or in part.
History. The kingdom of Wessex originated with the settle-
ment of Cerdic and his followers in Hampshire in 495, and at
some time before the beginning of the 8th century the tide of
conquest and colonization spread beyond the Frome and Kennet
valleys and swept over the district which is now Dorsetshire.
In 705 the West Saxon see was transferred to Sherborne, and the
numerous foundations of religious houses which followed did much
to further the social and industrial development of the county;
though the wild and uncivilized state in which the county yet lay
may be conjectured from the names of the hundreds and of their
meeting-places, at barrows, boulders and vales. In 787 the Danes
landed at Portland, and in 833 they arrived at Charmouth with
thirty-five ships and fought Tvith Ecgbert. The shire is first
mentioned by name in the Saxon Chronicle in 845, when the
Danes were completely routed at the mouth of the Parret by
the men of Dorsetshire under Osric the ealdorman. In 876 the
invaders captured Wareham, but were driven out next year by
Alfred, and 120 of their ships were wrecked at Swanage. During
the two following centuries Dorset was constantly ravaged by the
Danes, and in 1015 Canute came on a plundering expedition to
the mouth of the Frome. Several of the West Saxon kings
resided in Dorsetshire, and ./Ethelbald and /Ethelbert were
buried at Sherborne, and Jithelred at Wimborne. In the reign of
Canute Wareham was the shire town; it was a thriving seaport,
with a house for the king when he came there on his hunting
expeditions, a dwelling for the shire-reeve and accommodation
for the leading thegns of the shire. At the time of the Conquest
Dorset formed part of Harold's earldom, and the resistance
which it opposed to the Conqueror was punished by a merciless
harrying, in which Dorchester, Wareham and Shaftesbury were
much devastated, and Bridport utterly ruined. .
No Englishman retained estates of any importance after the
Conquest, and at the time of the Survey the bulk of the land,
with the exception of the forty-six manors held by the king, was
in the hands of religious houses, the abbeys of Cerne, Milton
and Shaftesbury being the most wealthy. There were 272 mills
in the county at the time of the Survey, and nearly eighty men
were employed in working salt along the coast. Mints existed
at Shaftesbury, Wareham, Dorchester and Bridport, the three
former having been founded by ^Ethektan. The forests of
Dorsetshire were favourite hunting-grounds of the Norman kings,
and King John in particular paid frequent visits to the county.
No precise date can be assigned for the establishment of the
shire system in Wessex, but in the time of Ecgbert the kingdom
was divided into definite pagi, each under an ealdorman, which no
doubt represented the later shires. The Inquisitio Geldi, drawn
up two years before the Domesday Survey, gives the names of
the 39 pre-Conquest hundreds of Dorset. The 33 hundreds and
436
DORSIVENTRAL DORT, SYNOD OF
21 liberties of the present day retain some of the original names,
but the boundaries have suffered much alteration. The 8000
acres of Stockland and Dalwood reckoned in the Dorset Domesday
are now annexed to Devon, and the. manor of Hoi well now
included in Dorset was reckoned with Somerset until the igth
century. Until the reign of Elizabeth Dorset and Somerset were
united under one sheriff.
After the transference of the West Saxon see from Sherborne
to Sarum in 1075, Dorset remained part of that diocese until 1 542,
when it was included in the newly formed diocese of Bristol.
The archdeaconry was coextensive with the shire, and was
divided into five rural deaneries at least as early as 1291.
The vast power and wealth monopolized by the Church in
Dorsetshire tended to check the rise of any great county families.
The representatives of the families of Mohun, Brewer and
Arundel held large estates after the Conquest, and William
Mohun was created earl of Dorset by the empress Maud. The
families of Clavel, Lovell, Maundeville, Mautravers, Peverel and
St Lo also came over with the Conqueror and figure prominently
in the early annals of the county.
Dorsetshire took no active part in the struggles of the Norman
and Plantagenet period. In 1627 the county refused to send men
to La Rochelle, and was reproved for its lack of zeal in the service
of the state. On the outbreak of the Civil War of the 1 7th century
the general feeling was in favour of the king, and after a series of
royalist successes in 1643 Lyme Regis and Poole were the only
garrisons in the county left to the parliament. By the next year
however, the parliament had gained the whole county with the
exception of Sherborne and the Isle of Portland. The general
aversion of the Dorsetshire people to warlike pursuits is
demonstrated at this period by the rise of the " clubmen," so
called from their appearance without pikes or fire-arms at the
county musters, whose object was peace at all costs, and who
punished members of either party discovered in the act of
plundering.
In the I4th century Dorsetshire produced large quantities of
wheat and wool, and had a prosperous clothing trade. In 1626
the county was severely visited by the plague, and from this
date the clothing industry began to decline. The hundred of
Pimperne produced large quantities of saltpetre in the I7th
century, and the serge manufacture was introduced about this
time. Portland freestone was first brought into use in the reign
of James I., when it was employed for the new banqueting house
at Whitehall, and after the Great Fire it was extensively used by
Sir Christopher Wren. In the 1 8th century Blandf ord, Sherborne
and Lyme Regis were famous for their lace, but the industry has
now declined.
The county returned two members to parliament in 1290,
and as the chief towns acquired representation the number was
increased, until in 1572 the county and nine boroughs returned
a total of twenty members. Under the Reform Act of 1832 the
county returned three members, and Corfe Castle was dis-
franchised. By the Representation of the People Act of 1868
Lyme Regis was disfranchised, and by the Redistribution Act
of 1885 the remaining boroughs were disfranchised.
Antiquities. Remains of medieval castles are inconsiderable,
with the notable exception of Corfe Castle and the picturesque
ruins of Sherborne Castle, both destroyed after the Civil War of
the 1 7th century. The three finest churches in the county are the
abbey church of Sherborne, Wimborne Minster and Milton Abbey
church, a Decorated and Perpendicular structure erected on the
site of a Norman church which was burnt. It has transepts,
chancel and central tower, but the nave was not built. This was
a Benedictine foundation of the loth century, and the refectory
of the 1 5th century is incorporated in the mansion built in 1772.
At Ford Abbey part of the buildings of a Cistercian house are
similarly incorporated. There are lesser monastic remains at
Abbotsbury, Cerne and Bindon. The parish churches of Dorset-
shire are not especially noteworthy as a whole, but those at Cerne
Abbas and Beaminster are fine examples of the Perpendicular
style, which is the most common in the county. A little good
Norman work remains, as in the churches of Bere Regis and
Piddletrenthide, but both these were reconstructed in the
Perpendicular period; Bere Regis church having a superb
timber roof of that period.
The dialect of the county, perfectly distinguishable from those
of Wiltshire and Somersetshire, yet bearing many common marks
of Saxon origin, is admirably illustrated in some of the poems of
William Barnes (?..). Many towns, villages and localities are
readily to be recognized from their descriptions in the " Wessex "
novels of Thomas Hardy (q.v.).
A curious ancient Survey of Dorsetshire was written by the
Rev. Mr Coker, about the middle of the iyth century, and
published from his MS. (London, 1732). See also J. Hutchins,
History and Antiquities of the County of Dorset (London, 1774);
2nd ed. by R. Gough and E. B. Nichols (1796-1815); 3rd ed.
by W. Shipp and J. W. Hodson (1861-1873); C. Warne, Ancient
Dorset (London, 1865); R. W. Eyton, A Key to Domesday,
exemplified by an analysis and digest of the Dorset Survey
(London, 1878); C. H. Mayo, Bibliotheca Dorsetiensis (London,
1885); W. Barnes, Glossary of Dorset Dialect (Dorchester, 1886);
H. J. Mpule, Old Dorset (London, 1893) ; Victoria County History,
Dorsetshire.
DORSIVENTRAL (Lat. dorsum, the back, venter, the belly), a
term used to describe an organ which has two surfaces differing
from each other in appearance and structure, as an ordinary
leaf.
DORT, SYNOD OF. An assembly of the Reformed Dutch
Church, with deputies from Switzerland, the Palatinate, Nassau,
Hesse, East Friesland, Bremen, Scotland and England, called to
decide the theological differences existing between the Arminians
(or Remonstrants) and the Calvinists(or Counter-Remonstrants),
was held at Dort or Dordrecht (q.v.) in the years 1618 and 1619.
The government of Louis XIII. prohibited the attendance of
French delegates. During the life of Arminius a bitter con-
troversy had sprung up between his followers and the strict
Calvinists, led by Francis Gomar, his fellow-professor at Leiden;
and, in order to decide their disputes, a synodical conference was
proposed, but Arminius died before, it could be held. At the
conference held at the Hague in 1610 the Arminians addressed
a remonstrance to the states-general in the form of five articles,
which henceforth came to be known as the five points of
Arminianism. In these they reacted against both the supra-
lapsarian and the infralapsarian developments of the doctrine
of predestination and combated the irresistibility of grace; they
held that Christ died for all men and not only for the elect, and
were not sure that the elect might not fall from grace. This
conference had no influence in reconciling the opposing parties,
and another, held at Delft in the year 1613, was equally un-
successful. In 1614, at the instance of the Arminian party, an
edict was passed by the states-general, in which toleration of the
opinions of both parties was declared and further controversy
forbidden; but this act only served, by rousing the jealousy of
the Calvinists, to fan the controversial flame into greater fury.
Gradually the dispute pervaded all classes of society, and the
religious questions became entangled with political issues;
the partisans of the house of Orange espoused the cause of the
stricter Calvinism, whereas the bourgeois oligarchy of republican
tendencies, led by Oldenbarnevelt and Hugo Grotius, stood for
Arminianism. In 1617 Prince Maurice of Orange committed
himself definitely to the Calvinistic party, found an occasion
for throwing Oldenbarnevelt and Grotius into prison, and in
November of that year called a synod intended to crush the
Arminians. This synod, which assembled at Dort in November
1618, was strictly national called by the national authority to
decide a national dispute, and not intended to have more than a
national influence. The foreign deputies were invited to attend,
only to assist by their advice in the settlement of a controversy
which concerned the Netherland church alone, and which the
Netherland church alone could decide. At the fourth sitting
it was decided to cite Simon Episcopius and several other
Remonstrants to appear within fourteen days before the synod,
to state and justify their doctrines. It was also agreed to allow
the Arminian deputies to take part in the deliberations, only on
condition that they forbore to consult with, or in any way assist,
DORTMUND DORY
437
their cited brethren, but this they refused. During the interval
between the citation and the appearance of the accused, the
professorial members of the synod was instructed to prepare
themselves to be able to confute the Arminian errors, and the
synod occupied itself with deliberations as to a new translation of
the Bible, for which a commission was named, made arrangements
for teaching the Heidelberg catechism, and granted permission
to the missionaries of the East Indies to baptize such children of
heathen parents as were admitted into their families. Atthe 25th
sitting Episcopius and the others cited appeared, when Episcopius
surprised the deputies by a bold and outspoken defence of his
views, and even went so far as to say that the synod, by excluding
the Arminian deputies, could now only be regarded as a schismatic
assembly. The Remonstrants were asked to file copious explana-
tions of the five points in dispute (Sententia Remonstrantium),
but objecting to the manner in which they were catechized, they
were, at the 57th sitting, dismissed from the synod as convicted
" liars and deceivers." The synod then proceeded in their
absence to judge them from their published writings, and came
to the conclusion that as ecclesiastical rebels and trespassers they
should be deprived of all their offices. The synodical decision
in regard to the five points is contained in the canons adopted
at the I36th session held on the 23rd of April 1619; the points
were: unconditional election, limited atonement, total depravity,
irresistibility of grace, final perseverance of the saints. The issue
of supralapsarianism v. infralapsarianism was avoided. These
doctrinal decisions and the sentence against the Remonstrants
were, at the i44th sitting, read in Latin before a large audience in
the great church. The Remonstrants were required to subscribe
the condemnation, and many of them refused and were banished.
The synod was concluded on the pth of May 1 61 9, by a magnificent
banquet given by the chief magistrate of Dort. The Dutch
deputies remained a fortnight longer to attend to ecclesiastical
business. Though the canons of Dort were adopted by but two
churches outside of Holland, the synod ranks as the most
impressive assemblage of the Reformed Church.
AUTHORITIES. Acta synodi nationalis . . . Dordrechti habitae
(Lugd. Bat. 1620, official edition) ; Acta der Nationale Synode te
Dordrecht 1618 (Leiden, 1887), French translation (Leiden, 1622 and
1624, 2 vols.), for the Canons, and the Sententia Remonstrantium,
E. F. Karl Miiller, Die Bekenntnisschriften der refprmierten Kirche
(Leipzig, 1903), p. lix. ff., 843 ff. ; for canons and abridged translation
used by the Reformed Church in America, P. Schaff, The Creeds oj
Christendom (3rd ed., New York, 1877), 550 ff. See also H. Heppe, in
Niedner's Zeitschrift fur die historische Theologie, Bd. 23 (Hamburg,
1853), 226-327 (letters of Hessian deputies) ; Acta etscripta synodalia
Dordracena ministrorum Remonstrantium, Hardervici, 1620 (valuable
side-lights) ; A. Schweizer, Die protestantischen Centraldogmen in ihrer
Entwicklung innerhalb der reformierten Kirche, zweite Halfte (Zurich,
1856), 25-224; H. C. Rogge in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie,
Bd. 4 (Leipzig, 1898), 798-802; H. H. Kuyper, De Post- Acta of
Nahandelingen van de Nationale Synode van Dordrecht, een historische
Studie (Amsterdam, 1899, new material); J. Reitsma, Geschiednis
van de Henorming en de Heniormde Kerk der Nederlanden (2nd ed.
Groningen, 1899); F. Loofs, Dogmengeschichte (4th ed., Halle, 1906),
935 ff. ; T. Van Oppenraij, La Predestination dans I'Eglise reformee
des Pays-Bas depuis I'origine jusqu'au synode national de Dordrecht
(Louvain, 1906). (W. W. R.*)
DORTMUND, a town of Germany, the chief commercial centre
of the Prussian province of Westphalia, on the Emscher, in a
fertile plain, 50 m. E. from Dusseldorf by rail. Pop. (1875)
57,742; (1895) 111,232; (1905) 175,292. Since the abolition of
the old walls in 1863 and the conversion of their site into pro-
menades, the town has rapidly assumed a modern appearance.
The central part, however, with its winding narrow streets, is
redolent of its historical past, when, as one of the leading cities of
the Hanseatic League, it enjoyed commercial supremacy over all
the towns of Westphalia. Among its ancient buildings must be
mentioned the Reinoldikirche, with fine stained-glass windows,
the Marienkirche, the nave of which dates from the i ith century,
the Petrikirche, with a curious altar, and the Dominican church,
with beautiful cloisters. The 13th-century town hall was
restored in 1899 and now contains the municipal antiquarian
museum, having been superseded by a more commodious build-
ing. Among the chief modern structures may be mentioned the
magnificent post office, erected in 1895, the provincial law courts,
the municipal infirmary and the large railway station. To the W.
of the last there existed down to 1906 (when it was removed) one
of the ancient lime trees of the Konigshof, where the meetings
of the Vehmgericht were held (see FEHMIC COURTS) . But the real
interest of Dortmund centres in its vast industries, which owe
their development to the situation of the town in the centre of
the great Westphalian coal basin. In the immediate vicinity are
also extensive beds of iron ore, and this combination of mineral
wealth has enabled the town to become a competitor with Essen,
Oberhausen, Duisburg and Hagen in the products of the iron
industry. These in Dortmund more particularly embrace steel
railway rails, mining plant, wire ropes, machinery, safes and
sewing machines. Dortmund has also extensive breweries, and,
in addition to the manufactured goods already enumerated, does
a considerable trade in corn and wood. Besides being well
furnished with a convenient railway system, linking it with
the innumerable manufacturing towns and villages of the iron
district, it is also connected with the river Ems by the
Dortmund-Ems Canal, 170 m. in length.
Dortmund, the Throtmannia of early history, was- already
a town of some importance in the 9th century. In 1005 the
emperor Henry II. held here an ecclesiastical council, and in 1016
an imperial diet. The town was walled in the I2th century, and
in 1387-1388 successfully withstood the troops of the archbishop
of Cologne, who besieged it for twenty-one months. About the
middle of the I3th century it joined the Hanseatic League. At
the close of the Thirty Years' War the population had become
reduced to 3000. In 1803 Dortmund lost its rights as a free
town, and was annexed to Nassau. The French occupied it in
1806, and in 1808 it was made over by Napoleon to the grand-duke
of Berg, and became the chief town of the department of Ruhr.
Through the cession of Westphalia by the king of the Netherlands,
on the 3ist of May 1815, it became a Prussian town.
See Thiersch, Geschichte der Freireichsstadt Dortmund (Dort, 1854),
and Ludoff, Bau- und Kunstdenkmdler in Dortmund (Paderborn,
; also A. Shadwell, Industrial Efficiency (London, 1906).
DORY, or JOHN DORY (Zeusfaber), an Acanthopterygian fish,
the type of the family Zeidae, held in such esteem by the ancient
Greeks that they called it Zeus after their principal divinity. Its
English name is probably a corruption of the French jaune doree,
and has reference to the prevailing golden-yellow colour of the
living fish. The body in the dory is much compressed, and is
nearly oval in form, while the mouth is large and capable of
extensive protrusion. It possesses two dorsal fins, of which the
anterior is armed with long slender spines, and the connecting
membrane is produced into long tendril-like filaments; while a
row of short spines extends along the belly and the roots of the
anal and dorsal fins. The colour of the upper surface is olive-
brown; the sides are yellowish, and are marked with a prominent
dark spot, on account of which the dory divides with the haddock
the reputation of being the fish from which Peter took the tribute
money. It is an inhabitant of the Atlantic coasts of Europe,
the Mediterranean and the Australian seas. It is occasionally
abundant on the coasts of Devon and Cornwall, and is also found,
though more sparingly, throughout the British seas. It is exceed-
ingly voracious, feeding on molluscs, shrimps and the young
of other fish; and Jonathan Couch (1789-1870), author of a
History of British Fishes, states that from the stomach of a single
dory he has taken 25 flounders, some 2\ in. long, 3 fatherlashers
half grown and 5 stones from the beach, one 15 in. in length.
They are often taken in the fishermen's nets off the Cornwall and
Devon coast, having entered these in pursuit of pilchards. They
are seldom found in deep water, preferring sandy bays, among the
weeds growing on the bottom of which they lie in wait for their
prey, and in securing this they are greatly assisted by their great
width of gape, by their power of protruding the mouth, and by the
slender filaments of the first dorsal fins, which float like worms in
the water, while the greater part of the body is buried in the sand,
and thus they entice the smaller fishes to c.ome within easy reach
of the capacious jaws. The dory often attains a weight of 1 2 ft,
although those, usually brought into the market do not average
more than 6 or 7 Ib. It is highly valued as an article of food.
DOSITHEUS MAGISTER DOSTOIEVSKY
The family Zeidae has assumed special interest of late, O. Thilo l
and G. A. Boulenger 2 having shown that they have much in
common with the flat-fishes or Pleuronectidae and must be nearly
related to the original stock from which this asymmetrical type
has been evolved, especially if theUpper Eocene genus A mphistium
be taken into consideration. This affinity is further supported by
the observations made by L. W. Byrne 3 on the asymmetry in the
number and arrangement of the bony plates at the base of the
dorsal and anal fins in the young of the John Dory. (G. A. B.)
DOSITHEUS MAGISTER, Greek grammarian, flourished at
Rome in the 4th century A.D. He was the author of a Greek
translation of a Latin grammar, intended to assist the Greek-
speaking inhabitants of the empire in learning Latin. The
translation, at first word for word, becomes less frequent, and
finally is discontinued altogether. The Latin grammar used was
based on the same authorities as those of Charisius and Diomedes,
which accounts for the many points of similarity. Dositheus
contributed very little of his own. Some Greek-Latin exercises
by an unknown writer of the 3rd century, to be learnt by heart
and traaslated, were added to the grammar. They are of con-
siderable value as illustrating the social life of the period
and the history of the Latin language. Of these 'Ep/j.r/vtvtiaTa
(Inter pretamenta), the third book, containing a collection of words
and phrases from everyday conversation (na8rintpu>ri 6/wXia)
has been preserved. A further appendix consisted of Anecdotes,
Letters and Rescripts of the emperor Hadrian; fables of Aesop;
extracts from Hyginus; a history of the Trojan War, abridged
from the Iliad; and a legal fragment, Hepl eXeufapcbo-ecop (De
manumissionibus) .
Editions: Grammatical in H. Keil, Grammatici Latini, vii. and
separately (1871); Hermeneumata by G. Gotz (1892) (in G. Lowe's
Corpus glossariorum Latinorum, iii.) and E. Booking (1832), which
contains the appendix (including the legal fragment) ; see also
C. Lachmann, Versuch iiber Dositheus (1837) ; H. Hagen, De Dosithei
magistri quae feruntur glossis (1877).
DOSSAL (dossel, dorsel or dosel; Fr. dos, back), an ecclesi-
astical ornamented clcth suspended behind the altar.
DOSSERET, or impost block (a Fr. term, from dos, back),
in architecture, the cubical block of stone above the capitals
in a Byzantine church, used to carry the arches and vault, the
springing of which had a superficial area greatly in excess of the
column which carried them.
DOST MAHOMMED KHAN (1793-1863), founder of the
dynasty of the Barakzai in Afghanistan, was born in 1793. His
elder brother, the chief of the Barakzai, Fatteh Khan, took
an important part in raising Mahmud to the sovereignty of
Afghanistan in 1800 and in restoring him to the throne in 1809.
That ruler repaid his services by causing him to be assassinated in
1818, and thus incurred the enmity of his tribe. After a bloody
conflict Mahmud was deprived of all his possessions but Herat,
the rest of his dominions being divided among Fatteh Khan's
brothers. Of these Dost Mahommed received for his share
Ghazni, to which in 1826 he added Kabul, the richest of the
Afghan provinces. From the commencement of his reign he
found himself involved in disputes with Ranjit Singh, the Sikh
ruler of the Punjab, who used the dethroned Saduzai prince,
Shuja-ul-Mulk, as his instrument. In 1834 Shuja made a last
attempt to recover his kingdom. He was defeated by Dost
Mahommed under the walls of Kandahar, but Ranjit Singh seized
the opportunity to annex Peshawar. The recovery of this
fortress became the Afghan amir's great concern. Rejecting
overtures from Russia, he endeavoured to form an alliance with
England, and welcomed Alexander Burnes to Kabul in 1837.
Burnes, however, was unable to prevail on the governor-general,
Lord Auckland, to respond to the amir's advances. Dost
Mahommed was enjoined to abandon the attempt to recover
Peshawar, and to place his foreign policy under British guidance.
In return he was only promised protection from Ranjit Singh, of
1 " Die Vorfahren der Schollen," Biol. Centralbl. xxii. (1002), p. 717.
1 " On the systematic position of the Pleuronectidae/' Ann. and
Mag. N. H. x. (1902), p. 295.
' On the number and arrangement of the bony plates of the young
John Dory," Biometrika, ii. (1902), p. 115.
whom he had no fear. He replied by renewing his relations with
Russia, and in 1838 Lord Auckland set the British troops in
motion against him. In March 1839 the British force under
Sir Willoughby Cotton advanced through the Bolan Pass, and
on the 26th of April it reached Kandahar. Shah Shuja was
proclaimed amir, and entered Kabul on the 7th of August, while
Dost Mahommed sought refuge in the wilds of the Hindu Rush.
Closely followed by the British, Dost was driven to extremities,
and on the 4th of November 1840 surrendered as a prisoner. He
remained in captivity during the British occupation, during the
disastrous retreat of the army of occupation in January 1 84 2 , and
until the recapture of Kabul in the autumn of 1842. He was then
set at liberty, in consequence of the resolve of the British govern-
ment to abandon the attempt to intervene in the internal politics
of Afghanistan. On his return from Hindustan Dost Mahommed
was received in triumph at Kabul, and set himself to re-establish
his authority on a firm basis. From 1846 he renewed his policy
of hostility to the British and allied himself with the Sikhs; but
after the defeat of his allies at Gujrat on the 2ist of February
1849 he abandoned his designs and led his troops back into
Afghanistan. In 1850 he conquered Balkh, and in 1854 he
acquired control over the southern Afghan tribes by the capture
of Kandahar. On the 3oth of March 1855 Dost Mahommed
reversed his former policy by concluding an offensive and
defensive alliance with the British government. In 1857 he
declared war on Persia in conjunction with the British, and in
July a treaty was concluded by which the province of Herat was
placed under a Barakzai prince. During the Indian Mutiny Dost
Mahommed punctiliously refrained from assisting the insurgents.
His later years were disturbed by troubles at Herat and in
Bokhara. These he composed for a time, but in 1862 a Persian
army, acting in concert with Ahmad Khan, advanced against
Kandahar. The old amir called the British to his aid, and,
putting himself at the head of his warriors', drove the enemy
from his frontiers. On the 26th of May 1863 he captured
Herat, but on the gth of June he died suddenly in the midst
of victory, after playing a great role in the history of Central
Asia for forty years. He named as his successor his son, Shere
Ali Khan. (E. I. C.)
DOSTOIEVSKY, FEODOR MIKHAILOVICH (1821-1881),
Russian author, born at Moscow, on the 3oth of October 1821,
was the second son of a retired military surgeon of a decayed noble
family. He was educated at Moscow andat the military engineer-
ing academy at St Petersburg, which he left in 1843 with the grade
of sub-lieutenant. Next year his father died, and he resigned his
commission in order to devote himself to literature thus com-
mencing a long struggle with ill-health and penury. In addition
to the old Russian masters Gogol and Pushkin, Balzac and
George Sand supplied him with literary ideals. He knew little of
Dickens, but his first story is thoroughly Dickensian in character.
The hero is a Russian " Tom Pinch," who entertains a pathetic,
humble adoration for a fair young girl, a solitary waif like himself.
Characteristically the Russian story ends in " tender gloom."
The girl marries a middle-aged man of property; the hero dies of
a broken heart, and his funeral is described in lamentable detail.
The germ of all Dostoievsky's imaginative work may be discovered
here. The story was submitted in manuscript to the Russian
critic, Bielinski, and excited his astonishment by its power over
the emotions. It appeared in the course of 1846 in the Recueil de
Saint- Petersbourg, under the title of " Poor People." An English
version, Poor Folk, with an introduction by Mr George Moore,
appeared in 1894. The successful author became a regular
contributor of short tales to the Annals of the Country, a monthly
periodical conducted by Kraevsky; but he was wretchedly paid,
and his work, though revealing extraordinary power andin tensity,
commonly lacks both finish and proportion. Poverty and
physical suffering robbed him of the joy of life and filled him with
bitter thoughts and morbid imaginings. During 1847 he became
an enthusiastic member of the revolutionary reunions of the
political agitator, Petrachevski. Many of the students and
younger members did little more than discuss the theories of
Fourier and other economists at these gatherings. Exaggerated
DOUAI
439
reports were eventually carried to the police; and on the 23rd
of April 1849 Dostoievsky and his brother, with thirty other
suspected personages, were arrested. After a short examination
by the secret police they were lodged in the fortress of St Peter and
St Paul at St Petersburg, in which confinement Feodor wrote his
story A Little Hero. On the 22nd of December 1849 the accused
were all condemned to death and conveyed in vans to a large
scaffold in the Simonovsky Place. As the soldiers were preparing
to carry out the sentence, the prisoners were informed that their
penalty was commuted to exile in Siberia. The novelist's sentence
was, four years in Siberia and enforced military service in the
ranks for life. On Christmas eve 1849 he commenced the long
journey to Omsk, and remained in Siberia, " like a man buried
ab've, nailed down in his coffin," for four terrible years. His
Siberian experiences are graphically narrated in a volume to
which he gave the name of Recollections of a Dead-House (1858).
It was known in an English translation as Buried Alive in Siberia
(1881; another version, 1888). His release only subjected him
to fresh indignities as a common soldier at Semipalatinsk; but in
1858, through the intercession of an old schoolfellow, General
Todleben, he was made an under-officer; and in 1859, upon the
accession of Alexander II., he was finally recalled from exile.
In 1858 he had married a widow, Madame Isaiev, but she died
at St Petersburg in 1867 after a somewhat stormy married life.
After herding for years with the worst criminals, Dostoievsky
obtained an exceptional insight into the dark and seamy side of
Russian life. He formed new conceptions of human life, of the
balance of good and evil in man, and of the Russian character.
Psychological studies have seldom, if ever, found a more intense
form of expression than that embodied by Dostoievsky in his
novel called Crime and Punishment. The hero Raskolnikov is a
poor student, who is led on to commit a murder partly by self-
conceit, partly by the contemplation of the abject misery around
him. Unsurpassed in poignancy in the whole of modern literature
is the sensation of compassion evoked by the scene between the
self-tormented Raskolnikov and the humble street-walker, Sonia,
whom he loves, and from whom, having confessed his crime, he
derives the idea of expiation. Raskolnikov finally gives himself
up to the police and is exiled to Siberia, whither Sonia follows him.
The book gave currency to a number of ideas, not in any sense
new, but specially characteristic of Dostoievsky: the theory, for
instance, that in every life, however fallen and degraded, there are
ecstatic moments of self-devotion; the doctrine of purification
by suffering, and by suffering alone; and the ideal of a Russian
people forming a social state at some future period bound together
by no obligation save mutual love and the magic of kindness.
In this visionary prospect, as well as in his objection to the use of
physical force, Dostoievsky anticipated in a remarkable manner
some of the conspicuous tenets of his great successor Tolstoy.
The book electrified the reading public in Russia upon its appear-
ance in 1866, and its fame was confirmed when it appeared in Paris
in 1867. To his remarkable faculty of awakening reverberations
of melancholy and compassion, as shown in his early work,
Dostoievsky had added, by the admission of all, a rare mastery
over the emotions of terror and pity. But such mastery was not
long to remain unimpaired. Crime and Punishment was written
when he was at the zenith of his power. His remaining works ex-
hibit frequently a marvellous tragic and analytic power, but they
are unequal, and deficient in measure and in balance. The chief
of them are: The Injured and the Insulted, The Demons (1867),
Ttieldiot(i&6<)), The Adult (1875), The Brothers Karamzov (1881).
From 1865, when he settled in St Petersburg, Dostoievsky
was absorbed in a succession of journalistic enterprises, in the
Slavophil interest, and suffered severe pecuniary losses. He had
to leave Russia, in order to escape his creditors, and to seek refuge
in Germany and Italy. He was further harassed by troubles*with
his wife, and his work was interrupted by epileptic fits and other
physical ailments. It was under such conditions as these that his
most enduring works were created . He managed finally to return
to Russia early in the seventies, and was for some time director
of The Russian World. From 1876 he published a kind of review,
entitled Garnet d'un icrivain, to the pages of which he committed
many strange autobiographical facts and reflections. The last
ight years of his life were spent in comparative prosperity at St
Petersburg, where he died on the gth of February 1881.
His life had been irremediably seared by his Siberian experi-
mces. He looked prematurely old; his face bore an expression
of accumulated sorrow; in disposition he had become distrustful,
taciturn, contemptuous his favourite theme the superiority of
the Russian peasant over every other class; as an artist, though
uncultured, he had ever been subtle and sympathetic, but latterly
he was tortured by tragic visions and morbidly preoccupied by
exceptional and perverted types. M. de Vogue, in his admirable
Ecrivains russes, has worked out with some success a parallel
between the later years of Dostoievsky and those of Jean Jacques
Rousseau. Siberia effectually convinced the novelist of the
impotence of Nihilism in such a country as Russia; but though
he was assailed by ardent Liberals for the reactionary trend of
his later writings, Dostoievsky became, towards the end of his
life, an extremely popular figure, and his funeral, on the i2th of
February 1881, was the occasion of one of the most remarkable
demonstrations of public feeling ever witnessed in the Russian
capital. The death of the Russian novelist was not mentioned in
the London press; it is only since 1885, when Crime and Punish-
ment first appeared in English, that his name has become at all
familiar in England, mainly through French translations.
A complete edition of his novels was issued at St Petersburg in
fourteen volumes (1882-1883). Two critical studies by Tchij and
Zelinsky appeared at Moscow in l885,and a German life by Hoffmann
at Vienna in 1899. (T. SE.)
DOUAI, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Nord, 20 m. S. of Lille on the Northern
railway between that city and Cambrai. Pop. (1906) town,
21,679; commune, 33,247. Douai is situated in a marshy plain
on the banks of the Scarpe which intersects the town from south
to north, and supplies water to a canal skirting it on the west.
The old fortifications; of which the Porte de Valenciennes (isth
century) is the chief survival, have been demolished to make
room for boulevards and public gardens. The industrial towns
of Dorignies, Sin-le- Noble and Aniche are practically suburbs
of Douai. Of the churches, that of Notre-Dame (i2th and
i4th centuries) is remarkable for the possession of a fine altar-
piece of the early i6th century, composed of wooden panels
painted by Jean Bellegambe, a native of Douai. The principal
building of the town is a handsome hotel de ville, partly of the
15th century, with a lofty belfry. The Palais de Justice (i8th
century) was formerly the town house (refuge) of the abbey of
Marchiennes. Houses of the i6th, i7th and i8th centuries are
numerous. There is a statue of Madame Desbordes Valmore,
the poet (d. 1859), a native of the town. The municipal museum
contains a library of over 85,000 volumes as well as 1 800 MSS., and
a fine collection of sculpture and paintings. Douai is the seat
of a court of appeal, a court of assizes and a subprefect, and has a
tribunal of first instance, a board of trade-arbitrators, an exchange,
a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France.
Its educational institutions include a lycee, training colleges, a
school of mines, an artillery school, schools of music, agriculture,
drawing, architecture, &c., and a national school for instruction
in brewing and other industries connected with agriculture. In
addition to other iron and engineering works, Douai has a large
cannon foundry and an arsenal; coal-mining and the manufacture
of glass and bottles and chemicals are carried on on a large scale
in the environs; among the other industries are flax-spinning,
rope-making, brewing and the manufacture of farm implements,
oil, sugar, soap and leather. Trade, which is largely water-borne,
is In grain and agricultural products, coal and building material.
Douai, the site of which was occupied by a castle (Castrum
Duacense) as early as the 7th century, belonged in the middle
ages to the counts of Flanders, passed in 1384 to the dukes of
Burgundy, and so in 1477 with the rest of the Netherlands to
Spain. In 1667 it was captured by Louis XIV., and was ulti-
mately ceded to France by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. His-
torically Douai is mainly important as the centre of the political
and religious propaganda of the exiled English Roman Catholics.
4-40
DOUARNENEZ DOUBLE BASS
In 1562 Philip II. of Spain founded a university here, in which
several English- scholars were given chairs; and in connexion
with this William Allen (q.v.) in 1568 founded the celebrated
English college. It was here that the " Douai Bible " was pre-
pared (see Vol. IV. p. 341). There were also an Irish and a
Scots college and houses of English Benedictines and Francis-
cans. All these survived till 1793, when the university was
suppressed. For the Douai Bible see BIBLE, ENGLISH.
See F. Brassart, Hist, du chateau et de la chdtellenie de Douai
(Douai, 1877-87); C. Mine, Hist. pop. de Douai (ib. 1861) ; B. Ward,
Dawn of the Catholic Revival (London, 1909); Handecceur, Hist, du
College anglais, Douai (Reims, 1898) ; Daucoisne, Etablissements
britanniques a Douai (Douai, 1881).
DOUARNENEZ, a fishing-port of western France, in the depart-
ment of Finistere,on the southern shore of the Bay of Douarnenez
15 m. N.W. of Quimper by rail. Pop. (1906) 13,472. Its sardine
fishery, which is carried on from the end of June to the beginning
of December, gives occupation to about 800 boats, and between
3000 and 4000 men, and the preserving of the fish is an important
industry. Mackerel fishing, boat-building and rope and net
making also occupy the inhabitants. There is a lighthouse on
the small island of Tristan off Douarnenez.
DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives
the present pronunciation, through the Old Fr. duble, from Lat.
duplus, twice as much), twice as much, or large, having two
parts, having a part repeated, coupled, &c. The word appears as
a substantive with the special meaning of the appearance to a
person of his own apparition, generally regarded as a warning, or
of such an apparition of one living person to another, the German
Doppelganger (see APPARITIONS). Another word often used
with this meaning is " fetch." According to the New English
Dictionary, " fetch " is chiefly of Irish usage, and may possibly
be connected with " fetch," to bring or carry away, but it may
be a separate word. The Corpus Glossary of the beginning of the
loth century seems to identify a word/cecce with more, meaning
a goblin which appears in " nightmare." " Double " is also used
of a person whose resemblance to another is peculiarly striking
or remarkable, so that confusion between them may easily arise.
DOUBLE BASS (Fr. contrebasse; Ger. Kontrabass, Gross Bass
Geige; Ital. contrabasso, violone), the largest member of the
modern family of stringed instruments played with a bow, known
as the violin family, and the lowest in pitch. The double bass
differs slightly in construction from the other members of the
family in that it has slanting shoulders (one of the features of the
viola da gamba, see VIOLIN) ; that is to say that where the belly
is joined by the neck and finger-board, it has a decided point,
whereas in the violin, viola and violoncello, the finger-board is at
right-angles to the horizontal part of a wide curve. It is probable
that the shoulders of the double bass were made drooping for the
sake of additional strength of construction on account of the strain
caused by the tension of the strings. The double bass was formerly
made with a flat back another characteristic of the viol family
whereas now the back is as often found arched as flat. The bow
is for obvious reasons shorter and stouter than the violin bow.
The technique of the double bass presents certain difficulties
inherent in an instrument of such large proportions. The stretches
for the fingers are very great, almost double those required for the
violoncello, and owing to the thickness of the strings great force
is required to press them against the finger-board when they are
vibrating. The performer plays standing owing to the great size of
the instrument.
The double bass sometimes has three strings tuned in England
and Italy in fourths; (S_
in France and Germany
to fifths. (B : Owing to the scoring of modern
composers, however, it was found necessary to adopt an accord-
ance of four strings in order to obtain the additional lower notes
required, although this entaijs the sacrifice of beauty of tone, the
three-stringed instrument being more sonorous. Some orchestras
make a compromise dividing the double basses into two equal sections
of three and four-stringed basses. The four strings are tuned
in fourths: &= = Mr A. C. White, finding that
an additional lower compass was required, first tuned his double
1 The real sounds are an octave lower.
bass with three strings to *-* -
afterwards adding
a fourth string, the lower D. By this accordance the third and
fourth strings gain additional power and clearness from the fact
that the first and second, being their octaves higher, vibrate in
sympathy, obviating the necessity of making the 'cello play in octaves
with the double basses to increase the tone when the lowest register
is used. In order to obtain equal sonority on his double bass with
four strings, Mr White 2 found it necessary to have a wider bridge
measuring about 5 in., so that the distance between the strings
should remain the same as on a double bass with three strings, thus
allowing plenty of room for vibration. The neck was also widened
in proportion. A five-stringed double bass was sometimes
used in Germany tuned either to \2~ , < *^
or to
E3E
-. =? j =: but such instruments have been almost
superseded by those with four strings. A somewhat larger double
bass with five strings by Karl Otno of Leipzig was introduced
between 1880 and 1890 with the following accordance:
The practical compass of the double bass extends from
to = (real sounds) with all chromatic intervals. In order
to avoid using numerous ledger lines the music is written an octave
higher. The qualityof toneisverypowerfulbutsomewhatrough,and
variesgreatly in its gradations. The notesof the lowest register, when
played piano, sound weird and sometimes grotesque, and are some-
times used instead of the kettledrum ; when played forte the tone is
grand and full. The lowest octave is mainly used as a fundamental
octave bass to 'cello, bassoon or trombone. The tone of the pizzicato
is full and rich owing to the slowness of the vibrations, and it changes
character according to the harmonies which lie above it: with a
chord of the diminished seventh above it, for instance, the pizzicato
sounds like a menace, but with the common chord calm and majestic.
Both natural and artificial harmonics are possible on the double bass,
the former being the best; but they are seldom used in orchestral
works. As an instance of their use may be cited the scene by the
Nile at the beginning of the third act of Verdi's A ida, where harmonics
are indicated for both 'cellos and double basses.
The technical capabilities of the double bass are necessarily some-
what more limited than those of the violoncello. Quick passages,
though possible, are seldom written for it; they cannot sound clear
owing to the time required for the strings to vibrate. An excellent
effect is produced by what is known as the intermittent tremolo:
owing to the elasticity of the bow, it rebounds several times on the
strings when a single blow is sharply struck, forming a series of
short tremolos. The double bass is the foundation of the whole
orchestra and therefore of great importance; it plays the lowest
part, often, as its name indicates, only doubling the 'cello part an
octave lower. It is only since the beginning of the igth century that
an independent voice has occasionally been allotted to it, as in the
Scherzo of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony in C minor:
CONTRABASSI. ^. ^ fi ,
ffiFk-s .-I l-a-^-H ' I & I P 1 1 =
^EK* ^r^^F^-i T- H- I' --
pp
These opening bars are played soli by "cellos and double basses, a
daring innovation of Beethoven's which caused quite a consternation
at first in musical circles.
The remote origin of the double bass is the same as that of the
violin. 3 It was evolved from the bass viol; whether the trans-
formation took place simultaneously with that of the violin from
the treble viol or preceded it, has not been definitely proved, but
both Gasparo da Salo and Maggini constructed double basses,
which were in great request in the churches. De Salo made one
with three strings for St Mark's, Venice, which is still preserved
there. 4 It was Dragonetti's favourite concert instrument, pre-
sented to him by the monks of St Mark, and, according to the
desire expressed in his will, the instrument was restored after his
death to St Mark's, where it is at present preserved. Dragonetti
used a straight bow similar to the violoncello bow, held overhand
with. the hair slanting towards the neck of the instrument; it
1 The Double Bass (Novello, Music Primers, No. 32), p. 6.
3 See Kathleen Schlesinger, The Instruments of the Orchestra,
Part II. " The Precursors of the Violin Family " (1908-1909).
4 See Laurent Grillet, Les Ancetres du violon et du violoncelle (Paris,
1901), tome ii. p. 159; IWillebald Leo von Lustgendorff, Die Geigen
und Lautenmacher vom Mittelalter bis zur Gegenwart (Frankfurt a. M.,
1004), p. 50; A. C. White, The Double Bass, p. 8.
DOUBLEDAY DOUBS
441
was introduced into England from Paris, and is a favourite with
orchestral players. Praetorius gives an illustration of a sub-bass
viol da gamba or gross contra-bass geige 1 "recently constructed,"
which displaced the other large contra-bass viols; of which he
also gives an illustration. 2
Giovanni Bottesini (1822-1889) was the greatest virtuoso on
the double bass that the world has ever known. It was not only
the perfection of his technique and tone which won him artistic
fame, but also the delicacy of his style and his exquisite taste
in phrasing. (K. S.)
DOUBLEDAY, ABNER (1819-1893), American soldier, was
born at Ballston Spa, New York, on the 26th of June 1819,
and graduated from West Point in 1842. He served in the U.S.
artillery during the Mexican War, being present at the battles of
Monterey and Buena Vista. He was second in command at Fort
Sumter, Charleston, South Carolina, when it was bombarded and
taken by the Confederates in 1861, and later in the campaign of
that year he served in the Shenandoah valley as a field officer. In
February 1862 he was made a brigadier-general of volunteers and
employed in the lines of Washington. He commanded a division
in the Army of the Potomac in the second Bull Run campaign and
at Antietam, becoming major-general U.S.V. in November 1862.
He continued to command his division in the Fredericksburg and
Chancellorsville campaigns, and on the first day of the battle of
Gettysburg he led the I. corps, and for a time all the Union forces
on the field, after the death of General Reynolds. In the latter
part of the war he was employed in various administrative and
military posts; in July 1863 he was breveted colonel, and
in March 1865 brigadier-general and major-general U.S.A.
General Doubleday continued in the army after the war, becoming
colonel U.S.A. in 1867; he retired in 1873. He published two
important works on the Civil War, Reminiscences of Forts Sumter
and Moultrie (1876) and Chancellorsville and Gettysburg (1882),
the latter being a volume of the series " Campaigns of the Civil
War." He died at Mendham, New Jersey, on the 26th of
January 1893.
His younger brother, ULYSSES DOUBLEDAY (1824-1893),
fought through the Civil War as an officer of volunteers, was
breveted brigadier-general U.S.V. in March 1865, and com-
manded a brigade at the battle of Five Forks (ist April).
DOUBLEDAY, THOMAS (1790-1870), English politician and
author, was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne in February 1790. In
early life he adopted the views of William Cobbett, and was active
in promoting the agitation which resulted in the passing of the
Reform Bill of 1832. As secretary of the Northern Political
Union of Whigs and Radicals he took a prominent part in
forwarding the interests of Earl Grey and the reforming party.
In 1858-1859 he was a member of the council of the Northern
Reform Union; and to the last he was a keen observer of political
events. He succeeded his father, George Doubleday, as partner
in a firm of soap manufacturers at Newcastle, but devoted his
attention rather to literature than to mercantile affairs. On the
failure of the firm he obtained the office of registrar of St Andrew's
parish, Newcastle, a post which he held until appointed secretary
to the coal trade. He died at Bulman's Village, Newcastle-on-
Tyne, on the i8th of December 1870. In 1832 Doubleday
published an Essay on Mundane Moral Government, and in 1842
he attacked some of the principles of Malthus in his True Law of
Population. He also wrote A Political Life of Sir Robert Peel
(London, 1856); A Financial, Statistical and Monetary History
of England from 1688 (London, 1847); Matter for Materialists
(London, 1870); The Eve of St Mark, a Romance of Venice; and
three dramas, The Statue Wife, Diocletian and Caius Marius, in
addition to some fishing songs, and many contributions to various
newspapers and periodicals.
DOUBLET (a Fr. word, diminutive of double, folded or of two
thicknesses), a close-fitting garment, with or without sleeves,
extending from the neck to a little below the waist, worn by men
of all ranks and ages from the I4th century to the time of Charles
1 M. Praetorius, Syntagma music. (Wolfenbiittel, 1618 and 1620),
PP- 54-55 and pi. v. (l).
1 Ib. pi. vi. No. 4.
II., when it began to be superseded by coat and waistcoat. The
doublet was introduced into England from France, and was
originally padded for defence or warmth. " Doublet " is also
used of a pair or couple a thing that is the facsimile of another;
as in philology, one of two words differing in form, but repre-
sented by an identical root, as " alarm " or " alarum "; in optics,
of a pair of lenses, combined, for example, to correct aberration.
In the work of the lapidary a doublet is a counterfeit gem, made
by cementing two pieces of plain glass or crystal on each side of a
layer of glass (coloured to represent the stone counterfeited);
a thiu portion of a genuine stone may be cemented upon an in-
ferior one, as a layer of diamond upon a topaz, or ruby on a garnet.
DOUBS, a river of eastern France, rising in the Jura at the foot
of the Noirmont ridge at a height of 3074 ft. and flowing into the
Saone. Its course is 269 m. in length, though the distance from
its source to its mouth is only 56 m. in direct h'ne; its basin has an
area of 3020 sq. m. Flowing N.E. the river traverses the lake of
St Point and passes Pontarlier; thenceforth its course lies chiefly
through wooded gorges of great grandeur. After skirting the
town of Morteau, below which it expands into the picturesque lake
of Chaillexon and descends over the Falls of the Doubs (88 ft. in
height), the river for about 28 m. forms the frontier between
France and Switzerland. Flowing into the latter country for
a short distance, it turns abruptly west, then north, and finally
at Voujeaucourt, south-west. Just below that town the river is
joined by the canal from the Rhone to the Rhine, to accommodate
which its course has been canalized as far as Dole. Till it reaches
Besanjon which lies on a peninsula formed by the river, the Doubs
passes no town of importance except Pontarlier. Some distance
below Besancon it enters the department of Jura, passes Dole,
and leaving the region of hill and mountain, issues into a wide
plain. Traversing this, it receives the waters of the Loue, its
chief affluent, and broadening out to a width of 260 ft., at length
reaches the Sa6ne at Verdun. Below Dole the river is navigable
only for some 8 m. above its mouth.
DOUBS, a frontier department of eastern France, formed in
1790 of the ancient principality of Montbeliard and of part of
the province of Franche-Comte. It is bounded E. and S.E. by
Switzerland, N. by the territory of Belfort and by Haute Saone,
and W. and S.W. by Jura. Pop. (1906) 298,438. Area, 2030 sq.
m. The department takes its name from the river Doubs, by
which it .is traversed. Between the Ognon, which forms the
north-western limit of the department, and the Doubs, runs a
range of low hills known as " the plain." The rest of Doubs is
mountainous, four parallel chains of the Jura crossing it from N.E.
to S.W. The Lomont range, the lowest of these chains, dominates
the left bank of the Doubs. The central region is occupied by
hilly plateaux covered with pasturage and forests, while the rest
of the department is traversed by the remaining three mountain
ranges, the highest and most easterly of which contains the Mont
d'Or (4800 ft.), the culminating point of Doubs. Besides the
Doubs the chief rivers are its tributaries, the Dessoubre, watering
the east of the department, and the Loue, which traverses its
south-western portion. The climate is in general cold and rainy,
and the winters are severe. The soil is stony and loamy, and at
the higher levels there are numerous peat-bogs. Approximately a
fifth of the total area is planted with cereals; more than a third is
occupied by pasture. In its agricultural aspect the department
may be divided into three regions. The highest, on which the
snow usually lies from six to eight months in the year, is in part
barren, but on its less exposed slopes is occupied by forests of fir
trees, and affords good pasturage for cattle. In the second or
lower region the oak, beech, walnut and sycamore flourish; and
the valleys are susceptible of cultivation. The region of the plain
is the most fertile, and produces all kinds of cereals as well as
hemp, vegetables, vines and fruit. Cattle-rearing and dairy-
farming receive much attention ; large quantities of cheese, of the
nature of Gruyere, are produced, mainly by the co-operative
cheese-factories or fruitieres. The rivers of the department
abound in gorges and falls of great beauty. The most important
manufactures are watches, made chiefly at Besancon and Morteau,
hardware (Hfirimoncourt and Valentigney), and machinery.
442
DOUCE DOUGLAS, HOUSE OF
Large iron foundries are found at Audincourt (pop. 5317) and
other towns. The distillation of brandy and absinthe, and the
manufacture of cotton and woollen goods, automobiles and paper,
are also carried on. Exports include watches, h've-stock, wine,
vegetables, iron and hardware; cattle, hides, timber, coal, wine
and machinery are imported. Large quantities of goods, in
transit between France and Switzerland, pass through the depart-
ment. Among its mineral products are building stone and lime,
and there are peat workings. Doubs is served by the Paris-
Lyon railway, the line from Dole to Switzerland passing, via
Pontarlier, through the south of the department. The canal
from the Rhone to the Rhine traverses it for 84 miles.
The department is divided into the arrondissements of
Besangon, Baume-les-Dames, Montbeliard and Pontarlier, with
27 cantons and 637 communes. It belongs to the academie
(educational circumscription) and the diocese of Besancon, which
is the capital, the seat of an archbishop and of a court of appeal,
and headquarters of the VII. army corps. Besides Besancon
the chief towns are Montbeliard and Pontarlier (qq.v.). Ornans, a
town on the Loue, has a church of the i6th century and ruins of a
feudal castle, which are of antiquarian interest. Montbenolt on
the Doubs near Pontarlier has the remains of an Augustine abbey
(i3th to i6th centuries). The cloisters are of the isth century,
and the church contains, among other works of art, some fine
stalls executed in the i6th century. Lower down the Doubs is
the town of Morteau, with the Maison Pertuisier, a house of the
Renaissance period, and a church which still preserves remains
of a previous structure of the i3th century. Baume-les-Dames
owes the affix of its name to a Benedictine convent founded
in 763, to which only noble ladies were admitted. Numerous
antiquities have been found at Mandeure (near Montbeliard),
which stands on the site of the Roman town of Epomanduodurum.
DOUCE, FRANCIS (1757-1834), English antiquary, was born
in London in 1757. His father was a clerk in Chancery. After
completing his education he entered his father's office, but soon
quitted it to devote himself to the study of antiquities. He
became a prominent member of the Society of Antiquaries, and
for a time held the post of keeper of manuscripts in the British
Museum, but was compelled to resign it owing to a quarrel with
one of the trustees. In 1807 he published his Illustrations of
Shakespeare and Ancient Manners (2 vols. 8vo), which contained
some curious information, along with a great deal of trifling
criticism and mistaken interpretation. An unfavourable notice
of the work in The Edinburgh Review greatly irritated the author,
and made him unwilling to venture any further publications. He
contributed, however, a considerable number of papers to the
Archaeologia and The Gentleman's Magazine. In 1833 he published
a Dissertation on the various Designs of the Dance of Death, the
substance of which had appeared forty years before. He died on
the 30th of March 1834. By his will he left his printed books,
illuminated manuscripts, coins, &c., to the Bodleian library; his
own manuscript works to the British Museum, with directions
that the chest containing them should not be opened until the ist
of January 1900; and his paintings, carvings and miscellaneous
antiquities to Sir Samuel Meyrick, who published an account of
them, entitled The Doucean Museum.
DOUGLAS, the name of a Scottish noble family, now re-
presented by the dukes of Hamilton (Douglas-Hamilton, heirs-
male), the earls of Home (Douglas-Home) who also bear the
title of Baron Douglas of Douglas, the dukes of Buccleuch and
Queensberry (Montagu-Douglas-Scott), the earls of Morton
(Douglas), the earls of Wemyss (Wemyss-Charteris-Douglas),
and the baronets Douglas of Carr, of Springwood, -of Glenbervie,
&c. The marquessate of Douglas and the earldom of Angus, the
historic dignities held by the two chief branches of the family,
the Black and the Red Douglas, are merged in the Hamilton
peerage. The name represented the Gaelic dubh glas, dark water,
and Douglasdale, the home of the family in Lanarkshire, is still
in the possession of the earls of Home. The first member of the
family to emerge with any distinctness was William de Douglas,
or Dufglas, whose name frequently appears on charters from 1175
to 1213. He is said to have been brother, or brother-in-law, of
Freskin of Murray, the founder of the house of Murray. His
second son, Brice (d. 1222), became bishop of Moray, while the
estate fell to the eldest, Sir Archibald (d. c. 1240).
SIR WILLIAM OF DOUGLAS (d. 1298), called " le hardi,"
Archibald's grandson, was the first formally to assume the title
of lord of Douglas. After the death of his first wife, Elizabeth,
daughter of Alexander the Steward, he abducted from the manor
of the La Zouches at Tranent an heiress, Eleanor of Lovain,
widow of William de Ferrers, lord of Groby in Leicestershire, who
in 1291 appeared by proxy in the court of the English king,
Edward I., to answer for the offence of marrying without his
permission. He gave a grudging allegiance to John de Baliol,
and swore fealty to Edward I. in 1291; but when the Scottish
barons induced Baliol to break his bond with Edward I. he com-
manded at Berwick Castle, which he surrendered after the sack
of the town by the English in 1 296. After a short imprisonment
Douglas was restored to his Scottish estates on renewing his
homage to Edward I., but his English possessions were forfeited.
He joined Wallace's rising in 1297, and died in 1298, a prisoner in
the Tower of London.
His son, SIR JAMES OF DOUGLAS (1286-1330), lord of Douglas,
called the " Good," whose exploits are among the most romantic
in Scottish history, was educated in Paris. On his return he
found an Englishman, Robert de Clifford, in possession of his
estates. His offer of allegiance to Edward I. being refused, he
cast in his lot with Robert Bruce, whom he joined before his
coronation at Scone in 1306. From the battle of Methven he
escaped with Bruce and the remnant of his followers, and ac-
companied him in his wanderings in the Highlands. In the next
year they returned to the south of Scotland. He twice outwitted
the English garrison of Douglas and destroyed the castle. One of
these exploits, carried out on Palm Sunday, the igth of March
1307, with barbarities excessive even in those days, is known as
the " Douglas Larder." Douglas routed Sir John de Mowbray at
Ederford Bridge, near Kilmarnock, and was entrusted with the
conduct of the war in the south, while Bruce turned to the High-
lands. In 1308 he captured Thomas Randolph (afterwards earl
of Moray), soon to become one of Bruce's firm supporters, and a
friendly rival of Douglas, whose exploits he shared. He made
many successful raids on the English border, which won for him
the dreaded name of the " Black Douglas " in English households.
Through the capture of Roxburgh Castle in 1314 by stratagem,
the assailants being disguised as black oxen, he secured Teviot-
dale; and at Bannockburn, where he was knighted on the battle-
field, he commanded the left wing with Walter the Steward.
During the thirteen years of intermittent warfare that followed
he repeatedly raided England. He slew Sir Robert de Nevill, the
" Peacock of the North," in single combat in 1316, and in 1319
he invaded Yorkshire, in company with Randolph, defeating
an army assembled by William de Melton, archbishop of York,
at Mitton-on-Swale (September 20), in a fight known as " The
Chapter of Myton." In 1322 he captured the pass of Byland in
Yorkshire, and forced the English army to retreat. He was
rewarded by the " Emerald Charter," granted by Bruce, which
gave him criminal jurisdiction over the family estates, and
released the lords of Douglas from various feudal obligations.
The emerald ring which Bruce gave Douglas in ratification of the
charter is lost, but another of the king's gifts, a large two-handed
sword (bearing, however, a later inscription), exists at Douglas
Castle. In a daring night attack on the English camp in Weardale
in 1327 Douglas came near capturing Edward III. himself.
After laying waste the northern counties he retreated, without
giving battle to the English. Before his death in 1329 Bruce
desired Douglas to carry his heart to Palestine in redemption
of his unfulfilled vow to go on crusade. Accordingly Sir James
set out in 1330, bearing with him a silver casket containing the
embalmed heart of Bruce. He fell fighting with the Moors in
Spain on the 25th of August of that year, and was buried in
St Bride's Church, Douglas. Since his day the Douglases have
borne a human heart in their coat of arms. Sir James was said
to have fought in seventy battles and to have conquered in fifty-
seven. His exploits, as told in Froissart's Chronicles and in John
DOUGLAS, EARLS OF
443
Barbour's Bruce, are familiar from Scott's Tales of a Grandfather
and Castle Dangerous. His half-brother, Sir Archibald, defeated
Edward Baliol at Annan in 1332, and had just been appointed
regent of Scotland for David II. when he risked a pitched battle
at Halidon Hill, where he was defeated and killed (1333), with
his nephew William, lord of Douglas. The inheritance fell to
his brother, a churchman, Hugh the "Dull" (b. 1294), who
surrendered his lands to David II.; and a re-grant was made
to William Douglas, next referred to.
WILLIAM DOUGLAS, IST EARL OF DOUGLAS (c. 1327-1384),
had been educated in France, and returned to Scotland in 1348.
In 1353 he killed in Ettrick Forest his kinsman, William, 1 the
knight of Liddesdale (c. 1300-1353), known as the " Flower of
Chivalry," who had been warden of the western marches during
David II. 's minority, and had taken a heroic share in driving the
English from southern Scotland. Liddesdale had in 1342 lost
the king's favour by the murder of Sir Alexander Ramsay of
Dalhousie, whom David had made constable of the castle of
Roxburgh and sheriff of Teviotdale in his place; he was taken
prisoner at Nevill's Cross in 1346, and only released on becoming
liegeman of Edward III. for the lands of Liddesdale and the
castle of the Hermitage; Liddesdale 2 was also accused of
contriving the murder of Sir David Barclay in 1350. Some of his
lands fell to his kinsman and murderer, who was created earl of
Douglas in 1358. In 1357 his marriage with Margaret, sister and
heiress of Thomas, i3th earl of Mar, eventually brought him the
estates and the earldom of Mar. During a short truce with the
warden of the English marches he had served in France, being
wounded at Poitiers in 1356. He was one of the securities for the
payment of David II. 's ransom, and in consequence of the royal
misappropriation of some moneys raised for this purpose Douglas
was for a short time in rebellion in 1363. In 1364^0 joined David
II. in seeking a treaty with England which should deprive Robert
the Steward, formerly an ally of Douglas, of the succession by
putting an English prince on the Scottish throne. The in-
dependence of Scotland was to be guaranteed, and a special
clause provided for the restoration of the English estates of the
Douglas family. On the accession of Robert II. he was neverthe-
less reconciled, becoming justiciar of southern Scotland, and the
last years of his life were spent in making and repelling border
raids. He died at Douglas in May 1384, and was succeeded by
his son James. By his wife's sister-in-law, Margaret Stewart,
countess of Angus in her own right, and widow of the i3th earl of
Mar, he had a son George, afterwards ist earl of Angus.
JAMES, 2ND EARL or DOUGLAS AND MAR(C. 1358-1388), married
Lady Isabel Stewart, daughter of Robert II. In 1385 he made
war on the English with the assistance of a French contingent
under John de Vienne. He allowed the English to advance to
Edinburgh, wisely refusing battle, and contented himself with a
destructive counter-raid on Carlisle. Disputes soon arose between
the allies, and the French returned home at the end of the year.
In 1388 Douglas captured Hotspur Percy's pennon in a skirmish
near Newcastle. Percy sought revenge in the battle of Otterburn
(August 1388), which ended in a victory for the Scots and the
capture of Hotspur and his brother, though Douglas fell in the
light. The struggle, narrated by Froissart, is celebrated in the
English and Scottish ballads called " Chevy Chase " and " The
Battle of Otterburn." Sir Philip Sidney " never heard the olde
song of Percy and Douglas that I found not my heart mooved
more than with a trumpet " (Apologie for Poelrie). The 2nd earl
left no legitimate male issue. His natural sons William and
Archibald became the ancestors of the families of Douglas 01
1 A descendant of a younger son of the original William de Douglas.
" On the murder of the knight of Liddesdale, his lands, with the
exception of Liddesdale and the .Hermitage forfeited to the crown
and then secured by his nephew, fell to his nephew, Sir James
Douglas of Dalkeith and Aberdpur (d. 1420), whose great-grandson
James Douglas, 3rd Lord Dalkeith (d. 1504), became earl of Morton
in 1458 on his marriage with Lady Joan Stewart, third daughter of
James I. His grandson, the 3rd earl, left daughters only, of whom
the eldest, Margaret, married James Hamilton, earl of Arran, regent
of Scotland, ancestor of the dukes of Hamilton; Elizabeth married
in 1543 James Douglas, who became by this marriage 4th earl of
Morton.
Drumlanrig (see QUEENSBERRY) and Douglas of Cavers. His
sister Isabel became countess of Mar, inheriting the lands of Mar
and his unentailed estates.
The earldom and entailed estates of Douglas reverted by the
patent of 1358 to ARCHIBALD DOUGLAS, 3RD EARL OF DOUGLAS,
called " The Grim " (c. 1328-6. 1400), a natural son of the " good"
Sir James. With his cousin, the ist earl of Douglas, he had
fought at Poitiers, where he was taken prisoner, but was released
through ignorance of his real rank. On his return to Scotland he
became constable and sheriff of Edinburgh, and, later, warden of
the western marches, where his position was strengthened by his
becoming lord of Galloway in 1369 and by his purchase of the
earldom of Wigtown in 1 3 7 2 . He further increased his estates by
his marriage with Joanna Moray, heiress of Bothwell. During the
intervals of war with the English he imposed feudal law on the
border chieftains, drawing up a special cede for the marches. He
was twice sent on missions to the French court. The power of the
Black Douglas overshadowed the crown under the weak rule' of
Robert III., and in 1399 he arranged a marriage between David,
duke of Rothesay, the king's son and heir, and his own daughter,
Marjory Douglas. Rothesay was already contracted to marry
Elizabeth Dunbar, daughter of the earl of March, who had paid a
large sum for the honour. March, alienated from his allegiance by
this breach of faith on the king's part, now joined the English
forces. A natural son of Archibald, Sir William of Douglas, lord
of Nithisdale (d. 1392), married Egidia, daughter of Robert III.
Archibald the Grim was succeeded by his eldest son,ARCHiBALD,
4TH EARL OF DOUGLAS, ist duke of Touraine, lord of Galloway
and Annandale (1372-1424), who married in 1390 Lady Margaret
Stewart, eldest daughter of John, earl of Carrick, afterwards King
Robert III. In 1400 March and Hotspur Percy had laid waste
eastern Scotland as far as Lothian when they were defeated by
Douglas (then master of Douglas) near Preston. With the regent,
Robert, duke of Albany, he was suspected of complicity in the
murder (March 1402) of David, d"uke of Rothesay, who was in
their custody at Falkland Castle, but both were officially declared
guiltless by the parliament. In that year Douglas raided England
and was taken prisoner at Homildon Hill by the Percys. He
fought on the side of his captors at Shrewsbury (1403), and was
taken prisoner by the English king Henry IV. He became
reconciled during his captivity with the earl of March,whose lands
had been conferred on Douglas, but were now, with the exception
of Annandale, restored. He returned to Scotland in 1409, but
was in constant communication with the English court for the
release of the captive king James I. In 141 2 he had visited Paris,
when he entered into a personal alliance with John the Fearless,
duke of Burgundy, and in 1423 he commanded a contingent of
10,000 Scots sent to the help of Charles VII. against the English.
He was made lieutenant-general in the French army, and received
the peerage-duchy of Touraine with remainder to his heirs-male.
The new duke was defeated and slain at Verneuil (1424) with his
second son, James; his persistent ill-luck earned him the title
of the Tyneman (the loser).
ARCHIBALD, STH EARL OF DOUGLAS (c. 1391-1439), succeeded
to his father's English and Scottish honours, though he never
touched the revenues of Touraine. He fought at Bauge in 1421,
and was made count of Longueville in Normandy.
His two sons, WILLIAM, 6xn EARL (1423 ?-i44o), and David,
were little more than boys at the time of their father's death in
1439. " They can hardly have been guilty of any real offence when,
on the 24th of November 1440, they were summoned to court by
Sir William Crichton, lord chancellor of Scotland, and, after a
mock trial in the young king's presence, were beheaded forthwith
in the courtyard of Edinburgh Castle. This murder broke up the
dangerous power wielded by the Douglases. The lordships of
Annandale and Bothwell fell to the crown; Galloway to the earl's
sister Margaret, the "Fair Maid of Galloway"; while the
Douglas lands passed to his great-uncle JAMES DOUGLAS, 7TH
EARL OF DOUGLAS, called the " Gross,"of Balvany (1371-1444),
lord of Abercorn and Aberdour, earl of Avondale (cr. 1437),
younger son of the 3rd earl.
The latter's sons, WILLIAM (c. 1425-1452) and JAMES (1426-
DOUGLAS, SIR C. DOUGLAS, GAVIN
444
1488), became 8th and gth earls respectively; Archibald became
earl of Moray by marriage with Elizabeth Dunbar, daughter and
co-heiress of James, earl of Moray; Hugh was created earl of
Ormond in 1445; John was lord of Balvany; Henry became
bishop of Dunkeld.
The power of the Black Douglases was restored by the 8th earl,
who recovered Wigtown, Galloway and Bothwell by marriage (by
papal dispensation) with his cousin, the Fair Maid of Galloway.
He was soon high in favour with James II., and procured the
disgrace of Crichton, his kinsmen's murderer, by an alliance with
his rival, Sir Alexander Livingstone. In 1450 James raided the
earl's lands during his absence on a pilgrimage to Rome; but
their relations seemed outwardly friendly until in 1452 the king
invited Douglas to Stirling Castle under a safe-conduct, in itself,
however, a proof of strained relations. There James demanded
the dissolution of a league into which Douglas had entered with
Alexander Lindsay, the " Tiger " earl (4th) of Crawford. On
Douglas's refusal the king murdered him (February 22) with his
own hands, the courtiers helping to despatch him. The tales of
the hanging of Sir Herbert Herries of Terregles and the murder
of McLellan of Bombie by Douglas rest on no sure evidence.
JAMES DOUGLAS, QTH EARL (and last), denounced his brother's
murderers and took up arms, but was obliged by the desertion of
his allies to submit. He obtained a papal dispensation to marry
his brother's widow, in order to keep the family estates together.
He intrigued with the English court, and in 1455 rebelled once
more. Meanwhile another branch of the Douglas family, known
as the Red Douglas, had risen into importance (see ANGUS, EARLS
OF), and George Douglas, 4th earl of Angus (d. 1463), great-
grandson of the ist earl of Douglas, took sides with the king
against his kinsmen. James Douglas, again deserted by his chief
allies, fled to England, and his three brothers, Ormond, Moray
and Balvany, were defeated by Angus at Arkinholm on the Esk.
Moray was killed, Ormond taken prisoner and executed, while
Balvany escaped to England. Their last stronghold, the Thrieve
in Galloway, fell, and the lands of the Douglases were declared
forfeit, and were divided among their rivals, the lordship of
Douglas falling to the Red Douglas, 4th earl of Angus. In
England the earl of Douglas intrigued against his native land; he
was employed by Edward IV. in 1461 to negotiate a league with
the western highlanders against the Scottish kingdom. In 1484
he was taken prisoner while raiding southern Scotland, and was
relegated to the abbey of Lindores, where he died in 1488.
The title of Douglas was restored in 1633 when WILLIAM, nth
earl of Angus (1580-1660), was created IST MARQUESS OF
DOUGLAS by Charles I. In 1645 he joined Montrose at Philip-
haugh, and was imprisoned in 1646 at Edinburgh Castle, only
obtaining his release by signing the Covenant. His eldest son,
Archibald, created earl of Ormond, Lord Bothwell and Hartside,
in 1651, predeceased his father; Lord James Douglas (c. 1617-
1645) and his half-brother, Lord George Douglas (c. 1636-1692),
created earl of Dumbarton in 1675, successively commanded
a Scots regiment 1 in the French service. William (1635-1694),
created earl of Selkirk in 1646, became 3rd duke of Hamilton after
his marriage (1656) with Anne, duchess of Hamilton in her own
right. By the failure of heirs in the elder branches of the family
the dukes of Hamilton (q.v.) became heirs-male of the house of
Douglas.
JAMES DOUGLAS, 2ND MARQUESS OF DOUGLAS (1646-1700),
succeeded his grandfather in 1660. His eldest son, John, by
courtesy earl of Angus, raised a regiment of 1 200 men, first known
as the Angus regiment, later as the Cameronians (26th Foot).
He was killed at its head at Steinkirk in 1692. The younger son,
ARCHIBALD, 3RD MARQUESS (1694-1761), was created duke of
Douglas in 1703, but the dukedom became extinct on hi? death,
without heirs, in 1761. He was a consistent supporter of the
Hanoverian cause, and fought at Sheriffmuir. The heir-pre-
sumptive to the Douglas estates was his sister, Lady Jane Douglas
(1698-1753), who in 1746 secretly married Colonel, afterwards
Sir, John Steuart of GrandtuUy, by whom she had twin sons, born
1 Transferred to the British service in 1669 and eventually known
as the Royal Scots regiment.
in Paris in 1 748. These children were alleged to be spurious, and
when Lady Jane and the younger of the two boys died in 1753,
the duke refused to acknowledge the survivor as his nephew;
but in 1760 he was induced, under the influence of his wife, to
revoke a will devising the estates to the Hamiltons in favour of
Lady Jane's son, Archibald James Edward Steuart (1748-1827),
ist baron Douglas of Douglas (cr. 1790) in the British peerage.
The inheritance of the estates was disputed by the Hamiltons,
representing the male line, but the House of Lords decided in
favour of Douglas in 1 769. Three of his sons succeeded Archibald
Douglas as Baron Douglas, but as they left no male issue the title
passed to the earls of Home, Cospatrick Alexander, nth earl of
Home, having married a granddaughter of Archibald, ist Baron
Douglas. Their descendants, the earls of Home, represent the
main line of Douglas on the female side.
AUTHORITIES. David Hume of Godscroft (i56o?-i63o), who was
secretary to Archibald Douglas, 8th earl of Angus, wrote a History
of the House and Race of Douglas and Angus, printed under his
daughter's superintendence (Edinburgh, 1644). He was a partial
historian, and his account can only be accepted with caution.
Modern authorities are Sir William Fraser, The Douglas Book (4 vols.,
Edinburgh, 1885), and Sir H. Maxwell, History of the House of
Douglas (2 vols., 1902). See also G. E. C.[okayne]'s Peerage, and
Douglas's Scots Peerage; Calendar of State Papers, Scottish Series,
The Hamilton Papers, &c.
DOUGLAS, SIR CHARLES, Bart. (d. 1789), British admiral,
a descendant of the Scottish earls of Morton, was promoted
lieutenant in the navy on the 4th of December 1753. Nothing is
known of his early life. He became commander on the 24th of
February 1759, and attained to post rank in 1761. When the War
of American Independence began, he took an active part in the
defence of Canada in 1775, and he afterwards commanded the
" Stirling Castle " 64 in the battle of the Ushant, 27th of July
1778. His reputation is based first on the part he played in the
battle of Dominica, i2th of April 1782, and then on the improve-
ments in gunnery which he introduced into the British navy.
It appears from the testimony of Sir F. Thesiger (d. 1805), who
was present on the quarter-deck of the flagship, that Sir Charles
Douglas, who was then captain of the fleet, first pointed out to
Rodney the possibility and the advantage of passing through
the French line. His advice was taken with reluctance. On the
other hand, Lord Hood accuses Douglas of living in such abject
fear of his admiral that he did not venture to speak with the
freedom which his important post entitled him to take. His more
certain claim to be ranked high among naval officers is founded
on the many improvements he introduced into naval gunnery.
Some account of these will be found in the writings of his son.
He became rear-admiral on the 24th of September 1787, and died
suddenly of apoplexy in February 1 789. He was made a baronet
for his services in the West Indies.
There is a life of Sir Charles Douglas in Charnock, Biogr. Nav.
vi. 427.
DOUGLAS, GAVIN (i474?-i522), Scottish poet and bishop,
third son of Archibald, 5th earl of Angus (called the " great earl of
Angus " and " Bell-the-Cat "), was born c. 1474, probably at one
of his father's seats. He was a student at St Andrews, 1489-1494,
and thereafter, it is supposed, at Paris. In 1496 he obtained the
living of Monymusk, Aberdeenshire, and later he became parson
of Lynton (mod. Linton) and rector of Hauch (mod. Prestonkirk),
in East Lothian; and about 1501 was preferred to the deanery or
provostship of the collegiate church of St Giles, Edinburgh, which
he held with his parochial charges. From this date till the battle
of Flodden, in September 1513, he appears to have been occupied
with his ecclesiastical duties and literary work. Indeed all the
extant writings by which he has earned his place as a poet and
translator belong to this period. After the disaster at Flodden he
was completely absorbed in public business. Three weeks after
the battle he, still provost of St Giles, was admitted a burgess of
Edinburgh, his father, the " Great Earl," being then civil provost
of the capital. The latter dying soon afterwards (January 1514)
in Wigtownshire, where he had gone as justiciar, and his son
having been killed at Flodden, the succession fell to Gavin's
nephew Archibald (6th earl). The marriage of this youth to
James IV.'s widow on the 6th of August 1514 did much to
DOUGLAS, GAVIN
445
identify the Douglases with the English party in Scotland, as
against the French party led by Albany, and incidentally to
determine the political career of bis uncle Gavin. During thefirst
weeks of the queen's sorrow after the battle, Gavin, with one or
two colleagues of the council, acted as personal adviser, and it
may be taken for granted that he supported the pretensions
of the young earl. His own hopes of preferment had been
strengthened by the death of many of the higher clergy at
Flodden. The first outcome of the new connexion was his
appointment to the abbacy of Aberbrothock by the queen regent,
before her marriage, probably in June 1514. Soon after the
marriage she nominated him archbishop of St Andrews, in
succession to Elphinstone, archbishop-designate. But Hepburn,
prior of St Andrews, having obtained the vote of the chapter,
expelled him, and was himself in turn expelled by Forman,
bishop of Moray, who had been nominated by the pope. In the
interval, Douglas's rights in Aberbrothock had been transferred
to James Beaton, archbishop of Glasgow, and he was now without
title or temporality. The breach between the queen's party and
Albany's had widened, and the queen's advisers had begun an
intrigue with England, to the end that the royal widow and
her young son should be removed to Henry's court. In those
deliberations Gavin Douglas took an active part, and for this
reason stimulated the opposition which successfully thwarted his
preferment.
In January 1515 on the death of George Brown, bishop of
Dunkeld, Douglas's hopes revived. The queen nominated him
to the see, which he ultimately obtained, though not without
trouble. For the earl of Athole had forced his brother. Andrew
Stewart, prebendary of Craig, upon the chapter, and had put him
in possession of the bishop's palace. The queen appealed to the
pope and was seconded by her brother of England, with the result
that the pope's sanction was obtained on the i8th of February
1515. Some of the correspondence of Douglas and his friends
incident to this transaction was intercepted. When Albany came
from France and assumed the regency, these documents and the
" purchase " of the bishopric from Rome contrary to statute were
made the basis of an attack on Douglas, who was imprisoned in
Edinburgh Castle, thereafter in the castle of St Andrews (under
the charge of his old opponent, Archbishop Hepburn), and later
in the castle of Dunbar, and again in Edinburgh. The pope's
intervention procured his release, after nearly a year's imprison-
ment. The queen meanwhile had retired to England. After
July 1516 Douglas appears to have been in possession of his see,
and to have patched up a diplomatic peace with Albany.
On the 1 7 th of May 1 5 1 7 the bishop of Dunkeld proceeded with
Albany to France to conduct the negotiations which ended in
the treaty of Rouen. He was back in Scotland towards the end
of June. Albany's longer absence in France permitted the party-
faction of the nobles to come to a head in a plot by the earl of
Arran to seize the earl of Angus, the queen's husband. The issue
of this plot was the well-known fight of "Clear-the-Causeway,"
in which Gavin Douglas's part stands out in picturesque relief.
The triumph over the Hamiltons had an unsettling effect upon the
earl of Angus. He made free of the queen's rents and abducted
Lord Traquair's daughter. The queen set about to obtain a
divorce, and used her influence for the return of Albany as a
means of undoing her husband's power. Albany's arrival in
November 1521, with a large body of French men-at-arms,
compelled Angus, with the bishop and others, to flee to the
Borders. From this retreat Gavin Douglas was sent by the earl
to the English court, to ask for aid against the French party and
against the queen, who was reported to be the mistress of the
regent. Meanwhile he was deprived of his bishopric, and forced,
for safety, to remain in England, where he effected nothing in the
interests of his nephew. The declaration ol war by England
against Scotland, in answer to the recent Franco-Scottish negotia-
tions, prevented his return. His case was further complicated by
the libellous animosity of Beaton, archbishop of St Andrews
(whose' life he had saved in the " Clear-the-Causeway " incident),
who was anxious to thwart his election to the archbishopric of St
Andrews, now vacant by the death of Forman. In 1522 Douglas
was stricken by the plague which raged in London, and died at
the house of his friend Lord Dacre. During the closing years
of exile he was on intimate terms with the historian Polydore
Vergil, and one of his last acts was to arrange to give Polydore a
corrected version of Major's account of Scottish affairs. Douglas
was buried in the church of the Savoy, where a monumental brass
(removed from its proper site after the fire in 1864) still records his
death and interment.
Douglas's literary work, now his chief claim to be remembered,
belongs, as has been stated, to the period 1501-1513, when he was
provost of St Giles. He left four poems.
1. The Police of Honour, his earliest work, is a piece of the
later type of dream-allegory, extending to over 2000 lines in nine-
lined stanzas. In its descriptions of the various courts on their
way to the palace, and of the poet's adventures first, when he
incautiously slanders the court of Venus, and later when after his
pardon he joins in the procession and passes to see the glories of
the palace the poem carries on the literary traditions of the
courts of love, as shown especially in the " Romaunt of the Rose"
and " The Hous of Fame." The poem is dedicated to James IV.,
not without some lesson in commendation of virtue and honour.
No MS. of the poem is extant. The earliest known edition
( c - X 553) was printed at London by William Copland; an Edin-
burgh edition, from the press of Henry Charteris, followed in
1579. From certain indications in the latter and the evidence
of some odd leaves discovered by David Laing, it has been con-
cluded that there was an earlier Edinburgh edition, which has
been ascribed to Thomas Davidson, printer, and dated c. 1540.
2. King Hart is another example of the later allegory, and, as
such, of higher literary merit. Its subject is human life told in
the allegory of King Heart in his castle, surrounded by his five
servitors (the senses), Queen Plesance, Foresight and other
courtiers. The poem runs to over 900 lines and is written in
eight-lined stanzas. The text is preserved in the Maitland folio
MS. in the Pepysian library, Cambridge. It is not known to
have been printed before 1 786, when it appeared in Pinkerton's
Ancient Scottish Poems.
3. Conscience is in four seven-lined stanzas. Its subject is the
''conceit" that men first clipped away the ''con" from "con-
science" and left "science" and "na mair." Then they lost
" sci," and had nothing but " ens " (" that schrew, Riches and
geir").
4. Douglas's longest, last, and in some respects most im-
portant work is his translation of the Aeneid, the first version
of a great classic poet in any English dialect. The work includes
the thirteenth book by Mapheus Vegius; and each of the
thirteen books is introduced by a prologue. The subjects and
styles of these prologues show great variety: some appear to be
literary exercises with little or no connexion with the books which
they introduce, and were perhaps written earlier and for other
purposes. In the first, or general, prologue, Douglas claims a
higher position for Virgil than for his master Chaucer, and attacks
Caxton for his inadequate rendering of a French translation of the
Aeneid. That Douglas undertook this work and that he makes a
plea for more accurate scholarship in the translation have been
the basis of a prevalent notion that he is a Humanist in spirit and
the first exponent of Renaissance doctrine in Scottish literature.
Careful study of the text will not support this view. Douglas
is in all important respects even more of a medievalist than
his contemporaries; and, like Henryson and Dunbar, strictly
a member of the allegorical school and a follower, in the most
generous way, of Chaucer's art. There are several early MSS.
of the Aeneid extant: (a) in the library of Trinity College,
Cambridge, c. 1525, (6) the Elphynstoun MS. in the library of the
university of Edinburgh, c. 1525, (c) the Ruthven MS. in the
same collection, c. 1535, (d) in the library of Lambeth Palace,
1 545-1 546. The first printed edition appeared in London in 1 5 53.
An Edinburgh edition was issued from the press of Thomas
Ruddimanin 1710.
For Douglas's career see, in addition to the public records and
general histories, Bishop Sage's Life in Ruddiman s edition, and tl at
By John Small in the first volume of his edition of the Works of Gavin
44 6
DOUGLAS, SIR H. DOUGLAS, STEPHEN
Douglas (4 vols., 1874, the only collected edition of Douglas's works)
A new edition of the texts is much to be desired. On Douglas'
place in Scottish literature see SCOTLAND: Scottish Literature, alsc
G. Gregory Smith's Transition Period (1900) and chapters in th
Cambridge History of English Literature, vol. ii. (1908). P. Lange'
dissertation Chaucer s Einfluss auf die Originaldichtungen des Schotten
Gavin Douglas (Halle, 1882) draws attention to Douglas's indebted
ness to Chaucer. Further discussion of the question of Douglas'
alleged Humanism will be found in Courthope's History of English
Poetry, i. (1895), T. F. Henderson's Scottish Vernacular Literature
(1898), and J.H. Mi\lar's Literary History of Scotland (1903). Forthe
language of the poems see G. Gregory Smith's Specimens of Middle
Scots (1902). (G. G. S.)
DOUGLAS, SIR HOWARD, Bart. (1776-1861), British general
younger son of Admiral Sir Charles Douglas, was born at Gosport
in 1776, and entered the Royal Military Academy in 1790. He
was commissioned second lieutenant in the Royal Artillery in
1794, becoming first lieutenant a few months later. In 1795 he
was shipwrecked while in charge of a draft for Canada, and lived
with his men for a whole winter on the Labrador coast. Soon
after his return to England in 1799 he was made a captain-
lieutenant, and in the same year he married. In his regimental
service during the next few years, he was attached to all branches
of the artillery in succession, becoming captain in 1804, after which
he was placed on half-pay to serve at the Royal Military College.
Douglas was at this time (1804) appointed to a majority in the
York Rangers, a corps immediately afterwards reduced, and he
remained on the roll of its officers until promoted major-general.
The senior department of the R.M.C. at High Wycombe, of which
he was in charge, was the forerunner of the Staff College. Douglas,
since 1806 a brevet lieutenant-colonel, served in 1808-1809 in the
Peninsula and was present at Corunna, after which he took part
in the Walcheren expedition. In 1809 he succeeded to the
baronetcy on the death of his half-brother, Vice-admiral Sir
William Henry Douglas. In 1812 he was employed in special
missions in the north of Spain, and took part in numerous minor
operations in this region, but he was soon recalled, the home
government deeming his services indispensable to the Royal
Military College. He became brevet colonel in 1814 and C.B.
in 1815. In 1816 appeared his Essay on the Principles and
Construction of Military Bridges (subsequent editions 1832, 1853) ;
in 1819, Observations on the Motives, Errors and Tendency of M.
Carnot's System of Defeme, and in the following year his Treatise
on Naval Gunnery (of which numerous editions and translations
appeared up to the general introduction of rifled ordnance). In
1821 he was promoted major-general. Douglas's criticisms of
Carnot led to an important experiment being carried out at
Woolwich in 1822, and his Naval Gunnery became a standard
text-book, and indeed first drew attention to the subject of which
it treated. From 1823 to 1831 Sir Howard Douglas was governor
of New Brunswick, and, while there, he had to deal with the
Maine boundary dispute of 1828. He also founded Fredericton
College, of which he was the first chancellor. On his return to
Europe he was employed in various missions, and he published
about this time Naval Evolutions, a controversial work dealing
with the question of " breaking the line " (London, 1832). From
1835 to 1840 Douglas, now a G.C.M.G., was lord high com-
missioner of the Ionian Islands, where, amongst other reforms, he
introduced a new code of laws. In 1837 he became a lieutenant-
general, in 1840 a K.C.B., in 1841 a civil G.C.B., and in 1851 a
general. From 1842 to 1847 Douglas sat in parliament, where he
took a prominent part in debates on military and naval matters
and on the corn laws. He was frequently consulted on important
military questions. His later works included Observations on the
Modern System of Fortification, &c. (London, 1859), and Naval
Warfare Under Steam (London, 1858 and 1860). He died on the
9th of November 1861 at Tunbridge Wells. Sir Howard Douglas
was a F.R.S., one of the founders of the R.G.S., and an honorary
D.C.L. of Oxford University. Shortly before his death he
declined the offer of a military G.C.B.
See S. W. Fullom, Life of Sir Howard Douglas (London, 1862), and
irentleman s Magazine, 3rd series, xii. 90-92.
DOUGLAS, JOHN (1721-1807), Scottish man of letters and
Anglican bishop, was the son of a small shopkeeper at Pittenweem,
Fife, where he was born on the i4th of July 1721. He was
educated at Dunbar and at Balliol College, Oxford, where he took
his M.A. degree in 1743, and as chaplain to the 3rd regiment
of foot guards he was at the battle of Fontenoy, 1745. He then
returned to Balliol as a Snell exhibitioner; became vicar of High
Ercall, Shropshire, in 1750; canon of Windsor, 1762; bishop of
Carlisle, 1787 (and also dean of Windsor, 1788); bishop of
Salisbury, 1791. Other honours were the degree of D.D., 1758
and those of F.R.S. and F.S.A. in 1778. Douglas was not con-
spicuous as an ecclesiastical administrator, preferring to his livings
the delights of London in winter and the fashionable watering-
places in summer. Under the patronage of the earl of Bath he
entered into a good many literary controversies, vindicating
Milton from W. Lauder's charge of plagiarism (1750), attacking
David Hume's rationalism in his Criterion of Miracles (1752), and
the Hutchinsonians in his Apology for the Clergy (1755). He also
edited Captain Cook's Journals, and Clarendon's Diary and
Letters ( 1 7 63) . He died on the 1 8th of May 1 807 , and a volume of
Miscellaneous Works, prefaced by a short biography, was published
in 1820.
DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ARNOLD (1813-186!), American
statesman, was born at Brandon, Vermont, on the 23rd of April
1813. His father, a physician, died in July 1 8 1 3 , and the boy was
under the care of a bachelor uncle until he was fourteen, when his
uncle married and Douglas was thrown upon his own resources.
He was apprenticed to a cabinetmaker in Middlebury, Vt., and
then to another in Brandon, but soon abandoned this trade.' He
attended schools at Brandon and Canandaigua (N. Y.), and began
the study of law. In 1833 he went West, and finally settled in
Jacksonville, Illinois, where he was admitted to the bar in March
1834, and obtained a large practice. From the first he took an
active interest in politics, identifying himself with the Jackson
Democrats, and his rise was remarkably rapid even for the Middle
West of that period. In February 1835 he was elected public
arosecutor of the first judicial circuit, the most important at that
time in Illinois; in 1835 he was one of several Democrats in
Morgan county to favour a state Democratic convention to elect
delegates to the national convention of 1836 an important move
toward party regularity; in December 1836 he became a member
of the state legislature. In 1837 he was appointed by President
Van Buren registrar of the land office at Springfield, which had
ust become the state capital. In 1840 he did much to carry the
state for Van Buren; and for a few months he was secretary of
state of Illinois. He was a judge of the supreme court of Illinois
rom 1841 to 1843. In 1843 he was elected to the national House
)f Representatives.
In Congress, though one of the youngest members, he at once
prang into prominence by his clever defence of Jackson during
he consideration by the House of a bill remitting the fine
mposed on Jackson for contempt of court in New Orleans. He
was soon recognized as one of the ablest and most energetic of the
Democratic leaders. An enthusiastic believer in the destiny
>f his country and more especially of the West, and a thorough-
going expansionist, he heartily favoured in Congress the measures
which resulted in the annexation of Texas and in the Mexican
War in the discussion of the annexation of Texas he suggested
as early as 1845 that the states to be admitted should come
n slave or free, as their people should vote when they applied
o Congress for admission, thus foreshadowing his doctrine of
' Popular Sovereignty." He took an active share in the Oregon
ontroversy, asserting his unalterable determination, in spite
f President Folk's faltering from the declaration of his party's
platform, not to " yield up one inch " of the territory to Great
Jritain, and advocating its occupation by a military force;
ndeed he consistently regarded Great Britain as the natural and
oremost rival of the United States, the interests of the two
lations, he thought, being always opposed, and few senators
ought more vigorously the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty or Great
Britain's reassertion of the right of search on the high seas. He
rdently supported the policy of making Federal appropriations
of land, but not of money) for internal improvements of a
ational character, being a prominent advocate of the con-
truction, by government aid, of a trans-continental railway,
DOUGLAS
447
and the chief promoter (1850) of the Illinois Central; in 1854 he
suggested that Congress should impose tonnage duties from which
towns and cities might themselves pay for harbour improvement,
&c. To him as chairman of the committee on territories, at first
in the House, and then in the Senate, of which he became a
member in December 1847, it fell to introduce the bills for
admitting Texas, Florida, Iowa, Wisconsin, Minnesota, California
and Oregon into the Union, and for organizing the territories of
Minnesota, Oregon, New Mexico, Utah, Washington, Kansas and
Nebraska. In 1848 he introduced a bill proposing that all the
territory acquired from Mexico should be admitted into the
Union as a single state, and upon the defeat of this bill proposed
others providing for the immediate admission of parts of this
territory.
In the bitter debates concerning the keenly disputed question
of the permission of slavery in the territories, Douglas was
particularly prominent. Against slavery itself he seems never to
have had any moral antipathy; he married (1847) the daughter 1
of a slaveholder, Colonel Robert Martin of North Carolina, and a
cousin of Douglas's colleague in Congress, D. S. Reid; and his
wife and children were by inheritance the owners of slaves, though
he himself never was. He did more probably than any other
one man, except Henry Clay, to secure the adoption of the
Compromise Measures of 1850. In 1849 the Illinois legislature
demanded that its representatives and senators should vote for
the prohibition of slavery in the Mexican cession, but next year
this sentiment in Illinois had grown much weaker, and, both
there and in Congress, Douglas's name was soon to become
identified with the so-called " popular sovereignty " or " squatter
sovereignty " theory, previously enunciated by Lewis Cass, by
which each territory was to be left to decide for itself whether it
should or should not have slavery. In 1850 his power of specious
argument won back to him his Chicago constituents who had
violently attacked him for not opposing the Fugitive Slave Law.
The bill for organizing the territories of Kansas and Nebraska,
which Douglas reported in January 1854 and which in amended
form was signed by the president on the 3oth of May, reopened
the whole slavery dispute wantonly, his enemies charged, for the
purpose of securing Southern support, and caused great popular
excitement, as it repealed the Missouri Compromise, and declared
the people of " any state or territory " " free to form and regulate
their domestic institutions in their own way, subject only to the
Constitution of the United States." The passage of this Kansas-
Nebraska Bill, one of the most momentous in its consequences
ever passed by the Federal Congress, was largely a personal
triumph for Douglas, who showed marvellous energy, adroitness
and resourcefulness, and a genius for leadership. There was great
indignation throughout the free states; and even in Chicago
Douglas was unable to win for himself a hearing before a public
meeting. In 1852, and again in 1856, he was a candidate for the
presidential nomination in the national Democratic convention,
and though on both occasions he was unsuccessful, he received
strong support. In 1857 he broke with President Buchanan and
the " administration " Democrats and lost much of his prestige in
the South, but partially restored himself to favour in the North,
and especially in Illinois, by his vigorous opposition to the method
of voting on the Lecompton constitution, which he maintained
to be fraudulent, and (in 1858) to the admission of Kansas into
the Union under this constitution. In 1858, when the Supreme
Court, after the vote of Kansas against the Lecompton con-
stitution, had decided that Kansas was a " slave " territory, thus
quashing Douglas's theory of " popular sovereignty," he engaged
in Illinois in a close and very exciting contest for the senatorship
with Abraham Lincoln, the Republican candidate, whom he met
in a series of debates (at Ottawa, Freeport, Jonesboro, Charleston,
Galesburg, Quincy and Alton), in one of which, that at Freeport,
Douglas was led to declare that any territory, by " unfriendly
1 Her death in 1853 was a great blow to him and embittered him.
In November 1856 he married Adele Cutts, a Maryland belle, a grand-
niece of Dolly Madison, and a Roman Catholic, who became the
leader of Washington society, especially in the winter of 1857-1858,
when Douglas was in revolt against Buchanan.
legislation," could exclude slavery, no matter what the action of
the Supreme Court. This, the famous " Freeport Doctrine," lost
to Douglas the support of a large element of his party in the South,
and in Illinois his followers did not poll so large a vote as Lincoln's.
Douglas, however, won the senatorship by a vote in the legisla-
ture of 54 to 46. In the Senate he was not reappointed chairman
of the committee on territories. In 1860 in the Democratic
national convention in Charleston the adoption of Douglas's
platform brought about the withdrawal from the convention of
Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, South Carolina, Florida, Texas
and Arkansas. The convention adjourned to Baltimore, where
the Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky and Maryland
delegations left it, and where Douglas was nominated for the
presidency by the Northern Democrats; he campaigned
vigorously but hopelessly, boldly attacking disunion, and in the
election, though he received a popular vote of 1,376,957, he
received an electoral vote of only 12 Lincoln receiving 180.
Douglas urged the South to acquiesce in Lincoln's election.
On the outbreak of the Civil War, he denounced secession as
criminal, and was one of the strongest advocates of maintaining
the integrity of the Union at all hazards. At Lincoln's request he
undertook a mission to the border states and the North-west to
rouse the spirit of Unionism; he spoke in West Virginia. Ohio
and Illinois. He died on the 3rd of June 1861 at Chicago, where
he was buried on the shore of Lake Michigan; the site was
afterwards bought by the state, and an imposing monument
with a statue by Leonard Volk now stands over his grave.
In person Douglas was conspicuously small, being hardly five
feet in height, but his large head and massive chest and shoulders
gave him the popular sobriquet " The Little Giant." His voice
was strong and carried far, he had little grace of delivery, and his
gestures were often violent. As a resourceful political leader, and
an adroit, ready, skilful tactician in debate, he has had few equals
in American history.
See Allen Johnson's Stephen A. Douglas: A Study in American
Politics (New York, 1908), W. G. Brown's Stephen Arnold Douglas
(Boston, 1902), and an excellent review of his later life in James Ford
Rhodes's History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850
(New York, 1893-1906); also P. O. Ray, Repeal of the Missouri
Compromise (Cleveland, Ohio, 1909), and E. C. Carr, Stephen A.
Douglas (Chicago, 1909).
DOUGLAS, the capital of the Isle of Man, a municipal borough
and a favourite watering-place. Pop. (1901) 19,223. It stands
on a fine semicircular bay on the east coast of the island, at the
common mouth of two streams, the Awin-Dhoo and Awin-Glass,
62 m. W.N.W. of Fleetwood and 80 m. N.W. of Liverpool. The
older streets are irregular and narrow, but the town has greatly
extended in modern times, with numerous terraces of good
dwelling-houses. A fine parade sweeps round the bay, which,
from Derby Castle on the north to Douglas Head on the south,
has a circuit exceeding 2 m. Low hills, penetrated by the
valleys of the Dhoo and Glass, encircle the town on the north,
west and south, the southern spur projecting seaward in the
promontory of Douglas Head. The harbour, in the river mouth,
lies immediately north of this; vessels drawing 9 ft. may enter it
during neap tides, and those drawing 13 ft. during spring tides.
A castellated building, called the Tower of Refuge, erected in
1832, marks the dangerous Conister rocks, north of the harbour
entrance. The Battery pier protects the entrance on the south-
west, and there is a short pier (the Red pier) within the harbour,
while the Victoria pier on the north, at which passengers can land
and embark at all heights of the tide, was erected in 1872. There
is regular daily communication with Liverpool by the steamers of
the Isle of Man Steam Packet Company, and during the season
there are connexions with Fleetwood, Barrow, Dublin, Belfast
and Glasgow. Douglas is connected by electric tramway north-
ward with Laxey, the summit of the mountain of Snaefell and
Ramsey, and southward with Port Soderick, while the Isle of
Man railway runs to Peel in the west, and Castietown and Port
Erin in the south-west. The town has services of cable and
horse trams. The various popular attractions of Douglas
include theatres, dancing halls, a race-course and two golf links
Howstrake and Quarter Bridge. The shore of the bay is of firm
DOUGLAS DOUKHOBORS
sand (covered at high tide) , and the sea-bathing is good. Among
buildings and institutions in Douglas may be mentioned the
legislative buildings (1893), the town hall (1899), the large free
library, the court house and the Isle of Man hospital. Castle
Mona, erected in 1804 by John, 4th duke of Arrol and lord of
Man, is transformed into an hotel. St George's church, the oldest
remaining in Douglas, dates from 1 780. Douglas was incorporated
in 1895, and is governed by a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen
councillors.
DOUGLAS, a village of Lanarkshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901)
1206. It is situated on Douglas water, 3 m. from Douglas station
on the branch line from Carstairs to Ayr, 1 1 m. by road S.S.W. of
Lanark. It is a place of ancient aspect, bearing evident signs of
decay, but possesses peculiar interest as the original home of the
great Douglas family. Of the old castle, Scott's Castle Dangerous,
only a tower exists. The stronghold repeatedly changed hands
during the wars waged against Edward I. for the independence
of Scotland. The modern castle is the seat of the earl of Home.
Only the choir and spire remain of the 12th-century church of
St Bride, the patron saint of the Douglases. The vault beneath
the choir was, until 1761, the burial-place of the family, and it
contains a silver case said to hold the ashes of the heart of the
"good Sir James" (1286-1330). Ini879thechoirwasrestoredand
the tombs (including that of Sir James Douglas) repaired. David
Hackston of Rathillet, the Covenanter, is stated to have been
captured in the village (in a house still standing) after the battle
of Aird's Moss in 1680. On the hill of Auchensaugh (1286 ft.),
2 m. S.E., the Cameronians assembled in 1712 to renew the
Solemn League and Covenant. This gathering, the "Auchensaugh
Wark," as it was called, led up to the secession of the Reformed
Presbyterians from the Kirk.
DOUGLASS, FREDERICK (1817-1895), American orator and
journalist, was born in Tuckahoe, Talbot county, Maryland,
probably in February 1817. His mother was a negro slave of
exceptional intelligence, and his father was a white man. Until
nearly eight years of age, he was under the care of his grand-
mother; then he lived for a year on the plantation of Colonel
Edward Lloyd, of whose vast estate his master, Captain Aaron
Anthony, was manager. After a year he was sent to Baltimore,
where he lived in the family of Hugh Auld, whose brother,
Thomas, had married the daughter of Captain Anthony; Mrs
Auld treated him with marked kindness and without her husband's
knowledge began teaching him to read. With money secretly
earned by blacking boots he purchased his first book, the
Columbian Orator; he soon learned to write " free passes " for
runaway slaves. Upon the death of Captain Anthony in 1833,
he was sent back to the plantation to serve Thomas Auld,
who hired him out for a year to one Edward Covey, who had a
wide reputation for disciplining slaves, but who did not break
Frederick's spirit. Although a new master, William Freeland,
who owned a large plantation near St Michael's, Md., treated
him with much kindness, he attempted to escape in 1836, but
his plans were suspected, and he was put in jail. From lack of
evidence he was soon released, and was then sent to Hugh Auld
in Baltimore, where he was apprenticed as a ship caulker. He
learned his trade in one year, and in September 1838, masquerad-
ing as a sailor, he escaped by railway train from Baltimore to New
York city. For the sake of greater safety he soon removed to
New Bedford, Massachusetts, where he changed his name from
Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey to Frederick Douglass,
" Douglass " being adopted at the suggestion of a friend who
greatly admired Scott's Lady of the Lake. For three years he
worked as a day labourer in New Bedford. An extempore speech
made by him before an anti -slavery meeting at Nantucket, Mass.,
in August 1841 led to his being appointed one of the agents of
the Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society, and in this capacity he
delivered during the next four years numerous addresses against
slavery, chiefly in the New England and middle states. To quiet
the suspicion that he was an impostor, in 1845 he published the
Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave.
Fearing his recapture, his friends persuaded him to go to England,
and from August 1845 to April 1847 he lectured in Ireland,
Scotland and England, and did much to enlist the sympathy
of the British public with the Abolitionists in America. Before
his return a sum of 150 was raised by subscription to secure
his legal manumission, thus relieving him from the fear of being
returned to slavery in pursuance of the Fugitive Slave Law.
From 1847 to 1860 he conducted an anti-slavery weekly journal,
known as The North Star, and later as Frederick Douglass's Paper,
at Rochester, New York, and, during this time, also was a
frequent speaker at anti-slavery meetings. At first a follower of
Garrison and a disunionist, he allied himself after 1851 with the
more conservative political abolitionists, who, under the leader-
ship of James G. Birney, adhered to the national Constitution
and endeavoured to make slavery a dominant political issue. He
disapproved of John Brown's attack upon Harper's Ferry in 1859,
and declined to take any part in it. During the Civil War he was
among the first to suggest the employment of negro troops by the
United States government, and two of his sons served in the Union
army. After the war he was for several years a popular public
lecturer; in September 1866 he was a delegate to the national
Loyalist convention at Philadelphia; and in 1869 he became the
editor, at Washington, of a short-lived weekly paper, The New
National Era, devoted to the interests of the negro race. In 187 1
he was assistant secretary of the Santo Domingo commission,
appointed by President Grant. He was marshal of the District
of Columbia from 1877 to 1881, was recorder of deeds for the
district from 1881 to 1886, and from 1889 to 1891 was the
American minister resident and consul-general in the Republic
of Haiti. He died in Anacostia Heights, District of Columbia,
on the 2oth of February 1895. He was widely known for his
eloquence, and was one of the most effective orators whom the
negro race has produced in America.
His autobiography appeared, after two revisions, as The Life and
Times of Frederick Douglass (London, 1882). See F. M. Holland,
Frederick Douglass, The Colored Orator (New York, 1891) ; C. W.
Chesnutt, Frederick Douglass, (Boston, 1899); and Booker T.
Washington, Frederick Douglass (Philadelphia, 1907), in the series
of American Crisis Biographies.
DOUKHOBORS, a name given by the Russian Orthodox clergy
to a community of nonconformist peasants. The word etymo-
logically signifies " spirit-fighters," being originally intended by
the priesthood to convey that they fight against the Spirit of
God; but the Doukhobors themselves accepted the term as
signifying that they fight, not against, but for and with the Spirit.
Of late, however, they have decided to give up this name and call
themselves " Christians of the Universal Brotherhood." This
religious community was first heard of in the middle of the i8th
century. By the end of that century or the beginning of the igth
their doctrine had become so clearly defined, and the number of
their members had so greatly increased, that the Russian govern-
ment and Church, considering this sect to be peculiarly obnoxious,
started an energetic campaign against it. The foundation of the
Doukhobors' teaching consists in the belief that the Spirit of God
is present in the soul of man, and directs him by its word within
him. They understand the coming of Christ in the flesh, his
works, teaching and sufferings, in a spiritual sense. The object of
the sufferings of Christ, in their view, was to give an example
of suffering for truth. Christ continues to suffer in us even now
when we do not live in accordance with the behests and spirit of
his teaching. The whole teaching of the Doukhobors is penetrated
with the Gospel spirit of love. Worshipping God in the spirit,
they affirm that the outward Church and all that is performed in
it and concerns it has no importance for them. The Church is
where two or three are gathered together, i.e. united in the name
of Christ. They pray inwardly at all times; on fixed days they
assemble for prayer-meetings, at which they greet each other
fraternally with low bows, thereby acknowledging every man as a
bearer of the Divine Spirit. Their teaching is founded on tradition,
which is called among them the " Book of Life," because it lives
in their memory and hearts. It consists of sacred songs or chants,
partly composed independently, partly formed out of the contents
of the Bible, which, however, has evidently been gathered by
them orally, as until quite lately they were almost entirely
DOULLENS DOULTON
449
illiterate and did not possess any written book. They found alike
their mutual relations and their relations to other people and
not only to people, but to all living creatures exclusively on
love, and therefore they hold all people equal and brethren. They
extend this idea of equality also to the government authorities,
obedience to whom they do not consider binding upon them in
those cases when the demands of these authorities are in conflict
with their conscience; while in all that does not infringe what
they regard as the will of God they willingly fulfil the desire of
the authorities. They consider killing, violence, and in general all
relations to living beings not based on love as opposed to their
conscience and to the will of God. They are industrious and
abstemious in their lives, and when living up to the standard
of their faith they present one of the nearest approaches to the
realization of the Christian ideal which have ever been attained.
In many ways they have thus a close resemblance to the Quakers
or Society of Friends. For these beliefs and practices the
Doukhobors long endured cruel persecution. Under Nicholas I.,
in the years 1840 and 1850, the Doukhobors, who on religious
grounds refused to participate in military service, were all
banished from the government of Tauris whither they had been
previously transported from various parts of Russia by Alexander
I. to Transcaucasia, near the Turkish frontier. But neither the
severe climate nor the neighbourhood of wild and warlike hillmen
shook their faith, and in the course of half a century, in one of the
most unhealthyand unfertile localities in the Caucasus, they trans-
formed this wilderness into flourishing colonies, and continued
to live a Christian and laborious life, making friends with, instead
of fighting, the hillmen. But the wealth to which they attained
in the Caucasus weakened for a time their moral fervour, and
little by little they began to depart somewhat from the require-
ments of their belief. As soon, however, as events happened
among them which disturbed their outward tranquillity, the
religious spirit which had guided their fathers immediately
revived within them. In 1887, in the reign of the tsar Alexander
III., universal military service was introduced in the Caucasus;
and even those for whom, as in the case of the Doukhobors, it
had formerly been replaced with banishment, were called upon to
serve. This measure took the Doukhobors unawares, and at first
they outwardly submitted to it. About the same time, by the
decision of certain government officials, the right to the possession
of the public property of the Doukhobors (valued at about
50,000) passed from the community to one of their members,
who had formed out of the more demoralized Doukhobors a group
of his own personal adherents, which was henceforth called the
" Small Party." Soon afterwards several of the most respected
representatives of the community were banished to the govern-
ment of Archangel. This series of calamities was accepted by the
Doukhobors as a punishment from God, and a spiritual awaken-
ing of a most energetic character ensued. The majority (about
1 2 ,000 in number) resolved to revive hi practice the traditions left
them by their fathers, which they had departed from during the
period of opulence. They again renounced tobacco, wine, meat
and every kind of excess, many of them dividing up all their
property in order to supply the needs of those who were in want,
and they collected a new public fund. They also renounced all
participation in acts of violence, and therefore refused military
service. In confirmation of their sincerity, in the summer of 1895
the Doukhobors of the " Great Party," as they were called in
distinction from the " Small Party," burnt all the arms which
they, like other inhabitants of the Caucasus, had taken up for
their protection from wild animals, and those who were in the
army refused to continue service. At the commencement of the
reign of the tsar Nicholas II., in 1895, the Doukhobors became
the victims of a series of persecutions, Cossack soldiers plundering,
insulting, beating and maltreating both men and women in every
way. More than 400 families of Doukhobors who were living
in the province of Tiflis were ruined and banished to Georgian
villages. Of 4000 thus exiled, more than 1000 died in the course
of the first two years from exhaustion and disease; and more
would have perished had not information reached Count Leo
Tolstoy and his friends, and through them the Society of Friends
viii. 15
in England. Funds were immediately raised by sympathizers for
alleviating the sufferings of the starving victims. At the same
time an appeal, written by Tolstoy and some of his friends,
requesting the help of public opinion in favour of the oppressed
Doukhobors, was circulated in St Petersburg and sent to the
emperor and higher government officials. The Doukhobors them-
selves asked for permission to leave Russia, and the Society of
Friends petitioned the emperor to the same effect. In March
1898 the desired permission was granted, and the first party of
Doukhobors, 1126 in number, were able in the summer of 1898 to
sail from Batum for Cyprus, which was originally chosen for their
settlement because at that time funds were not sufficient for
transferring them to any other British territory. But as contribu-
tions accumulated, it was found possible to send a number of
Doukhobor emigrants to Canada, whither they arrived in two
parties, numbering above 4000, in January 1899. They were
joined in the spring of the same year by the Cyprus party, and
another party of about 2000 arrived from the Caucasus. In
all about 7500 Doukhobor immigrants arrived in Canada. The
Canadian government did their best to facilitate the immigration,
and allotted land to the Doukhobors in the provinces of Assiniboia
near Yorkto wn and of Saskatchewan nearThunder Hill and Prince
Albert. They were very cordially received by the population
of the Canadian port towns. In April 1 901 , in the Canadian House
of Commons, the minister of justice made a statement about them
in which he said that " not a single offence had been committed
by the Doukhobors; they were law-abiding, and if good conduct
was a recommendation, they were good immigrants. . . . The
large tracts of land demanded population, and if they were not
given to crime, the conclusion was that they would make good
citizens." About eighteen months after they arrived in Canada
the Doukhobors sent the Society of Friends a collective letter in
which they sincerely thanked the English and American Friends
for all the generous help of every kind they had received at their
hands, but begged the Quakers to cease sending them any more
pecuniary support, as they were now able to stand on their own
feet, and therefore felt it right that any further help should be
directed to others who were more in need of it. At Yorktown in
the summer of 1907 the Doukhobors established one of the largest
and best brick-making plants in Canada, a significant testimony
to the way hi which the leaders of the community were working
in the interests of the whole. Now and again small bodies broke
off from the main community and adopted a semi-nomadic life,
but these formed a very small percentage of the total number,
which in 1908 was over 8000.
See also Christian Martyrdom in Russia, by V. Tchertkoff (The
Free Age Press, Christchurch, Hants) ; Aylmer Maude, A Peculiar
People, the Doukhobors. (V. T.)
DOULLENS, a town of northern France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Somme, on the Authie, 27
m. N. of Amiens by rail. Pop. (1906) 449 5. It has a citadel of the
1 5th and i6th centuries which has often served as a state prison
and is now used as a reformatory for girls. There are also a belfry
of the 1 7th century and two old churches. The town is the seat
of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of first instance; it has trade
in phosphates, of which there are workings in the vicinity,
and carries on cotton-spinning and the manufacture of leather,
paper and sugar. Doullens, the ancient Dulincum, was seat of
a viscountship and an important stronghold in the middle ages.
In 1475 it was burnt by Louis XI. for openly siding with the house
of Burgundy. In 1595 it was besieged and occupied by the
Spaniards, but was restored to France by the treaty of Vervins
(i598).
DOULTON, SIR HENRY (1820-1897), English inventor and
manufacturer of pottery, born in Vauxhall on the 25th of July
1820, was from the age of fifteen actively employed in the pottery
works of his father, John Doulton, at Lambeth. One of the first
results of his many experiments was the production of good
enamel glazes. In 1846 he initiated in Lambeth the pipe works,
in which he superintended the manufacture of the drainage and
sanitary appliances which have helped to make the firm of
Doulton famous. In 1870 the manufacture of " Art pottery "
5
45
DOUMER DOUSA
was begun at Lambeth, and in 1877 works were opened at
Burslem, where almost every variety of china and porcelain, as
well as artistic earthenware, has been produced. Works have
since been opened at Rowley Regis, Smethwick, St Helens,
Paisley and Paris. After the Paris exhibition of 1878 Henry
Doulton was made a chevalier of the Legion of Honour. In 1872
the " Art department " was instituted in the Doulton works,
giving employment to both male and female artists, amongst
whom such workers as George Tinworth and the Misses Barlow
have obtained a reputation outside their immediate sphere. In
1887 Doulton received the honour of knighthood, and a few years
later was awarded the Albert medal by the Society of Arts. He
married in 1849 the daughter of Mr J. L. Kennaby; she died in
1888. Sir Henry Doulton took an active interest, as almoner,
in St Thomas's hospital. He died in London on the i8th of
November 1897.
DOUMER, PAUL (1857- ), French politician, was born at
Aurillac. He studied law and made his debut in politics as chef de
cabinet to Floquet, when president of the chamber in 1885. In
1888 he was elected Radical deputy for the department of the
Aisne. Defeated in the general elections of September 1889, he
was elected again in 1890 by the arrondissement of Auxerre. As
minister of finance in the Bourgeois cabinet (from the 3rd of
November 1895 to the 2ist of April 1896) he tried without suc-
cess to introduce an income-tax. In January 1897 he became
governor of Indo-China, where he carried out important public
works. In 1902 he returned to France and was elected by Laon
to the chamber as a Radical. He refused, however, to support the
Combes ministry, and formed a Radical dissident group, which
grew in strength and eventually caused the fall of the ministry.
Doumer became a prominent personage in Paris and was elected
president of the chamber in January 1905, being re-elected in
January 1906. At the presidential election of the i7th of January
1906 he was a candidate in opposition to M. Fallieres and obtained
only 371 votes against 449; and the new chamber passed him
over as its new president in favour of Henri Brisson. As an
author he is known by his L'Indo-Chinefranc.aise (1904), and Le
Livre de mesfils (1906).
DOUMIC, RENE (1860- ), French critic and man of letters,
was born in Paris, and after a distinguished career at the Ecole
Normale began to teach rhetoric at the College Stanislas. He was
a contributor to the Moniteur, the Journal des Debats and the
Revue bleue, but was best known as the independent and un-
compromising literary critic of the Revue des Deux Mondes. His
works include : Elements d'histoire Utter air e (1888); Portraits
d'ecrivains (1892); De Scribe it Ibsen (1893); Ecrivains d'aujour-
d'hui (1894); Etudes sur la litlerature franc.aise (5 vols., 1896-
1905); Les Jeunes (1896); Essais sur le theatre conlemporain
(1897); Les Hommes et les idees du XlX'siecle (1903); and an
edition of the Lettres d'Elvire a Lamartine (1905).
DOUNE, a police burgh of Perthshire, Scotland, 8| m. N.W.
of Stirling by the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901) 930. It is
situated on the left bank of the Teith, here crossed by the bridge
built in 1535 by Robert Spittal, tailor to James IV. The town
was once famous for its pistols and sporrans (as the purses worn
with the kilt are called), which were in great request by the
clansmen of the Highlands. Doune Castle, now in ruins, occupies
a commanding position on the Teith, at the point where it is
joined by the Ardoch. .It is believed to have been built by
Murdoch, 2nd duke of Albany (d. 1425), and was sometimes a
residence of the sovereigns, among them James V. and Queen
Mary. A nephew of Rob Roy held it for Prince Charlie, and it
figures in Scott's Waverley. It belongs to the earl of Moray
(Murray) , who derives from it his title of Lord Doune, and was the
home of James Stewart, the " bonnie earl " of Moray, murdered at
Donibristle in Fife by the earl of Huntly (1592). The braes of
Doune lie to the north-west of the town and extend towards Uam
Var. Deanston (pop. 652), I m. S.W. of Doune, on the right bank
of the Teith, was the scene of the labours of James Smith (i 789-
1850), the agricultural engineer, who was also manager of the
cotton mills established there in 1 785. On his farm Smith carried
out his experiments in deep and thorough draining, and also
invented a reaping machine, the subsoil plough and numerous
other valuable appliances.
DOURO (Span. Duero, Port. Douro, anc. Durius), a river of
the Iberian Peninsula. The Douro rises south of the Sierra de
la Demanda, in the Pico de Urbion, an isolated mountain mass
7389 ft. high. It describes a wide curve eastwards past Soria,
then flows westward across the Castilian table-land, passing
south of Valladolid, with Toro and Zamora on its right bank;
then from a point 3 m. E. of Paradella to Barca d'Alva it flows
south-west and forms the frontier between Spain and Portugal
for 65 m. It crosses Portugal in a westerly direction through a
narrow and tortuous bed, and enters the Atlantic 3 m. below
Oporto at Sao Joao da Foz. The length of the Douro, which is
greater than that of any other Iberian river except the Tagus and
Guadiana, is probably about 485 m.; but competent authorities
differ widely in their estimates, the extremes given being 420 and
507 m. In Spain the Douro receives from the right the rivers
Pisuerga, Valderaduey and Esla, and from the left several small
streams which drain the Sierra Guadarrama, besides the more
important rivers Adaja, Tormes and Yeltes; in Portugal it
receives the Agueda, C6a and Paiva from the left, and the Sabor,
Tua and Tamega from the right. The area drained by the Douro
and its tributaries is upwards of 37,50x3 sq. m., and includes the
greater part of the vast plateau of Old Castile, between the water-
sheds of the Cantabrian Mountains, on the north, and the
Guadarrama, Credos, Gata and Estrella ranges, on the south.
The lower stream is beset with numerous rapids, called pantos,
and is subject to swift and violent inundations. On this account
navigation is attended with difficulties and risks between its
mouth and Barca d'Alva; but a railway, running for the most
part along the right bank, skirts the river during the greater part
of its course through Portugal. The mouth of the river is partly
blocked by a sandy bar; only ships of light draught can enter,
while those of greater burden are accommodated at the harbour
of Leixoes, an artificial basin constructed about 3 m. N. On its
way through Portugal the Douro traverses the Paiz do Vinho,
one of the richest wine-producing territories in the world; large
quantities of wine are conveyed to Oporto in sailing boats. The
Douro yields an abundance of fish, especially trout, shad and
lampreys.
DOUROUCOULI, apparently the native name (perhaps derived
from their cries) of a small group of American monkeys ranging
from Nicaragua to Amazonia and eastern Peru, and forming the
genus Nyctipithecus. In addition to the absence of prehensile
power in their tails, douroucoulis, also known as night-apes, are
distinguished by their large eyes, the sockets of which occupy
nearly the whole front of the upper part of the skull, the partition
between the nostrils being in consequence narrower than usual.
The ears are short, and the hair round the eyes forms a disk.
Douroucoulis live in parties, and are purely nocturnal, sleeping
during the day in hollow trees, and coming out at night to feed on
insects and fruits, when they utter piercing cat-like screams.
DOUSA, JANUS [Jan van der Does], lord of Noordwyck
(1545-1604), Dutch statesman, historian, poet and philologist,
and the heroic defender of Leiden, was born at Noordwyck, in
the province of Holland, on the 6th of December 1545. He began
his studies at Lier in Brabant, became a pupil of Henry Junius
at Delft in 1560, and then passed on in succession to Louvain,
Douai and Paris. Here he studied Greek under Pierre Dorat,
professor at the College Royal, and became acquainted with the
chancellor L'H6pital, Turnebus, Ronsard and other eminent
men. On his return in 1565 he married Elizabeth van Zuylen.
His name stands in the list of nobles who in that year formed a
league against Philip II. of Spain, but he does not appear to have
taken any active part in public affairs till 1572, when he was sent
as a member of an embassy to England. He was not, however,
at first very eager to commit himself to the fortunes of William
the Silent, prince of Orange, but having once chosen his side,
he threw himself heart and soul into the struggle for freedom
from the Spanish yoke. Fortunately for Leiden he was residing
in the town at the time of the famous siege. He held no post in
the government, but in the hour of need he, though not trained to
DOVE
PLATE I.
ROCK DOVE OR BLUE ROCK PIGEON, Columba livia.
STOCK DOVE, Columba oenas.
AMERICAN WILD CARRIER PIGEON, RING DOVE OR WOOD PIGEON,
Ectopistes migratorius. Columba palumbus.
(After the coloured drawings by Mme. Knip (Pauline de Courcelles), painter to the Empress Marie Louise, in Les Pigeons.
VI1I.450. Text by C. J. Themminck, Paris, 1811.)
PLATE II.
DOVE
NICOBAR PIGEON, Caloenas nicobarica.
(After Mme. Knip, as above.)
CROWNED PIGEON, Goura coronala
(After Mme. Knip, as above.)
Photographs of two typical pedigree Homing or Racing Pigeons, colours black and blue chequer, bred and shown by
Frederick Romer, Esq., prize-winners in races from France to England.
By permission of the proprietors of the Racing Pigeon
DOUVILLE DOVE
45
arms, took the command of a company of troops. His fearlessness
and unshaken resolution had no small influence in encouraging
the regents and the citizens to prolong the defence. On the
foundation of the university of Leiden by William the Silent,
Dousa was appointed first curator, and he held this office for
nearly thirty years. Through his friendships with foreign scholars
he drew to Leiden many illustrious teachers and professors.
After the assassination of the prince of Orange in 1584, Dousa
undertook a private journey to England to try and persuade
Queen Elizabeth to support the cause of the states, and in 1585 he
went at the head of a formal embassy for the same purpose.
About the same time he was appointed keeper of the archives of
Holland (registermeester van Holland), and the opportunities thus
afforded him of historical research he turned to good account.
He had three sons and five daughters. All his sons acquired
a reputation for learning, but two of them died before their
father. Dousa was author of several volumes of Latin verse
and of philological commentaries on Horace, Plautus, Catullus
and other Latin poets. His principal work is the Annals of
Holland, which first appeared in a metrical form in 1599, and
was published in prose under the title of Bataviae Hollandiaeque
annales in 1601. Dousa also took part as editor or contributor
in various other publications. He died at Noordwyck on the
8th of October 1604, and was interred at the Hague ; but no
monument was erected to his memory till 1792, when one of his
descendants placed a tomb to his honour in the church of
Noordwyck. There are good portraits of the Great Dousa, as he
is often called, by Visscher and Houbraken.
DOUVILLE, JEAN BAPTISTS (i794?-i837), French traveller,
was born at Hambye, in the department of Manche. Having at
an early age inherited a fortune, he decided to gratify his taste
for foreign travel. According to his own profession he visited
India, Kashmir, Khorasan, Persia, Asia Minor and many parts
of Europe. In 1826 he went to South America, and in 1827 left
Brazil for the Portuguese possessions on the west coast of Africa,
where his presence in March 1828 is proved by the mention
made of him in letters of Castillo Branco, the governor-general
of Loanda. In May 1831 he reappeared in France, claiming to
have pushed his explorations into the very heart of central Africa.
His story was readily accepted by the Societ6 de G6ographie of
Paris, which hastened to recognize his services by assigning him
the great gold medal, and appointing him their secretary for the
year 1832. On the publication of his narrative, Voyage au Congo
et dans I'interieur de V Afrique iquinoxiale, which occupied three
volumes and was accompanied by an elaborate atlas, public
enthusiasm ran high. Before the year 1832 was out, however,
it was established that Douville's Voyage was romance and not
verity. He had probably been inspired by the appearance of
Ren6 Caillie's account of his journey to Timbuktu, and wished
to obtain a share of the fame attaching to African explorers.
Douville tried vainly to establish the truth of his story in Ma
Defense (1832), and Trente mois de ma vie, ou quinze mois avanl et
quinze mois apres man voyage au Congo (1833). Mile Audrun, a
lady to whom he was about to be married, committed suicide
from grief at the disgrace; and the adventurer withdrew in 1833
to Brazil, and proceeded to make explorations in the valley of
the Amazon. According to Dr G. Gardner, in his Travels in the
Interior of Brazil (1846), he was murdered in 1837 on the banks
of the Sao Francisco for charging too high for his medical
assistance. Douville may well have explored part of the pro-
vince of Angola, and Sir Richard Burton maintained that the
Frenchman's descriptions of the country of the Congo were life-
like; that his observations on the anthropology, ceremonies,
customs and maladies of the people were remarkably accurate;
and that even the native words used in his narrative were "for
the most part given with unusual correctness." It has been
shown, however, that the chief source of Douville's inspiration
was a number of unpublished Portuguese manuscripts to which
he had access.
DOUW (or Dow), GERHARD (1613-1680), Dutch painter,
was born at Leiden on the 7th of April 1613. His first instructor
in drawing and design was Bartholomew Dolendo, an engraver;
and he afterwards learned the art of glass-painting under Peter
Kouwhoorn. At the age of fifteen he became a pupil of
Rembrandt, with whom he continued for three years. From the
great master of the Flemish school he acquired his skill in colour-
ing, and in the more subtle effects of chiaroscuro ; and the style
of Rembrandt is reflected in several of his earlier pictures, notably
in a portrait of himself at the age of twenty-two, in the Bridge-
water House gallery, and in the " Blind Tobit going to meet his
Son," at Wardour Castle. At a comparatively early point in his
career, however, he had formed a manner of his own distinct
from, and indeed in some respects antagonistic to, that of his
master. Gifted with unusual clearness of vision and precision
of manipulation, he cultivated a minute and elaborate style of
treatment ; and probably few painters ever spent more time and
pains on all the details of their pictures down to the most trivial.
He is said to have spent five days in painting a hand; and his
work was so fine that he found it necessary to manufacture his
own brushes. Notwithstanding the minuteness of his touch, how-
ever, the general effect was harmonious and free from stiffness,
and his colour was always admirably fresh and transparent. He
was fond of representing subjects in lantern or candle light, the
effects of which he reproduced with a fidelity and skill which no
other master has equalled. He frequently painted by the aid of
a concave mirror, and to obtain exactness looked at his subject
through a frame crossed with squares of silk thread. His practice
as a portrait painter, which was at first considerable, gradually
declined, sitters being unwilling to give him the time that he
deemed necessary. His pictures were always small in size,
and represented chiefly subjects in still life. Upwards of 200
are attributed to him, and specimens are to be found in most
of the great public collections of Europe. His chef-d'oeuvre is
generally considered to be the " Woman sick of the Dropsy," in
the Louvre. The " Evening School," in the Amsterdam gallery,
is the best example of the candlelight scenes in which he excelled.
In the National Gallery, London, favourable specimens are to
be seen in the " Poulterer's Shop," and a portrait of himself.
Douw's pictures brought high prices, and it is said that President
Van Spiring of the Hague paid him 1000 florins a year simply
for the right of pre-emption. Douw died in 1680. His most
celebrated pupil was Francis Miens.
DOVE, a river of England, tributary to the Trent, rising in Axe
Edge, Derbyshire, and through almost its entire course forming
the boundary of that county with Staffordshire. In its upper
course it traverses a fine narrow valley, where the limestone hills
exhibit many picturesque cliffs, gullies and caves. Dovedale,
that part of the valley which lies between Dove Holes and
Thorpe Cloud (or with a wider significance between the towns of
Hartington and Ashbourne), is especially famous. Below Thorpe
Cloud the Dove receives on the west the waters of the Manifold,
which, like its tributary the Hamps, and other streams in the
limestone district, has part of its course below ground. Near the
village of Rocester the Churnet joins the Dove on the west, and
then the course of the main stream, hitherto southerly, bends
nearly easterly on passing Uttoxeter, and, winding through a
widening valley, joins the Trent at Newton Solney, a short
distance below Burton-on-Trent. The length of the valley is
about 40 m. and the total fall of the river about 1450 ft. The
Dove is well known for its trout-fishing, and the portion of the
upper valley called Beresford Dale, below Hartington, has a
special interest for fishermen through its associations with Izaak
Walton and his friend Charles Cotton, whose fishing-house stands
near the Pike Pool, a reach of the river with a lofty rock rising
from its centre.
DOVE (Dutch duyve, Dan. due, Ice. dufa, Ger. Taube), a
name most commonly applied by ornithologists to the smaller
members of the group of birds usually called pigeons (Columbae);
but no sharp distinction can be drawn between pigeons and
doves, and in general literature the two words are used almost
indifferently, while no one species can be pointed out to which
the word dove, taken alone, seems to be absolutely proper. The
largest of the group to which the name is applicable is perhaps
the ring-dove, or wood-pigeon, also called in many parts of
452
DOVER, BARON
Britain cushat and queest (Columba palumbus, Linn.), a very
common bird throughout the British Islands and most parts
of Europe. It associates in winter in large flocks, the numbers
of which (owing partly to the destruction of predaceous animals,
but still more to the modern system of agriculture, and the
growth of plantations in many districts that were before treeless)
have increased enormously. In former days, when the breadth of
land in Britain under green crops was comparatively small, these
birds found little food in the dead season, and this scarcity was a
natural check on their superabundance. But since the extended
cultivation of turnips and plants of similar use the case is altered,
and perhaps at no time of the year has provender become more
plentiful than in winter. The ring-dove may be easily dis-
tinguished from other European species by its larger size, and
especially by the white spot on either side of its neck, forming a
nearly continuous " ring," whence the bird takes its name, and
the large white patches in its wings, which are very conspicuous
in flight. It breeds several times in the year, making for its nest
a slight platform of sticks on the horizontal bough of a tree, and
laying therein two eggs which, as in all the Columbae, are white.
It is semi-domestic in the London parks.
The stock-dove (C. aenas of most authors) is a smaller species,
with many of the habits of the former, but breeding by preference
in the stocks of hollow trees or in rabbit-holes. It is darker in
colour than the ring-dove, without any white on its neck or
wings, and is much less common and more locally distributed.
The rock-dove (C. livid, Temm.) much resembles the stock-dove,
but is of a lighter colour, with two black bars on its wings, and a
white rump. In its wild state it haunts most of the rocky parts
of the coast of Europe, from the Faeroes to the Cyclades, and,
seldom going inland, is comparatively rare. Yet, as it is without
contradiction the parent-stem of all British domestic pigeons, its
numbers must far exceed those of both the former put together.
In Egypt and various parts of Asia it is represented by what
Charles Darwin has called " wild races," which are commonly
accounted good " species " (C. schimperi, C. affinis, C. intermedia,
C. leuconota, and so forth), though they differ from one another
far less than do nearly all the domestic forms, of which more than
150 kinds that " breed true," and have been separately named,
are known to exist. Very many of these, if found wild, would
have unquestionably been ranked by the best ornithologists
as distinct " species " and several of them would as undoubtedly
have been placed in different genera. These various breeds are
classified by Darwin 1 in four groups as follows:
GROUP I., composed of a single Race, that of the " Pouters,"
having the gullet of great size, barely separated from the crop, and
often inflated, the body and legs elongated, and a moderate bill.
The most strongly marked sub-race, the Improved English Pouter,
is considered to be the most distinct of all domesticated pigeons.
GROUP II. includes three Races: (i) "Carriers," with a long
pointed bill, the eyes surrounded by much bare skin, and the neck
and body much elongated; (2) " Runts," with a long, massive bill,
and the body of great size; and (3) " Barbs," with a short, broad
bill, much bare skin round the eyes, and the skin over the nostrils
swollen. Of the first four and of the second five sub-races are dis-
tinguished.
GROUP III. is confessedly artificial, and to it are assigned five
Races: (i) " Fan-tails," remarkable for the extraordinary develop-
ment of their tails, which may consist of as many as forty-two
rectrices in place of the ordinary twelve; (2) " Turbits ' and
" Owls," with the feathers of the throat diverging, and a short thick
bill; (3) " Tumblers," possessing the marvellous habit of tumbling
backwards during flight, or, in some breeds, even on the ground, and
having a short, conical bill; (4) " Frill-backs," in which the feathers
are reversed; and (5) "Jacobins," with the feathers of the neck
forming a hood, and the wings and tail long.
GROUP IV. greatly resembles the normal form, and comprises
two Races: (i) " Trumpeters," with a tuft of feathers at the base
of the neck curling forward, the face much feathered, and a very
peculiar voice, and (2) Pigeons scarcely differing in structure from
the wild stock.
Besides these some three or four other little-known breeds exist,
and the whole number of breeds and sub-breeds almost defies
computation. The difference between them is in many cases far
1 TheVariation of Animals and Plants under Domestication (London,
1868), vol. i. pp. 131-224.
from being superficial, for Darwin has shown that there is scarcely
any part of the skeleton which is constant, and the modifications
that have been effected in the proportions of the head and sternal
apparatus are very remarkable. Yet the proof that all these
different birds have descended from one common stock is nearly
certain. Here there is no need to point out its bearing upon the
theory of natural selection. The antiquity of some of these
breeds is not the least interesting part of the subject, nor is the use
to which one at least of them has long been applied. The dove
from the earliest period in history has been associated with the
idea of a messenger (Genesis viii. 8-12), and the employment
of pigeons in that capacity, developed successively by Greeks,
Romans, Mussulmans and Christians, has come down to modern
times.
The various foreign species, if not truly belonging to the genus
Columba, are barely separable therefrom. Of these examples
may be found in the Indian, Ethiopian and Neotropical regions.
Innumerable other forms entitled to the name of " dove " are
to be found in almost every part of the world, and nowhere more
abundantly than in the Australian Region. A. R. Wallace (Ibis,
1865, pp. 365-400) considers that they attain their maximum
development in the Papuan Subregion, where, though the land
area is less than one-sixth that of Europe, more than a quarter of
all the species (some 300 in number) known to exist are found
owing, he suggests, to the absence of forest-haunting and fruit-
eating mammals, which are in most cases destructive to eggs
also.
To a small group of birds the name dove is, however, especially
applicable in common parlance. This is the group containing
the turtle-doves -the time-honoured emblem of tenderness
and conjugal love. The common turtle-dove of Europe ( Turtur
auritus) is one of those species which are gradually extending
their area. In England, in the i8th century, it seems to have been
chiefly, if not solely, known in the southern and western counties.
Though in the character of a straggler only, it now reaches the
extreme north of Scotland, and is perhaps nowhere more
abundant than in many of the midland and eastern counties of
England. On the continent of Europe the same thing has been
observed, though indeed not so definitely; and this species has
appeared as a casual visitor within the Arctic Circle. Its graceful
form and the delicate harmony of its modest colouring are pro-
verbial. The species is migratory, reaching Europe late in April
and retiring in September. Another species, and one perhaps
better known from being commonly kept in confinement, is
that called by many the collared or Barbary dove (T. risorius)
the second English name probably indicating that it was by
way of the Barbary coast that it was brought to England.
This is distinguished by its cream-coloured plumage and black
necklace. (A. N.)
DOVER, GEORGE JAMES WELBORE AGAR-ELLIS, BAKON
(1797-1833), English man of letters, born on the i4th of January
1797, was the only son of the 2nd Viscount Clifden. He was
educated at Westminster school and at Christ Church, Oxford.
In 1818 he was returned to parliament as member for Heytesbury.
He afterwards represented Seaford (1820), Ludgershall (1826)
and Okehampton (1830). He seconded Canning's motion in
1822 for a bill to relieve the disabilities of Roman Catholic peers,
and consistently supported liberal principles. In party politics,
however, he took little interest, but he zealously advocated in
parliament and elsewhere that state encouragement should be
given to the cause of literature and the fine arts. In 1824 he was
the leading promoter of the grant of 57,000 for the purchase of
John Julius Angerstein's collection of pictures, which formed the
foundation of the National Gallery. On the formation of Lord
Grey's administration, in November 1830, he was appointed chief
commissioner of woods and forests, but was compelled by delicate
health to resign it after two months' occupancy. In June 1831,
during the lifetime of his father, he was raised to the House of
Lords, receiving an English peerage with the title of Baron Dover.
He was president (1832) of the Royal Society of Literature, a
trustee of the British Museum and of the National Gallery, and
a commissioner of public records. He died on the icth of July
DOVER, EARL OF DOVER
1833. Lord Dover's works are chiefly historical, and include
The True History of the Iron Mask, extracted from Documents in
The French Archives (1826), Inquiries respecting the Character of
Clarendon (1827), and a Life of Frederick II. (1831). He also
edited the Ellis Correspondence (1829) and Walpole's Letters to
Sir Horace Mann (1833).
DOVER, HENRY JERMYN, EARL OF (c. 1636-1708), was the
second son of Sir Thomas Jermyn, of Rushbroke, Suffolk, elder
brother of Henry Jermyn, earl of St Albans (q.v.). Jermyn
surpassed his uncle, St Albans, in reputation for profligacy,
figuring frequently as " the little Jermyn " in the Grammont
Memoirs, as the lover of Lady Castlemaine, Lady Shrewsbury,
Miss Jennings and other beauties of the court of Charles II.
He was also a noted duellist and a lifelong gambler. While the
court was in exile, he obtained a post in the household of the duke
of York, to whom he became master of the horse at the Restora-
tion. Being a Roman Catholic he enjoyed a position of influence
with James II., who on his accession raised Jermyn to the peerage
as Baron Dover in 1685, and appointed him lieutenant-general of
the royal guard in 1686. At the Revolution, Dover adhered to
James, whom he followed abroad, and in July 1689 the deposed
sovereign created him Baron Jermyn of Royston, Baron Ipswich,
Viscount Cheveley and earl of Dover; these honours being among
the " Jacobite peerages " which were not recognized by the
English government, though Jermyn became generally known as
the earl of Dover. He commanded a troop at the battle of the
Boyne; but shortly afterwards made his submission to William
III. He succeeded his brother Thomas as 3rd Baron Jermyn of
St Edmundsbury in 1 703 , and died in 1 708. As he left no children
by his wife, Judith, daughter of Sir Edmund Poley, of Badley,
Suffolk, his titles became extinct at his death.
See Samuel Pepys, Diary, edited by H. B. Wheatley, 9 vols.
(London, 1893); Anthony Hamilton, Memoirs of Grammont (Bohn
edition, London, 1846); J. S. Clarke, Life of James II., 2 vojs.
(London, 1816); Narcissus Luttrell, Brief Relation of State Affairs
i678-i7i4,6vols. (Oxford, 1857).
DOVER, ROBERT (1575-1641), English captain and attorney,
is known as the founder and director for many years of the
" Cotswold Games," which he originated as a protest against
the growing Puritanism of the day. These sports, which were
referred to by contemporary writers as " Mr Robert Dover's
Olimpick Games upon the Cotswold Hills," consisted of cudgel-
playing, wrestling, running at the quintain, jumping, casting the
bar and hammer, hand-ball, gymnastics, rural dances and games
and horse-racing, the winners in which received valuable prizes.
They continued from about the year 1604 until three years
after the death of Dover, which took place in 1641. They were
revived for a brief period in the reign of Charles II.
DOVER, the capital of Delaware, U.S.A., and the county seat
of Kent county, on the St Jones River, in the central part of the
state, about 48 m. S. of Wilmington and about 9 m. from Delaware
Bay. Pop. (1890) 3061; (1900) 3329 (772 negroes); (1910) 3720.
Dover is served by the Philadelphia, Baltimore & Washington
railway (Pennsylvania system). The state house, built about
1722 for a court house, was remodelled for its present purpose
in 1791; it contains the state library, which in 1908 had about
50,000 bound volumes. Dover is the seat of the Wilmington
Conference Academy (Methodist Episcopal) ; and about 2 m. N.
is the state college for coloured students (co-educational; opened
in 1892), an agricultural and manual training school. The
surrounding country is largely devoted to the raising of small
fruit. Among the manufactures are canned fruit and meat
(especially poultry), timber, machine shop products, baskets and
crates, and silk. The town was laid out in 1717; in 1777 it
replaced New Castle as the capital of the state, and in 1829 it
was incorporated as a town. Dover was the birthplace of the
American patriot, Caesar Rodney (1728-1784), whose home near
Dover is still standing.
DOVER, a seaport and municipal and parliamentary borough
of Kent, England, one of the Cinque Ports, 76 m. E.S.E. of
London by the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1891)
33,S03; (1901) 41,794. It is situated at the mouth of a small
453
stream, the Dour, whose valley here breaches the high chalk cliffs
which fringe the coast on either hand. It is an exceptionally
healthy locality, and the steep shore and open downs make it
an agreeable summer resort. The better residential quarters lie
along the seaboard and on the higher ground, notably on a western
spur of the Castle Hill. The dominant object of the place is the
castle, on the east height, 375 ft. above sea-level, between which
and the batteries on the western heights lies the old town. The
castle occupies a space of 35 acres. Within its precincts are a
Roman pharos or lighthouse, still exhibiting the Roman masonry;
the ancient fortress church (St Mary in Castro) ; some remains of
the Saxon fort; and the massive keep and subsidiary defences
(such as the Constable's, Avranche's, and other towers) of the
Norman building. The church, substantially unaltered, forms an
almost unique Christian relic. It has been called Roman, but is
later. It is cruciform in shape, and the walls are built mainly of
flint, but jambs and arches are formed of Roman bricks. At the
end of the I2th century it was remodelled and given an Early
English character. In the beginning of the i8th century it was
dismantled and turned into a storehouse ; and so continued until
1863, when, having been restored by Sir G. G. Scott, it was again
opened for divine service, and is now the chapel of the castle
garrison.
The view from the castle keep includes on a clear day the line
of cliffs from Folkestone to Ramsgate on the one side, and from
Boulogne to Gravelines on the other side of the strait. The cliffs
are honeycombed in all directions with military works. They
are covered by modern works on the north side known as Fort
Burgoyne, and additional works extend eastwards towards St
Margaret's Bay. The western heights, where is the foundation
of another Roman lighthouse, form a further circuit of fortifica-
tions. They are still more elevated than the castle. A military
shaft, locally known as the Corkscrew Staircase, affords com-
munication between the barracks and the town. Remains were
discovered here in 1854 of a round church of the Templars (Holy
Sepulchre), 32 ft. in diameter; the church, doubtless, in which
King John made his submission to the Papal Nuncio in 1213.
Archcliffe Fort lies to the south-west of old Dover. There may
further be mentioned the remnant of the Saxon collegiate church
of the canons of St Martin, and the parish church of St Mary the
Virgin. This last was rebuilt and enlarged in 1843-1844, but
preserves the three bays of the Saxon church, with its western
narthex, on which was superimposed the Norman tower, which
presents its rich front to the street. The rest of the church is
mainly Norman and Early English. A later Norman church
stands under the Castle Hill, but its parochial status was trans-
ferred to the modern church of St James.
The remains of the splendid foundation of St Martin's priory,
of the 1 2th century, include the great gate, the house refectory,
with campanile, and the spacious strangers' refectory, now incor-
porated in Dover College. The college of St Martin for twenty-two
secular canons, which had been established in the castle in 696,
was removed into the town in the beginning of the 8th century,
and in 1139 became a Benedictine priory under the jurisdiction of
that at Canterbury, to which see the lands are still attached. The
interior of the refectory is very fine. In High Street may be seen
the noble hall and truncated fabric of the Maison Dieu founded by
Hubert de Burgh in the i3th century for the reception of pilgrims
of all nations. From the time of Henry VIII. to 1830 it was used
as a crown victualling office, but was subsequently purchased by
the corporation and adapted as a town hall. The new town hall
adjoining the old hall of the Maison Dieu was opened in 1883.
The museum (1849) contains an interesting collection of local
antiquities and a natural history collection.
Among various charitable institutions are the National Sailors'
Home and the Gordon Boys' and Victoria Seaside Orphanages.
Besides the church of St James, mentioned above, other modern
churches are those of Holy Trinity and Christ church, and further
up the valley there are the parish churches of Charlton (originally
Norman) and Buckland (Early English). Among educational
establishments is Dover College, occupying the site and remaining
buildings of St Martin's priory, with additional modern buildings.
454
DOVER
It was instituted in 1871, and educates about 220 boys. There
is a separate junior school.
Dover is the only one of the Cinque Ports which is still a great
port. It is one of the principal ports for passenger communica-
tions across the Channel, steamers connecting it with Calais and
Ostend. The Admiralty pier was begun in 1847 and practically
completed to a length of about 2000 ft. in 1871. In 1888 the
gates of Wellington dock were widened to admit a larger type
of Channel steamers; new coal stores were erected on the
Northampton quay; the slipway was lengthened 40 ft., and
widened for the reception of vessels up to 800 tons. In 1891 it
was resolved to construct a new commercial harbour at an
estimated cost of about 700,000. Begun in 1893, the works
included the construction of an east pier (" Prince of Wales's
Pier "), running parallel to the general direction of the Admiralty
pier and in conjunction with it enclosing an area of sheltered water
amounting to seventy-five acres. This pier was completed in 1902.
A railway line connected with the South-Eastern and Chatham
system runs to its head, and in July 1903 it was brought into use
for the embarcation of passengers by transatlantic liners. In
1896 and subsequent years funds were voted by parliament for
the construction of an artificial harbour for naval purposes, having
an area of 610 acres, of which 322 acres were to have a depth of
not less than 30 ft. at low water. The scheme comprised three
enclosing breakwaters on the west an extension of the Admiralty
pier in a south-easterly direction for a length of 2000 ft.; on the
south an isolated breakwater, 4200 ft. long, curving round shore-
ward at its eastern end to accord with the direction of the third
breakwater; on the east, which runs out from the shore in a
southerly direction for a length of 3320 ft. These three break-
waters, with a united length of rather more than if m., are each
built of massive concrete blocks in the form of a practically
vertical wall founded on the solid chalk and rising to a quay level
of 10 ft. above high water. Two entrances, one 800 ft. and the
other 600 ft. in width, with a depth of about seven fathoms at
low water, are situated at either end of the detached break-
water. The plan also included the reclamation of the foreshore
at tde foot of the cliffs, between the castle jetty and the root
of the eastern breakwater, by means of a massive sea-wall. The
construction of three powerful forts was undertaken in defence
of the harbour, which was opened in 1909.
Besides the mail service and harbour trade, Dover has a trade
in shipbuilding, timber, rope and sail making, and ships' stores.
Dover is a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of Canterbury.
The parliamentary borough returns one member. The town
is governed by a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors.
Area, 2026 acres.
History. Dover (Dubris) was one of the ports for continental
traffic in Roman times. In the 4th century it was guarded by
a fort lying down near the harbour, and forming part of the
defences of the Saxon shore (Litus Saxonicum). As a Cinque
Port, Dover (Dofra, Dovorra) had to contribute twenty of the
quota of ships furnished by those ports; in return for this service
a charter of liberties was granted to the ports by Edward the
Confessor, making the townsmen quit of shires and hundreds,
with the right to be impleaded only at Shepway, and other
privileges, which were confirmed by subsequent kings, with
additions, down to James II. During the middle ages Dover
Castle was an object of contention both in civil wars and foreign
invasions, and was considered the key to England; the constable
of the castle, who from the reign of John was appointed by the
crown, was also warden of the Cinque Ports. The castle was
successfully defended in 1216 against the French under the
dauphin Louis by Hubert de Burgh, who was also the founder of
the Maison Dieu established for the accommodation of pilgrims.
The title of mayor as chief municipal officer first occurs about the
middle of the i3th century, when the town was governed by a
mayor and twelve jurats. The Cinque Ports were first represented
in the parliament of 1265; Dover returned two members until
1885 when the number was reduced to one. In 1685 Charles II.
confirmed to the inhabitants of Dover a fair beginning on the nth
of November, which had been held of old in the town, and granted
two others on the 23rd and 24th of April and the 25th and 26th
of September.
After the decay of Richborough harbour the passage from
Dover to Whitsand, and later to Calais, became the accustomed
route to France, and by a statute of 1465 no one might ship for
Calais except at Dover. The guardians of the harbour were
incorporated by James I. in 1607.
See S. P. H. Statham, History of the Castle, Town and Port of
Dover (London, 1899); and Dover, Charters and other Documents
(London, 1902).
BATTLE OF DOVER
This famous and important naval victory was won off the town
of Dover by the ships of the Cinque Ports on the 2ist of August
1217, during the minority of King Henry III. The barons, who
were in arms against his father King John, had called Louis, son
of Philip Augustus, king of the French, to their aid. Having
been recently defeated in Lincoln, they were hard pressed, and
reinforcements weresent to them from Calais in a fleet commanded
by a pirate and mercenary soldier called Eustace the Monk. His
real name is uncertain, but according to the chronicle of Lanercost
it was Matthew. He passed the Straits of Dover with a numerous
flotilla laden with military machines and stores, and also carrying
many knights and soldiers. The Monk's fleet was seen from
Dover, where the regent; Hubert de Burgh, lay with a navalforce
of the Cinque Ports, said to have been very small. Sixteen
vessels of large size for the time, and a number of smaller craft, is
said to have been their total strength. But medieval estimates
of numbers are never to be trusted, and the strength of the Cinque
Port squadron was probably diminished to exalt the national
glory. It put to sea, and by hugging the wind gained the weather
gage of the French adventurer. Eustace is said to have been
under the impression that they meant to attack Calais in his
absence, and to have derided them because he had left the town
well guarded. When they were to windward of his fleet the Cinque
Port ships bore down on the enemy. As they approached they
threw unslaked lime in the air and the wind blew it in the faces
of the French. This form of attack, and the flights of arrows
discharged by the English (which flew with the wind), produced
confusion in the crowded benches of the French vessels, which
in most cases must have been little more than open boats. It is
further said that in some cases at least the English vessels were
" bearded," that is to say, strengthened by iron bands across the
bows for ramming, and that they sank many of the French. The
Monk was certainly defeated, and his fleet was entirely scattered,
sunk or taken. His own vessel was captured. Eustace, who had
concealed himself in the bilge, was dragged out. In answer to his
appeals for quarter and promises to pay ransom, he was told by
Richard, the bastard son of King John, that he was a traitor who
would not be allowed to deceive more men. His head was struck
off by Richard, and was sent round the ports on a pike. The
Cinque Port seamen returned in triumph, towing their prizes,
after throwing the common soldiers overboard, and taking the
knights to ransom according to the custom of the age.
The political importance of the battle was very great, for it
gave the death-blow to the cause of the barons who supported
Louis, and it fixed Henry III. on the throne. But the defeat and
death of the Monk was widely regarded as in a peculiar sense a
victory over the powers of evil. The man became within a few
years after his death the hero of many legends of piracy and
necromancy. It was said that after leaving the cloister he studied
the black art in Toledo, which had a great reputation in the middle
ages as a school of witchcraft. A French poem written seemingly
within a generation after his death represents him as a wizard.
In a prose narrative discovered and printed by M. Francisque
Michel, it is said that he made his ship invisible by magic spells.
A brother wizard in the English fleet, by name Stephen Crabbe,
detected him while he was invisible to others. The bold and
patriotic Crabbe contrived to board the bewitched flagship, and
was seen apparently laying about him with an axe on the water
which the spectators took to be a proof either that he was mad, or
that this was the devil in his shape. At last he struck off the
head of Eustace, upon which the spell was broken, and the ship
DOVER
455
H A R B V R
appeared. Crabbe was torn to pieces presum ably by the familiar
spirits of the Monk and the fragments were scattered over the
water. Saint Bartholomew, whose feast is on the 2ist of August,
came to encourage the English by his presence and his voice.
Ascertainable fact concerning Eustace is less picturesque, but
enough is known to show that he was an adventurous and
unscrupulous scoundrel. In his youth he was a monk, and left
the cloister to claim an inheritance from the count of Boulogne.
Not having received satisfaction he became a freebooter on land
and sea, and mercenary soldier. He is frequently mentioned in
the Pipe, Patent and Close Rolls. For a time he served King
John, but when the king made friends with the count of Boulogne,
he fled abroad, and entered the service of the French prince Louis
and his father Philip Augustus. Chroniclers lavish on him the
titles of " archipirata," " vir flagitiosissimus et nequissimus,"
and poets made him an associate of the devil.
The evidence concerning Eustace is collected by Herren Wendelin
Forster and Johann Trost, in their edition of the French poem
" Wistasse le moine " (Halle, 1891). See for the battle Sir N.
Harris Nicolas, History of the Royal Navy (London, 1847).
DOVER, a city and the county seat of Strafford county, New
Hampshire, U.S.A., on the Cochecho river, at the head of naviga-
tion, 10 m. N.W. of Portsmouth. Pop. (1890) 12,790; (1900)
13,207, of whom 3298 were foreign-born; (1910 census)
13,247. Land area, 26-4 sq. m. It is at the intersection of two
branches of the Boston & Maine railway, and is served by several
interurban electric lines. The street plan is irregular. Dover
has a fine city hall of red brick and freestone; a public library
containing (1907) 34,000 volumes; the Wentworth hospital; the
Wentworth home for the aged ; a children's and an orphans' home.
The Strafford Savings Bank is said to be the largest and oldest
savings institution in the state. Dover has long had a considerable
commerce, both by rail and by water, that by water being chiefly
Emery Walker sc.
in coal and building materials. The navigation of the Cochecho
river has been greatly improved by the Federal government, at a
cost between 1829 and 1907 of about $300,000, and in 1909 there
was a navigable channel, 60-75 ft. wide and 7 ft. deep at mean low
water, from Dover to the mouth of the river; the mean range
of tides is 6-8 ft. The Cochecho river falls 31$ ft. within the
city limits and furnishes water-power for factories; among the
manufactures are textiles, boots and shoes, leather belting, sash,
doors and blinds, carriages, machinery and bricks. In 1905
Dover ranked fourth among the manufacturing cities of the state,
and first in manufactures of woollens; the value of the city's
total factory product in that year was $6,042,901. Dover is one
of the two oldest cities in the state. In May 1623 a settlement
was established by Edward Hilton on Dover Point, about 5 m.
S.E. of the Cochecho Falls; the present name was adopted in
1639, and with the development of manufacturing and trading
interests the population gradually removed nearer the falls;
Hilton and his followers were Anglicans, but in 1633 they were
joined by several Puritan families under Captain Thomas Wiggin,
who settled on Dover Neck (i m. above Dover Point), which for
100 years was the business centre of the town. As the settlement
was outside the jurisdiction of any province, and as trouble arose
between the two sects, a plantation covenant was drawn up and
signed in 1640 by forty-one of the inhabitants. Dissensions,
however, continued, and in 1641, by the will of the majority,
Dover passed under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts and so
remained for nearly half a century. The town, between 1675 and
1725, suffered greatly from Indian attacks, particularly from that
of the 28th of June 1689 at Cochecho Falls. Dover was first
chartered as a city in 1855. Within the original territory of the
town were included Newington, set off in 1713, Somersworth
(1729), Durham (1732), Medbury (1755), Lee, set off from Durham
in 1766, and Rollinsford, set off from Somersworth in 1849.
45 6
DOVER DOWDEN
See Jeremy Belknap, History of New Hampshire (Philadelphia,
1784-1792); and Rev. Dr A. H. Quint's Historical Memoranda of
Persens and Places in Old Dover, N.H., edited by John Scales
(Dover, 1900).
DOVER, a town of Morris county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on the
Rockaway river and the Morris canal, about 40 m. by rail W.N.W.
of Hoboken. Pop. (1900) 5938, of whom 947 were foreign-born;
(1905) 6353; (1910) 7468. The area of the town is 1-72 sq. m.
Dover is at the junction of the main line and the Morris & Essex
division of the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western railway
(which has large repair shops here), and is also served by the High
Bridge branch of the Central of New Jersey, and by an electric
line connecting with neighbouring towns. The town is situated
about 570 ft. above sea-level. Building stone, used extensively
for railway bridges, and iron ore abound in the vicinity. The
river furnishes good water-power, and the town has various
manufactures, including stoves and ranges, boilers, bar iron,
rivets, steel castings, rock drills, air compressors, silk hose and
underwear, organzine or thrown silk, and overalls. The water-
works are owned by the town, water being obtained from wells
varying in depth from 193 to 213 ft. Dover was settled as early
as 1748, and was separated from Randolph township and
incorporated as a town in 1869.
DOVERCOURT, a watering-place in the Harwich parliamentary
division of Essex, England, immediately S.W. of Harwich, with
a station between Parkeston Quay and Harwich town on the
Great Eastern railway, 70 m. N.E. by E. from London. Pop.
(1901) 3894. The esplanade and sea-wall front the North Sea,
and there is a fine expanse of sand affording good bathing. There
is also a chalybeate spa. The scenery of the neighbouring
Orwell and Stour estuaries is pleasant. The church, which stands
inland in the old village distinguished as Upper Dovercourt, is
Early English and later; it formerly possessed a miraculous
rood which became an object of pilgrimage of wide repute. It is
said to have been stolen and burnt in 1532, three of the four
thieves being subsequently taken and hanged.
DOW, LORENZO (1777-1834), American preacher, noted for
his eccentricities of dress and manner, was born at Coventry,
Connecticut, on the i6th of October 1777. He was much troubled
in his youth by religious perplexities, but ultimately joined the
Methodists, and in 1 798 was appointed a preacher " on trial " in a
New York circuit. In the following year, however, he crossed the
Atlantic and preached as a missionary to the Catholics of Ireland,
and thereafter was never connected officially with the ministry
of the Methodist Church, though he remained essentially a
Methodist in doctrine. Everywhere, in America and Great
Britain, he attracted great crowds to hear and see him, and he was
often persecuted as well as admired. In 1805 he visited England,
introduced the system of camp meetings, and thus led the way
to the formation of the Primitive Methodist Society. Dow's
enthusiasm sustained him through the incessant labours of more
than thirty years, during which he preached in almost all parts of
the United States. His later efforts were directed chiefly against
the Jesuits; indeed he was in general a vigorous opponent of
Roman Catholicism. He died in Georgetown, District of
Columbia, on the and of February 1834. Among his publications
are: Polemical Works (1814); The Stranger in Charleston, or
the Trial and Confession of Lorenzo Dow (1822) ; A Short Account
of a Long Travel; with Beauties of Wesley (1823); and the
History of a Cosmopolite; or the Four Volumes of the Rev.
LorenzoDow's Journal, concentrated in One, containing his Ex-
perience and Travels from Childhood to 1814 (1814; many later
editions) ; this volume also contains " All the Polemical Works
of Lorenzo." The edition of 1854 was entitled The Dealings of
God, Man, and the Devil as exemplified in the Life, Experience
and Travels of Lorenzo Dow.
DOW, NEAL (1804-1897), American temperance reformer, was
born at Portland, Maine, on the 2oth of March 1 804. His parents
were Quakers and he was educated at the Friends' School in New
Bedford, Massachusetts. He subsequently became a merchant
in his native city and rose to a position of importance in its
business and political life, riis chief interest, however, was in
the temperance question, and he early attracted attention as an
ardent champion of the prohibition of the sale of intoxicating
drinks. He drafted the drastic Maine prohibitory law of 1851.
He was mayor of Portland in 1851 and in 1855, and was a member
of the Maine legislature in 1858-1859. Early in the Civil War
he became colonel of the I3th Maine Volunteer Infantry. He
served in General B. F. Butler's New Orleans expedition, was
commissioned brigadier-general of volunteers in April 1862, and
subsequently commanded for a time the department of Florida.
He was twice wounded in the attack on Port Hudson, on the zyth
of May 1863, and was taken prisoner, remaining eight months in
Libby and other prisons before he was exchanged. After the war
he devoted a great part of his time and energy to the extension
of the prohibition movement in America and England. Through
his exertions the prohibitory amendment was added to the Maine
constitution in 1884. In 1880 he was the candidate of the
National Prohibition Party for president, polling 10,305 votes.
He died at Portland on the 2nd of October 1897.
His Reminiscences were published at Portland in 1898.
DOWAGER (from the Old Fr. douagiere, mod. douairiere),
strictly, a widow in the enjoyment of dower. " Dowager " is
also applied to widows of high rank to distinguish them from
the wives of their sons, as queen-dowager, dowager-duchess, &c.
The title was first used in England of Catherine of Aragon, widow
of Arthur, prince of Wales, who was styled princess dowager till
her marriage with Henry VIII. By transference the word is used
of an elderly lady.
DOWDEN, EDWARD (1843- ), Irish critic and poet, son of
John Wheeler Dowden, merchant and landowner, was born at
Cork on the 3rd of May 1843, being three years junior to his
brother John, who became bishop of Edinburgh in 1886. His
literary tastes were shown early, in a series of essays written at the
age of twelve. His home education was continued at Queen's
College, Cork, and Trinity College, Dublin; at the latter uni-
versity he had a distinguished career, becoming president of the
Philosophical Society, and winning the vice-chancellor's prize
for English verse and prose, and the first senior moderatorship
in ethics and logic. In 1867 he was elected professor of oratory
and Engh'sh literature in Dublin University. His first book,
Shakespeare, his Mind and Art (1875), was a revision of a course of
lectures, and made him widely known as a critic, being translated
into German and Russian; and his Poems (1876) went into a
second edition. His Shakespeare Primer (1877) was also translated
into Italian and German. In 1878 he was awarded the
Cunningham gold medal of the Royal Irish Academy " for his
literary writings, especially in the field of Shakespearian criticism."
Later works by him in this field were his Shakespeare's Sonnets
(1881), Passionate Pilgrim (1883), Introduction to Shakespeare
(1893), Hamlet (1899), Romeo and Juliet (1900), Cymbeline (1903),
and his article (National Review, July 1902) on " Shakespeare as
a Man of Science," criticizing T. E. Webb's Mystery of William
Shakespeare. His critical essays " Studies in Literature "
(1878), " Transcripts and Studies " (1888), " New Studies in
Literature " (1895) showed a profound knowledge of the currents
and tendencies of thought in various ages and countries; but it
was his Life of Shelley (1886) that made him best known to the
public at large. In 1900 he edited an edition of Shelley's works.
Other books by him which indicate his interests in literature are
his Southey (in the " English Men of Letters " series, 1880),
his edition of Southey's Correspondence with Caroline Bowles
(1881), and Select Poems of Southey (1895), his Correspondence of
Sir Henry Taylor (1888), his edition of Wordsworth's Poetical
Works (1892) and of his Lyrical Ballads (1890), his French
Revolution and English Literature (1897; lectures given at
Princeton University in 1896), History of French Literature (1897) ,
Puritan and Anglican (1900), Robert Browning (1904) and Michel
de Montaigne (1905). His devotion to Goethe led to his succeed-
ing Max Miillerin 1888 as president of the English Goethe Society.
In 1889 he became the first Taylorian lecturer at Oxford, and
from 1892 to 1896 was Clark lecturer at Trinity College,
Cambridge. To his sagacity in research are due, among other
matters of literary interest, the first account of Carlyle's
DOWDESWELL DOWN
457
" Lectures on periods of European culture "; the identification
of Shelley as the author of a review (in The Critical Review of
December 1814) of a lost romance by Hogg; description of
Shelley's " Philosophical View of Reform "; a MS. diary of Fabre
D'Eglantine; and a record by Dr Wilhelm Weissenborn of
Goethe's last days and death. He also discovered a " Narrative
of a Prisoner of War under Napoleon " (published in Blackwood's
Magazine), an unknown pamphlet by Bishop Berkeley, some
unpublished writings of Hayley relating to Cowper, and a unique
copy of the Tales of Terror. His wide sympathies and scholarly
methods made his influence on criticism both sound and
stimulating, and his own ideals are well described in his essay on
" The Interpretation of Literature " in his Transcripts and
Studies. As commissioner of education in Ireland (1896-1901),
trustee of the National Library of Ireland, secretary of the Irish
Liberal Union and vice-president of the Irish Unionist Alliance,
he enforced his view that literature should not be divorced from
practical life. He married twice, first (1866) Mary Clerke, and
secondly (1895) Elizabeth Dickinson West, daughter of the dean
of St Patrick's.
DOWDESWELL, WILLIAM (1721-1775), English politician,
was a son of William Dowdeswell of Pull Court, Bushley,
Worcestershire, and was educated at Westminster school, at
Christ Church, Oxford, and at the university of Leiden. He
became member of parh'ament for the family borough of
Tewkesbury in 1747, retaining this seat until 1754, and from 1761
until his death he was one of the representatives of Worcester-
shire. Becoming prominent among the Whigs, Dowdeswell was
made chancellor of the exchequer in 1765 under the marquess of
Rockingham, and his short tenure of this position appears to have
been a successful one, he being in Lecky 's words ' ' a good financier,
but nothing more." To the general astonishment he refused to
abandon his friends and to take office under Lord Chatham, who
succeeded Rockingham in August 1766. Dowdeswell then led
the Rockingham party in the House of Commons, taking an
active part in debate until his death at Nice on the 6th of
February 1775. The highly eulogistic epitaph on his monument
at Bushley was written by Edmund Burke.
DOWER (through the Old Fr. douaire from late Lat. dotarium,
classical Lat. dos, dowry) , in law, the life interest of the widow in a
third part of her husband's lands. There were originally five
kinds of dower: (i) at common law; (2) by custom; (3) ad ostium
ecdesiae, or at the church porch; (4) ex assensu patris; (5) de la
plus belle. The last was a conveyance of tenure by knight
service, and was abolished in 1660, by the act which did away
with old tenures. Dower ad ostium ecdesiae, by which the
bride was dowered at the church porch (where all marriages
used formerly to take place), and dower ex assensu patris,
by the father of the bridegroom, though long obsolete, were
formally abolished by the Dower Act 1834. Dower is governed
in the United Kingdom, so far as women married after the ist of
January 1834 are concerned, by the Dower Act 1834, and under it
only attaches on the husband's death to the lands which he
actually possessed for an estate of inheritance at the time of his
death. It must be claimed within twelw years of the time of its
accrual, but only six years' arrears are recoverable. The wife is
also entitled to dower out of equitable estates, but joint estates
are exempt. By the act the wife's dower is placed completely
under her husband's control. It does not attach to any land
actually disposed of by him in his lifetime or by his will, nor to any
land from which he has declared by deed his wife shall not be
entitled to dower. He may also defeat her right, either as to any
particular land or to all his lands, by a declaration in his will;
while it is subject to all the deceased husband's debts and
contracts, and to any partial estates which he may have created
during his life or by his will. A widow tenant in dower may make
leases for twenty-one years under the Settled Estates Act 1878.
Free-bench is an analogous right in regard to copyhold land; it
does not fall within the Dower Act 1834, and varies with the
custom of each manor. At common law, and prior to the act of
1834, dower was of a very different nature. The wife's right
attached, while the husband was still living, to any land whereof
he was solely seised in possession (excluding equitable and joint
estates) for an estate of inheritance at any time during the
continuance of the marriage, provided that any child the wife
might have had could have been heir to the same, even though
no child was actually born. When once this right had attached
it adhered to the lands, notwithstanding any sale or devise the
husband might make; nor was it h'able for his debts. In this
way dower proved an obstacle to the free alienation of land, for it
was necessary for a husband wishing to make a valid conveyance
to obtain the consent of his wife releasing her right to dower.
This release was only effected by a fine, the wife being separately
examined. Often, by reason of the expense involved, the wife's
concurrence was not obtained, and thus the title of the purchaser
was defective during the wife's lifetime. The acceptance of a
jointure by the wife before marriage was, however, destructive of
dower, if after marriage she was put to her election between it
and dower. By the ingenuity of the old conveyancers, devices,
known as " uses to bar dower " (the effect of which was that the
purchaser never had at any time an estate of inheritance in
possession), were found to prevent dower attaching to newly
purchased lands, and so to enable the owner to give a clear title,
without the need of the wife's concurrence^ in the event of his
wishing, in his turn, to convey the land. All this was, however,
swept away by the Dower Act 1834, and a purchaser of land no
longer need trouble himself to inquire whether the dower of the
wife of the vendor has been barred, or to insist on her concurrence
in a fine. (H. S. S.)
DOWIE, JOHN ALEXANDER (1848-1907), founder of
" Zionism," was born in Edinburgh, and went as a boy to South
Australia with his parents. He returned in 1868 to study for the
Congregationalist ministry at Edinburgh University, and sub-
sequently became pastor of a church near Sydney, Australia.
He was a powerful preacher, and later, having become imbued
with belief in his powers as a healer of disease by prayer, he
obtained sufficient following to move to Melbourne, build a
tabernacle, and found " The Divine Healing Association of
Australia and New Zealand." In 1888 he went to America,
preaching and " healing," and in spite of opposition and ridicule
attracted a number of adherents. In 1896 he established " The
Christian Catholic Apostolic Church in Zion," with himself as
" First Apostle "; and in 1901, with money liberally contributed
by his followers, he founded Zion City, on a site covering about
10 sq. m. on the west shore of Lake Michigan, with a central
temple for the Zionist church. In 1903 and 1904, in the course of
a visit to the branches of the Zionist movement throughout the
world, he appeared in London, but was mobbed. In April 1906 a
revolt against his domination took place in Zion City. He was
charged with peculation and with practising polygamy, and was
deposed, with the assent of his own wife and son. A suit brought
by him in the United States district court to recover possession
of the Zion City property, valued at two millions sterling, was
unsuccessful, and his defalcations were fully proved. Dowie was
now broken in health and unmistakably insane; he was struck
with paralysis and gradually becoming weaker died in Zion City
in March 1907.
DOWLAS, the name given to a plain cloth, similar to sheeting,
but usually coarser. It is made in several qualities, from line
warp and weft to two warp and weft, and is used chiefly for
aprons, pocketing, soldiers' gaiters, linings and overalls. The
finer makes are sometimes made into shirts for workmen, and
occasionally used for heavy pillow-cases. The word is spelt in
many different ways, but the above is the common way of
spelling adopted in factories, and it appears in the same form in
Shakespeare's First Part of Henry IV., Act III. scene 3. The
modern dowlas is a good, strong and closely woven linen fabric.
DOWN, a maritime county of Ireland, in the province of
Ulster, occupying the most easterly' part of the island, bounded N.
by Co. Antrim and Belfast Lough, E. and S. by the Irish Sea, and
W. by Co. Armagh. The area is 607, 916 acres, or nearly 950 sq. m.
The coast line is indented by several loughs and bays. The largest
of these is Strangford Lough, a fine sheet of water studded with
260 islets, 54 of which have names. All are well wooded or
458
DOWN
rich in pasturage. The lough runs for 10 m. northwards, and
the ancient castles and ruined abbeys on some of the islets render
the scene one of singular interest and beauty. Farther south
Dundrum Bay forms a wider expanse of water. In the south-
west Carlingford Lough separates the county from Louth.
There are no lakes of importance. Between Strangford and
Carlingford loughs the county is occupied by a range of hills
known in its south-western portion as the Mourne Mountains,
which give rise to the four principal rivers the Bann, the Lagan,
the Annacloy and the Newry. This mass includes, several
striking peaks, of which the principal is Slieve Donard, rising
finely direct from the sea to a height of 2796 ft., which is exceeded
in Ireland only by one peak in the Wicklow range, and by the
higher reeks in Killarney. Several other summits exceed 2000 ft.
Holy wells and mineral springs are numerous in Co. Down.
Theseare both chalybeate and sulphurous, and occur at Ardmillan,
Granshaw, Dundonnell,Magheralin, Dromore, Newry, Banbridge
and Tierkelly. Those of Struell near Downpatrick were accred-
ited with miraculous powers by the natives until recent times, and
religious observances of an extravagant nature took place there.
Geology. The foundationof this countyisSilurianrockthroughout,
the slates and sandstones striking as a whole north-east, but giving
rise to a country of abundant small hills. The granite that appears
along the same axis in Armagh continues from Newry to Slieve
Croob, furnishing an excellent building stone. South of it, the
Eocene granite of the Mournes forms a group of rocky summits, set
with scarps and tors, and divided by noble valleys, which are not yet
choked by the detritus of these comparatively youthful mountains.
Basalt dykes abound, being well seen along the coast south of
Newcastle. At the head of Strangford Lough, the basalt, possibly
as intrusive sheets, has protected Triassic sandstone, which is
quarried at Scrabo Hill. A strip of marine Permian occurs on the
shore at Holywood. The north-west of the county includes, at Moira,
a part of the great basaltic plateaux, with Chalk and Trias protected
by them. The haematite of dehomet near Banbridge is well spoken
of. Topaz and aquamarine occur in hollows in the granite of the
Mournes. The Mourne granite is quarried above Annalong, and an
ornamental dolerite is worked at Rosstrevor.
Industries. The predominating soil is a loam of little depth, in
most places intermixed with considerable quantities of stones of
various sizes, but differing materially in character according to the
nature of the subsoil. Clay is mostly confined to the eastern coast,
and to the northern parts of Castlereagh. Of sandy soil the
quantity is small ; it occurs chiefly near Dundrum. Moor grounds
are mostly confined to the skirts of the mountains. Bogs, though
frequent, are scarcely sufficient to furnish a supply of fuel to the
population. Agriculture is in a fairly satisfactory condition.
The bulk of the labouring population is orderly and industrious,
and dwell in circumstances contrasting well with those of others
of their class in some other parts of Ireland. Tillage land
declines somewhat in favour of pasture land. Oats, potatoes
and turnips are the principal crops; flax, formerly important,
is almost neglected. The breed of horses is an object of much
attention, and some of the best racers in Ireland have been bred
in this county. The native breed of sheep, a small hardy race, is
confined to the mountains. The various other kinds of sheep have
been much improved by judicious crosses from the best breeds.
Pigs are reared in great numbers, chiefly for the Belfast market,
where the large exportation occasions a constant demand for
them. Poultry farming is a growing industry. The fisheries, of
less value than formerly, are centred at Donaghadee, Newcastle,
Strangford and Ardglass, the headquarters of the herring fishery.
The chief industries in the county generally are linen manu-
facture and bleaching, and brewing.
Communications. The Great Northern railway has an
alternative branch route to its main line by Portadown, from
Lisburn through Banbridge to Scarva, with a branch from
Banbridge to Ballyroney and Newcastle. Newry is on a branch
from the Dublin-Belfast line to Warrenpoint on Carlingford
Lough. The main line between Lisburn and Portadown touches
the north-western extremity of the county. The eastern part of
the county is served by the Belfast & County Down railway with
its main line from Belfast to Newcastle to Dundrum Bay, and
branches from Belfast to Bangor, Comber to Newtownards
and Donaghadee, Ballynahinch Junction to Ballynahinch, and
Downpatrick to Ardglass and Killough. The Newry Canal skirts
the west of the county, and the Lagan Canal intersects the rich
lands in the Lagan valley to the north.
Population and Administration. The population (219,405 in
1891; 205,889 in 1901) decreases slightly. The population in
1891 on the area of the county before the Local Government
(Ireland) Act 1898 was 224,008, for in this case the figures for
part of the county borough of Belfast were included. This is
worth notice from the comparative point of view, since, whereas
emigration to foreign ports is considerable, a large portion of the
moving population travels no farther than the metropolis of
Belfast. About 39% of the population is of the Presbyterian
faith, about 31 % Roman Catholic, among whom, as usual,
education is in the most backward condition; about 23% are
Protestant Episcopalians.
The following are the principal towns: Newry (pop. 12,405),
Newtownards (9110), Banbridge (5006), Downpatrick (2993 ;
thecountytown), Holywood (3840), Gilford (1199), Bangor (5903),
Dromore (2307), Donaghadee (2073), Comber (2095) and Warren-
point (1817). Other small towns are Portaferry, Rathfryland,
Killyleagh, Kilkeel, Ballynahinch, Dundrum, a small port, and
Hillsborough, near Dromore, where the castle is the seat of the
marquesses of Downshire. There are several popular watering-
place on the coast, notably Newcastle, Donaghadee, Ardglass
and Rosstrevor. On the shore of Belfast Lough are many
pleasant residential villages and seats of the wealthy class in
Belfast. The county is divided into fourteen baronies, and
contains sixty-four parishes. The assizes are held at Down-
patrick, and quarter-sessions at the same town and at Banbridge,
Newry and Newtownards. The county is in the Protestant
diocese of Down, and the Roman Catholic dioceses of Down and
Dromore. Down returns four members to parliament for the
north, south, east and west divisions. The borough of Newry
returns a member. Previous to the act of Union the county
returned fourteen members to the Irish parliament.
History and Antiquities. The period at which Down was
constituted a county is not certain. A district, however, appears
to have borne this name before the beginning of the I4th century,
but little is known of it even later than this. However, when in
'535 Sir John Perrot undertook the shiring of Ulster, Down and
Antrim were excepted as already settled counties. That some
such settlement would have been attempted at an early period is
likely, as this coast was a place of Anglo-Norman colonization,
and to this movement was due the settlement of the baronies of
Lecale, the Ards and others.
The county is not wanting in interesting remains. At
Slidderyford, near Dundrum, there is a group of ten or twelve
pillar stones in a circle, about 10 ft. in height. A very curious
cairn on the summit of Slieve Croob is 80 yds. in circumference at
the base and 50 at the top, where is a platform on which cairns of
various heights are found standing. The village of Anadorn is
famed for a cairn covering a cave which contains ashes and human
bones. Cromlechs, or altars, are numerous, the most remarkable
being the Giant's Ring, which stands on the summit of a hill near
the borders of Antrim.' This altar is formed of an unwrought
stone 7 ft. long by 65 broad, resting in an inclined position on rude
pillars about 3 ft. high. . This solitary landmark is in the centre of
an enclosure about a third of a mile in circumference, formed of a
rampart about 20 ft. high, and broad enough on the top to permit
two persons to ride abreast. Near Downpatrick is a rath, or
encampment, three-quarters of a mile in circumference. In its
vicinity are the ruins of Saul Abbey, said to have been founded by
St Patrick, and Inch Abbey, founded by Sir John de Courcy in
1 1 80. The number of monastic ruins is also considerable. The
most ancient and celebrated is the abbey or cathedral of Down-
Patrick. Dundrum Castle, attributed to the de Courcy family,
stands finely above that town, and affords an unusual example
(for Ireland) of a donjon keep. The castle of Hillsborough is of
Carolean date. There are three round towers in the county, but
all are fragmentary.
DOWN, a smooth rounded hill, or more particularly an expanse
of high rolling ground bare of trees. The word comes from the
DOWNES DOWNMAN
459
Old English dun, hill. This is usually taken to be a Celtic word.
The Gaelic and Irish dun and Welsh din are specifically used of a
hill-fortress, and thus frequently appear in place-names, e.g. Dum-
barton, Dunkeld, and in the Latinized termination dttnum,
e.g. Lugdunum, Lyons. The Old Dutch duna, which is the same
word, was applied to the drifted sandhills which are a prevailing
feature of the south-eastern coast of the North Sea (Denmark and
the Low Countries), and the derivatives, Ger. Dune, modern
Dutch duin, Fr. dune, have this particular meaning. The
English " dune " is directly taken from the French. The low
sandy tracts north and south of Yarmouth, Norfolk, are known as
the " Dunes," which may be a corruption of the Dutch or French
words. From " down," hill, comes the adverb " down," from
above, in the earlier form " adown," i.e. off the hill. The word
for the soft under plumage of birds is entirely different, and
comes from the Old Norwegian dun, cf. cedar-dun, eider-down.
For the system of chalk hills in England known as " The Downs "
see DOWNS.
DOWNES [D(O)UNAEUS], ANDREW (c. 1540-1628), English
classical scholar, was born in the county of Shropshire. He was
educated at Shrewsbury and St John's College, Cambridge, where
he did much to revive the study of Greek, at that time at a very
low ebb. In 1571 he was elected fellow of his college, and, in
1585, he was appointed to the regius professorship of Greek,
which he held for nearly forty years. He died at Colon, near
Cambridge, on the and of February 1627/1628. According to
Simonds d'Ewes (Autobiography, ed. J. O. Halliwell, i. pp. 139,
141), who attended his lectures on Demosthenes and gives a slight
sketch of his personality, Downes was accounted " the ablest
Grecian of Christendom." He published little, but seems to have
devoted his chief attention to the Greek orators. He edited
Lysias Pro caede Eratosthenis (1593); Praelectiones in Philip-
picam de pace Demosthenis (1621), dedicated to King James I.;
some letters (written in Greek) to Isaac Casaubon, printed in
the Epistolae of the latter; and notes to St Chrysostom, in
Sir Henry Savile's edition. Downes was also one of the seven
translators of the Apocrypha for the " authorized " version of
the Bible, and one of the six learned men appointed to revise
the new version after its completion.
DOWNING, SIR GEORGE, Bart. (c. 1624-1684), English
soldier and diplomatist, son of Emmanuel Downing, barrister,
and of Lucy, sister of Governor John Winthrop, was born in
England about I624. 1 His family joined Winthrop in America in
1638, settling in Salem, Massachusetts, and Downing studied
at Harvard College. In 1645 he sailed for the West Indies as a
preacher and instructor of the seamen, and arrived in England
some time afterwards, becoming chaplain to Colonel John Okey's
regiment. Subsequently he seems to have abandoned his religious
vocation for a military career, and in 1650 he was scout-master-
general of Cromwell's forces in Scotland, and as such received in
1657 a salary of 365 and 500 as a teller of the exchequer. His
marriage in 1654 with Frances, daughter of Sir William Howard
of Naworth, and sister of the ist earl of Carlisle, aided his
advancement. In Cromwell's parliament of 1654 he represented
Edinburgh, and Carlisle in those of 1656 and 1659. He was one of
the first to urge Cromwell to take the royal title and restore the
old constitution. In 1655 he was sent to France to remonstrate
on the massacre of the Protestant Vaudois. Later in 1657 he
was appointed resident at The Hague, to effect a union of the
Protestant European powers, to mediate between Portugal and
Holland and between Sweden and Denmark, to defend the
interests of the English traders against the Dutch, and to inform
the government concerning the movements of the exiled royalists.
He showed himself in these negotiations an able diplomatist.
He was maintained in his post during the interregnum subsequent
to the fall of Richard Cromwell, and was thus enabled in April
1660 to make his peace !with Charles II., to whom he com-
municated Thurloe's despatches, and declared his abandonment
of " principles sucked in " in New England, of which he now "saw
the error." At the Restoration, therefore, Downing was knighted
The date of his birth is variously given as 1623, 1624 and 1625
(Sibley's Harvard Graduates, 1883).
(May 1660), was continued in his embassy in Holland, was
confirmed in his tellership of the exchequer, and was further
rewarded with a valuable piece of land adjoining St James's Park
for building purposes, now known as Downing Street. 2 Consider-
ing his past, he showed a very indecent zeal in arresting in
Holland and handing over for execution the regicides Barkstead,
Corbet and Okey. Pepys, who characterized his conduct as odious
though useful to the king, calls him a " perfidious rogue," and
remarks that " all the world took notice of him for a most
ungrateful villain for his pains." 3 On the ist of July 1663 he
was created a baronet. Downing had from the first been hostile to
the Dutch as the commercial rivals of England. He had strongly
supported the Navigation Act of 1660, and he now deliberately
drew on the fatal and disastrous war. During its continuance he
took part at home in the management of the treasury, introduced
the appropriation of supplies, opposed strongly by Clarendon as
an encroachment on the prerogative, and in May 1667 was made
secretary to the commissioners, his appointment being much
welcomed by Pepys. 4 He had been returned for Morpeth in the
convention parliament of April 1660, a constituency which he
represented in every ensuing parliament till his death, and he
spoke with ability on financial and commercial questions. He
was appointed a commissioner of the customs in 1671. Thesame
year he was again sent to Holland to replace Sir William Temple,
to break up the policy of the Triple alliance and incite another
war between Holland and England in furtherance of the French
policy. His unpopularity there was extreme, and after three
months' residence Downing fled to England, in fear of the fury of
the mob. For this unauthorized step he was sent to the Tower
on the 7th of February 1672, but released some few weeks after-
wards. He defended the Declaration of Indulgence the same
year, and made himself useful in supporting the court policy.
He died in July 1684. Downing Street, London, is named after
him, while Downing College, Cambridge, derived its name from
his grandson, the 3rd baronet. The title became extinct when
the 4th baronet, Sir Jacob G. Downing, died in 1764.
Downing was undoubtedly a man of great political and
diplomatic ability, but his talents were rarely employed for the
advantage of his country and his character was marked by
all the mean vices, treachery, avarice, servility and ingratitude.
" A George Downing " became a proverbial expression in New
England to denote a false man who betrayed his trust. 6 He
published a large number of declarations and discourses, mostly
in Dutch, enumerated in Sibley's biography, and wrote also
" A True Relation of the Progress of the Parliament's Forces
in Scotland " (1651), Thomason Tracts, Brit. Mus., E 640 (5).
DOWNMAN, JOHN (1750-1824), English portrait painter, was
the son of Francis Downman, attorney, of St Neots, by Charlotte
Goodsend, eldest daughter of the private secretary to George I.;
his grandfather, Hugh Downman (1672-1729), having been the
master of the House of Ordnance at Sheerness. He is believed to
have been born near Ruabon, educated first at Chester, then at
Liverpool, and finally at the Royal Academy schools, and he was
for a while in the studio of Benjamin West. His exquisite pencil
portrait drawings, slightly tinted in colour, usually from the
reverse, are well known, and many of them are of remarkable
beauty. Several volumes of sketches for these drawings are still
in existence. Downman is believed to have beeii " pressed " for
the navy as a young man, and on his escape settled down for
a while in Cambridge, eventually coming to London, and later
( 1 804) going to reside in Kent in the village of West Mailing. He
afterwards spent some part of his life in the west of England,
especially in Exeter, and then travelled all 'over the country
painting his dainty portraits. Ini8i8he settled down at Chester,
finally removing to Wrexham, where his only daughter married
and where he died and was buried. He was an associate of the
Royal Academy. The Downman family is usually known as a
Devonshire one, but the exact connexion between the artist
1 Col. of St Pap. ; Dom. (1661-1662) p. 408 ; Notes and Queries, ix.
ser. vii. 92.
3 Diary, March 12, 17, 1662. * 76. May 27, 1667.
5 Sibley, i. 46.
460
DOWNPATRICK DOWNSHIRE, MARQUESS OF
and the Devonshire branch has not been traced. Many of
his portraits have attached to them remarks of considerable
importance respecting the persons represented.
See John Downman, his Life and Works, by G. C. Williamson
(London, 1907). (G. C. W, )
DOWNPATRICK, a market town and the county town of Co.
Down, Ireland, in the east parliamentary division, 28 m. S.S.E. of
Belfast by the Belfast & County Down railway. Pop. (1901)
2993. It stands picturesquely on a sloping site near the south-
west extremity of Strangford Lough. It is the seat of the
Protestant and Roman Catholic dioceses of Down. St Patrick
founded the see about 440, but the present Protestant cathedral
dates from 1790, the old structure, * after suffering many
vicissitudes, having been in ruins for 250 years. The cathedral is
said to contain the remains of its founder, together with those of
St Columba and St Bridget. A round tower adjoining it was
destroyed in 1790. A small trade is carried on at Strangford
Lough by means of vessels up to 100 tons, which discharge at
Quoile quay, about i m. from the town; but vessels of larger
tonnage can discharge at a steamboat quay lower down the Quoile.
The imports are principally iron, coal, salt and timber; the
exports barley, oats, cattle, pigs and potatoes. Linen manu-
facture is also carried on, and brewing, tanning and soap-making
give considerable employment. The Down corporation race-
meeting is important and attracts visitors from far outside the
county. The rath or dun from which the town is named remains
as one of the finest in Ireland. It was called Rath-Keltair, or the
rath of the hero Keltar, and covers an area of 10 acres. In the
vicinity of the town are remnants of the monastery of Saul,
a foundation ascribed to St Patrick, and of Inch Abbey (1180),
founded by Sir John de Courcy. Three miles south is a fine stone
circle, and to the south-east are the wells of Struell, famous as
miraculous healers among the peasantry until modern times.
The town is of extreme antiquity. It was called Dun-leth-glas,
the fort of the broken fetters, from the miraculous deliverance
from bondage of two sons of Dichu, prince of Lecale, and the first
convert of St Patrick. It is the Dunum of Ptolemy, and was
a residence of the kings of Ulster. It was already incorporated
early in the i sth century. It returned two members to the Irish
parliament until the Union in 1800, and thereafter one to the
Imperial parliament until 1832.
DOWNS, the name of a system of chalk hills in the south-east of
England. For the etymology of the word and its meaning see
DOWN. It is most familiar in its application to the two ranges of
the North and South Downs. Of these the North Downs are
confined chiefly to the counties of Surrey and Kent, and the South
to Sussex. Each forms a well-defined long range springing from
the chalk area of Dorsetshire and Hampshire, to which, though
broken up into a great number of short ranges and groups of hills,
the general name of the Western Downs is given. The Downs
enclose the rich district of the Weald (q.v.).
The North Downs, extending from a point near Farnham to the
English Channel between Dover and Folkestone, have a length
along the crest line, measured directly, of 95 m. The crest,
however, is not continuous, as the hills are breached by a suc-
cession of valleys, forming gaps through which high-roads and
railways converge upon London. The rivers flowing through
these gaps run northward, and, except in the extreme east, are
members of the Thames basin. These breaching valleys, which
are characteristic of the South Downs also, " carry us back to a
ti;ne when the greensand and chalk were continued across, or
almost across, the Weald in a great dome." The rivers " then
ran down the slopes of the dome, and as the chalk and greensand
gradually weathered back . . . deepened and deepened their
valleys, and thus were enabled to keep their original course." *
The western termination of the North Downs is the Hog's Back, a
narrow ridge, little more than a quarter of a mile broad at the
summit, sloping sharply north and south, and reaching 489ft. in
height. At the west end a depression occurs where the rivers Wey
and Blackwater closely approach each other; and it is thought
that the Wey has beheaded the Blackwater, which formerly
1 Avebury, The Scenery of England, ch. xi.
flowed through the gap. In this depression lies Farnham, the
first of a series of towns which have grown up at these natural
gateways through the hills. The Wey, flowing south of the Hog's
Back, breaches the Downs at its eastern extremity, the town of
Guildford standing at this point. The next gap is that of the Mole,
in which Dorking lies. Between Guildford and Dorking the main
line of the Downs reaches a height of 712 ft., but a lateral
depression, followed by the railway between these towns, marks
off on the south a loftier range of lower greensand, in which Leith
Hill, famous as a view-point, is 965 ft. in height. East of the Mole
the northward slope of the Downs is deeply cut by narrow valleys,
and the depression above Redhill may have been traversed by a
stream subsequently beheaded by the Mole. A height of 868 ft.
is attained east of Caterham. The next river to break through
the main line is the Darent, but here another lateral depression,
watered by the headstreams of that river, marks off the Ragstone
Ridge,southof Sevenoaks,reaching8ooft. The lateral depression
is continued along the valleys of streams tributary to the Medway,
so that nearly as far as Ashford the Downs consist of two parallel
ranges; but the Medway itself breaches both, Maidstone lying in
the gap. The elevation now begins to decrease, and 682 ft. is the
extreme height east of the Medway. The direction, hitherto E.
by N., trends E.S.E. The final complete breach is made by the
Great Stour, between Ashford and Canterbury, east of which a
height of 600 ft. is rarely reached. The valley of the Little Stour,
however, offers a well-marked pass followed by the Folkestone-
Canterbury railway, and the North Downs finally fall to the sea
in the grand white cliffs between Dover and Folkestone.
The South Downs present similar characteristics on a minor
scale. Springing from the main mass of the chalk to the south of
Petersfield they have their greatest elevation (889 ft. in Butser
Hill) at that point, and extend E. by S. for 65 m. to the English
Channel at the cliffs of Beachy Head. As in the case of the
North Downs a succession of rivers breach the hills, and a
succession of towns mark the gaps. These are, from east to west,
the Arun, with the town of Arundel, the Adur, with Shoreham,
the Ouse, with Lewes and Newhaven, and the Cuckmere, with no
considerable town. The steep slope of the South Downs is north-
ward towards the Weald. The southern slopes reach the coast
east of Brighton, but west of this town a flat coastal belt
intervenes, widening westward. Apart from the complete
breaches mentioned, the South Downs, scored on the south with
many deep vales, are generally more easily penetrable than the
North Downs, and the coast is less continuous.
Smooth convex curves are characteristic of the Downs; their
graceful and striking outline gives them an importance in the
landscape in excess of their actual height; their flanks are well
wooded, their summits covered with close springy turf.
" THE DOWNS " is also the name of a roadstead in the English
Channel off Deal between the North and the South Foreland. It
forms a favourite anchorage during heavy weather, protected on
the east by the Goodwin Sands and on the north and west by the
coast. It has depths down to 12 fathoms. Even during southerly
gales some shelter is afforded, though under this condition wrecks
are not infrequent.
DOWNSHIRE, WILLS HILL, IST MARQUESS OF (1718-1793),
son of Trevor Hill, ist Viscount Hillsborough, was bom at
Fairford in Gloucestershire on the 3oth of May 1718. He became
an English member of parliament in 1741, and an Irish viscount
on his father's death in the following year, thus sitting in both the
English and Irish parliaments. In 1751 he was created earl of
Hillsborough in the Irish peerage; in 1754 he was made comp-
troller of the royal household and an English privy councillor;
and in 1756 he became a peer of Great Britain as baron of
Harwich. For nearly two years he was president of the board of
trade and plantations under George Grenville, and after a brief
period of retirement he filled the same position, and then that of
joint postmaster-general, under the earl of Chatham. From
1768 to 1772 Hillsborough was secretary of state for the colonies
and also president of the board of trade, becoming an English
earl on his retirement; in 1779 he was made secretary of state
for the northern department, and he was created marquess of
DOWRY DOYLE, SIR A. C.
461
Downshire seven years after his final retirement in 1782. Both
in and out of office he opposed all concessions to the American
colonists, but he favoured the project for a union between England
and Ireland. Reversing an earlier opinion Horace Walpole says
Downshire was " a pompous composition of ignorance and want
of judgment." He died on the ;th of October 1793 and was
succeeded by his son Arthur (1753-1801), from whom the present
marquess is descended.
DOWRY (in Anglo-Fr. dowarie, O. Fr. douaire, Med. Lat.
dotaria, from Lat. dos, from root of dare, to give; in Fr. dot), the
property which a woman brings with her at her marriage, a wife's
marriage portion (see SETTLEMENT) .
DOWSER and DOWSING (from the Cornish " dowse," M.E.
duschcn, to strike or fall), one who uses, or the art of using, the
dowsing-rod (called " deusing-rod " by John Locke in 1691), or
" striking-rod " or divining-rod, for discovering subterranean
minerals or water. (See DIVINING-ROD.)
DOXOLOGY (Gr. So^p\oyia, a praising, giving glory), an
ascription of praise to the Deity. The early Christians continued
the Jewish practice of making such an ascription at the close of
public prayer (Origen, Ilepi eux^s, 33) and introduced it after
the sermon also. The name is often applied to the Trisagion
(tersanctus), or " Holy, Holy, Holy," the scriptural basis of which
is found in Isaiah vi. 3, and which has had a place in the worship
of the Christian church since the 2nd century; to the Hallelujah
of several of the Psalms and of Rev. xix. ; to such passages of
glorification as Rom. ix. 5, xvi. 27, Eph. iii. 21; and to the last
clause of the Lord's Prayer as found in Matt. vi. 13 (A.V.), which
critics are generally agreed in regarding as an interpolation, and
which, while used in the Greek and the Protestant churches, is
omitted in the Roman rite. It is used, however, more definitely
as the designation of two hymns distinguished by liturgical
writers as the Greater and Lesser Doxologies.
The origin and history of these it is impossible to trace fully.
The germ of both is to be found in the Gospels; the first words of
the Greater Doxology, or Gloria in Excelsis, being taken from
Luke ii. 14, and the form of the Lesser Doxology, or Gloria Patri,
having been in all probability first suggested by Matt, xxviii. 19.
The Greater Doxology, in a form approximating to that of the
English prayer-book, is given in the Apostolical Constitutions (vii.
47). At this time (c. 37 5) it ran thus: " Glory to God on high, and
on earth peace to men of (his) goodwill. We praise thee, we bless
thee, we worship thee, we glorify thee, we give thanks to thee for
thy great glory. O Lord God, heavenly king, God the Father
Almighty; O Lord, the only begotten Son, Jesus Christ; O Lord
God, Lamb of God, Son of the Father, that takest away the sins
of the world, have mercy upon us; Thou that takest away the
sins of the world, receive our prayer; Thou that sittest at the
right hand of the Father, have mercy upon us; For Thou alone
art holy. Thou only, Jesus Christ, with the Holy Ghost, art most
high in the glory of God the Father. Amen." This is the earliest
record of it, but it is also found in the Alexandrine Codex. Alcuin
attributes the authorship of the Latin form the Gloria in
Excelsis to St Hilary of Poitiers (died 367). The quotations
from the hymn in the pseudo-Athanasian De Virginitate, and in
Chrysostom (Horn. 69 in Matth.), include only the opening words
(those from St Luke's gospel), though the passage in Athanasius
shows by an el caelera that only the beginning of the hymn is
given. These references indicate that the hymn was used in
private devotions; as it does not appear in any of the earliest
liturgies, whether Eastern or Western, its introduction into the
public services of the church was probably of a later date than has
often been supposed. Its first introduction into the Roman
liturgy is due to Pope Symmachus (498-514), who ordered it to
be sung on Sundays and festival days. There was much opposi-
tion to the expansion, but it was suppressed by the fourth council
of Toledo in 633. Until the end of the nth century its use was
confined to bishops, and to priests at Easter and on their installa-
tion. The Mozarabic liturgy provides for its eucharistic use on
Sundays and festivals. In these and other early liturgies the
Greater Doxology occurs immediately after the beginning of the
service; in the English prayer-book it introduced at the close
of the communion office, but it does not occur in either the
morning or evening service. This doxology is also used in the
Protestant Episcopal and Methodist Episcopal churches of
America, as indeed in most Protestant churches at the eucharist.
The Lesser Doxology, or Gloria Patri, combines the character
of a creed with that of a hymn. In its earliest form it ran simply
" Glory be to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy
Ghost, world without end, Amen," or " Glory be to the Father,
in (or through) the Son, and in (or through) the Holy Ghost."
Until the rise of the Arian heresy these forms were probably
regarded as indifferent, both being equally capable of an orthodox
interpretation. When the Arians, however, finding the second
form more consistent with their views, adopted it persistently
and exclusively, its use was naturally discountenanced by the
Catholics, and the other form became the symbol of orthodoxy.
To the influence of the Arian heresy is also due the Catholic
addition " as it was in the beginning, is now, and ever shall be,"
the use of which was, according to some authorities, expressly
enjoined by the council of Nicaea. There is no sufficient evidence
of this, but there exists a decree of the second council of Vaison
(529), asserting its use as already established in the East propter
haereticorum astutiam, and ordering its adoption throughout the
churches of the West. In the Western Church the Gloria Patri is
repeated at the close of every psalm, in the Eastern Church at
the close of the last psalm. This last is the optional rule of the
American Episcopal Church.
Metrical doxologies are often sung at the end of hymns, and the
term has become especially associated with the stanza beginning
" Praise God from whom all blessings flow," with which Thomas
Ken, bishop of Winchester, concluded his morning and evening
hymns.
See J. Bingham, Biog. cedes, xiv. 2; Siegel, Christl. Alterthiimer,
i. 515, &c.; F. Procter, Book of Common Prayer, p. 212; W. Palmer,
Orig. Liturg. iv. 23; art. " Liturgische Formeln " (by Drews) in
Hauck-Herzog, Realencyk. fur prot. Theol. xi. 547.
DOYEN, GABRIEL FRANCOIS (1726-1806), French painter,
was born at Paris in 1726. His passion for art prevailed over his
father's wish, and he became in his twelfth year a pupil of Vanloo.
Making rapid progress, he obtained at twenty the Grand Prix,
and in 1748 set out for Rome. He studied the works of Annibale
Caracci, Cortona, Giulio Romano and Michelangelo, then visited
Naples, Venice, Bologna and other Italian cities, and in 1755
returned to Paris. At first unappreciated and disparaged, he
resolved by one grand effort to conquer a reputation, and in 1758
he exhibited his " Death of Virginia." It was completely success-
ful, and procured him admission to the Academy. Among his
greatest works are reckoned the " Miracle des Ardents," painted
for the church of St Genevieve at St Roch (1773) ; the " Triumph
of Thetis," for the chapel of the Invalides; and the " Death of St
Louis," for the chapel of the Military School. In 1776 he was
appointed professor at the Academy of Painting. Soon after
the beginning of the Revolution he accepted the invitation of
Catherine II. and settled at St Petersburg, where he was loaded
with honours and rewards. He died there on the sth of June 1806.
DOYLE, SIR ARTHUR CONAN (1850- ), English novelist,
eldest son of the artist Charles Doyle, was born on the 22nd
of May 1859. He was sent to Stonyhurst College, and further
pursued his education in Germany, and at Edinburgh University
where he graduated M.B. in 1881 and M.D. in 1885. He had
begun to practise as a doctor in Southsea when he published
A Study in Scarlet in 1887. Micah Clarke (1888), a tale of
Monmouth's rebellion, The Sign of Four (1889), and The White
Company (1891), a romance of Du Guesclin's time, followed. In
Rodney Stone (1896) he drew an admirable sketch of the prince
regent; and he collected a popular series of stories of the
Napoleonic wars in The Exploits of Brigadier Gerard (1896). In
1891 he attained immense popularity by The Adventures of
Sherlock Holmes, which first appeared in The Strand Magazine.
These ingenious stories of the success of the imperturbable
Sherlock Holmes, who had made his first appearance in A Study
in Scarlet (1887), in detecting crime and disentangling mystery,
found a host of imitators. The novelist himself returned to his
462
DOYLE, SIR F. H. C. DOZY
hero in The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes (1893), The Hound of the
Baskervilles (1902), and The Return of Sherlock Holmes (1905).
His later books include numerous novels; plays, The Story of
Waterloo (i 894) , in which Sir Henry Irving played the leading part,
The Fires of Fate (1909), and The House of Temperley (1909);
and two books in defence of the British army in South Africa
The Great Boer War (1900) and The War in South Africa; its
Causes and Conduct (1902). Dr Conan Doyle served as registrar
of the Langman Field Hospital in South Africa, and was knighted
in 1902.
DOYLE, SIR FRANCIS HASTINGS CHARLES, Bart. (1810-
1888), English man of letters, was born at Nunappleton,
Yorkshire, on the 2ist of August 1810. He was the son of Major-
General Sir Francis Hastings Doyle, ist baronet (1783-1839),
and was educated at Eton and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he
took a first-class in classics in 1831. He read for the bar and was
called in 1837. He had been elected to a fellowship of All Souls'
in 1835, and his interests were chiefly literary. Among his
intimate friends was Mr Gladstone, at whose marriage he assisted
as " best man "; but in later life their political opinions widely
differed. In 1834 he published Miscellaneous Verses, reissued
with additions in 1840. This was followed by Two Destinies
(1844), The Duke's Funeral (1852), Return of the Guards and other
Poems (1866); and from 1867 to 1877 he was professor of poetry
at Oxford. In 1869 some of the lectures he delivered were
published in book form. One of the most interesting was his
appreciation of William Barnes, and the essay on Newman's
Dream of Gerontius was translated into French. In 1886 he
published his Reminiscences, full of records of the interesting
people he had known. Sir Francis Doyle succeeded his father
(chairman of the board of excise) as 2nd baronet in 1839, and
in 1844 married Sidney, daughter of Charles Watkin Williams
Wynn (1775-1850). From 1845 he held various important
offices in the customs. He died on the 8th of June 1888. Doyle's
poetry is memorable for certain isolated and spirited pieces in
praise of British fortitude. The best-known are his ballads on the
" Birkenhead " disaster and on " The Private of the Buffs."
DOYLE, JOHN ANDREW (1844-1907), English historian, the
son of Andrew Doyle, editor of The Morning Chronicle, was born
on the I4th of May 1844. He was educated at Eton and at
Balliol College, Oxford, winning the Arnold prize in 1868 for
his essay, The American Colonies. He was a fellow of All Souls'
from 1870 until his death, which occurred at Crickhowell, South
Wales, on the 4th of August 1907. His principal work is The
English Colonies in America, in five volumes, as follows: Virginia,
Maryland and the Carolinas (i vol., 1882), The Puritan Colonies
(2 vols., 1886), The Middle Colonies (i vol., 1907), and The
Colonies under the House of Hanover (i vol., 1907), the whole
work dealing with the history of the colonies from 1607 to 1759.
Doyle also wrote chapters i., ii., v. and vii. of vol. vii. of the
Cambridge Modern History, and edited William Bradford's His-
tory of the Plimouth Plantation (1896) and the Correspondence
of Susan Ferrier (1898)'.
DOYLE, RICHARD (1824-1883), English artist, son of John
Doyle, the caricaturist known as " H. B." (1797-1868), was born
in London in 1824. His father's " Political Sketches " took the
town by storm in the days of Lord Grey and Lord Melbourne.
The son was an extremely precocious artist, and in his " Home for
the Holidays," done when he was twelve, and his " Comic English
Histories," drawn four years later, he showed extraordinary gifts
of humour and fancy. He had no art training outside his father's
studio. In 1843 he joined the staff of Punch, drawing cartoons
and a vast number of illustrations, but he retired in 1850, in
consequence of the attitude adopted by that paper towards what
was known as " the papal aggression," and especially towards
the pope himself. In 1854 he published his " Continental Tour
of Brown, Jones and Robinson." His illustrations to three of the
Christmas Books of Charles Dickens, and to The Newcomes by
Thackeray, are reckoned among his principal achievements; and
his fanciful pictures of elves and fairies have always been general
favourites. He died on the nth of December 1883. His most
popular drawing is his cover of Punch.
DOZSA, GY6RGY (d. 1514), Hungarian revolutionist, was a
Szekler squire and soldier of fortune, who won such a reputation
for valour in the Turkish wars that the Hungarian chancellor,
Tamas Bakocz, on his return from Rome in 1514 with a papal
bull preaching a holy war in Hungary against the Moslems,
appointed him to organize and direct the movement. In a few
weeks he collected thousands of so-called Kuruczok (a corruption
of Cruciati), consisting for the most part of small yeomen,
peasants, wandering students, friars and parish priests, the hum-
blest and most oppressed portion of the community, to whom
alone a crusade against the Turk could have the slightest attrac-
tion. They assembled in their counties, and by the time Dozsa
had drilled them into some sort of discipline and self-confidence,
they began to air the grievances of their class. No measures had
been taken to supply these voluntary crusaders with food or
clothing; as harvest-time approached, the landlords commanded
them to return to reap the fields, and on their refusing to do so,
proceeded to maltreat their wives and families and set their
armed retainers upon the half -starved multitudes. Instantly the
movement was diverted from its original object, and the peasants
and their leaders began a war of extermination against the
landlords. By this time Dozsa was losing control of the rabble,
which had fallen under the influence of the socialist parson of
Czegled, Lorincz Meszaros. The rebellion was the more dangerous
as the town rabble was on the side of the peasants, and in Buda
and other places the cavalry sent against the Kuruczok were
unhorsed as they passed through the gates. The rebellion spread
like lightning, principally in the central or purely Magyar
provinces, where hundreds of manor-houses and castles were
burnt and thousands of the gentry done to death by impalement,
crucifixion and other unspeakable methods. Dozsa's camp at
Czegled was the centre of the jacquerie, and from thence he sent
out his bands in every direction, pillaging and burning. In vain
the papal bull was revoked, in vain the king issued a proclama-
tion commanding the peasantry to return to their homes under
pain of death. By this time the rising had attained the
dimensions of a revolution; all the feudal levies of the kingdom
were called out against it; and mercenaries were hired in haste
from Venice, Bohemia and the emperor. Meanwhile Dozsa had
captured the city and fortress of Csanad, and signalized his
victory by impaling the bishop and the castellan. Subsequently,
at Arad, the lord treasurer, Istvan Telegdy, was seized and
tortured to death with satanic ingenuity. It should, however,
in fairness be added that only notorious bloodsuckers, or
obstinately resisting noblemen, were destroyed in this way.
Those who freely submitted were always released on parole, and
Dozsa not only never broke his given word, but frequently
assisted the escape of fugitives. But he could not always control
his followers when their blood was up, and infinite damage was
done before he could stop it. At first, too, it seemed as if the
government were incapable of coping with him. In the course of
the summer he took the fortresses of Arad, Lippa and Vilagos;
provided himself with guns and trained gunners; and one of his
bands advanced to within five leagues of the capital. But his half-
naked, ill-armed ploughboys were at last overmatched by the mail-
clad chivalry of the nobles. Dozsa, too, had become demoralized
by success. After Csanad, he issued proclamations which can
only be described as nihilistic. His suppression had become a
political necessity. He was finally routed at Temesvar by the
combined forces of Janos Zapolya and Istvan Bathory, was
captured, and condemned to sit on a red-hot iron throne, with a
red-hot iron crown on his head and a red-hot sceptre in his hand.
This infernal sentence was actually carried out, and, life still
lingering, the half-roasted carcass of the unhappy wretch, who
endured everything with invincible heroism, was finally devoured
by half-a-dozen of his fellow-rebels, who by way of preparation
had been starved for a whole week beforehand.
See Sandor Marki, Dozsa Gyorgy (Hung.), Budapest, 1884.
(R. N. B.)
DOZY, REINHART PIETER ANNE (1820-1883), Dutch
Arabic scholar of French (Huguenot) origin, was born at Leiden
in February 1820. The Dozys, like so many other contemporary
DRACAENA DRACHMANN
463
French families, emigrated to the Low Countries after the
revocation of the edict of Nantes, but some of the former appear
to have settled in Holland as early as 1647. Dozy studied at the
university of Leiden, obtained the degree of doctor in 1844, was
appointed an extraordinary professor of history in 1850, and
professor in 1857. The first results of his extensive studies in
Oriental literature, Arabic language and history, manifested
themselves in 1847, when he published Al-Marrakushi's History
of the Almohades (Leiden, 2nd ed., 1881), which, together with his
Scriptorum Arabumlocide Abbaditis (Leiden, 1846-1863, 3 vols.),
his editions of Ibn-Adhari's History of Africa and Spain (Leiden,
1848-1852, 3 vols.), of Ibn-Badrun's Historical Commentary on the
Poem of Ibn-Abdun (Leiden, 1848), and his Dictionnaire detaille
des noms des vetements chez les Arabes (Amsterdam, 1845) a work
crowned by the Dutch Institute stamped Dozy as one of the
most learned and critical Arabic scholars of his day. But his real
fame as a historian mainly rests on his great work, Histoire des
Mussulmans d'Espagne,jusqu'a la conquete de I' Andalousie par les
Almoramdes, 711-1110 (Leiden, 1861; 2nd ed., ibid., 1881); a
graphically written account of Moorish dominion in Spain, which
shed new light on many obscure points, and has remained the
standard work on the subject. Dozy's Recherclies sur I' hisloire el
la literature de I'Espagne pendant le moyen dge (Leiden, 2 vols.,
1849; 2nd and 3rd ed., completely recast, 1860 and 1881) form a
needful and wonderfully trenchant supplement to his Histoire des
Mussulmans, in which he mercilessly exposes the many tricks
and falsehoods of the monks in their chronicles, and effectively
demolishes a good part of the Cid legends. As an Arabic scholar
Dozy stands well-nigh unsurpassed in his Supplement aux
dictionnaires arabes (Leiden, 1877-1881, 2 vols.), a work full of
research and learning, a storehouse of Arabic lore. To the same
class belongs his Glossaire des mots espagnols et portugais, derives
de I'Arabe, edited with Dr W. H. Engelmann of Leipzig (Leiden,
1866; 2nd ed., 1868), and a similar list of Dutch words derived
from the Arabic. Dozy also edited Al Makkari's Analectes sur
I'histoire et la litterature des Arabes d'Espagne (Leiden, 1855-
1861, 2 vols.), and, in conjunction with his friend and worthy
successor, Professor De Goeje, at Leiden, Idrisi's Description de
I'Afrique et de I'Espagne (1866), also the Calendrier de Cordoue de
I'annie p6i; lexle arabe et ancienne traduction latine (Leiden,
1874). Het Islamisme (Islamism; Haarlem, 1863, 2nd ed., 1880;
French translation) is a popular exposition of Mahommedanism,
of a more controversial character; and De Israelieten te Mekka
(" The Israelites at Mecca," Haarlem, 1864) became the subject of
a rather heated discussion in Jewish circles. Dozy died at Leiden
in May 1883. (H. Ti.)
DRACAENA, in botany, a genus of the natural order Liliaceae,
containing about fifty species in the warmer parts of the Old
World. They are trees or shrubs with long, generally narrow
leaves, panicles of small whitish flowers, and berried fruit. The
most remarkable species is Dracaena Draco, the dragon-tree of
the Canary Isles, which reaches a great size and age. The
famous specimen in Teneriffe, which was blown down by a
hurricane in 1868, when measured by Alexander von Humboldt,
was 70 ft. high, with a circumference of 45 ft. several feet above
the ground. A resin exuding from the trunk is known as dragon's
blood (<?..).
Many of the cultivated so-called Dracaenas belong to the
closely-allied genus Cordyline. They are grown for the beauty
of form, colour and variegation of their foliage and are extremely
useful as decorative stove plants or summer greenhouse plants,
or for room and table decoration. They are easy to grow and
may be increased by cuttings planted in sandy soil in a tempera-
ture of from 65 to 70 by night, the spring being the best time
for propagation. The old stems laid flat in a propagating frame
will push young shoots, which may be taken off with a heel when
2 or 3 in. long, and planted in sandy peat in 3-in. pots; the tops
can also be taken off and struck. The established plants do best
in fibry peat made porous by sand. In summer they should
have a day temperature of 75, and in winter one of 65. Shift
as required, using coarser soil as the pots become larger. By
the end of the summer the small cuttings will have made nice
plants, and in the spring following they can be kept growing by
the use of manure water twice a week. Those intended for the
conservatory should be gradually inured to more air by mid-
summer, but kept out of cold draughts. When the plants get
too large they can be headed down and the tops used for cuttings.
A large number of the garden species of Dracaena are varieties
of Cordyline terminalis. D. Goldieana is a grandly variegated
species from west tropical Africa, and requires more heat.
DRACHMANN, HOL6ER HENRIK HERBOLDT (1846-1908),
Danish poet and dramatist, son of Dr A. G. Drachmann, a
physician of Copenhagen, whose family was of German ex-
traction, was born in Copenhagen on the 9th of October 1846.
Owing to the early death of his mother, who was a Dane, the
child was left much to his own devices. He soon developed a
fondness for semi-poetical performances, and loved to organize
among his companions heroic games, in which he himself took
such parts as those of Tordenskjold and Niels Juul. His studies
were belated, and he did not enter the university until 1865,
leaving it in 1866 to become a student in the Academy of Fine
Arts. From 1866 to 1870 he was learning, under Professor
Sorensen, to become a marine painter, and not without success.
But about the latter date he came under the influence of Georg
Brandes, and, without abandoning art, he began to give himself
more and more to literature. At various periods he travelled
very extensively in England, Scotland, France, Spain and Italy,
and his literary career began by his sending letters about his
journeys to the Danish newspapers. After returning home, he
settled for some time in the island of Bornholm, painting sea-
scapes. He nowissued his earliest volume of poems, Digte (1872),
and joined the group of young Radical writers who gathered
under the banner of Brandes. Drachmann was unsettled, and
still doubted whether his real strength lay in the pencil or in the
pen. By this time he had enjoyed a surprising experience of
life, especially among sailors, fishermen, students and artists,
and the issues of the Franco-German War and the French
Commune had persuaded him that a new and glorious era was
at hand. His volume of lyrics, Daempede Melodier (" Muffled
Melodies," 1875), proved that Drachmann was a poet with a real
vocation, and he began to produce books in prose and verse with
great rapidity. Ungt Blod (" Young Blood," 1876) contained
three realistic stories of contemporary life. But he returned to
his true field in his magnificent Sange ved Havet; Venezia
(" Songs of the Sea; Venice," 1877), and won the passionate
admiration of his countrymen by his prose work, with interludes
inverse, called Derovre fra Graensen ("Over the Frontier there,"
1877), a series of impressions made on Drachmann by a visit to
the scenes of the war with Germany. During the succeeding
years he was a great traveller, visiting most of the principal
countries of the world, but particularly familiarizing himself,
by protracted voyages, with the sea and with the life of man in
maritime places. In 1879 he published Ranker og Roser
(" Tendrils and Roses "), amatory lyrics of a very high order of
melody, in which he showed a great advance in technical art.
To the same period belongs Paa Somands Tro og Love (" On the
Faith and Honour of a Sailor," 1878), a volume of short stories
in prose. It was about this time that Drachmann broke with
Brandes and the Radicals, and set himself at the head of a sort
of " nationalist " or popular-Conservative party in Denmark.
He continued to celebrate the life of the fishermen and sailors
in books, whether in prose or verse, which were the most popular
of their day. Paul og Virginie and Lars Kruse (both 1879) ; Osten
for Sol og vestenfor Maone (" East of the Sun and Moon," 1880);
Puppe og Sommerfugl (" Chrysalis and Butterfly," 1882); and
Strandby Folk (1883) were among these. In 1882 Drachmann pub-
lished his fine translation, or paraphrase, of Byron's Don Juan.
In 1885 his romantic play called Der var en Gang (" Once upon a
Time ") had a great success on the boards of the Royal theatre,
Copenhagen; and his tragedies of Volund Smed (" Wayland the
Smith ") and Brav-Karl (1897) made him the most popular
playwright of Denmark. He published in 1894 a volume of
exquisitely fantastic Melodramas in rhymed verse, a collection
which contains some of Drachmann's most perfect work. His
DRACO DRACONTIUS
novel Med den brede Pensel (" With a Broad Brush," 1887) was
followed in 1890 by Forskrevet, the history of a young painter,
Henrik Gerhard, and his revolt against his bourgeois surround-
ings. With this novel is closely connected Den hellige lid (" The
Sacred Fire," 1899), in which Drachmann speaks in his own
person. There is practically no story in this autobiographical
volume, which abounds in lyrical passages. In 1899 he produced
his romantic play called Gurre; in 1900 a brilliant lyrical drama,
Hallfred Vandraadeskjald; and in 1903, Del gronne Haab. He
died in Copenhagen on the I4th of January 1908.
See an article by K. Gjellerup in Dansk Biografisk Lexikon vol. iv.
(Copenhagen, 1890). (E. G.)
DRACO (7th century B.C.), Athenian statesman, was Archon
Eponymus (but see J. E. Sandys, Constitution of Athens, p. 12,
note) in 621 B.C. His name has become proverbial as an in-
exorable lawgiver. Up to his time the laws of Athens were
unwritten, and were administered arbitrarily by the Eupatridae.
As at Rome by the twelve Tables, so at Athens it was found
necessary to allay the discontent of the people by publishing
these unwritten laws in a codified form, and Draco, himself
a Eupatrid, carried this out. According to Plutarch (Life of
Solon): " For nearly all crimes there was the same penalty of
death. The man who was convicted of idleness, or who stole a
cabbage or an apple, was liable to death no less than the robber
of temples or the murderer." For the institution of the 51
Ephetae and their relation to the Areopagus in criminal juris-
diction see GREEK LAW. The orator Demades (d. c. 318 B.C.)
said that Draco's laws were written in blood. Whether this
implies peculiar severity, or merely reflects the attitude of a
more refined age to the barbarous enactments of a primitive
people, among whom the penalty of death was almost universal
for all crimes, cannot be decided. According to Suidas, however,
in his Lexicon, the people were so overjoyed at the change he
made, that they accidentally suffocated him in the theatre at
Aegina with the rain of caps and cloaks which they flung at him
in their enthusiasm.
The appearance in 1891 of Aristotle's lost treatise on the
constitution of Athens gave rise to a most important controversy
on the subject of Draco's work. From the statements contained
in chapter iv. of this treatise, and inferences drawn from them,
many scholars attributed to Draco the construction of an entirely
new constitution for Athens, the main features of which were:
(1) extension of franchise to all who could provide themselves
with a suit of armour or, as Gilbert (Constitutional Antiquities,
Eng. trans, p. 121) says, to the Zeugite class, from which mainly
the hoplites may be supposed to have come; (2) the institution
of a property qualification for office (archon 10 minae, strategus
100 minae); (3) a council of 401 members (see BOULE); (4)
magistrates and councillors to be chosen by lot; further, the
four Solonian classes are said to be already in existence.
For some time, especially in Germany, this constitution was
almost universally accepted; now, the majority of scholars
reject it. The reasons against it, which are almost overwhelm-
ing, may be-shortly summarized. ( i ) It is ignored by every other
ancient authority, except an admittedly spurious passage in
Plato 1 ; whereas Aristotle says of his laws " they are laws, but
he added the laws to an existing constitution " (Pol. ii. 9. 9).
(2) It is inconsistent with other passages in the Constitution of
Athens. According to c. vii., Solon repealed all laws of Draco
except those relating to murder; yet some of the most modern
features of Solon's constitution are found in Draco's constitution.
(3) Its ideas are alien to the 7th century. It has been said that
the qualification of the strategus was ten times that of the archon.
This, reasonable in the 5th, is preposterous in the 7th century,
when the archon was unquestionably the supreme executive
official. Again, it is unlikely that Solon, a democratic reformer,
would have reverted from a democratic wealth qualification
such as is attributed to Draco, to an aristocratic birth quali-
1 A passage (long overlooked) in Cicero, De rtpublica, shows that,
bv the 1st century B.C. the interpolation had already been made;
the quotation is evidently taken from the list in c. xli. of the
Constitution, which it reproduces.
fication. Thirdly, if Draco had instituted a hoplite census,
Solon would not have substituted citizenship by birth. (4) The
terminology of Draco's constitution is that of the sth, not the
7th, century, whereas the chief difficulty of Solon's laws is the
obsolete 6th-century phraseology. (5) Lastly, a comparison
between the ideals of the oligarchs under Theramenes (end of
Sth century) and this alleged constitution shows a suspicious
similarity (hoplite census, nobody to hold office a second time
until all duly qualified persons had beeen exhausted, fine of one
drachma for non-attendance in Boule). It is reasonable, there-
fore, to conclude that the constitution of Draco was invented
by the school of Theramenes, who wished to surround their
revolutionary views with the halo of antiquity; hence the
allusion to " the constitution of our father " (17 irarptos iroXireta).
This hypothesis is further corroborated by a criticism of the
text. Not only is chapter iv. considered to be an interpolation
in the text as originally written, but later chapters have been
edited to accord with it. Thus chapter iv. breaks the connexion
of thought between chapters iii. and v. Moreover, an inter-
polator has inserted phrases to remove what would otherwise
have been obvious contradictions: thus (a) in chapter vii.,
where we are told that Solon divided the citizens into four classes
(niiJitMTa) , the interpolator had added the words " according
to the division formerly existing " ( KoB&irip divpt]Ttu KOI Trportpoc) ,
which were necessary in view of the statement that Draco gave
the franchise to the Zeugites; (6) in chapter xli., where successive
constitutional changes are recorded, the words " the Draconian "
(?! eirl ApoKovros) are inserted, though the subsequent figures are
not accommodated to the change. Solon is also here spoken of as
the founder of democracy, whereas the Draconian constitution
of chap. iv. contains several democratic innovations. Two
further points may be added, namely, that whereas Aristotle's
treatise credits Draco with establishing a money fine, Pollux
definitely quotes a law of Draco in which fines are assessed at
so many oxen; secondly, if chapter iv. did exist in the original
text, it is more than curious that though the treatise was widely
read in antiquity there is no other reference to Draco's consti-
tution except the two quoted above. In any case, whatever
were Draco's laws, we learn from Plutarch's life of Solon that
Solon abolished all of them, except those dealing with homicide.
AUTHORITIES. Beside the works of J. E. Sandys and G. Gilbert
quoted above, see those quoted in article CONSTITUTION OF ATHENS;
(jrote, Hist, of Greece (ed. 1907), pp. 9-11, with references; and
histories of Greece published after 1894. (J. M. M.)
DRACO ("the Dragon"), in astronomy, a constellation of
the northern hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century
B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.); it was catalogued by
Ptolemy, 31 stars, Tycho Brahe, 32, Hevelius, 40. The Greeks
had many fables concerning this constellation ; one is that when
Heracles killed the dragon guarding the Hesperian fruit Hera
transferred the creature to heaven as a reward for its services.
The planetary nebula H. I V. 37 Draconis is of a decided pale blue
colour, and one of the most conspicuous objects of its class.
DRACONTIUS, BLOSSIUS AEMILIUS, of Carthage (according
to the early tradition, of Spanish origin), Christian poet, flour-
ished in the latter part of the 5th century A.D. He belonged
to a family of landed proprietors, and practised as an advocate
in his native place. After the conquest of the country by the
Vandals, Dracontius was at first allowed to retain possession
of his estates, but was subsequently deprived of his property
and thrown into prison by the Vandal king, whose triumphs he
had omitted to celebrate, while he had written a panegyric on
a foreign and hostile ruler. He subsequently addressed an
elegiac poem to the king, asking pardon and pleading for release.
The result is not known, but it is supposed that Dracontius
obtained his liberty and migrated to northern Italy in search
of peace and quietness. This is consistent with the discovery
at Bobbio of a 15th-century MS., now in the Museo Borbonico
at Naples, containing a number of poems by Dracontius (the
Carmina minor a). The most important of his works is the
De laudibus Dei or De Deo in three books, wrongly attributed
by MS. tradition to St Augustine. The account of the creation,
DRAFTED MASONRY DRAGOMAN
465
which occupies the greater part of the first book, was at an early
date edited separately under the title of Hexaemeron, and it was
not till 1791 that the three books were edited by Cardinal
Arevalo. The apology (Satisfactio) consists of 158 elegiac
couplets; it is generally supposed that the king addressed is
Gunthamund (484-496). The Carmina minor a, nearly all in
hexameter verse, consist of school exercises and rhetorical
declamations, amongst others the fable of Hylas, with a preface
to his tutor, the grammarian Felicianus; the rape of Helen;
the story of Medea; two epithalamia. It is also probable that
Dracontius was the author of the Orestis tragoedia, a poem of
some 1000 hexameters, which in language, metre and general
treatment of the subject exhibits a striking resemblance to the
other works of Dracontius. Opinions differ as to his poetical
merits, but, when due allowance is made for rhetorical exaggera-
tion and consequent want of lucidity, his works show considerable
vigour of expression, and a remarkable knowledge of the Bible
and of Roman classical Literature.
EDITIONS. De Deo and Satisfactio, ed. Arevalo, reprinted in
Migne's Patrologiae cursus, Ix. ; Carmina minora, ed. F. de Duhn
(1873). On Dracontius generally, see A. Ebert, Allgemeine Geschichte
der Lit. des Mittelalters im Abendlande, i. (1874); C. Rossberg, In
D. Carmina minora (1878); H. Mailfait, De Dracontii poetae lingua
(1902). On the Orestis tragoedia, see editions by R. Peiper (1875)
and C. Giarratino (Milan, 1906); pamphlets by C. Rossberg (1880,
on the authorship; 1888, materials for a commentary).
DRAFTED MASONRY, in architecture, the term given to large
stones, on the face of which has been dressed round the edge
a draft or sunken surface, leaving the centre portion as it came
from the quarry. The dressing is worked with an adze of eight
teeth to the inch, used in a vertical direction and to a width of
2 to 4 in. The earliest example of drafted masonry is found in
the immense platform built by Cyrus 530 B.C. at Pasargadae in
Persia. It occurs again in the palace of Hyrcanus, known as the
Arak-el-Emir (176 B.C.), but is there inferior in execution. The
finest drafted masonry is that dating from the time of Herod, in
the tower of David and the walls of the Haram in Jerusalem, and
at Hebron. In the castles built by the Crusaders, the adze
has been worked in a diagonal direction instead of vertically.
In all these examples the size of the stones employed is some-
times enormous, so that the traditional influence of the
Phoenician masons seems to have lasted till the I2th century.
DRAG (from the Old Eng. dragan, to draw; the word preserves
the g which phonetically developed into' iv) , that which is drawn
or pulled along a surface, or is used for drawing or pulling.
The term is thus applied to a harrow for breaking up clods of
earth, or for an apparatus, such as a grapnel, net or dredge, used
for searching water for drowned bodies or other objects. As a
name of a vehicle, "drag" is sometimes used as equivalent to
" break," a heavy carriage without a body used for training
horses, and also a large kind of wagonette, but is more usually
applied to a privately owned four-horse coach for four-in-hand
driving. The word is also given to the " shoe " of wood or iron,
placed under the wheel to act as a brake, and also to the " drift "
or " sea-anchor," usually made of spars and sails, employed for
checking the lee-way of a ship when drifting. In fox-hunting,
the " drag " is the line of scent left by the fox, but more particu-
larly the term is given to a substitute for the hunting of a fox
by hounds, an artificial line of scent being laid by the dragging
of a bag of aniseed or other strong smelling substance which a
pack will follow.
DRAGASHANI (Rumanian Draga^ani], a town of Rumania,
near the right bank of the river Olt, and on the railway between
Caracal and Ramnicu Valcea. Pop. (1900) 4398. The town
is of little commercial importance, but the vineyards on the
neighbouring hills produce some of the best Walachian wines.
Dragashani stands on the site of the Roman Rusidava. In 1821
the Turks routed the troops of Ypsilanti near the town. /
DRAGOMAN (from the Arabic ^^ > -j > terjuman,a.n interpreter
or translator; the same root occurs in the Hebrew word tar gum
signifying translation, the title of the Chaldaean translation of
the Bible), a comprehensive designation applied to all who act
as intermediaries between Europeans and Orientals, from the
hotel tout or travellers' guide, hired at a few shillings a day,
to the chief dragoman of a foreign embassy whose functions
include the carrying on of the most important political negotia-
tions with the Ottoman government, or the dragoman of the
imperial divan (the grand master of the ceremonies) .
The original employment of dragomans by the Turkish
government arose from its religious scruples to use any language
save those of peoples which had adopted Islamism. The political
relations between the Porte and the European states, more
frequent in proportion as the Ottoman power declined, com-
pelled the sultan's ministers to make use of interpreters, who
rapidly acquired considerable influence. It soon became neces-
sary to create the important post of chief dragoman at the Porte,
and there was no choice save to appoint a Greek, as no other race
in Turkey combined the requisite knowledge of languages with
the tact and adroitness essential for conducting diplomatic
negotiations. The first chief dragoman of the Porte was Panayot
Nikousia, who held his office from 1665 to 1673. His successor,
Alexander Mavrocordato, surnamed Exaporritos, was charged
by the Turkish government with the delicate and arduous
negotiation of the treaty of Carlowitz, and by his dexterity
succeeded, in spite of his questionable fidelity to the interests
of his employers, in gaining their entire confidence, and in
becoming the factotum of Ottoman policy. From that time
until 1821 the Greeks monopolized the management of Turkey's
foreign relations, and soon established the regular system
whereby the chief dragoman passed on as a matter of course to
the dignity of hospodar of one of the Danubian principalities.
In the same way, the foreign representatives accredited to
the Porte found it necessary, in the absence of duly qualified
countrymen of their own, to engage the services of natives,
Greek, Armenian, or Levantine, more or less thoroughly ac-
quainted with the language, laws and administration of the
country. Their duties were by no means confined to those of
a mere translator, and they became the confidential and in-
dispensable go-betweens of the foreign missions and the Porte.
Though such dragomans enjoyed by treaty the protection of
the country employing them, they were by local interests and
family ties very intimately connected with the Turks, and the
disadvantages of the system soon became apparent. Accord-
ingly as early as 1669 the French government decided on the
foundation of a school for French dragomans at Constantinople,
for which in later years was substituted the cole des langues
orientates in Paris; most of the great powers eventually took
some similar step, England also adopting in 1877 a system,
since modified, for the selection and tuition of a corps of British-
born dragomans.
The duties of an embassy dragoman are extensive and not
easily defined. They have been described as partaking at once
of those of a diplomatist, a magistrate, a legal adviser and an
administrator. The functions of the first dragoman are mainly
political; he accompanies the ambassador or minister at his
audiences of the sultan and usually of the ministers, and it is he
who is charged with the bulk of diplomatic negotiations at the
palace or the Porte. The subordinate dragomans transact the
less important business, comprising routine matters such as
requests for the recognition of consuls, the settlement of claims
or furthering of other demands of their nationals, and in general
all the various matters in which the interests of foreign subjects
may be concerned. An important part of the dragoman's duties
is to attend during any legal proceedings to which a subject
of his nationality is a party, as failing his attendance and
his concurrence in the judgment delivered such proceedings are
null and void. Moreover, the dragoman is frequently enabled,
through the close relations which he necessarily maintains with
different classes of Turkish officials, to furnish valuable and
confidential information not otherwise obtainable. The high
estimation in which the dragomans are held by most foreign
powers is shown by the fact that they are usually and in the
regular course promoted to the most important diplomatic posts.
This is the case in the Russian and Austrian services (where
more than one ambassador began his career as a junior dragoman)
4 66
DRAGOMIROV DRAGON
and generally in the German service; the French chief drago-
man usually attains the rank of minister plenipotentiary. The
value of a tactful and efficient intermediary can hardly be
over-estimated, and in the East a personal interview of a few
minutes often results in the conclusion of some important matter
which would otherwise require the exchange of a long and
laborious correspondence. The more important consulates in
the provinces of Turkey are also provided with one or more
dragomans, whose duties, mutatis mutandis, are of a similar
though less important nature. In the same way banks, railway
companies and financial institutions employ dragomans for
facilitating their business relations with Turkish officials.
DRAGOMIROV, MICHAEL IVANOVICH (1830-1905), Russian
general and military writer, was born on the 8th of November
1830. He entered the Guard infantry in 1849, becoming 2nd
lieutenant in 1852 and lieutenant in 1854. In the latter year he
was selected to study at the Nicholas Academy (staff college),
and here he distinguished himself so much that he received a
gold medal, an honour which, it is stated, was paid to a student
of the academy only twice in the I9th century. In 1856 he was
promoted staff-captain and in 1858 full captain, being sent in
the latter year to study the military methods in vogue in other
countries. He visited France, England and Belgium, and
wrote voluminous reports on the instructional and manoeuvre
camps of these countries at Chalons, Aldershot and Beverloo.
In 1859 he was attached to the headquarters of the king of
Sardinia during the campaign of Magenta and Solferino, and
immediately upon his return to Russia he was sent to the Nicholas
Academy as professor of tactics. Dragomirov played a leading
part in the reorganization of the educational system of the army,
and acted also as instructor to several princes of the imperial
family. This post he held until 1863, when, as a lieutenant-
colonel, he took part in the suppression of the Polish insurrection
of 1863-64, returning to St Petersburg in the latter year as
colonel and chief of staff to one of the Guard divisions. During
the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Dragomirov was attached to
the headquarters of the II. Prussian army. He was present at
the battles on the upper Elbe and at Koniggratz, and his
comments on the operations which he witnessed are of the
greatest value to the student of tactics and of the war of 1866.
In 1868 he was made a major-general, and in the following
year became chief of the staff in the Kiev military circum-
scription. In 1873 he was appointed to command the i4th
division, and in this command he distinguished himself very
greatly in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78. The I4th division
led the way at the crossing of the Danube at Zimnitza, Drago-
mirov being in charge of the delicate and difficult operation of
crossing and landing under fire, and fulfilling his mission with
complete success. Later, after the reverses before Plevna, he,
with the cesarevich and Generals Todleben and Milutine,
strenuously opposed the suggestion of the Grand-duke Nicholas
that the Russian army should retreat into Rumania, and the
demoralization of the greater part of the army was not per-
mitted to spread to Dragomirov's division, which retained its
discipline unimpaired and gave a splendid example to the rest.
He was wounded at the Shipka Pass, and, though promoted
lieutenant-general soon after this, was not able to see further
active service. He was also made adjutant-general to the tsar
and chief of the S3rd Volhynia regiment of his old division.
For eleven years thereafter General Dragomirov was chief of
the Nicholas Academy, and it was during this period that he
collated and introduced into the Russian army all the best
military literature of Europe, and in many other ways was active
in improving the moral and technical efficiency of the Russian
officer-corps, especially of the staff officer. In 1889 Dragomirov
became commander-in-chief of the Kiev military district, and
governor-general of Kiev, Podolsk and Volhynia, retaining this
post until 1903. He was promoted to the rank of general of
infantry in 1891. His advanced age and failing health prevented
his employment at the front during the Russo-Japanese war
of 1004-5, but his advice was continually solicited by the general
headquarters at St Petersburg, and while he disagreed with
General Kuropatkin in many important questions of strategy
and military policy, they both recommended a repetition of the
strategy of 1812, even though the total abandonment of Port
Arthur was involved therein. General Dragomirov died at
Konotop on the 28th of October 1905. In addition to the orders
which he already possessed, he received in 1901 the order of
St Andrew.
His larger military works were mostly translated into French,
and his occasional papers, extending over a period of nearly
fifty years, appeared chiefly in the Voienni Svornik and the
Razoiedschik; his later articles in the last-named paper were,
like the general orders he issued to his own troops, attentively
studied throughout the Russian army. His critique of Tolstoy's
War and Peace attracted even wider attention. Dragomirov
was, in formal tactics, the head of the " orthodox " school. His
conservatism was not, however, th6 result of habit and early
training, but of deliberate reasoning and choice. His model
was, as he admitted in the war of 1866, the British infantry of
the Peninsular War, but he sought to reach the ideal, not through
the methods of repression against which the " advanced "
tacticians revolted, but by means of thorough efficiency in the
individual soldier and in the smaller units. He inculcated the
" offensive at all costs," and the combination of crushing short-
range fire and the bayonet charge. He carried out the ideas of
Suvarov to the fullest extent, and many thought that he pressed
them to a theoretical extreme unattainable in practice. His
critics, however, did not always realize that Dragomirov de-
pended, for the efficiency his unit required, on the capacity of the
leader, and that an essential part of the self-sacrificing discipline
he exacted from his officers was the power of assuming responsi-
bility. The details of his brilliant achievement of Zimnitza
suffice to give a clear idea of Dragomirov's personality and of
the way in which his methods of training conduced to success.
DRAGON (Fr. dragon, through Lat. draco, from the Greek;
connected with StpKOfiai, " see," and interpreted as " sharp-
sighted "; O.H. Ger. tracho, dracho, M.H.G. troche, Mod.
Ger. Drachen; A.S. draca, hence the equivalent English form
" drake," " fire-drake," cf. Low Ger. and Swed. drake, Dan.
drage), a fabulous monster, usually conceived as a huge winged
fire-breathing lizard or snake. In Greece the word dpaxuv was
used originally of any large serpent, and the dragon of mythology,
whatever shape it may have assumed, remains essentially a
snake. For the part it has played in the myths and cults of
various peoples and ages see the article SERPENT-WORSHIP.
Here it may be said, in general, that in the East, where snakes
are large and deadly (Chaldea, Assyria, Phoenicia, to a less
degree in Egypt), the serpent or dragon was symbolic of the
principle of evil. Thus Apophis, in the Egyptian religion, was
the great serpent of the world of darkness vanquished by Ra,
while in Chaldaea the goddess Tiamat, the female principle of
primeval Chaos, took the form of a dragon. Thus, too, in the
Hebrew sacred books the serpent or dragon is the source of death
and sin, a conception which was adopted in the New Testament
and so passed into Christian mythology. In Greece and Rome,
on the other hand, while the oriental idea of the serpent as an
evil power found an entrance and gave birth to a plentiful brood
of terrors (the serpents of the Gorgons, Hydra, Chimaera and
the like) , the draconles were also at times conceived as beneficent
powers, sharp-eyed dwellers in the inner parts of the earth, wise
to discover its secrets and utter them in oracles, or powerful to
invoke as guardian genii. Such were the sacred snakes in the
temples of Aesculapius and the sacri dracontes in that of the
Bona Dea at Rome; or, as guardians, the Python at Delphi and
the dragon of the Hesperides.
In general, however, the evil reputation of dragons was the
stronger, and in Europe it outlived the other. Christianity,
of course, confused the benevolent and malevolent serpent-
deities of the ancient cults in a common condemnation. The very
" wisdom of the serpent " made him suspect; the devil, said
St Augustine, "leo et draco est; leo propter impetum, draco
propter insidias." The dragon myths of the pagan East took
new shapes in the legends of the victories of St Michael and
DRAGON
467
St George; and the kindly snakes of the " good goddess " lived
on in the immanissimus draco whose baneful activity in a cave
of the Capitol was cut short by the intervention of the saintly
pope Silvester I. (Duchesne, Liber pontificates, i. 109 seq.). In
this respect indeed Christian mythology found itself in harmony
with that of the pagan North. The similarity of the Northern
and Oriental snake myths seems to point to some common origin
in an antiquity too remote to be explored. Whatever be the
origin of the Northern dragon, the myths, when they first become
articulate for us, show him to be in all essentials the same as that
of the South and East. He is a power of evil, guardian of hoards,
the greedy withholder of good things from men; and the slaying
of a dragon is the crowning achievement of heroes of Siegmund,
of Beowulf, of Sigurd, of Arthur, of Tristram even of Lancelot,
the beau ideal of medieval chivalry. Nor were these dragons
anything but very real terrors, even in the imaginations of the
Dragon Lizard (Draco taeniopterus).
learned, until comparatively modern times. As the waste places
were cleared, indeed, they withdrew farther from the haunts
of men, and in Europe their last lurking-places were the in-
accessible heights of the Alps, where they lingered till Jacques
Balmain set the fashion which has finally relegated them to the
realm of myth. In the works of the older naturalists, even in
the great Historia animalium of so critical a spirit as Conrad
Gesner (d. 1564), they still figure as part of the fauna known to
science.
As to their form, this varied from the beginning. The
Chaldaean dragon Tiamat had four legs, a scaly body, and wings.
The Egyptian Apophis was a monstrous snake, as were also,
originally at least, the Greek dracontes. The dragon of the
Apocalypse (Rev. xii. 3), " the old serpent," is many-headed,
like the Greek Hydra. The dragon slain by Beowulf is a snake
(worm), for it " buckles like a bow "; but that done to death
by Sigurd, though its motions are heavy and snake-like, has
legs, for he wounds it " behind the shoulder." On the other
hand, the dragon seen by King Arthur in his dreams is, according
to Malory, winged and active, for it " swoughs " down from
the sky. The belief in dragons and the conceptions of their
shape were undoubtedly often determined, in Europe as in
China, by the discovery of the remains of the gigantic extinct
saurians.
The qualities of dragons being protective and terror-inspiring,
and their effigies highly decorative, it is natural that they should
have been early used as warlike emblems. Thus, in Homer
(Iliad xi. 36 seq.), Agamemnon has on his shield, besides the
Gorgon's head, a blue three-headed snake (dp&Kuv), just as ages
afterwards the Norse warriors painted dragons on their shields
and carved dragons' heads on the prows of their ships. From the
conquered Dacians, too, the Romans in Trajan's time borrowed
the dragon ensign which became the standard of the cohort as
the eagle was that of the legion; whence, by a long descent, the
modern dragoon. Under the later East Roman emperors the purple
dragon ensign became the ceremonial standard of the emperors,
under the name of the dpaKovrtiov. The imperial fashion
spread; or similar causes elsewhere produced similar results.
In England before the Conquest the dragon was chief among
the royal ensigns in war. Its origin, according to the legend pre-
served in the Flares historiarum, was as follows. Uther Pen-
dragon, father of King Arthur, had a vision of a flaming dragon
in the sky, which his seers interpreted as meaning that he should
come to the kingdom. When this happened, after the death of
his brother Aurelius, " he ordered two golden dragons to be
fashioned, like to those he had seen in the circle of the star, one
of which he dedicated in the cathedral of Winchester, the other
he kept by him to be carried into battle." From Uther Dragon-
head, as the English called him, the Anglo-Saxon kings borrowed
the ensign, their custom being, according to the Flares, to stand
in battle inter draconem el standardum. The dragon ensign,
which was borne before Richard I. in 1191 when on crusade
" to the terror of the heathen beyond the sea," was that of the
dukes of Normandy; but even after the loss of Normandy the
dragon was the battle standard of English kings (signum regium
quod Draconem vacant), and was displayed, e.g. by Henry III. in
1245 when he went to war against the Welsh. Not till the 20th
century, under King Edward VII., was the dragon officially
restored as proper only to the British race of Uther Pendragon,
by its incorporation in the armorial bearings of the prince of
Wales. As a matter of fact, however, the dragon ensign was
common to nearly all nations, the reason for its popularity
being naively stated in the romance of Athis (quoted by Du
Cange),
" Ce souloient Remains porter,
Ce nous fait moult a redouter:"
" This the Romans used to carry, This makes us very much to
be feared." Thus the dragon and wyvern (i.e. a two-legged
snake, M.E. wivere, viper) took their place as heraldic symbols
(see HERALDRY).
As an ecclesiastical symbol it has remained consistent to the
present day. Wherever it is represented it means the principle
of evil, the devil and his works. In the middle ages the chief
of these works was heresy, and the dragon of the medieval
church legends and mystery plays was usually heresy. Thus
the knightly order of the vanquished dragon, instituted by the
emperor Sigismund in 1418, celebrated the victory of orthodoxy
over John Huss. Hell, too, is represented in medieval art as a
dragon with gaping jaws belching fire. Of the dragons carried
in effigy in religious processions some have become famous, e.g.
the Gargouille (gargoyle) at Rouen, the Graully at Metz, and the
Tarasque at Tarascon. Their popularity tended to disguise their
evil significance and to restore to them something of the beneficent
qualities of the ancient dracontes as local tutelary genii.
In the East, at the present day, the dragon is the national
symbol of China and the badge of the imperial family, and as
such it plays a large part in Chinese art. Chinese and Japanese
dragons, though regarded, as powers of the air, are wingless.
They are among the deified forces of nature of the Taoist religion,
and the shrines of the dragon-kings, who dwell partly in water
and partly on land, are set along the banks of rivers.
The constellation Draco (anguis, serpens) was probably so
DRAGONETTI DRAGON-FLY
called from its fanciful likeness to a snake. Numerous myths,
in various countries, are however connected with it. The
general character of these may be illustrated by the Greek story
which explains the constellation as being the dragon of the
Hesperides slain by Heracles and translated by Hera or Zeus
to the heavens.
See C. V. Daremberg and E. Saglio, Diclionnaire des antiquites
grecques et romaines (Paris, 1886, &c.), s.v. "Draco"; Pauly-
Wissowa, Realencyclopadie, s.v. " Drakon "; Du Cange, Glossarium,
s.v. "Draco"; La Grande Encyclopedic, s.v. "Dragon"; J. B.
Panthot, Histoire des dragons et des escarboucles (Lyons, 1691). See
also the articles EGYPT: Religion, and BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN
RELIGION. (W. A. P.)
In zoology the name " dragon " is now applied to a highly
interesting, but very harmless, group of small flying lizards form-
ing the genus Draco, belonging to the Agamidae, a family of
Saurian reptiles. About 20 species of " flying dragons " inhabit
the various Indo-Malayan countries; one, D. dussumieri, occurs
in Madras. They are small creatures, measuring about 10 in.
long, including the tail, which in some cases is more than half
of the entire length. The head is small, and the throat is pro-
vided with three pouches which are spread out when they lie
on the trunks of trees. They are, however, chiefly remarkable
for the wing-like cutaneous processes with which their sides are
provided, and which are extended and supported by greatly
elongated ribs. These form a sort of parachute by which the
animals are enabled to glide from branch to branch of the trees
on which they live, but, being altogether independent of the fore
limbs, they cannot be regarded as true wings, nor do they enable
the lizard to fly, but merely to make extensive leaps. But they
have the habit of opening and folding these prettily coloured
organs, when resting upon a branch, which gives them the
appearance of butterflies. When not in use they are folded
by the side after the manner of a fan, and the dragon can
then walk or run with considerable agility. Its food consists
of insects.
DRAGONETTI, DOMENICO (1763-1846), Italian double-bass
player, was born in Venice on the 7th of April 1763. Having
become famous as a performer on his instrument, he went
to London in 1794, where his playing created a furore. He
was the friend of Haydn and of Beethoven, and a well-known
character in his day. He died in London on the i6th of April
1846.
DRAGON-FLY (Ger. Wasserjungfer; Swed. trollslanda; Dan.
guldsmed; Dutch, scherpstekendevlieg; Fr. demoiselle), the
popular English name applied to the members of a remarkable
group of insects which formed the genus Libellula of Linnaeus
and the ancient authors. In some parts of the United States
they appear to be known as " devil's darning needles," and in
many parts of England are termed " horse-stingers." It is
almost needless to say that (excepting to other insects upon
which they prey) they are perfectly innocuous, though some of
the larger species can inflict a momentarily painful bite with
their powerful jaws. Their true systematic position is still
contested and somewhat uncertain. By most of the older
systematists they were placed as forming part of the hetero-
geneous order Neuroptera. J. C. Fabricius, however, elevated
them to the rank of a distinct order, which he termed Odonata;
and whatever may be the difference of opinion amongst authors
at the present day, that term is almost universally employed
for the group. W. F. Erichson transferred all the groups of
so-called Neuroplera with incomplete metamorphoses, hence in-
cluding the dragon-flies, as a division of Orthoptera, which he
termed Pseudo-Neuroptera. K. E. A. Gerstacker more recently
also retains them in the Orthoplera, terming those groups in
which the earlier states are subaquatic Orthoptera amphibotica.
All entomologists are agreed in maintaining the insects as form-
ing a group marked by characters at once extraordinary and
isolated in their nature, and in most modern classifications they
are treated as a distinct order.
The group Odonata is divided into three families, and each of
these again into two subfamilies. The families are the Agri-
onidae, Aeschnidae and Libellulidae the first including the sub-
families Calopterygina and Agrionina, the second Gomphina
and Aeschnina, and the third Cordulina and Libellulina.
Anatomy. The structure of a dragon-fly being so very remarkable,
it is necessary to enter somewhat extensively into details. The head
is comparatively small, and excavated posteriorly, connected very
slightly with the prothorax, on which it turns almost as on a pivot.
facets, which are often larger on the upper portion. The antennae,
which are smaller in proportion than in almost any other insects,
consist only of two short swollen basal joints and a 5 or 6-jointed
bristle-like thread. The large labrum conceals the jaws and inner
mouth parts. The lower lip, or labium (formed by the conjoined
second maxillae), is attached to a very small chin piece (or mentum),
and is generally very large, often (Agrionidae) divided almost to its
base into two portions, or more frequently entire or nearly so; on
each side of it are two usually enormous hypertrophied pieces, which
form the " palpi," and which are often furnished at the tips with an
articulated spine (or terminal joint), the whole structure serving
to retain the prey. Considerable diversity of opinion exists with
respect to the composition of the mouth parts, and by some authors
the " palpi " have been termed the side pieces of the lower lip. The
prothorax is extremely small, consisting of only a narrow ring. The
rest of the thorax is very large, and consolidated into a single piece
with oblique sutures on the sides beneath the wings.
The abdomen varies excessively in form, the two extremes being
the filiform structure observable in most Agrionidae, and the very
broad and depressed formation seen in the familiar British Libellula
depressa. It consists of ten distinct segments, whereof the basal two
and those at the apex are short, the others elongate, the first being
excessively short. In a slit on the under side of the second in the
male, accompanied by external protuberances, are concealed the
genital organs: on the under side of the eighth in the female is a
scale-like formation, indicating the entrance to the oviduct. The
tenth is always provided in both sexes with prominent appendages,
differing greatly in form, and often furnishing the best specific (and
even generic) characters.
The legs vary in length and stoutness, but may, as a rule, be termed
long and slender. The anterior pair probably assist in capturing
and holding insect prey, but the greatest service all the legs render
is possibly in enabling the creature to rest lightly, so that it can quit
a position of repose in chase of passing prey in the quickest possible
manner. The coxa is short and stout, followed by a still shorter
trochanter; the femora and tibiae long and slender, almost in-
variably furnished on their under surface with two series of strong
spines, as also are the tarsi, which consist of three slender joints,
the last having two long and slender claws.
The wings are always elongate, and furnished with strong longi-
tudinal neuration and dense transverse nervules strengthening the
already strong (although typically transparent) membrane. In
the Agrionidae both pairs are nearly equal, and are carried vertically
and longitudinally in repose, and the neuration and membrane are
less strong; hence the species of this family are not so powerful on
the wing as are those of the other groups in which the wings are
horizontally extended in a position ready for instant service. The
neuration is peculiar, and in many respects without precise analogy
in other groups of insects, but it is not necessary here to enter into
more than some special points. The arrangement of the nervures at
the base of the wing is very singular, and slight differences in it form
useful aids to classification. In the Aeschnidae and Libellulidae this
arrangement results in the formation of a triangular space (known
as the " triangle "), which is either open or traversed by nervules;
but in many Agrionidae this space, instead of being triangular, is
oblong or elongately quadrate, or with its upper edge partly straight
and partly oblique. This fixitude of type in neuration is not one
of the least important of the many peculiarities exhibited in these
insects.
The internal structure is comparatively simple. The existence
of salivary glands, denied by L. Duprix, has been asserted by
O. Poletajewa. The rest of the digestive apparatus consists of an
elongate canal extending from mouth to anus, comprising the
oesophagus, stomach and intestine, with certain dilatations and
constrictions; the characteristic Malpighian vessels are stated to
number about forty, placed round the posterior extremity of the
stomach. Dragon-flies eat their prey completely, and do not content
themselves by merely sucking its juices; the harder portions are
rejected as elongate, nearly dry, pellets of excrement.
Pairing. But the most extraordinary feature in the economy
one which has attracted the attention of naturalists from remote
times is the position of the genital organs, and the corresponding
anomalous manner in which the pairing of the sexes and impregnation
is effected. In the male the intromittent organ is situated in a slit
on the under surface of the second abdominal segment ; it is usually
very crooked or sinuous in form, and is accompanied by sheaths, and
by external hooks or secondary appendages, and also by seminal
vessels. But the ducts of the vessels connected with the testes unite
and open on the under surface of the ninth segment; hence, before
copulation can take place, it is necessary that the vessels in the second
DRAGON-FLY
469
segment be charged from this opening, and in the majority of cases
tins is done by the male previously to seeking the female. In the
latter sex the entrance to the oviduct and genital organs is on the
under surface of the eighth abdominal segment. The act of pairing
may be briefly stated as follows. The male, when flying, seizes the
prothorax of the female with the strong appendages at the extremity
of the abdomen, and the abdomen of this latter sex is then curved
upward so as to bring the under side of the eighth segment into
FIG. i . The anterior portion of
the body of Aeschna cyanea
freed from the nymph-cuticle.
FIG. 2. The tail being
extricated.
contact with the organs of the second segment of the male. In the
more powerful Libellulidae, &c., the act is of short duration, and it
is probable that polygamy and polyandry exist, for it possibly
requires more than one almost momentary act to fertilize all the
eggs in the ovaries of a female. But in many Agrionidae, and in
some others, the male keeps his hold of the prothorax of the female
for a lengthened period, retaining himself in flight in an almost
perpendicular manner, and it may be that the deposition of eggs and
pairing goes on alternately. There is, however, much yet to be
learned on these points. The gravid female usually lays her eggs
in masses (but perhaps sometimes singly), and the operation may
be witnessed by any one in localities frequented by these insects.
She hovers for a considerable time over nearly the same spot, rapidly
dipping the apex of her abdomen into the water, or at any rate
touching it, and often in places where there are no water-weeds,
so that in all probability the
eggs fall at once to the bottom.
But in some of the Agrionidae
the female has been often
noticed by trustworthy ob-
servers to creep down the
stems of aquatic plants several
inches below the surface,
emerging after the act of
oviposition has been effected ;
and in the case of Lestes sponsa,
K. T. E. von Siebold saw the
male descend with the female.
The same exact observer
noticed also in this species
that the female makes slight
incisions in the stems or
leaves of water plants with
the double serrated apparatus
(vulva) forming a prolonga-
tion of the ninth segment
beneath, depositing an egg in
each incision. He has seen
two pairs thus occupied be-
neath the surface on one and
the same stem.
Larva and Nymph. The
duration of the subaquatic
life of a dragon-fly is no
doubt variable, according
to the species. In the
smaller forms it is probably
less than a year, but precise evidence is wanting as to the
occurrence of two broods in one year. On the other hand,
it is certain that often a longer period is requisite to enable
the creature to attain its full growth, and three years have
been stated to be necessary for this in the large and powerful
FIG. 3. The whole body
extricated.
A nax formosus. Like all insects with incomplete metamorphoses,
there is no quiescent pupal condition, no sharp line of demar-
cation between the larval and so-called " nymph " or pen-
ultimate stage. The creature goes on eating and increasing in
size from the moment it emerges from the egg to the time when
it leaves the water to be transformed into the aerial perfect
insect. The number of moults is uncertain, but they are without
doubt numerous. At probably about the antepenultimate of
these operations, the rudimentary wings begin to appear as
thoracic buddings, and in the full-grown nymph these wings
overlap about one-half of the dorsal surface of the abdomen. In
structure there is a certain amount of resemblance to the perfect
insect, but the body is always much stouter and shorter, in some
cases most disproportionately so, and the eyes are always
separated; even in those genera (e.g. Aeschna) in which the eyes
of the imago are absolutely contiguous, the most that can be
seen in the larva is a prolongation towards each other, and there
are no ocelli. The legs are shorter and more fitted for crawling
about water plants and on the bottom. In the mouth parts the
mandibles and maxillae are similar in form to those of the adult,
but there is an
extraordinary and
unique modification
of the lower lip.
This is attached
to an elongate and
slender mentum
articulated to the
posterior portion of
the lower surface of
the head, slightly
widened at its ex-
tremity, to which
is again articulated
the labium proper,
which is very large,
flattened, and
gradually dilated
to its extremity;
but its form differs
according to group
as in the perfect
insect. Thus in the
A g rionidae it is
deeply cleft, and
with comparatively
slender side-pieces
(or palpi), and
strongly developed
FIG. 4. The perfect insect (the wings
having acquired their full dimensions) resting
to dry itself, preparatory to the wings being
horizontally extended.
articulated spines; in the Aeschnidae
it is at the most notched, with narrow side-pieces and very
strong spines; in the Libellulidae it is entire, often triangular
at its apex, and with enormously developed palpi with-
out spines, but having the opposing inner edges furnished
with interlocking serrations. The whole of this apparatus is
commonly termed the mask. In a state of repose it is applied
closely against the face, the elongated mentum directed back-
ward and lying between the anterior pair of legs; but when an
approaching victim is seen the whole apparatus is suddenly
projected, and the prey caught by the raptorial palpi; in some
large species it is capable of being projected fully half an inch
in front of the head. The prey, once caught and held by this
apparatus, is devoured in the usual manner. There are two
pairs of thoracic spiracles, through which the nymph breathes
during its later life by thrusting the anterior end of the body
into the air; but respiration is mostly effected by a peculiar
apparatus at the tail end, and there are two different methods.
In the Agrionidae there arej;hree elongate flattened plates, or
false gills, full of tracheal ramifications, which extract the air
from the water, and convey it to the internal tracheae (in Calo-
pteryx these plates are excessively long, nearly equalling the
abdomen), the plates also serving as means of locomotion. But
in the other groups these external false gills are absent, and in
470
DRAGON-FLY
their place are five valves, which by their sudden opening and
closing force in the water to the rectum, the walls of which are
furnished with branchial lamellae. The alternate opening and
closing of these valves enables the creature to make quick jerks
or rushes (incorrectly termed " leaps ") through the water, 1 and,
in conjunction with its mouth parts, to make sudden attacks
upon prey from a considerable distance. Well-developed
Aeschnid larvae have been observed to take atmospheric air
into the rectum. The lateral angles of the terminal abdominal
segments are sometimes produced into long curved spines. In
colour these larvae are generally muddy, and they frequently
have a coating of muddy particles, and hence are less likely to be
observed by their victims. If among insects the perfect dragon-
fly may be termed the tyrant of the air, so may its larva be styled
that of the water. Aquatic insects and larvae form the principal
food, but there can be no doubt that worms, the fry of fish, and
even younger larvae of their own species, form part of the bill
of fare. The " nymph " when arrived at its full growth sallies
forth from the water, and often crawls a considerable distance
(frequently many feet up the trunks of trees) before it fixes itself
for the final change, which is effected by the thorax splitting
longitudinally down the back, through which fissure the perfect
insect gradually drags itself. The figures indicate this process as
observed in Aeschna cyanea.
The Complete Insect. For a considerable time after its emer-
gence a dragon-fly is without any of its characteristic colours,
and is flaccid and weak, the wings (even in those groups in which
they are afterwards horizontally extended) being held vertically
in a line with the abdomen. By degrees the parts harden, and
the insect essays its first flight, but even then the wings have
little power and are semi-opaque in appearance, as if dipped
in mucilage. In most species of Calopterygina, and in some
others, the prevailing colour of the body is a brilliant bronzy
green, blue or black, but the colours in the other groups vary
much, and often differ in the sexes. Thus in Libellula depressa
the abdomen of the fully adult male is covered with a bluish
bloom, whereas that of the female is yellow; but several days
elapse before this pulverulent appearance is attained, and a
comparatively young male is yellow like the female. The wings
are typically hyaline and colourless, but in many species (espe-
cially Calopterygina and Libellidina) they may be wholly or
in part opaque and often black, due apparently to gradual
oxydization of a pigment between the two membranes of which
the wings are composed; the brilliant iridescence, or metallic
lustre, so frequently found is no doubt due to interference the
effect of minute irregularities of the surface and not produced
by a pigment. A beautiful little genus (Chalcopteryx) of Calo-
pterygina from the Amazon is a gem in the world of insects, the
posterior wings being of the most brilliant fiery metallic colour,
whereas the anterior remain hyaline.
These insects are pre-eminently lovers of the hottest sunshine
(a few are somewhat crepuscular), and the most powerful and
daring on the wing in fine weather become inert and compara-
tively lifeless when at rest in dull weather, allowing themselves
to be captured by the fingers without making any effort to escape.
Many of the larger species (Aeschna, &c.) have a habit of affecting
a particular twig or other resting place like a fly-catcher among
birds, darting off after prey and making long excursions, but
returning to the chosen spot. A. R. Wallace, in his Malay
Archipelago, states that the inhabitants of Lombok use the large
species for food, and catch them by means of limed twigs.
They are distributed over the whole world excepting the
polar regions, but are especially insects of the tropics. At the
present day about 2200 species are known, dispersed unequally
among the several subfamilies as follows: Agrionina, 700
species; Calopterygina, 280; Gomphina, 320; Aeschnina, 170;
Corduliina, 130; Libellulina, 600. In Europe proper only 100
species have been observed, and about 46 of these occur in the
British islands. New Zealand is excessively poor, and can only
number 8 species, whereas they are very numerous in Australia.
1 A similar contrivance was suggested and (if the writer mistakes
not) actually tried as a means of propelling steamships.
Some species are often seen at sea, far from land, in calm weather,
in troops which are no doubt migratory; the common Libellula
quadrimaculata, which inhabits the cold and temperate regions
of the northern hemisphere, has been frequently seen in immense
migratory swarms. One species (Pantala fiavescens) has about
the widest range of any insect, occurring in the Old World from
Kamtchatka to Australia, and in the New from the Southern
States to Chili, also all over Africa and the Pacific islands, but is
not found in Europe. The largest species occur in the Aeschnina
and Agrionina; a member of the former subfamily from Borneo
expands to nearly 6| in., and with a moderately strong body
and powerful form; in the latter the Central American and
Brazilian Megaloprepus caerulatus and species of Mecistogaster
are very large, the former expanding to nearly 7 in., and the
latter to nearly as much, but the abdomen is not thicker than
an ordinary grass-stem and of extreme length (fully 5 in. in
Mecistogaster).
Fossils. Among fossil insects dragon-flies hold a conspicuous
position. Not only do they belong to what appears to have
been a very ancient type, but in addition, the large wings and
strong dense reticulation are extremely favourable for preserva-
tion in a fossil condition, and in many cases all the intricate
details can be as readily followed as in a recent example. From
the Carboniferous strata of Commentry, France, C. Brongniart
has described several genera of gigantic insects allied to dragon-
flies, but with less specialized thoracic segments and simpler
wing-neuration. These form a special group the Protodonata.
True Odonata referable to the existing families are plentiful in
Mesozoic formations; in England they have been found more
especially in the Purbeck beds of Swanage, and the vales of
Wardour and Aylesbury, in the Stonesfield Slate series, and in
the Lias and Rhaetic series of the west of England. But the
richest strata appear to be those of the Upper Miocene at
Oeningen, near Schaffhausen in the Rhine valley; the Middle
Miocene at Radaboj, near Krapina in Croatia; the Eocene of
Aix, in Provence; and more especially the celebrated Secondary
rocks furnishing the lithographic stone of Solenhofen, in Bavaria.
This latter deposit would appear to have been of marine origin,
and it is significant that, although the remains of gigantic
dragon-flies discovered in it are very numerous and perfect, no
traces of their subaquatic conditions have been found, although
these as a rule are numerous in most of the other strata, hence
the insects may be regarded as having been drowned in the sea
and washed on shore. Many of these Solenhofen species differ
considerably in form from those now existing, so that Dr H. A. L.
Hagen, who has especially studied them, says that for nearly all
it is necessary to make new genera. It is of great interest, how-
ever, to find that a living Malayan genus (Euphaea) and another
living genus Uropetala, now confined to New Zealand, are repre-
sented in the Solenhofen deposits, while a species of Mega-
podagrion now entirely Neotropical, occurs in the Eocene beds
of Wyoming.
A notice of fossil forms should not be concluded without the
remark that indications of at least two species have been found
in amber, a number disproportionately small if compared with
other insects entombed therein; but it must be remembered
that a dragon-fly is, as a rule, an insect of great power, and in all
probability those then existing were able to extricate themselves
if accidentally entangled in the resin.
See E. de Selys-Longchamps, Monographic des Libellulidees
d'Europe (Brussels, 1840); Synopses des Agnonines, Calopterygines,
Gomphines, et Gordulines, with Supplements (Brussels, from 1853
to 1877); E. de Selys-Longchamps and H. A. L. Hagen, Revue des
Odonates d'Europe (Brussels, 1850); Monographic des Calopteryeines
et des Gomphines (Brussels, 1854 and 1858) ; Charpentier, Libellulinae
europeae (Leipzig, 1840). For modern systematic work see various
papers by R. M'Lachlan, P. P. Calvert, J. G. Needham, R. Martin,
E. B. Williamson, F. Karsch, &c. ; also H. Tumpel, Die Geradflugler
Mitleleuropas (Eisenach, 1900); and W. F. Kirby, Catalogs of
Neuroptera Odonata (London, 1890). For habits and details of trans-
formation and larval life, see L. C. Miall, Natural History of Aquatic
Insects (London, 1895); H. Dewitz, Zool. Anz. xiii. (1891); and
J. G. Needham, Bull. New York Museum, Ixviii. (1903). For geo-
graphical distribution, G. H. Carpenter, Sci. Proc. R. Dublin Soc.
viii. (1897). For British species, W. J. Lucas, Handbook of British
DRAGON'S BLOOD DRAINAGE OF LAND
Dragonflies (London, 1899). For wings and mechanism of flight,
R. von Lendenfeld, S.B. Akad. Wien, Ixxxiii. (1881), and J. G.
Needham, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. xxvi. (1903). For general mor-
phology, R. Heymons, Abhandl. k. preuss. Akad. (1896), and Ann.
Hofmus. Wein, xix. (1904). (R. M'L.; G. H. C.)
DRAGON'S BLOOD, a red-coloured resin obtained from several
species of plants. Calamus draco (Willd.), one of the rotang or
rattan palms, which produces much of the dragon's blood of
commerce, is a native of Further India and the Eastern Archi-
pelago. The fruit is round, pointed, scaly, and the size of a large
cherry, and when ripe is coated with the resinous exudation
known as dragon's blood. The finest dragon's blood, called
jernang or djernang in the East Indies, is obtained by beating
or shaking the gathered fruits, sifting out impurities, and melting
by exposure to the heat of the sun or by placing in boiling water;
the resin thus purified is then usually moulded into sticks or
quills, and after being wrapped in reeds or palm-leaves, is ready
for market. An impurer and inferior kind, sold in lumps of
considerable size, is extracted from the fruits by boiling. Dragon's
blood is dark red-brown, nearly opaque and brittle, contains
small shell-like flakes, and gives when ground a fine red powder;
it is soluble in alcohol, ether, and fixed and volatile oils. If
heated it gives off benzoic acid. In Europe it was once valued
as a medicine on account of its astringent properties, and is now
used for colouring varnishes and lacquers; in China, where it is
mostly consumed, it is employed to give a red facing to writing
paper. The drop dragon's blood of commerce, called cinnabar
by Pliny (N.H. xxxiii. 39), and sangre de dragon by Barbosa was
formerly and is still one of the products of Socotra, and is
obtained from Dracaena cinnabari. The dragon's blood of the
Canary Islands is a resin procured from the surface of the leaves
and from cracks in the trunk of Dracaena draco. The hardened
juice of a euphorbiaceous tree, Croton draco, a resin resembling
kino, is the sangre del drago or dragon's blood of the Mexicans,
used by them as a vulnerary and astringent.
DRAGOON (Fr. dragon, Ger. Dragoner), originally a mounted
soldier trained to fight on foot only (see CAVALRY). This
mounted infantryman of the late i6th and I7th centuries, like
his comrades of the infantry who were styled " pike " and
" shot," took his name from his weapon, a species of carbine
or short musket called the " dragon." Dragoons were organized
not in squadrons but in companies, like the foot, and their officers
and non-commissioned officers bore infantry titles. The invariable
tendency of the old-fashioned dragoon, who was always at a
disadvantage when engaged against true cavalry, was to improve
his horsemanship and armament to the cavalry standard. Thus
" dragoon " came to mean medium cavalry, and this significance
the word has retained since the early wars of Frederick the Great,
save for a few local and temporary returns to the original mean-
ing. The phrases " to dragoon " and " dragonnade " bear
witness to the mounted infantry period, this arm being the most
efficient and economical form of cavalry for police work and
guerrilla warfare. The " Dragonnades," properly so called,
were the operations of the troops (chiefly mounted) engaged in
enforcing Louis XIV.'s decrees against Protestants after the
revocation of the edict of Nantes. In the British service the
dragoons (ist Royals, 2nd Scots Greys, 6th Inniskillings) are
heavy cavalry, the Dragoon Guards (seven regiments) are
medium, as are the dragoons of other countries. The light
cavalry of the British army in the i8th and early igth century
was for the most part called light dragoons.
DRAGUIGNAN, the chief town of the department of the Var
in S.E. France; 51 m. N.E. of Toulon, and 28$ m. N.W. of
Frejus by rail; situated at a height of 679 ft. above the level
of the sea, at the southern foot of the wooded heights of Malmont,
and on the left bank of the Nartuby river; pop. (1906) 7766.
It possesses no notable buildings, save a modern parish church,
a prefecture, also modern, and a building wherein are housed the
town library and a picture gallery, with some fair works of art.
In modern times the ramparts have been demolished, and new
wide streets pierced through the town.
DRAINAGE OF LAND. The verb " to drain," with its sub-
stantives " drain " and " drainage," represents the 0. Eng.
dreahnian, from the same root found in " dry," and signifies
generally the act of drawing off moisture or liquid from some-
where, and so drinking dry, and (figuratively) exhausting; the
substantive " drain " being thus used not only in the direct
sense of a channel for carrying off liquid, but also figuratively
for a very small amount such as would be left as dregs. The
term " drainage " is applied generally to all operations involving
the drawing off of water or other liquid, but more particularly
to those connected with the treatment of the soil in agriculture,
or with the removal of water and refuse from streets and houses.
For the last, see SEWERAGE; the following article being devoted
to the agricultural aspects of this subject. See also the articles
RECLAMATION OF LAND, CANAL, IRRIGATION, RIVER ENGINEER-
ING, WATER SUPPLY and (law) WATER RIGHTS.
Agricultural or field drainage consists in the freeing of the soil
from stagnant and superfluous water by means of surface
or underground channels. It may be distinguished from the
draining of land on a large scale which is exemplified in the re-
clamation of the English Fens (see FENS). Surface drainage is
usually effected by ploughing the land into convex ridges off
which the water runs into intervening furrows and is conveyed
into ditches. For several reasons this method is ineffective, and,
where possible, is now superseded by underground drainage by
means of pipe-tiles. Land is not in a satisfactory condition with
respect to drainage unless the rain that falls upon it can sink
down to the minimum depth required for the healthy develop-
ment of the roots of crops and thence find vent either through
a naturally porous subsoil or by artificial channels.
A few of the evils inseparable from the presence of overmuch
water in the soil may be enumerated. Wet land, if in grass,
produces only the coarser grasses, and many subaquatic plants
and mosses, which are of little or no value for pasturage; its
herbage is late in spring, and fails early in autumn; the animals
grazed upon it are unduly liable to disease, and sheep, especially,
to foot-rot and liver-rot. In the case of arable land the crops are
poor and moisture-loving weeds flourish. Tillage operations on
such land are easily interrupted by rain, and the period always
much limited in which they can be prosecuted at all; the com-
pactness and toughness of the soil renders each operation more
arduous, and its repetition more necessary than in the case of
dry land. The surface must necessarily be thrown into ridges,
and the furrows and cross-cuts cleared out after each process
of tillage, and upon this surface-drainage as much labour is
expended in twenty years as would suffice to make under-drains
enough to lay it permanently dry. With all these precautions
the best seed time is often missed, and this usually proves the
prelude to a scanty crop, or to a late and disastrous harvest.
The cultivation of the turnip and other root crops, which require
the soil to be wrought to a deep and free tilth, either becomes
altogether impracticable and must be abandoned for the safe
but costly bare fallow, or is carried out with great labour and
hazard; and the crop, when grown, can neither be removed from
the ground, nor consumed upon it by sheep without damage by
" poaching."
The roots of plants require both air and warmth. A deep
stratum through which water can percolate, but in which it
can never stagnate, is therefore necessary. A waterlogged soil
is impenetrable by air, and owing to the continuous process of
evaporation and radiation, its temperature is much below that of
drained soil. The surface of the water in the supersaturated
soil is known as the " water-table " and is exemplified in water
standing in a well. Water will rise in clay by capillarity to a
height of 50 in., in sand to 22 in. Above the " water-table "
the water is held by capillarity, and the percentage of water held
decreases as we approach the surface where there may be perfect
dryness. Draining reduces the " surface tension " of the capil-
lary water by removal of the excess, but the " water-table "
may be many feet below. Drains ordinarily remove only excess
of capillary water, an excess of percolating water in wet weather.
In setting about the draining of a field, or farm, or estate, the
first point is to secure a proper outfall. The lines of the receiving
drains must next be determined, and then the direction of the
472
DRAINAGE OF LAND
parallel drains. The former must occupy the lowest part of the
natural hollows, and the latter must run in the line of the greatest
slope of the ground. In the case of flat land, where a fall is
obtained chiefly by increasing the depth of the drains at their
lower ends, these lines may be disposed in any direction that is
found convenient; but in undulating ground a single field may
require several distinct sets of drains lying at different angles,
so as to suit its several slopes. When a field is ridged in the line
of the greatest ascent of the ground, there is an obvious con-
venience in adopting the furrows as the site of the drains; but
wherever this is not the case the drains must be laid off to suit
the contour of the ground, irrespective of the furrows altogether.
When parts of a field are flat, and other parts have a considerable
acclivity, it is expedient to cut a receiving drain near to the
bottom of the slopes, and to give the flat ground an independent
set of drains. In laying off receiving drains it is essential to give
hedgerows and trees a good offing, lest the conduit be obstructed
by the roots.
When a main drain is so placed that parallel ones empty into
it from both sides, care should be taken that the inlets of the
latter are not made exactly opposite to each other. Much of
the success of draining depends on the skilful planning of these
main drains, and in making them large enough to discharge the
greatest flow of water to which they may be exposed. Very
long main drains are to be avoided. Numerous outlets are also
objectionable, from their liability to obstruction. An outlet to
an area of from 10 to 15 acres is a good arrangement. These
outlets should be faced with mason work, and guarded with iron
gratings.
The distance and depth apart of the parallel drains is deter-
mined chiefly by reference to the texture of the soil. In an
impervious clay the flow of the water is much impeded and the
water-table can be controlled only by frequent lines of pipes.
On such land it is customary to lay them about 3 ft. from the
surface and from 15 to 21 ft. apart. In lighter soils the depth,
and proportionately the distance apart, is increased, but the
drains are rarely more than 4 ft. 6 in. below the surface, though
they may be 75 or 100 apart. A fall of at least i in 200 is
desirable.
There are various forms of under-drainage, some of them
alluded to in the historical section below, but by far the common-
est is by means of cylindrical or oval pipes of burnt clay about
i ft. in length, sometimes supplemented by collars, though
nowadays the use of these is being abandoned. Pipes vary in
bore from 2 in. for the parallel to 6 in. for the main drains.
In constructing a drain, it is of importance that the bottom be
cut out just wide enough to admit the pipes and no more. Pipes,
when accurately fitted in, are much less liable to derangement
than when laid in the bottom of a trench several times their
width, into which a mass of loose earth must necessarily be
returned. This is easily effected m the case of soils tolerably
free from stones by the use of draining spades and the tile-hook
which are represented in the accompanying cut. The tile-hook is
an implement by means of which the pipes may be lowered from
the edge of the trench and laid at the bottom. An implement,
sometimes propelled by steam, known as the draining plough,
can be used for opening the trenches. Draining can be carried
on at all seasons, but is usually best done in autumn or summer.
A thoroughly trustworthy and experienced workman should
be selected to lay the pipes, with instructions to set no pipes
until he is satisfied that the depth of the drains and level of the
bottoms are correct. The expense of tile-drainage may vary
from about 2:105. per acre on locse soils to 10 an acre on the
most tenacious soils, the rate of wages and the cost of the pipes,
the depth of the trenches and the ease with which they can be
dug, all influencing the cost of the process.
Drainage is not a modern discovery. The Romans were
careful to keep their arable lands dry by means of open trenches
or covered drains filled with stones or twigs. It is at least several
centuries since covered channels of various kinds were used by
British husbandmen for drying their land. Walter Blith (see
AGRICULTURE) about the middle of the i;th century wrote of
the improvement which might be effected in barren land by free-
ing it from the excess of stagnant water on or near the surface
by means of channels filled with faggots or stones, but his
principles, never generally adopted, were ultimately forgotten.
In the latter half of the i8th century. Joseph Elkington, a
Warwickshire farmer, discovered a plan of laying dry sloping
ground that is drowned by the outbursting of springs. When
the higher-lying portion of such land is porous, rain falling upon
it sinks down until it is arrested by clay or other impervious
matter, which causes it again to issue at the surface and wet the
lower-lying ground. Elkington showed that by cutting a deep
drain through the clay, aided when necessary by wells or auger
holes, the subjacent bed of sand or gravel in which a body of
water is pent up by the clay, as in a vessel, might be tapped
and the water conveyed harmlessly in the covered drain to the
nearest ditch or stream. In the circumstances to which it is
applicable, and in the hands of skilful drainers, Elkington's
Draining Implements.
plan, known as " sink-hole drainage," by bringing into play the
natural drainage furnished by porous strata, is often eminently
successful.
During the subsequent thirty or forty years most of the drain-
ing that took place was on this system, and an immense capital
was expended in such works with varying results. Things
continued in this position until about 1823, when James Smith
of Deanston, having discovered anew those principles of draining
so long before indicated by Blith, proceeded to exemplify them
in his own practice, and to expound them to the public in a way
that speedily effected a complete revolution in the art of draining,
and marked an era in agricultural progress. Instead of persisting
in fruitless attempts to dry extensive areas by a few dexterous
cuts, he insisted on the necessity of providing every field that
needed draining at all with a complete system of parallel under-
ground channels, running in the line of the greatest slope of the
ground, and so near to each other that the whole rain falling at
any time upon the surface should sink down and be carried off
by the drains. A main receiving drain was to be carried along
the lowest part of the ground, with sub-drains in every subor-
dinate hollow that the ground presented. The distances between
drains he showed must be regulated by the greater or less reten-
tiveness of the ground operated upon, and gave 10 to 40 ft. as
the limits of their distance apart. The depth which he prescribed
for his parallel drains was 30 in., and these were to be filled with
12 in. of stones small enough to pass through a 3-in. ring in
short a new edition of Blith's drain. Josiah Parkes, engineer
DRAKE, SIR FRANCIS
473
to the Royal Agricultural Society, advocated a greater distance
apart for the drains, and, in order that the subterranean water
might be reached, a depth of at least 4 ft.
The cultivated lands of Britain being disposed in ridges which
usually lie in the line of greatest ascent, it became customary
to form the drains in each furrow, or in each alternate, or third
or fourth one, as the case might require, or views of economy
dictate and hence the system soon came to be popularly called
" furrow draining." From the number and arrangement of
the drains, the terms " frequent " and " parallel " were also
applied to it. Smith himself more appropriately named it, from
its effects, "thorough draining." The sound principles thus
promulgated by him were speedily adopted and extensively
carried into practice. The great labour and cost incurred in
procuring stones in adequate quantities, and the difficulty of
carting them in wet seasons, soon led to the substitution of
" tiles," and soles of burnt earthenware. The limited supply
and high price of these tiles for a time impeded the progress
of the new system of draining; but the invention of tile-making
machines removed this impediment, and gave a stimulus to this
fundamental agricultural improvement. The substitution of
cylindrical pipes for the original horse-shoe tiles has still further
lowered the cost and increased the efficiency and permanency
of drainage works.
The system introduced by Smith of Deanston has now been
virtually adopted by all drainers. Variations in matters of
detail (having respect chiefly to the depth and distance apart
of the parallel drains) have indeed been introduced; but the
distinctive features of his system are recognized and acted
upon.
A great stimulus was given to the improvement of land by the
passing in England of a series of acts of parliament, which removed
certain obstacles that effectually hindered tenants with limited
interests from investing capital in works of drainage and kindred
amelioration. The Public Money Drainage Acts 1846-1856 author-
ized the advance of public money to landowners to enable them to
make improvements in their lands, not only by draining, but by
irrigation, the making of permanent roads, clearing, erecting build-
ings, planting for shelter, &c. The rapid absorption of the funds
provided by these acts led to further legislative measures by which
private capital was rendered available for the improvement of land.
A series of special improvement acts were passed, authorizing
companies to execute or advance money for executing improvements
in land. Finally, the Land Improvement Act 1864, amended and
extended by the act of 1899, gave facilities for borrowing money by
charging the cost of draining, &c., as a rent-charge upon the inherit-
ance of the land. The instalments must be repaid with interest in
equal amounts extending over a fixed term of years by the tenant
for life during his lifetime, the tenant being bound to maintain the
improvements.
See C. G. Elliott, Engineering for Land Drainage (New York,
'QOS) I F. H. King, Irrigation and Drainage (New York, 1899);
G. S. Mitchell, Handbook of Land Drainage (London, 1898), with a
good bibliography.
DRAKE, SIR FRANCIS (c. 1545-1595), English admiral, was
born near Tavistock, Devonshire, about 1545 according to most
early authorities, but possibly as early as 1539 (see Corbett,
vol. i., Appendix A). His father, a yeoman and a zealous
Protestant, was obliged to take refuge in Kent during the
persecutions in the reign of Queen Mary. He obtained a naval
chaplaincy from Queen Elizabeth, and is said to have been after-
wards vicar of Upnor Church (evidently a misprint or slip of the
pen for Upchurch) on the Medway. Young Drake was educated
at the expense and under the care of Sir John Hawkins, who was
his kinsman; and, after passing an apprenticeship on a coasting
vessel, at the age of eighteen he had risen to be purser of a ship
trading to Biscay. At twenty he made a voyage to Guinea;
and at twenty-two he was made captain of the " Judith." In
that capacity he was in the harbour of San Juan de Ulloa, in the
Gulf of Mexico, where he behaved most gallantly in the actions
under Sir John Hawkins, and returned with him to England,
having acquired great reputation, though with the loss of all the
money which he had embarked in the expedition. In 1570 he
obtained a regular privateering commission from Queen Eliza-
beth, the powers of which he immediately exercised in a cruise
in the Spanish Main. Having next projected an attack against
the Spaniards in the West Indies to indemnify himself for his
former losses, he set sail in 1572, with two small ships named
the " Pasha " and the " Swan." He was afterwards joined by
another vessel; and with this small squadron he took and
plundered the Spanish town of Nombre de Dios. With his men
he penetrated across the isthmus of Panama, and committed
great havoc among the Spanish shipping. From the top of a tree
which he climbed while on the isthmus he obtained his first view
of the Pacific, and resolved " to sail an English ship in these
seas." In these expeditions he was much assisted by the Maroons,
descendants of escaped negro slaves, who were then engaged
in a desultory warfare with the Spaniards. Having embarked
his men and filled his ships with plunder, he bore away for
England, and arrived at Plymouth on the gth of August 1573.
His success and honourable demeanour in this expedition
gained him high reputation; and the use which he made of his
riches served to raise him still higher in popular esteem. Having
fitted out three frigates at his own expense, he sailed with them
to Ireland, and rendered effective service as a volunteer, under
Walter, earl of Essex, the father of the famous but unfortunate
earl. After his patron's death he returned to England, where
he was introduced to Queen Elizabeth (whether by Sir Christopher
Hatton is doubtful), and obtained a favourable reception. In
this way he acquired the means of undertaking the expedition
which has immortalized his name. The first proposal he made
was to undertake a voyage into the South Seas through the
Straits of Magellan, which no Englishman had hitherto ever
attempted. This project having been well received at court,
the queen furnished him with means; and his own fame quickly
drew together a sufficient force. The fleet with which he sailed
on this enterprise consisted of only five small vessels, and their
united crews mustered only 166 men. Starting on the i3th
of December 1577, his course lay by the west coast of Morocco
and the Cape Verde Islands. He reached the coast of Brazil on
the 6th of April, and entered the Rio de la Plata, where he parted
company with two of his ships; but having met them again,
and taken out their provisions, he turned them adrift. On the
1 9th of June he entered the port of St Julian's, where he remained
two months, partly to lay in provisions, and partly delayed by
the trial and execution of Thomas Doughty, who had plotted
against him. On the 2ist of August he entered the Straits of
Magellan. The passage of the straits took sixteen days, but then
a storm carried the ships to the west; on the 7th of October,
having made back for the mouth of the strait, Drake's ship and
the two vessels under his vice-admiral Captain Wynter were
separated, and the latter, missing 'the rendezvous arranged,
returned to England. Drake went on, and came to Mocha Island,
off the coast of Chile, on the 25th of November. He thence
continued his voyage along the coast of Chile and Peru, taking
all opportunities of seizing Spanish ships, and attacking them
on shore, till his men were satiated with plunder; and then
coasted along the shores of America, as far as 48 N. lat., in an
unsuccessful endeavour to discover a passage into the Atlantic.
Having landed, however, he named the country New Albion,
and took possession of it in the name of Queen Elizabeth.
Having careened his ship, he sailed thence on the 26th of July
1579 for the Moluccas. On the 4th of November he got sight
of those islands, and, arriving at Ternate, was extremely well
received by the sultan. On the loth of December he made the
Celebes, where his ship unfortunately struck upon a rock, but
was taken off without much damage. On the nth of March he
arrived at Java, whence he intended to have directed his course
to Malacca; but he found himself obliged to alter his purpose,
and to think of returning home. On the 26th of March 1580 he
again set sail; and on the isth of June he doubled the Cape of
Good Hope, having then on board only fifty-seven men and
three casks of water. He passed the line on the I2th of July,
and on the i6th reached the coast of Guinea, where he watered.
On the i ith of September he made the Island of Terceira, and on
the 26th of September (?) he entered the harbour of Plymouth.
This voyage round the world, the first accomplished by an
Englishman, was thus performed in two years and about ten
474
DRAKE, N. DRAKENSBERG
months. The queen hesitated for some time whether to recog-
nize his achievements or not, on the ground that such recognition
might lead to complications with Spain, but she finally decided
in his favour. Accordingly, soon after his arrival she paid a
visit to Deptford, went on board his ship, and there, after
partaking of a banquet, conferred upon him the honour of knight-
hood, at the same time declaring her entire approbation of all
that he had done. She likewise gave directions for the preser-
vation of his ship, the " Golden Hind," that it might remain a
monument of his own and his country's glory. After the lapse
of a century it decayed and had to be broken up. Of the sound
timber a chair was made, which was presented by Charles II.
to the university of Oxford. In 1581 Drake became mayor of
Plymouth; and in 1585 he married a second time, his first wife
having died in 1583. In 1585, hostilities having commenced
with Spain, he again went to sea, sailing with a fleet to the West
Indies, and taking the cities of Santiago (in the Cape Verde
Islands), San Domingo, Cartagena and St Augustine. In
1587 he went to Lisbon with a fleet of thirty sail; and having
received intelligence of a great fleet being assembled in the
bay of Cadiz, and destined to form part of the Armada, he
with great courage entered the port on the iQth of April, and
there burnt upwards of 10,000 tons of shipping a feat which
he afterwards jocosely called " singeing the king of Spain's
beard," In 1588, when the Spanish Armada was approaching
England, Sir Francis Drake was appointed vice-admiral under
Lord Howard, and made prize of a very large galleon, commanded
by Don Pedro de Valdez, who was reputed the projector of the
invasion, and who struck at once on learning his adversary's
name.
It deserves to be noticed that Drake's name is mentioned
in the singular diplomatic communication from the king of
Spain which preceded the Armada:
" Te veto ne pergas bello defendere Belgas;
Quae Dracus eripuit nunc restituantur oportet;
Quas pater evertit jubeo te condere cellas:
Religio Papae fac restituatur ad unguera."
To these lines the queen made this extempore response:
" Ad Graecas, bone rex, fiant mandata kalendas."
In 1589 Drake commanded the fleet sent to restore Dom
Antonio, king o* Portugal, the land forces being under the orders
of Sir John Norreys; but they had hardly put to sea when the
commanders differed, and thus the attempt proved abortive.
But as the war with Spain continued, a more formidable ex-
pedition was fitted out, under Sir John Hawkins and Sir Francis
Drake, against their settlements in the West Indies, than had
hitherto been undertaken during the whole course of it. Here,
however, the commanders again disagreed about the plan;
and the result in like manner disappointed public expectation.
These disasters were keenly felt by Drake, and were the principal
cause of his death, which took place on board his own ship, near
the town of Nombre de Dios, in the West Indies, on the 28th of
January 1595.
The older Lives by Samuel Clarke (1671) and John Barrow, junr.
(1843), have been superseded by Julian Corbett's two admirable
volumes on Drake and the Tudor Navy (1898), the best source of
information on the subject, which were preceded by the same
author's Sir Francis Drake in the " English Men of Action " series
(1890). See also E. J. Payne's edition of Voyages of the Elizabethan
Seamen to A merica : Thirteen original narratives from the collection of
Hakluyt (new ed., 1893).
DRAKE, NATHAN (1766-1836), English essayist and phy-
sician, son of Nathan Drake, an artist, was born at York in
1766. He was apprenticed to a doctor in York in 1779, and in
1786 proceeded to Edinburgh University, where he took his
degree as M.D. in 1789. In 1790 he set up as a general prac-
titioner at Sudbury, Suffolk, where he found an intimate friend
in Dr Mason Good (d. 1827). In 1792 he removed to Hadleigh,
Suffolk, where he died in 1836. His works include several
volumes of literary essays, and some papers contributed to
medical periodicals; but his most important production was
Shakespeare and his Times, inciting the Biography of the Poet,
Criticisms on his Genius and Writings; a new Chronology of his
Plays; a Disquisition on the Object of his Sonnets; and a History
of the Manners, Customs and Amusements, Superstitions, Poetry
and Elegant Literature of his Age (2 vols., 1817). The title
sufficiently indicates the scope of this ample work, which has
the merit, says G. G. Gervinus (Shakespeare Commentaries, Eng.
trans., 1877) " of having brought together for the first time into
a whole the tedious and scattered material of the editions and
of the many other valuable labours of Tyrwhitt, Heath, Ritson
&c."
DRAKENBORCH, ARNOLD (1684-1748), Dutch classical
scholar, was born at Utrecht on the ist of January 1684. Having
studied philology under Graevius and Burmann the elder, and
law under Cornelius VanEck, ini7i6hesucceededBurmannin his
professorship (conjointly with C. A. Duker), which he continued
to hold till his death on the i6th of January 1748. Although
he obtained the degree of doctor of laws, and was intended for
the legal profession, he determined to devote himself to philo-
logical studies. His edition of Livy (1738-1746, and subsequent
editions) is the work on which his fame chiefly rests. The preface
gives a particular account of all the literary men who have at
different periods commented on the works of Livy. The edition
itself is based on that of Gronovius; but Drakenborch made
many important alterations on the authority of manuscripts
which it is probable Gronovius had never seen. He also
published Disserlatio de praefectis urbi (1704; reprinted at
Frankfort in 1752 with a life of Drakenborch); Dissertatio de
officio praefectorum praetorio (1707); and an edition of Silius
Italicus (1717).
DRAKENSBERG (Quathlamba or Kahlamba, i.e. " heaped up
and jagged," of the natives), a mountain chain of S.E. Africa,
running parallel to the coast from Basutoland to the Limpopo
river a distance of some 600 m. The Drakensberg are the
eastern part of the rampart which forms the edge of the inner
tableland of South Africa. The sides of the mountains facing
the sea are in general precipitous; on their inner face they slope
more or less gently to the plateau. The culminating points of
the range, and the highest lands in South Africa, are found in
a sharp bend from S.E. to N.W. in about 29 S. 29 E., where
" the Berg " (as the range is called locally) forms the frontier
between Natal and Basutoland. Within 60 m. of one another are
three mountains, Giant's Castle, Champagne Castle or Cathkin
Peak, and Mont aux Sources, 10,000 to 11,000 or more ft. above
the sea. From Mont aux Sources the normal N.E. direction of
the range is resumed. Conspicuous among the heights along the
Orange Free State, Transvaal and Natal frontiers are Tintwa,
Malani, Inkwelo and Amajuba or Majuba (?..), all between
7000 and 8000 ft. The Draken's Berg the particular hill from
which the range is named is 5682 ft. high and lies between
Malani and Inkwelo heights. It was so named by the iioor-
trekkers about 1840. North of Majuba the range enters the
Transvaal. Here the elevation is generally lower than in
the south, but the Mauch Berg is about 8500 ft. high. At its
northernmost point the range joins 'the Zoutpansberg. In their
southern part the Drakensberg form the parting between the
rivers draining west to the Atlantic and those flowing south
and east to the Indian Ocean. At Mont aux Sources rise the
chief headwaters of the Orange, Tugela and other rivers. In
the north, however, several streams rising in the interior plateau,
e.g. the Komati, the Crocodile and the Olifants, pierce the
Drakensberg and reach the Indian Ocean. The range has
numerous passes, many available for wheeled traffic. Van
Reenen's Pass, between Tintwa and Malani, is crossed by a
railway which connects the Orange Free State and Natal:
Laing's Nek, the main pass leading from Natal to the Transvaal,
which lies under the shadow of Majuba, is pierced by a railway
tunnel. The railway from Delagoa Bay to Pretoria crosses the
Drakensberg by a very steep gradient. Several subsidiary
ranges branch off from the main chain of the Berg. This is
especially the case in Natal, where one range is known as the
Little Drakensberg. (See further BASUTOLAND; NATAL and
TRANSVAAL.)
DRAMA
475
DRAMA (literally "action," from Gr. dpav, act or do), the term
applied to those productions of Art which imitate or, to use a more
modern term, " represent " action by introducing the personages
taking part in them as real, and as employed in the action itself.
There are numerous varieties of the drama,, differing more or less
widely from one another, both as to the objects imitated and as to
the means used in the process. But they all agree in the method or
manner which is essential to the drama and to dramatic art,
namely, imitation in the way of action. The function of all Art
being to give pleasure by representation (see FINE ARTS), it is
clear that what is distinctive of any one branch or form must be
the manner in which this function is performed by it. In the
epos, for instance, the method or manner is narrative, and even
when Odysseus tells of his action, he is not acting.
i. THEORY OF THE DRAMA, AND DRAMATIC ART
The first step towards the drama is the assumption of character,
whether real or fictitious. It is caused by the desire, inseparable
from human nature, to give expression to feelings and
thfdrama. ideas. These man expresses not only by sound and
gesture, like other animals, and by speech significant by
its delivery as well as by its purport, but also by imitation
superadded to these. To imitate, says Aristotle, is instinctive in
man from his infancy, and no pleasure is more universal than that
which is given by imitation. Inasmuch as the aid of some sort of
dress or decoration is usually at hand, while the accompaniment
of dance or song, or other music, naturally suggests itself,
especially on joyous or solemn occasions, we find that this pre-
liminary step is taken among all peoples, however primitive or
remote. But it does not follow, as is often assumed, that they
possess a drama in germ. Boys playing at soldiers, or men
walking in a pageant a shoemaker's holiday in ribbons and
flowers, or a Shetland sword-dance none of these is in itself a
drama. This is not reached till the imitation or representation
extends to action.
An action which is to present itself as such to human minds
must enable them to recognize in it a procedure from cause to
effect. This of course means, neither that the cause
suggested must be the final cause, nor that the result
shown forth need pretend to be the ultimate result.
We look upon an action as ended when the purpose with which it
began is shown to have been gained or frustrated; and we trace
the beginning of an action back to the human will that set it on
foot though this will may be in bondage to a higher or stronger
will, or to fate, in any or all of its purposes. Without an action in
the sense stated without a plot, in a word there can be no
drama. But the very simplest action will satisfy the dramatic
test; a mystery representing the story of Cain and Abel without
a deviation from the simple biblical narrative, a farce exhibiting
the stalest trick played by designing sobriety upon oblivious
drunkenness, may each of them be a complete drama. But even
to this point, the imitation of action by action in however crude
a form, not all peoples have advanced.
But after this second step has been taken, it only remains for
the drama to assume a form regulated by certain literary laws,
in order that it may become a branch of dramatic
literature literature. Such a literature, needless to say, only a
limited number of nations has come to possess; and,
while some are to be found that have, or have had, a drama with-
out a dramatic literature, it is quite conceivable that a nation
should continue in possession of the former after having ceased
to cultivate the latter. It is self-evident that no drama which
forms part of a dramatic literature can ignore the use of speech;
and however closely music, dancing and decoration may
associate themselves with particular forms or phases of the
drama, their aid cannot be more than adventitious. As a
matter of fact, the beginnings of dramatic composition are, in the
history of such literatures as are well known to us, preceded by
the earlier stages in the growth of the .lyric and epic forms of
poetry, or by one of these at all events; and it is in the continua-
tion of both that the drama in its literary form takes its origin in
those instances which lie open to our study.
While the aid of all other arts even, strictly speaking, the aid
of the literary art is merely an accident, the co-operation of the
art of acting is indispensable to that of the drama. Thedra-
The dramatic writer may have reasons for preferring to matte and
leave the imagination of his reader to supply the the hi*-
absence of this co-operation; but, though the term t le
" literary drama " is freely used of works kept away
from the stage, it is in truth either a misnomer or a self-condemna-
tion. It is true that the actor only temporarily interprets, and
sometimes misinterprets, the dramatist, while occasionally he
reveals dramatic possibilities in a character or situation which
remained hidden from their literary inventor. But this only
shows that the courses of the dramatic and the histrionic arts dp
not run parallel; it does not contradict the fact that theft
conjunction is, on the one side as well as on the other, indispen-
sable. No drama is more than potentially such till it is acted.
To essay, whether in a brief summary or in more or less
elaborate detail, a statement of the main laws of the drama, has
often been regarded as a superfluous, not to say, futile
effort. But the laws of which it is proposed to give ^/^ S / n< '
some indication here are not so much those which any the drama.
particular literature or period has chosen to set up and
follow, as those abstracted by criticism, in pursuit of its own free
comparative method, from the process that repeats itself in every
drama adequately meeting the demands upon it. Aristotle,
whom we still justly revere as the originator of the theory of the
drama, and thus its great po/wflenjs, was, no doubt, in his
practical knowledge of it, confined to its Greek examples, yet his
object was not to produce another generation of great Attic
tragedians, but rather to show how it was by following the
necessary laws of their art that the great masters, true to them-
selves and to their artistic ends, had achieved what they had
achieved. Still more distinctly was such the aim of the greatest
modern critical writer on the drama, Lessing, whose chief design
was to combat false dramatic theories and to overthrow laws
demonstrated by him to be artificial inventions, unreal figments.
He proved, what before him had only been suspected, that
Shakespeare, though in hopeless conflict with certain rules dating
from the siede de Louis XIV, was not in conflict with those laws
of the drama which are of its very essence, and that, accordingly,
if Shakespeare and the rules in question could not be harmonized,
it was only so much the worse for the rules. To illustrate from
great works, and expound with their aid, the organic processes of
the art to which they belong, is not only among the highest, it
is also one of the most useful functions of literary and artistic
criticism. Nor is there, in one sense at least, any finality about it.
Neither the great authorities on dramatic theory nor the resolute
and acute apologists of more or less transitory phases of the drama
Corneille, Dryden and many later successors have exhausted
the statement of the means which the drama has proved, or may
prove, capable of employing. The multitude of technical terms
and formulae which has gathered round the practice of the most
living and the most Protean of arts has at no time seriously
interfered with the operation of creative power. Ontheotherhand,
no dramaturgic theory has (though the attempt has been often
enough made) ever succeeded in giving rise to a single dramatic
work of enduring value, unless the creative force was there to
animate the form.
It is therefore the operation of this creative force which we
are chiefly interested in noting; and its task begins with the
beginning of the dramatist's labours. He must of
course start with the choice of a subject; yet it is
obvious that the subject is merely the dead material
out of which is formed that living something, the action of a
play; and it is only in rare instances far rarer than might at
first sight appear that the subject is as it were self-moulded
as a dramatic action. The less experienced a playwright, the
more readily will he, as the phrase is, rush at his subject, more
especially if it seems to him to possess prima facie dramatic
capabilities; and the consequence will be that which usually
attends upon a precipitate start. On the other hand, while the
quickness of a great dramatist's apprehension is apt to suggest
476
DRAMA
[THEORY
to him an infinite number of subjects, and insight and experience
may lead him half instinctively in the direction of suitable
themes, it will often be long before in his mind the subject
converts itself into the initial conception of the action of a play.
To mould a subject be it a Greek legend, or a portion of a Tudor
chronicle, or one out of a hundred Italian tales, or a true story
of modern life into the action or fable of a play, is the primary
task of the dramatist, and with this all-important process the
creative part of his work really begins. Although his conception
may expand or modify itself as he executes it, yet upon the
conception the execution must largely depend. The range of
subjects open to a dramatist may be as wide as the world itself,
or it may be restricted by an endless variety of causes, conven-
tions and considerations; and it is quite true that even the
greatest dramatists have not always found time for contemplating
each subject that occurs to them till the ray is caught which
proclaims it a dramatic diamond. What they had time for, and
what only the playwright who entirely misunderstands his art
ignores the necessity of finding time for, is the transformation of
the dead material of the subject into the living action of a drama.
What is it, then, that makes an action dramatic, and without
which no action, whatever may be its nature serious or ludicrous,
stately or trivial, impetuous as a flame of fire, or light
as a western breeze can be so described? The answer
to this question can only suggest itself from an attempt
to ascertain the laws which determine the nature of all actions
corresponding to this description. The first of the laws in
question is in so far the most noteworthy among them that it
has been the most amply discussed and the most pertinaciously
misunderstood. This is the law which requires that a dramatic
action should be one that it should possess unity. What in
the subject of a drama is merely an approximate or supposititious,
must in its action be an actual unity; and it is indeed this
requirement which constitutes the most arduous part of the task
of transforming subject into action. There is of course no actual
unity in any group of events in human life which we may choose
to call by a single collective name a war, a revolution, a con-
spiracy, an intrigue, an imbroglio. The events of real life,
the facts of history, even the imitative incidents of narrative
fiction, are like the waves of a ceaseless flood; that which binds
a group or body of them into a single action is the bond of the
dramatic idea; and this it is incumbent upon the dramatist
to supply. Within the limits of a dramatic action all its parts
should (as in real life or in history they so persistently refuse
to do) flow into its current like tributaries to a single stream;
or, to vary the figure, everything in a drama should form a link
in a single chain of cause and effect. This law is incumbent upon
every kind of drama alike upon the tragedy which sets itself
to solve one of the problems of a life, and upon the farce which
sums up the follies of an afternoon.
Such is not, however, the case with certain more or less arbi-
trary rules which have at different times been set up for this or
that kind of drama. The supposed necessity that an action
should consist of one event is an erroneous interpretation of the
law that it should be, as an action, one. For an event is but an
element in an action, though it may be an element of decisive
moment. The assassination of Caesar is not the action of a
Caesar tragedy; the loss of his treasure is not the action of
The Miser. Again, unity of action, while excluding those uncon-
nected episodes which Aristotle so severely condemns, does not
prohibit the introduction of one or even more subsidiary actions
as contributing to the progress of the main action. The sole
indispensable law is that these should always be treated as what
they are subsidiary only; and herein lies the difficulty, which
Shakespeare so successfully overcame, of fusing a combination
of subjects taken from various sources into the idea of a single
action; herein also lies the danger in the use of that favourite
device of the Spanish and other modern dramas " by-plots "
or " under-plots." On the other hand, the modern French
drama has largely employed another device quite legitimate in
itself for increasing the interest of an action without destroying
its unity. This may be called the dramatic use of backgrounds,
the depiction of surroundings on W ( hich the action or its chief
characters seem sympathetically to reflect themselves, back-
biting " good villagers " or academicians who inspire one another
with tedium. But a really double or multiple action, logically
carried out as such, is inconceivable in a single drama, though
many a play is palpably only two plays knotted into one. It
was therefore not all pedantry which protested against the
multiplicity of action which had itself formed part of the revolt
against the too narrow interpretation of unity adopted by the
French classical drama. Thirdly, unity of action need not imply
unity of hero for hero (or heroine) is merely a conventional
term signifying the principal personage of the action. It is only
when the change in the degree of interest excited by different
characters in a play results from a change in the conception
of the action itself, that the consequent duality (or multiplicity)
of heroes recalls a faulty uncertainty in the conception of the
action they carry on. Such an objection, while it may hold in
the case of Schiller's Don Carlos, would therefore be erroneously
urged against Shakespeare's Julius Caesar. Lastly, as to the
theory fc which made the so-called unities of lime and place con-
stitute, together with that of action, the Three Unities indispen-
sable to the (tragic) drama, the following note must suffice.
Aristotle's supposed exaction of all the Three Unities, having
been expanded by Chapelain and approved by Richelieu, was
stereotyped by Corneille, though he had (as one might say)
got on very well without them, and was finally set forth in
Horatian verse by Boileau. Thus it came to be overlooked that
there is nothing in Aristotle's statement to show that in his
judgment unity of time and place are, like unity of action,
absolute dramatic laws. Their object is by representing an
action as visibly continuous to render its unity more distinctly
or easily perceptible. But the imagination is capable of con-
structing for itself the bridges required for preserving to an
action, conceived of as such, its character of continuousness.
In another sense these rules were convenient usages conducing
to a concise and clear treatment of a limited kind of themes;
for they were a Greek invention, and the repeated resort to the
same group of myths made it expedient for a Greek poet to seek
the subject of a single tragedy in a part only of one of the myths
at his disposal. The observance of unity of place, moreover, was
suggested to the Greeks by certain outward conditions of their
stage as assuredly as it was adopted by the French in accordance
with the construction and usages of theirs, and as the neglect
of it by the Elizabethans was in their case encouraged by the
established form of the English scene. The palpable artificiality
of these laws needs no demonstration, so long as the true meaning
of the term " action " be kept in view. Of the action of Otliello
part takes place at Venice and part at Cyprus, and yet the whole
is one in itself; while the limits of time over which an action
Hamlet's progress to resolve, for instance extends cannot be
restricted by a revolution of the earth round the sun or of the
moon round the earth.
In a drama which presents its action as one, this action must
be complete in itself. This Aristotelian law, like the other, dis-
tinguishes the dramatic action from its subject. The
former may be said to have a real artistic, while the c m i> l * t *-
latter has only an imaginary real, completeness. The act / oa .
historian, for instance, is aware that the complete ex-
position of a body of events and transactions at which he aims
can never be more than partially accomplished, since he may
present only what he knows, and all human knowledge is im-
perfect. But Art is limited by no such uncertainty. The
dramatist, in treating an action as one, comprehends the whole of
it in the form of his work, since, to him who has conceived it, all
its parts, from cause to effect, are equally clear. It is his fault if
in the action of his drama anything is left unaccounted for
not motive; though a dramatic motif might not always prove
to be a sufficient explanation in real life. Accordingly, every
drama should represent in organic sequence the several stages
of which a complete action consists, and which are essential to it.
This law of completeness, therefore, lies at the foundation of all
systems of dramatic " construction."
ANALYSIS]
DRAMA
477
Every action, if conceived of as complete, has its causes,
growth, height, consequences and close. There is no binding
law to prescribe the relative length or proportion at
construe- which these several stages in the action should be
iion based treated in a drama; or to regulate the treatment of
on this law suc }j subsidiary actions as may be introduced in aid
of l ^ e main p ' ot> or of suc k more or less Directly con "
nected " episodes " as may at the same time advance
and relieve its progress. But experience has necessarily from
time to time established certain rules of practice, and from the
adoption of particular systems of division.for particular species
of the drama such as that into five acts for a regular tragedy or
comedy, which Roman example has caused to be so largely
followed has naturally resulted a certain uniformity of relation
between the conduct of an action and the outward sections of a
play. Essentially, however, there is no difference between the
laws regulating the construction of a Sophoclean or Shakespearian
tragedy, a comedy of Moliere or Congreve, and a well-built
modern farce, because all exhibit an action complete in itself.
The " introduction " or " exposition " forms an integral part
of the action, and is therefore to be distinguished from the
Proiorues " P r lg ue " m the more ordinary sense of the term,
fad which like the " epilogue " (and the Greek TrapajStwis)
epilogues stands outside the action, and is a mere address to the
outside the p UD ii c from author, presenter or actor occasioned
by the play. Prologue and epilogue are mere external,
though at times effective, adjuncts, and have, properly speaking,
as little to do with the construction of a play as the bill which
announces it or the musical prelude which disposes the mind for
its reception. A special kind of preface or argument is the
" dumb-show," which in some old plays briefly rehearses in
pantomime the action that is to follow. The introduction or
Parts at exposition belongs to the action itself; it is, as the
the action. Hindu critics called it, the seed or circumstance from
introduc- which the business arises. Clearness being its primary
'ion or ex- re q u j s ite, many expedients have been at various times
adopted to secure this feature. Thus the Euripidean
prologue, though spoken by one of the characters of the play,
took a narrative form, more acceptable to the audience than to
the critics, and placed itself half without, half within, the action.
The same purpose is served by the separate " inductions " in
many of the old English plays, and by the preludes or prologues,
or whatever name they may assume, in numberless modern
dramas of all kinds from Faust down to the favourites of the
Ambigu and the Adelphi. More facile is the orientation supplied
in French tragedy by the opening scenes between hero and
confidant, and in French comedy and its derivatives by those
between observant valet and knowing lady's-maid. But all such
expedients may be rendered unnecessary by the art of the
dramatist, who is able outwardly also to present the introduction
of his action as an organic part of that action itself; who seems
to take the spectators in medias res, while he is really building the
foundations of his plot; who touches in the opening of his action
the chord which is to vibrate throughout its course " Down
with the Capulets ! down with the Montagues !" " With the
Moor, sayest thou ? "
The exposition, which may be short or long, but which should
always prepare and may even seem to necessitate the action, ends
. when the movement of the action itself begins. This
Opening of . . 11 -..t.
movement, transition may occasionally be marked with the
utmost distinctness (as in the actual meeting between
the hero and the Ghost in Hamlet), while in other instances sub-
sidiary action or episode may judiciously intervene (as in King
Lear, where the subsidiary action of Gloster and his sons oppor-
tunely prevents too abrupt a sequence of cause and effect).
From this point the second stage of the action its
" growth " progresses to that third stage which is
called its " height " or " climax." All that has preceded the
attainment of this constitutes that half of the drama usually
its much larger half which Aristotle terms the beats, or tying
of the knot. The varieties in the treatment of the growth or
second stage of the action are infinite; it is here that the greatest
Umwth.
Height or
climax.
freedom is manifestly permissible; that in the Indian drama
the personages make long journeys across the stage; and that,
with the help of their under-plots, the masters of the modern
tragic and the comic drama notably those unequalled weavers
of intrigues, the Spaniards are able most fully to exercise their
inventive faculties. If the growth is too rapid, the climax will
fail of its effect; if it is too slow, the interest will be exhausted
before the greatest demand upon it has been made a fault to
which comedy is specially liable; if it is involved or inverted, a
vague uncertainty will take the place of an eager or agreeable
suspense, the action will seem to halt, or a fall will begin pre-
maturely. In the contrivance of the " climax " itself lies one
of the chief tests of the dramatist's art; for while
the transactions of real life often fail to reach any
climax at all, that of a dramatic action should present
itself as self-evident. In the middle of everything, says the Greek
poet, lies the strength; and this strongest or highest point it is
the task of the dramatist to make manifest. Much here depends
upon the niceties of constructive instinct; much (as in all parts
of the action) upon a thorough dramatic transformation of the
subject. The historical drama at this point presents peculiar
difficulties, of which the example of Henry VIII. may be cited
as an illustration.
From the climax, or height, the action proceeds through its
" fall " to its " close," which in a drama with an unhappy
ending we still call its " catastrophe," while to termina- Fa]1
tions in general we apply the term denouement. This
latter name would, however, more properly be applied in the
sense in which Aristotle employs its Greek equivalent Xixrts
the untying of the knot to the whole of the second part of the
action, from the climax downwards. In the management of
the climax, everything depends upon producing the effect; in
the fall, everything depends upon not marring it. This may
be ensured by a rapid advance to the close; but neither does
every action admit of such treatment, nor is it in accordance
with the character of those which are of a more subtle or com-
plicated kind. With the latter, therefore, the " fall " is often
a revolution or " return," i.e. in Aristotle's phrase a change into
the reverse of what is expected from the circumstances
of the action (irtpiTrertia) as in Coriolanus, where the
Roman story lends itself so admirably to dramatic demands.
In any case, the art of the dramatist is in this part of his work
called upon for the surest exercise of its tact and skill. The
effect of the climax was to concentrate the interest; the fall
must therefore, above all, avoid dissipating it. The use of
episodes is not even now excluded; but, even where serving
the purpose of relief, they must now be such as help to keep alive
the interest, previously raised to its highest pitch. This may be
effected by the raising of obstacles between the height of the
action and its expected consequences; in tragedy by the sugges-
tion of a seemingly possible recovery or escape from them (as
in the wonderfully powerful construction of the latter part of
Macbeth) ; in comedy, or wherever the interest of the action is
less intense, by the gradual removal of incidental difficulties.
In all kinds of the drama " discovery " will remain, as it was
in the judgment of Aristotle, a most effective expedient; but it
should be a discovery prepared by that method of treatment
which in its consummate master, Sophocles, has been termed
his " irony." Nowhere should the close or catastrophe be other
than a consequence of the action itself. Sudden
revulsions from the conditions of the action such as a se or
are supplied with the aid of the dens ex machina, or tnahe
the revising officer of the emperor of China,or the nabob
returned from India, or a virulent malaria condemn themselves
as unsatisfactory makeshifts. However sudden, and even in
manner of accomplishment surprising, may be the catastrophe,
it should, like every other part of the action, be in organic con-
nexion with the whole preceding action. The sudden suicides
which terminate so many tragedies, and the unmerited paternal
blessings which close an equal number of comedies, should be
something more than a " way out of it," or a signal for the fall
of the curtain. A catastrophe may conveniently, and even (as in
47 8
DRAMA
[CHARACTER
Faust) with powerful effect, be left to the imagination; but to
substitute for it a deliberate blank is to leave the action incom-
plete, and the drama a fragment ending with a possibly interest-
ing confession of incompetence.
The action of a drama, besides being one and complete in itself,
ought likewise to be probable. The probability or necessity (in
the Aristotelian sense of the terms) required of a drama
abtin of * s not tnat ^ actua l or historical experience it is a
action. conditional probability, or in other words an internal
consistency between the course of the action and the
conditions under which the dramatist has chosen to carry it on.
As to the former, he is fettered by no restrictions save those
which he imposes upon himself, whether or not in deference to
the usages of certain accepted species of dramatic composition.
Ghosts seldom appear in real life or in dramas of real life; but
the introduction of supernatural agency is neither enjoined
nor prohibited by any general dramatic law. The use of such
expedients is as open to the dramatic as to any other poet; the
judiciousness of his use of them depends upon the effect which,
consistently with the general conduct of his action, they will
exercise upon the spectator, whom other circumstances may or
may not predispose to their acceptance. The Ghost in Hamlet
belongs to the action of the play; the Ghost in the Persae is not
intrinsically less probable, but seems a less immediate product of
the surrounding 1 atmosphere. Dramatic probability has, how-
ever, a far deeper meaning than this. . The Eumenides is prob-
able, with all its mysterious commingling of cults, and so is
Macbeth, with all its barbarous witchcraft. The proceedings
of the leathered builders of Cloudcuckootown in the Birds of
Aristophanes are as true to dramatic probability as are the pranks
of Oberon's fairies in Midsummer Night's Dream. In other
words, it is in the harmony between the action and the characters,
and in the consistency of the characters with themselves, in the
appropriateness of both to the atmosphere in which they have
their being, that this dramatic probability lies. The dramatist
has to represent characters affected by the progress of an action
in a particular way, and contributing to it in a particular way,
because, if consistent with themselves, they must be so affected,
and must so act.
Upon the invention and conduct of his characters the dramatist
must therefore expend a great proportion even a preponderance
of his labour. His treatment of them will, in at least as high
a degree as his choice of subject, conception of action,
an d method of construction, determine the effect which
his work produces. And while there are aspects of the
dramatic art under which its earlier phases already exhibit an
unsurpassed degree of perfection, there is none under which its
i advance is more notable than this. Many causes have
na contributed to this result; the chief is to be sought in
la this the multiplication of the opportunities for mankind's
respect study of man. The theories of the Indian critics on the
subject of dramatic character are little more than an elaborate
scaffolding. Aristotle's remarks on the subject are scanty; nor
indeed is the strength of the dramatic literature from whose
examples he abstracted his maxims to be sought in the fulness
or variety of its characterization. This relative deficiency was
beyond doubt largely caused by the outward conditions of the
Greek theatre the remoteness of actor from spectator, and the
consequent necessity for the use of masks, and for the raising, and
consequent conventionalizing, of the tones of the voice. Later
Greek and Roman comedy, unable or unwilling to resist the force
of habit, limited their range of characters to an accepted gallery
of types. Nor is it easy to ignore the fact that the influence
of these classical examples, combined with that of national
tendencies of mind and temperament, have all along inclined the
dramatists of the Romance nations to attach less importance to
characterization of a closer and more varied kind than to interest
of action and effectiveness of construction. The Italian and the
Spanish drama more especially, and the French during a great
part of its history, have in general shown a disposition to present
their characters, as it were, ready made whether in the case of
tragic heroes and heroines, or in that of comic types, often
moulded, as in the commedia dell' arte " and beyond," according
to a long-lived system of local or national selection. These types,
expanded, heightened and modified, are recognizable in some of
the triumphs of comic characterization achieved by the Germanic
drama, and by its master, Shakespeare, above all; but this fact
must not obscure one of more importance than itself. In the
matter of comic as well as of serious characterization in the
individualizing of characters and in evolving them as it were out
of the progress of the action the modern drama has not only
advanced, but in a sense revolutionized, the dramatic art, as
inherited from its ancient masters.
Yet, however the method and scope of characterization may
vary under the influence of different historical epochs and
different tendencies or tastes of races or nations, the
laws of this branch of the dramatic art remain based oji *9 u '* We
the same essential requirements. What interests us in character.
a man or woman in real life, or in the impressions we
form of historical personages, is that which seems to us to
give them individuality. A dramatic character must therefore,
whatever its part in the action, be sufficiently marked by features
of its own to interest the imagination; with these features its
subsequent conduct must be consistent, and to them its partici-
pation in the action must correspond. In order to achieve such a
result, the dramatist must have, in the first instance, distinctly
conceived the character, however it may have been suggested to
him. His task is, not to paint a copy of some contemporary or
" historical " personage, but to conceive a particular kind of
man, acting under the operation of particular circumstances. This
conception, growing and modifying itself with the progress of the
action, also invented by the dramatist, will determine the totality
of the character which he creates. The likeness which the result
bears to an actual or historical personage may very probably,
from secondary points of view, affect the immediate stage success
of the creation; upon its dramatic result this likeness can
have no influence whatever. In a wider sense than that in which
Shakespeare denied the charge that Falstaff was Oldcastle, it
should be possible to say of every dramatic character which it is
sought to identify with an actual personage, " This is not the
man." The mirror of the drama is not a photographic apparatus ;
and not even the most conscientious combination of science and
art can bring back even a " phase " of the real Napoleon.
Distinctiveness, as the primary requisite in dramatic char-
acterization, is to be demanded in the case of all personages
introduced into a dramatic action, but not in all cases
in an equal degree. Schiller, in adding to the dramatis
personae of his Fiesco superscriptions of their chief
characteristics, labels Sacco as " an ordinary person," and this, no
doubt, suffices for Sacco. But with the great masters of character-
ization a few touches, of which the true actor's art knows how
to avail itself, distinguish even their lesser characters from one
another; and every man is in his humour down to the " third
citizen." Elaboration is necessarily reserved for characters who
are the more important contributors to the action, and the fulness
of elaboration for its heroes. Many expedients may lend their aid
to the higher degrees of distinctiveness. Much is gained by a
significant introduction of hero or heroine thus Antigone is
dragged in by the watchman, Gloucester enters alone upon the
scene, Volpone is discovered in adoration of his golden saint.
Nothing marks character more clearly than the use of contrast
as of Othello with lago, of Ottavio with Max Piccolomini, of
Joseph with Charles Surface. Nor is direct antithesis the only
effective kind of contrast; Cassius is a foil to Brutus, and
Leonora to her namesake the Princess. But, besides impressing
the imagination as a conception distinct in itself, each character
must maintain a consistency between its conduct in the
action and the features it has established as its own.
This consistency does not imply uniformity; for, as
Aristotle observes, there are characters which, to be represented
with uniformity, must be presented as uniformly un-uniform.
Of such consistently complex characters the great critic cites
no instances, nor indeed are they of frequent occurrence in Greek
tragedy; in the modern drama Hamlet is their unrivalled
Self-coa-
slstency.
VARIETIES]
DRAMA
479
exemplar; and Weislingen in Goethe's Gotz, and Alceste in the
Misanthrope, may be mentioned as other illustrations in dramas
differing widely from one another. The list might be enlarged
almost indefinitely from the gallery of female characters, in view
of the greater pliability and more habitual dependence of the
nature of women. It should be added that those dramatic
literatures which freely admit of a mixture of the serious with
the comic element thereby enormously increase the opportunities
of varied characterization. The difficulty of the task at the same
time enhances the effect resulting from its satisfactory accom-
plishment; and, if the conception of a character is found to meet
a variety of tests resembling that which life has at hand for every
man, its naturalness, as we term it, becomes more obvious to
the imagination. " Naturalness " is only another word for what
Aristotle terms " propriety "; the artificial rules by which
usage has at times sought to define particular species of character
are in their origin only a convenience of the theatre, though
they have largely helped to conventionalize drama tic characteriza-
tion. Lastly, a character should be directly effective with regard
Effective to ^ dramatic action in which it takes part that is to
ness- say, the influence it exerts upon the progress of the
action should correspond to its distinctive features;
the conduct of the play should seem to spring from the nature of
its characters. In other words, no characterization can be
effective which is not what may be called economical, i.e. which
does not strictly limit itself to suiting the purposes of the action.
Even the minor characters should not idly intervene; while the
chief characters should predominate over, or determine, the
course of the action, its entire conception should harmonize with
their distinctive features. It is only a Prometheus whom the gods
bind fast to a rock, only a Juliet who will venture into a living
death for her Romeo. Thus, in a sense, chance is excluded from
dramatic action, or rather, like every other element in it, bends
to the dramatic idea.
In view of this predominance of character over action, we
may appropriately use such expressions as a tragedy of love or
jealousy or ambition, or a comedy of character. For such
collocations merely indicate that plays so described have proved
(or were intended to prove) specially impressive by the concep-
tion or execution of their chief character or characters.
The term " manners " (as employed in a narrower sense than
the Aristotelian fjdri) applies to that which colours both action
Manners &n ^ characters, but does not determine the essence of
either. As exhibiting human agents under certain con-
ditions of time and place, and of the various relations of life, the
action of a drama, together with the characters engaged in it,
and the incidents and circumstances belonging to it, must more
or less adapt itself to the external conditions assumed. From
the assumption of some such conditions not even those dramatic
species which indulge in the most sovereign licence, such as Old
Attic comedy, or burlesque in general, can wholly emancipate
themselves; and even supernatural or fantastic characters
and actions must suit themselves to some sort of antecedents.
But it depends altogether on the measure in which the nature of
an action and the development of its characters are effected by
considerations of time and place, or of temporary social systems
and the transitory distinctions incidental to them, whether the
imitation of a particular kind of manners becomes a significant
Their element in a particular play. The Hindu caste-system
relative is an antecedent of every Hindu drama, and the peculiar
organization of Chinese society of nearly every Chinese
play with which we are acquainted. Greek tragedy
itself, though treating subjects derived from no historic age,
had established a standard of manners from which in its decline
it did not depart with impunity. Again, the imitation of manners
of a particular age or country may or may not be of moment in
a play. In some dramas, and in some species of drama, time
and place are so purely imaginary and so much a matter of in-
difference that the adoption of a purely conventional standard
of manners, or at least the exclusion of any definitely fixed
standard, is here desirable. The ducal reign of Theseus at
Athens (if its period be ascertainable) does not date A Midsummer
Night's Dream; nor do the coasts of Bohemia in The Winter's Tale
localize the manners of the customers of Autolycus. Where, on
the other hand, as more especially in the historic drama, or in that
kind of comedy which directs its shafts against the ridiculous
vices of a particular age or country, significance attaches to
the degree in which the manners represented resemble what is
more or less known, the dramatist will do well to be careful in
his colouring. How admirably is the French court specialized
in Henry V.; how completely are we transplanted among the
burghers of Brussels in the opening scenes of Egmont; what a
portraiture of a clique we have in the Prtcieuses ridicules of
Moliere; what a reproduction of a class in the pot-house
politicians of Holberg ! And how minutely have modern
dramatists found it necessary to study the more fascinating
aspects of la vie parisienne, in order to convey to the curious
at home and abroad a conviction of the verisimilitude of their
pictures ! Yet, even in such instances, the dramatist will only
use what suits his dramatic purpose; he will select, not transfer
in mass, historic features, and discriminate in his use of modern
instances. The details of historic fidelity, and the lesser shades
distinguishing the varieties of social usage, will be introduced
by him at his choice, or left to be supplied by the actor. Where
the reproduction of manners becomes the primary purpose of a
play, its effect can only be of an inferior kind; and a drama
purely of manners is a contradiction in terms.
No complete system of dramatic species can be abstracted
from any one dramatic literature. They are often the result of
particular antecedents, and their growth is often
affected by peculiar conditions. Different nations or
ages use the same names and may preserve some of the
same rules for species which in other respects their usage may
have materially modified from that of their neighbours or
predecessors. The very question of the use of measured or
pedestrian speech as fit for different kinds of drama, and therefore
distinctive of them, cannot be profitably discussed except in
reference to particular literatures. In the Chinese drama the
most solemn themes are treated in the same form an admixture
of verse and prose which not so very long since was character-
istic of that airiest of Western dramatic species, the French
vaudeville. Who would undertake to define, except in the
applications which have been given to the words in successive
generations, such terms as " tragi-comedy," orindeed as "drama"
(drame) itself ? Yet this uncertainty does not imply that all is
confusion in the terminology as to the species of the drama. In
so far as they are distinguishable according to the effects which
their actions, or those which the preponderating parts of '.heir
actions, produce, these species may primarily be ranged in
accordance with the broad difference established by Aristotle
between tragedy and comedy. " Tragic " and " comic " effects
differ in regard to the emotions of the mind which they excite;
and a drama is tragic or comic according as such effects
are produced by it. The strong or serious emotions are
alone capable of exercising upon us that influence
which, employing a bold but marvellously happy figure, Aristotle
termed purification, and which a Greek comedian, after a more
matter-of-fact fashion, thus expressed:
" For whensoe'er a man observes his fellow
Bear wrongs more grievous than himself has known,
More easily he bears his own misfortunes."
That is to say, the petty troubles of self which disturb without
elevating the mind are driven out by the sympathetic participa-
tion in greater griefs, which raises while it excites the mind
employed upon contemplating them. It is to these emotions
which are and can be no others than pity and terror that actions
which we call tragic appeal. Naif as we may think Aristotle in
desiderating for such actions a complicated rather than a simple
plot, he obviously means that in form as well as in design they
should reveal their relative importance. Those actions which we
term comic address themselves to the sense of the ridiculous, and
their themes are those vices and moral infirmities the repre-
sentation of which is capable of touching the springs of laughter.
Where, accordingly, a drama confines itself to effects of the
480
DRAMA
[INDIAN
'
former class, it may be called a pure " tragedy "; when to those
of the latter, a pure " comedy." In dramas where the effects are
mixed the nature of the main action and of the main characters
(as determined by their distinctive features) alone enables us to
classify such plays as serious or humorous dramas or as
" tragic " or " comic," if we choose to preserve the terms. But
the classification admits of a variety of transitions, from " pure "
tragedy to " mixed, " from " mixed tragedy " to " mixed
comedy," and thence to " pure comedy," with the more freely
licensed " farce " and " burlesque," the time-honoured inversion
of the relations of dramatic method and purpose. This system of
distinction has no concern with the mere question of the termina-
tion of the play, according to which Philostratus and other
authorities have sought to distinguish tragic from comic dramas.
The serious drama which ends happily (the German Schauspiel) is
not a species co-ordinate with tragedy and comedy, but at the
most a subordinate variety of the former. Other distinctions may
be almost infinitely multiplied, according to the point of view
adopted for the classification.
The historical sketch of the drama attempted in the following
pages will best serve to indicate the successive growth of national
dramatic species, many of which, by asserting their influence in
other countries and ages than those which gave birth to them,
have acquired a more than national vitality.
The art of acting, whose history forms an organic though a
distinct part of that of the drama, necessarily possesses a theory
and a technical system of its own. But into these it is
impossible here to enter. One claim, however, should
be vindicated for the art of acting, viz. that, though it is
a dependent art, and most signally so in its highest forms, yet its
true exercise implies (however much the term may have been
abused) a creative process. The conception of a character is
determined by antecedents not of the actor's own making; and
the term originality can be applied to it only in a relative sense.
Study and reflection enable him, with the aid of experience and of
the intuition which genius bestows, but which experience may in
a high degree supply, to interpret, to combine, and to supplement
given materials. But in the transformation of the conception
into the represented character the actor's functions are really
creative; for here he becomes the character by means which
belong to his art alone. The distinctiveness which he gives to the
character by making the principal features recognized by him
in it its groundwork the consistency which he maintains in it
between groundwork and details the appropriateness which he
preserves in it to the course of the action and the part borne in it
by the character all these are of his own making, though
suggested by the conception derived by him from his
materials. As to the means at his disposal, they are
essentially of two kinds only; but not all forms of the drama
have admitted of the use of both, or of both in the same com-
pleteness. All acting includes the use of gesture, or, as it has been
Gesture more comprehensively termed, of bodily eloquence.
From various points of view its laws regulate the actor's
bearing, walk and movements of face and limbs. They teach
what is aesthetically permitted and what is aesthetically pleasing.
They deduce from observation what is appropriate to the ex-
pression of particular affections of the mind and of their combina-
tions, of emotions and passions, of physical and mental conditions
joy and grief, health and sickness, waking, sleeping and
dreaming, madness, collapse and death of particular ages of life
and temperaments, as well as of the distinctive characteristics of
race, nationality or class. While under certain con-
ditions as in the masked drama -the use of bodily
movement as one of the means of expression has at times been
partially restricted, there have been, or are, forms of the drama
which have altogether excluded the use of speech (such as
pantomime), or have restricted the manner of its employment
(such as opera). In the spoken drama the laws of rhetoric
regulate the actor's use of speech, but under conditions of a
special nature. Like the orator, he has to follow the laws of
pronunciation, modulation, accent and rhythm (the last in
certain kinds of prose as well as in such forms of verse as he may
be called upon to reproduce). But he has also to give his atten-
tion to the special laws of dramatic delivery, which vary in
soliloquy and dialogue, and in such narrative or lyrical passages
as may occur in his part.
The totality of the effect produced by the actor will in some
degree depend upon other aids, among which those of a purely
external kind are unlikely to be lost sight of. But the _ .
significance of costume (q.v.) in the actor, like that of
decoration and scenery (see THEATRE) in an action, is a wholly
relative one, and is to a large measure determined by the claims
which custom enables the theatre to make, or forbids its making,
upon the imagination of the spectators. The actor's real achieve-
ment lies in the transformation which the artist himself effects;
nor is there any art more sovereign in the use it can make of its
means, or so happy in the directness of the results it can accom-
plish by them.
2. INDIAN DRAMA
The origin of the Indian drama may unhesitatingly be de-
scribed as purely native. The Mahommedans, when they
overran India, brought no drama with them; the Persians,
the Arabs and the Egyptians were without a national theatre.
It would be absurd to suppose the Indian drama to have owed
anything to the Chinese or its offshoots. On the other hand,
there is no real evidence for assuming any influence of Greek
examples upon the Indian drama at any stage of its progress.
Finally, it had passed into its decline before the dramatic
literature of modern Europe had sprung into being.
The Hindu writers ascribe the invention of dramatic enter-
tainments to an inspired sage Bharata, or to the communications
made to him by the god Brahma himself concerning _..
an art gathered from the Vedas. As the word Bharata
signifies an actor, we have clearly here a mere personification
of the invention of the drama. Three kinds of entertainments,
of which the natya (defined as a dance combined with gesticula-
tion and speech) comes nearest to the drama, were said to have
been exhibited before the gods by the spirits and nymphs of
Indra's heaven, and to these the god Siva added two new styles
of dancing.
The origin of the Indian drama was thus unmistakably
religious. Dramatic elements first showed themselves in certain
of the hymns of the Rig Veda, which took the form of dialogues
between divine personages, and in one of which is to be found the
germ of Kalidasa's famous Vikrama and Ureasi. These hymns
were combined with the dances in the festivals of the gods, which
soon assumed a more or less conventional form. Thus, from
the union of dance and song, to which were afterwards added
narrative recitation, and first sung, then spoken, dialogue, was
gradually evolved the acted drama. Such scenes and stories
from the mythology of Vishnu are still occasionally enacted by
pantomime or spoken dialogue in India (jatras of the Bengalis;
rasas of the Western Provinces); and the most ancient Indian
play was said to have treated an episode from the history of that
deity the choice of him as a consort by Laxmi a favourite
kind of subject in the Indian drama. The tradition connecting
its earliest themes with the native mythology of Vishnu agrees
with that ascribing the origin of a particular kind of dramatic
performance the sangita to Krishna and the shepherdesses.
The author's later poem, the GUagomnda, has been conjectured
to be suggestive of the earliest species of Hindu dramas. But,
while the epic poetry of the Hindus gradually approached the
dramatic in the way of dialogue, their drama developed itself
independently out of the union of the lyric and the epic forms.
Their dramatic poetry arose later than their epos, whose great
works, the Mahabhdrata and the Ramayana, had themselves been
long preceded by the hymnody of the Vedas just as the Greek
drama followed upon the Homeric poems and these had been
preceded by the early hymns.
There seems, indeed, no reason for dating the beginnings of
the regular Indian drama farther back than the 5th century A.D.,
though it is probable that the earliest extant Sanskrit play, the
delightful, and in some respects incomparable, Mrichchhakatlka
INDIAN)
DRAMA
481
(The Toy Cart), was considerably earlier in date than the works of
Kalidasa. Indeed, of his predecessors in dramatic composition
very little is known, and even the contemporaries who com-
peted with him as dramatists are mere names. Thus, by the
time the Indian drama produced almost the earliest specimens
with which we are acquainted, it had already reached its zenith;
and it was therefore looked upon as having sprung into being
as a perfect art. We know it only in its glory, in its decline,
and in its decay.
The history of Indian dramatic literature may be roughly
divided into the following periods.
I. To the nth Century A.D. This period virtually belongs to the
pre-Mahommedan age of Indian history; but already to that
second division of it in which Buddhism had become
F> *ltod a P wer ^ u ^ factor in the social as well as in the moral
(classical, and intellectual life of the land. It is the classical
period 'of the Hindu drama, and includes the works
of its two indisputably greatest masters. The earliest extant
Sanskrit play is the pathetic Mrichchhakatikd (The Toy Cart),
which has been dated back as far as the close of the and century
A.D. It is attributed (as is not uncommon with Indian plays)
to a royal author, named Sudraka; but it was more probably
written by his court poet, whose name has been concluded to have
been Dandin. It may be described as a comedy of middle-class
life, treating of the courtship and marriage of a ruined Brahman
and a wealthy and large-hearted courtesan.
Kalidasa, the brightest of the " nine gems " of genius in whom
the Indian drama gloried, lived at the court of Ujjain, though
whether in the earlier half of the 6th century A.D., or in the 3rd
century, or at a yet earlier date, remains an unsettled question.
He is the author of Sakuntala the work which, in the translation
by Sir William Jones (1789), first revealed to the Western
world of letters the existence of an Indian drama, since repro-
duced in innumerable versions in many tongues. This heroic
comedy, in seven acts, takes its plot from the first book of the
Mahdbharata. It is a dramatic love-idyll of surpassing beauty,
and one of the masterpieces of the poetic literature of the world.
Another drama by Kalidasa, Vikrama and Urvdsi (The Hero and
the Nymph), though unequal as a whole to Sakuntala, contains
one act of incomparable loveliness; and its enduring effect upon
Indian dramatic literature is shown by the imitations of it in
later plays. (It was translated into English in 1827 by H. H.
Wilson.) To Kalidasa has likewise been attributed a third play,
Malavika and Agnimitra; but it is possible that this con-
ventional comedy, though held to be of ancient date, was com-
posed by a different poet of the same name.
To Harsadeva, king of northern India, are ascribed three
extant plays, which were more probably composed by some poet
in his pay. One of these, Nagananda (Joy of the Serpents), which
begins as an erotic play, but passes into a most impressive
exemplification of the supreme virtue of self-sacrifice, is notable
as the only Buddhist drama which has been preserved, though
others are known to have existed and to have been represented.
The palm of pre-eminence is disputed with Kalidasa by the
great dramatic poet Babhavuti (called Crikafitha, or he in whose
throat is fortune), who flourished in the earlier part of the 8th
century. While he is considered more artificial in language
than his rival, and in general more bound by rules, he can hardly
be deemed his inferior in dramatic genius. Of his three extant
plays, M ahdvara-Charitra and U tiara- Rama-Charitra are heroic
dramas concerned with the adventures of Rama (the seventh
incarnation of Vishnu); the third, the powerful melodrama,
in ten acts, of Malati and Madhava, has love for its theme, and
has been called (perhaps with more aptitude than usually belongs
to such comparisons) the Romeo and Juliet of the Hindus. It is
considered by their critical authorities the best example of the
Prakarana, or drama of domestic life. Babhavuti's plays, as
is indicated by the fact that no jester appears in them, are devoid
of the element of humour.
The plays of Rajasekhara, who lived about the end of the
9th century, deal, like those of Harsadeva, with harem and
court life. One of them, Karpura Manjuri (Camphor Cluster),
vm 16
is stated to be the only example of the saltaka or minor heroic
comedy, written entirely in Prakrit.
In this period may probably also be included Visakhadatta's
interesting drama of political intrigue, Mudrd-Rakshasa (The
Signet of the Minister), in which Chandragupta (Sandracottus)
appears as the founder of a dynasty. In subject, therefore,
this production, which is one of the few known Indian historical
dramas, goes back to the period following on the invasion of India
by Alexander the Great; but the date of composition is probably
at least as late as A.D. 1000. The plot of the play turns on the
gaining-over of the prime minister of the ancien regime.
Among the remaining chief works of this period is the Veni-
Samhara (Binding of the Braid) by Narayana Bhatta. Though
described as a play in which both pathos and horror are ex-
aggerated its subject is an outrage resembling that which
Dunstan is said to have inflicted on Elgiva it is stated to
have been always a favourite, as written in exact accordance with
dramatic rules. Perhaps the Candakansika by Ksemlsvara should
also be included, which deals with the working of a curse pro-
nounced by an aged priest upon a king who had innocently
offended him.
II. The Period of Decline. This may be reckoned from about
the nth to about the i4th century of the Christian era, the
beginning roughly coinciding with that of a continuous
series of Mahommedan invasions of India. Hanuman- Se ^ f </
Nalaka, or " the great Nataka " (for this irregular (decline).
play, the work of several hands, surpasses all other
Indian dramas in length, extending over no fewer than fourteen
acts), dates from the loth or nth century. Its story is taken
from the Rama-cycle, and a prominent character in it is the
mythical monkey-chief King Hanuman, to whom, indeed,
tradition ascribed the original authorship of the play. Kfishna-
micra's " theosophic mystery," as it has been called, though it
rather resembles some of the moralities, Prabodha-Chandrodaya
( The Rise of the Moon of Insight, i.e. the victory of true doctrine
over error), is ascribed by one authority to the middle of the nth
century, by another to about the end of the I2th. The famous
Ratnavali (The Necklace), a court-comedy of love and intrigue,
with a half-Terentian plot, seems also to date from the earlier
half of the period. %
The remaining plays of which it has been possible to conjecture
the dates range in the time of their composition from the end of the
nth to the I4th century. Of this period, as compared with the
first, the general characteristics seem to be an undue preponderance
of narrative and description, and an affected and over-elaborated
style. As a striking instance of this class is mentioned a play on
the adventures of Rama, the Anargha-Rdghava, which in spite, or
by reason, of the commonplace character of its sentiments, the
extravagance of its diction, and the obscurity of its mythology, is
stated to enjoy a higher reputation with the pundits of the present
age than the masterpieces of Kalidasa and Babhavuti. To the
close of this period, the i4th century, has likewise (but without
any pretension to certainty) been ascribed the only Tamil drama
of which we possess an English version. Arichandra ( The Martyr
of Truth) exemplifies with a strange likeness in the contrivance
of its plot to the Book of Job and Faust by the trials of a
heroically enduring king the force of the maxim " Better die
than lie."
III. Period of Decay. Isolated plays remain from centuries
later than the i4th; but these, which chiefly turn on the legends
of Krishna (the last incarnation of Vishnu), may be
regarded as a mere aftergrowth, and exhibit the Indian
drama in its decay. Indeed, the latest of them,
Chitra- Yajna, which was composed about the beginning
of the ipth century, and still serves as a model for Bengali
dramatic performances, is imperfect in its dialogue, which (after
the fashion of Italian improvised comedy) it is left to the actors to
supplement. Besides these there are farces or farcical entertain-
ments, more or less indelicate, of uncertain dates.
The number of plays which have descended to us from so vast
an expanse of time is still comparatively small. But though, in
1827, Wilson doubted whether all the plays to be found, and
482
DRAMA
[INDIAN
Critical
literature.
those mentioned by Hindu writers on the drama, amounted to
many more than sixty, M. Schuyler's bibliography (1906)
enumerates over five hundred Sanskrit plays. To these have to
be added the plays in Tamil, stated to be about a hundred in
number, and to have been composed by poets who enjoyed the
patronage of the Pandian kings of Madura, and some in other
vernaculars.
There certainly is among the Hindus no dearth of dramatic
theory. The sage Bharata, the reputed inventor of dramatic
entertainments, was likewise revered as the father of
dramatic criticism a combination of functions to
which the latter days of the English theatre might
perhaps furnish an occasional parallel. The commentators
(possibly under the influence of inspiration rather than as a strict
matter of memory) constantly cite his sutras, or aphorisms.
(From sutra, thread, was named the sutra-dhdra, thread-holder,
carpenter, a term applied to the architect and general manager of
sacrificial solemnities, then to the director of theatrical perform-
ances.) By the nth century, when the drama was already
approaching its decline, dramatic criticism had reached an
advanced point; and the Dasa-Rupaka (of which the text belongs
to that age) distinctly defines the ten several kinds of dramatic
composition. Other critical works followed at later dates,
exhibiting a rage for subdivision unsurpassed by the efforts of
Western theorists, ancient or modern; the misfortune is that
there should not be examples remaining (if they ever existed) to
illustrate all the branches of so elaborate a dramatic system.
" What," inquires the manager of an actor in the induction to
one of the most famous of Indian plays, " are those qualities
Exclusive- w h' c h t^ 6 virtuous, the wise, the venerable, the learned
ness of the and the Brahmans require in a drama? " " Profound
Indian exposition of the various passions," is the reply,
drama. pi easm g interchange of mutual affection, loftiness of
character, delicate expression of desire, a surprising story and
elegant language." " Then," says the manager (for the Indian
dramatists, though not, like Ben Jonson, wont to " rail " the
public " into approbation," are unaffected by mauvaise honte),
" I recollect one." And he proceeds to state that " Babhavuti
has given us a drama composed by him, replete with all qualities,
to which indeed this sentence is applicable : ' How little do they
know who speak of us with censure! This entertainment is not
for them. Possibly some one exists, or will exist, of similar tastes
with myself; for time is boundless, and the world is wide ! ' :
This disregard of popularity, springing from a consciousness of
lofty aims, accounts for much that is characteristic of the higher
class of Indian plays. It explains both their relative paucity
and their extraordinary length, renders intelligible the chief
peculiarity in their diction, and furnishes the key to their most
striking ethical as well as literary qualities. Connected in their
origin with religious worship, they were only performed on
solemn occasions, chiefly of a public nature, and more especially
at seasons sacred to some divinity. Thus, though they might
in some instances be reproduced, they were always written with a
view to one particular solemn representation. Again, the greater
part of every one of the plays of Northern India is written in
Sanskrit, which ceased to be a popular language by 300 B.C., but
continued the classical and learned, and at the same time the
sacred and court form of speech of the Brahmans. Sanskrit is
spoken by the heroes and principal personages of the plays,
while the female and inferior characters use varieties, more or
less refined, of the Prakrit languages (as a rule not more than
three, that which is employed in the songs of the women being
the poetic dialect of the most common Prakrit language, the
SaurasenI). Hence, part at least of each play cannot have been
understood by the large majority of the audience, except in so
far as their general acquaintance with the legends or stories
treated enabled them to follow the course of the action. Every
audience thus contained an inner audience, which could alone feel
the full effect of the drama. It is, then, easy to see why the
Hindu critics should make demands upon the art, into which only
highly-trained and refined intellects were capable of entering, or
called upon to enter. The general public could not be expected
to appreciate the sentiments expressed in a drama, and thus
(according to the process prescribed by Hindu theory) to receive
instruction by means of amusement. These sentiments are
termed rasas (tastes or flavours), and said to spring from the
bhdiias (conditions of mind and body) . A variety of subdivisions
is added; but the santa rasa is logically enough excluded from
dramatic composition, inasmuch as it implies absolute quiescence.
The Hindu critics know of no distinction directly corresponding
to that between tragedy and comedy, still less of any determined
by the nature of the close of a play. For, in accordance
with the child-like element of their character, the
Hindus dislike an unhappy ending to any story, and a
positive rule accordingly prohibits a fatal conclusion in their
dramas. The general term for all dramatic compositions is
riipaka (from rupa, form), those of an inferior class being distin-
guished as uparupakas. Of the various subdivisions of the
rupaka, in a more limited sense, the nataka, or play proper.
represents the most perfect kind. Its subject should always be
celebrated and important it is virtually either heroism or love,
and most frequently the latter and the hero should be a demigod
or divinity (such as Rama in Babhavuti's heroic plays) or a king
(such as the hero of Sdkuntald). But although the carrier
dramatists took their plots from the sacred writings or Puranas,
they held themselves at liberty to vary the incidents a licence
from which the later poets abstained. Thus, in accordance,
perhaps, with the respective developments in the religious life of
the two peoples, the Hindu drama in this respect reversed the
progressive practice of the Greek. The prakaranas agree in all
essentials with the ndtdkas except that they are less elevated;
their stories are mere fictions, taken from actual life in a respect-
able class of society. 1 ^ Among the species of the uparupaka may
be mentioned the trotaka, in which the personages are partly
human, partly divine, and of which a famous example remains. 2
Of the bhana, a monologue in one act, one literary example is
extant a curious picture of manners in which the speaker
describes the different persons he meets at a spring festival in the
streets of Kolahalapur. 3 The satire of the farcical prahasanas is
usually directed against the hypocrisy of ascetics and Brahmans,
and the sensuality of the wealthy and powerful. These trifles
represent the lower extreme of the dramatic scale, to which, of
course, the principles that follow only partially apply.
Unity of action is strictly enjoined by Hindu theory, though
not invariably observed in practice. Episodical or prolix
interruptions are forbidden; but, in order to facilitate
the connexion, the story of the play is sometimes ..
carried on by narratives spoken by actors or " inter-
preters," something after the fashionof the Chorus in Henry V .,
or of Gower in Pericles. " Unity of time " is liberally, if rather
arbitrarily, understood by the later critical authorities as limiting
the duration of the action to a single year; but even this is
exceeded in more than one classical play. 4 The single acts are
to confine the events occurring in them to "one course of the sun,"
and usually do so. " Unity of place " is unknown to the Hindu
drama, by reason of the absence of scenery; for the plays were
performed in the open courts of palaces, perhaps at times in large
halls set apart for public entertainments, or in the open air.
Hence change of scene is usually indicated in the texts; and we
find 6 the characters making long journeys on the stage, under the
eyes of spectators not trained to demand " real " mileage.
With the solemn character of the higher kind of dramatic
performances accord the rules and prohibitions defining what
may be called the proprieties of the Indian drama. It
has been already seen that all plays must have a happy pHetiei.
ending. Furthermore, not only should death never be
inflicted coram populo, but the various operations of biting,
scratching, kissing, eating, sleeping, the bath, and the marriage
ceremony should never take place on the stage. Yet such rules
are made to be occasionally broken. It is true that the mild
humour of the vidushaka is restricted to his " gesticulating
1 e.g. Mrichchhakafika ; MalaK and Madhava.
2 Vikrama and Urvasi. 3 Safada-Tilaka.
4 Sakuntala; Uttara-Rama-Charitra. 5 Arichandra, act iv.
INDIAN]
DRAMA
483
Construc-
tion.
eating " instead of perpetrating the obnoxious act. 1 The charm-
ing love-scene in the Sakuntala (at least in the earlier recension of
the play) breaks off just as the hero is about to act the part of
the bee to the honey of the heroine's lips. 2 But later writers are
less squeamish, or less refined. In two dramas ' the heroine is
dragged on the stage by her braid of hair; and this outrage is
in both instances the motive of the action. In a third, 4 sleeping
and the marriage ceremony occur in the course of the represen-
tation.
The dramatic construction of the Indian plays presents no
very striking peculiarities. They open with a benediction
(nandi), spoken by the manager (supposed to be a
highly accomplished person), and followed by " some
account " of the author, and an introductory scene
between the manager and one of the actors, which is more or less
skilfully connected by the introduction of one of the characters
with the opening of the play itself. This is divided into acts
(ankas) and scenes; of the former a nataka should have not
fewer than 5, or more than 10; 7 appears a common number;
" the great nataka " reaches 14. Thus the length of the higher
class of Indian plays is considerable about that of an Aeschylean
trilogy; but not more than a single play was ever performed
on the same occasion. Comic plays are restricted to two acts
(here called sandhis). In theory the scheme of an Indian drama
corresponds very closely to the general outline of dramatic
construction given above; it is a characteristic merit that the
business is rarely concluded before the last act. The
Scenes ana pj ece c i oseS) as ft began, with a benediction or prayer.
Within this framework room is found for situations as
ingeniously devised and highly wrought as those in any modern
Western play. What could be more pitiful than the scene in
Sakuntala, where the true wife appears before her husband,
whose remembrance of her is fatally overclouded by a charm;
what more terrific than that in Malati and Madhaiia, where the
lover rescues his beloved from the horrors of the charnel field?
Recognition especially between parents and children fre-
quently gives rise to scenes of a pathos which Euripides has not
surpassed. 5 The ingenious device of a " play within the play "
(so familiar to the English drama) is employed with the utmost
success by Babhavuti. 6 On the other hand, miraculous meta-
morphosis 7 and, in a later play, 8 vulgar magic lend their aid
to the progress of the action. With scenes of strong effectiveness
contrast others of the most delicate poetic grace such as the
indescribably lovely little episode of the two damsels of the god
of love helping one another to pluck the red and green bud from
the mango tree; or of gentle domestic pathos such as that of
the courtesan listening to the prattle of her lover's child, one
of the prettiest scenes of a kind rarely kept free from affectation
in the modern drama. For the denouement in the narrower sense
of the term the Indian dramatists largely resort to the expedient
of the deus ex machina, often in a sufficiently literal sense. 9
Every species of drama having its appropriate kind of hero or
heroine, theory here again amuses itself with an infinitude of
subdivisions. Among the heroines, of whom not less
than three hundred and eighty-four types are said
to be distinguished, are to be noticed the courtesans, whose
social position to some extent resembles that of the Greek
hetaerae, and association with whom does not seem in practice,
however it may be in theory, to be regarded as a disgrace even
to Brahmans. 10 In general, the Indian drama indicates relations
between the sexes subject to peculiar restraints of usage, but
freer than those which Mahommedan example seems to have
introduced into higher Indian society. The male characters are
frequently drawn with skill, and sometimes with genuine force.
Prince Samsthanaka u is a type of selfishness born in the purple
worthy to rank beside figures of the modern drama, of which
1 Nagananda, act i. * Act iii. ; cf. Nagananda, act iii.
1 Veni-Samhdra; Prachanda-Panddva.
4 Viddha-Salabhanjika.
* Sakuntala; Utlara-Rama-Charitra. 6 Ib. act vii.
7 Vikrama and Urvasi, act iv. RatndvaR.
9 Vikrama and Urvasi: Arichandra; Nagananda.
10 Mfichchhakalika. Mfichchhakalikd.
Characters.
Actors.
this has at times naturally been a favourite class of character;
elsewhere, 12 the intrigues of ministers are not more fully exposed
than their characters and principles of action are judiciously
discriminated. Among the lesser personages common in the
Indian drama, two are worth noticing, as corresponding, though
by no means precisely, to familiar types of other dramatic
literatures. These are the viid, the accomplished but dependent
companion (both of men and women), and the vidushaka, the
humble associate (not servant) of the prince, and the buffoon
of the action. 13 Strangely enough, he is always a Brahman, or
the pupil of a Brahman- perhaps a survival from a purely popular
phase of the drama. His humour is to be ever intent on the
pleasures of a quiet life, and on that of eating in particular;
his jokes are generally devoid of both harm and point.
Thus, clothing itself in a diction always ornate and tropical,
in which (as Riickert has happily expressed it) the prose is the
warp and the verse the weft, where (as Goethe says)
words become allusions, allusions similes, and similes
metaphors, the Indian drama essentially depended upon its
literary qualities, and upon the familiar sanctity of its favourite
themes for such effects as it was able to produce. Of scenic
apparatus it knew but little. The plays were usually performed
in the hall of a palace; the simple devices by which exits and
entrances were facilitated it is unnecessary to describe,
and on the contrivances employed for securing such
" properties " as were required (above all, the cars of costume.
the gods and of their emissaries), 14 it is useless to
speculate. Propriety of costume, on the other hand, seems always
to have been observed, agreeably both to the peculiarities of the
Indian drama and to the habits of the Indian people.
The ministers of an art practised under such conditions could
not but be regarded with respect, and spared the contempt or
worse, which, except among one other great civilized
people, the Greeks, has everywhere, at one period or
another, been the actor's lot. Companies of actors seem to have
been common in India at an early date, and the inductions show
the players to have been regarded as respectable members of
society. In later, if not in earlier, times individual actors
enjoyed a widespread reputation " all the world " is acquainted
with the talents of Kalaha-Kandala. 15 The managers or directors,
as already stated, were usually gifted and highly-cultured
Brahmans. Female parts were in general, though not invariably,
represented by females. One would like to know whether such
was the case in a piece 16 where after the fashion of more than
one Western play a crafty minister passes off his daughter as a
boy, on which assumption she is all but married to a person of
her own sex.
The Indian drama would, if only for purposes of comparison, be
invaluable to the student of this branch of literature. But from
the point of view of purely literary excellence it holds its Summ
own against all except the very foremost dramas of the
world. It is, indeed, a mere phrase to call Kalidasa the Indian
Shakespeare a title which, moreover, if intended as anything
more than a synonym for poetic pre-eminence, might fairly be
disputed in favour of Babhavuti; while it would be absolutely
misleading to place a dramatic literature, which, like the Indian,
is the mere quintessence of the culture of a caste, by the side of
one which represents the fullest development of the artistic
consciousness of such a people as the Hellenes. The Indian
drama cannot be described as national in the broadest and highest
sense of the word; it is, in short, the drama of a literary class,
though as such it exhibits many of the noblest and most refined,
as well as of the most characteristic, features of Hindu religion
and civilization. The ethics of the Indian drama are of a lofty
character, but they are those of a scholastic system of religious
philosophy, self-conscious of its completeness. To the power of
Fate is occasionally ascribed a supremacy, to which gods as well
as mortals must bow; 17 but, if man's present life is merely a
12 Mudra-Rakshasa. Sakuntala; Nagananda.
14 Sakuntala, acts vi. and vii ; Malati and Madhava, act v.
15 Induction to Anargha-Raghava.
l Viddha-Salabhanjika. " Vikrama and Urvasi.
DRAMA
[CHINESE
phase in the cycle of his destinies, the highest of moral efforts at
the same time points to the summit of possibilities, and self-
sacrifice is the supreme condition both of individual perfection
and of the progress of the world. Such conceptions as these
seem at once to enfold and to overshadow the moral life of the
Indian drama. The affections and passions forming part of self
it delineates with a fidelity to nature which no art can afford to
neglect; on the other hand, the freedom of the picture is re-
stricted by conditions which to us are unfamiliar and at times
seem intolerable, but which it was impossible for the Indian
poet's imagination to ignore. The sheer self-absorption of
ambition or love appears inconceivable by the minds of any of
these poets; and their social philosophy is always based on the
system of caste. On the other hand, they are masters of many of
the truest forms of pathos, above all of that which blends with
resignation. In humour of a delicate kind they are by no means
deficient; to its lower forms they are generally strangers, even in
productions of a professedly comic intention. Of wit, Indian
dramatic literature though a play on words is as the breath
of its nostrils furnishes hardly any examples intelligible to
Western minds.
The distinctive excellence of the Indian drama is to be sought
in the poetic robe which envelops it as flowers overspread the
bosom of the earth in the season of spring. In its
^ t , ry ^ 1 nobler productions, at least, it is never untrue to its
the Indian ,
drama. half religious, half rural origin; it weaves the wreaths
of idyllic fancies in an unbroken chain, adding to its
favourite and familiar blossoms ever fresh beauties from an
inexhaustible garden. Nor is it unequal to depicting the grander
aspects of nature in her mighty forests and on the shores of the
ocean. A close familiarity with its native literature can here
alone follow its diction through a ceaseless flow of phrase and
figure, listen with understanding to the hum of the bee as it hangs
over the lotus, and contemplate with Sakuntala's pious sympathy
the creeper as it winds round the mango tree. But the poetic
beauty of the Indian drama reveals itself in the mysterious
charm of its outline, if not in its full glow, even to the untrained;
nor should the study of it for which the materials seem con-
tinually on the increase be left aside by any lover of
literature.
3. CHINESE DRAMA
Like the Indian drama, the Chinese arose from the union of the
arts of dance and song. To the ballets and pantomimes out of
which it developed itself, and which have continued to flourish
by the side of its more advanced forms, the Chinese ascribe a
primitive antiquity of origin; many of them originally had a
symbolical reference to such subjects as the harvest, and war and
peace. A very ancient pantomime is said to have symbolized the
conquest of China by Wu-Wang; others were of a humbler, and
often of a very obscure, character. To their music the Chinese
likewise attribute a great antiquity of origin.
There are traditions which carry back the characters of the
Chinese drama to the i8th century before the Christian era.
Others declare the Emperor Wan-Te (fl. about A.D. 580) to have
invented the drama; but this honour is more usually given to
the emperor Yuen-Tsung (A.D. 720), who is likewise remembered
as a radical musical reformer. Pantomimes henceforth fell into
disrepute; and the history of the Chinese drama from this date is
divided, with an accuracy we cannot profess to control, into four
distinct periods. Each of these periods, we are told, has a style,
and each style a name of its own; but these names, such as
" Diversions of the Woods in Flower," have little or no meaning
for us; and it would therefore be useless to cite them.
The first period is that of the dramas composed under the
T'ang dynasty, from A.D. 720 to 907. These pieces, called
Tchhouen-Khi, were limited to the representation of extra-
ordinary events, and were therefore, in design at least, a species
of heroic drama. The ensuing times of civil war interrupted the
" pleasures of peace and prosperity " (a Chinese phrase for
dramatic performances) which, however, revived.
The second period is that of the Tsung Dynasty, from 960 to
1119. The plays of this period are called Hi-Khio, and presented
what became a standing peculiarity of the Chinese classical
drama, viz. that in them figures a principal personage *
who sings.
The third and best-known age of the Chinese drama was under
the Kin and Yuen dynasties, from 1125 to 1367. The plays of
this period are called Yuen-Pen and Tsa-Ki; the latter seem to
have resembled the Hi-Khio, and to have treated very various
subjects. The Yuen-Pen are the plays from which our literary
knowledge of the Chinese drama is mainly derived; the short
pieces called Yen-Kia were in the same style, but briefer. The
list of dramatic authors under the Yuen dynasty, the most
important period in Chinese literary annals, which covered the
years 1260 to 1368, is tolerably extensive, comprising 85, among
whom four are designated as courtesans; the number of plays
composed by these and by anonymous authors is reckoned at
not less than 564. In 1735 the Jesuit missionary Joseph Henry
Premare first revealed to Europe the existence of the tragedy
Tchao-Chi-Cu-Eul (The Little Orphan of the House of Tchao),
which was founded upon an earlier piece treating of the fortunes of
an heir to the imperial throne, who was preserved in a mysterious
box like another Cypselus or Moses. Voltaire seized the theme of
the earlier play for a rhetorical tragedy, L'Orphelin de la Chine, in
which he coolly professes it was his intention " to paint the
manners of the Chinese and the Tartars." The later play, which
is something less elevated in the rank of its characters, and very
decidedly less refined in treatment, was afterwards retranslated
by Stanislas Julien; and to the labours of this scholar, of Sir
J. F. D^vis (1795-1890) and of Antoine Bazin (1799-1863), we
owe a series of translated Chinese dramas, among which there can
be no hesitation whatever in designating the master-piece.
The justly famous Pi-Pa-Ki ( The Story of the Lute) belongs to a
period rather later than that of the Yuen plays, having been
composed towards the close of the I4th century by
Kao-Tong-Kia, and reproduced in 1404, under the Ming
dynasty, f with the alterations of Mao-Tseu, a commentator of
learning and taste. Pi-Pa-Ki, which as a domestic drama of
sentiment possesses very high merit, long enjoyed a quite
exceptional popularity in China; it was repeatedly republished
with laudatory prefaces, and so late as the i8th century was
regarded as a monument of morality, and as the master-piece of
the Chinese theatre. It would seem to have remained without
any worthy competitors; for, although it had been originally
designed to produce a reaction against the immorality of the
drama then in fashion, especially of Wang-Chi-Fou's celebrated
Si-Siang-Ki ( The Story of the Western Pavilion) , yet the fourth
period of the Chinese drama, under the Ming dynasty, from
1368 to 1644, exhibited no improvement. " What "
(says the preface to the 1704 edition of Pi-Pa-Ki)
" do you find there ? Farcical dialogue, a mass of
scenes in which one fancies one hears the hubbub of the streets
or the ignoble language of the highways, the extravagances of
demons and spirits, in addition to love-intrigues repugnant
to delicacy of manners." Nor would it appear that the Chinese
theatre has ever recovered from its decay.
In theory, no drama could be more consistently elevated in
purpose and in tone than the Chinese. Every play, we learn,
should have both a moral and a meaning. A virtuous _.
aim is imposed upon Chinese dramatists by an article / alms ]
of the penal code of the empire; and those who write
immoral plays are to expect after death a purgatory which will
last so long as these plays continue to be performed. In practice,
however, the Chinese drama falls far short of its ideal; indeed,
according to the native critic already cited, among ten thousand
playwrights not one is to be found intent upon perfecting the
education of mankind by means of precepts and examples.
The Chinese are, like the Hindus, unacquainted with the dis-
tinction between tragedy and comedy; they classify their plays
according to subjects in twelve categories. It may be /totoll .
doubted whether what seems the highest of these is frama?'
actually such; for the religious element in the Chinese
drama is often sheer buffoonery. Moreover, Chinese religious
CHINESE]
DRAMA
485
life, as reflected in the drama, seems one in which creed elbows
creed, and superstitions are welcome whatever their origin.
Of all religious traditions and doctrines, however, those of
Buddhism (which had reached China long before the known
beginnings of its drama) are the most prominent; thus, the
theme of absolute self-sacrifice is treated in one play, 1 that of
entire absorption in the religious life in another. 2 The historical
fia ^ drama is not unknown to the Chinese; and although
a law prohibits the bringing on the stage of " emperors,
empresses, and the famous princes, ministers, and generals of
former ages," no such restriction is observed in practice. In
Han-Kong-Tseu (The Sorrows of Han), for instance, which treats
a national historic legend strangely recalling in parts the story
of Esther and the myth of the daughter of Erechtheus, the
Domestic. em P eror Yuen-Ti (the representative, to be sure, of
a fallen dynasty) plays a part, and a sufficiently sorry
one. By far the greater number, however, of the Chinese plays
accessible in translations belong to the domestic species, and
to that subspecies which may be called the criminal drama.
Their favourite virtue is piety, of a formal 3 or a practical 4 kind
to parents or parents-in-law; their favourite interest lies in the
discovery of long-hidden guilt, and in the vindication of per-
secuted innocence. 5 In the choice and elaboration of such
subjects they leave little to be desired by the most ardent
devotees of the literature of agony. Besides this description of
plays, we have at least one love-comedy pure and simple a
piece of a nature not " tolerably mild," but ineffably harmless. 6
Free in its choice of themes, the Chinese drama is likewise
remarkably unrestricted in its range of characters. Chinese
society, it is well known, is not based, like Indian,
characters. u P on the principle of caste; rank is in China deter-
mined by office, and this again depends on the results
of examination. These familiar facts are constantly brought
home to the reader of Chinese plays. The Tchoang-Yuen, or
senior classman on the list of licentiates, is the flower of Chinese
society, and the hero of many a drama; 7 and it is a proud boast
that for years " one's ancestors have held high posts, which they
owed to their literary successes." 8 On the other hand, a person
who has failed in his military examination, becomes, as if by a
natural transition, a man-eating monster. 9 But of mere class
the Chinese drama is no respecter, painting with noteworthy
freedom the virtues and the vices of nearly every phase of society.
The same liberty is taken with regard to the female sex; it is
clear that in earlier times there were few vexatious restrictions
in Chinese life upon the social intercourse between men and
women. The variety of female characters in the Chinese drama
is great, ranging from the heroine who sacrifices herself for the
sake of an empire 10 to the well-brought-up young lady who avers
that " woman came into the world to be obedient, to unravel
skeins of silk, and to work with her needle " u from the chamber-
maid who contrives the most gently sentimental of rendezvous, 12
to the reckless courtesan who, like another Millwood, upbraids
the partner of her guilt on his suing for mercy, and bids him
die with her in hopes of a reunion after death. 13 In marriage the
first or legitimate wife is distinguished from the second, who is
at times a ci-devant courtesan, and towards whom the feelings of
the former vary between bitter jealousy u and sisterly kindness. 15
The conduct of the plays exhibits much ingenuity, and an
aversion from restrictions of time and place; in fact, the nature
of the plot constantly covers a long series of years, and spans
wide intervals of local distance. The plays are divided into acts
and scenes the former being usually four in number, at times
1 The Self-Sacrifice of Tchao-Li.
2 Lai-Seng-Tchai (The Debt to be Paid in the Next World).
1 Lao-Seng-Eul. * Pi-Pa-Ki.
*The Circle of Chalk (Hoei-Lan-Ki) ; The Tunic Matched; The
Revenge of Teou-Ngo.
' Tchao-Mei-Hiang (The Intrigues of a Chambermaid).
7 Tchao-Mei-Hiang; Ho-Han-Chan; Pi-Pa-Ki.
8 Hoei-Lan-Ki, Prol. sc. i. Tchao-Li.
10 Han-Kong-Tseu. " Pi-Pa-Ki, sc. 2.
n Tchao-Mei-Hiang.
13 He-Lang-Tan, act iv. ; cf. Hoei-Lan-Ki, act iv.
14 Hoei-Lan-Ki. Pi-Pa-Ki.
with an induction or narrative prologue spoken by some of the
characters (Sie-Tsen). Favourite plays were, however, allowed
to extend to great length; the Pi-Pa-Ki is divided construe-
into 24 sections, and in another recension apparently tioa and
comprised 42. " I do not wish," says the manager conduct ot
in the prologue, " that this performance should last p
too long; finish it to-day, but cut out nothing " whence it
appears that the performance of some plays occupied more than
a single day. The rule was always observed that a separate act
should be given up to the denouement; while, according to a
theory of which it is not always easy to trace the operation, the
perfection of construction was sought in the dualism or contrast
of scene and scene, just as the perfection of diction was placed
in the parallelism or antithesis of phrase and phrase. Being
subject to no restrictions as to what might, or might not, be
represented on the stage, the conduct of the plots allowed of the
introduction of almost every variety of incidents. Death takes
place, in sight of the audience, by starvation, 16 by drowning, 17
by poison, 18 by execution; 19 flogging and torture are inflicted
on the stage; 20 wonders are wrought; 21 and magic is brought
into play; 22 the ghost of an innocently-executed daughter calls
upon her father to revenge her foul murder, and assists in person
at the subsequent judicial enquiry. 23 Certain peculiarities in the
conduct of the business are due to the usages of society rather
than to dramaturgic laws. Marriages are generally managed
at least in the higher spheres of society by ladies professionally
employed as matrimonial agents. 24 The happy resolution of the
nodus of the action is usually brought about by the direct inter-
position of superior official authority 26 a tribute to the paternal
system of government, which is the characteristic Chinese
variety of the deus ex machina. This naturally tends to the
favourite close of a glorification of the emperor, 26 resembling
that of Louis XIV. at the end of Tartufe, or in spirit, at all events,
those of the virgin queen in more than one Elizabethan play.
It should be added that the characters save the necessity for a
bill of the play by persistently announcing and re-announcing
their names and genealogies, and the necessity for a book by
frequently recapitulating the previous course of the plot.
One peculiarity of the Chinese drama remains to be noticed.
The chief character of a play represents the author as well as the
personage; he or she is hero or heroine and chorus in TbepHn-
one. This is brought about by the hero's (or heroine's) cipaiper-
singing the poetical passages, or those containing sf >nage
maxims of wisdom and morality, or reminiscences and ""*" slags -
examples drawn from legend or history. Arising out of the
dialogue, these passages at the same time diversify it, and give
to it such elevation and brilliancy as it can boast. The singing
character must be the principal personage in the action, but
may be taken from any class of society. If this personage dies
in the course of the play, another sings in his place. From the
mention of this distinctive feature of the Chinese drama
it will be obvious how unfair it would be to judge of diction.
any of its productions, without a due appreciation of
the lyric passages, which do not appear to be altogether restricted
to the singing of the principal personage, for other characters
frequently " recite verses." In these lyrical or didactic passages
are to be sought those flowers of diction which, as Julien has
shown, consist partly in the use of a metaphorical phraseology
of infinite nicety in its variations such as a long series of phrases
compounded with the word signifying jet and expressing severally
the ideas of rarity, distinction, beauty, &c., or as others derived
from the names of colours, birds, beasts, precious metals, ele-
ments, constellations, &c., or alluding to favourite legends or
anecdotes. These features constitute the literary element par
excellence of Chinese dramatic composition. At the same time,
though it is impossible for the untrained reader to be alive to
16 Pi-Pa-Ki, sc. 15.
18 Hoei-Lan-Ki, act i.
20 Hoei-Lan-Ki, act ii.
22 Pi-Pa-Ki, sc. 18.
24 Tchao-Mei-Hiang; Pi-Pa-Ki.
* Ho-Han-Chan.
17 Ho-Han-Chan, act ii.
a Teou-Ngo-Yuen, act iii.
21 Teou-Ngo- Yuen, act iii.
28 Teou-Ngo- Yuen, act. iv.
26 Hoei-Lan-Ki.
DRAMA
[JAPANESE
the charms of so unfamiliar a phraseology, it may be questioned
whether even in its diction the Chinese drama can claim to be
regarded as really poetic. It may abound in poetic ornament;
it is not, like the Indian, bathed in poetry.
On the other hand, the merits of this dramatic literature are
by no means restricted to ingenuity of construction and variety
Merits of of character merits, in themselves important, which
the no candid criticism will deny to it. Its master-piece
Chinese j s nO (; on jy truly pathetic in the conception and the
drama. ma j n situations of its action, but includes scenes of
singular grace and delicacy of treatment such as that where
the remarried husband of the deserted heroine in vain essays
in the presence of his second wife to sing to his new lute, now
that he has cast aside the old. 1 In the last act of a tragedy
appealing at once to patriotism and to pity, there is true imagina-
tive power in the picture of the emperor, when aware of the
departure, but not of the death, of his beloved, sitting in solitude
broken only by the ominous shriek of the wild-fowl. 2 Nor is the
Chinese drama devoid of humour. The lively abigail who has to
persuade her mistress into confessing herself in love by arguing
(almost like Beatrice) that " humanity bids us love men "; 3
the corrupt judge (a common type in the Chinese plays) who
falls on his knees before the prosecuting parties to a suit as before
"the father and mother who give him sustenance," 4 may serve
as examples; and in Pi-Pa-Ki there is a scene of admirable
burlesque on the still more characteristic theme of the humours
of a competitive examination. 5 If such illustrations could not
easily be multiplied, they are at least worth citing in order to
deprecate a perfunctory criticism on the qualities of a dramatic
literature as to which our materials for judgment are still
scanty.
While in the north of China houses are temporarily set apart
for dramatic performances, in the south these are usually con-
fined to theatres erected in the streets (Hi- That).
Thus scenic decorations of any importance must always
costume, have been out of question in the Chinese theatre. The
costumes, on the other hand, are described as magnifi-
cent; they are traditionally those worn before the I7th century,
in accordance with the historical colouring of most of the plays.
Actors. The actor's profession is not a respectable one in China,
the managers being in the habit of buying children of
slaves and bringing them up as slaves of their own. Women
may not appear on the stage, since the emperor K'ien-Lung
admitted an actress among his concubines; female parts are
therefore played by lads, occasionally by eunuchs.
4. JAPANESE DRAMA
The Japanese drama, as all evidence seems to agree in showing,
still remains what in substance it has always been an amuse-
ment passionately loved by the lower orders, but hardly dignified
by literature deserving the name. Apart from its native elements
of music, dance and song, and legendary or historical narrative
and pantomime, it is clearly to be regarded as a Chinese im-
portation; nor has it in its more advanced forms apparently
even attempted to emancipate itself from the reproduction of the
conventional Chinese types. As early as the close of the 6th
century Hada Kawatsu, a man of Chinese extraction, but born
in Japan, is said to have been ordered to arrange entertainments
for the benefit of the country, and to have written as many as
thirty-three plays. The Japanese, however, ascribe the origin
of their drama to the introduction of the dance called Sambaso
as a charm against a volcanic depression of the earth which
occurred in 805; and this dance appears still to be used as a
prelude to theatrical exhibitions. In 1108 lived a woman called
Iso no Zenji, who is looked upon as " the mother of the Japanese
drama." But her performances seem to have been confined to
dancing or posturing in male attire (otokomai); and the intro-
1 Pi-Pa-Ki, sc. 14. 2 Han-Kong-Tseu.
* Tchao-Mei-Hiang, act ii.
4 Teou-Ngo- Yuen, act ii. ; cf . Hoei-Lan-Ki.
8 Pi-Pa-Ki, sc. 5.
duction of the drama proper is universally attributed to Sarnwaka
Kanzaburo, who in 1624 opened the first theatre (sibaia) at
Yeddo. Not long afterwards (1651) the playhouses were re-
moved to their present site in the capital; and both here and in
the provincial towns, especially of the north, the drama has since
continued to flourish. Persons of rank were formerly never seen
at these theatres; but actors were occasionally engaged to play
in private at the houses of the nobles, who appear themselves to
have taken part in performances of a species of opera affected by
them, always treating patriotic legends and called no. The
mikado has a court theatre.
The subjects of the serious popular plays are mainly mytho-
logical the acts of the great spirit Day-Sin, the incarnation of
Brahma, and similar themes or historical, treating
of the doings of the early dynasties. In these the
names of the personages are changed. An example of
the latter class is to be found in the joruri, or musical romance,
in which the universally popular tale of Chiushingura ( The Loyal
League) has been amplified and adapted for theatrical representa-
tion. This famous narrative of the feudal fidelity of the forty-
seven ronins, who about the year 1699 revenged their chief's
judicial suicide upon the arrogant official to whom it was due,
is stirring rather than touching in its incidents, and contains much
bloodshed, together with a tea-house scene which suffices as a
specimen of the Japanese comedy of manners. One of the books
of this dramatic romance consists of a metrical description,
mainly in dialogue, of a journey which (after the fashion of Indian
plays) has to be carried out on the stage. The performance of
one of these quasi-historical dramas sometimes lasts over several
days; they are produced with much pomp of costume; but the
acting is very realistic, and hari-kari is performed, almost " to
the life." Besides these tragic plays (in which, however, comic
intermezzos are often inserted) the Japanese have middle-class
domestic dramas of a very realistic kind. The language of these,
unlike that of Chinese comedy, is often gross and scurrilous,
but intrigues against married women are rigidly excluded.
Fairy and demon operas and ballets, and farces and intermezzos,
form an easy transition to the interludes of tumblers and jugglers.
As a specimen of nearly every class of play is required to make up
a Japanese theatrical entertainment, which lasts from sunrise to
sunset, and as the lower houses appropriate and mutilate the
plays of the higher, it is clear that the status of the Japanese
theatre cannot be regarded as at ah 1 high. In respect, however,
of its movable scenery and properties, it is in advance of its
Chinese prototype. The performers are, except in the ballet,
males only; and the comic acting is said to be excellent of its
kind. Though the leading actors enjoy great popularity and
very respectable salaries, the class is held in contempt, and the
companies were formerly recruited from the lowest sources.
The disabilities under which they lay have, however, been
removed; a Dramatic Reform Association has been organized
by a number of noblemen and scholars, and a theatre on European
lines built (see JAPAN).
5. PERSIAN AND OTHER ASIATIC, POLYNESIAN AND PERUVIAN-
DRAMA
Such dramatic examples of the drama as may be discoverable
in Siam will probably have to be regarded as belonging to a
branch of the Indian drama. The drama of the Malay
populations of Java and the neighbouring island of
Sumatra also resembles the Indian, to which it may have owed
what development it has reached. The Javanese, as we learn,
distinguish among the lyrics sung on occasions of
popular significance the panton, a short simile or fable, su/nafr-a
and the tcharita, a more advanced species, taking the &c.
form of dialogue and sung or recited by actors proper.
From the tcharita the Javanese drama, which in its higher forms
treats the stories of gods and kings, appears to have been derived.
As in the Indian drama, the functions of the director or manager
are of great importance; as in the Greek, the performers wear
masks, here made of wood. The comic drama is often represented
in both Java and Sumatra by parties of strollers consisting of
PERSIAN]
DRAMA
487
Persian.
The
teazles.
two men and a woman a troop sufficient for a wide variety of
plot.
Among other more highly civilized Asiatic peoples, the traces
of the dramatic art are either few or late. The originally Aryan
Persians exhibit no trace of the drama in their ample
earlier literature. But in its later national development
the two species, widely different from one another, of the religious
drama or mystery and of the popular comedy or farce have made
their appearance the former in a growth of singular interest.
Of the Persian teazles (lamentations or complaints) the subjects
are invariably derived from religious history, and more or less
directly connected with the " martyrdoms " of the
house of Ali. The performance of these episodes or
scenes takes place during the first ten days of the month
of Muharram, when the adherents of the great Shi'ite sect all
over Persia and Mahommedan India commemorate the deaths of
the Prophet and his daughter Fatima, the mother of Ali, the
martyrdoms of Ah' himself, shamefully murdered in the sanctuary,
and of his unoffending son Hasan, done to death by his miserable
guilty Deianira of a wife, and lastly the never-to-be-forgotten
sacrifice of Hasan's brother, the heroic Hosain, on the bloody
field of Kerbela (A.D. 680). With the establishment in Persia,
early in the i6th century, of the Safawid (Sufi) dynasty by the
Shi'ites, the cult of the martyrs Hasan and Hosain secured the
official sanction which it has since retained. Thus the perform-
ance of these tiazies, and the defraying of the equipment of them,
are regarded as religious, and in a theological sense meritorious,
acts; and the plays are frequently provided by the court or by
other wealthy persons, by way of pleasing the people or securing
divine favour. The plays are performed, usually by natives of
Isfahan, in courtyards of mosques, palaces, inns, &c., and in the
country in temporary structures erected for the purpose.
It would seem that, no farther back than the beginning of the
i gth century, the teazles were still only songs or elegies in honour
of the martyrs, occasionally chanted by persons actually repre-
senting them. Just, however, as Greek tragedy was formed by a
gradual detachment of the dialogue from the choric song of which
it was originally only a secondary outgrowth, and by its gradually
becoming the substance of the drama, so the Miracle Play of
Hasan and Hosain, as we may call it, has now come to be a
continuous succession of dramatic scenes. Of these fifty-two
have, thanks to the labours of Alexander Chodzko and Sir Lewis
Pelly, been actually taken down in writing, and thirty-seven
published in translations; and it is clear that there is no limit
to the extension of the treatment, as is shown by such a teazie
as the Marriage of Kassem, dealing with the unfortunate Hosain's
unfortunate son. 1 The performance is usually opened by a
prologue delivered by the rouzekhan, a personage of semi-priestly
character claiming descent from the Prophet, who edifies and
excites the audience by a pathetic recitation of legends and
vehement admonitions in prose or verse concerning the subject
of the action. But the custom seems to have arisen of specially
prefacing the drama proper by a kind of induction which illus-
trates the cause or effect of the sacred story as for instance
that of Amir Timur (Tamerlane), who appears as lamenting and
avenging the death of Hosain; or the episode of Joseph's be-
trayal by his brethren, as prefiguring the cruelty shown to Ali
and his sons. At the climax of the action proper Hosain prays
to be granted at the day of judgment the key of the treasure of
intercession; and the final scene shows the fulfilment of his
prayer, which opens paradise to those who have helped the holy
martyr, or who have so much as shed a single tear for him.
It will thus be seen that not only is this complex and elaborate
production unapproached in its length and in its patient develop-
ment of a long sequence of momentous events by any chronicle
history or religious drama, but that it embodies together with
the passionately cherished traditions of a great religious com-
munity the expression of a long-lived resentment of foreign
invasion and is thus a kind of Oberammergau play and
complaint of the Nibelungs in one.
1 Translated by Comte de Gobineau, in his Religions et philosophies
dans I'Asie centrale (Paris, 1865).
The other kind of Persian drama is the tf mocha ( = spectacle),
a kind of comedy or farce, sometimes called teglid (disguising),
performed by wandering minstrels or joculatores called
loutys, who travel about accompanied by their baya-
deres, and amuse such spectators as they find by their
improvised entertainments, which seem to be on much the same
level as English " interludes." A favourite and ancient variety
of the species is the karaguez or puppet-play, of which the
protagonist is called kelchel pehlivan (the bald hero).
The modern Persian drama seems to have admitted Western
influences, as in the case of such comedies as The Pleaders of the
Court, and, avowedly, Monsieur Jourdan and Musla'li Shah,
of whom the former steals away the wits of young Persia by his
pictures of the delights of Paris.
There is no necessity for any reference here to the civilization
or to the literature of the Hebrews, or to those of other Semitic
peoples, with whom the drama is either entirely
wanting, or only appears as a quite occasional and
exotic growth. Dramatic elements are apparent in
two of the books of the Hebrew scripture the Book of Ruth and
the Book of Job, of which latter the author of Everyman, and
Goethe in his Faust, made so impressive a use.
From Polynesia and aboriginal America we also have isolated
traces of drama. Among these are the performances, accom-
panied by dancing and intermixed with recitation and
singing, of the South Sea Islanders, first described by
Captain Cook, and reintroduced to the notice of students Peru [
of comparative mythology by W. Wyatt Gill. Of the
so-called Inca drama of the Peruvians, the unique relic, Apu
Ollantay, said to have been written down in the Quichua tongue
from native dictation by Spanish priests shortly after the conquest
of Peru, has been partly translated by Sir Clements Markham,
and has been rendered into German verse. It appears to be an
historic play of the heroic type, combining stirring incidents with
a pathos finding expression in at least one lyric of some sweetness
the lament of the lost Collyar. With it may be contrasted the
ferocious Aztek dramatic ballet, Rabinal-Achi (translated by
Brasseur de Bourbourg), of which the text seems rather a suc-
cession of warlike harangues than an attempt at dramatic treat-
ment of character. But these are mere isolated curiosities.
6. DRAMATIC ELEMENTS IN EGYPTIAN CULTURE
The civilization and religious ideas of the Egyptians so vitally
influenced the people of whose drama we are about to speak that
a reference to them cannot be altogether omitted. The influence
of Egyptian upon Greek civilization has probably been over-
estimated by Herodotus; but while it will never be clearly
known how much the Greeks owed to the Egyptians in divers
branches of knowledge, it is certain that the former confessed
themselves the scholars of Egypt in the cardinal doctrine of its
natural theology. The doctrine of the immortality of the soul
there found its most solemn expression in mysterious recitations
connected with the rites of sepulture, and treating of the migra-
tion of the soul from its earthly to its eternal abode. These
solemnities, whose transition into the Hellenic mysteries has
usually been attributed to the agency of the Thracian worship of
Dionysus, undoubtedly contained a dramatic element, upon the
extent of which it is, however, useless to speculate. The ideas
to which they sought to give utterance centred in that of Osiris,
the vivifying power or universal soul of nature, whom Herodotus
simply identifies with the Dionysus of the Greeks. The same
deity was likewise honoured by processions among the rural
Egyptian population, which, according to the same authority, in
nearly all respects except the absence of choruses resembled
the Greek phallic processions in honour of the wine-god.
That the Egyptians looked upon music as an important science
seems fully established; it was diligently studied by their priests,
though not, as among the Greeks, forming a part of general
education, and in the sacred rites of their gods they as a rule
permitted the use of flute and harp, as well as of vocal music.
Dancing was as an art confined to professional persons ; but though
the higher orders abstained from its practice, the lower indulged
4 88
DRAMA
[GREEK
in it on festive occasions, when a tendency to pantomime
naturally asserted itself, and licence and wanton buffoonery
prevailed, as in the early rustic festivals of the Greek and Italian
peoples. Of a dance of armed men, on the other hand, there
seems no satisfactory trace in the representations of the Egyptian
monuments.
7. GREEK DRAMA
Whatever elements the Greek drama may, in the sources from
which it sprang, have owed to Egyptian, or Phrygian, or other
Asiatic influences, its development was independent
an( l self-sustained. Not only in its beginnings, but
so long as the stage existed in Greece, the drama was
in intimate connexion with the national religion. This is the most
signal feature of its history, and one which cannot in the same
degree or to the same extent be ascribed to the drama of any
other people, ancient or modern. Not only did both the great
branches of the Greek drama alike originate in the usages of
religious worship, but they never lost their formal union with it,
though one of them (comedy) in its later growth abandoned all
direct reference to its origin. Hellenic polytheism was at once so
active and so fluid or flexible in its anthropomorphic formations,
that no other religious system has ever with the same conquering
force assimilated to itself foreign elements, or with equal vivacity
and variety developed its own. Thus, the worship of Dionysus,
introduced into Greece by the Phoenicians as that of the tauri-
form sun-god whom his worshippers adored with loud cries
(whence Bacchus or lacchus), and the god of generation (whence
his phallic emblem) and production, was brought into connexion
with the Dorian religion of the sun-god Apollo. Apollo and
his sister, again, corresponded to the Pelasgian and Achaean
divinities of sun and moon, whom the Phoenician Dionysus
and Demeter superseded, or with whose worship theirs was
blended. Dionysus, whose rites were specifically conducted
with reference to his attributes as the wine-god, was attended
by deified representations of his original worshippers, who wore
the skin of the goat sacrificed to him. These were the satyrs.
Out of the connected worships of Dionysus, Bacchus, Apollo
and Demeter sprang the beginnings of the Greek drama.
"Both tragedy and comedy," says Aristotle, "originated in
a rude and unpremeditated manner the first from the leaders
of the dithyramb, and the second from those who led off the
phallic songs." This diversity of origin, and the distinction
jealously maintained down to the latest times between the two
branches of the dramatic art, even where they might seem to
come into actual contact with one another, necessitate a separate
statement as to the origin and history of either.
The custom of offering thanks to the gods by hymns and
dances in the places of public resort was first practised by the
Greeks in the Dorian states, whose whole system of
tragedy. ^ e was organized on a military basis. Hence the
dances of the Dorians originally taught or imitated
the movements of soldiers, and their hymns were warlike chants.
Such were the beginnings of the chorus, and of its songs (called
paeans, from an epithet of Apollo), accompanied first by the
phorminx and then by the flute. A step in advance was taken
when the poet with his trained singers and dancers, like the Indian
siitra-dhdra, performed these religious functions as the representa-
tive of the population. From the Doric paean at a very early
period several styles of choral dancing formed themselves,
to which the three styles of dance in scenic productions the
tragic, the comic and the satyric are stated afterwards to have
corresponded. But none of these could have led to a literary
growth. This was due to the introduction among the Dorians
of the dithyramb (from 5?o$, descended from Zeus, and
ramb. Bpiapfios, the Latin triumphus) , originally a song of
revellers, probably led by a flute-player and accom-
panied by the music of other Eastern instruments, in which
it was customary in Crete to celebrate the birth of Bacchus
(the doubly-born) and possibly also his later adventures. The
leader of the band (coryphaeus') may be supposed to have at
times assumed the character of the wine-god, whose worshippers
bore aloft the vineclad thyrsus. The dithyramb was reduced
to a definite form by the Lesbian Arion (fl. 610), who composed
regular poems, turned the moving band of worshippers into
a standing or " cyclic " chorus of attendants on Dionysus
a chorus of satyrs, a tragic or goat chorus invented a style
of music adapted to the character of the chorus, and called these
songs " tragedies " or " goat-songs. " Arion, whose goat-chorus
may perhaps have some connexion with an early Arcadian
worship of Pan, associated it permanently with Dionysus, and
thus became the inventor of " lyrical tragedy " a transition
stage between the dithyramb and the regular drama.
His invention, or the chorus with which it dealt, was
established according to fixed rules by his contem-
porary Stesichorus. About the time when Arion introduced
these improvements into the Dorian city of Corinth, the (likewise
Dorian) families at Sicyon honoured the hero-king Adrastus by
tragic choruses. Hence the invention of tragedy was ascribed
by the Sicyonians to their poet Epigenes; but this step, signifi-
cant for the future history of the Greek drama, of employing the
Bacchic chorus for the celebration of other than Bacchic themes,
was soon annulled by the tyrant Cleisthenes.
The element which transformed lyrical tragedy into the
tragic drama was added by the lonians. The custom of the
recitation of poetry by wandering minstrels, called
rhapsodes (from ^d/35os, staff, or from pa.intu>, to piece so j e g ap ~
together), first sprang up in the Ionia beyond the sea;
to such minstrels was due the spread of the Homeric poems
and of subsequent epic cycles. These recitations, with or without
musical accompaniment, soon included gnomic or didactic,
as well as epic, verse; if Homer was a rhapsode, so was the sen-
tentious or " moral " Hesiod. The popular effect of these recita-
tions was enormously increased by the metrical innovations of
Archilochus (from 708), who invented the trochee and the
iambus, the latter the arrowy metre which is the native form of
satirical invective the species of composition in which Archi-
lochus excelled though it was soon used for other purposes
also. The recitation of these iambics may already have nearly
approached to theatrical declamation. The rhapsodes were
welcome guests at popular festivals, where they exercised their
art in mutual emulation, or ultimately recited parts, perhaps
the whole, of longer poems. The recitation of a long epic may
thus have resembled theatrical dialogue; even more so must
the alternation of iambic poems, the form being frequently
an address in the second person. The rhapsode was in some
sense an actor; and when these recitations reached Attica,
they thus brought with them the germs of theatrical
dialogue.
The rhapsodes were actually introduced into Attica at a very
early period; the Iliad, we know, was chanted at the Brauronia,
a rural festival of Bacchus, whose worship had early invention
entered Attica, and was cherished among its rustic of the
population. Meanwhile the cyclic chorus of the t '' a x ic
Dorians had found its way into Attica and Athens,
ever since the Athenians had recognized the authority of the great
centre of the Apolline religion at Delphi. From the second half
of the 6th century onwards the chorus of satyrs formed a leading
feature of the great festival of Dionysus at Athens. It therefore
only remained for the rhapsodic and the cyclic in other words,
for the epic and the choral elements to coalesce; and this must
have been brought about by a union of the two accompaniments
of religious worship in the festive rites of Bacchus, and by the
domestication of these rites in the ruling city. This occurred
in the time of Peisistratus, perhaps after his restoration in 554.
To Thespis (534), said to have been a contemporary of the tyrant
and a native of an Attic deme (Icaria) , the invention of tragedy
is accordingly ascribed. Whether his name be that of an actual
person or not, his claim to be regarded as the inventor of tragedy
is founded on the statement that he introduced an actor
(wrcxcprrifc, originally, " answerer "), doubtless, at first, gener-
ally the poet himself, who, instead of merely alternating his
recitations with the songs of the chorus, addressed his speech
to its leader the coryphaeus with whom he thus carried on a
GREEK]
DRAMA
489
species of " dialogue." Or, in other words, the leader of the
chorus (coryphaeus), instead of addressing himself to the chorus,
held converse with the actor. The chorus stood round its leader
in front of the Bacchic altar (thymele) ; the actor stood with the
coryphaeus, who had occupied a more elevated position in order
to be visible above his fellows, on a rude table, or possibly on a
cart, though the wagon of Thespis may be a fiction, due to a
confusion between his table and the wagon of Susarion. In any
case, we have here, with the beginnings of dialogue, the beginning
of the stage. It is a significant minor invention ascribed to
Thespis, that he disguised the actor's face first by means of a
pigment, afterwards by a mask. In the dialogue was treated
some myth relating to Bacchus, or to some other deity or hero.
Whether or not Thespis actually wrote tragedies (and there seems
no reason to doubt it), Phrynichus and one or two other poets
are mentioned as having carried on choral tragedy as set on
foot by him, and as having introduced improvements into its
still predominating lyrical element. The step which made
dramatic action possible, and with which the Greek drama thus
really began, was, as is distinctly stated by Aristotle, taken by
Aeschylus. He added a second actor; and, by reducing the
functions of the chorus, he further established the dialogue as the
principal part of tragedy. Sophocles afterwards added a third
actor, by which change the preponderance of the dialogue was
made complete. .
If the origin of Greek comedy is simpler in its nature than
that of Greek tragedy, the beginnings of its progress are involved
in more obscurity. Its association with religious wor-
ship was not initial; its foundations lay in popular
mirth, though religious festivals, and those of the
vintage god in particular, must from the first have been the
most obvious occasions for its exhibition. It is said to have been
" invented " by Susarion, a native of Doric Megaris, whose in-
habitants were famed for their coarse humour, which they
communicated to their own and other Dorian colonies in Sicily,
to this day the home of vivacious mimic dialogue. In the rural
Bacchic vintage festivals bands of jolly companions Ooojuos,
properly a revel continued after supper) went about in carts or
afoot, carrying the phallic emblem, and indulging in the ribald
licence of wanton mirth. From the song sung in these processions
or at the Bacchic feasts, which combined the praise of the god
with gross personal ridicule, and was called comus in a secondary
sense, the Bacchic reveller taking part in it was called a comus-
singer or comoedus. These phallic processions, which were after-
wards held in most Greek cities, and in Athens seem to have early
included a" topical " speech as well as a choral song, determined
the character of Old Attic comedy, whose most prominent feature
was an absolute licence of personal vilification.
Thus independent of one another in their origin, Greek tragedy
and comedy never actually coalesced. The "satyr-drama,"
though in some sense it partook of the nature of both,
was * n i^ s origin as i n its history connected with
tragedy alone, whose origin it directly recalled.
Pratinas of Philus, a contemporary of Aeschylus in his earlier
days, is said to have restored the tragic chorus to the satyrs;
i.e. he first produced dramas in which, though they were the same
in form and theme as the tragedies, the choric dances were
different and entirely carried on by satyrs. The tragic poets,
while never writing comedies, henceforth also composed satyr-
dramas; but neither tragedies nor satyr-dramas were ever
written by the comic poets, and it was in conjunction with
tragedies only that the satyr-dramas were performed. The
theory of the Platonic Socrates, that the same man ought to be
the best tragic and the best comic poet, was among the Greeks
never exemplified in practice. The so-called " hilaro-
comedy. tragedy " or " tragi-comedy " of later writers, perhaps
in some of its features in a measure anticipated by
Euripides, 1 in form nowise differed from tragedy; it merely
contained a comic element in its characters, and invariably had
a happy ending. It is an instructive fact that the serious and
sentimental element in the comedy of Menander and his con-
1 Alcestis; Orestes.
drama?
temporaries did far more to destroy the essential difference
between the two great branches of the Greek dramatic art.
Periods of Greek Tragedy. The history of Greek which to all
intents and purposes remained Attic tragedy divides itself into
three periods.
I. The Period before Aeschylus (535-499). From this we have
but a few names of authors and plays those of the former being
(besides Thespis) Choerilus, Phrynichus and Pratinas, all of whom
lived to contend with Aeschylus for the tragic prize. To each of
them certain innovations are ascribed for instance the intro-
duction of female characters to Phrynichus. He is best re-
membered by the overpowering effect said to have been created
by his Capture of Miletus, in which the chorus consisted of the
wives of the Phoenician sailors in the service of the Great King.
II. The Classical Period of Attic Tragedy that of Aeschylus,
Sophocles and Euripides, and their contemporaries (499-405).
To this belong all the really important phases in the progress
of Greek tragedy, which severally connect themselves with the
names of its three great masters. They may be regarded as the
representatives of successive generations of Attic history and
life, though of course in these, as in the progress of their art itself,
there is an unbroken continuity.
Aeschylus (525-456) had not only fought both at Marathon
and at Salamis against those Persians whose rout he celebrated
with patriotic price, 2 but he had been trained in the Aeschylus.
Eleusinian mysteries, and strenuously asserted the
value of the institution most intimately associated with the
primitive political traditions of the past the Areopagus. 3
He had been born in the generation after Solon, to whose maxims
he fondly clung; and it was the Dorian development of Hellenic
life and the philosophical system based upon it with which his
religious and moral convictions were imbued. Thus even upon
the generation which succeeded him, and to which the powerful
simplicity of his dramatic and poetic diction seemed strange, the
ethical loftiness of his conceptions and the sublimity of his
dramatic imagination fell like the note of a mightier age. To
us nothing is more striking than the conciliatory tendencies of
his conservative mind, and the progressive nature of what may
have seemed to his later contemporaries antiquated ideals.
Sophocles (495-405) was the associate of Pericles, and an
upholder of his authority, rather than a consistent pupil of his
political principles; but his manhood, and perhaps Sophocles
the maturity of his genius, coincided with the great
days when he could stand, like his mighty friend and the com-
munity they both so gloriously represented, on the sunny
heights of achievement. Serenely pious as well as nobly
patriotic, he nevertheless treats the myths of the national
religion in the spirit of a conscious artist, contrasting with lofty
irony the struggles of humanity with the irresistible march of
its destinies. Perhaps he, too, was one of the initiated; and the
note of personal responsibility which is the mystic's inner
religion is recognizable in his view of lif e. 4 The art of Sophocles
may in its perfection be said to typify the greatest epoch in the
life of Athens an epoch conscious of unequalled achievements,
but neither wholly unconscious of the brief endurance which was
its destiny.
Euripides (480-406), as is the fate of genius of a more complex
kind, has been more variously and antithetically judged than
Euripides.
either of his great fellow-tragedians. His art has
been described as devoid of the idealism of theirs,
his genius as rhetorical rather than poetical, his morality as that
of a sophistical wit. On the other hand, he has been recognized
not only as the most tragic of the Attic tragedians and the
most pathetic of ancient poets, but also as the most humane in
his social philosophy and the most various in his psychological
insight. At least, though far removed from the more naif age
of the national life, he is, both in patriotic spirit and in his
choice of themes, genuinely Attic; and if he was " haunted on
the stage by the daemon of Socrates," he was, like Socrates
himself, the representative of an age which was a seed-
time as well as a season of decay. His technical innovations
* Persae. * Eumenides. 'Antigone; Oedipus Rex.
49
DRAMA
[GREEK
corresponded to his literary characteristics; but neither in the
treatment of the chorus, nor in his management of the beginning
and the ending of a tragedy, did he introduce any radical change.
To Euripides the general progress of dramatic literature never-
theless owes more than to any other ancient poet. Tragedy
followed in his footsteps in Greece and at Rome. Comedy owed
him something in the later phases of the very Aristophanes
who mocked him, and more in the human philosophy expressed
in the sentiments of Menander; and, when the modern drama
came to engraft the ancient upon its own crude growth, his was
directly or indirectly the most powerful influence in the establish-
ment of a living connexion between them.
The incontestable pre-eminence of the three great tragic
poets was in -course of time acknowledged at Athens by the
The great usa S e allowing no tragedies but theirs to be performed
tragic more than once, and by the prescription that one
masters play of theirs should be performed at each Dionysia,
and their as we ii as by the law of Lycurgus (c. 330) which
C oraes obli S ed the actors to use, in the case of works of the
great masters, authentic copies preserved in the
public archives. Yet it is possible that the exclusiveness of
these tributes is not entirely justifiable; and not all the tragic
poets contemporary with the great writers were among the
myriad of younglings derided by Aristophanes. Of those who
attained to celebrity Ion of Chios (d. before 419) seems to have
followed earlier traditions of style than Euripides; Agathon,
who survived the latter, on the other hand, introduced certain
innovations of a transnormal kind both into the substance and
the form of dramatic composition. 1
III. Of the third period of Greek tragedy the concluding
limit cannot be precisely fixed. Down to the days of Alexander
The sue- t ' le Great, Athens had remained the chief home of
cessorsol tragedy. Though tragedies must have begun to be
thegreat acted at the Syracusan and Macedonian courts, since
masters at Aeschylus, Euripides and Agathon had sojourned
Athens. there though the practice of producing plays at the
Dionysia before the allies of Athens must have led to their
holding similar exhibitions at home yet before the death of
Alexander we meet with no instance of a tragic poet writing
or of a tragedy written outside Athens. An exception should
indeed be made in favour of the tyrant Dionysius of Syracuse,
who (like Critias in his earlier days at Athens) was " addicted
to " tragic composition. Not all the tragedians of this period,
however, were Athenians born; though the names of Euphorion,
the son of Aeschylus, lophon, the son of Sophocles, and Euripides
and Sophocles, the nephew and the grandson respectively of
their great namesakes, illustrate the descent of the tragic art
as an hereditary family possession. Chaeremon (fl. 380) already
exhibits tragedy on the road to certain decay, for we learn that
his plays were written for reading.
Soon after the death of Alexander theatres are found spread
over the whole Hellenic world of Europe and Asia a result to
which the practice of the conqueror and his father
of celebrating their victories by scenic performances
had doubtless contributed. Alexandria having now
become a literary centre with which even Athens was in some
respects unable to compete, while the latter still remained the
home of comedy, the tragic poets flocked to the capital of the
Ptolemies; and here, in the canon of Greek poets drawn up by
command of Ptolemy Philadelphus (283-247), Alexander the
Aetolian undertook the list of tragedies, while Lycophron was
charged with the comedies. But Lycophron himself was in-
cluded in all the versions of the list of the seven tragic poets
famed as the " Pleias " who still wrote in the style of the Attic
masters and followed the rules observed by them. Tragedy
and the dramatic art continued to be favoured by the later
Ptolemies; and about 100 B.C. we meet with the curious
phenomenon of a Jewish poet, Ezechiel, composing Greek
tragedies, of one of which (the Exodus from Egypt) fragments
have come down to us. Tragedy, with the satyr-drama and
comedy, survived in Alexandria beyond the days of Cicero and
1 Anthos.
Varro; nor was their doom finally sealed till the emperor
Caracalla abolished theatrical performances in the Egyptian
capital in A.D. 217.
Thus Greek tragedy is virtually only another name for Attic;
nor was any departure from the lines laid down fhe
by its three great masters made in most respects by tragedy of
the Roman imitators of these poets and of their sue- thegreat
cessors. masters.
Tragedy was defined by Plato as an imitation of the noblest
life. Its proper themes the deeds and sufferings of heroes
were familiar to audiences intimately acquainted
with the mythology of the national religion. To such Subjects
themes Greek tragedy almost wholly confined itself ;
and in later days there were numerous books which
discussed these myths of the tragedians. They only very
exceptionally treated historic themes, though one great national
calamity, 2 and a yet greater national victory, 3 and in later
times a few other historical subjects, 4 were brought upon the
stage. Such veiled historical allusions as critical ingenuity has
sought not only in passages but in the entire themes of other
Attic tragedies 5 cannot, of course, even if accepted as such,
stamp the plays in which they occur as historic dramas. No
doubt Attic tragedy, though after a different and more decorous
fashion, shared the tendency of her comic sister to introduce
allusions to contemporary events and persons; and the in-
dulgence of this tendency was facilitated by the revision (SicurKevfj)
to which the works of the great poets were subjected by them,
or by those who produced their works after them.' So far as
we know, the subjects of the tragedies before Aeschylus were
derived from the epos; and it was a famous saying of this poet
that his dramas were " but dry scraps from the great banquets
of Homer " an expression which may be understood as includ-
ing the poems which belong to the so-called Homeric cycles.
Sophocles, Euripides and their successors likewise resorted to
the Trojan, and also to the Heraclean and the Thesean myths,
and to Attic legend in general, as well as to Theban, to which
already Aeschylus had had recourse, and to the side or subsidiary
myths connected with these several groups. These substantially
remained to the last the themes 'of Greek tragedy, the Trojan
myths always retaining so prominent a place that Lucian could
jest on the universality of their dominion. Purely invented
subjects were occasionally treated by the later tragedians; of
this innovation Agathon was the originator. 7
Thespis is said to have introduced the use of a " prologue "
and a " rhesis " (speech) the former being probably the opening
speech recited by the coryphaeus, the latter the dialogue
between him and the actor. It was a natural result
of the introduction of the second actor that a second
rhesis should likewise be added; and this tripartite division
would be the earliest form of the trilogy, three sections of the
same myth forming the beginning, middle and end of a single
drama, marked off from one another by the choral The
songs. From this Aeschylus proceeded to the treat- Aeschy-
ment of these several portions of a myth in three fcaj >
separate plays, connected together by their subject trilogy.
and by being performed in sequence on a single occasion. This
is the Aeschylean trilogy, of which we have only one extant
example, the Oresteia as to which critics may differ whether
Aeschylus adhered in it to his principle that the strength should
2 Phrynichus, Capture of Miletus.
* Id., Phpenissae; Aeschylus, Persae (Persae-trilogy ?).
* Moschion, Themistodes; Theodectes, Mausolus; Lycophron,
Marathonii; Cassandrei; Socii; Philiscus, Themistodes.
6 Aeschylus, Septem c. Thebas', Prometheus Vinctus', Danais-
trilogy; Sophocles, Antigone; Oedipus Coloneus; Euripides, Medea.
6 Quite distinct from this revision was the practice against which
the law of Lycurgus was directed, of " cobbling and heeling " the
dramas of the great masters by alterations of a kind familiar enough
to the students of Shakespeare as improved by Colley Gibber and
other experts. The later tragedians also appear to have occasionally
transposed long speeches or episodes from one tragedy into another
a device largely followed by the Roman dramatists, and called
contamination by Latin writers.
''Anthos (The Flower).
Construc-
tion.
GREEK]
DRAMA
491
lie in the middle in other words, that the interest should centre
in the second play. In any case, the symmetry of the trilogy
was destroyed by the practice of performing after it a
jo e ' satyr-drama, probably as a rule, if not always, con-
nected in subject with the trilogy, which thus became
a tetralogy, though this term, unlike the other, seems to be a
purely technical expression invented by the learned. 1 Sophocles,
a more conscious and probably a more self-critical artist than
Aeschylus, may be assumed from the first to have elaborated
his tragedies with greater care; and to this, as well as to his
innovation of the third actor, which materially added to the
fulness of the action, we may attribute his introduction of the
custom of contending for the prize with single plays. It does not
follow that he never produced connected trilogies, though we
have no example of such by him or any later author; on the
other hand, there is no proof that either he or any of his successors
ever departed from the Aeschylean rule of producing three
tragedies, followed by a satyr-drama, on the same day. This
remained the third and last stage in the history of the con-
struction of Attic tragedy. The tendency of its
I"*" action towards complication was a natural progress,
actions. an( l is emphatically approved by Aristotle. This
complication, in which Euripides excelled, led to his
use of prologues, in which one of the characters opens the play
by an exposition of the circumstances under which its action
begins. This practice, though ridiculed by Aristophanes, was
too convenient not to be adopted by the successors of Euripides,
and Menander transferred it to comedy. As the dialogue in-
creased in importance, so the dramatic significance of the chorus
diminished. While in Aeschylus it mostly, and in Sophocles
occasionally, takes part in the action, its songs could not but
more and more approach the character of lyrical intermezzos',
and this they openly assumed when Agathon began the practice
of inserting choral songs (embolima) which had nothing to do
with the action of the play. In the general contrivance of their
actions it was only natural that, as compared with Aeschylus,
Sophocles and Euripides should exhibit an advance in both
freedom and ingenuity; but the palm, due to a treatment at
once piously adhering to the substance of the ancient legends
and original in an effective dramatic treatment of them, must
be given to Sophocles. Euripides was, moreover, less skilful in
untying complicated actions than in weaving them; hence his
frequent resort 2 to the expedient of the deus ex machina, which
Sophocles employs only in his latest play. 3
The' other distinctions to be drawn between the dramatic
qualities of the three great tragic masters must be mainly based
upon a critical estimate of the individual genius of
each. In the characters of their tragedies, Aeschylus
and Sophocles avoided those lapses of dignity with
which from one point of view Euripides has been charged by
Aristophanes and other critics, but which, from another, connect
themselves with his humanity. If his men and women are less
heroic and statuesque, they are more like men and women.
Aristotle objected to the later tragedians that, compared with
the great masters, they were deficient in the drawing of character
by which he meant the lofty drawing of lofty character. In
diction, the transition is even more manifest from the
" helmeted phrases " of Aeschylus, who had Milton's
love of long words and sonorous proper names, to the play of
Euripides' " smooth and diligent tongue "; but to a sustained
style even he remained essentially true, and it was reserved for
his successors to introduce into tragedy the " low speech " i.e.
the conversational language of comedy. Upon the whole,
however, the Euripidean diction seems to have remained the
standard of later tragedy, the flowery style of speech introduced
by Agathon finding no permanent favour.
1 One satyr-drama only is preserved to us, the Cyclops of Euripides,
a dramatic version of the Homeric tale of the visit of Odysseus to
Polyphemus. Lycophron, by using the satyr-drama (in his Mene-
demus) as a vehicle of personal ridicule applied it to a purpose
resembling that of Old Attic Comedy.
* Ion; Supplices; Iphigenia in Tauris; Electro,; Helena;
Hippolytus; A ndr attache. * Philoctetes.
Charac-
ters.
Diction.
Finally, Aeschylus is said to have made certain reforms in
tragic costume of which the object is self-evident to have
improved the mask, and to have invented the cothurnus i mpr0 ve-
or buskin, upon which the actor was raised to loftier meats la
stature. Euripides was not afraid of rags and tatters ; <**tumc,
but the sarcasms of Aristophanes on this head seem
feeble to those who are aware that they would apply to King
Lear as well as to Telephus.
Periods of Greek Comedy. The history of Greek comedy is
likewise that of an essentially Attic growth, although Sicilian
comedy was earlier in date than her Attic sister or descendant.
The former is represented by Epicharmus (fl. 500), and by the
names of one or two other poets. It probably had a chorus, and,
dealing as it did in a mixture of philosophical discourse, anti-
thetical rhetoric and wild buffoonery, necessarily varied in style.
His comedies were the earliest examples of the class distinguished
as motoriae from the statariae and the mixtae by their greater
freedom and turbulence of movement. Though in some respects
Sicilian comedy seems to have resembled the Middle rathet
than the Old Attic comedy, its subjects sometimes, like those
of the latter, coincided with the myths of tragedy, of which they
were doubtless parodies. The so-called " mimes " of Sophron
(fl. 430) were dramatic scenes from Sicilian everyday life, in-
tended, not for the stage, but for recitation, and classed as
" male " and "female " according to the sex of the characters.
Attic comedy is usually divided into three periods or species.
I. Old comedy, which dated from the complete establishment
of democracy by Pericles, though a comedy directed against
Themistocles is mentioned. The Megarean farcical
entertainments had long spread in the rural districts comedy.
of Attica, and were now introduced into the city,where
from about 460 onwards the " comus " became a matter of
public concern. Cratinus (c. 450-422) and Crates (c. 449-425)
first moulded these beginnings into the forms of Attic art. The
final victory of Pericles and the democratic party may be reckoned
from the ostracism of Thucydides (444) ; and so eagerly was the
season of freedom employed by the comic poets that already
four years afterwards a law which, however, remained only a
short time in force limited their licence. Cratinus, 4 an exceed-
ingly bold and broad satirist, apparently of conservative
tendencies, was followed by Eupolis (440-after 415), every one
of whose plays appears to have attacked some individual, 6 by
Phrynichus, Plato and others; but the representative of old
comedy in its fullest development is Aristophanes (c. 444-c. 380),
a comic poet of unique and unsurpassed genius. Dignified by
the acquisition of a chorus (more numerous twenty-four to
twelve or afterwards fifteen though of a less costly kind than
the tragic) of masked actors, and of scenery and
machinery, as well as by a corresponding literary P haae"s
elaboration and elegance of style, Old Attic comedy
nevertheless remained true both to its origin and to the purposes
of its introduction into the free imperial city. Its special season
was at the festival of the Lenaea, when the Athenians could
enjoy the fun against one another without espying strangers;
but it was also performed -at the Great Dionysia. It borrowed
much from tragedy, but it retained the phallic abandonment
of the old rural festivals, the licence of word and gesture, and the
audacious directness of personal invective. These characteristics
are not features peculiar to Aristophanes. He was twitted by
some of the older comic poets with having degenerated from the
full freedom of the art by a tendency to refinement, and he
took credit to himself for having superseded the time-honoured
cancan and the stale practical joking of his predecessors by a
nobler kind of mirth. But in daring, as he likewise boasted, he
had no peer; and the shafts of his wit, though dipped in wine-
lees and at times feathered from very obscene fowl, flew at high
game. 6 He has been accused of seeking to degrade what he ought
to have recognized as good 7 ; and it has been shown with com-
plete success that he is not to be taken as an impartial or accurate
4 Archilochi; Pytine (The Bottle}.
6 Maricas (Cleon) ; Baptae (Alcibiades) ; Lacones (Cimon).
Knights. ' Clouds.
492
DRAMA
[GREEK
authority on Athenian history. ' But partisan as he was, he was
also a genuine patriot; and his very political sympathies
which were conservative, like those of the comic poets in general,
not only because it was the old families upon whom the
expense of the choregia in the main devolved were such as have
often stimulated the most effective political satire. Of the
conservative quality of reverence he was, however, altogether
devoid; and his love for Athens was that of the most free-spoken
of sons. Flexible even in his religious notions, he was, in this
as in other respects, ready to be educated by his times; and,
like a true comic poet, he could be witty at the expense even of
his friends, and, it might almost be said, of himself. In wealth
of fancy * and in beauty of lyric melody, he has few peers among
the great poets of all times.
The distinctive feature of Old, as compared with Middle
comedy, is the parabasis, the speech in which the chorus, moving
towards and facing the audience, addressed it in the
basis*' ' name f th e poet, often abandoning all reference to the
action of the play. The loss of the parabasis was
involved in the loss of the chorus, of which comedy was deprived
in consequence of the general reduction of expenditure upon the
comic drama, culminating in the law of the personally aggrieved
dithyrambic poet Cinesias (396) . 2 But with the downfall of the
independence of Athenian public life, the ground had been cut
from under the feet of its most characteristic representative.
Already in 414, in the anxious time after the sailing of the Sicilian
expedition, the law of Syracosius had prohibited the comic
poets from making direct reference to current events; but the
Birds had taken their flight above the range of all regulations.
The catastrophe of the city (405) was preceded by the temporary
overthrow of the democracy (411), and was followed by the
establishment of an oligarchical " tyranny " under Spartan
protection; and, when liberty was restored (404), the citizens
for a time addressed themselves to their new life in a soberer
spirit, and continued (or passed) the law prohibiting the introduc-
tion by name of any individual as one of the personages of a play.
The change to which comedy had to accommodate itself was one
which cannot be denned by precise dates, yet it was not the less
inevitable in its progress and results. Comedy, in her struggle
for existence, now chiefly devoted herself to literary and social
themes, such as the criticism of tragic poets, 3 and the literary
craze of women's rights, 4 and the transiti'on to Middle comedy
accomplished itself. Of the later plays of Aristophanes, three 6
are without a parabasis, and in the last of those preserved to us
which properly belongs to Middle comedy 6 the chorus is quite
insignificant.
II. Middle comedy, whose period extends over the remaining
years of Athenian freedom (from about 400 to 338), thus differed
in substance as well as in form from its predecessor. It
kiddie * s represented by the names of thirty-seven writers
comedy. (more than double the number of poets attributed to
Old comedy), among whom Eubulus, Antiphanes and
Alexis are stated to have been pre-eminently fertile and successful.
It was a comedy of manners as well as character, although its
ridicule of particular classes of men tended to the creation of
standing types, such as soldiers, parasites, courtesans, revellers,
and a favourite figure already drawn by Aristophanes ' the
self-conceited cook. . In style it necessarily inclined to become
more easy and conversational and to substitute insinuation for
invective; while in that branch which was devoted to the parody-
ing of tragic myths its purpose may have been to criticize, but
its effect must have been to degrade. This species of the comic
art had found favour at Athens already before the close of the
great civil War; its inventor was the Thasian Hegemon, whose
Gigantomachia was amusing the Athenians on the day when the
news arrived of the Sicilian disaster.
i Birds.
1 Strattis, The Choricide (against Cinesias).
Aristophanes, Frogs; Phrynichus, Musae; Tragoedi.
* Aristophanes, Ecclesiazusae.
6 Lysistrata; Thesmophoriazusae; Plutus II.
6 Plutus. ' Aeolosicon.
III. New comedy, which is dated from the establishment of
the Macedonian supremacy (338) , is merely a further development
of Middle, from which indeed it was not distinguished
till the time of Hadrian. If its favourite types were
more numerous, including the captain (of mercenaries)
the original of a long line of comic favourites the cunning
slave, &c., they were probably also more conventional. New
comedy appears to have first constituted love intrigues the main
subject of dramatic actions. The most famous of the sixty-four
writers said to have belonged to this period of comedy were
Philemon (fl. from 330), Menander (342-329) and his contem-
porary Diphilus. Of these authors we know something
from fragments, but more from their Latin adapters
Plautus and Terence. As comedians of character, aa der.
they were limited by a range of types which left little
room for originality of treatment; in the construction of their
plots they were skilful rather than varied. In style, as well as
to some extent in construction, Menander seems to have taken
Euripides as his model, infusing into his comedy an element of
moral and sentimental reflection, which refined if it did not
enliven it.
New comedy, and with it Greek comedy proper, is regarded as
having come to an end with Posidippus (fl. c. 280). Other
comic writers of a later date are, however, mentioned,
among them Rhinthon of Tarentum (fl. c. 300), whose
mixed compositions have been called by various names,
among them by that of " phlyacographies " (from phlyax, idle
chatter). He was succeeded by Sopater, Sotades and others;
but the dramatic element in these often obscene, but not perhaps
altogether frivolous, travesties is not always clearly ascertainable.
It is certain that Greek comedy gradually ceased to be pro-
ductive; and though even in its original form it long continued
to be acted in imperial Rome, these are phases of its history
which may here be passed by.
The religious origin of the Attic drama impresses itself upon
all its most peculiar features. Theatrical performances were
held at Athens only at fixed seasons in the early part -
rl i-ni.i*.iri jKCSUltS Of
of the year at the Bacchic festivals of the country religious
Dionysia (vintage), the Lenaea (wine-press), probably
at the Anthesteria, and above all, at the Great Dionysia,
or the Dionysia par excellence, at the end of March
and beginning of April, when in her most glorious age Athens
was crowded with visitors from the islands and cities of her
federal empire. As a part of religious worship, the performances
took place in a sacred locality the Lenaeum on the south-
eastern declivity of the Acropolis, where the first wine-press
(lenos) was said to have been set up, and where now an altar of
Bacchus (thymele) formed the centre of the theatre. For the
same reason the exhibitions claimed the attendance of the whole
population, and room was therefore provided on a grand scale
according to the Platonic Socrates, for " more than 30,000 "
spectators (see THEATRE). The performances lasted all day,
or were at least, in accordance with their festive character,
extended to as great a length as possible. To their religious
origin is likewise to be attributed the fact that they were treated
as a matter of state concern. The expenses of the chorus, which
in theory represented the people at large, were defrayed on behalf
of the state by the liturgies (public services) of wealthy citizens,
chosen in turn by the tribes to be choragi (leaders, i.e. providers
of the chorus), the duty of training being, of course, deputed by
them to professional persons (chorodidascali). Publicly appointed
and sworn judges decided between the merits of the dramas
produced in competition with one another; the successful poet,
performers and choragus were crowned with ivy, and the last-
named was allowed at his own expense to consecrate a tripod
in memory of his victory in the neighbourhood of the sacred
Bacchic enclosure. Such a monument one of the most graceful
relics of ancient Athens still stands in the place where it was
erected, and recalls to posterity the victory of Lysicrates,
achieved in the same year as that of Alexander on the Granicus.
The dramatic exhibitions being a matter of religion and state,
the entrance money (theoricum), which had be -in introduced to
ROMAN]
DRAMA
493
prevent overcrowding, was from the time of Pericles provided out
of the public treasury. The whole populatiom had a right to its
Bacchic holiday; neither women, nor boys, nor slaves were
excluded from theatrical spectacles at Athens.
The religious character of dramatic performances at Athens,
and the circumstances under which they accordingly took place,
likewise determined their externals of costume and
Costume scenerv- The actor's dress was originally the festive
scenery. Dionysian attire, of which it always retained the gay
and variegated hues. The use of the mask, sur-
mounted, high over the forehead, by an ample wig, was due to
the actor's appearing in the open air and at a distance from most
of the spectators; the several species of mask were elaborated
with great care, and adapted to the different types of theatrical
character. The cothurnus, or thick-soled boot, which further
raised the height of the tragic actor (while the comedian wore
a thin-soled boot), was likewise a relic of Bacchic costume.
The scenery was, in the simplicity of its original conception,
suited to open-air performances; but in course of time the art
of scene-painting came to be highly cultivated, and movable
scenes were contrived, together with machinery of the ambitious
kind required by the Attic drama, whether for bringing gods
down from heaven, or for raising mortals aloft.
On a stage and among surroundings thus conventional, it
might seem as if little scope could have been left for the actor's
art. But, though the demands made upon the Attic
actor differed in kind even from those made upon his
Roman successor, and still more from those which the histrionic
art has to meet in modern times, they were not the less rigorous.
Mask and buskin might increase his stature, and the former might
at once lend the appropriate expression to his appearance and
the necessary resonance to his voice. But in declamation,
dialogue and lyric passage, in gesticulation and movement,
he had to avoid the least violation of the general harmony of the
performance. Yet it is clear that the refinements of by-play
must, from the nature of the case, have been impossible on the
Attic stage; the gesticulation must have been broad and
massive; the movement slow, and the grouping hard, in tragedy;
and the weighty sameness of the recitation must have had an
effect even more solemn and less varied than the half-chant
which still lingers on the modern stage. Not more than three
actors, as has been seen, appeared in any Attic tragedy. The
actors were provided by the poet; perhaps the performer of
the first parts (protagonist) was paid by the state. It was again
a result of the religious origin of Attic dramatic performances
and of the public importance attached to them, that the actor's
profession was held in high esteem. These artists were as a
matter of course free Athenian citizens, often the dramatists
themselves, and at times were employed in other branches of
the public service. In later days, when tragedy had migrated to
Alexandria, and when theatrical entertainments had spread over
all the Hellenic world, the art of acting seems to have reached
an unprecedented height, and to have taken an extraordinary
hold of the public mind. Synods, or companies, of Dionysian
artists abounded, who were in possession of various privileges,
and in one instance at least (at Pergamum) of rich endowments.
The most important of these was the Ionic company, established
first in Teos, and afterwards in Lebedos, near Colophon, which is
said to have lasted longer than many a famous state. We like-
wise hear of strolling companies performing in pariibus. Thus it
came to pass that the vitality of some of the masterpieces of
the Greek drama is without a parallel in theatrical history; while
Greek actors were undoubtedly among the principal and most
effective agents of the spread of literary culture through a great
part of the known world.
The theory and technical system of the drama exercised the
critical powers both of dramatists, such as Sophocles, and of the
Writers oa greatest among Greek philosophers. If Plato touched
the theory the subject incidentally, Aristotle has in his Poetics
dnm* (after 334) included an exposition of it, which, mutilated
as it is, has formed the basis of all later systematic in-
quiries. The specialities of Greek tragic dramaturgy refer above
all to the chorus; its general laws are those of the regular drama
of all times. The theories of Aristotle and other earlier writers
were elaborated by the Alexandrians, many of whom doubtless
combined example with precept; they also devoted themselves
to commentaries on the old masters, such as those in which
Didymus (c. 30 B.C.) abundantly excelled, and collected a vast
amount of learning on dramatic composition in general, which
was doomed to perish, with so many other treasures, in the flames
kindled by religious fanaticism.
8. ROMAN DRAMA
In its most productive age, as well as in the times of its decline
and decay, the Roman drama exhibits the continued coexistence
of native forms by the side of those imported from Greece
either kind being necessarily often subject to the influence of
the other. Italy (with Sicily) has ever been the native land of
acting and of scenic representation; and, though Roman
dramatic literature at its height is but a faint reflex of Greek
examples, there is perhaps no branch of Roman literary art
more congenial than this to the soil whence it sprang.
Quick observation and apt improvisation have always been
distinctive features in the Italian character. Thus in the rural
festivities of Italy there developed from a very early
period in lively intermixture the elements of the Of 1 * 1 " f
/ i j i .. its native
dance, of jocular and abusive succession of song, forms.
speech and dialogue, and of an assumption of character
such as may be witnessed in any ordinary dialogue carried on
by southern Italians at the present day. Not less indigenous
was the invariable accompaniment of the music of the flute
(tibia). The occasions of these half obligatory, half impromptu
festivities were religious celebrations, public or private among
the latter more especially weddings, which have in all ages been
provocative of demonstrative mirth. The so-called Fescennine
verses (from Fescennium in southern Etruria, and very possibly
connected with fascinum=phallos), which were afterwards con-
fined to weddings, and ultimately suggested an elaborate species
of artistic poetry, never merged into actual dramatic perform-
ances. In the saturae, on the other hand a name saturae
originally suggested by the goatskins of the shepherds,
but from primitive times connected with the " fulness " of both
performers and performance there seems from the first to have
been a dramatic element; they were probably comic songs or
stories recited with gesticulation and the invariable flute ac-
companiment. Introduced into the city, these entertainments
received a new impulse from the performa.nces of the Etruscan
players (ludiones) who had been brought inCo Rome when scenic
games (ludi scenici) were introduced there in 364 B.C. for purposes
of religious propitiation. These (h)istriones, as they j str i ones
were called at Rome (islri had been their native name),
who have had the privilege of transmitting their appellation to
the entire histrionic art and its professors, were at first only
dancers and pantomimists in a city where their speech was exotic.
But their performances encouraged and developed those of other
players and mountebanks, so that after the establishment of the
regular drama at Rome on the Greek model, the saturae came to
be performed as farcical after-pieces (exodia), until they gave
way to other species. Among these the mimi were at Rome
probably coeval in their beginnings with the stage
itself, where those who performed them were after-
wards known under the same name, possibly in the place of an
older appellation (planipedes, bare-footed, representatives of
slaves and humble folk) . These loose farces, after being probably
at first performed independently, were then played as after-
pieces, till in the imperial period, when they reasserted their
predominance, they were again produced independently. At
the close of the republican period the mimus found its way into
literature, through D. Laberius, C. Matius and Publilius Syrus,
and was assimilated in both form and subjects to other varieties
of the comic drama preserving, however, as its distinctive
feature, a preponderance of the mimic or gesticulatory element.
Together with the pantomimus (see below) the mimus continued
to prevail in the days of the Empire, having transferred its
Miml.
494
DRAMA
[ROMAN
original grossness to its treatment of mythological subjects,
with which it dealt in accordance with the demands of a " lubrique
and adulterate age." As a matter of course, the mimus freely
borrowed from other species, among which, so far as they were
of native Italian origin, the A tellane fables (from Atella
in Campania) call for special mention. Very probably
of Oscan origin, they began with delineations of the life of small
towns, in which dramatic and other satire has never ceased to
find a favourite subject. The principal personages in these living
sketches gradually assumed a fixed and conventional character,
which they retained even when, after the final overthrow of
Campanian independence (210), the Alellanae had been trans-
planted to Rome. Here the heavy father or husband (pappus),
the ass-eared glutton (maccus), the full-cheeked, voracious
chatterbox (bucco), and the wily sharper (dorsenus) became
accepted comic types, and, with others of a smiliar kind, were
handed down, to reappear in the modern Italian drama. In
these characters lay the essence of the Atellanae: their plots
were extremely simple; the dialogue (perhaps interspersed with
songs in the Saturnian metre) was left to the performers to
improvise. In course of time these plays assumed a literary
form, being elaborated as after-pieces by Lucius Pomponius of
Bononia, Novius and other authors; but under the Empire
they were gradually absorbed in the pantomimes.
The regular, as distinct from the popular, Roman drama,
on the other hand, was of foreign (i.e. Greek) origin; and its
origin at early history, at all events, attaches itself to more or
the regular less fixed dates. It begins with the year 240 B.C.,
Roman w hen at the ludi Romani, held with unusual splendour
drama. a ft er the first Punic War, its victorious conclusion
was, in accordance with Macedonian precedent, celebrated by
the first production of a tragedy and a comedy on the Roman
stage. The author of both, who appeared in person as an actor,
was Livius Andronicus (b. 278 or earlier), a native of the Greek
city of Tarentum, where the Dionysiac festivals enjoyed high
popularity. His models were, in tragedy, the later Greek
tragedians and their revisions of the three great Attic masters;
in comedy, we may feel sure, Menander and his school. Greek
examples continued to dominate the regular Roman drama
during the whole of its course, even when it resorted to native
themes.
The main features of Roman tragedy admit of no doubt,
although our conclusions respecting its earlier progress are only
derived from analogy, from scattered notices, especially
woman ' ^ ^ t ^ t ^ es f pl avs > an d from such fragments mostly
tragedy. very brief as have come down to us. Of the known
titles of the tragedies of Livius Andronicus, six belong
to the Trojan cycle, and this preference consistently maintained
itself among the tragedians of the " Trojugenae " ; next in
popularity seem to have been the myths of the house of Tantalus,
of the Pelopidae and of the Argonauts. The distinctions drawn
by later Roman writers between the styles of the tragic poets
of the republican period must in general be taken on trust. The
Campanian Cn. Naevius (fl. from 236) wrote comedies as well as
tragedies, so that the rigorous separation observed among the
Greeks in the cultivation of the two dramatic species was at first
neglected at Rome. His realistic tendency, displayed in that
fondness for political allusions which brought upon him the
vengeance of a noble family (the Metelli) incapable of under-
standing a joke of this description, might perhaps under more
favourable circumstances have led him more fully to develop a
Praetexta. new tra S ic species invented by him. But the fabula
praelexta or praetextata (from the purple-bordered
robe worn by higher magistrates) was not destined to become
the means of emancipating the Roman serious drama from the
control of Greek examples. In design, it was national tragedy
on historic subjects of patriotic interest which the Greeks had
treated only in isolated instances; and one might at first sight
marvel why, after Naevius and his successors had produced
skilful examples of the species, it should have failed to over-
shadow and outlast in popularity a tragedy telling the oft-told
foreign tales of Thebes and Mycenae, or even the pseudo-ancestral
story of Troy. But it should not be forgotten to how great an
extent so-called early Roman history consisted of the traditions
of the gentes, and how little the party-life of later republican Rome
lent itself to a dramatic treatment likely to be acceptable both
to the nobility and to the multitude. As for the emperors, the
last licence they would have permitted to the theatre was a free
popular treatment of the national history ; if Augustus prohibited
the publication of a tragedy by his adoptive father on the subject
of Oedipus, it was improbable that he or his successors should
have sanctioned the performance of plays dealing with the
earthly fortunes of Divus Julius himself, or with the story of
Marius, or that of the Gracchi, or any of the other tragic themes
of later republican or imperial history. The historic drama at
Rome thus had no opportunity for a vigorous life, even could
tragedy have severed its main course from the Greek literature
of which it has been well called a " free-hand copy." The
praetextae of which we know chiefly treat possibly here and
there helped to form ' legends of a hoary antiquity, or celebrate
battles chronicled in family or public records 2 ; and in the end
the species died a natural death. 3
Q. Ennius (239-168), the favourite poet of the great families,
was qualified by his Tarentine education, which taught the Oscan
youth the Greek as well as the Latin tongue (so that
he boasted " three souls "), to become the literary f"^* s
exponent of the Hellenizing tendencies of his age of successors.
Roman society. Nearly half of the extant names of
his tragedies belong to the Trojan cycle; and Euripides was
clearly his favourite source and model. M. Pacuvius (b. c. 229),
like Ennius subject from his youth up to the influences of Greek
civilization, and the first Roman dramatist who devoted himself
exclusively to the tragic drama, was the least fertile of the chief
Roman tragedians, but was regarded by the ancients as indisput-
ably superior to Ennius. He again was generally (though not
uniformly) held to have been surpassed by L. Accius (b. 170), a
learned scholar and prolific dramatist, of whose plays 50 titles
and a very large number of fragments have been preserved.
The plays of the last-named three poets maintained themselves
on the stage till the close of the republic ; and Accius was quoted
by the emperor Tiberius. 4 Of the other tragic writers of the
republic several were dilettanti such as the great orator and
eminent politician C. Julius Strabo; the cultivated officer
Q. Tullius Cicero, who made an attempt, disapproved by his
illustrious brother, to introduce the satyr-drama into the Roman
theatre; L. Cornelius Balbus, a Caesarean partisan; and finally
C. Julius Caesar himself.
Tragedy continued to be cultivated under the earlier emperors;
and one author, the famous and ill-fated L. Annaeus Seneca
(4 B.C.-A.D. 65), left behind him a series of works
which were to exercise a paramount influence upon the
beginnings of modern tragedy. In accordance with the character
of their author's prose-work, they exhibit a strong predominance
of the rhetorical element, and an artificiality of style far removed
from that of the poets Sophocles and Euripides, from whom
Seneca derived his themes. Yet he is interesting, not only by
these devices and by a " sensational " choice of themes, but also
by a quickness of treatment which we may call " modem," a
quality not easily resisted in a dramatist. The metrification of
his plays is very strict, and they were doubtless intended for
recitation, whether or not also designed for the stage. A few
tragic poets are mentioned after Seneca, till about the reign of
Domitian (81-96) the list comes to an end. The close of Roman
tragic literature is obscurer than its beginning; and, while there
are traces of tragic performances at Rome as late as even the
6th century, we are ignorant how long the works of the old
'Naevius, Lupus (The Wolf); Romulus; Ennius, Sabinae (The
Sabine Women) ; Accius, Brutus.
2 Naevius, Clastidium (Marcellust) ; Ennius, Ambracia; Pacuvius,
Paulus; Accius, Aeneadae (Decius?).
3 Balbus's Her (The Mission), an isolated play on an episode of the
Pharsalian campaign, seems to have been composed for the mere
private delectation of its author and hero. Octavia, a late praetexta
ascribed to Seneca, was certainly not written by him.
4 " Oderint dum metuant " (Atreus).
Seneca,
ROMAN]
DRAMA
495
masters of Roman tragedy maintained themselves on the
stage.
It would obviously be an error to draw from the plays of
Seneca conclusions as to the method and style of the earlier
Character- writers. In general, however, no important changes
istics of seem to have occurred in the progress of Roman tragic
Roman composition. The later Greek plays remained, so far
as can be gathered, the models in treatment; and,
inasmuch as at Rome the several plays were performed singly,
there was every inducement to make their action as full and
complicated as possible. The dialogue-scenes (diverbia) appear
to have been largely interspersed with musical passages (cantica) ;
but the effect of the latter must have suffered from the barbarous
custom of having the songs sung by a boy, placed in front of the
flute-player (cantor), while the actor accompanied them with
gesticulations. The chorus (unlike the Greek) stood on the stage
itself and seems occasionally at least to have taken part in the
action. But the whole of the musical element can hardly have
attained to so full a development as among the Greeks. The
divisions of the action appear at first to have been three; from
the addition of prologue and epilogue may have arisen the
invention (probably due in tragedy to Varro) of the fixed number
of five acts. In style, such influence as the genius of Roman
literature could exercise must have been in the direction of the
rhetorical and the pathetic; a superfluity of energy on the one
hand, and a defect of poetic richness on the other, can hardly have
failed to characterize these, as they did all the other productions
of early Roman poetry.
In Roman comedy two different kinds respectively called
palliata and togata from well-known names of dress were dis-
tinguished, the former treating Greek subjects and
Roman imitating Greek originals, the latter professing a native
comedy, character. The palliata sought its originals especially
in New Attic comedy; and its authors, as they
advanced in refinement of style, became more and more de-
pendent upon their models, and unwilling to gratify the coarser
Palliata. ta stes of the public by local allusions or gross season-
ings. But that kind of comedy which shrinks from
the rude breath of popular applause usually has in the end to
give way to less squeamish rivals; and thus, after the species
had been cultivated for about a century (c. 250-1503.0.), palliatae
ceased to be composed except for the amusement of select circles,
though the works of the most successful authors, Plautus and
Terence, kept the stage even after the establishment of the
empire. Among the earlier writers of palliatae were the tragic
poets Andronicus, Naevius and Ennius, but they were alike
Plautus. surpassed by T. Maccius Plautus (254-184), nearly all
of whose comedies esteemed genuine by Varro not
less than 20 in number have been preserved, though twelve of
them were not known to the modern world before 1429. He
was exclusively a comic poet, and, though he borrowed his plots
from the Greeks from Diphilus and Philemon apparently in
preference to the more refined Menander there was in him a
genuinely national as well as a genuinely popular element.
Of the extent of his originality it is impossible to judge; probably
it lies in his elaboration of types of character and the comic turns
of his dialogue rather than in his plots. Modern comedy is
indebted to him in all these points; and, in consequence of
this fact, as well as of the attention his text has for linguistic
reasons received from scholarship both ancient and modern,
his merits have met with quite their full share of recognition.
Caecilius Statius (an Insubrian brought to Rome as a captive
c. 200) stands midway between Plautus and Terence, but no
Tennce. P' a y s f ms remain. P. Terentius Afer (c. 185-159)
was, as his cognomen implies, a native of Carthage, of
whose conqueror he enjoyed the patronage. His six extant
comedies seem to be tolerably close renderings of their Greek
originals, nearly all of which were plays of Menander. It was
the good fortune of the works of Terence to be preserved in an
exceptionally large number of MSS. in the monastic libraries
of the middle ages, and thus (as will be seen) to become a main
link between the ancient and the Christian drama. As a
Togatae.
dramatist he is distinguished by correctness of style rather than
by variety in his plots or vivacity in his characters; his chief
merit and at the same time the quality which has rendered him
so suitable for modern imitation is to be sought in the polite
ease of his dialogue. In general, the main features of the palliatae,
which were divided into five acts, are those of the New Comedy
of Athens, like which they had no chorus; for purposes of
explanation from author to audience the prologue sufficed;
the Roman versions were probably terser than their originals,
which they often altered by the process called contamination.
The togatae, in the wider sense of the term, included all
Roman plays of native origin among the rest, the praetextae,
in contradistinction to which and to the transient
species of the trabeatae (from the dress of the knights)
the comedies dealing with the life of the lower classes were
afterwards called tabernariae (from taberna, a shop), a name
suited by some of their extant titles, 1 while others point to
the treatment of provincial scenes. 2 The togata, which was
necessarily more realistic than the palliata, and doubtless fresher
as well as coarser in tone, flourished in Roman literature between
170 and 80 B.C. In this species Titinius, all whose plays bear
Latin titles and were tabernariae, was succeeded by the more
refined L. Afranius, who, though still choosing natural subjects,
seems to have treated them in the spirit of Menander. His
plays continued to be performed under the empire, though with
an admixture of elements derived from that lower species, the
pantomime, to which they also were in the end to succumb.
The Romans likewise adopted the burlesque kind of comedy
called from its inventor Rhinthonica, and by other names (see
above). But with them, the general course of the drama, which
with the Greeks lost itself in the sand, could not fail to be merged
in to the flood.
The end of Roman dramatic literature was dilettantism and
criticism; the end of the Roman drama was spectacle and
show, buffoonery and sensual allurement. It was for
this that the theatre had passed through all its early
troubles, when the political puritanism of the old theatre.
school had upheld the martial games of the circus
against the enervating influence of the stage. In those days the
guardians of Roman virtue had sought to diminish the attractions
of the theatre by insisting upon its remaining as uncomfortable
as possible; but as was usual at Rome, the privileges of the upper
orders were at last extended to the population at large, though
a separation of classes continued to be characteristic of a Roman
audience. The first permanent theatre erected at Rome was that
of Cn. Pompeius (55 B.C.), which contained nearly 18,000 seats;
but even of this the portion allotted to the performers (scaena)
was of wood; nor was it till the reign of Tiberius (A.D. 22) that,
after being burnt down, the edifice was rebuilt in stone.
Though a species of amateur literary censorship, introduced
by Pompeius, became customary in the Augustan age, in general
the drama's laws at Rome were given by the drama's Acton.
patrons in other words, the production of plays was
a matter of private speculation. The exhibitions were contracted
for with the officials charged with the superintendence of public
amusements (curatores ludorum); the actors were slaves trained
for the art, mostly natives of southern Italy or Greece. Many
of them rose to reputation and wealth, purchased their freedom,
and themselves became directors of companies; but, though
Sulla might make a knight of Roscius, and Caesar and his friends
defy ancient prejudice, the stigma of civil disability (infamia)
was not removed from the profession, which in the great days of
the Attic drama had been held in honour at Athens. But, on
the whole, the social treatment of actors was easy in the days of
the early empire; senators and knights actually appeared on the
stage; Nero sang on it; and a pantomimus was made praefectus
urbi by Elagabalus.
The actor's art was carried on at Rome under conditions
differing in other respects from those of the Greek theatre.
1 Augur; Cinerarius (The Crimper)', Fullonia (The Fuller's
Trade); Libertus (The Freedman); Tibicina (The Flute-Girl).
J Brundisinae ; Ferentinatis ; Setina.
49 6
DRAMA
[CLASSICAL
The Romans loved a full stage, and from the later period of the
republic liked to see it crowded with supernumeraries. This
accorded with their military instincts, and with the general
grossness of their tastes, which led them in the theatre as well
as in the circus to delight in spectacle and tumult, and to applaud
Pompeius when he furnished forth the return of Agamemnon in
the Clytaemnestra with a grand total of 600 heavily-laden mules.
On the other hand, the actors stood nearer to the spectators in
the Roman theatre than in the Greek, the stage (pulpitum) not
being separated from the first rows of the audience by an orchestra
occupied by the chorus; and this led in earlier times to the
absence of masks, diversely coloured wigs serving to distinguish
the age of the characters. Roscius, however, is said (because of
an obliquity of vision which disfigured his countenance) to have
introduced the use of masks; and the retrograde innovation,
though disapproved of, maintained itself. The tragic actors
wore the crepida, corresponding to the cothurnus, and a heavy
toga, which in the praetexta had the purple border giving its
name to the species. The conventional costumes of the various
kinds of comedy are likewise indicated by their names. The
comparative nearness of the actors to the spectators encouraged
the growth of that close criticism of acting which has always
been dear to an Italian public, and which in ancient days mani-
fested itself at Rome in all the ways familiar to modern audiences.
Where there is criticism, devices are apt to spring up for anticipat-
ing or directing it; and the evil institution of the claque is
modelled on Roman precedent, typified by the standing conclu-
sion " plaudite! " in the epilogues of the palliatae.
In fine, though the art of acting at Rome must have originally
formed itself on Greek example and precept, it was doubtless
elaborated with a care unknown to the greatest Attic
Rosdas artists. Its most famous representatives were Gallus,
called after his emancipation Q. Roscius Gallus (d. c.
62 B.C.), who, like the great " English Roscius,"
excelled equally in tragedy and comedy, and his younger con-
temporary Clodius Aesopus, a Greek by birth, likewise eminent
in both branches of his art, though in tragedy more particularly.
Both these great actors are said to have been constant hearers
of the great orator Hortensius; and Roscius wrote a treatise on
the relations between oratory and acting. In the influence of
oratory upon the drama are perhaps to be sought the chief
among the nobler features of Roman tragedy to which a native
origin may be fairly ascribed.
9. DOWNFALL OF THE CLASSICAL DRAMA
The ignoble end of the Roman and with it of the ancient
classical drama has been already foreshadowed. The elements
of dance and song, never integrally united with the dialogue
in Roman tragedy, were now altogether separated from it.
While it became customary simply to recite tragedies to the small
audiences who continued (or, as a matter of courtesy, affected) to
appreciate them, the paniomimus commended itself to the
heterogeneous multitudes of the Roman theatre and to an effete
upper class by confining the performance of the actor to
gesticulation and dancing, a chorus singing the accom-
panying text. The species was developed with extra-
ordinary success already under Augustus by Pylades and
Bathyllus; and so popular were these entertainments that
even eminent poets, such as Lucan (d. A.D. 65), wrote the librettos
for these fabulae salticae (ballets), of which the subjects were
generally mythological, only now and then historical, and chiefly
of an amorous kind. A single masked performer was able to
enchant admiring crowds by the art of gesticulation and move-
ment only. In what direction this art tended, when suiting itself
to the most abnormal demands of a recklessly sensual age, may
be gathered from the remark of one of the last pagan historians
of the empire, that the introduction of pantomimes was a sign
of the general moral decay of the world which began with the
Mima* beginning of the monarchy. Comedy more easily lost
itself in the cognate form of the mimus, which sur-
vived all other kinds of comic entertainments because of its
more audacious immorality and open obscenity. Women took
Paato-
mlmus.
part in these performances, by means of which, as late as the
6th century, a mima acquired a celebrity which ultimately
raised her to the imperial throne, and perhaps occasioned the
removal of a disability which would have rendered her marriage
with Justinian impossible.
Meanwhile, the regular drama had lingered on, enjoying in
all its forms imperial patronage in the days of the literary
revival under Hadrian (117-138); but the perennial The drama
taste for the spectacles of the amphitheatre, which snathe
was as strong at Byzantium as it was at Rome, and Christian
which reached its climax in the days of Constantine ct > UKtt -
the Great (306-337), under whom the reaction set in, determined
the downfall of the dramatic art. It was not absolutely extin-
guished even by the irruptions of the northern barbarians; but
a bitter adversary had by this time risen into power. The whole
authority of the Christian Church had, without usually caring to
distinguish between the nobler and the looser elements in the
drama, involved all its manifestations in a consistent condem-
nation (as in Tertullian's De spectaculis, 200 c.), comprehended
them all in an uncompromising anathema. When the faith of
that Church was acknowledged as the religion of the Roman
empire, the doom of the theatre was sealed. It died hard,
however, both in the capitals and in many of the provincial
centres of East and West alike. At Rome the last mention of
spectacula as still in existence seems to date from the sway of the
East-Goths under Theodoric and his successor, in the earlier
half of the 6th century. In the capital and provinces of the
Eastern empire the decline and fall of the stage cannot be
similarly traced; but its end is authoritatively assigned to the
period of Saracen invasions which began with the Omayyad
dynasty in the 7th century.
It cannot be pretended that the doom which thus slowly and
gradually overtook the Roman theatre was undeserved. The
remnants of the literary drama had long been overshadowed by
entertainments such as both earlier and later Roman emperors
Domitian and Trajan as well as Galerius and Constantine had
found themselves constrained to prohibit in the interests of public
morality and order, by the bloody spectacles of the amphitheatre
and by the maddening excitement of the circus. The art of
acting had sunk into pandering to the lewd or frivolous itch of
eye and ear; its professors had, in the words of a most judicious
modern historian, become " a danger to the peace of house-
holders, as well as to the peace of the streets "; and the theatre
had contributed its utmost to the demoralization of a world.
The attitude taken up by the Christian Church towards the
stage was in general as unavoidable as its particular expressions
were at times heated by fanaticism or distorted by ignorance.
Had she not visited with her condemnation a wilderness of decay,
she could not herself have become what she little dreamt of
becoming the nursing mother of the new birth of an art which
seemed incapable of regeneration.
Though already in the 4th century scenici had been excluded
from the benefit of Christian sacraments, and excommunication
had been extended to those who visited theatres instead
of churches on Sundays and holidays, while the clergy
were absolutely prohibited from entering a theatre,
and though similar enactments had followed at later
dates yet the entertainments of the condemned profession had
never been entirely suppressed, and had even occasionally
received imperial patronage. The legislation on the subject
in the Codex Theodosianus (accepted by both empires in the
earlier part of the sth century) shows a measure of tolerance
indicating a conviction that the theatrical profession could not
be suppressed. Gradually, however, as they lost all footing in
the centres of civic We, the mimes and their fellows became a
wandering fraternity, who doubtless appeared at festivals
when their services were required, and vanished again into the
depths of the obscurity which has ever covered that mysterious
existence the strollers' life. It was thus that these strange
intermediaries of civilization carried down such traditions as
survived of the acting drama of pagan antiquity into the
succeeding ages.
mimes.
MEDIEVAL]
DRAMA
497
10. MEDIEVAL DRAMA
While the scattered and persecuted strollers thus kept alive
something of the popularity, if not of the loftier traditions, of
. . their art, neither, on the other hand, was there an
tkaiand utter absence of written compositions to bridge the
monastic gap between ancient and modern dramatic literature.
literary j n the midst of the condemnation with which the
Christian Church visited the stage, its professors and
votaries, we find individual ecclesiastics resorting in their
writings to both the tragic and the comic form of the ancient
drama. These isolated productions, which include the Xptoros
ircurxuv (Passion of Christ) formerly attributed to St Gregory
Nazianzen, and theQuerolus, long fathered upon Plautus himself,
were doubtless mostly written for educational purposes
whether Euripides and Lycophron, or Menander, Plautus and
Terence, served as the outward models. The same was probably
... the design of the famous " comedies " of Hrosvitha, the
nrosvrtna. .... ***_.! *-< * i.
Benedictine nun of Gandersheim, in Eastphahan
Saxony, which associate themselves in the history of Christian
literature with the spiritual revival of the icth century in the
days of Otto the Great. While avowedly imitated in form from
the comedies of Terence, these religious exercises derive their
themes martyrdoms, 1 and miraculous or otherwise startling
conversions 2 from the legends of Christian saints. Thus,
from perhaps the gth to the I2th centuries, Germany and France,
and through the latter, by means of the Norman Conquest,
England, became acquainted with what may be called the literary
monastic drama. It was no doubt occasionally performed by
the children under the care of monks or nuns, or by the religious
themselves; an exhibition of the former kind was that of the
Play of St Katharine, acted at Dunstable about the year mo
in " copes " by the scholars of the Norman Geoffrey, afterwards
abbot of St Albans. Nothing is known concerning it except
the fact of its performance, which was certainly not regarded as
a novelty.
These efforts of the cloister came in time to blend themselves
with more popular forms of the early medieval drama. The
The toco- natural agents in the transmission of these popular
latores, forms werethoseffw'wes, whom, while therepresentatives
jongleurs, o f more elaborate developments, the " pantomimes "
B in particular, had inevitably succumbed, the Roman
drama had left surviving it, unextinguished and unextinguishable.
Above all, it is necessary to point out how in the long interval
now in question the " dark ages," which may, from the present
point of view, be reckoned from about the 6th to the nth century
the Latin and the Teutonic elements of what may be broadly
designated as medieval " minstrelsy," more or less imperceptibly,
coalesced. The traditions of the disestabh'shed and disendowed
mimus combined with the " occupation " of the Teutonic scdp,
who as a professional personage does not occur in the earliest
Teutonic poetry, but on the other hand is very distinctly traceable
under this name or that of the " gleeman," in Anglo-Saxon
literature, before it fell under the control of the Christian Church.
Her influence and that of docile rulers, both in England and in
the far wider area of the Frank empire, gradually prevailed even
over the inherited goodwill which neither Alfred nor even Charles
the Great had denied to the composite growth in which mimus
and scdp alike had a share.
How far the joculatores which in the early middle ages came
to be the name most widely given to these irresponsible trans-
mitters of a great artistic trust kept ah've the usage of entertain-
ments more essentially dramatic than the minor varieties of
their performances, we cannot say. In different countries these
entertainers suited themselves to different tastes, and with the
rise of native literatures to different literary tendencies. The
literature of the troubadours of Provence, which communicated
itself to Spain and Italy, came only into isolated contact with the
beginnings of the religious drama; in northern France the
jongleurs, as the joculatores were now called, were confounded
1 Gallicanus, part ii. ; Sapienlia.
*Gallicanus, part i.; CaUimachus; Abraham; Paphnutius.
with the trouveres, who, to the accompaniment of vielle or harp,
sang the chansons de geste commemorative of deeds of war.
As appointed servants of particular households they were here,
and afterwards in England, called menestrels (from ministeriales)
or minstrels. Such a histrio or mimus (as he is called) was
Taillefer, who rode first into the fight at Hastings, singing his
songs of Roland and Charlemagne, and tossing his sword in the
air and catching it again. In England such accomplished
minstrels easily outshone the less versatile gleemen of pre-
Norman times, and one or two of them appeared as landholders
in Domesday Book, and many enjoyed the favour of the Norman,
Angevin and Plantagenet kings. But here, as elsewhere, the
humbler members of the craft spent their lives in strolling from
castle to convent, from village-green to city-street, and there
exhibiting their skill as dancers, tumblers, jugglers proper, and
as masquers and conductors of bears and other dumb contributors
to popular wonder and merriment. Their only chance of survival
finally came to lie in organization under the protection of powerful
nobles; but when, in the isth century hi England, companies of
players issued forth from towns and villages, the profession,
in so far as its members had not secured preference, saw itself
threatened with ruin.
In any attempt to explain the transmission of dramatic
elements from pagan to Christian times, and the influence
exercised by this transmission upon the beginnings of Survivals
the medieval drama, account should finally be taken *"d adapt-
of the pertinacious survival of popular festive rites and atl ot
ceremonies. From the days of Gregory the Great, i.e. 'festive
from the end of the 6th century onwards, the Western ceremonies
Church tolerated and even attracted to her own *"*
festivals popular customs, significant of rejoicing, Us9ges '
which were in truth relics of heathen ritual. Such were the
Mithraic feast of the zsthof December, or the egg of Eostre-tide,
and a multitude of Celtic or Teutonic agricultural ceremonies.
These rites, originally symbolical of propitiation or of weather-
magic, were of a semi-dramatic nature such as the dipping of
the neck of corn in water, sprinkling holy drops upon persons
or animals, processions of beasts or men in beast-masks, dressing
trees with flowers, and the like, but above all ceremonial dances,
often in disguise. The sword-dance, recorded by Tacitus, of
which an important feature was the symbolic threat of death to
a victim, endured (though it is rarely mentioned) to the later
middle ages. By this time it had attracted to itself a variety of
additional features, and of characters familiar as pace-eggers,
mummers, morris-dancers (probably of distinct origin), who
continually enlarged the scope of their performances, especially
as regarded their comic element. The dramatic " expulsion of
death," or winter, by the destruction of a lay-figure common
through western Europe about the 8th century seems con-
nected with a more elaborate rite, in which a disguised performer
(who perhaps originally represented summer) was slain and
afterwards revived (the Pfingstl, Jack in the Green, or Green
Knight). This representation, after acquiring a comic com-
plexion, was annexed by the character dancers, who about the
1 5th century took to adding still livelier incidents from songs
treating of popular heroes, such as St George and Robin Hood;
which latter found a place in the festivities of May Day with their
central figure, the May Queen. The earliest ceremonial obser-
vances of this sort were clearly connected with pastoral and
agricultural life; but the inhabitants of the towns also came
to have a share in them; and so, as will be seen later, did the
clergy. They were in particular responsible for the buffooneries
of the feast of fools (or asses), which enjoyed the greatest popu-
larity in France (though protests against it are on record from
the nth century onwards to the I7th), but was well known from
London to Constantinople. This riotous New Year's celebration
was probably derived from the ancient Kalend feasts, which
may have bequeathed to it both the hobby-horse and the lord,
or bishop, of misrule. In the i6th century the feast of fools was
combined with the elaborate festivities of courts and cities
during the twelveChristmasf east-days theseasonwhen through-
out the previous two centuries the " mummers " especially
DRAMA
[MEDIEVAL
the mala
source of
the
medieval
religious
drama.
Tropes.
flourished, who in their disguisings and " viseres " began as
dancers gesticulating in dumb-show, but ultimately developed
into actors proper.
Thus the literary and the professional element, as well as that
of popular festive usages, had survived to become tributaries
to the main stream of the early Christian drama,
which had its direct source in the liturgy of the Church
itself. The service of the Mass contains in itself
dramatic elements, and combines with the reading
out of portions of Scripture by the priest its " epical "
part a " lyrical " part in the anthems and responses
of the congregation. At a very early period certainly
already in the sth century it was usual on special occasions to
increase the attractions of public worship by living pictures,
illustrating the Gospel narrative and accompanied by songs;
and thus a certain amount of action gradually introduced itself
into the service. The insertion, before or after sung portions
of the service, of tropes, originally one or more verses
of texts, usually serving as introits and in connexion
with the gospel of the day, and recited by the two halves of the
choir, naturally led to dialogue chanting; and this was frequently
accompanied by illustrative fragments of action, such as drawing
down the veil from before the altar.
This practice of interpolations in the offices of the church,
which is attested by texts from the gth century onwards (the
so-called " Winchester tropes " belong to the icth
and nth), progressed, till on the great festivals of the
church the epical part of the liturgy was systematically
connected with spectacular and in some measure
mimical adjuncts, the lyrical accompaniment being of course
retained. Thus the liturgical mystery the earliest .form of the
Christian drama was gradually called into existence.^ This had
certainly been accomplished as early as the loth century, when
on great ecclesiastical festivals it was customary for the priests
to perform in the churches these offices (as they were called).
The whole Easter story, from the burial to Emmaus, was thus
presented, the Maries and the angel adding their lyrical planctus;
while the surroundings of the Nativity the Shepherds, the
Innocents, &c. were linked with the Shepherds of Epiphany
by a recitation of "Prophets," including Vergil and the Sibyl.
Before long, from the nth century onwards, mysteries, as they
were called, were produced in France on scriptural subjects
unconnected with the great Church festivals such as the Wise
and Foolish Virgins, Adam (with the fall of Lucifer), Daniel,
Lazarus, &c. Compositions on the last-named two themes
remain from the hand of one of the very earliest of medieval
play-writers, Hilarius, who may have been an Englishman,
and who certainly studied under Abelard. He also wrote a
" miracle " of St Nicholas, one of the most widely popular of
medieval saints. Into the pieces founded on the Scripture
narrative outside characters and incidents were occasionally
introduced, by way of diverting the audience.
These mysteries and miracles being as yet represented by the
clergy only, the language in which they were usually written is
Latin in many varieties of verse with occasional
prose; but already in the nth century the further
st;e P was taken of composing these texts in the ver-
nacular the earliest example being the mystery of the
Resurrection. In time a whole series of mysteries was joined
together; a process which was at first roughly and then more
elaborately pursued in France and elsewhere, and finally resulted
in the collective mystery merely a scholars' term of course, but
one to which the principal examples of the English mystery-drama
correspond.
The productions of the medieval religious drama it is usual
technically to divide into three classes. The mysteries proper
M steries ^ ea ^ w ^h scriptural events only, their purpose being
miracles, ' to set forth, with the aid of the prophetic or preparatory
and morals history of the Old Testament, and more especially of
iiistin. the fulfilling events of the New, the central mystery
guished. o f tne Redemption of the world, as accomplished by
the Nativity, the Passion and the Resurrection. But in fact
The
m stery
these were not kept distinctly apart from the miracle-plays, or
miracles, which are strictly speaking concerned with the legends
of the saints of the church; and in England the name mysteries
was not in use. Of these species the miracles must more especi-
ally have been fed from the resources of the monastic literary
drama. Thirdly, the moralities, or moral-plays, teach and
illustrate the same truths not, however, by direct representation
of scriptural or legendary events and personages, but allegoric-
ally, their characters being personified virtues or qualities. Of
the moralities the Norman trouveres had been the inventors;
and doubtless this innovation connects itself with the endeavour,
which in France had almost proved victorious by the end of the
i3th century, to emancipate dramatic performances from the
control of the church.
The attitude of the clergy towards the dramatic performances
which had arisen out of the elaboration of the services of the
church, but soon admitted elements from other sources, fhe clergy
was not, and could not be, uniform. As the plays grew and the
longer, their paraphernalia more extensive, and their religious
spectators more numerous, they began to be repre- < " -a/na '
sented outside as well as inside the churches, at first in the
churchyards, and the use of the Vulgar tongue came to be gradu-
ally preferred. A Beverley Resurrection play (i22oc.) and some
others are bilingual. Miracles were less dependent on this
connexion with the church services than mysteries proper;
and lay associations, gilds, and schools in particular, soon began
to act plays in honour of their patron saints in or near their own
halls. Lastly, as scenes and characters of a more or less trivial
description were admitted even into the plays acted or super-
intended by the clergy, as some of these characters came to be
depended on by the audiences for conventional extravagance or
fun, every new Herod seeking to out-Herod his predecessor, and
the devils and their chief asserting themselves as indispensable
favourites, the comic element in the religious drama increased;
and that drama itself, even where it remained associated with
the church, grew more and more profane. The endeavour to
sanctify the popular tastes to religious uses, which connects itself
with the institution of the great festival of Corpus Christi (1164,
confirmed 1311), when the symbol of the mystery of the Incarna-
tion was borne in solemn procession, led to the closer union
of the dramatic exhibitions (hence often called processus) with
this and other religious feasts; but it neither limited their range,
nor controlled their development.^
It is impossible to condense into a few sentences the extremely
varied history of the processes of transformation undergone by
the medieval drama in Europe during the two centuries progress
from about 1200 to about 1400 in which it ran
a course of its own, and during the succeeding period,
in which it was only partially affected by the influence
of the Renaissance. A few typical phenomena may,
however, be noted in the case of the drama of each of the several
chief countries of the West; where the vernacular successfully
supplanted Latin as the ordinary medium of dramatic speech,
where song was effectually ousted by recitation and dialogue,
and where finally, though the emancipation was on this head
nowhere absolute, the religious drama gave place to the secular.
In France, where dramatic performances had never fallen
entirely into the hands of the clergy, the progress was speediest
and most decided towards forms approaching those France.
of the modern drama. The earliest play in the French
tongue, however, the 12th-century Adam, supposed to have
been written by a Norman in England (as is a fragmentary
Resurrection of much the same date) , still reveals its connexion
with the liturgical drama. Jean Bodel of Arras' miracle-play
of St Nicolas (before 1 205) is already the production of a secular
author, probably designed for the edification of some civic con-
fraternity to which he belonged, and has some realistic features.
On the other hand, the Theophilus of Rutebeuf (d. c. 1280) treats
its Faust-like theme, with which we meet again in Low-German
dramatic literature two centuries later, in a rather lifeless form
but in a highly religious spirit, and belongs to the cycle of
miracles of the Virgin of which examples abound throughout
of the
medieval
drama In
Europe.
MEDIEVAL]
DRAMA
499
this period. Easter or Passion plays were fully established in
popular acceptance in Paris as well as in other towns of France
by the end of the I4th century; and in 1402 the Confrerie de
la Passion, who at first devoted themselves exclusively to the
performance of this species, obtained a royal privilege for the
purpose. These series of religious plays were both extensive
and elaborate; perhaps the most notable series (c. 1450) is that
by Arnoul Greban, who died as a canon of Le Mans, his native
town. Its revision, by Jean Michel, containing much illustrative
detail (first performed at Angers in 1486), was very popular.
Still more elaborate is the Rouen Christmas mystery of 1474,
and the celebrated Mysore du vieil testament, produced at
Abbeville in 1458, and performed at Paris in 1500. Most of the
Provencal Christmas and Passion plays date from the I4th
century, as well as a miracle of St Agnes. The miracles of saints
were popular in all parts of France, and the diversity of local
colouring naturally imparted to these productions contributed
materially to the growth of the early French drama. The
miracles of Ste Genevieve and St Denis came directly home to
the inhabitants of Paris, as that of St Martin to the citizens of
Tours; while the early victories of St Louis over the English
might claim a national significance for the dramatic celebration
of his deeds. The local saints of Provence were in their turn
honoured by miracles dating from the isth and i6th centuries.
It is less easy to trace the origins of the comic medieval drama
in France, connected as they are with an extraordinary variety
of associations for professional, pious and pleasurable purposes.
The ludi inhonesti in which the students of a Paris college
(Navarre) were in 1315 debarred from engaging cannot be proved
to have been dramatic performances; the earliest known secular
plays presented by university students in France were moralities,
performed in 1426 and 1431. These plays, depicting conflicts
between opposing influences and at bottom the struggle between
good and evil in the human soul become more frequent from
about this time onwards. Now it is (at Rennes in 1439) the
contention between Bien-amst and Mal-avise (who at the close
find themselves respectively in charge of Bonne-fin and Male-
fin); now, one between I'homme juste and I'homme mondain;
now, the contrasted story of Les Enfants de Maintenant, who,
however, is no abstraction, but an honest baker with a wife
called Mignotte. Political and social problems are likewise
treated; and. the Mystere du Candle de Bale an historical
morality dates back to 1432. But thought is taken even more
largely of the sufferings of the people than of the controversies
of the Church; and in 1507 we even meet with a hygienic or
abstinence morality (by N. de la Chesnaye) in which " Banquet "
enters into a conspiracy with " Apoplexy," " Epilepsy " and
the whole regiment of diseases.
Long before this development of an artificial species had been
consummated from the beginning of the i4th century onwards
the famous fraternity or professional union of the Basoche
(clerks of the Parlement and the Chatelet) had been entrusted
with the conduct of popular festivals at Paris, in which, as of
right, they took a prominent personal share; and from a date
unknown they had performed plays. But after the Confrerie de
la Passion had been allowed to monopolize the religious drama,
the basochiens had confined themselves to the presentment of
moralities and of farces (from Italian farsa, Latin farci'-a) , in
which political satire had as a matter of course when possible
found a place. A third association, calling themselves the
Enfans sans souci, had, apparently also early in the isth century,
acquired celebrity by their performances of short comic plays
called soties in which, as it would seem, at first allegorical
figures ironically " played the fool," but which were probably
before long not very carefully kept distinct from the farces of
the Basoche, and were like these on occasion made to serve the
purposes of State or of Church. Other confraternities and
associations readily took a leaf out of the book of these devil-may-
care good-fellows, and interwove their religious and moral plays
with comic scenes and characters from actual life, thus becoming
more and more free and secular in their dramatic methods, and
unconsciously preparing the transition to the regular drama.
The earliest example of a serious secular play known to have
been written in the French tongue is the Esloire de Griseldis
( I 393)> which is in the style of the miracles of the Virgin, but
is largely indebted to Petrarch. The Mystere du siege a '.'Orleans,
on the other hand, written about half a century later, in the epic
tediousness of its manner comes near to a chronicle history,
and interests us chiefly as the earliest of many efforts-'to
bring Joan of Arc on the stage. Jacques Milet's celebrated
mystery of the Destruction de Troye la grant (1452) seems to'have
been addressed to readers and not to hearers only. The begin-
nings of the French regular comic drama are again more difficult
to extract from the copious literature of farces and soties, which,
after mingling actual types with abstract and allegorical figures,
gradually came to exclude all but the concrete personages;
moreover, the large majority of these productions in their extant
form belong to a later period than that now under considera-
tion. But there is ample evidence that the most famous of all
medieval farces, the immortal Maistre Pierre Pathelin (other-
wise L'Avocat Pathelin), was written before 1470 and acted by
the basochiens; and we may conclude that this delightful story
of the biter bit, and the profession outwitted, typifies a multi-
tude of similar comic episodes of real life, dramatized for the
delectation of clerks, lawyers and students, and of all lovers
of laughter.
In the neighbouring Netherlands many Easter and Christmas
mysteries are noted from the middle of the i sth century, attesting
the enduring popularity of these religious plays; and
with them the celebrated series of the Seven Joys of JT*"
Maria of which the first is the Annunciation and the lands.
seventh the Ascension. To about the same date belongs
the small group of the so-called abele spelen (as who should say
plays easily managed), chiefly on chivalrous themes. Though
allegorical figures are already to be found in the Netherlands
miracles of Mary, the species of the moralities was specially
cultivated during the great Burgundian period of this century
by the chambers or lodges of the Rederijkers (rhetoricians)-
the well-known civic associations which devoted themselves to
the cultivation of learned poetry and took an active share in the
festivals that formed one of the most characteristic features of
the life of the Low Countries. Among these moralities was that
of Elckerlijk (printed 1495 and presumably by Peter Dorlandus),
which there is good reason for regarding as the original of one
of the finest of English moralities, Everyman.
In Italy the liturgical drama must have run its course as
elsewhere; but the traces of it are few, and confined to the
north-east. The collective mystery, so common in
other Western countries, is in Italian literature
represented by a single example only a Passione di Gesu Cristo,
performed at Revello in Saluzzo in the isth century; though
there are some traces of other cyclic dramas of the kind. The
Italian religious plays, called figure when on Old, vangeli when on
New, Testament subjects, and differing from those of northern
Europe chiefly by the less degree of coarseness in their comic
characters, seem largely to have sprung out of the development
of the processional element in the festivals of the Church.
Besides such processions as that of the Three Kings at Epiphany
in Milan, there were the penitential processions and songs (laude) ,
which at Assist, Perugia and elsewhere already contained a
dramatic element; and at Siena, Florence and other centres
these again developed into the so-called (sacre) rappresentazioni,
which became the most usual name for this kind of entertainment.
Such a piece was the San Giovanni e San Paolo (1489) , by Lorenzo
the Magnificent the prince who afterwards sought to reform
the Italian stage by paganizing it; another was the Santa
Teodora, by Luigi Pulci (d. 1487); San Giovanni Gualberto (of
Florence) treats the religious experience of a latter-day saint;
Rosana e Ulimento is a love-story with a Christian moral. Passion
plays were performed at Rome in the Coliseum by the Compagnia
del Gonf alone; but there is no evidence on this head before the
end of the isth century. In general, the spectacular magnificence
of Italian theatrical displays accorded with the growing pomp
of the processions both ecclesiastical and lay called trionfi
Italy.
5
DRAMA
[EARLY ENGLISH
already in the days of Dante; while the religious drama gradu-
ally acquired an artificial character- and elaboration of form
assimilating it to the classical attempts, to be noted below,
which gave rise to the regular Italian drama. The poetry of the
Troubadours, which had come from Provence into Italy, here
frequently took a dramatic form, and may have suggested some
of his earlier poetic experiments to Petrarch.
It was a matter of course that remnants of the ancient popular
dramatic entertainments should have survived in particular
abundance on Italian soil. They were to be recognized in the
improvised farces performed at the courts, in the churches (farse
spiritual?), and among the people; the Roman carnival had
preserved its wagon-plays, and various links remained to connect
the modern comic drama of the Italians with the Atellanes and
mimes of their ancestors. But the more notable later comic
developments, which belong to the i6th century, will be more
appropriately noticed below. Moralities proper had not flourished
in Italy, where the love of the concrete has always been dominant
in popular taste; more numerous are examples of scenes, largely
mythological, in which the influence of the Renaissance is already
perceptible, of eclogues, and of allegorical festival-plays of
various sorts.
In Spain hardly a monument of the medieval religious drama
has been preserved. There is manuscript evidence of the nth
century attesting the early addition of dramatic
elements to the Easter office; and a Spanish fragment
of the Three Kings Epiphany play, dating from the i2th century,
is, like the French Adam, one of the very earliest examples of
the medieval drama in the vernacular. But that religious plays
were performed in Spain is clear from the permission granted
by Alphonso X. of Castile (d. 1 284) to the clergy to represent
them, while prohibiting the performance by them of juegos de
escarnio (mocking plays). The earliest Spanish plays which we
possess belong to the end of the isth or beginning of the i6th
century, and already show humanistic influence. In 1472 the
couplets of Mingo Revidgo (i.e. Domingo Vulgus, the common
people), and about the same time another dialogue by the same
author, offer examples of a sort resembling the Italian contrasti
(see below).
The German religious plays in the vernacular, the earliest of
which date from the I4th and isth centuries, and were produced
Qfna at Trier, Wolfenbuttel, Innsbruck, Vienna, Berlin, &c.,
laay ' were of a simple kind; but in some of them, though
they were written by clerks, there are traces of the minstrels'
hands. The earliest complete Christmas play in German,
contained in a 14th-century St Gallen MS., has nothing in it to
suggest a Latin original. On the other hand, the play of The
Wise and the Foolish Virgins, in a Thuringian MS. thought to be
as early as 1328, a piece of remarkable dignity, was evidently
based on a Latin play. Other festivals besides Christmas were
celebrated by plays; but down to the Reformation Easter
enjoyed a preference. In the same century miracle-plays began
to be performed, in honour of St Catherine, St Dorothea and
other saints. But all these productions seem to belong to a
period when the drama was still under ecclesiastical control.
Gradually, as the liturgical drama returned to the simpler forms
from which it had so surprisingly expanded, and ultimately died
out, the religious plays performed outside the churches expanded
more freely; and the type of mystery associated with the name
of the Frankfort canon Baldemar von Peterweil communicated
itself, with other examples, to the receptive region of the south-
west. The Corpus Christi plays, or (as they were here called)
Frohnleichnamsspiele, are notable, since that of Innsbruck (1391)
is probably the earliest extant example of its class. The number
of non-scriptural religious plays in Germany, was much smaller
than that in France; but it may be noted that (in accordance
with a long-enduring popular notion) the theme of the last
judgment was common in Germany in the latter part of the
middle ages. Of this theme Antichrist may be regarded as an
episode, though in 1469 an Antichrist appears to have occupied
at Frankfort four days in its performance. The earlier (izth
century) Antichrist is a production quite unique of its kind;
this political protest breathes the Ghibelline spirit of the reign
(Frederick Barbarossa's) in which it was composed.
Though many of the early German plays contain an element
of the moralities, there were few representative German examples
of the species. The academical instinct, or some other influence,
kept the more elaborate productions on the whole apart from
the drolleries of the professional strollers (fahrende Lettte) , whose
Shrove-Tuesday plays (Fastnachtsspiele) and cognate productions
reproduced the practical fun of common life. Occasionally, no
doubt, as in the Liibeck Fastnachtsspiel of the Five Virtues,
the two species may have more or less closely approached to one
another. When, in the course of the isth century, Hans Rosen-
pliit, called Schnepperer or Hans Schnepperer, called Rosenpliit
the predecessor of Hans Sachs, first gave a more enduring form
to the popular Shrove-Tuesday plays, a connexion was already
establishing itself between the dramatic amusements of the
people and the literary efforts of the " master-singers " of the
towns. But, while the main productivity of the writers of
moralities and cognate productions a species particularly suited
to German latitudes falls into the periods of Renaissance and
Reformation, the religious drama proper survived far beyond
either in Catholic Germany, and, in fact, was not suppressed
in Bavaria and Tirol till the end of the i8th century. 1
It may be added that the performance of miracle-plays is
traceable in Sweden in the latter half of the I4th century; and
that the German clerks and laymen who immigrated Sweden,
into the Carpathian lands,and into Galicia inparticular, Car-
in the later middle ages, brought with them their path/an
religious plays together with other elements of culture. laads > * c -
This fact is the more striking, inasmuch as, though Czech Easter
plays were performed about the end of the i4th century, we
hear of none among the Magyars, or among their neighbours of
the Eastern empire.
Coming now to the English religious drama, we find that from
its extant literature a fair general idea may be derived of the
character of these medieval productions. The miracle-
plays, miracles or plays (these being the terms used in J^'mar
England) of which we hear in London in the i2th England.
century were probably written in Latin and acted by
ecclesiastics; but already in the following century mention is
made in the way of prohibition of plays acted by professional
players. (Isolated moralities of the I2th century, are not to be
regarded as popular productions.) In England as elsewhere, the
clergy either sought to retain their control over the religious
plays, which continued to be occasionally acted in churches
even after the Reformation, or else reprobated them with or
without qualifications. In Cornwall miracles in the
native Cymric dialect were performed at an early date;
but those which have been preserved are apparently plays.
copies of English (with the occasional use of French)
originals; they were represented, unlike the English plays, in
the open country, in extensive amphitheatres constructed for
the purpose one of which, at St Just near Penzance, has
recently been restored.
The flourishing period of English miracle-plays begins with the
practice of their performance by trading-companies in the towns,
though these bodies were by no means possessed of ioca | We ,
any special privileges for the purpose. Of this practice O ttt, e
Chester is said to have set the example (1268-1276); perform-
it was followed in the course of the i3th and i4th aaceof
centuries by many other towns, while in yet others m , i le
traces of such performances are not to be found till the '
1 5th, or even the i6th. These towns with their neighbourhoods
include, starting from East Anglia, where the religious drama
was particularly at home, Wymondham, Norwich, Sleaford,
Lincoln, Leeds, Wakefield, Beverley, York, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
with a deviation across the border to Edinburgh and Aberdeen.
In the north-west they are found at Kendal, Lancaster, Preston,
1 The passion-play of Oberammergau, familiar in its present
artistic form to so many visitors, was instituted under special circum-
stances in the days of the Thirty Years' War (1634). Various reasons
account for its having been allowed to survive.
EARLY ENGLISH]
DRAMA
Chester; whence they may be supposed to have migrated to
Dublin. In the west they are noticeable at Shrewsbury, Wor-
cester and Tewkesbury; in the Midlands at Coventry and
Leicester; in the east at Cambridge and Bassingbourne, Hey-
bridge and Manningtree; to which places have to be added
Reading, Winchester, Canterbury, Bethesda and London,
in which last the performers were the parish-clerks. Four
collections, in addition to some single examples of such plays,
The York have come down to us, the York plays, the so-called
Towneiey, Towneley plays, which were probably acted at the
Chester fairs of Widkirk, near Wakefield, and those bearing the
*"' names of Chester and of Coventry. Their dates, in the
plays. forms in which they have come down to us, are more
or less uncertain ; that of the York may on the whole be
concluded to be earlier than that of the Towneley, which were
probably put together about the middle of the i4th century ; the
Chester may be ascribed to the close of the I4th or the earlier
part of the isth; the body of the Coventry probably belongs to
the 1 5th or i6th. Many of the individual plays in these collections
were doubtless founded on French originals; others are taken
direct from Scripture, from the apocryphal gospels, or from the
legends of the saints. Their characteristic feature is the combina-
tion of a whole series of plays into one collective whole, exhibiting
the entire course of Bible history from the creation to the day
of judgment. For this combination it is unnecessary to suppose
that they were generally indebted to foreign examples, though
there are several remarkable coincidences between the Chester
plays and the French Mystere du iiieil testament. Indeed, the
oldest of the series the York plays exhibits a fairly close
parallel to the scheme of the Cursor mundi, an epic poem of
Northumbrian origin, which early in the i4th century had set
an example of treatment that unmistakably influenced the
collective mysteries as a whole. Among the isolated plays of
the same type which have come down to us may be mentioned
The Harrowing of Hell (the Saviour's descent into hell), an
East-Midland production which professes to tell of " a strif of
Jesu and of Satan " and is probably the earliest dramatic, or all
but dramatic, work in English that has been preserved; and
several belonging to a series known as the Digby Mysteries,
including Par/re's Candlemas Day (the massacre of the Innocents) ,
and the very interesting miracle of Mary Magdalene. Of the
so-called " Paternoster " and " Creed " plays (which exhibit
the miraculous powers of portions of the Church service) no
example remains, though of some we have an account; the
Croxton Play of the Sacrament, the MS. of which is preserved
at Dublin, and which seems to date from the latter half of the
15th century, exhibits the triumph of the holy wafer over
wicked Jewish wiles.
To return to the collective mysteries, as they present them-
selves to us in the chief extant series. " The manner of these
plays," we read in a description of those at Chester,
dating from the close of the i6th century, " were :
mysteries. Every company had his pageant, which pageants were
a high scaffold with two rooms, a higher and a lower,
upon four wheels. In the lower they apparelled themselves,
and in the higher room they played, being all open at the top,
that all beholders might hear and see them. The places where they
played them was in every street. They began first at the abbey
gates, and when the first pageant was played, it was wheeled
to the high cross before the mayor, and so to every street, and
so every street had a pageant playing before them at one time
till all the pageants appointed for the day were played; and
when one pageant was near ended, word was brought from
street to street, that so they might come in place thereof, ex-
ceedingly orderly, and all the streets have their pageants afore
them all at one time playing together; to see which plays was
great resort, and also scaffolds and stages made in the streets in
those places where they determined to play their pageants."
Each play, then, was performed by the representative of
a particular trade or company, after whom it was called the
fishers', glovers', &c., pageant; while a general prologue was
spoken by a herald. As a rule the movable stage sufficed for the
action, though we find horsemen riding up to the scaffold, and
Herod instructed to " rage in the pagond and in the strete also."
There is no probability that the stage was, as in France, divided
into three platforms with a dark cavern at the side of the lowest,
appropriated respectively to the Heavenly Father and his
angels, to saints and glorified men, to mere men, and to souls in
hell. But the last-named locality was frequently displayed
in the English miracles, with or without fire in its mouth. The
costumes were in part conventional, divine and saintly person-
ages being distinguished by gilt hair and beards, Herod being
clad as a Saracen, the demons wearing hideous heads, the souls
black and white coats according to their kind, and the angels gold
skins and wings.
Doubtless these performances abounded in what seem to us
ludicrous features; and, though their main purpose was serious,
they were not in England at least intended to be
devoid of fun. But many of the features in question
are in truth only homely and naif, and the simplicity plays.
of feeling which they exhibit is at times pathetic
rather than laughable. The occasional grossness is due to
an absence of refinement of taste rather than to an obliquity
of moral sentiment. These features the four series have more or
less in common, still there are certain obvious distinctions
between them. The York plays (48), which were performed
at Corpus Christi, are comparatively free from the tendency to
jocularity and vulgarity observable in the Towneley; several
of the plays concerned with the New Testament and early
Christian story are, however, in substance common to both
series. The Towneley Plays or Wakefield Mysteries (32) were
undoubtedly composed by the friars of Widkirk or Nostel; but
they are of a popular character; and, while somewhat over-free
in tone, are superior in vivacity and humour to both the later
collections. The Chester Plays (25) were undoubtedly indebted
both to the Mystere du vieil testament and to earlier French
mysteries; they are less popular in character than the earlier
two cycles, and on the whole undistinguished by original power
of pathos or humour. There is, on the other hand, a notable
inner completeness in this series, which includes a play of
Antichrist, devoid of course of any modern application. While
these plays were performed at Whitsuntide, the Coventry Plays
(42) were Corpus Christi performances. Though there is no proof
that the extant series were composed by the Grey Friars, they
reveal a considerable knowledge of ecclesiastical literature.
For the rest, they are far more effectively written than the
Chester Plays, and occasionally rise to real dramatic force.
In the Coventry series there is already to be observed an element
of abstract figures, which connects them with a different species
of the medieval drama.
The moralities corresponded to the love for allegory which
manifests itself in so many periods of English literature,
and which,while dominating the whole field of medieval
literature, was nowhere more assiduously and effectively
cultivated than in England. It is necessary to bear this in
mind, in order to understand what to us seems so strange, the
popularity of the moral-plays, which indeed never equalled
that of the miracles, but sufficed to maintain the former species
till it received a fresh impulse from the connexion established
between it and the " new learning," together with the new
political and religious ideas and questions, of the Reformation
age. Moreover, a specially popular element was supplied to
these plays, which in manner of representation differed in no
essential point from the miracles, in a character borrowed from
the latter, and, in the moralities, usually provided with a com-
panion whose task it was to lighten the weight of such abstrac-
tions as Sapience and Justice. These were the Devil
and his attendant the Vice, of whom the latter seems to
have been of native origin, and, as he was usually dressed vice.
in a fool's habit, was probably suggested by the familiar
custom of keeping an attendant fool at court or in great houses.
The Vice had many aliases (Shift, Ambidexter, Sin, Fraud,
Iniquity, &c.), but his usual duty is to torment and tease the
Devil his master for the edification and diversion of the audience.
5 02
DRAMA
[MODERN ITALIAN
He was gradually blended with the domestic fool, who survived
in the regular drama. There are other concrete elements in the
moralities; for typical figures are often fitted with concrete
names, and thus all but converted into concrete human
personages.
The earlier English moralities ' from the reign of Henry VI.
to that of Henry VH. usually allegorize the conflict between
good and evil in the mind and life of man, without any
Groups of s ide-intention of theological controversy. Such also
moralities. is sti11 essentially the purpose of the extant morality
by Henry VIII. 's poet, the witty Skelton. 2 Everyman
(pr. c. 1529), perhaps the most perfect example of its class, with
which the present generation has fortunately become familiar,
contains passages certainly designed to enforce the specific
teaching of Rome. But its Dutch original was written at least a
generation earlier, and could have no controversial intention.
On the other hand, R. Wever's Lusty Juventus breathes the
spirit of the dogmatic reformation of the reign of Edward VI.
Theological controversy largely occupies the moralities of the
earlier part of Elizabeth's reign, 3 and connects itself with political
feeling in a famous morality, Sir David Lyndsay's Satire of the
Three Estaitis, written and acted (at Cupar, in 1539) on the other
side of the border, where such efforts as the religious drama
proper had made had been extinguished by the Reformation.
Only a single English political morality proper remains to us,
which belongs to the beginning of the reign of Elizabeth. 4
Another series connects itself with the ideas of the Renaissance
rather than the Reformation, treating of intellectual progress
rather than of moral conduct ; 6 this extends from the reign
of Henry VIII. to that of his younger daughter. Besides these,
there remain some Elizabethan moralities which have no special
theological or scientific purpose, and which are none the less
lively in consequence. 6
The transition from the morality to the regular drama in
England was effected, on the one hand, by the intermixture of
historical personages with abstractions as in Bishop
Bale's Kyng Johan (c. 1548) which easily led over to
the chronicle history; on the other, by the introduction
of types of real life by the side of abstract figures.
This latter tendency, of which instances occur in earlier
plays, is observable in several of the 16th-century
moralities; 7 but before most of these were written, a further
step in advance had been taken by a man of genius, John
Heywood (b. c. 1500, d. between 1577 and 1587),
whose " interludes " 8 were short farces in the French
manner. The term " interludes " was by no means
new, but had been applied by friend and foe to religious plays,
and plays (including moralities) in general, already in the i4th
century. But it conveniently serves to designate a species
which marks a distinct stage in the history of the modern drama.
Heywood's interludes dealt entirely with real very real men
and women. Orthodox and conservative, he had at the same
time a keen eye for the vices as well as the follies of his age,
and not the least for those of the clerical profession. Other
writers, such as T. Ingeland,' took the same direction; and the
allegory of abstractions was thus undermined on the stage,
very much as in didactic literature the ground had been cut
from under its feet by the Ship of Fooles. Thus the interludes
facilitated the advent of comedy, without having superseded the
earlier form. Both moralities and miracle-plays survived into
the Elizabethan age after the regular drama had already begun
its course.
1 To the earliest group belong The Castle of Perseverance; Wisdom
who is Christ; Mankind; to the second, or early Tudor group,
Medwell, Nature; The World and the Child; Hycke-Scorner, &c.
1 Magnyfycence.
* New Custome; N. Woodes, The Conflict of Conscience, &c.
' Albyon Knight.
6 Rastell, Nature of the Four Elements; Redford, Wit and Science;
The Trial of Treasure ; The Marriage of Wit and Science.
6 The Marriage of Wit and Wisdom; The Contention between
Liberality and Prodigality.
7 Jack Juggler; Tom Tiler and his Wife, &c.
8 The Four P's, &c. The Disobedient Child (c. 1560).
Transition
from the
morality
to the
regular
drama.
Such, in barest outline, was the progress of dramatic entertain-
ments in the principal countries of Europe, before the revival of
classical studies brought about a return to the examples _
of the classical drama, or before this return had
distinctly asserted itself. It must not, however, be forgotten
that from an early period in England as elsewhere had flourished
a species of entertainments, not properly speaking dramatic,
but largely contributing to form and foster a taste for dramatic
spectacles. The pageants as they were called in England
were the successors of those ridings from which, when they
gladdened " Chepe," Chaucer's idle apprentice would not keep
away; but they had advanced in splendour and ingenuity of
device under the influence of Flemish and other foreign examples.
Costumed figures represented before gaping citizens the heroes
of mythology and history, and the abstractions of moral,
patriotic, or municipal allegory; and the city of London clung
with special fervour to these exhibitions, which the Elizabethan
drama was neither able nor as represented by most of its poets
who composed devices and short texts for these and similar shows
willing to oust from popular favour. Some of the greatest and
some of the least of English dramatists were the ministers of
pageantry; and perhaps it would have been an advantage for
the future of the theatre if the legitimate drama and the Triumphs
of Old Drapery had been more jealously kept apart. With the
reign of Henry VIII. there also set in a varied succession of
entertainments at court and in the houses of the great nobles,
which may be said to have lasted through the Tudor and early
Stuart periods; but it would be an endless task to attempt to
discriminate the dramatic elements contained in these produc-
tions. The " mask," stated to have been introduced from Italy
into England as a new diversion in 1512-1513, at first merely
added a fresh element of " disguising " to those already in use;
as a quasi-dramatic species (" mask " or " masque ") capable of
a great literary development it hardly asserted itself till quite
the end of the i6th century.
n. THE MODERN NATIONAL DRAMA
The literary influence which finally transformed the growths
noticed above into the national dramas of the several countries
of Europe, was that of the Renaissance. Among the i a n ueaC f
remains of classical antiquity which were studied, otthe
translated and imitated, those of the drama necessarily Renais-
held a prominent place. Never altogether lost sight of, * aace -
they now became subjects of devoted research and models for
more or less exact imitation, first in Greek or Latin, then in
modern tongues; and these essentially literary endeavours
came into more or less direct contact with, and acquired more or
less control over, dramatic performances and entertainments
already in existence. This process it will be most convenient
to pursue seriatim, in connexion with the rise and progress of the
several dramatic literatures of the West. For no sooner had the
stream of the modern drama, whose source and contributories
have been described, been brought back into the ancient bed,
thajwts flow diverged into a number of national currents, unequal
in impetus and strength, and varying in accordance with their
manifold surroundings. And even of these it is only possible to
survey the most productive or important.
(a) Italy.
The priority in this as in most of the other aspects of the
Renaissance belongs to Italy. In ultimate achievement the
Italian drama fell short of the fulness of the results The
obtained elsewhere a surprising fact when it is modern
considered, not only that the Italian language had the Italian
vantage-ground of closest relationship to the Latin, **"
but that the genius of the Italian people has at all times led it
to love the drama. The cause is doubtless to be sought in the
lack, noticeable in Italian national life during a long period, and
more especially during the troubled days of division and strife
coinciding with the rise and earlier promise of Italian dramatic
literature, of those loftiest and most potent impulses of popular
feeling to which a national drama owes so much of its strength.
This deficiency was due partly to the peculiarities of the Italian
MODERN ITALIAN]
DRAMA
503
character, partly to the political and ecclesiastical experiences
which Italy was fated to undergo. The Italians were alike
strangers to the enthusiasm of patriotism, which was as the breath
in the nostrils of the English Elizabethan age, and to the religious
devotion which identified Spain with the spirit of the Catholic
revival. The clear-sightedness of the Italians had something
to do with this, for they were too intelligent to believe in their
tyrants, and too free from illusions to deliver up their minds to
their priests. Finally, the chilling and enervating effects of a
pressure of foreign domination, such as no Western people with
a history and a civilization like those of Italy has ever experienced,
contributed to paralyse for many generations the higher efforts
of the dramatic art. No basis was permanently found for a
really national tragedy; while literary comedy, after turning
from the direct imitation of Latin models to a more popular form,
lost itself in an abandoned immorality of tone and in reckless
insolence of invective against particular classes of society.
Though its productivity long continued, the poetic drama more
and more concentrated its efforts upon subordinate or subsidiary
species, artificial in origin and decorative in purpose, and sur-
rendered its substance to the overpowering aids of music, dancing
and spectacle. Only a single form of the Italian drama, impro-
vised comedy, remained truly national; and this was of its
nature dissociated from higher literary effort. The revival of
Italian tragedy in later times is due partly to the imitation of
French models, partly to the endeavour of a brilliant genius to
infuse into his art the historical and political spirit. Comedy
likewise attained to new growths of considerable significance,
when it was sought to accommodate its popular forms to the
representation of real life in a wider range, and again to render
it more poetical in accordance with the tendencies of modern
romanticism.
The regular Italian drama, in both its tragic and its comic
branches, began with a reproduction, in the Latin language, of
classical models the first step, as it was to prove, towards the
transformation of the medieval into the modern drama, and
the birth of modern dramatic literature. But the process was
both tentative and tedious, and must have died away but for the
pomp and circumstance with which some of the patrons of the
Renaissance at Florence, Rome and elsewhere surrounded these
manifestations of a fashionable taste, and for the patriotic
inspiration which from the first induced Italian writers to
dramatize themes of national historic interest. Greek tragedy
had been long forgotten, and one or two indications in the earlier
part of the i6th century of Italian interest in the Greek drama,
chiefly due to the printing presses, may be passed by. 1 To the
later middle ages classical tragedy meant Seneca, and even his
plays remained unremembered till the study of them was revived
by the Pad uan judge Lovato de' Lovati (Lupatus, d. 1309).
Of the comedies of Plautus three-fifths were not rediscovered
till 1429; and though Terence was much read in the schools,
he found no dramatic imitators, pour le lion motif or otherwise,
since Hrosvitha.
Thus the first medieval follower of Seneca, Albertino Mussato
(1261-1330) may in a sense be called the father- of modern
dramatic literature. Born at Padua, to which city all his services
were given, he in 1315 brought out his Eccerinis, a Latin tragedy
very near to the confines of epic poetry, intended to warn the
Paduans against the designs of Can Grande della Scala by the
example of the tyrant Ezzelino. Other tragedies of mudi the
same type followed during the ensuing century; such as L. da
Fabiano's De casu Caesenae (1377) a sort of chronicle history in
Latin prose on Cardinal Albornoz' capture of Caesena. 2 Purely
1 The XpiorAs jrio-xw, an artificial Byzantine product, probably
of the nth century, glorifying the Virgin in Euripidean verse,
was not known to the Western world till 1542.
2 Of G. Manzini della Motta's Latin tragedy on the fall of Antonio
della Scala only a chorus remains. He died after 1389. Probably
to the earlier half of the century belongs the Latin prose drama
Columpnarium, the story of which, though it ends happily, resembles
that of The Cenci. Later plays in Latin of the historic type are the
extant Landivio de' Nobili's De captivitate Ducis Jacobi (the con-
dottiere Jacopo Piccinino, d. 1464); C. Verardi's Historia Baetica
classical themes were treated in the Achilleis of A. de' Loschi
of Vicenza (d. 1441), formerly attributed to Mussato, several
passages of which are taken verbally from Seneca; in the
celebrated Progne of the Venetian Gregorio Cornaro, which is
dated 1428-1429, and in later Latin productions included among
the translations and imitations of Greek and Latin tragedies
and comedies by Bishop Martirano (d. 1557), the friend of Pope
Leo X., 3 and the efforts of Pomponius Laetus and his followers,
who, with theaid of Cardinal Raffaele Riario (1451-1521), sought
to revive the ancient theatre, with all its classical associations,
at Rome.
In this general movement Latin comedy had quickly followed
suit, and, as just indicated, it is almost impossible, when we
reach the height of the Italian Renaissance under the Medici at
Florence and at Rome in particular, to review the progress of
either species apart from that of the other. If we possessed the
lost Philologia of Petrarch, of which, as of a juvenile work, he
declared himself ashamed, this would be the earliest of extant
humanistic comedies. As it is, this position is held by Pattlus,
a Latin comedy of life on the classic model, by the orthodox
P. P. Vergerio (1370-1444) ; which was followed by many others. 4
Early in the loth century, tragedy began to be written in the
native tongue; but it retained from the first, and never wholly
lost, the impress of its origin. Whatever the source /f a // an
of its subjects which, though mostly of classical tragedy la
origin, were occasionally derived from native romance, the 16th
or even due to invention they were all treated with c
a predilection for the horrible, inspired by the example of
Seneca, though no doubt encouraged by a perennial national
taste. The chorus, stationary on the stage as in old Roman
tragedy, was not reduced to a merely occasional appearance
between the acts till the beginning of the I7th century, or ousted
altogether from the tragic drama till the earlier half of the i8th.
Thus the changes undergone by Italian tragedy were for a long
series of generations chiefly confined to the form of versification
and the choice of themes; nor was it, at all events till the last
century of the course which it has hitherto run, more than the
aftergrowth of an aftergrowth. The honour of having been the
earliest tragedy in Italian seems to belong to A. da Pistoia's
Pamfila (1499), of which the subject was taken from Boccaccio,
introduced by the ghost of Seneca, and marred in the taking.
Carretto's Sofonisba, which hardly rises above the art of a
chronicle history, though provided with a chorus, followed in
1502. But the play usually associated with the beginning of
Italian tragedy that with which " th' Italian scene first learned
to glow " was another Sofonisba, acted before Leo X. in 1515,
and written in blank hendecasyllables instead of the ottava and
terza rima of the earlier tragedians (retaining, however, the lyric
measures of the chorus), by G. G. Trissino, who was employed
as nuncio by that pope. . Other tragedies of the former half of
the i6th century, largely inspired by Trissino's example, were
the Rosmunda of Rucellai, a nephew of Lorenzo the Magnificent
(1516); Martelli's Tullia, Alamanni's Antigone (1532); the
Canace of Sperone Speroni, the envious Mopsus of Tasso, who,
like Guarini, took Sperone's elaborate style for his model; the
(the expulsion of the Moors from Granada) (1492), and the same
author's Ferdinandus^ (of Aragon) Servatus, which is called a tragi-
comedy because it is neither tragic nor comic. The Florentine
L. Dali's Hiempsal (1441-1442) remains in MS. A few tragedies on
sacred subjects were produced in Italy during the last quarter of the
1 5th century, and a little later. Such were the religious dramas
written for his pupils by P. Domizio, on which Politian cast contempt ;
and the tragedies, following ancient models, of T. da Prato of Treviso,
B. Campagna of Verona, De passione Redemptoris; and G. F. Conti,
author of Theandrothanalos and numerous vanished plays.
3 Imber aureus (Danae), &c.
4 L. Bruni's Poliscena (c. 1395); Sicco Polentone's (1370-1463)
jovial Lusus ebriorum s. De lege bibia ; the papal secretary P. Candido
Decembrio's (1399-1477) non-extant Aphrodisia; L. B. Alberti's
Philodoxios (1424); Ugolino Pisani of Parma's (d. before 1462)
Philogenia and Confutatio coquinaria (a merry students' play) ; the
Fraudiphila, of A. Tridentino, also of Parma, who died after 1470
and perhaps served Pius II.; Eneo Silvio de' Piccolomini's own
verse comedy, Chrisis, likewise in MS., written in 1444; P. Domizio's
Lucinia, acted in the palace of Lorenzo de' Medici in 1478, &c.
504
DRAMA
[MODERN ITALIAN
Orazia, the earliest dramatic treatment of this famous subject by
the notorious Aretino (1549); and the nine tragedies of G. B.
Giraldi (Cinthio) of Ferrara, among which L' Orbecche (1541)
is accounted the best and the bloodiest. Cinthio, the author of
those Hecalommithi to which Shakespeare was indebted for so
many of his subjects, was (supposing him to have invented these)
the first Italian who was the author of the fables of his own
dramas; he introduced some novelties into dramatic construc-
tion, separating the prologue and probably also the epilogue
from the action, and has t>y some been regarded as the inventor
of the pastoral drama. But his style was arid. In the latter half
of the 1 6th century may be mentioned the Didone and the
Marianna of L. Dolce, the translator of Euripides and Seneca
(1565); A. Leonico's II Soldato (1550); the Adriana (acted
before 1561 or 1586) of L. Groto, which treats the story of Romeo
and Juliet; Tasso's Torrismondo (1587); the Tancredi of Asinari
(1588); and the Merope of Torelli (1593), the last who employed
the stationary chorus (coro fisso) on the Italian stage. Leonico's
Soldato is noticeable as supposed to have given rise to the
tragedia cittadina, or domestic tragedy, of which there are few
examples in the Italian drama, and De Velo's Tamar (1586)
as written in prose. Subjects of modern historical interest were
in this period treated only in isolated instances. 1
The tragedians of the I7th century continued to pursue the
beaten track, marked out already in the i6th by rigid prescrip-
itaiiaa ti n - I n course of time, however, they sought by the
tragedy introduction of musical airs to compromise with the
to the 17th danger with which their art was threatened of being
and isth (j n Voltaire's phrase) extinguished by the beautiful
centuries. .,, . . , .,
monster, the opera, now rapidly gaining ground in the
country of its origin. (See OPERA.) To Count P. Bonarelli
(1589-1659), the author of Solimano, is on the other hand
ascribed the first disuse of the chorus in Italian tragedy. The
innovation of the use of rhyme attempted in the learned Palla-
vicino's Erminigildo (1655), and defended by him in a discourse
prefixed to the play, was unable to achieve a permanent success
in Italy any more than in England; its chief representative
was afterwards Martelli (d. 1727), whose rhymed Alexandrian
verse (M 'artelliano) , though on one occasion used in comedy by
Goldoni, failed to commend itself to the popular taste. By the
end of the 1 7th century Italian tragedy seemed destined to expire,
and the great tragic actor Cotta had withdrawn in disgust at the
apathy of the public towards the higher forms of the drama.
The 1 8th century was, however, to witness a change, the begin-
nings of which are attributed to the institution of the Academy
of the Arcadians at Rome (1600). The principal efforts of the
new school of writers and critics were directed to the abolition
of the chorus, and to a general increase of freedom in treatment.
Before long the marquis S. Maffei with his Merope
(first printed 1713) achieved one of the most brilliant
successes recorded in the history of dramatic literature. This
play, which is devoid of any love-story, long continued to be
considered the masterpiece of Italian tragedy; Voltaire, who
declared it " worthy of the most glorious days of Athens,"
adapted it for the French stage, and it inspired a celebrated
production of the English drama. 2 It was followed by a tragedy
full of horrors, 3 noticeable as having given rise to the first Italian
dramatic parody; and by the highly esteemed productions of
Granelli (d.i 769) and his contemporary BettineUi. P.T.
Metastasio (1698-1 782), who had early begun his career
as a dramatist by a strict adherence to the precepts of
Aristotle, gained celebrity by his contributions to the operatic
drama at Naples, Venice and Vienna (where he held office as
poeta cesareo, whose function was to arrange the court entertain-
ments). But his libretti have a poetic value of their own; 4 and
Voltaire pronounced much of him worthy of Corneille and of
Racine, when at their best. The influence of Voltaire had now
come to predominate over the Italian drama; and, in accordance
1 Mondella, Isifile (1582); Fuligni, Bragadino (1589).
* Home, Douglas.
* Lazzaroni, Ulisse U giovane (1719).
' Didone abbandonata, Siroe, Semiramide, Artaserse, Dcmetris, &c.
Mattel.
Meta-
staslo.
with the spirit of the times, greater freedom prevailed in the choice
of tragic themes. Thus the greatest of Italian tragic poets,
Count V. Alfieri (1740-1803), found his path prepared MHeri
for him. Alfieri's grand and impassioned treatment of
his subjects caused his faultiness of form, which he never
altogether overcame, to be forgotten. His themes were partly
classical; 5 but the spirit of a love of freedom which his creations'
breathe was the herald of the national ideas of the future.
Spurning the usages of French tragedy, his plays, which abound
in soliloquies, owe part of their effect to an impassioned force of
declamation, part to those " points " by which Italian acting
seems pre-eminently capable of thrilling an audience. He has
much besides the subjects of two of his dramas' in common with
Schiller, but his amazon-muse (as Schlegel called her) was not
schooled into serenity, like the muse of the German poet. Among
his numerous plays (21), Merope and Saul, and perhaps Mirra,
are accounted his masterpieces.
The political colouring given by Alfieri to Italian tragedy
reappears in the plays of U. Foscolo and A. Manzoni, both of
whom are under the influence of the romantic school
of modern literature; and to these names must be
added those of S. Pellico and G. B. Niccolini (1785-
1861), Paolo Giacometti (b. 1816) and others, whose
dramas 8 treat largely national themes familiar to all students
of modern history and literature. In their hands Italian tragedy
upon the whole adhered to its love of strong situations and
passionate declamation. Since the successful efforts of G.
Modena (1804-1861) renovated the tragic stage in Italy, the
art of tragic acting long stood at a higher level in this than
in almost any other European country; in Adelaide Ristori
(Marchesa del Grille) the tragic stage lost one of the greatest
of modern actresses; and Ernesto Rossi (1827-1896) and
Tommaso Salvini long remained rivals in the noblest forms of
tragedy.
In comedy, the efforts of the scholars of the Italian Renaissance
for a time went side by side with the progress of the popular
entertainments noticed above. While the contrasti of Italian
the close of the isth and of the i6th century were comedy;
disputations between pairs of abstract or allegorical popular
figures, in the frottola human types take the place of *w-
abstractions, and more than two characters appear. The Jarsa
(a name used of a wide variety of entertainments) was still under
medieval influences, and in this popular form Alione of Asti
(soon after 1500) was specially productive. To these popular
diversions a new literary as well as social significance was given by
the Neapolitan court-poet Sannazaro (c. 1492) ; about the same
time a capitano valoroso, Venturino of Pesara, first brought on
the modern stage the capitano glorioso or spavente, the military
braggart, who owed his origin both to Plautus 9 and to the
Spanish officers who abounded in the Italy of those days. The
popular character-comedy, a relic of the ancient Atellanae,
likewise took a new lease of h'fe and this in a double form.
The improvised comedy (commedia a soggetto) was now as a rule
performed by professional actors, members of a craft, and was
thence called the commedia dell' arte, which is said to Cbmme(//a
have been invented by Francesco (called Terenziano) den , artCi
Cherea, the favourite player of Leo X. Its scenes, still
unwritten except in skeleton (scenario), were connected together
by the ligatures or links (lazzi) of the arlecchino, the descendant
of the ancient Roman sannio (whence our zany). Harlequin's
summit of glory was probably reached early in the I7th century,
when he was ennobled in the person of Cecchino by the emperor
Matthias; of Cecchino's successors, Zaccagnino and Truffaldino,
we read that " they shut the door in Italy to good harle- Masked
quins." Distinct from this growth is that of the masked **
comedy, the action of which was chiefly carried on by certain
6 Cleopatra, Antigone, Octavia, Mirope, &c.
e.g. Bruto I. and II. ' Filippo; Maria Stuarda.
8 Pellico, Francesco, da Rimini; Niccolini, Giovanni da Procida;
Beatrice Cenci; Giacometti, Cola di Rienzi (Giacometti's master-
piece was La Marie civile).
Pyrogopolinices in the Miles Gloriosus
MODERN ITALIAN]
DRAMA
505
typical figures in masks, speaking in local dialects, 1 but which
was not improvised, and indeed from the nature of the case
hardly could have been. Its inventor was A. Beolco of Padua,
who called himself Ruzzante (joker), and is memorable under
that name as the first actor-playwright a combination of
extreme significance for the history of the modern stage. He
published six comedies in various dialects, including the Greek of
the day (1530). This was the masked comedy to which the
Italians so tenaciously clung, and in which, as all their own and
imitable by no other nation, they took so great a pride that
even Goldoni was unable to overthrow it. Improvisation and
burlesque, alike abominable to comedy proper, were inseparable
from the species.
Meanwhile, the Latin imitations of Roman, varied by occa-
sional translations of Greek, comedies early led to the production
Early of Italian translations, several of which were performed
Italian at Ferrara in the last quarter of the i5th century,
regular whence they spread to Milan, Pavia and other towns
comedy. ofthenorth. Contemporaneously, imitations of Latin
comedy made their appearance, for the most part in rhymed
verse; most of them applying classical treatment to subjects
derived from Boccaccio's and other novelle, some still mere
adaptations of ancient models. In these circumstances it is all
but idle to assign the honour of having been " the first Italian
comedy " and thus -the first comedy in modern dramatic
literature to any particular play. Boiardo's Timone (before
1494), for which this distinction was frequently claimed, is to a
large extent founded on a dialogue of Lucian's; and, since some
of its personages are abstractions, and Olympus is domesticated
on an upper stage, it cannot be regarded as more than a transition
from the moralities. A. Ricci's I Tre Tiranni (before 1530)
seems still to belong to the same transitional species. Among
the earlier imitators of Latin comedy in the vernacular may be
noted G. Visconti, one of the poets patronized by Ludovico il
Moro at Milan; 2 the Florentines G. B. Araldo, J. Nardi, the
historian, 3 and D. Gianotti. 4 The step very important had it
been adopted consistently or with a view to consistency of
substituting prose for verse as the diction of comedy, is some-
times attributed to Ariosto; but, though his first two comedies
were originally written in prose, the experiment was not
new, nor did he persist in its adoption. Caretto's / Sei Contend
dates from the end of the isth century, and Public Filippo's
Formicone, taken from Apuleius, followed quite early in the i6th.
Machiavelli, as will be seen, wrote comedies both in prose and
in verse.
But, whoever wrote the first Italian comedy, Ludovico
Ariosto was the first master of the species. All but the first two
of his comedies, belonging as they do to the field of commedia
erudita, or scholarly comedy, are in blank verse, to which he gave
a singular mobility by the dactylic ending of the line (sdrucciolo).
Ariosto's models were the masterpieces of the palliata, and his
morals those of his age, which emulated those of the worst days
of ancient Rome or Byzantium in looseness, and surpassed them
in effrontery. He chose his subjects accordingly; but his
dramatic genius displayed itself in the effective drawing of
character, 6 and more especially in the skilful management of
complicated intrigues. 6 Such, with an additional brilliancy of
wit and lasciviousness of tone, are likewise the characteristics
of Machiavelli 's famous prose comedy, the Mandragola (The
1 The masked characters, each of which spoke the dialect of the
place he represented, were (according to Baretti) Pantalone, a
Venetian merchant; Dottore, a Bolognese physician; Spaviento, a
Neapolitan braggadocio ; Pullicinella, a wag of Apulia ; Giangurgulp
and Coviello, clowns of Calabria ; Gelfomino, a Roman beau ; Bri-
ghella, a Ferrarese pimp; and Arlecchino, a blundering servant of
Bergamo. Besides these and a^ew other such personages (of whom
four at least appeared in each' play), there were the Amorosos or
Innamoratos, men or women (the latter not before 1560, up to
which time actresses were unknown in Italy) with serious parts,
and Smeraldina, Colombina, SpUletta, and other servettas or
waiting-maids. All these spoke Tuscan or Roman, and wore no
masks.
1 Pasitea. * Amicizia. * Milesia.
' La Lena ; // Negromante. 8 La Cassaria ; I Suppositi.
Magic Draught) ; 7 and at the height of their success, of the plays
of P. Aretino, 8 especially the prose Marescalco (1526-1527)
whose name, it has been said, ought to be written in asterisks.
It may be added that the plays of Ariosto and his followers were
represented with magnificent scenery and settings. Other
dramatists of the i6th century were B. Accolti, whose Virginia
(prob. before 1513) treats the story from Boccaccio which
reappears in All's Well that Ends Well ; G. Cecchi, F. d'Ambra,
A. F. Grazzini, N. Secco or Secchi and L. Dolce all writers of
romantic comedy of intrigue in verse or prose.
During the same century the " pastoral drama " flourished
in Italy. The origin of this peculiar species which was the
bucolic idyll in a dramatic form, and which freely
lent itself to the introduction of both mythological pastoral
and allegorical elements was purely literary, and drama.
arose directly out of the classical studies and tastes
of the Renaissance. It was very far removed from the genuine
peasant plays which flourished in Venetia and Tuscany early
in the i6th century. The earliest example of the artificial, but
in some of its productions exquisite, growth in question was the
renowned scholar A. Politian's Orfeo (1472), which begins like
an idyll and ends like a tragedy. Intended to be performed with
music for the pastoral drama is the parent of the opera this
beautiful work tells its story simply. N. da Correggio's (1450-
1508) Cefalo, or Aurora, and others followed, before in 1554 A.
Beccari produced, as totally new of its kind, his Arcadian pastoral
drama II Sagriftzio, in which the comic element predominates.
But an epoch in the history of the species is marked by the
Aminta of Tasso (1573), in whose Arcadia is allegorically mirrored
the Ferrara court. Adorned by choral lyrics of great beauty, it
presents an allegorical treatment of a social and moral problem;
and since the conception of the characters, all of whom think
and speak of nothing but love, is artificial, the charm of the poem
lies not in the interest of its action, but in the passion and
sweetness of its sentiment. This work was the model of many
others, and the pastoral drama reached its height of popularity
in the famous Pastor fido (written before 1590) of G. B. Guarini,
which, while founded on a tragic love-story, introduces into its
complicated plot a comic element, partly with a satirical inten-
tion. It is one of those exceptional works which, by circumstance
as well as by merit, have become the property of the world's
literature at large. Thus, both in Italian and in other literatures,
the pastoral drama became a distinct species, characterized, like
the great body of modern pastoral poetry in general, by a tend-
ency either towards the artificial or towards the burlesque. Its
artificiality affected the entire growth of Italian comedy, includ-
ing the commedia dell' arte, and impressed itself in an intensified
form upon the opera. The foremost Italian masters of the last-
named species, so far as it can claim to be included in the poetic
drama, were A. Zeno (1668-1750) and P. Metastasio.
The comic dramatists of the i?th century are grouped as
followers of the classical and of the romantic school, G. B.. della
Porta (q.v.) and G. A. Cicognini (whom Goldoni comedy la
describes as full of whining pathos and commonplace the nth
drollery, but as still possessing a great power to *a I8th
interest) being regarded as the leading representatives ceaturiea -
of the former. But neither of these largely intermixed groups
of writers could, with all its fertility, prevail against the com-
petition, on the one hand of the musical drama, and on the other
of the popular farcical entertainments and those introduced in
imitation of Spanish examples. Italian comedy had fallen into
decay, when its reform was undertaken by the wonderful
theatrical genius of C. Goldoni. One of the most
fertile and rapid of playwrights (of his 150 comedies
1 6 were written and acted in a single year), he at the same
time pursued definite aims as a dramatist. Disgusted with
the conventional buffoonery, and ashamed of the rampant
' Of Machiavelli's other comedies, two are prose adaptations from
Plautus and Terence, La Clizia (Casina) and Andria; of the two
others, simply called Commedie, and in verse, his authorship seems
doubtful.
8 La Cortigiana, La Talanta, II Ipocrito, II Filosofo.
506
DRAMA
[MODERN GREEK: SPANISH
don/.
immorality of the Italian comic stage, he drew his characters
from real life, whether of his native city (Venice) 1 or of society
at large, and sought to enforce virtuous and pathetic sentiments
without neglecting the essential objects of his art. Happy and
various in his choice of themes, and dipping deep into a popular
life with which he had a genuine sympathy, he produced, besides
comedies of general human character, 2 plays on subjects drawn
from literary biography 3 or from fiction. 4 Goldoni, whose style
was considered defective by the purists whom Italy has at no
time lacked, met with a severe critic and a temporarily successful
rival in Count C. Gozzi (1722-1806), who sought to
rescue the comic drama from its association with the
actual life of the middle classes, and to infuse a new spirit into
the figures of the old masked comedy by the invention of a new
species. His themes were taken from Neapolitan 6 and Oriental 6
fairy tales, to which he accommodated some of the standing
figures upon which Goldoni had made war. This attempt at
mingling fancy and humour occasionally of a directly satirical
turn 7 was in harmony with the tendencies of the modern
romantic school; and Gozzi's efforts, which though successful
found hardly any imitators in Italy, have a family resemblance
to those of Tieck and of some more recent writers whose art
wings its flight, through the windows, " over the hills and far
away."
During the latter part of the i8th and the early years of the
i pth century comedy continued to follow the course marked
out by its acknowledged master Goldoni, under the
mfluence of tne sentimental drama of France and other
countries. Abati Andrea Villi, the marquis Albergati
Capacelli, Antonio Simone Sografi (1760-1825),
Federici, and Pietro Napoli Signorelli (1731-1815), the historian
of the drama, are mentioned among the writers of this school ;
to the i gth century belong Count Giraud, Marchisio (who took
his subjects especially from commercial life), and Nota, a fertile
writer, among whose plays are three treating the lives of poets.
Of still more recent date are L. B. Bon and A. Brofferio. At
the same time, the comedy of dialect to which the example of
Goldoni had given sanction in Venice, flourished there as well as
in the mutually remote spheres of Piedmont and Naples. Quite
modern developments must remain unnoticed here; but the
fact cannot be ignored that they signally illustrate the perennial
vitality of the modern drama in the home of its beginnings. A
new realistic style set fully in about the middle of the i8th
century with P. Ferrari and A. Torelli; and though an historical
reaction towards classical and medieval themes is associated with
the names of P. Cossa and G. Giacosa, modernism reasserted
itself through P. Bracco and other dramatists. It should be noted
that the influence of great actors, more especially Ermete
Novelli and Eleanora Duse, must be credited with a large share
of the success with which the Italian stage has held its own
even against the foreign influences to which it gave room. And
it would seem as if even the paradoxical endeavour of the poet
Gabrielle d' Annunzio to lyricize the drama by ignoring action
as its essence were a problem for the solution of which the stage
can furnish unexpected conditions of its own. In any event,
both Italian tragedy and Italian comedy have survived periods
of a seemingly hopeless decline; and the fear has vanished
that either the opera or the ballet might succeed in ousting
from the national stage the legitimate forms of the national
drama.
1 Momolo Cortesan (Jerome the Accomplished Man); La Bottega
del caffe, &c.
- La Vedova scaltra (The Cunning Widow) ; La Putta onorata
(The Respectable Girl); La Buona Figlia; La B. Sposa; La B.
Famiglia; La B. Madre (the last of which was unsuccessful; " good-
ness,' ^says Goldoni, " never displeases, but the public weary of every
thing"), &c. ; and II Burbero benefice, called in its original French
version Le Bourru bienfaisant.
3 Moliere ; Terenzio ; tTasso.
* Pamela; Pamela Maritata; II Filosofo Inglese (Mr Spectator).
6 L' Amore delle tre melarancie (The Three Lemons); II Corvo.
6 Turandot; Zobeide.
7 L' Amore delle tre m. (against Goldoni) ; L' Angellino Belverde
(The Small Green Bird), (against Helvetius, Rousseau and Voltaire).
(b) Greece.
The dramatic literature of the later Hellenes is a creation
of the literary movement which preceded their noble struggle
for independence, or which may be said to form part Modem
of that struggle. After beginning with dramatic Greek and
dialogues of a patriotic tendency, it took a step in Dalmatian
advance with the tragedies of J. R. Nerulos 8 (1778- < * ranl *'
1850), whose name belongs to the political as well as to the
literary history of his country. His comedies especially one
directed against the excesses of journalism 9 largely contributed
to open a literary life for the modern Greek tongue. Among
the earlier patriotic Greek dramatists of the I9th century are
T. Alkaeos, J. Zampelios (whose tragic style was influenced by
that of Alfieri), 10 S. K. Karydis and A. Valaoritis. A. Zoiros 11
is noteworthy as having introduced the use of prose into Greek
tragedy, while preserving to it that association with sentiments
and aspirations which will probably long continue to pervade
the chief productions of modern Greek literature. The love of
the theatre is ineradicable from Attic as it is from Italian soil;
and the tendencies of the young dramatic literature of Hellas
which is not wholly absorbed in the effort to keep abreast of
recent modern developments, seem to justify the hope that a
worthy future awaits it.
Under Italian influence an interesting dramatic growth
attained to some vitality in the Dalmatian lands about the
beginning of the i6th century, where the religious drama, whose
days were passing away in Italy, found favour with a people
with a scant popular literature of its own. At Ragusa Italian
literary influence had been spread by the followers of Petrarch
from the later years of the i5th century; here several Servo-
Croatian writers produced religious plays in the manner of the
Italian rappresentazioni; and a gifted poet, Martin Drzic,
composed, besides religious plays and farces, a species of pastoral
which enjoyed much favour.
(c) Spain.
Spain is the only country of modern Europe which shares with
England the honour of having achieved, at a relatively early date,
the creation of a genuinely national form of the regular drama.
So proper to Spain was the form of the drama which she
produced and perfected, that to it the term romantic has been
specifically applied, though so restricted a use of the epithet is
clearly unjustifiable. The influences which from the Romance
peoples in whom Christian and Germanic elements mingled
with the legacy of Roman law, learning and culture spread to
the Germanic nations were represented with the most signal
force and fulness in the institutions of chivalry, to which, in the
words of Scott, " it was peculiar to blend military valour with the
strongest passions which actuate the human mind, the feelings
of devotion and those of love." These feelings, in their combined
operation upon the national character, and in their reflection
in the national literature, were not confined to Spain; but
nowhere did they so long or so late continue to animate the moral
life of a nation.
Outward causes contributed to this result. For centuries
after the crusades had become a mere memory, Spain was a
battle-ground between the Cross and the Crescent. And it was
just at the time when the Renaissance was establishing new
starting-points for the literary progress of Europe, that Christian
Spain rose to the height of Catholic as well as national self-
consciousness by the expulsion of the Moors and the conquest
of the New World. From their rulers or rivals of so many
centuries the Spaniards derived that rich, if not very varied,
glow of colour which became permanently distinctive of their
national life, and more especially of its literary and artistic
8 Aspasia; Polyxena.
9 Ephemeridophobos.
10 Timoleon ; Konstantinos Palaeologos ; Rhigas of Pherae.
11 The Three Hundred, or The Character of the Ancient Hellene
(Leonidas); The Death of the Orator (Demosthenes); A Scion of
Timoleon, &c.
MODERN SPANISH]
DRAMA
507
expressions; they also perhaps derived from the same source a
not less characteristically refined treatment of the passion of
love. The ideas of Spanish chivalry more especially religious
devotion and a punctilious sense of personal honour asserted
themselves (according to a process often observable in the history
of civilization) with peculiar distinctness in literature and art,
after the period of great achievements to which they had con-
tributed in other fields had come to an end. The ripest glories
of th'e Spanish drama belong to an age of national decay
mindful, it is true, of the ideas of a greater past. The chivalrous
enthusiasm pervading so many of the masterpieces of its literature
is indeed a distinctive feature of the Spanish nation in all, even
in the least hopeful, periods of its later history; and the religious
ardour breathed by these works, though associating itself with
what is called the Catholic Reaction, is in truth only a manifesta-
tion of the spirit which informed the noblest part of the Reforma-
tion movement itself. The Spanish drama neither sought nor
could seek to emancipate itself from views and forms of religious
life more than ever sacred to the Spanish people since the glorious
days of Ferdinand and Isabella; and it is not so much in the
beginnings as in the great age of Spanish dramatic literature that
it seems most difficult to distinguish between what is to be
termed a religious and what a secular play. After Spain had thus,
the first after England among modern European countries, fully
unfolded that incomparably richest expression of national life
and sentiment in an artistic form a truly national dramatic
literature, the terrible decay of her greatness and prosperity
gradually impaired the strength of a brilliant but, of its nature,
dependent growth. In the absence of high original genius the
Spanish dramatists began to turn to foreign models, though
little supported in such attempts by popular sympathy; and it
is only in more recent times that the Spanish drama has sought
to reproduce the ancient forms from whose masterpieces the
nation had never become estranged, while accommodating them
to tastes and tendencies shared by later Spanish literature with
that of Europe at large.
The earlier dramatic efforts of Spanish literature may without
inconvenience be briefly dismissed. The reputed author of the
Coplas de Mingo Remdgo (R. Cota the elder) likewise
composed the first act of a story of intrigue and
character, purely dramatic but not intended for repre-
sentation. This tragic comedy of Calisto and Meliboea, which
was completed (in 21 acts) by 1499, afterwards became famous
under the name of Celestina; it was frequently imitated and
translated, and was adapted for the Spanish stage by R. de
Zepeda in 1582. But the father of the Spanish drama was J. de
la Enzina, whose representaciones under the name of " eclogues "
were dramatic dialogues of a religious or pastoral character.
His attempts were imitated more especially by the Portuguese
Gil Vicente, whose writings for the stage appear to be
Vicente. included in the period 1502-1536, and who wrote both
in Spanish and in his native tongue. A further impulse
came, as was natural, from Spaniards resident in Italy, and
especially from B. de Torres Naharro, who in 1517 published, as
the chief among the " firstlings of his genius " (Propaladia), a
series of eight comedias a term generally applied in Spanish
literature to any kind of drama. He claimed some knowledge of
the theory of the ancient drama, divided his plays into jornadas
(to correspond to acts), and opened them with an introyto
(prologue). Very various in their subjects, and occasionally odd
in form, 2 they were gross as well as audacious in tone, and were
soon prohibited by the Inquisition. The church remained un-
willing to renounce her control over such dramatic exhibitions
as she permitted, and sought to suppress the few plays on not
strictly religious subjects which appeared in the early part of
the reign of Charles I. Though the universities produced both
translations from the classical drama and modern Latin plays,
1 The term is the same as that used in the old French collective
mysteries (journees).
2 In some of his plays (Comedia Serafina; C. Tinelaria) there is a
mixture of languages even stranger than that of dialects in the Italian
masked comedy.
Baity
efforts.
Classic*!
dramas.
these exercised very little general effect. Juan Perez' (Petreius')
Dosthumous Latin comedies were mainly versions of Ariosto. 3
Thus the foundation of the Spanish national theatre was
reserved for a man of the people. Cervantes has vividly sketched
;he humble resources which were at the command of Lopede
Lope de Rueda, a mechanic of Seville, who with his Kueda
'riend the bookseller Timoneda, and two brother
authors and actors in his strolling company, succeeded
:n bringing dramatic entertainments out of the churches and
salaces into the public places of the towns, where they were
jroduced on temporary scaffolds. The manager carried about
lis properties in a corn-sack; and the " comedies " were still
only " dialogues, and a species of eclogues between two or three
shepherds and a shepherdess," enlivened at times by intermezzos
of favourite comic figures, such as the negress or the Biscayan,
" played with inconceivable talent and truthfulness by Lope."
One of his plays at least, 4 and one of Timoneda's, 5 seem to have
been taken from an Italian source; others mingled modern
themes with classical apparitions," one of Timoneda's was
(perhaps again through the Italian) from Plautus. 7 Others of a
slighter description were called pasos, a species afterwards
termed entremeses and resembling the modern French proverbes.
With these popular efforts of Lope de Rueda and his friends a
considerable dramatic activity began in the years 1560-1590
in several Spanish cities, and before the close of this period
permanent theatres began to be fitted up at Madrid. Yet
Spanish dramatic literature might still have been led
to follow Italian into an imitation of classical models.
Two plays by G. Bermudez (1577), called by their
learned author " the first Spanish tragedies," treating the national
subject of Inez de Castro, but divided into five acts, composed in
various metres, and introducing a chorus; a Dido (c. 1580) by
C. de Virues (who claimed to have first divided dramas into
three jornadas) ; and the tragedies of L. L. de Argensola (acted
1585, and praised in Don Quixote) alike represent this tendency.
Such were the alternatives which had opened for the Spanish
drama, when at last, about the same time as that of the English,
its future was determined by writers of original genius.
The first of these was the immortal Cervantes, who,
however, failed to anticipate by his earlier plays (1584-1588) the
great (though to him unproductive) success of his famous
romance. In his endeavour to give a poetic character to the
drama he fell upon the expedient of introducing personified
abstractions speaking a " divine " or elevated language a
device which was for a time favourably received. But these
plays exhibit a neglect or ignorance of the laws of dramatic
construction; their action is episodical; and it is from the
realism of these episodes (especially in the Numancia, which is
crowded with both figures and incidents), and from the power
and flow of the declamation, that their effect must have been
derived. When in his later years (1615) Cervantes returned to
dramatic composition, the style and form of the national drama
had been definitively settled by a large number of writers, the
brilliant success of whose acknowledged chief may previously
have diverted Cervantes from his labours for the theatre. His
influence upon the general progress of dramatic literature is,
however, to be sought, not only in his plays, but also in those
novelas exemplares incomparable alike in their clearness and
their terseness of narrative to which more than one drama is
indebted for its plot, and for much of its dialogue to boot.
Lope de Vega, one of the most astonishing geniuses the world
has known, permanently established the national forms of the
Spanish drama. Some of these were in their beginnings
taken over by him from ruder predecessors; some
were cultivated with equal or even superior success by
subsequent authors; but in variety, as in fertility of dramatic
production, he has no rivals. His fertility, which was such that
he wrote about 1500 plays, besides 300 dramatic works classed
1 Necromanticus, Lena, Decepti, Suppositi.
4 Los Enganos (Gli Ingannati). 6 Cornelia (II Negromante).
1 Lope, Armelina (Medea and Neptune as deus ex machina-si
modo machina adfuisset). 7 Menennos.
508
DRAMA
[MODERN SPANISH
as autos sacramentales and enlremeses, and a vast series of other
literary compositions, has indisputably prejudiced his reputation
with those to whom he is but a name and a nuiriber. Yet as a
dramatist Lope more fully exemplifies the capabilities of the
Spanish theatre than any of his successors, though as a poet
Calderon may deserve the palm. Nor would it be possible to
imagine a truer representative of the Spain of his age than a poet
who, after suffering the hardships of poverty and exile, and the
pangs of passion, sailed against the foes of the faith in the.
Invincible Armada, subsequently became a member of the Holy
Inquisition and of the order of St Francis, and after having been
decorated by the pope with the cross of Malta and a theological
doctorate, honoured by the nobility, and idolized by the nation,
ended with the narrfes of Jesus and Mary on his lips. From the
plays of such a writer we may best learn the manners and the
sentiments, the ideas of religion and honour, of the Spain of the
Philippine age, the age when she was most prominent in the eyes
of Europe and most glorious in her own. For, with all its
inventiveness and vigour, the genius of Lope primarily set itself
the task of pleasing his public, the very spirit of whose inner as
well as outer life is accordingly mirrored in his dramatic works.
In them we have, in the words of Lope's French translator Baret,
" the movement, the clamour, the conflict of unforeseen intrigues
suitable to unreflecting spectators; perpetual flatteries addressed
to an unextinguishable national pride; the painting of passions
dear to a people never tired of admiring itself; the absolute
sway of the point of honour;, the deification of revenge; the
adoration of symbols; buffoonery and burlesque, everywhere
beloved of the multitude, but here never denied by obscenities,
for this people has a sense of delicacy, and the foundation of its
character is nobility; lastly, the flow of proverbs which at
times escape from the gracioso " (the comic servant domesticated
in the Spanish drama by Lope) " the commonplace literature
of those who possess no other."
The plays of Lope, and those of the national Spanish drama in
general, are divided into classes which it is naturally not always
easy, and which there is no reason to suppose him
Comedias a i wa y s to have intended, to keep distinct from one
d yespada. another. After in his early youth composing eclogues,
pastoral plays, and allegorical moralities in the old
style, he began his theatrical activity at Madrid about 1590,
and the plays which he thenceforth produced have been distri-
buted under the following heads. The comedias, all of which are
in verse, include (i) the so-called c. de capa y espada not
comedies proper, but dramas in which the principal personages
are taken from the class of society that wears cloak and sword.
Gallantry is their main theme, an interesting and complicated,
but well-constructed and perspicuous intrigue their chief feature ;
and this is usually accompanied by an underplot in which the
gracioso plays his part. Their titles are frequently taken from
the old proverbs or proverbial phrases of the people 1 upon
the theme suggested, by which the plays often (as G. H. Lewes
admirably expresses it) constitute a kind of gloss (glosa) in
action. This is the favourite species of the national Spanish
theatre; and to the plots of the plays belonging to it the drama
of other nations owes a debt almost incalculable in extent.
Herokas ( 2 ) The c - herdicas are distinguished by some of their
personages being of royal or very high rank, and by
their themes being often historical and largely 2 (though not in-
variably 3 ) taken from the national annals, or founded on con-
temporary or recent events. 4 Hence they exhibit a greater
gravity of tone; but in other respects there is no difference
between them and the cloak-and-sword comedies with which they
share the element of comic underplots. Occasionally Lope conde-
scended in the opposite direction, to (3) plays of which the scene
is laid in common life, but for which no special name appears
1 El A zero de Madrid (The Steel Water of Madrid); Diner os son
Cal'idad ( = The Dog in the Manger), &c.
2 La Estrella de Sevilla (The Star of Seville, i.e. Sancho the Brave) ;
El Nuevo Mundo (Columbus), &c.
3 Roma Abrasada (R. in Ashes Nero).
4 Arauco domado (The Conquest of Arauco, 1560).
to have existed. 6 Meanwhile, both he and his successors were
too devoted sons of the church not to acknowledge in some sort
her claim to influence the national drama. This claim she had
never relinquished, even when she could no longer retain an
absolute control over the stage. For a time, indeed, she was
able to reassert even this; for the exhibition of all secular plays
was in 1598 prohibited by the dying Philip II., and remained so
for two years; and Lope with his usual facility proceeded to
supply religious plays of various kinds. After a few dramas on
scriptural subjects he turned to the legends of the saints; and
the comedias de santos, of which he wrote a great
number, became an accepted later Spanish variety
of the miracle-play. True, however, to the popular
instincts of his genius, he threw himself with special zeal and
success into the composition of another kind of religious plays
a development of the Corpus Christi pageants, in honour of
which all the theatres had to close their doors for a month.
These were the famous autos sacramentales (i.e. solemn
" acts " or proceedings in honour of the Sacrament),
which were performed in the open air by actors who tales.
had filled the cars of the sacred procession. Of these
Lope wrote about 400. These entertainments were arranged
on a fixed scheme, comprising a prologue in dialogue between
two or more actors in character (loa), a farce (enti -ernes), and the
auto proper, an allegorical scene of religious purport, as an
example of which Ticknor cites the Bridge of the World, in
which the Prince of Darkness in vain seeks to defend the bridge
against the Knight of the Cross, who finally leads the Soul of
Man in triumph across it. Not all the entremeses of
Lope and others were, however, composed for insertion
in these autos. This long-lived popular species,
together with the old kind of dramatic dialogue called eclogues,
completes the list of the varieties of his dramatic works.
The example of Lope was followed by a large number of
writers, and Spain thus rapidly became possessed of a dramatic
literature almost unparalleled in quantity for in
fertility also Lope was but the first amQng many.
Among the writers of Lope's school, his friend G. de
Castro (1569-1631) must not be passed by, for his Cid e was the
basis of Corneille's; nor J. P. de Montalban, " the first-born of
Lope's genius," the extravagance of whose imagination, like
that of Lee, culminated in madness. Soon after him died (1639)
Juan Ruiz de Alarcon, in whose plays, as contrasted with those
of Lope, has been recognized the distinctive element of a moral
purpose. To G. Tellez, called Tirso de Molina (d. 1648), no
similar praise seems due; but the frivolous gaiety of the inventor
of the complete character of Don Juan was accompanied by
ingenuity in the construction of his excellent 7 though at times
" sensational " 8 plots. F. de Rojas Zorrilla (b. 1607), who was
largely plundered by the French dramatists of the latter half of
the century, survived Molina for about a generation. In vain
scholars of strictly classical tastes protested in essays in prose and
verse against the ascendancy of the popular drama; the prohibi-
tion of Philip II. had been recalled two years after his death
and was never renewed; and the activity of the theatre spread
through the towns and villages of the land, everywhere under the
controlling influence of the school of writers who had established
so complete a harmony between the drama and the tastes and
tendencies of the people.
The glories of Spanish dramatic literature reached their height
in P. Calderon de la Barca, though in the history of the Spanish
theatre he holds only the second place. He elaborated
some of the forms of the national drama, but brought
about no changes of moment in any of them. Even the brilliancy
of his style, glittering with a constant reproduction of the same
family of tropes, and the variety of his melodious versification,
are mere intensifications of the poetic qualities of Lope, while
6 La Moza de canta.ro (The Water-maid).
6 Las Mocedades (The Youthful Adventures) del Cid.
' Don Gil de las calzas verdes (D. G. in the Green Breeches).
8 El Burlador de Sevilla y Convivado de piedra (The Deceiver of
Seville, i.e. Don Juan, and the Stone Guest).
MODERN SPANISH]
DRAMA
509
in their moral and religious sentiments, and their general views
of history and society, there is no difference between the two.
Like Lope, Calderon was a soldier in his youth and an ecclesiastic
in his later years; like his senior, he suited himself to the tastes
of both court and people, and applied his genius with equal
facility to. the treatment of religious and of secular themes.
In fertility Calderon was inferior to Lope (for he wrote not many
more than 100 plays) ; but he surpasses the elder poet in richness
of style, and more especially in fire of imagination. In his autos
(of which he is said to have left not less than 73), Calderon prob-
ably attained to his most distinctive excellence; some of these
appear to take a wide range of allegorical invention, 1 while they
uniformly possess great beauty of poetical detail. Other of his
most famous or interesting pieces are comedias de santos? In his
secular plays he treats as wide a variety of subjects as Lope,
but it is not a dissimilar variety; nor would it be easy to decide
whether a poet so uniformly admirable within his limits has
achieved greater success in romantic historical tragedy, 3 in the
comedy of amorous intrigue, 4 or in a dramatic work combining
fancy and artificiality in such a degree that it has been diversely
described as a romantic caprice and as a philosophical poem. 6
During the life of the second great master of the Spanish
drama there was little apparent abatement in the productivity
of its literature; while the autos continued to flourish
Cbn '" 7 " in Madrid and elsewhere, till in 1765 (shortly before
tne expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain) their public
representation was prohibited by royal decree. In the
world of fashion, the opera had reached Spain already during
Calderon's lifetime, together with other French influences,
and the great dramatist had himself written one or two of his
plays for performance with music. But the regular national
Moreto drama continued to command popular favour, and
and the with A. Moreto may be said to have actually taken a
comedia de s t e p m advance. While he wrote in all the forms
established by Lope and cultivated by Calderon, his
manner seems most nearly to approach the masterpieces of
French and later English comedy of character; he was the earliest
writer of the comedias de figuron, in which the most prominent
personage is (in Congreve's phrase) " a character of affectation,"
in other words, the Spanish fop of real life. 6 His masterpiece,
a favourite of many stages, is one of the most graceful and
pleasing of modern comedies simple but interesting in plot,
and true to nature, with something like Shakespearian truth. 7
Other writers trod more closely in the footsteps of the masters
without effecting any noticeable changes in the form of the
Spanish drama; even the saynete (tit-bit), which owes its name
to Benavente (fl. 1645), was only a kind of entremes. The
Spanish drama in all its forms retained its command over the
nation, because they were alike popular in origin and character;
nor is there any other example of so complete an adaptation
of a national art to the national taste and sentiment in its ethics
and aesthetics, in the nature of the plots of the plays (whatever
their origin), in the motives of their actions, in the conduct and
tone and in the very costume of their characters.
National as it was, and because of this very quality, the Spanish
drama was fated to share the lot of the people it so fully repre-
sented. At the end of the I7th century, when the
Spanish throne at last became the declared apple of
discord among the governments of Europe, the Spanish
people lay, in the words of an historian of its later days,
" like a corpse, incapable of feeling its own impotence."
That national art to which it had so faithfully clung had fallen
into decline and decay with the spirit of Spain itself. By the
time of the close of the great war, the theatre had sunk into a
mere amusement of the populace, which during the greater part
1 El Divino Orfeo, &c.
2 El Magico prodigioso ; El Purgatorio de San Patricia ; La
Devotion de la Cruz.
* El Principe constants (Don Ferdinand of Portugal).
4 La Dama duende (The Fairy Lady).
6 Vida es sueno (Life is a Dream).
' El Lindo Don Diego (Pretty Don Diego).
7 Desden con el desden (Disdain against Disdain).
Decay
of the
national
Spanish
drama.
of the i8th century, while allowing the old masters the measure of
favour which accords with traditional esteem, continued to uphold
the representatives of the old drama in its degeneracy authors
on the level of their audiences. But the Spanish court was now
French, and in the drama, even more than in any other _.
form of art, France was the arbiter of taste in Europe. French
With the restoration of peace accordingly began isolated school ot
attempts to impose the French canons of dramatic the mh
theory, and to follow the example of French dramatic
practice; and in the middle of the century these endeavours
assumed more definite form. Montiano's bloodless tragedy of
Virginia (1750), which was never acted, was accompanied
by a discourse endeavouring to reconcile the doctrines of the
author with the practice of the old Spanish dramatists; the play
itself was in blank verse (a metre never used by Calderon, though
occasionally by Lope), instead of the old national ballad-measures
(the romance-measure with assonance and the rhymed redondilla
quatrain) preferred by the old masters among the variety of
metres employed by them. The earliest Spanish comedy in
the French form (a translation only, though written in the
national metre) 8 (1751), and the first original Spanish comedy
on the same model, Nicolas Moratin's Petimetra (Petite-MaUresse) ,
printed in 1726 with a critical dissertation, likewise remained
unacted. In 1770, however, the same author's Hormesinda,
an historic drama on a national theme and in the national
metre, but adhering to the French rules, appeared on the stage;
and similar attempts followed in tragedy by the same writer
and others (including Ayala, who ventured in 1775 to compete
with Cervantes on the theme of Numantia), and in comedy by
Iriarte and Jovellanos (afterwards minister under Godoy), who
produced a sentimental comedy in Diderot's manner. 9 But
these endeavours failed to effect any change in the
popular theatre, which was with more success raised .
from its deepest degradation by R. de la Cruz, a fertile ^sts.
author of light pieces of genuine humour, especially
saynetes, depicting the manners of the middle and lower classes.
In literary circles Garcia de la Huerta's voluminous collection
of the old plays (1785) gave a new impulse to dramatic pro-
ductivity, and the conflict continued between representatives
of the old school, such as Luciano Francisco Cornelia (1716-1779)
and of the new, such as the younger Moratin, whose comedies
of which the last and most successful 10 was in prose raised
him to the foremost position among the dramatists of his age.
In tragedy N. de Cienfuegos likewise showed some originality.
After, however, the troubles of the French domination and the
war had come to an end, the precepts and examples of the new
school failed to reassert themselves.
Already in 1815 an active critical controversy was carried on
by Bohl de Faber against the efforts of J. Faber and Alcali
Galiano to uphold the principles of classicism; and with the aid
of the eminent actor Maiquez the old romantic masterpieces were
easily reinstated in the public favour, which as a matter of fact
they had never forfeited. The Spanish dramatists of the ipth
century, after passing, as in the instance of F. Martinez de la
Rosa and Breton de los Herreros, from the system of French
comedy to the manner of the national drama, appear either to
have stood under the influence of the French romantic school,
or to have returned once more to the old Spanish models. Among
the former class A. Gil y Zarate, of the latter J. Zorrilla, are
mentioned as specially prominent. The most renowned Spanish
dramatist at the opening of the 2oth century was the veteran
politician and man of letters J. Echegaray.
Meanwhile, the old religious performances are not wholly
extinct in Spain, and the relics of the solemn pageantry with
which they were associated may long continue to survive there,
as in the case of the pasos, which claim to have been exhibited
in Holy Week at Seville for at least three centuries. As to the
theatre itself, there can be no fear either that the imitation
8 Luzan, La Razon contra la mode (La Chaussee, Le Prejuge a la
mode).
El Delinquente honrado (The Honoured Culprit).
10 El Si de las ninas (The Young Maidens' Consent).
DRAMA
[MODERN PORTUGUESE
of foreign examples will satisfy Spanish dramatists especially
when, like the author of Dona Perfecta (Perez Galdos), they have
excellent home material of their own for adaptation, or that the
Spanish public itself, with fine actors and actresses still uphold-
ing the lofty traditions of the national drama, will remain too
fatigued to consume the drama unless bit by bit in the shape
of zarzuelas and similar one-act confections. Whatever may be
the future of one of the noblest of modern dramatic literatures,
it may confidently be predicted that, so long as Spain is Spain, her
theatre will not be permanently either denationalized or degraded.
(d) Portugal.
The Portuguese drama in its earlier phases, especially before
in the latter part of the i4th century the nation completely
achieved its independence, seems to have followed
mucn tne sa me course as the Spanish; and the re-
drams, ligious drama in all its prevailing forms and direct
outgrowths retained its popularity even by the side
of the products of the Renaissance. In the later period of that
movement translations of classical dramas into the vernacular
were stimulated by the cosmopolitan example of George
Buchanan, who for a time held a post in the university of Coimbra;
to this class of play Teive's Johannes (1553) may be supposed
to have belonged. In the next generation Antonio Ferreira 1
and others still wrote comedies more or less on the classical
model. But the rather vague title of " the Plautus of Portugal "
is accorded to an earlier comic writer, the celebrated Gil Vicente,
who died about 1 536, after, it is stated, producing forty-two plays.
He was the founder of popular Portuguese comedy, and his
plays were called autos, or by the common name of praticas?
Among his most gifted successors are mentioned A. Ribeiro,
called Chiado (the mocking-bird), who died in 1590;' his brother
Jeronymo, B. Bias, A. Pires, J. Pinto, H. Lopes and others.
The dramatic efforts of the illustrious poet Luis de Camoes
(Camoens) are relatively of slight importance; they consist
of one of the many modern versions of the Amphitrtw, and of two
other comedies, of which the earlier (FUodemo) was acted at
Goa in 1553, the subjects having a romantic colour. 4 Of greater
importance were the contributions to dramatic literature of
F. de Sa de Miranda, who, being well acquainted with both
Spanish and Italian life, sought early in his career to domesticate
the Italian comedy of intrigue on the Portuguese stage; 6 but
he failed to carry with him the public taste, which preferred
the autos of Gil Vicente. The followers of Miranda were, however,
more successful than he had been himself, among them the
already-mentioned Antonio Ferreira; the prose plays of Jorge
Ferreira de Vasconcellos, which bear some resemblance to the
Spanish Celestina, are valuable as pictures of contemporary
manners in city and court. 6
The later Portuguese dramatic literature seems also to have
passed through phases corresponding to those of the Spanish,
though with special features of its own. In the i8th century
Alcino Mycenio (1728-1770), known as Domingos dos Reis Quito
in everyday life, in which his avocation was that of Allan Ramsay,
was remarkably successful with a series of plays, 7 including of
course an Inez de Castro, which in a subsequent adaptation by
J. B. Gomes long held the national stage. Another dramatist,
of both merit and higher aspirations, was Lycidas Cynthio (alias
Manoel de Figueiredo, 1725-1801).* But the romantic movement
was very late in coming to Portugal. Curiously enough, one of
its chief representatives, the viscount da Almeida Garrett,
exhibited his sympathy with French, revolutionary and anti-
1 O cioso (The Jealous Man), &c. His Inez de Castro is a tragedy
with choruses, partly founded on the Spanish play of J. Bermudez.
2 Don Duardos, Amadis, &c.
3 Auto das Regateiras (The Market-women), Pratica de compadres
(The Gossips), &c.
4 Emphatrides, FUodemo, Seleuco.
* Os Estrangeiros, Os Vtihalpandos (The Impostor a).
6 Eufrosina, Ulyssipo (Lisbon), Aulegrafia.
7 Astarte, Hermione, Megara.
' These assumptions of names remind us that we are in the period
of the " Arcadias."
English ideas by a tragedy on the subject of Cato; 9 but his
later works were mainly on national subjects. 10 The expansive
tendencies of later Portuguese dramatic literature are illustrated
by the translations of A. F. de Castilho, who even ventured
upon Goethe's Faust (1872). Among ipth-century dramatists
are to be noted Pereira da Cunha, R. Cordeiro, E. Biester,
L. Palmeirin, and Garrett's disciple F. G. de Amorim, by
whom both political and social themes have been freely
treated. The reaction against romanticism observable in
Portuguese poetic literature can hardly fail to affect (or perhaps
has already affected) the growth of the national drama; for the
receptive qualities- of both are not less striking than the pro-
ductive.
(e) France.
France was the only country, besides Italy, in which classical
tragedy was naturalized. In 1531 the Benedictine Barthelemy
of Loches printed a Christus Xylonicus; and a very The
notable impulse was given both to the translation and Preach
to the imitation of ancient models by a series of efforts regular
made in the university of Paris and other French
places of learning. The most successful of these attempts was
the Johannes Baplistes of George Buchanan, who taught in
Paris for five years and at a rather later date resided at Bordeaux,
where in 1540 he composed this celebrated tragedy (afterwards
translated into four or five modern languages), in which it is
now ascertained that he had in view the trial and condemnation
of Sir Thomas More. He also wrote Jephthah, and translated
into Latin the Medea and Alcestis of Euripides. At a rather
later date the great scholar M. A. Muret (Muretus) produced his
Julius Caesar, a work perhaps superior in correctness to
Buchanan's tragic masterpiece, but inferior to it in likeness to
life. About the same time the enthusiasm of the Paris classicists
showed itself in several translations of Sophoclean and Euri-
pidean tragedies into French verse. 11
Thus the beginnings of the regular drama in France, which,
without absolutely determining, potently swayed its entire
course, came to connect themselves directly with the great
literary movement of the Renaissance. Du Bellay sounded the
note of attack which converted that movement in France into
an endeavour to transform the national literature; and in
Ronsard the classical school of poetry put forward its conquering
hero and sovereign lawgiver. Among the disciples who gathered
round Ronsard, and with him formed the " Pleiad "
of French literature, Etienne Jodelle, the reformer of
the French theatre, soon held a distinguished place. The stage
of this period left ample room for the enterprise of this youthful
writer. The popularity of the old entertainments had reached
its height when Louis XII., in his conflict with Pope Julius II.,
had not scrupled to call in the aid of Pierre Gringoire (Gringon),
and when tbe Mere sotte had mockingly masqueraded in the
petticoats of Holy Church. In the reign of Francis I. the
Inquisition, and on occasion the king himself, had to some extent
succeeded in repressing the audacity of the actors, whose follies
were at the same time an utter abomination in the eyes of the
Huguenots. For a time the very mysteries of the Brethren of
the Passion had been prohibited; while the moralities and
farces had sunk to an almost contemptible level. Yet to this
reign belong the contributions to farce-literature of three writers
so distinguished as Rabelais (non-extant), Clement Marot and
Queen Margaret of Navarre. Meanwhile isolated translations
of Italian 12 as well as classical dramas had in literature begun
the movement which Jodelle now transferred to the stage itself.
His tragedy Cleopatre captive was produced there on the same
day as his comedy L' Eugene, in 1552, his Didon se sacrifianl
following in 1558. Thus at a time when a national theatre was
perhaps impossible in a country distracted by civil and religious
9 Catap. 10 Manoel de Sousa, &c.
11 Antigone and Electra; Hecuba; and Iphigenia in Aulis. The
Andria was also translated, and in 1540 Ronsard translated the
Plutus of Aristophanes.
12 Trissino, Sofonisba, by de Saint-Gelais.
MODERN FRENCH]
DRAMA
conflicts, whose monarchy had not yet welded together a number
of provinces attached each to its own traditions, and whose
population, especially in the capital, was enervated by frivolity
or enslaved by fanaticism, was bom that long-lived artificial
growth, the so-called classical tragedy of France. For French
comedy, though subjected to the same influences as tragedy,
had a national basis upon which to proceed, and its history is
partly that of a modification of old popular forms.
The history of French tragedy begins with the Cttopdtre
captive, in the representation of which the author, together
Preach w * t ' 1 otner members of the " Pleiad," took part. It is
tragedy la a tragedy in the manner of Seneca, devoid of action
the 16th and provided with a ghost and a chorus. Though
century. ma inly written in the five-foot Iambic couplet, it
already contains passages in the Alexandrine metre, which soon
afterwards J. de La Peruse by his Medee (pr. 1556) established
in French tragedy, and which Jodelle employed in his Didon.
Numerous tragedies followed in the same style by various authors,
among whom Gabriel Bounyn produced the first French regular
tragedy on a subject neither Greek nor Roman, 1 and the brothers
de la Taille, 1 and J. Grevin, 3 distinguished themselves by their
style. In the reign of Charles IX. a vain attempt was made by
Nicolas Filleul to introduce the pastoral style of the Italians into
French tragedy; 4 and the Brotherhood of the Passion was
intermingling with pastoral plays its still continued reproductions
of the old entertainments, and the religious drama making its
expiring efforts, among which T. Le Coq's interesting mystery
of Cain (1580) should be noted. Beza's Abraham sacrifiant
(iSSo), J. de Coignac's Goliath (dedicated to Edward VI.),
Rivandeau's Hainan (1561), belong to a group of Biblical tra-
gedies, inspired by Calvinist influences. But these more and
more approached to the examples of the classical school, which,
in spite of all difficulties and rivalries, prevailed. Among its
followers Montchretien exhibited unusual vigour of rhetoric, 6
and in R. Gamier French tragedy reached the greatest height
in nobility and dignity of style, as well as in the exhibition of
dramatic passion, to which it attained before Corneilie. In his
tragedies 6 choruses are still interspersed among the long Alexand-
rine tirades of the dialogue.
During this period comedy had likewise been influenced by
classical models; but the distance was less between the national
Comedy f arces an d Terence, than between the mysteries and
under moralities, and Seneca and the Greeks. L'Eugene
Italian differs little in style from the more elaborate of the old
influence. farces . an( j w jjfl e j t satirizes the foibles of the clergy
without any appreciable abatement of the old licence, its theme
is the favourite burden of the French comic theatre in all times
le cocuage. The examples, however, which directly facilitated
the productivity of the French comic dramatists of this period,
among whom Jean de la Taille was the first to attempt a regular
comedy in prose, 7 were those of the Italian stage, which in 1576
established a permanent colony in France, destined to survive
there till the close of the lyth century, by which time it had
adopted the French language, and was ready to coalesce with
French actors, without, however,' relinquishing all remembrance
of its origin. R. Belleau, a member of the " Pleiad," produced
a comedy in which the type (already approached by Jodelle)
of the swaggering captain appears, 8 J. Grevin copied Italian
intrigue, characters and manners;' O. de Turnebe (d. 1381)
borrowed the title of one Italian play 10 and perhaps parts of the
plots of others; the Florentine F. d'Amboise (d. 1558) produced
versions of two Italian comedies; 11 and the foremost French
comic poet of the century, P. de Larivey, likewise an Italian
born (of the name of Pietro Giunto), openly professed to imitate
the poets of his native country. His plays are more or less literal
1 La Soltane (1561). 2 Da'ire (Darius').
' La Mart de Cesar. * Achille (1563).
Les Lacenes ; Marie Stuart or L'&cossaise.
' La Juive, &c. 7 Les Corivaux (i573)-
' La Reconnue (Le Capitaine Rodomont).
* Les Esbakis.
w Les Contens (S. Parabosco, / Contenti).
u Les Neapolitaines Les Desesperades de I' amour.
translations of L. Dolce," Secchi 13 and other Italian dramatists;
and this lively and witty author, to whom Moliere owes much,
thus connects two of the most important and successful growths
of the modern comic drama.
The close conjunction between the history of a living dramatic
literature and that of the theatre can least of all be ignored in the
case of France, where the actor's art has gone through so ample
an evolution, and where the theatre has so long and continuously
formed an important part of the national life. By the middle
of the i6th century not only had theatrical representations, now
quite emancipated from clerical control, here and there already
become matters of speculation and business, but the acting
profession was beginning to organize itself as such; strolling
companies of actors had become a more or less frequent ex-
perience; and the attitude of the church and of civic respect-
ability were once more coming to be systematically hostile to
the stage and its representatives.
Before, however, either tragedy or comedy in France entered
into the period of their history when genius was to illuminate
both of them with creations of undying merit, and prt aca
before the theatre had associated itself enduringly tragedy
with the artistic and literary divisions of court and *"d
society and the people at large, the country had passed
through a new phase of the national life. When the
troubles and terrors of the great civil and religious century
wars of the i6th century were over at last, they were oftore
found to have produced a reaction towards culture and
refinement which spread from certain spheres of society whose
influence was for a time prevailing. The seal had been set upon
the results of the Renaissance by Malherbe, the father of French
style. The masses meanwhile continued to solace or distract
their weariness and their sufferings with the help of the accredited
ministers of that half-cynical gaiety which has always lighted
up the darkest hours of French popular life. In the troublous
days preceding Richelieu's definitive accession to power (1624),
the tabarinodes a kind of street dialogue recalling the earliest
days of the popular drama had made the Pont-Neuf the
favourite theatre of the Parisian populace. Meanwhile the
influence of Spain, which Henry IV. had overcome in politics,
had throughout his reign and afterwards been predominant in
other spheres, and not the least in that of literature. The stilo
culto, of which Gongora was the native Spanish, Marino the
Italian, and Lyly the English representative, asserted its dominion
over the favourite authors of French society; the pastoral
romance of Honore d'Urfe the text-book of pseudo-pastoral
gallantry was the parent of the romances of the Scuderys, de
La Calprenede and Mme de La Fayette; the H6tel de Ram-
bouillet was in its glory; the true (not the false) prtcieuses sat
on the heights of intellectual society; and J. L. G. de Balzac
(ridiculed in the earliest French dramatic parody) 14 and Voiture
were the dictators of its literature. Much of the French drama
of this age is of the same kind as its romance-literature, like
which it fell under the polite castigation of Boileau's satire.
Heroic love (quite a technical passion), " fertile in tender senti-
ments," seized hold of the theatre as well as of the romances;
and La Calprenede, G. de Scudry 16 and his sister and others
were equally fashionable hi both species. The Gascon Cyrano de
Bergerac, though not altogether insignificant as a dramatist, 1 '
gained his chief literary reputation by a Rabelaisian fiction.
Meanwhile, Spanish and Italian models continued to influence
both branches of the drama. Everybody knew by heart Gongora's
version of the story of " young Pyramus and his love Thisbe,"
as dramatized by Th. Viaud (1590-1626); and the sentiment of
Tristan 17 (1601-1655) overpowered Herod on the stage, and
drew tears from Cardinal Richelieu in the audience. J. Mairet
was noted for superior vigour. 18 P. Du Ryer's style is described
as, while otherwise superior to that of his contemporaries,
12 Le Laquais (II Ragazzo).
15 Les Tromperies (Gli Inganni).
14 " L. du Peschier " (de Barry), La Comedie des comedies.
u L' Amour tyrannique. le Agrippine, Le Pedant joue.
17 Marianne. u Sophonisbe.
512
DRAMA
[MODERN FRENCH
Italian in its defects. A mixture of the forms of classical
comedy with elements of Spanish and of the Italian pastoral was
attempted with great temporary success by A. Hardy, a play-
wright who thanked Heaven that he knew the precepts of his
art while preferring to follow the demands of his trade. The
mixture of styles begun by him was carried on by the marquis de
Racan, 1 J. de Rotrou and others; and among these comedies of
intrigue in the Spanish manner the earliest efforts of Corneille
himself* are to be classed. Rotrou 's noteworthier productions 3
are later in date than the event which marks an epoch in the
history of the French drama, the appearance of Corneille's
Cid (1636).
P. Corneille is justly revered as the first, and in some respects
the unequalled, great master of French tragedy, whatever may
_, have been unsound in his theories, or defective in his
practice. The attempts of his predecessors had been
without life, because they lacked really tragic characters and the
play of really tragic passions; while their style had been either
pedantically imitative or a medley of plagiarisms. He conquered
tragedy at once for the national theatre and for the national
literature and this, not by a long tentative process of produc-
tion, but by a few masterpieces, which may be held to be
comprehended within the ten years 1636 to 1646; for in his
many later tragedies he never again proved fully equal to himself.
The French tragedy, of which the great age begins with the Cid,
Horace, Cinna, Polyeucle and Rodogune, was not, whatever it
professed to be, a copy of the classical tragedy of Greeks or
Romans, or an imitation of the Italian imitations of these; nor,
though in his later tragedies Corneille depended less and less
upon characters, and more and more, after the fashion of the
Spaniards, upon situations, and even upon spectacle, were
the forms of the Spanish drama able to assert their dominion
over the French tragic stage. The mould of French tragedy
was cast by Corneille; but the creative power of his genius was
unable to fill it with more than a few examples. His range of
passions and characters was limited; he preferred, he said, the
reproach of having made his women too heroic to that of having
made his men effeminate. His actions inclined too much to
the exhibition of conflicts political rather than broadly ethical
in their significance. The defects of his style are of less moment;
but in this, as in other respects, he was, with all his strength
and brilliancy, not one of those rarest of artists who are at the
same time the example and the despair of their successors.
The examens which he printed of all his plays up to 1660 show
how much self-criticism (though it may not always be as in this
case conscious) contributes to the true fertility of genius.
In comedy also Corneille begins the first great original epoch
of French dramatic literature; for it was to him that Moliere
owed the inspiration of the tone and style which he made those
of the higher forms of French comedy. But Le Menteur (the
parent, with its sequel, of a numerous dramatic progeny 4 ) was
itself derived from a Spanish original, 6 which it did not (as was
the case with the Cid) transform into something new. French
tragi-comedy Corneille can hardly be said to have invented; 6
and of the mongrel growths of sentimental comedy and of
domestic drama or drame, he rather suggested than exemplified
the conditions.
The tragic art of Racine supplements rather than surpasses
that of his older contemporary. His works reflect the serene
Raciae an< ^ sett ' e d formality of an age in which the sun of
monarchy shone with an effulgence no clouds seemed
capable of obscuring, and in which the life of a nation seemed
reducible to the surroundings of a court. The tone of the poetic
literature of such an age is not necessarily unreal, because the
range of its ideas is limited, and because its forms seem to exist
by an immutable authority. That Racine should permanently
hold the position which belongs to him in French dramatic
1 Les Bergeries. ' Melite ; Clitandre, &c.
* Le Veritable Saint Genest ; Venceslas.
4 Steele, The Lying Lover; Foote, The Liar; Goldoni, // Bugiardo.
* Ruiz de Alarcon, La Verdad sospechosa.
* L' Illusion comique is antithetically mixed.
literature is due to the fact that to him it was given to present
these forms the forms approved by his age in what may
reasonably be called perfection; and, from the point of view
of workmanship, Sophocles could not have achieved more.
What his plays contain is another question. They suit them-
selves so well to the successive phases in the life of Louis XIV.,
that Madame de Sevign6 described Racine as having in his later
years loved God as he had formerly loved his mistresses; and
this sally at all events indicates the range of passions which
inspired his tragic muse. His heroes are all of one type that
of a gracious gloriousness; his heroines vary in their fortunes,
but they are all the " trophies of love," 7 with the exception
of the scriptural figures, which stand apart from the rest. 8
T. Corneille, Campistron, Joseph Duche (1668-1704), Antoin de
Lafosse (c. 1653-1708) and Quinault were mere followers of one
or both of the great masters of tragedy, though the last named
achieved a reputation of his own in the bastard species of the
opera.
The type of French tragedy thus established, like everything
else which formed part of the " age of Louis XIV.," proclaimed
itself as the definitively settled model of its kind, and 0,,,^,.^
was accepted as such by a submissive world. Proud /** of
of its self-imposed fetters, French tragedy dictatorially Preach
denied the liberty of which it had deprived itself to the **'
art of which it claimed to furnish the highest examples. ****?'
Yet, though calling itself classical, it had not caught the essential
spirit of the tragedy of the Greeks. The elevation of tone which
characterizes the serious drama of the age of Louis XIV. is a true
elevation, but its heights do not lose themselves in a sphere
peopled by the myths of a national religion, still less in the region
of great thoughts which ask Heaven to stoop to the aspirations
and the failures of man. The personages of this drama are
conventional like its themes, but the convention is with itself
only; Orestes and Iphigenia have not brought with them the
cries of the stern goddesses and the flame on the altar of Artemis;
their passions like their speech are cadenced by a modern measure.
In construction, the simplicity and regularity of the ancient
models are stereotyped into a rigid etiquette by the exigencies
of the court-theatre, which is but an apartment of the palace.
The unities of time and place, with the Greeks mere rules of
convenience, French tragedy imposes upon itself as a permanent
yoke. The Euripidean prologue is judiciously exchanged for
the exposition of the first act, and the lyrical element essential
to Greek tragedy is easily suppressed in its would-be copy;
lyrical passages still occur in some of Corneille's early master-
pieces, 9 but the chorus is consistently banished, to reappear only
in Racine's latest works 10 as a scholastic experiment appropriate
to a conventual atmosphere. Its uses for explanation and
comment are served by the expedient, which in its turn becomes
conventional, of the conversations with confidants and confidantes,
which more than sufficiently supply the foil of general sentiments.
The epical element is allowed full play in narrative passages,
more especially in those which relate parts of the catastrophe,"
and, while preserving the stage intact from realisms, suit them-
selves to the generally rhetorical character of this species of the
tragic drama. This character impressed itself more and more
upon the tragic art of a rhetorical nation in an age when the
loftiest themes were in the pulpit receiving the most artistic
oratorical treatment, and developed in the style of French
classical tragedy the qualities which cause it to become some-
thing between prose and poetry or to appear (in the phrase of
a French critic) like prose in full dress. The force of this descrip-
tion is borne out by the fact that the distinction between the
versification of French tragedy and that of French comedy seems
at times imperceptible.
The universal genius of Voltaire found it necessary to shine
in all branches of literature, and in tragedy to surpass pre-
decessors whom his own authority declared to have surpassed
7 Andromaque; Phedre; Berenice, &c.
8 Esther; Athalie.
Le Cid; Polyeucte. 10 Esther; Athalie.
11 Corneille, Rodogune; Racine, Phedre.
MODERN FRENCH]
DRAMA
513
v itaire
the efforts of the Attic muse. He succeeded in impressing the
world with the belief that his innovations had imparted a fresh
v i ta ^ l y to French tragedy; in truth, however, they
represent no essential advance in art, but rather
augmented the rhetorical tendency which paralyses true dramatic
life. Such life as his plays possess lies in their political and social
sentiments, their invective against tyranny, 1 and their exposure
of fanaticism. 2 In other respects his versatility was barren of
enduring results. He might take his themes from French history, 3
or from Chinese, 4 or Egyptian, 5 or Syrian, 6 from the days of the
Epigoni 7 or from those of the Crusades; 8 he might appreciate
Shakespeare, with a more or less partial comprehension of his
strength, and condescendingly borrow from and improve the
barbarian. 9 But he added nothing to French tragedy where it
was weakest in character; and where it was strongest in
diction he never equalled Corneille in fire or Racine in refine-
ment. While the criticism to which French tragedy in this age
at last began to be subjected has left unimpaired the real titles
to immortality of its great masters, the French theatre itself has
all but buried in respectful oblivion the dramatic works bear-
ing the name of Voltaire a name persistently belittled, but
second to none in the history of modern progress and of modern
civilization.
As it is of relatively little interest to note the ramifications of
an art in its decline, the contrasts need not be pursued among
Preach ^ e contemporaries of Voltaire, between his imitator
classical Bernard Joseph Saurin (1706-1781), Saurin's royalist
tragedy rival de Belloy, Racine's imitator Lagrange-Chancel
and Voltaire's own would-be rival, the " terrible "
ae ' Crebillon the elder, who professed to vindicate to
French tragedy, already mistress of the heavens through Corneille,
and of the earth through Racine, Pluto's supplementary realm,
but who, though thus essaying to carry tragedy lower, failed
to carry it farther. In the latter part of the i8th century French
classical tragedy as a literary growth was dying a slow death,
however numerous might be the leaves which sprouted from the
decaying tree. Its form had been permanently fixed; and even
Shakespeare, as manipulated by Ducis 10 an author whose
tastes were better than his times failed to bring about a change.
" It is a Moor, not a Frenchman, who has written this play,"
cried a spectator of Ducis' Othello (1791); but Talma's conviction
was almost as strong as his capacity was great for convincing
his public; and he certainly did much to prepare the influence
which Shakespeare was gradually to assert over the French
drama, and which was aided by translations, more especially
that of Pierre Letourneur (1736-1788), which had attracted the
sympathy of Diderot and the execrations of the aged Voltaire. 11
Meanwhile, the command which classical French tragedy con-
tinued to assert over the stage was due in part, no doubt, to the
love of Roman drapery not always abundant, but always in
the grand style which characterized the Revolution, and which
was by the Revolution handed down to the Empire. It was
likewise, and more signally, due to the great actors who freed
the tragic stage from much of its artificiality and animated it
by their genius. No great artist has ever more generously
estimated the labours of a predecessor than Talma judged those
of Le Kain; but it was Talma himself whose genius was pre-
eminently 'fitted to reproduce the great figures of antiquity in
the mimic world, which, like the world outside, both required
and possessed its Caesar. He, like Rachel after him, reconciled
French classical tragedy with nature; and it is upon the art of
great original actors such as these that the theatrical future of
this form of the drama in France depends. Mere whims of fashion
1 Brutus; La Mart de Cesar; Semiramis.
*(Edipe; Le Fanatisme (Mahomet).
* Adelaide du Guesclin. 4 L'Orphelin de la Chine.
6 Tanis et Zelide. * Les Guebres. 7 Olimpie.
8 Tancrede. La Mart de Cesar; Zaire (Othello).
10 Hamlet ; Le Roi Lear, &c.
*| The lectures delivered by the late Professor A. Beljame at
Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1905-1906 may be mentioned as
valuable contributions to our knowledge of the growth of Shake-
speare's influence in France.
vin.i;
Comedy.
even when inspired by political feeling will not waft back
to it a real popularity; nor -will occasional literary aftergrowths,
however meritorious, such as the admirable Lucrecefti F. Ponsard
and the attempts of even more recent writers, suffice to re-
establish a living union between it and the progress of the
national literature.
The rival influences under which classical tragedy has after
a long struggle virtually become a thing of the past in French
literature are also to be traced in the history of French
comedy, which under the co-operation of other in-
fluences produced a wide variety of growths. The germs of most
of these though not of all are to be found in the works of the
most versatile, the most sure-footed, and, in some respects,
the most consummate master of the comic drama whom the
world has known Moliere. What Moliere found in MoOere
existence was a comedy of intrigue, derived from
Spanish or Italian examples, and the elements of a comedy of
character, in French and more especially in Italian farce and
ballet-pantomime. Corneille's Menteur had pointed the way to
a fuller combination of character with intrigue, and in this
direction Moliere's genius exercised the height of its creative
powers. After beginning with farces, he produced in the earliest
of his plays (from 1652), of which more than fragments remain,
comedies of intrigue which are at the same time marvellously
lively pictures of manners, and then proceeded, with the cole
des maris (1661), to begin a long series of masterpieces of comedy
of character. Yet even these, the chief of which are altogether
unrivalled in dramatic literature, do not exhaust the variety
of his productions. To define the range of his art is as difficult
as to express in words the essence of his genius. For though he
has been copied ever since he wrote, neither his spirit nor his
manner has descended in full to any of his copyists, whole schools
of whom have missed elements of both. A Moliere can only be
judged in his relations to the history of comedy at large. He
was indeed the inheritor of many forms and styles remaining
a stranger to those of Old Attic comedy only, rooted as it was
in the political life of a free imperial city; though even the rich
extravagances of Aristophanes' burlesque was not left wholly
unreproduced by him. Moliere is both a satirist and a humorist;
he displays at times the sentiments of a loyal courtier, at others
that gay spirit of opposition which is all but indispensable to
a popular French wit. His comedies offer elaborate and subtle
even tender pictures of human character in its eternal types,
lively sketches of social follies and literary extravagances, and
broad appeals to the ordinary sources of vulgar merriment.
Light and perspicuous in construction, he is master of the delicate
play of irony, the penetrating force of wit, and the expansive
gaiety of frolicsome fun. Faithful to the canons of artistic taste,
and under the sure guidance of true natural humour, his style
suits itself to every species attempted by him. His morality is the
reverse of rigid, but its aberrations are not those of prurience,
nor its laws those of pretence; and, wholly free as he was from
the didactic aim which is foreign to all true dramatic representa-
tion, the services rendered by him to his art are not the less
services rendered to society, concerning which the laughter of
genuine comedy tells the truth. He raised the comedy of char-
acter out of the lower sphere of caricature, and in his greatest
creations subordinated to the highest ends of all dramatic
composition the plots he so skilfully built, and the pictures of
the manners he so faithfully reproduced.
Even among the French comic dramatists of this age there
must have been many who " were not aware " that Moliere
was its greatest poet. For though he had made the true
path luminous to them, their efforts were still often
of a tentative kind, and one was reviving Pathelin
while another was translating the Andria. A more
unique attempt was made in one of the very few really
modern versions of an Aristophanic comedy, which deserves to
be called an original copy the Plaideurs of Racine. The tragic
poets Quinault and Campistron likewise wrote comedies, one u
12 Quinault, L' Amour indiscret (Newcastle and Dryden's Sir Martin
Marall).
contem-
poraries
and suc-
cessors.
DRAMA
[MODERN FRENCH
or more of which furnished materials to contemporary English
dramatists, as did one of the felicitous plays in which Boursault
introduced Mercury and Aesop into the theatrical salon. 1 Antoine
Montfleury (1640-1685), Baron and Dancourt, who were actors
like Moliere, likewise wrote comedies. But if the mantle of
Moliere can be said to have fallen upon any of his contemporaries
or successors, this honour must be ascribed to J. F. Regnard,
who imitated the great master in both themes and characters, 2
while the skilfulness of his plots, and his gaiety of the treatment
even of subjects tempting into the by-path of sentimental
comedy, 3 entitle him to be regarded as a comic poet of original
genius. With him C. R. Dufresny occasionally collaborated.
In the next generation (that of Voltaire) comedy gradually
but only gradually surrendered for a time the very essence of
its vitality to the seductions of a hybrid species, which disguised
its identity under more than a single name. A. R. le Sage,
who as a comic dramatist at first followed successfully in the
footsteps of Moliere, proved himself on the stage as well as in
picturesque fiction a keen observer and inimitable satirist of
human life. 4 The light texture of the playful and elegant art
of J. B. L. Cresset was shown on the stage in a character comedy
of merit; 6 and in a comedy which reveals something of his
pointed wit, A. Piron produced something like a new type of
enduring ridiculousness. 6 P. C. de Marivaux, the French
Spectator, is usually supposed to have formed the connecting
link between the " old " French comedy and the " new " and
bastard variety. Yet, though his minute analysis of the tender
passion excited the scorn of Voltaire, it should not be overlooked
that in marivaudage proper the wit holds the balance to the
sentiment, and that in some of this frequently misjudged writer's
earlier and most delightful plays the elegance and gaiety of diction
are as irresistible as the pathetic sentiment, which is hi fact rather
an ingredient in his comedy than the pervading characteristic of
it. 7 Some of the comedies of P. H. Destouches no doubt have a
serious basis, and in his later plays he comes near to a kind of
drama in which the comic purpose has been virtually sub-
merged. 8 The writer who is actually to be credited with the
transition to sentimental comedy, and who was fully conscious
of the change which he was helping to effect, was Nivelle de La
Chaussee, in whose hands French comedy became a champion of
the sanctity of marriage, and reproduced the sentiments in
one instance even the characters of Richardson. 9 To his play
La Fausse Antipathic the author supplied a critique, amounting
to an apology for the new species of which it was designed as
an example.
The new species known as comedie larmoyante was now fairly
in the ascendant; and it would be easy to show how even
Voltaire, who had deprecated the innovation, had to yield to a
power greater than his own, and introduced the sentimental
element into some of his comedies. 10 The further step, by which
comedie larmoyante was transformed into tragedie bottrgeoise,
from which the comic element was to all intents and purposes
extruded, was taken by a great French writer, D. Diderot; to
whose influence it was largely due that the species which had
attained to this consummation for more than a generation ruled
supreme in the dramatic literature of Europe. But the final
impulse, as Diderot himself virtually acknowledged in the
enlretiens subjoined by him to his Fils naturel (i7S7), had been
1 Le Mercure galant; sope a la vitte; Esope a la cour (Vanbrugh,
Aesop).
2 Le Bal (M. de Pourceaugnac) ; Geronte in Le Legataire universel
(Argan in Le Malade imaginaire) ; La Critique du L. (La C. de I'ecole
desfemmes).
1 Le Joueur ; Le Legataire universel.
4 Crispin rival de son maitre ; Turcaret.
* Le Mechant. 8 La Metromanie.
7 Le Jeu de I' amour et du hasard; Le Legs; La Surprise de V amour;
Les Fausses Confidences; L'Epreuye.
8 Le PhUosophe marie; Le Glorieux; Le Dissipateur.
' La Fausse Antipathie; Le Prejuge a la mode; L'Ecole des amis;
Miluside ; Pamela. L'Ecole des meres was the play which Frederick
the Great described as turning the stage into a bureau general de la
fadeur.
w See especially Nanine, founded on the original Pamela.
given by a far humbler citizen of the world of letters, the author
of The London Merchant. Diderot's own plays were a literary
rather than a theatrical success. Le Fils naturel ou les ipreuves
de la verlu was not publicly performed till 1771, and then only
in deference to the determination of a single actor of the Francais
(Mole); nor was the performance of it repeated. Diderot's
second play, Le Pere de famille, printed in 1758 with a Discours
sur la poesie dramatique, went through a few public performances
in 1761; and a later revival was unsuccessful. But "at a
distance," as was well said, the effect of Diderot's endeavours, the
earlier in particular, was extremely great, and Lessing, though
very critical as to particular points, greatly helped to spread it.
Diderot had for the first time consciously sought to proclaim the
theatre an agency of social reform, and to entrust to it as its
task the propagation of the gospel of philanthropy. Though
the execution of his dramatic works fell far short of his aims;
though Madame de Stael was not far wrong in denouncing them
as exhibiting not nature itself, but " the affectation of nature,"
yet they contained, in a measure almost unequalled in the history
of the modern drama, the fermenting element which never seems
to subside. Their author announced them as examples of a third
dramatic form the genre serieux which he declared to be the
consummation of the dramatic art. Making war upon the frigid
artificiality of classical tragedy, he banished verse from the new
species. The effect of these plays was intended to spring from
their truth to nature a truth such as no spectator could mistake,
and which should bring home its moral teachings to the business
as well as the bosoms of all. The theatre was to become a real
and realistic school of the principles of society and of the conduct
of life it was, in other words, to usurp functions with which
it has no concern, and to essay the direct reformation of mankind.
The idea was neither new nor just; but its speciousness will
probably continue to commend it to many enthusiastic minds,
whensoever and in whatsoever shape it is revived.
From this point the history of the French drama becomes
that of a conflict between an enfeebled artistic school and a
tendency which is hardly to be dignified by the name Thg
of a school at all. Among the successful dramatists ,,;,,
following on Diderot may be mentioned the critical of the
and versatile J. F. Marmontel, and more especially Revolution
M. J. Sedaine, who though chiefly working for the opera, *
producedtwo comedies of acknowledged merit." P.A.C.
de Beaumarchais (1732-1799), who for his early senti-
mental plays," in which he imitated Diderot, invented the appella-
tion drame so convenient in its vagueness that it became the
accepted name of the hybrid species to which they belonged
in two works of a very different kind, the famous Barbier de Seville
and the still more famous Mariage de Figaro, boldly carried
comedy back into its old Spanish atmosphere of intrigue; but,
while surpassing all his predecessors in the skill with which he
constructed his frivolous plots, he drew his characters with a
lightness and sureness of touch peculiar to himself, animated
his dialogue with an unparalleled brilliancy of wit, and seasoned
action as well as dialogue with a political and social meaning,
which caused his epigrams to become proverbs, and which marks
his Figaro as a herald of the Revolution. Such plays as these
were ill suited to the rule of the despot whose vigilance could not
overlook their significance. The comedy of the empire is, in the
hands of Collin d'Harieville, Louis Picard (1769-1828), A. Duval,
Etienne and others, mainly a harmless comedy of manners;
nor was the attempted innovation of N. Lemercier who was
fain to invent a new species, that of historical comedy more than
a flattering self-delusion. The theatre had its share in all the
movements and changes which ensued in France; though the
most important revolution which the drama itself was to undergo
was not one of wholly native origin. Those branches of the
drama which belong specifically to the history of the opera, or
which associate themselves with it, are here passed by. Among
them was the vaudeville (from Val de Vire in Calvados), which
" Le PhUosophe sans le savoir; La Gageure imprevue.
12 e.g. Eugenie (the original of Goethe's Clavigo) and Les Deux Amis,
or Le Negotiant de Lyon.
MODERN FRENCH]
DRAMA
began as an interspersion of pantomime with the airs of popular
songs, and which, after the Italian masks had been removed
from it, was cultivated by Ponsard and Marmontel,
viues, etc, white Sedaine wrote a didactic poem on the subject
(1756). Sedaine was the father of the opera-comique
proper; l Marmontel, 2 as well as Rousseau, 3 likewise composed
operettes a smaller sort of opera, at first of the pastoral variety;
and these flexible species easily entered into combination. The
melodrama proper, of which the invention is also attributed to
Rousseau, 4 in its latter development became merely a drama
accentuated by music, though usually in little need of any
accentuation.
The chief home of the regular drama, however, demanded
efforts of another kind. At the Theatre Francais, or Comedie
Francaise, whose history as that of a single company
**' of actors had begun in 1680, the party-strife of the
times made itself audible; and the most prominent tragic
poet of the Revolution, M. J. de Chenier, a disciple of Voltaire
in dramatic poetry as well as in political philosophy, wrote for
the national stage the historical drama with a political moral 5
in which in the memorable year 17 89 the actor Talma achieved
his first complete triumph. But the victorious Revolution
proclaimed among other liberties that of the theatres in Paris,
of which soon not less than 50 were open. In 1807 the empire
restricted the number to 9, and reinstated the Theatre Francais
in sole possession (or nearly such) of the right of performing the
Transition classic drama. No writer of note was, however,
to the tempted or inspired by the rewards and other en-
romaaOc couragements offered by Napoleon to produce such a
schooL classic tragedy as the emperor would have willingly
stamped from out of the earth. The tragedies of C. Delavigne
represent the transition from the expiring efforts of the classical
to the ambitious beginnings of the romantic school of the French
drama.
Of modern romantic drama in France it must suffice to say
that it derives some of its characteristics from the general
movement of romanticism which in various ways and
The at various points of time transformed nearly every
modern European literature, others from the rhetorical
tendency which is a French national feature. Victor
Hugo was the founder whom it followed in a spirit of high emprise
to success upon success, his own being the most conspicuous of
all; 8 A. Dumas the elder its unshrinking middleman. The
marvellous fire and grandeur of genius of the former, always in
extremes but often most sublime at the height of danger, was
nowhere more signally such than in the drama; Dumas was a
Briareus, working, however, with many hands besides his own.
Together with them may, with more or less precision, be classed
in the romantic school of dramatists A. de Vigny 7 and George
Sand, 8 neither of whom, however, attained to the highest rank
in the drama, and Jules Sandeau; 9 A. de Musset, whose origin-
ality pervades all his plays, but whose later works, more especially
in his prose " proverbs " and pieces of a similar kind, have a
flavour of a delicacy altogether indescribable; 10 perhaps also
P. Me'rim6e (1803-1870), who invented not only Spanish dramas
but a Spanish dramatist, and who was never more audacious
than when he seemed most naif. 11
The romantic school was not destined to exercise a permanent
control over French- public taste; but it can hardly be said to
have been overthrown by the brief classical revival begun by
F. Ponsard, and continued, though in closer contact with modern
I Richard Cceur de Lion, &c.
* Zemire et Azor; J cannot et Jeannette.
3 Les Muses galantes ; Le Devin du village. 4 Pygmalion.
6 Charles IX, ou I'ecole des rois.
6 Hernani (1839); Le Rot s' amuse; Ruy Bias; Les Burgraves, &c.
Even in Torquemada, the fruit of its author's old age, and full of
bombast, the original power has not altogether gone out.
''Chatterton. Francois le champi; Claud jr.
'Le Gendre de M. Poirier.
10 On ne badine pas avec I'amour, as interpreted by Delaunay, must
always remain the most exquisite type of this inimitable genre.
II Theatre de Clara Gazul. La Famille Carvajal, one of these pieces,
treats the same story as that of The Cenci.
ideas, both by him 12 and by E. Augier, a dramatist who
gradually attained to an extraordinary effectiveness in the self-
restrained treatment of social as well as of historical
themes. 13 While the theatrical fecundity and the
remarkable constructive ability of E. Scribe H supplied
a long series of productions attesting the rapid growth of the
playwright's mastery over the secrets of his craft the name of his
competitors is legion. Among them may be mentioned, if only
as the authors of two of the most successful plays of the historical
species produced in the century, two writers of great eminence
C. Delavigne 15 and E. Legouve. 16 Later developments of the
drama bore the impress of a period of social decay, prepared to
probe its own sufferings, while glad at times to take refuge in
the gaiety traditional in France in her more light-hearted days,
but which even then had not yet deserted either French social
life or the theatre which reflected it. After a fashion which
would have startled even Diderot, while recalling his efforts
in the earnestness of its endeavour to arouse moral interests
to which the theatre had long been a stranger, A. Dumas the
younger set himself to reform society by means of the stage. 17
But the technical skill which he and contemporary dramatists
displayed in the execution of their self-imposed task was such as
had been undreamt of by Diderot. O. Feuillet, more eminent
as a novelist than on the stage, applied himself, though with
the aid of fewer prefaces, to the solution of the same or similar
problems; while the extraordinary versa tility of V. Sardou
and his unfailing constructive skill was applied by him to almost
every kind of serious, or serio-comic, drama even the most
solid of all. 18 In the same period, while E. Pailleron revived some
of the most characteristic tendencies of the best French satirical
comedy in ridiculing the pompous pretentiousness of learning
for its own sake, 19 the light-hearted gaiety of E. Labiche changed
into something not altogether similar in the productions of the
comic muse of L. Halevy and H. Meilhac, ranging from the
licence of the musical burlesque which was the congenial delight
of the later days of the Second Empire to a species of comedy
in which the ingredients of bitterness and even of sadness found
a place. 20
Dramatic criticism in France has had a material share in the
maintenance of a deep as well as wide national interest in the
preservation of a high standard of excellence both in
the performance of plays and in the plays themselves. /"/,e **
Among its modern representatives the foremost place drama and
would probably be by common consent allowed to of the
F. Sarcey, whose Monday theatrical feuitteton in the ]"!
Temps was long awaited week by week as an oracle of
dramaturgy. But he was only the first among equals, and the
successor and the predecessor of writers who have at least
sought to be equal to a function of real public importance. For
it seems hardly within the range of probability to suppose that
the theatre will for many a generation to come lose the hold
which it has established over the intellectual and moral sym-
pathies of nearly the whole of the educated to say nothing of a
great part of the half-educated population of France. This
does not, of course, imply that the creative activity of French
dramatic literature is certain to endure. Since the great changes
set in which were consequent upon the disastrous war of 1870,
French dramatic literature has reflected more than one phase of
national sentiment and opinion, and has represented the aspira-
tions, the sympathies and the philosophy of life of more than one
class in the community. Thus it has had its episodes of reaction
in the midst of an onward flow of which it would be difficult to
predict the end. The tendency of what can only vaguely be
described as the naturalistic school of writers has corresponded
to that even more prominent in the dramatic literatures of
u Lucrece (1843) ; L'Honneur et I' argent; Charlotte Corday.
" La Cigue; L'Aventuriere; Gabrielle; Le Fils de Giboyer, &c.
Valerie ; Bertrand et Raton ; Le Verre d'eau, &c.
16 Louis XL " Adrienne Lecouvreur.
" La Dame aux camelias ; Le Demi-monde ; Le Supplice d'une
femme; Les Idees de Mme Aubray; L'trangere; Francillon.
18 Les Pattes de mouche; Nos bans vUlageois; Patrie.
u Le Monde ou Von s'ennuie. Frou-frou.
S i6
DRAMA
[MODERN FRENCH
certain other European nations; but it must be allowed that a
new poetic will have to be constructed if the freedom of develop-
ment which the dramatic, like all other arts, is entitled to
claim is to be reconciled to laws deducible from the whole
previous history of the drama. The reaction towards earlier
forms has asserted itself in various ways through the poetic
plays of the later years of F. Coppee; in the success (notable for
reasons other than artistic) of Vicomte H. de Bornier's first
tragedy; and of late more especially in the dramas highly
original and truly romantic in both form and treatment of
E. Rostand.
The art of acting is not altogether dependent upon the measure
of contemporary literary productivity, even in France, where
the connexion between dramatic literature and the stage has
perhaps been more continuously intimate than in many other
countries. Talma and Mile Mars flourished in one of the most
barren ages of the French literary drama; and though this
cannot be asserted of the two most brilliant stars of the French
ipth century tragic stage, Rachel and Sarah Bernhardt, or of
their comic contemporaries from Frederick-Lemaitre down to
types less unique than the " Talma of the boulevards," the
constantly accumulating experience of the successive schools
of acting in France may here ensure to the art a future not less
notable than its past. Moreover, the French theatre has long
been, and is more than ever likely to continue, an affair of the
state as well as of the nation; and the judicious policy of not
leaving the chief theatres at the mercy of shifting fashion and
the base demands of idleness and sensuality will remain the
surest guarantee for the maintenance of a high standard both in
principle and in practice. So long as France continues to main-
tain her ascendancy over other nations in matters of taste, and
in much else that adorns, brightens and quickens social life,
the predominant influence of the French theatre over the theatres
of other nations is likewise assured. But dramatic literature is
becoming international to a degree hardly dreamt of half a
century ago; and the distinctive development of the French
theatre cannot fail to be affected by the success or failure of the
national drama in retaining and developing its own most char-
acteristic qualities. Its history shows periods of marvellously
rapid advance, of hardly less swift decline, and of frequent
though at times fitful recovery. Its future may be equally
varied; but it will remain not less dependent on the conditions
which in every people, ancient or modern, have proved to be
indispensable to national vigour and vitality. (A. W. W.)
Recent French Drama. The last twenty-five years of the igth
century witnessed an important change in the constructive
methods, as well as in the moral tendencies, of the French play-
wrights. Of the two leading dramatists who reigned supreme
over the haute comedie in 1875, one, Emile Augier, had almost
ended his career, but the other, Alexandre Dumas, was to main-
tain his ascendancy for many years longer. Sardou's fertility
of invention, and extraordinary cleverness at manipulating a
complicated intrigue, were also greatly admired, and much was
expected from Edouard Pailleron's brilliant and as it seemed
inexhaustible wit hi satirizing the whims and weaknesses of
high-born and highly-cultured society. Alexandre Dumas had
created and still monopolized the problem play, of which Le
Demi-monde, Le Fits naturel, La Question d'argent, Les Idles de
Madame Aubray, La Femme de Claude, Monsieur Alphonse, La
Visile de noces, L'FJrangere, Francillon and Denise may be
mentioned as the most characteristic specimens. The problem
play is the presentation of a particular case, with a view to a
general conclusion on some important question of human conduct.
This afforded the author, who was, in his way, a moralist and a
reformer, excellent opportunities for humorous discussions and
the display of that familiar eloquence which was his greatest
gift and most effective faculty. Among other subjects, the social
position of women had an all-powerful attraction for his mind,
and many of his later plays were written with the object of
placing in strong relief the remarkable inequality of the sexes,
both as regards freedom of action and responsibility, in modern
marriage. Like all the dramatists of his time, he adhered to
Scribe's mode of play-writing a mixture of the drame bourgeois,
as initiated by Diderot, and the comedy of character and manners,
long in vogue from the days of Moliere, Regnard, Destouches
and Marivaux, down to the beginning of the ipth century. In
his prefaces Dumas often undertook the defence of the system
which, in his estimation, was best calculated to serve the purpose
of the artist, the humorist and the moralist a dramatist being,
as he conceived, a combination of the three.
Though the majority of French playgoers continued to side
with him, and to cling to the time-honoured theatrical beliefs,
a few young men were beginning to murmur against the too
elaborate mechanism and artificial logic. Scribe and his suc-
cessors, whose plays were a combination of comedy and drama,
were wont to devote the first act to a brilliant and witty presenta-
tion of personages, then to crowd the following scenes with
incidents, until the action was brought to a climax about the
end of the fourth act, invariably concluding, in the fifth, with an
optimistic denouement, just before midnight, the time appointed
by police regulations for the closing of playhouses. At the same
time a more serious and far-reaching criticism was levelled at the
very principles on which the conception of human life was then
dependent. A new philosophy, based on scientific research,
had been gradually gaining ground and penetrating the French
mind. A host of bold writers had been trying, with considerable
firmness and continuity of purpose, to start a new kind of fiction,
writing in perfect accordance with the determinist theories of
Auguste Comte, Darwin and Taine. The long-disputed success
of the Naturalistic School carried everything before it during
the years 1875-1885, and its triumphant leaders were tempted
to make the best of their advantage by annexing a new province
and establishing a footing on the stage. In this they failed
signally, either when they were assisted by prof essional dramatists
or when left to then: own resources. It became evident that
Naturalism, to be made acceptable on the stage, would have to
undergo a special process of transformation and be handled in a
peculiar way. Henry Becque succeeded in embodying the new
theories in two plays, which at first met with very indifferent
success, but were revived at a later period, and finally obtained
permanent recognition in the French theatre even with the
acquiescence of the most learned critics, when they discovered,
or fancied they discovered, that Becque's comedies agreed, in
the main, with Moliere's conception of dramatic art. In Les
Corbeaux and La Parisienne the plot is very simple; the episodes
are incidents taken from ordinary life. No extraneous character
is introduced to discuss moral and social theories, or to acquaint
us with the psychology of the real dramatis personae, or to suggest
humorous observations about the progress of the dramatic action.
The characters are left to tell their own tale in their own words,
which are sometimes very comical, sometimes very repulsive,
but purport to be always true to nature. Human will, which
was the soul and mainspring of French tragedy in the I7th
century, and played such a paramount part in the drame bourgeois
and the haute comedie of the ipth, appears in M. Becque's plays
to have fallen from its former exalted position and to have ceased
to be a free agent. It is a mere passive instrument to our inner
desires and instincts and appetites, which, in their turn, obey
natural laws. Thus, in Becque's comedies, as in the old Greek
drama, destiny, not man, is the chief actor, the real but unseen
protagonist.
Becque was not a prolific writer, and when he died, in 1899,
it was remarked that he had spent the last ten years of his life in
comparative inactivity. But during these years his young and
ardent disciples had spared no effort in putting their master's
theories to the test. It had occurred to a gifted and enterprising
actor-manager, named Andre Antoine, that the time had come
for trying dramatic experiments in a continued and methodical
manner. For this purpose he gathered around him a number
of young authors, and produced their plays before a select
audience of subscribers, who had paid in advance for their season-
tickets. The entertainment was a strictly private one. In this
way Antoine made himself independent of the censors, and at the
same time was no longer obliged to consider the requirements
MODERN FRENCH]
DRAMA
5 1 ?
of the average playgoer, as is the case with ordinary managers,
anxious, above all things, to secure long runs. At the Theatre
Libre the most successful play was not to be performed for more
than three nights.
The reform attempted was to consist in the elimination of what
was contrary to nature in Dumas's and Augier's comedies: of
the intrigue parallele or underplot, of the over-numerous and
improbable incidents which followed the first act and taxed the
spectator's memory to the verge of fatigue; and, lastly, of the
conventional denouement for which there was no justification.
A true study of character was to take the place of Sardou's
complicated fabrications and Dumas's problem plays. The
authors would present the spectator with a fragment of life, but
would force no conclusion upon him at the termination of the
play. The reformation in histrionic art was to proceed apace.
The actors and actresses of the preceding period had striven
to give full effect to certain witty utterances of the author, or to
preserve and to develop their own personal peculiarities or
oddities. Antoine and his fellow-artists did their best to make
the public realize, in every word and every gesture, the character-
istic features and ruling passions of the men and women they were
supposed to represent.
It was in the early autumn of 1887 that the Theatre Libre
opened its doors for the first time. It struggled on for eight
years amidst unfailing curiosity, but not without encountering
some adverse, or even derisive, criticism from a considerable
portion of the public and the press. The Theatre Libre brought
under public notice such men as George Courteline and George
Ancey, who gave respectively, in Bonbouroche and La Dupe,
specimens of a comic vein called the " comique cruel." Fabre, in
L' Argent, approached if not surpassed his master, Henry Becque.
Brieux, in Blanchetle, gave promise of talent, which he has since
in a great measure justified. In Les Fossiles and L'Emiers d'une
sainte, by Francois de Curel, were found evidences of dramatic
vigour and concentrated energy, allied with a remarkable gift
for the minute analysis of feeling. Antoine's activity was not
exclusively confined to the efforts of the French Naturalistic
School; he included the Norwegian drama in his programme,
and successively produced several of Ibsen's plays. They
received a large amount of attention from the critics, the views
then expressed ranging from the wildest enthusiasm to the
bitterest irony. Francisque Sarcey was decidedly hostile, and
Jules Lemaitre, who ranked next to him in authority, ventured
to suggest that Ibsen's ideas were nothing better than long-
discarded social and literary paradoxes, borrowed from Pierre
Leroux through George Sand, and returned to the French
market as novelties. Ibsen was not understood by the French
public at large, though his influence could be clearly traced on
thoughtful men like Paul Hervieu and Francois de Curel.
The authors of the Theatre Libre were sadly wanting in tact
and patience. They went at once to extremes, and, while trying
to free themselves from an obsolete form of drama, fell into a state
of anarchy. If a too elaborate plot is a fault, no plot at all is an
absurdity. The old school had been severely taken to task for
devoting the first act to the delineation of character, and the
delineation of character was now found to have extended over
the whole play; and worse still, most of these young men
seemed to find pleasure in importing a low vocabulary on to the
stage; they made it their special object to place before the spec-
tator revolting pictures of the grossest immorality. In this they
were supported by a knot of noisy and unwise admirers, whose
misplaced approval largely contributed towards bringing an
otherwise useful and interesting undertaking into disrepute.
The result was that after the lapse of eight years the little group
collected round Antoine had lost in cohesion and spirit, that it was
both less hopeful and less compact than it had been at the outset
of the campaign. But some authors who had kept aloof from
the movement were not slow in reaping the moral and intellectual
profit of these tentative experiments. Among them must be
cited George de Porto-Riche, Henri Lavedan, Paul Hervieu,
Maurice Donnay and Jules Lemaitre. Alone among the authors
of the Theatre Libre, E. Brieux secured an assured position on
the regular stage. Instead of attacking the vices and follies of his
times, he has made a name by satirizing the weak points or the
wrong application of certain fundamental principles by which
modern institutions are supported. He mocked at universal
suffrage in L'Engrenage, at art in Menages d'arlistes, at popular
instruction in Blanchetle, at charity in Les Bienfaileurs, at
science in L'Evasion, and then at law in La Robe rouge.
Of Les Trois Filles de M. Dupont, one is an old maid with a strong
bent towards mysticism, another is a star in the demi-monde,
and the third is married. Neither religion, nor free love, nor
marriage has made one of the three happy. The strange fact
about Brieux is that he propounds his uncomfortable ideas with
an incredible amount of dash and spirit.
All the plays written by the above-mentioned authors, and by
those who follow in their steps, have been said to constitute
the " new comedy." But one may question the advisability
of applying the same name to literary works which present so
little, if any, family likeness. It was tacitly agreed to remove
the intricacies of the plot and the forced denouement. But no one
will trace in those plays the uniformity of moral purpose which
would justify us in comprising them under the same head, as
products of the same school. Then, before the Naturalistic,
or half-Naturalistic, School had attained to a practical result or
taken a definite shape, a wave of Romanticism swept over the
French public, and in a measure brought back the old artistic
and literary dogmas propounded by Victor Hugo and the genera-
tion. of 1830. Signs of a revival in French dramatic poetry were
not lacking. The success of La Fitte de Roland, by the Vicomte
de Bornier, was restricted to the more cultivated classes, but the
vogue of Jean Richepin's Chemineau was at once general and
lasting. Cyrano de Bergerac, produced in the last days of 1897,
brought a world-wide reputation to its young author, Edmond
Rostand. This play combines sparkling wit and brilliancx
of imagination with delightful touches of pathos and delicate
tenderness. It was assumed that Rostand was endowed to an
extraordinary degree both with theatrical genius and the poetic
faculty. L 'Aiglon fell short of this too favourable judgment.
It is more a dramatic poem than a real drama, and the author
handles history with the same childish incompetence and in-
accuracy as Hugo did in Cromwell, in Ruy Bias and Hernani,
The persistent approbation of the public seemed, however, to
indicate a growing taste for poetry, even when unsupported by
dramatic interest a curious symptom among the least poetical
of modern European races.
To sum up, the French, as regards the present condition of
their drama, were confronted with two alternative movements.
Naturalism, furthered by science and philosophy, was contending
against traditions three centuries old, and seemed unable to
crystallize into masterly works; while romantic drama, founded
on vague and exploded theories, had become embodied in pro-
ductions of real artistic beauty, which have been warmly wel-
comed by the general playgoer. It should nevertheless be noted
that in Cyrano and L' Aiglon human will, which was the main-
spring of Corneille's tragedy and Hugo's drama, tried to reassert
itself, but was baffled by circumstance, and had to submit to
inexorable laws. This showed that the victorious school would
have to reckon with the doctrines of the defeated party, and
suggested that a determinist theatre might be the ultimate
outcome of a compromise. (A. Fi.)
(/) English Drama.
Among the nations of Germanic descent the English alone
succeeded, mainly through the influence of the Renaissance
movement, in transforming the later growths of the medieval
drama into the beginnings of a great and enduring national
dramatic literature, second neither in volume nor in splendour
to any other in the records of the world. And, although in
England, as elsewhere, the preparatory process had been con-
tinuing for some generations, its consummation coincided with
one of the greatest epochs of English national history, and indeed
forms one of the chief glories of that epoch itself; so that, in
thinking or speaking of the Elizabethan age and the Elizabethan
r T
1. 1
DRAMA
[ENGLISH
drama, the one can scarcely be thought or spoken of without
the other.
It is of course conceivable that the regular drama, or drama
proper, might in England have been called into life without ths
Beginnings direct influence of classical examples. Already in the
of the reign of Edward VI. the spirit of the Reformation had
regular (with the aid of a newly awakened desire for the study
drama. Q m - s j or y ) w hkh was no doubt largely due to Italian
examples) quickened the relatively inanimate species of the
morality into the beginning of a new development. 1 But
though the Kyng Johan of Bale (much as this author abhorred
the chronicles as written by ecclesiastics) came very near to the
chronicle histories, there is no proof whatever that the work,
long hidden away for very good reasons, actually served as a
transition to the new species; and Bale's production was entirely
unknown to the particular chronicle history which treated the
same subject. Before the earliest example of this transitional
species was produced, English tragedy had directly connected
its beginnings with classical models.
Much in the same way, nothing could have been more natural
and in accordance with the previous sluggish evolution of the
English drama than that a gradual transition, however complete
in the end, should have been effected from the moralities to
comedy. It was not, however, John Heywood himself who was
to accomplish any such transition; possibly, he was himself
the author of the morality Genus humanum performed at the
coronation feast of Queen Mary, whose council speedily forbade
the performance of interludes without the queen's licence. Nor
are we able to conjecture the nature of the pieces bearing this
name composed by Richard Farrant, afterwards the master of
the Children of St George's at Windsor, or of William Hunnis,
master under Queen Elizabeth of the Children of the Chapel
Royal. But the process of transition is visible in productions,
also called interludes, but charged with serious purpose, such
as T. Ingeland's noteworthy Disobedient Child (before 1560),
and plays in which the element of abstractions is perceptibly
yielding to that of real personages, or in which the characters
are for the most part historical or the main element in the action
belongs to the sphere of romantic narrative. 2 The demonstration
would, however, be alien to the purpose of indicating the main
conditions of the growth of the English drama. The immediate
origin of the earliest extant English comedy must, like that of
the first English tragedy, be sought, not in the develop-
'of classical ment * any PP u ^ ar literary or theatrical antecedents,
examples, but in the imitation, more or less direct, of classical
models. This cardinal fact, unmistakable though it
is, has frequently been ignored or obscured by writers intent
upon investigating the origines of our drama, and to this day
remains without adequate acknowledgment in most of the
literary histories accessible to the great body of students.
It is true that in tracing the entrance of the drama into the
national literature there is no reason for seeking to distinguish
very narrowly between the several tributaries to the main stream
which fertilized this as well as other fields under Renaissance
culture. The universities then still remained, and for a time
became more prominently than ever, the leading agents of
education in all its existent stages; and it is a patent fact that
no influence could have been so strong upon the Elizabethan
dramatists as that to which they had been subjected during the
university life through which the large majority of them had
passed. The corporate life of the universities, and the enthusi-
asms (habitually unanimous) of their undergraduates and
younger graduates, communicated this influence, as it were
automatically, to the students, and to the learned societies
themselves, of the Inns of Court. In the Tudor, as afterwards
in the early Stuart, times, these Inns were at once the seminaries
1 As has been already seen, Sir David Lyndsay's celebrated Satyre
of the Three Estaits, a dramatic manifesto in favour of the Reforma-
tion, is in form a morality pure and simple.
1 Tom Tiler and his Wife (1578); A Knack to know a Knave (c.
1594); Sir Clvomon and Sir Clamydes (misattributed to G. Peele),
(printed 1599).
of loyalty, and the obvious resort for the supply of young men
of spirit desirous of honouring a learned court by contributing
to its choicer amusements. Thus, whether we trace them in
the universities, in the " bowers " or halls of the lawyers, or in
the palaces of the sovereign, the beginnings of the English
academical drama, which in later Elizabethan and Jacobean
literature cannot claim to be. more than a subordinate species
of the national drama, in an earlier period served as the actual
link between classical tragedy and comedy and the surviving
native growths, and supplied the actual impulse towards the
beginnings of English tragedy and comedy.
The academical drama of the early years of Elizabeth's reign
and of the preceding part of the Tudor period including the
school-drama in the narrower sense of the term and
other performances of academical origin consisted, Tfteear " er
apart from actual reproductions of classical plays in cai drama
the original Latin or in Latin versions of the Greek,
in adaptations of Latin originals, or of Latin or English plays
directly modelled on classical examples. A notable series of
plays of this kind was performed in the hall of Christ Church,
Oxford, from the first year of Edward VI. onward, when N.
Grimald's Archipropheta, treating in classic form the story of
St John the Baptist, but introducing the Vice and comic scenes,
was brought out. 3 Others were J. Calfhill's Progne and R.
Edwardes' Palaemon and Arcyte (both 1366), and, from about
1580 onwards, a succession of Latin plays by William Gager,
beginning with the tragedy Meleager, and including, with other
tragedies, 4 a comedy Rivales. Yet another comedy, acted at
Christ Church, and extolled in 1591 by Harington for " harmless
mirth," was the Bellum grammaticale, or Civil War between
Nouns and Verbs, which may have been a revision of a comedy
written by Bale's friend, R. Radcliff, in 1538, but of which in any
case the ultimate origin was a celebrated Italian allegorical
treatise. 6 In Cambridge, as is not surprising, the activity of the
early academical friends and favourers of the drama was even
more marked. At St John's College, where Bishop Watson's
Latin tragedy called Absalom was produced within the years
1534 and 1544, plays were, according to Ascham, repeatedly
performed about the middle of the century; at Christ's a
controversial drama hi the Lutheran interest called Pammachius,
of which Gardiner complained to the privy council, and which
seems afterwards to have been translated by Bale, was acted in
1544; and at Trinity there was a long series of performances
which began with Chris topherson's Jephtha about 1546, and
consisted partly of reproductions of classical works, 6 partly of
plays and "shows" unnamed; while on one occasion at all
events, in 1559, " two English plays " were produced. In 1560
was acted, doubtless hi the original Latin, and not in Palsgrave's
English translation (1540) for schoolboys, the celebrated
" comedy " of Acolaslus, by W. Gnaphaeus, on the story of the
Prodigal Son. The long series of Trinity plays interspersed with
occasional plays at King's (where Udall's Ezechias was produced
in English in 1 564), at St John's (where T. Legge's Richardus III.
was first acted in 1573), and, as will be seen below, at Christ's,
continued, with few noticeable breaks, up to the time when
the Elizabethan drama was in full activity. 7 Among the
" academical " plays not traceable to any particular university
source may be mentioned, as acted at court so early as the end
of 1565 or the beginning of 1566, the Latin Sapientia Solomonis,
which generally follows the biblical narrative, but introduces a
comic element in the sayings of the popular Marcolph, who here
appears as a court fool.
* An earlier drama by him, Christus redivivus, is said to have been
printed at Cologne.
4 Oedipus; Dido; Ulysses redux. ' By A. Guarna.
' Pax; Troas; Menaechmi; Oedipus; Mostellarid; Hecuba; Amphy-
truo; Medea. These fall between 1546 and 1560. The date and
place of the production of William Goldingham of Trinity Hall's
Herodes, some time after 1567, are unknown.
7 The date and place of performance of the Latin Fatum Vorti-
gerni are unknown; but it was not improbably produced at a later
time than Shakespeare's Richard, II., which it seems in certain points
to resemble.
ENGLISH]
DRAMA
It was under the direct influence of the Renaissance, viewed
primarily, in England as elsewhere, as a revival of classical
studies, and in connexion with the growing taste in
university and cognate circles of society, and at a
court which prided itself on its love and patronage of
learning, that English .tragedy and comedy took their actual
beginnings. Those of comedy, as it would seem, preceded
those of tragedy by a few years. Already in Queen Mary's reign,
translation was found the readiest form of expression offering
itself to literary scholarship; and Italian examples helped to
commend Seneca, the most modern of the ancient tragedians,
and the imitator of the most human among the masters of Attic
tragedy, as a favourite subject for such exercises. In the very
year of Elizabeth's accession seven years after Jodelle had
brought out the earliest French tragedy a group of English
university scholars began to put forth a series of translations of
the ten tragedies of Seneca, which one of them, T. Newton, in
1581 collected into a single volume. The earliest of these
versions was that of the Troodes (1559) by Jasper Heywood,
a son of the author of the Interludes. He also published the
Thyestes (1560) and the Hercules Fur ens (1561); the names of
his fellow-translators were A. Neville, T. Nuce, J. Studley and
the T. Newton aforesaid. These translations, which occasionally
include original interpolations (" additions," a term which was
to become a technical one in English dramaturgy), are in no
instance in blank verse, the favourite metre of the dialogue being
the couplets of fourteen-syllable lines best known through
Chapman's Homer.
The authority of Seneca, once established in the English literary
world, maintained itself there long after English drama had
emancipated itself from the task of imitating this pallid
model. an d, occasionally, Seneca's own prototype,
tragedies. Euripides. 1 Nor can it be doubted that some transla-
tion of the Latin tragic poet had at one time or another
passed through Shakespeare's own hands. But what is of present
importance is that to the direct influence of Seneca is to be ascribed
the composition of the first English tragedy which we possess.
Of Gorboduc (afterwards re-named F err ex and Porrex), first acted
on the 1 8th of January 1562 by the members of the Inner Temple
before Queen Elizabeth, the first three acts are stated to have
been written by T. Norton; the rest of the play (if not more)
was the work of T. Sackville, afterwards Lord Buckhurst and
earl of Dorset, whom Jasper Heywood praised for his sonnetSj
but who is better known for his leading share in The Mirror Jor
Magistrates. Though the subject of Gorboduc is a British legend,
and though the action is neither copied nor adapted irom any
treated by Seneca, yet the resemblance between this tragedy
and the Thebais is too strong to be fortuitous. In all formal
matters chorus, messengers, &c. Gorboduc adheres to the
usage of classical tragedy; but the authors show no respect for
the unities of time or place. Strong in construction, the tragedy
is like its model, Seneca weak in characterization. The
dialogue, it should be noticed, is in blank verse; and the device
of the dumb-show, in which the contents of each act are in suc-
cession set forth in pantomime only, is employed at once to
instruct and to stimulate the spectator.
The nearly contemporary Apius and Virginia (c. 1563), though
it takes its subject destined to become a perennial one on the
modern stage from Roman story; the Historic of Heresies (pr.
1567); and T. Preston's Cambises King of Percia (1560-1570),
are somewhat rougher in form, and, the first and last of them at
all events, more violent in diction, than Gorboduc. They still
contain elements of the moralities (above all the Vice) and none
of the formal features of classical tragedy. But a Julyus Sesyar
seems to have been performed, in precisely the same circumstances
as Gorboduc, so early as 1 562 ; and, four years later, G. Gascoigne,
the author of the satire The Steele Glass, produced with the aid
of two associates (F. Kinwelmersh and Sir Christopher Yelverton,
1 Latin " academical " plays directly imitated from Seneca, but
of unknown date, are Solymannidae (or the story of Solyman II. and
his son Mustapha), and Tomumbeius (Tuman Bey, sultan of Egypt,
); yet others exhibit his influence.
who wrote an epilogue) , Jocasta, a virtual translation of L. Dolce's
Giocasta, which was an adaptation, probably, of R. Winter's
Latin translation of the Phoenissae of Euripides.* Between the
years 1567 and 1580 a large proportion of the plays presented at
court by choir- or school-boys, and by various companies of
actors, were taken from Greek legend or Roman history; as was
R. Edwardes' Damon and Pithias (perhaps as early as 1564-1565),
which already shades off from tragedy into what soon came to
be called tragi-comedy. 3 Simultaneously with the influence,
exercised directly or indirectly, of classical literature, that of
Italian, both dramatic and narrative, with its marked tendency
to treat native themes, asserted itself, and, while diversifying
the current of early English tragedy, infused into it a long-
abiding element of passion. There are sufficient grounds for
concluding that a play on the subject of Romeo and Juliet, which
L. da Porto and M. Bandello had treated in prose narrative
that of the latter having through a French version formed itself
into an English poem was seen on an English stage in or before
1562. Gismonde of Salerne, a play founded on Boccaccio, was
acted before Queen Elizabeth at the Inner Temple in 1568,
nearly a generation before it was published, rewritten in blank
verse by R. Wilmot, one of the performers, then in holy orders;
G. Whetstone's Promos and Cassandra, founded on G. Cinthio
(from which came the plot of Measure for Measure), followed,
printed in 1578; and there were other " casts of Italian devices "
belonging to this age, in which the choice of a striking theme
still seemed the chief preoccupation of English tragic poets.
From the double danger which threatened English tragedy
in the days of its infancy that it would congeal on the wintry
heights of classical themes, or dissolve its vigour in the glov <ig
heat of a passion fiercer than that of the Italians Inglese
Italianato e un diavolo incarnalo it was preserved more than by
any other cause by its happy association with the traditions of
the national history. An exceptional position might seem to be
in this respect occupied by T. Hughes' interesting tragedy The.
Misfortunes of Arthur (1587). But the author of this play in
certain portions of whose framework there were associated with
him seven other members of Gray's Inn, including Francis Bacon,
and which was presented before Queen Elizabeth like Gorboduc
in truth followed the example of the authors of that work both
in choice of theme, in details of form, and in a general though
far from servile imitation of the manner of Seneca ; nor does he
represent any very material advance upon the first English
tragedy.
Fortunately, at the very time when from such beginnings
as those just described the English tragic drama was to set forth
upon a course in which it was to achieve so much, a
new sphere of activity suggested itself. And in this,
after a few more or less tentative efforts, English
dramatists very speedily came to feel at home. In their direct
dramatization of passages or portions of English history (in
which the doings and sufferings of King Arthur could only by
courtesy or poetic licence be included) classical models would be
of scant service, while Italian examples of the treatment of
national historical subjects, having to deal with material so
wholly different, could not be followed with advantage. The
native species of the chronicle history, which designedly assumed
this name in order to make clear its origin and purpose, essayed
nothing more or less than a dramatic version of an existing
chronicle. Obviously, while the transition from half historical,
half epical narrative often implied carrying over into the new
form some of the features of the old, it was only when the subject
matter had been remoulded and recast that a true dramatic action
could result. Put the histories to be found among the plays of
Shakespeare and one or two other Elizabethans are true dramas,
and it would be inconvenient to include these in the transitional
species of those known as chronicle histories. Among these ruder
1 " Supposes " and " Jocasta," ed. J. W. Cunliffe.
1 His Pa.la.mon and Arcyte (produced in Christ Church hall, Oxford,
in 1566) is not preserved; or we should be able to compare with
The Two Noble Kinsmen this early dramatic treatment of a singularly
fine theme.
520
DRAMA
[ENGLISH
compositions, which intermixed the blank verse introduced on
the stage by Gorboduc with prose, and freely combined or placed
side by side tragic and comic ingredients, we have but few
distinct examples. One of these is The Famous Victories of
Henry the Fifth, known to have been acted before 1588; in
which both the verse and the prose are frequently of a very rude
sort, while it is neither divided into acts or scenes nor, in general,
constructed with any measure of dramatic skill. But its vigour
and freshness are considerable, and in many passages we recognize
familiar situations and favourite figures in later masterpieces of
the English historical drama. The second is The Troublesome
Raigne of King John, in two parts (printed in 1591), an epical
narrative transferred to the stage, neither a didactic effort like
Bale's, nor a living drama like Shakespeare's, but a far from
contemptible treatment of its historical theme. The True
Chronicle History of King Leir (acted in 1 593) in form resembles
the above, though it is not properly on a national subject (its
story is taken from Geoffrey of Monmouth); but, with all its
defects, it seems only to await the touch of the master's hand to
become a tragedy of supreme effectiveness. A yet further step
was taken in the Tragedy of Sir Thomas More (c. 1590) in
which Shakespeare's hand has been thought traceable, and
which deserves its designation of " tragedy " not so much on
account of the relative nearness of the historical subject to the
date of its dramatic treatment, as because of the tragic responsi-
bility of character here already clearly worked out.
Such had been the beginnings of tragedy in England up to
the time when the genius of English dramatists was impelled
by the spirit that dominates ja great creative epoch
comedies. ^ literature to seize the form ready to their hands.
The birth of English comedy, at all times a process
of less labour and eased by an always ready popular responsive-
ness to the most tentative efforts of art, had slightly preceded
that of her serious sister. As has been seen from the brief review
given above of the early history of the English academical
drama, isolated Latin comedies had been performed in the original
or in English versions as early as the reign of Henry VIII.
perhaps even earlier; while the morality and its direct descendant,
the interlude, pointed the way towards popular treatment in the
vernacular of actions and characters equally well suited for the
diversion of Roman, Italian and English audiences. Thus
there was no innovation in the adaptation by N. Udal (q.v.) of
the Miles Gloriosus of Plautus under the title of Ralph Roister
Doister, which may claim to be the earliest extant English
comedy. It has a genuinely popular vein of humour, and the
names fit the characters after a fashion familiar to the moralities.
The second English comedy in the opinion of at least one high
authority our first is Misogonus, which was certainly written
as early as 1560. Its scene is laid in Italy; but the Vice, com-
monly called " Cacurgus," is both by himself and others fre-
quently designated as " Will Summer," in allusion to Henry
VIII.'s celebrated jester. Gammer Gurton's Needle, long regarded
as the earliest of all English comedies, was printed in 1575, as
acted " not long ago in Christ's College, Cambridge." Its
authorship was till recently attributed to John Still (afterwards
bishop of Bath and Wells), who was a resident M.A. at Christ's,
when a play was performed there in 1566. But the evidence of
his authorship is inconclusive, and the play " made by Mr. S.,
Master of Arts," may be by William Stevenson, or by some other
contemporary. This comedy is slighter in plot and coarser in
diction than Ralph Roister Doister, but by no means unamusing.
In the main, however, early English comedy, while occasionally
introducing characters and scenes of thoroughly native origin
and complexion (e.g. Grim, the Collier of Croydon), 1 was content
to borrow its themes from classical or Italian sources. 2 G.
Gascoigne's Supposes (acted at Gray's Inn in 1 566) is a translation
of / Suppositi of Ariosto, remarkable for the flowing facility of
1 The History of the Collier.
2 A Historie of Error (1577), one of the many imitations of the
Menaechmi,^ may have been the foundation of the Comedy of Errors.
In the previous year was printed the old Taming of a Shrew, founded
on a novel of G. F. Straparola. Part of the plot of Shakespeare's
Taming of the Shrew may have been suggested by The Supposes.
its prose. While, on the one hand, the mixture of tragic with
comic motives, which was to become so distinctive a feature of the
Elizabethan drama, was already leading in the direction of tragi-
comedy, the precedent of the Italian pastoral drama encouraged
the introduction of figures and stories derived from classical
mythology; and the rapid and diversified influence of Italian
comedy, in close touch with Italian prose fiction, seemed likely
to affect and quicken continuously the growth of the lighter
branch of the English drama.
Out of such promises as these the glories of English drama
were ripened by the warmth and light of the great Elizabethan
age of which the beginnings may fairly be reckoned Conai-
f rom the third decennium of the reign to which it owes a as ot
its name. The queen's steady love of dramatic enter- ^j^te^f*'
tainments could not of itself have led, though it un- bethaa
doubtedly contributed, to such a result. Against the drama.
attacks which a nascent puritanism was already directing
against the stage by the hands of J. Northbrooke, 3 the repentant
playwright S. Gosson, 4 P. Stubbes, 5 and others, 6 were to be set
not only the frugal favour of royalty and the more liberal
patronage of great nobles, 7 but the fact that literary authorities
were already weighing the endeavours of the English drama in
the balance of respectful criticism, and that in the abstract
at least the claims of both tragedy and comedy were upheld by
those who shrank from the desipience of idle pastimes. It is
noticeable that this period in the history of the English theatre
coincides with the beginning of the remarkable series of visits
made to Germany by companies of English comedians, which
did not come to an end till the period immediately before the
Thirty Years' War, and were occasionally resumed after its close.
As at hope the popularity of the stage increased, the functions
of playwright and actor, whether combined or not, began to
hold out a reasonable promise of personal gain. Nor, above all,
was that higher impulse which leads men of talent and genius
to attempt forms of art in harmony with the tastes and tendencies
of their times wanting to the group of writers who can be
remembered by no nobler name than that of Shakespeare's
predecessors.
The lives of all of these are, of course, in part contemporary
with the life of Shakespeare himself; nor was there any sub-
stantial difference in the circumstances under which The ore-
most of them, and he, led their lives as dramatic decessors
authors. A distinction was manifestly kept up otshake-
between poets and playwrights. Of the contempt spel
entertained for the actor's profession some fell to the share of
the dramatist; " even Lodge," says C. M. Ingleby, " who had
indeed never trod the stage, but had written several plays, and
had no reason to be ashamed of his antecedents, speaks of the
vocation of the play-maker as sharing the odium attaching to
the actor." Among the dramatists themselves good fellowship
and literary partnership only at times asserted themselves as
stronger than the tendency to mutual jealousy and abuse; of all
chapters of dramatic history, the annals of the early Elizabethan
stage perhaps least resemble those of Arcadia.
Moreover, the theatre had hardly found its strength as a
powerful element in the national life, when it was involved in
a bitter controversy, with which it had originally no History ot
connexion, on behalf of an ally whose sympathy with the Eliza-
it can only have been of a very limited kind. The bethan
Marprelate controversy, into which, among leading s age '
playwrights, Lyly and Nashe were drawn, in 1 589 led to a stoppage
8 Treatise wherein Dicing, Dauncing, Vaine Playes or Enterluds
. . . . are reproved, &c. (1577).
4 The School of Abuse. 6 The Anatomy of Abuses.
' H. Denham, G. Whetstone (the author of Promos and Cassandra),
W. Rankine.
7 It may be mentioned that the practice of companies of players,
of one kind or another, being taken into the service of members of
the royal family, or of great nobles, dates from much earlier times
than the reign of Elizabeth. So far back as 1400/1 the corporation
of Shrewsbury paid rewards to the histriones of Prince Henry and
of the earl of Stafford, and in 1408/9 reference is made to the players
of the earl and countess of Arundel, of Lord Powys, of Lord Talbot
and of Lord Furnival.
ENGLISH]
DRAMA
of stage-plays which proved only temporary; but the general
result of the attempt to make the stage a vehicle of political abuse
and invective was beyond a doubt to coarsen and degrade both
plays and players. Scurrilous attempts and rough repression
continued during the years 1590-1593; and the true remedy
was at last applied, when from about 1594, the chief London
actors became divided into two great rival companies the lord
chamberlain's and the lord admiral's which alone received
licences. Instead of half a dozen or more companies whose
jealousies communicated themselves to the playwrights belonging
to them, there were now, besides the Children of the Chapel, two
established bodies of actors, directed by steady and, in the full
sense of the word, respectable men. To the lord chamberlain's
company, which, after being settled at " the Theater " (opened as
early as 1576 or 1577), moved to Blackfriars, purchased by James
Burbage, in 1596, and to the Globe on the Bankside in 1599,
Shakespeare and Richard Burbage, the greatest of the Eliza-
bethan actors, belonged; the lord admiral's was managed by
Philip Henslowe, the author of the Diary, and Edward Alleyn,
the founder of Dulwich College, and was ultimately, in 1600,
settled at the Fortune. In these and other houses were per-
formed the plays of the Elizabethan dramatists, with few
adventitious aids, the performance being crowded into a brief
afternoon, when it is obvious that only the idler sections of the
population could attend. No woman might appear at a play-
house, unless masked; on the stage, down to the Restoration,
women's parts continued to be acted by boys.
It is futile to take no account of such outward circumstances
as these and many which cannot here be noted in surveying the
progress of the literature of the Elizabethan drama. Like that
of the Restoration and like that of the present day it was
necessarily influenced in its method and spirit of treatment by
the conditions and restrictions which governed the place and
circumstances of the performance of plays, including the con-
struction of theatre and stage, as well as by the social composition
of its audiences, which the local accommodation, not less than
the entertainment, provided for them had to take into account.
But to these things a mere allusion must suffice. It may safely be
said, at the same time, that no dramatic literature which has
any claim to rank beside the Elizabethan not that of Athens
nor those of modern Italy and Spain, nor those of France and
Germany in their classic periods had to contend against such
odds; a mighty inherent strength alone ensured to it the vitality
which it so triumphantly asserted, and which enabled it to run
so unequalled a course.
Among Shakespeare's predecessors, John Lyly, whose plays
were all written for the Children of the Chapel and the Children
of St Paul's, holds a position apart in English dra-
matic literature. The euphuism, to which his famous
romance gave its name, likewise distinguishes his mythological, 1
quasi-historical, 2 allegorical, 3 and satirical 4 comedies. But his
real service to the progress of English drama is to be sought
neither in his choice of subjects nor in his imagery though to
his fondness for fairylore and for the whole phantasmagoria of
legend, classical as well as romantic, his contemporaries, and
Shakespeare in particular, were indebted for a stimulative
precedent, and though in his Endimion at all events he excites
curiosity by an allegorical treatment of contemporary characters
and events. It does not even lie in the songs interspersed in his
plays, though none of his predecessors had in the slightest degree
anticipated the lyric grace which distinguishes some of these
incidental efforts. It consists in his adoption of Gascoigne's
innovation of writing plays in prose; and in his having, though
under the fetters of an affected and pretentious style, given the
first example of brisk and vivacious dialogue an example to
Kyd ^ which even such successors as Shakespeare and Jonson
were indebted. Thomas Kyd, the author of the
Spanish Tragedy (preceded or followed by the first part of
Jeronimo), and probably of several plays whose author was
1 The Woman in the Moone; Sapho and Phao.
* Alexander and Campaspe.
' Endimion; Mydas. Callathea.
, .
Peek.
unnamed, possesses some of the characteristics, but none of the
genius, of the greatest tragic dramatist who preceded Shake-
speare. No slighter tribute than this is assuredly the Mffl
due of Christopher Marlowe, whose violent end pre-
maturely closed a poetic career of dazzling brilliancy. His
earliest play, Tamburlaine the Great, in which the use of blank
verse was introduced upon the English public stage, while full
of the " high astounding terms " of an extravagant and often
bombastic diction, is already marked by the passion which was
the poet's most characteristic feature, and which was to find
expression so luxuriantly beautiful in his Doctor Faustus, and
so surpassingly violent in his Jew of Malta. His masterpiece,
Edward II., is a tragedy of singular pathos and of a dramatic
power unapproached by any of his contemporaries.
George Peele was a far more versatile writer even as
a dramatist; but, though his plays contain passages of exquisite
beauty, not one of them is worthy to be ranked by the side of
Marlowe's Edward II., compared with which, if indeed not
absolutely, Peele's Chronicle of Edward I. still stands on the
level of the species to which its title and character alike assign it.
His finest play is undoubtedly David and Bethsabe, which
resembles Edward I. in construction, but far surpasses it in
beauty of language and versification, besides treating its subject
with greatly superior dignity. If the difference between Peele
and Shakespeare is still, in many respects besides that of genius,
an immeasurable one, we seem to come into something like a
Shakespearian atmosphere in more than one passage of
the plays of the unfortunate Robert Greene un-
fortunate perhaps in nothing more enduringly than in the proof
which he left behind him of his supercilious jealousy of Shake-
speare. Greene's genius, most conspicuous in plays treating
English life and scenes, could, notwithstanding his academic
self-sufficiency, at times free itself from the pedantry apt to
beset the flight of Peele's and at times even of Marlowe's muse;
and his most delightful work 5 seems to breathe something of the
air, sweet and fresh like no other, which blows over an English
countryside. Thomas Lodge, whose dramatic, and much less of
course his literary activity, is measured by the only play that we
know to have been wholly his; 6 Thomas Nashe, the redoubtable
pamphleteer and the father of the English picaresque novel; 7
Henry Chettle, who worked the chords of both pity 8 and terror 9
with equal vigour, and Anthony Munday, better remembered
for his city pageants than for his plays, are among the other
more important writers of the early Elizabethan drama, though
not all of them can strictly speaking be called predecessors of
Shakespeare. It is not possible here to enumerate the more
interesting of the anonymous plays which belong to this " pre-
Shakespearian " period of the Elizabethan drama; but many of
them are by intrinsic merit as well as for special causes deserving
of the attention of the student.
The common characteristics of nearly all these dramatists
and plays were in accordance with those of the great age to which
they belonged. Stirring times called for stirring common
themes, such as those of " Mahomet, Scipio and character-
Tamerlane"; and these again for a corresponding Micsof
vigour of treatment. Neatness and symmetry of the early
construction were neglected for fulness and variety f" za "
of matter. Novelty and grandeur of subject seemed
well matched by a swelling amplitude and often reckless extra-
vagance of diction. As if from an inner necessity, the balance
of rhymed couplets gave way to the impetuous march of blank
verse; "strong lines" were as inevitably called for as strong
situations and strong characters. Although the chief of these
poets are marked off from one another by the individual genius
which impressed itself upon both the form and the matter of
their works, yet the stamp of the age is upon them all. Writing
5 Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay.
' The Wounds of Civil War. With Greene he wrote A Loohing-
Glass for London.
7 Summer's Last Will and Testament is his sole entire extant play.
Dido, Queen of Carthage, is by him and Marlowe.
Patient Grissil (with Dekker and Haughton).
' Hoffman, or A Revenge for a Father.
522
DRAMA
[ENGLISH
Shakf-
apeare.
for the stage only, of which some of them possessed a personal
experience and from which none of them held aloof, they acquired
an instinctive insight into the laws of dramatic cause and effect,
and infused a warm vitality into the dramatic literature which
they produced, so to speak, for immediate consumption. On
the other hand, the same cause made rapidity of workmanship
indispensable to a successful playwright. How a play was
produced, how many hands had been at work upon it, what
loans and what spoliations had been made in the process, were
considerations of less moment than the question whether it was
produced, and whether it succeeded. His harness frequently
double or triple was inseparable from the lusty Pegasus of the
early English drama, and its genius toiled, to borrow the phrase
of the Attic comedian, " like an Arcadian mercenary."
This period of the English drama, though it is far from being
one of crude effort, could not therefore yet be one of full con-
summation. In tragedy the advance which had been
ot tragedy ma d e m the choice of great themes, in knitting closer
sad the connection between the theatre and the national
comedy history, in vindicating to passion its right to adequate
expression, was already enormous. In comedy the
advance had been less decisive and less independent;
much had been gained in reaching greater freedom
of form and something in enlarging the range of subjects; but
artificiality had proved a snare in the one direction, while the\
licence of the comic stage, upheld by favourite " clowns," such '
as Kemp or Tarlton, had not succumbed before less elastic
demands. The way of escaping from the dilemma had, however,
been already recognized to lie in the construction of suitable
plots, for which a full storehouse was open in the popular tradi-
tions preserved in national ballads, and in (the growing literature
of translated foreign fiction, or of native imitations of it. Mean-
while, the aberration of the comic stage to political and religious
controversy, which it could never hope to treat with Attic
freedom in a country provided with a strong monarchy and a
dogmatic religion, seemed likely to extinguish the promise of
the beginnings of English romantic comedy.
These were the circumstances under which the greatest of
dramatists began to devote his genius to the theatre. Shake-
speare's career as a writer of plays can have differed
little in its beginnings from those of his contemporaries
and rivals. Before or while he was proceeding from the
re-touching and re-writing of the plays of others to original
dramatic composition, the most gifted of those whom we have
termed his predecessors had passed away. He had been decried
as an actor before he was known as an author; and after living
through days of darkness for the theatre, if not for himself,
attained, before the close of the century, to the beginnings of his
prosperity and the beginnings of his fame. But if we call him
fortunate, it is not because of such rewards as these. As a poet,
Shakespeare was no doubt happy in his times, which intensified
the strength of the national character, expanded the activities
of the national mind, and were able to add their stimulus even
to such a creative power as his. He was happy in the antecedents
of the form of literature which commended itself to his choice,
and in the opportunities which it offered in so many directions
for an advance to heights yet undiscovered and unknown.
What he actually accomplished was due to his genius, whose
achievements are immeasurable like itself. His influence upon
the progress of English drama divides itself- in very unequal
proportions into a direct and an indirect influence. To the
former alone reference can here be made.
Already the first editors of Shakespeare's works in a collected
form recognized so marked a distinction between his plays
taken from English history and those treating other
historical subjects (whether ancient or modern) that,
and the while they included the latter among the tragedies at
national large, they grouped the former as histories by them-
se ' ves - These histories are in their literary genesis a
development of the chronicle histories of Shakespeare's
predecessors and contemporaries, the taste for which had greatly
increased towards the beginning of his own career as a dramatist,
Shake-
speare.
Shake-
in accordance with the general progress of national life and
sentiment in this epoch. Though it cannot be assumed that
Shakespeare composed his several dramas from English history
in the sequence of the chronology of their themes, his genius
gave to the entire series an inner harmony, and a continuity
corresponding to that which is distinctive of the national life,
such as not unnaturally inspired certain commentators with
the wish to prove it a symmetrically constructed whole. He
thus brought this peculiarly national species to a perfection
which made it difficult, if not impossible, for his later con-
temporaries and successors to make more than an occasional
addition to his series. None of them was, however, found able
or ready to take up the thread where Shakespeare had left it,
after perfunctorily attaching the present to the past by a work
(probably not all his own) which must be regarded as the end
rather than the crown of the series of his histories. 1 But to furnish
such supplements accorded little with the tastes and tendencies
of the later Elizabethans; and with the exception of an isolated
work, 2 the national historical drama hi Shakespeare reached at
once its perfection and its close. The ruder form of the old
chronicle history for a time survived the advance made upon it;
but the efforts in this field of T. Heywood, 3 S. Rowley, 4 and others
are, from a literary point of view, anachronisms.
Of Shakespeare's other plays the several groups exercised
a more direct influence upon the general progress of our dramatic
literature. His Roman tragedies, though following their
authorities with much the same fidelity as that of the English
histories, even more effectively taught the great lesson of free
dramatic treatment of historic themes, and thus pre-eminently
became the perennial models of the modern historic drama. His
tragedies on other subjects, which necessarily admitted of a more
absolute freedom of treatment, established themselves as the
examples for all time of the highest kind of tragedy. Where else
is exhibited with the same fulness the struggle between will and
obstacle, character and circumstance? Where is mirrored
with equal power and variety the working of those passions in
the mastery of which over man lies his doom ? Here, above all,
Shakespeare as compared with his predecessors, as well as with
his successors, " is that nature which they paint and draw."
He threw open to modern tragedy a range of hitherto unknown
breadth and depth and height, and emancipated the national
drama in its noblest forms from limits to which it could never
again restrict itself without a consciousness of having renounced
its enfranchisement. Happily for the variety of his creative
genius on the English stage, no divorce had been proclaimed
between the serious and the comic, and no division of species
had been established such as he himself ridicules as pedantic
when it professes to be exhaustive. The comedies of Shakespeare
accordingly refuse to be tabulated in deference to any method
of classification deserving to be called precise; and several of
them are comedies only according to a purely technical use of
the term. In those in which the instinct of reader or spectator
recognizes the comic interest to be supreme, it is still of its nature
incidental to the progress of the action; for the criticism seems
just, as well as in agreement with what we can conclude as to
Shakespeare's process of construction, that among all his comedies
not more than a single one 6 is in both design and effect a comedy
of character proper. Thus in this direction, while the un-
paralleled wealth of his invention renewed or created a whole
gallery of types, he left much to be done by his successors;
while the truest secrets of his comic art, which interweaves fancy
with observation, draws wisdom from the lips of fools, and
imbues with character what all other hands would have left
shadowy, monstrous or trivial, are among the things inimitable
belonging to the individuality of his poetic genius.
The influences of Shakespeare's diction and versification upon
those of the English drama in general can hardly be overrated,
though it would be next to impossible to state them definitely. In
these points, Shakespeare's manner as a writer was progressive;
1 Henry VI IT. * Ford, Perkin Warbeck.
' Edward IV.; If You Know Not Me, &c.
* Henry VIII. The Merry Wives of Windsor.
ENGLISH]
DRAMA
523
and this progress has been deemed sufficiently well trace-
able in his plays to be used as an aid in seeking to determine
their chronological sequence. The general laws of this
progress accord with those of the natural advance of
influence, creative genius; artificiality gives way to freedom,
and freedom in its turn submits to a greater degree
of regularity and care. In versification as in diction the
earliest and the latest period of Shakespeare's dramatic writing
are more easily recognizable than what lies between and may be
called the normal period, the plays belonging to which in form
most resemble one another, and are least affected by distinguish-
able peculiarities such astherhymesandintentionally euphuistic
colouring of style which characterize the earliest, or the feminine
endings of the lines and the more condensed manner of expression
common to the latest of his plays. But, such distinctions apart,
there can be no doubt but that in verse and in prose alike, Shake-
speare's style, so far as it admitted of reproduction, is itself to be
regarded as the norm of that 'of the Elizabethan drama; that
in it the prose form of English comedy possesses its first accepted
model; and that in it the chosen metre of the English versified
drama established itself as irremovable unless at the risk of an
artificial experiment.
The assertion may seem paradoxical, that it is by their con-
struction that Shakespeare's plays exerted the most palpable
influence influence upon the English drama, as well as upon the
at his modern drama of the Germanic nations in general,
method of an( j U p O n such forms of the Romance drama as have
'tJoa.' 1 ' been ' n more recent times based upon it. For it was
not in construction that his greatest strength lay,
or that the individuality of his genius could raise him above the
conditions under which he worked in common with his immediate
predecessors and contemporaries. Yet the fact that he accepted
these conditions, while producing works of matchless strength
and of unequalled fidelity to the demands of nature and art,
established them as inseparable from the Shakespearian drama
to use a term which is perhaps unavoidable but has been often
misapplied. The great and irresistible demand on the part of
Shakespeare's public was for incident a demand which of itself
necessitated a method of construction different from that of the
Greek drama, or of those modelled more or less closely upon it.
To no other reason is to be ascribed the circumstance that Shake-
speare so constantly combined two actions in the course of a
single play, not merely supplementing the one by means of the
other as a bye- or under-plot. In no respect is the progress of
his technical skill as a dramatist more apparent, a proposition
which a comparison of plays clearly ascribable to successive
periods of his life must be left to prove.
Should it, however, be sought to express in one word the
greatest debt of the drama to Shakespeare, this word must be
the same as that which expresses his supreme gift as
acters* a dramatist. It is in characterization in the drawing
of characters ranging through almost every type of
humanity which furnishes a fit subject-for the tragic or the comic
art that he remains absolutely unapproached; and it was in
this direction that he pointed the way which the English drama
could not henceforth desert without becoming untrue to itself.
It may have been a mere error of judgment which afterwards
held him to have been surpassed by others in particular fields
of characterization (setting him down, forsooth, as supremely
excellent in male, but not in female, characters). But it was a
sure sign of decay when English writers began to shrink from
following him in the endeavour to make the drama a mirror
of humanity, and when, in self-condemned arrogance, they
thrust unreality back upon a stage which he had animated with
the warm breath of life, where Juliet had blossomed like a
flower of spring, and where Othello's noble nature had suffered
and sinned.
By the numerous body of poets who, contemporary with
Shakespeare or in the next generation, cultivated the wide field
of the national drama, every form commending itself to the
tastes and sympathies of the national genius was essayed. None
were neglected except those from which the spirit of English
literature had been estranged by the Reformation, and those
which had from the first been artificial importations of the
Renaissance. The mystery could not in England, as in Form* of
Spain, produce such an aftergrowth as the auto, and the the later
confines of the religious drama were only now and then
tentatively touched. 1 The direct imitations of classical
examples were, except perhaps in the continued efforts
of the academical drama, few and feeble. Chapman, while
resorting to use of narrative in tragedy and perhaps otherwise
indebted to ancient models, was no follower of them in essentials.
S. Daniel (1562-1619) may be regarded as a belated disciple of
Seneca,' while experiments like W. Alexander's (afterwards earl
of Stirling) Monarchicke Tragedies 3 (1603-1605) are the mere
isolated efforts of a student, and more exclusively so than
Milton's imposing Samson Agonistes, which belongs to a later
date (1677). At the opposite end of the dramatic scale, the light
gaiety of the Italian and French farce could not establish itself
on the English popular stage without more substantial adjuncts;
the Englishman's festive digestion long continued robust, and
he liked his amusements solid. In the pastoral drama ,
and the mask, however, many English dramatists The
found special opportunities for the exercise of their
lyrical gifts and of their inventive powers. The former
could never become other than an exotic, so long as it retained
the artificial character of its origin. Shakespeare had accord-
ingly only blended elements derived from it into the action of
his romantic comedies. In more or less isolated works Jonson,
Fletcher, Daniel, Randolph, and others sought to rival Tasso
and Guarini Jonson 4 coming nearest to nationalizing an
essentially foreign growth by the fresh simplicity of his treatment,
Fletcher 6 bearing away the palm for beauty of poetic execution;
Daniel being distinguished by simpler beauties of style in both
verse and prose. 6
The mask (or masque) was a more elastic kind of composition,
mixing in varying proportions its constituent elements of
declamation and dialogue, music and dancing, decora-
tion and scenery. In its least elaborate literary form
which, of course, externally was the most elaborate it closely
approached the pageant; in other instances the distinctness of
its characters or the fulness of the action introduced into its
scheme, brought it nearer to the regular drama. A frequent
ornament of Queen Elizabeth's progresses, it was cultivated with
increased assiduity in the reign of James I., and in that of his
successor outshone, by the favour it enjoyed with court and
nobility, the attractions of the regular drama itself. Most of
the later Elizabethan dramatists contributed to this species,
upon which Shakespeare expended the resources of his fancy
only incidentally in the course of his dramas; but by far the
most successful writer of masks was Ben Jonson, of whose
numerous compositions of this kind many hold a permanent
place in English poetic literature, and " next " whom, in his
own judgment, " only Fletcher and Chapman could write a
mask." From a poetic point of view, however, they were at least
rivalled by Dekker and Ford; in productivity and favour T.
Campion, who was equally eminent as poet and as musician,
seems for a time to have excelled. Inasmuch, however, as the
history of the mask in England is to a great extent that of
" painting and carpentry " and of Inigo Jones, and as, more-
over, this kind of piece, while admitting dramatic elements,
is of its nature occasional, it need not further be pursued here.
The Microcosmus of T. Nabbes (printed 1637), which is very
like a morality, seems to have been the first mask brought
upon the public stage. It was the performance of a mask by
Queen Henrietta Maria and her ladies at Whitehall which had
some years previously (1632) been thought to have supplied
to the invective of Hislrio-Mastix against the stage the occasion
for disloyal innuendo; and it was for the performance of a
1 Massinger, The Virgin Martyr ; Shirley, St Patrick for Ireland.
1 Cleopatra Philotas.
3 Darius ; Croesus ; Julius Caesar ; The A lexandraean Tragedy.
* The Sad Shepherd. The Faithful Shepherdess.
The Queen's Arcadia.
DRAMA
[ENGLISH
hcthan
drama.
mask in a great nobleman's castle that Milton a Puritan of a
very different cast not long afterwards (1634) wrote one of
the loftiest and loveliest of English poems. Comus has been
judged and condemned as a drama unjustly, for the dramatic
qualities of a mask are not essential to it as a species. Yet its
history in England remains inseparably connected with that
of the Elizabethan drama. In later times the mask merged
into the opera, or continued a humble life of its own apart
from contact with higher literary effort. It is strange that later
English poets should have done so little to restore to its nobler
uses, and to invest with a new significance, a form so capable of
further development as the poetic mask.
The annals of English drama proper in the period reaching
from the closing years of Elizabeth to the outbreak of the
The later great Revolution include, together with numerous
BHza- names relatively insignificant, many illustrious in the
history of our poetic literature. Among Shakespeare's
contemporaries and successors there is, however, but
one who by the energy of his genius, not less than by the circum-
stances of his literary career, reached undisputed primacy
among his fellows. Ben Jonson, to whom in his latter days a
whole generation of younger writers did filial homage as to their
veteran chief, was alone in full truth the founder of a school
or family of dramatists. Yet his pre-eminence did not (whatever
he or his followers may have thought) extend to both branches
of the regular drama. In tragedy he fell short of the highest
success; the weight of his learning lay too heavily upon his
efforts to draw from deeper sources than those which had
sufficed for Shakespeare. Such as they are, his tragic works 1
stand almost, though not quite, alone in this period as examples
of sustained effort in historic tragedy proper. G. Chapman
treated stirring themes, more especially from modern French
history, 2 always with vigour, and at times with genuine effective-
ness; but, though rich in beauties of detail, he failed in this
branch of the drama to follow Shakespeare even at a distance in
the supreme art of fully developing a character by means of
the action. Mention has been made above of Ford's isolated
effort in the direction of historic tragedy, as well as of excursions
into the still popular domain of the chronicle history by T.
Heywood, Dekker and others, which cannot be regarded as
anything more than retrogressions. With the great body of the
English dramatists of this and of the next period, tragedy had
passed into a phase where its interest depended mainly upon plot
and incident. The romantic tragedies and tragi-comedies which
crowd English literature in this period constitute together a
growth of at first sight astonishing exuberance, and in mere
externals of theme ranging as these plays do from Byzantium
to ancient Britain, and from the Caesars of ancient Rome to
the tyrants of the Renaissance of equally astonishing variety.
The sources from which these subjects were derived had been
perennially augmenting. Besides Italian, Spanish and French
fiction, original or translated, besides British legend in its
Romance dress, and English fiction in its humbler or in its more
ambitious and artificial forms, the contemporary foreign drama,
especially the Spanish, offered opportunities for resort. To the
English, as to the French and Italian drama, of both this and the
following century, the prolific dramatists clustering round Lope
de Vega and Calderon, and the native or naturalized fictions from
which they drew their materials supplied a whole arsenal of
plots, incidents and situations among others to Middleton, to
Webster, and most signally to Beaumont and Fletcher. And, in
addition to these resources, a new field of supply was at hand
since English dramatists had begun to regard events and episodes
of domestic life as fit subjects for tragic treatment. Domestic
tragedy of this description was indeed no novelty on the English
stage; Shakespeare himself may have retouched with his master-
hand more than one effort of this kind;* but T. Heywood may
be set down as the first who achieved any work of considerable
1 Sejanus his Fall; Catiline his Conspiracy.
1 Bmsy d'Ambois; The Revenge of B. d'A.; The Conspiracy of
Byron ; The Tragedy of B. ; Chabot, Admiral of France (with Shirley).
* Arden of Faversham; A Yorkshire Tragedy.
literary value of this class, 4 to which some of the plays of T.
Dekker, T. Middleton, and others likewise more or less belong.
Yet, in contrast to this wide variety of sources, and consequent
apparent variety of themes, the number of motives employed
at least as a rule in the tragic drama of this period was com-
paratively small and limited. Hence it is that, notwithstanding
the diversity of subjects among the tragic dramas of such
writers as Marston, Webster, Fletcher, Ford and Shirley, an
impression of sameness is left upon us by a connected perusal
of these works. Scheming ambition, conjugal jealousy, absolute
female devotion, unbridled masculine passion such are the
motives which constantly recur in the Decameron of our later
Elizabethan drama. And this impression is heightened by the
want of moderation, by the extravagance of passion, which these
dramatists so habitually exhibit in the treatment of their
favourite themes. All the tragic poets of this period are not
equally amenable to this charge; in J. Webster, 6 master as he
is of the effects of the horrible, and in J. Ford, 6 surpassingly
seductive in his sweetness, the monotony of exaggerated passion
is broken by those marvellously sudden and subtle touches
through which their tragic genius creates its most thrilling effects.
Nor will the tendency to excess of passion which F. Beaumont
and J. Fletcher undoubtedly exhibit be confounded with their
distinctive power of sustaining tenderly pathetic characters and
irresistibly moving situations in a degree unequalled by any of
thek contemporaries a power seconded by a beauty of diction
and softness of versification which for a time raised them to the
highest pinnacle of popular esteem, and which entitles them in
their conjunction, and Fletcher as an independent worker, to
an enduring pre-eminence among their fellows. In then- morals
Beaumont and Fletcher are not above the level of their age.
The manliness of sentiment and occasionally greater width of
outlook which ennoble the rhetorical genius of P. Massinger,
and the gift of poetic illustration which entitles J. Shirley to be
remembered not merely as the latest and the most fertile of this
group of dramatists, have less direct bearing upon the general
character of the tragic art of the period. The common features
of the romantic tragedy of this age are sufficiently marked;
but they leave unobscured the distinctive features in its individual
writers of which a discerning criticism has been able to take note.
In comedy, on the other hand, the genius and the insight of
Jonson pointed the way to a steady and legitimate advance.
His theory of " humours " (which found the most palpable
expression in two of his earliest plays 7 ), if translated into the
ordinary language of dramatic art, signifies the paramount
importance in the comic drama of the presentation of distinctive
human types. As such it survived by name into the Restoration
age 8 and cannot be said to have ever died out. In the actual
reproduction of humanity in its infinite but never, in his hands,
alien variety, it was impossible that Shakespeare should be
excelled by Jonson; but in the consciousness with which he
recognized and indicated the highest sphere of a comic dramatist's
labours, he rendered to the drama a direct service which the
greater master had left unperformed. By the rest of his con-
temporaries and his successors, some of whom, such as R. Brome,
were content avowedly to follow in his footsteps, Jonson was
only occasionally rivalled in individual instances of comic
creations; in the entirety of its achievements his genius as a
comic dramatist remained unapproached. The favourite types
of Jonsonian comedy, to which Dekker, J. Marston and Chapman
had, though to no large extent, added others of their own, were
elaborated with incessant zeal and remarkable effect by their
contemporaries and successors. It was after a very different
fashion from that in which the Roman comedians reiterated
the ordinary types of the New Attic comedy, that the inex-
haustible verve of T. Middleton, the buoyant productivity of
Fletcher, the observant humour of N. Field, and the artistic
'A Woman killed with Kindness; The English Traveller.
' Vittoria Coromboni ; The Duchess of Malfi.
'Tii Pity She's a Whore; The Broken Heart.
7 Every Man in his Humour ; Every Man out of his Humour.
Shadwell, The Humorists.
ENGLISH]
DRAMA
525
drama.
versatility of Shirley not to mention many later and not
necessarily minor names' mirrored in innumerable pictures of
contemporary life the undying follies and foibles of mankind.
As comedians of manners more than one of these surpassed the
old master, not indeed in distinctness and correctness the
fruits of the most painstaking genius that ever fitted a learned
sock to the representation of the living realities of life but in a
lightness not incompatible with sureness of touch; while hi the
construction of plots the access of abundant new materials,
and the greater elasticity in treatment resulting from accumulated
experience, enabled them to advance from success to success.
Thus the comic dramatic literature from Jonson to Shirley is
unsurpassed as a comedy of manners, while as a comedy of
character it at least defies comparison with any other national
literary growth preceding or contemporaneous with it. Though
the younger generation, of which W. Cartwright may be taken
as an example, was unequal in originality or force to its prede-
cessors, yet so little exhausted was the vitality of the species,
that its traditions survived the interregnum of the Revolution,
and connected themselves more closely than is sometimes assumed
with later growths of English comedy.
Such was also the case with a special growth which had
continued side by side, but in growing frequency of contact,
with the progress of the national drama. The
aca< lemical drama of the later Elizabethan period and
* tne ^ rst two Stuart reigns by no means fell off
either in activity or in variety from that of the preced-
ing generations. At Oxford, after an apparent break of several
years though in the course of these one or two new plays,
including a Tancred by Sir Henry Wotton at Queen's, seem to
have been produced a long succession of English plays, some
in Latin doubtless from time to time intervening, were performed,
from the early years of the i;th century onwards to the dark
days of the national theatre and beyond. The production of
these plays was distributed among several colleges, among
which the most conspicuously active were Christ Church and
St John's, where a whole series of festal performances took
place under the collective title of The Christmas Prince (i.e.
master of the Christmas revels). They included a wide variety
of pieces, from the treatment by an author unnamed of the story
of " Ovid's owne Narcissus " (1602) and S. Daniel's Queen's
Arcadia (1606) to Barten Holiday's Technogamia (1618), a
complicated allegory on the relations between the arts and
sciences quite in the manner of the moralities; interspersed by
romantic dramas of the ordinary contemporary type by T. Goffe
(1591-1629), W. Cartwright, J. Maine (1604-1672) and others.
At Cambridge the list of Latin and English academical plays,
performed in the latter half of Elizabeth's reign at Trinity,
St John's, Queen's and a few other Colleges, contains several
examples in each language which for one reason or another possess
a special interest. Thus E. Forsett's Pedantius, probably acted
at Trinity in 1581, ridicules a personage who lived very near the
rose the redoubtable Gabriel Harvey; 1 a Laelia, acted at
Queen's in 1590 and again in 1598, resembles Twelfth Night
in part of its plot; while in Silvanus, performed in 1596, probably
at St John's, there are certain striking similarities to As You
Like It. These are in Latin, as are the comedies Hispanus
(containing some curious allusions to the Armada, Drake and
Dr Lopez) and Machiavellus, acted at St John's in 1597.' By
far the most interesting of the English plays of the later Cambridge
series, and, it may be averred, of the remains of the English
academical drama as a whole, are the Parnassus Plays (<?..),
successively produced at St John's in 1598-1602, which illustrate
1 It is impossible in a summary survey to seek to discriminate
by any kind of evidence the respective shares in many Elizabethan
plays, and the respective credit due to them, of the joint writers.
Vet some such inquiry is necessary before judging the claims to
remembrance of highly-gifted dramatists such as William Rowley,
his namesake Samuel, John Day, and not a few others.
1 The Latin comedy Victoria, by Abraham Fraunce of St John's was
written some time before 1583, and dedicated to Sir Philip Sidney;
but there is no evidence to show that it was ever acted.
1 (Bishop) Racket's Loyola was acted at Trinity in 1623.
with much truthfulness as well as fancy the relations between
university life and the outside world, including the world of
letters and of the stage. Upon a different, but also a very
notable, aspect of English university life the relations between
town and gown a partisan light is thrown by Club-Law, acted
at Clare in 1599 and in G. Ruggle's celebrated Latin comedy of
Ignoramus, twice acted by members of Clare at Trinity in 1615
before King James I. On one of these occasions were also pro-
duced in English T. Tomkis' comedy Albumazar (a play absurdly
attributed to Shakespeare), and Phineas Fletcher's Sicelides, a
" piscatory " (i.e. a pastoral drama in which the place of the
shepherds is taken by fishermen). Latin and English plays
continued to be brought out in Cambridge till the year of the
outbreak of the Civil War, T. Randolph and A. Cowley 4 being
among the authors of some of the latest so produced; and with
the Restoration the usage recommenced, the Adelphi of Terence
and other Latin comedies being performed as they had been
a century earlier. A complete survey and classification of the
English academical drama, for which the materials are at last
being collected and compared, will prove of an importance which
is only beginning to be recognized to the future historian of the
English drama.
To return to the general current of that drama. The rivals
against which it had to contend in the times with which its
greatest epoch came to an end have in their turn been Tbg g
noticed. From the masks and triumphs at court and
at the houses of the nobility, with then- Olympuses and Par-
nassuses built by Inigo Jones, and filled with goddesses and
nymphs clad in the gorgeous costumes designed by his inventive
hand, to the city pageants and shows by land and water from
the tilts and tournaments at Whitehall to the more philosophical
devices at the Inns of Court and the academical plays at the
universities down even to the brief but thrilling theatrical
excitements of Bartholomew Fair and the " Ninevitical motions "
of the puppets in all these ways the various sections of the
theatrical public were tempted aside. Foreign performers-
French and Spanish actors, and even French actresses paid
visits to London. But the national drama held its ground.
The art of acting maintained itself at least on the level to which it
had been brought by Shakespeare's associatesandcontemporaries,
Burbage and Heminge, Alleyn, Lewin, Taylor, and others " of
the older sort." The profession of actor came to be more gener-
ally than of old separated from that of playwright, though they
were still (as in the case of Field) occasionally combined. But
this rather led to an increased appreciation of the artistic merit
of actors who valued the dignity of their own profession and
whose co-operation the authors learnt to esteem as of independent
significance. The stage was purged from the barbarism of the
old school of clowns. Women's parts were still acted by boys,
many of whom attained to considerable celebrity; and a practice
was thus continued which must assuredly have placed the English
theatre at a considerable disadvantage as compared with the
Spanish (where it never obtained), and which may, while it has
been held to have facilitated freedom of fancy, more certainly
encouraged the extreme licence of expression cherished by the
dramatists. The arrangement of the stage, which facilitated a
rapid succession of scenes without any necessity for their being
organically connected with one another, remained essentially
what it had been in Shakespeare's days; though the primitive
expedients for indicating locality had begun to be occasionally
exchanged for scenery more or less appropriate to the place of
action. Costume was apparently cultivated with much greater
care; and the English stage of this period had probably gone a
not inconsiderable way in a direction to which it is obviously
in the interests of the dramatic art to set some bounds, if it
is to depend for its popular success upon its qualities as such,
and upon the interpretation of its agents upon the stage. At
the same time, the drama had begun largely to avail itself of
adventitious aids to favour. The system of prologues and
epilogues, and of dedications to published plays, was more
4 Naufragium joctdare The Guardian (rewritten later as The
Cutter of Coleman Street).
526
DRAMA
[ENGLISH
uniformly employed than it had been by Shakespeare as the
conventional method of recommending authors and actors to the
favour of individual patrons, and to that of their chief patron,
the public.
Up to the outbreak of the Civil War the drama in all its
forms continaed to enjoy the favour or good- will of the court,
although a close supervision was exercised over all
"rf^*"* attempts to make the stage the vehicle of political
taaism. references or allusions. The regular official agent of
this supervision was the master of the revels; but
under James I. a special ordinance, in harmony with the king's
ideas concerning the dignity of the throne, was passed " against
representing any modern Christian king in plays on the stage."
The theatre could hardly expect to be allowed a liberty of speech
in reference to matters of state denied to the public at large;
and occasional attempts to indulge in the freedom of criticism
dear to the spirit of comedy met with more or less decisive
repression and punishment. 1 But the sympathies of the
dramatists were so entirely on the side of the court that the real
difficulties against which the theatre had to contend came from
a directly opposite quarter. With the growth of Puritanism
the feeling of hostility to the stage increased in a large part
of the population, well represented by the civic authorities of the
capital. This hostility found many ways of expressing itself.
The attempts to suppress the Blackfriars theatre (1619, 1631,
1633) proved abortive; but the representation of stage-plays
continued to be prohibited on Sundays, and during the prevalence
of the plague in London in 1637 was temporarily suspended
altogether. The desire of the Puritans of the more pronounced
type openly aimed at a permanent closing of the theatres.
The war between them and the dramatists was accordingly of a
life-and-death kind. On the one hand, the drama heaped its
bitterest and often coarsest attacks upon whatever savoured
of the Puritan spirit; gibes, taunts, caricatures in ridicule
and aspersion of Puritans and Puritanism make up a great part
of the comic literature of the later Elizabethan drama and of its
aftergrowth in the reigns of the first two Stuarts. This feeling
of hostility, to which Shakespeare was no stranger, a though he
cannot be connected with the authorship of one of its earliest
and coarsest expressions, 3 rose into a spirit of open defiance in
some of the masterpieces of Ben Jonson; 4 and the comedies of
his contemporaries and successors 5 abound in caricatured re-
productions of the more common or more extravagant types of
Puritan life. On the other hand, the moral defects, the looseness
of tone, the mockery of ties sanctioned by law and consecrated
by religion, the tendency to treat middle-class life as the hunting-
ground for the diversions of the upper classes, which degraded
so much of the dramatic literature of the age, intensified the
Puritan opposition to all and any stage plays. A patient en-
deavour to reform instead of suppressing the drama was not to
be looked for from such adversaries, should they ever possess
the means of carrying out their views; and whenever Puritanism
should victoriously assert itself in the state, the stage was
doomed. Among the attacks directed against it in its careless
heyday of prosperity Prynne's Histrio-Mastix (1632), while it
involved its author in shamefully cruel persecution, did not
remain wholly without effect upon the tone of the dramatic
literature of the subsequent period; but the quarrel between
Puritanism and the theatre was too old and too deep to end in
any but one way, so soon as the latter was deprived of its
protectors. The Civil War began hi August 1642;
^'nhe' anc * ear ^ y m tne fll owm g month was published the
theatre*, ordinance of the Lords and Commons, which, after a
brief and solemn preamble, commanded " that while
these sad causes and set-times of humiliation do continue,
public stage plays shall cease and be forborne." Many actors
1 Chapman, Marston (and Jonson), Eastward Hoe (1605) ; Middle-
ton, A Game at Chess (1624) ; Shirley and Chapman, The Ball (1632) ;
Massinger(?), The Spanish Viceroy (1634). 2 Twelfth Night.
' The Puritan, or the Widow of Walling Street, by " W. S." (Went-
worth Smith?). 4 The Alchemist; Bartholomew Fair.
'Chapman, An Humorous Day's Mirth; Marston, The Dutch
Courtesan; Middleton, The Family of Love.
and playwrights followed the fortunes of the royal cause in the
field; some may have gone into a more or less voluntary exile;
upon those who lingered on in the familiar haunts the hand of
power lay heavy; and, though there seems reason to believe
that dramatic entertainments of one kind or another continued
to be occasionally presented, stringent ordinances gave summary
powers to magistrates against any players found engaged in
such proceedings (1647), and bade them treat all stage-players
as rogues, and pull down all stage galleries, seats and boxes
(1648). A few dramatic works were published in this period; 6
while at fairs about the country .were acted farces called " drolls,"
consisting of the most vulgar scenes to be found in popular plays.
Thus, the life of the drama was not absolutely extinguished;
and its darkest day proved briefer than perhaps either its friends
or its foes could have supposed.
Already " in Oliver's time " private performances took place
from tune to tune at noblemen's houses and (though not un-
disturbed) in the old haunt of the drama, the Red
Bull. In 1656 the ingenuity of Sir William Davenant
whose name (though not really so significant in the drama.
dramatic as in another field of English literature) is
memorable as connecting together two distinct periods in it,
ventured on a bolder step in the production of a quasi-dramatic
entertainment " of declamation and music " ; and in the following
year he brought out with scenery and music a piece which was
afterwards in an enlarged form acted and printed as the first
part of his opera, The Siege of Rhodes. This < entertainment he
afterwards removed from the private house where it had been
produced to the Cockpit, where he soon ventured upon the
performance of regular plays written by himself. Thus, under
the cover of two sister arts, whose aid was in the sequel to prove
by no means altogether beneficial to its progress, the English
drama had boldly anticipated the Restoration, and was no longer
hiding its head when that much-desired event was actually
brought about. Soon after Charles II. 's entry into London,
two theatrical companies are known to have been acting in the
capital. For these companies patents were soon granted, under
the names of " the Duke (of York) 's " and " the King's Servants,"
to Davenant and one of the brothers Killigrew respectively
the former from 1662 acting at Lincoln's Inn Fields, then at
Dorset Garden in Salisbury Court, the latter from 1663 at the
Theatre Royal near Drury Lane. These companies were united
from 1682, a royal licence being granted in 1695 to a rival
company which performed in Lincoln's Inn Fields, and which
migrated to Covent Garden in 1733. Meanwhile, Vanbrugh had
in 1705 built the theatre in the Haymarket; and a theatre in
Goodman's Fields afterwards rendered famous by the first
appearance of Garrick led a fitful existence from 1729 to 1733.
The act of 1737 deprived the crown of the power of licensing
any more theatres; so that the history of the English stage for
a long period was confined to a restricted area. The rule which
prevailed after the Restoration, that neither of the rival com-
panies should ever attempt a play produced by the other, oper-
ated beneficially both upon the activity of dramatic authorship
and upon the progress of the art of acting, which was not exposed
to the full effects of that deplorable spirit of personal rivalry
which too often leads even most intelligent actors to attempt
parts for which they have no special qualification. There can be
little doubt that the actor's art has rarely flourished more in
England than in the days of T. Betterton and his contemporaries,
among whose names those of Hart, Mohun, Kynaston, Nokes,
Mrs Barry, Mrs Betterton, Mrs Bracegirdle and Mrs Eleanor
Gwyn have, together with many others, survived in various
connexions among the memories of the Restoration age. No
higher praise has ever been given to an actor than that which
Addison bestowed upon Betterton, in describing his performance
of Othello as a proof that Shakespeare could not have written the
most striking passages of the character otherwise than he has
done.
Among these was Sir Richard Fanshawe's English version of the
Pastor fido (1646) ; after his death were published his translations
of two plays by A. de Mendoza.
ENGLISH]
DRAMA
527
The Irish
stage.
It may here be noticed that the fortunes of the Irish theatre
in general followed those of the English, of which of course it was
merely a branch. Of native dramatic compositions in
earlier times not a trace remains in Ireland; and the
drama was introduced into that country as an English
exotic apparently already in the reign of Henry VIII., and
more largely in that of Elizabeth. The first theatre in Dublin
was built in 1635; but in 1641 it was closed, and even after the
Restoration the Irish stage continued in a precarious condition
till near the end of the century. About that time an extra-
ordinarily strong taste for the theatre took possession of Irish
society, and during the greater part of the i8th century the
Dublin stage rivalled the English in the brilliancy of its stars.
Betterton's rival, R. Wilks, Garrick's predecessor in the homage
paid to Shakespeare, Macklin, and his competitor for favour,
the " silver-tongued " Barry, were alike products of the Irish
stage, as were Mrs Woffington and other well-known actresses.
Nor should it be forgotten that three of the foremost English
writers of comedy in its later days, Congreve, Farquhar and
Sheridan, were Irish, the first by education, and the latter two
by birth also.
Already in the period preceding the outbreak of the Civil
War the English drama had perceptibly sunk from the height
to which it had been raised by the great Elizabethans.
Stuart***" Wn en it had once more recovered possession of that
drama. arena with which no living drama can dispense, it
would have been futile to demand that the dramatists
should return altogether into the ancient paths, unaffected by
the influences, native or foreign ; in operation around them.
But there was no reason why the new drama should not, like the
Elizabethan, have been true in spirit to the higher purposes of
the dramatic art, to the nobler tendencies of the national life,
and to the demands of moral law. Because the later Stuart
drama as a whole proved untrue to these, and, while following
its own courses, never more than partially returned from the
aberrations to which it condemned itself, its history is that of a
decay which the indisputable brilliancy, borrowed or original,
of many of its productions is incapable of concealing.
Owing in part to the influence of the French theatre, which
by this time had taken the place of the Spanish as the ruling
Tn d drama of Europe, the separation between tragedy and
r ' comedy is clearly marked in post-Restoration plays.
Comic scenes are still occasionally introduced into tragedies
by some dramatists who adhered more closely to the Elizabethan
models (such as Otway and Crowne), but the practice fell into
disuse; while the endeavour to elevate comedy by pathetic
scenes and motives is one of the characteristic marks of the
beginning of another period in English dramatic literature.
The successive phases through which English tragedy passed in
the later Stuart times cannot be always kept distinct from one
another; and the guidance offered by the theories put forth by
some of the dramatists in support of their practice is often
delusive. Following the example of Corneille, Dryden and his
contemporaries and successors were fond of proclaiming their
adherence to this or that principle of dramatic construction or
form, and of upholding, with much show of dialectical acumen,
maxims derived by them from French or other sources, or
elaborated with modifications and variations of their own, but
usually amounting to little more than what Scott calls " certain
romantic whimsical imitations of the dramatic art." Students
of the drama will find much entertainment and much instruction
in these prefaces, apologies, dialogues and treatises. They will
acknowledge that Dryden's incomparable vigour does not desert
him either in the exposing or in the upholding of fallacies, while
le bon sens, which he hardly ever fails to exhibit, and which is a
more eclectic gift than common-sense, serves as a sure guide
to the best intelligence of his age. Even Rymer, 1 usually regarded
as having touched the nadir of dramatic criticism, will be found
to be not wholly without grains of salt. But Restoration tragedy
itself must not be studied by the light of Restoration criticism.
So long as any dramatic power remained in the tragic poets
1 A Short View of Tragedy (1693).
and it is absent from none of the chief among them from Dryden
to Rowe the struggle between fashion (disguised as theory)
and instinct (tending in the direction of the Elizabethan tradi-
tions) could never wholly determine itself in favour of the
former.
Lord Orrery, in deference, as he declares, to the expressed
tastes of his sovereign King Charles II. himself, was the first to
set up the standard of heroic plays? This new species of tragedy
(for such it professed to be) commended itself by its novel choice
of themes, to a large extent supplied by recent French romance
the romans de longue haleine of the Scuderys and their con-
temporaries and by French plays treating similar themes.
It likewise borrowed from France that garb of rhyme which the
English drama had so long abandoned, and which now re-
appeared in the heroic couplet. But the themes which to readers
of novels might seem of their nature inexhaustible could not long
suffice to satisfy the more capricious appetite of theatrical
audiences; and the form, in the application which it was more
or less sought to enforce for it, was doomed to remain an exotic.
In conjunction with his brother-in-law Sir R. Howard, 3 and
afterwards more confidently by himself, 4 Dryden threw the in-
comparable vigour and brilliancy of his genius into the scale,
which soon rose to the full height of fashionable popularity.
At first he claimed for English tragedy the right to combine her
native inheritance of freedom with these valuable foreign
acquisitions. 6 Nor was he dismayed by the ridicule which the
celebrated burlesque (by the duke of Buckingham and others)
of The Rehearsal (1671) cast upon heroic plays, without dis-
criminating between them and such other materials for ridicule
as the contemporary drama supplied to its facetious authors,
but returned 6 to the defence of a species which he was himself in
the end to abandon. 7 The desire for change proved stronger
than the love of consistency which in Dryden was never more
than theoretical. After summoning tragedy to rival the freedom
(without disdaining the machinery) of opera with whose birth
its own revival was as a matter of fact simultaneous he came
to recognize in characterization the truest secret of the master-
spirit of the Elizabethan drama, 8 and after audaciously, but in
one instance not altogether unhappily, essaying to rival Shake-
speare on his own ground, 9 produced under the influence of the
same views at least one work of striking merit. 10 But he was
already growing weary of the stage itself as well as of the rhymed
heroic drama; and, though he put an end to the species to which
he had given temporary vitality, he failed effectively to point
the way to a more legitimate development of English tragedy.
Among the other tragic poets of this period, N. Lee, in the out-
ward form of his dramas, accommodated his practice to that of
Dryden, with whom he occasionally co-operated as a dramatist,
and like whom he allowed political partisanship to intrude upon
the stage." His rhetorical genius was not devoid of genuine
energy, nor is he to be regarded as a mere imitator. T. Otway,
the most gifted tragic poet of the younger generation con-
temporary with Dryden, inherited something of the spirit of the
Elizabethan drama; he possessed a real gift of tragic pathos
and melting tenderness; but his genius had a worse alloy than
stageyness, and, though he was often happy in his novel choice
of themes, his most successful efforts fail to satisfy tests supple-
mentary to that of the stage. 12 Among dramatists who con-
tributed to the vogue of the " heroic " play may be mentioned
J. Bankes, J. Weston, C.Hopkins, E. Cooke, R. Gould, S. Pordage,
T. Rymer and Elkanah Settle. The productivity of J. Crowne
(d. c. 1 703)" covers part of the earlier period as well as of the later,
to which properly belong T. Southerne, a writer gifted with much
I The Black Prince; Tryphon; Herod the Great; Altemira.
* The Indian Queen.
4 The Indian Emperor; Tyrannic Love; The Conquest of Granada.
6 Essay of Dramatic Poesy. Essay of Heroic Plays.
7 A direct satirical invectiye against rhymed tragedy of the
" heroic " type is to be found in Arrowsmith's comedy Reformation
'~ )) " The Grounds of Criticism in Tragedy.
II for Love (Antony and Cleopatra). w Don Sebastian.
II The Rival Queens; Lucius Junius Brutus; The Massacre of
Paris. " Don Carlos; The Orphan; Venice Preserved.
" Oroonoko; The Fatal Marriage.
DRAMA
[ENGLISH
pathetic power, but probably chiefly indebted for his long-lived
popularity to his skill in the discovery of " sensational " plots;
and Lord Lansdowne (" Granville the polite") (c. 1667-1735).
Congreve, by virtue of a single long celebrated but not really
remarkable tragedy, 1 and N. Rowe, may be further singled out
from the list of the tragic dramatists of this period, many of
whom were, like their comic contemporaries, mere translators
or adapters from the French. The tragedies of Rowe, whose
direct services to the study of Shakespeare deserve remembrance,
indicate with singular distinctness the transition from the fuller
declamatory style of Dryden to the calmer and thinner manner
of Addison. 2 In tragedy (as to a more marked degree in comedy)
the excesses (both of style and subject) of the past period of the
English drama had produced an inevitable reaction; decorum
was asserting its claims on the stage as in society; and French
tragedy had set the example of sacrificing what passion and
what vigour it retained in favour of qualities more acceptable
to the " reformed " court of Louis XIV. Addison, in allowing
his Cato to take its chance upon the stage, when a moment
of political excitement (April 1713) ensured to it an extraordinary
success, to which no feature in it corresponds, except an unusual
number of lines predestined to become familiar quotations,
unconsciously sealed the doom of English national tragedy.
The " first reasonable English tragedy," as Voltaire called it,
had been produced, and the oscillations of the tragic drama of
the Restoration were at an end.
English comedy in this period displayed no similar desire
to cut itself off from the native soil, though it freely borrowed
.. a the materials for its plots and many of its figures from
'" y ' Spanish, and afterwards more generally from French,
originals. The spirit of the old romantic comedy had long since
fled; the graceful artificialities of the pastoral drama, even the
light texture of the mask, ill suited the demands of an age which
made no secret to itself of the grossness of its sensuality. With
a few unimportant exceptions, such poetic elements as admitted
of being combined with the poetic drama were absorbed by the
opera and the ballet. No new species of the comic drama formed
itself, though towards the close of the period may be noticed
the beginnings of modern English farce. Political and religious
partisanship, generally in accordance with the dominant reaction
against Puritanism, were allowed to find expression in the
directest and coarsest forms upon the stage, and to hasten the
necessity for a more systematic control than even the times
before the Revolution had found requisite. At the same time the
unblushing indecency which the Restoration had spread through
court and capital had established its dominion over the comic
stage, corrupting the manners, and with them the morals, of
its dramatists, and forbidding them, at the risk of seeming
dull, to be anything but improper. Much of this found its way
even into the epilogues, which, together with the prologues,
proved so important an adjunct of the Restoration drama.
These influences determine the general character of what is
with a more than chronological meaning termed the comedy of
the Restoration. In construction, the national love of fulness
and solidity of dramatic treatment induced its authors to alter
what they borrowed from foreign sources, adding to complicated
Spanish plots characters of native English directness, and
supplementing single French plots by the addition of others. 3
At the same time, the higher efforts of French comedy of char-
acter, as well as the refinement of expression in the list of their
models, notably in Moliere, were alike seasoned to suit the
coarser appetites and grosser palates of English patrons. The
English comic writers often succeeded in strengthening the
borrowed texture of their plays, but they never added comic
1 The Mourning Bride.
1 The Fair Penitent; Jane Shore.
* A notable influence was exercised upon English comedy as well
as upon other branches of literature by C. de Saint-Evremond, a
soldier and man of fashion who was possessed of great intellectual
ability and of a charming style. Though during his long exile in
England from 1670 to his death he never learned English, his
critical works included Remarks on English Comedy (1677), and one
of his own comedies, the celebrated Sir Politick Would-be, professed
to be composed " a la maniere angloise."
humour without at the same time adding coarseness of their own.
Such were the productions of Sir George Etheredge, Sir Charles
Sedley, and the " mob of gentlemen who wrote with ease "; nor
was there any signal difference between their productions and
those of a playwright-actor such as J. Lacy (d. 1681), and a
professional dramatist of undoubted ability such as J. Crowne.
Such, though often displaying the brilliancy of a genius which
even where it sank could never wholly abandon its prerogative,
were, it must be confessed, the comedies of Dryden himself.
On the other hand, the lowest literary deeps of the Restoration
drama were sounded by T. D'Urfey, while of its moral degrada-
tion the " divine Astraea," the " unspeakable " Mrs Aphra Behn,
has an indefeasible title to be considered the most faithful
representative. T. Shadwell, fated, like the tragic poet Elkanah
Settle, to be chiefly remembered as a victim of Dryden's satire,
deserves more honourable mention. Like J. Wilson, whose plays
seem to class him with the pre-Restoration dramatists, Shadwell
had caught something not only of the art, but also of the spirit,
of Ben Jonson; but in most of his works he was, like the rest
of his earlier contemporaries, and like the brilliant group which
succeeded them, content to take his moral tone from the reckless
society for which, or in deference to the tastes of which, he wrote. 4
The absence of a moral sense, which, together with a grossness
of expression often defying exaggeration, characterizes English
comic dramatists from the days of Dryden to those of Congreve,
is the main cause of their failure to satisfy the demands which
are legitimately to be made upon their art. They essayed to
draw character as well as to paint manners, but they rarely
proved equal to the former and higher task; and, while choosing
the means which most readily commended their plays to the
favour of their immediate public, they achieved but little as
interpreters of those essential distinctions which their art is
capable of illustrating. 5 Within these limits, though occasionally
passing beyond them, and always with the same deference to the
immoral tone which seemed to have become an indispensable
adjunct of the comic style, even the greatest comic authors of
this age moved. W. Wycherley was a comic dramatist of real
power, who drew his characters with vigour and distinctness,
and constructed his plots and chose his language with natural
ease. He lacks gaiety of spirit, and his wit is of a cynical turn.
But, while he ruthlessly uncloaks the vices of his age, his own
moral tone is affected by their influence in as marked a degree
as that of the most light-hearted of his contemporaries. 6 The
most brilliant of these was indisputably W. Congreve, who is not
only one of the very wittiest of English writers, but equally excels
in the graceful ease of his dialogue, and draws his characters
and constructs his plots with the same masterly skill. His chief
fault as a dramatist is one of excess the brilliancy of the
dialogue, whoever be the speaker, overpowers the distinction
between the " humours " of his personages. Though he is less
brutal in expression than " manly " Wycherley, and less coarse
than the lively Sir J. Vanbrugh, licentiousness in him as in
them corrupts the spirit of his comic art; but of his best though
not most successful play 7 it must be allowed that the issue of the
main plot is on the side of virtue. G. Farquhar, whose morality
is on a par with that of the other members of this group, is inferior
to them in brilliancy; but as pictures of manners in a wider
sphere of life than that which contemporary comedy usually
chose to illustrate, two of his plays deserve to be noticed, in
which we already seem to be entering the atmosphere of the
18th-century novel. 8 His influence upon Lessing is a remarkable
fact in the international history of dramatic literature.
The improvement which now begins to manifest itself in the
moral tone and spirit of English comedy is partly due to the
reaction against the reaction of the Restoration, partly to the
punishment which the excesses of the comic stage had brought
4 Epsom Wells; The Squire of Aisatia; The Volunteers.
6 A dramatic curiosity of a rare kind would be The Female Re-
bellion (1682), which has been, on evidence rather striking at first
sight, attributed to Sir Thomas Browne. It is more likely to have
been by his son.
The Country Wife ; The Plain-Dealer. * The Double Dealer.
' The Recruiting Officer ; The Beaux' Stratagem.
ENGLISH]
DRAMA
529
upon it in the invective of Jeremy Collier * (1698), of all the
assaults the theatre in England has had to undergo the best-
founded, and that which produced the most perceptible
Sent!- results. The comic poets, who had always been more or
'comedy. ^ ess conscious of their sins, and had at all events not
defended them by the ingenious sophistries which
it has pleased later literary criticism to suggest on their behalf,
now began with uneasy merriment to allude in their prologues
to the reformation which had come over the spirit of the town.
Writers like Mrs Centlivre became anxious to reclaim their
offenders with much emphasis in the fifth act; and Colley Gibber
whose Apology for his Life furnishes a useful view of this and
the subsequent period of the history of the stage, with which
he was connected as author, manager and actor (excelling in
this capacity as representative of those fools with which he
peopled the comic stage) 2 may be credited with having first
deliberately made the pathetic treatment of a moral sentiment
the basis of the action of a comic drama. But he cannot be said
to have .consistently pursued the vein which in his Careless
Husband (1704) he had essayed. His N on- Juror is a political
adaptation of Tar tuff e; and his almost equally celebrated
Provoked Husband only supplied a happy ending to Vanbrugh's
unfinished play. Sir R. Steele, in accordance with his general
tendencies as a writer, pursued a still more definite moral purpose
in his comedies; but his genius perhaps lacked the sustained
vigour necessary for a dramatist, and his humour naturally
sought the aid of pathos. From partial 3 he passed to more
complete 4 experiment; and thus these two writers, who trans-
planted to the comic stage a tendency towards the treatment
of domestic themes noticeable in such writers of Restoration
tragedy as Southerne and Rowe, became the founders of senti-
mental comedy, a species which exercised a most depressing
influence upon the progress of English drama, and helped to
hasten the decline of its comic branch. With Cato English
tragedy committed suicide, though its pale ghost survived;
with The Conscious Lovers English comedy sank for long into
the tearful embraces of artificiality and weakness.
During the i8th century the productions of dramatic literature
were still as a rule legitimately designed to meet the demands
of the stage, from which its higher efforts afterwards
and stage" to so large an extent became dissociated. The goodwill
la the of most sections of the public continued to be steadily
period accorded to a theatre which had ceased to defy the
accepted laws and traditions of morality; and the
opposition still aroused by it was confined to a small
minority of thinkers, though these included some who were
far from being puritans. John Dennis was not thought to have
the worst of the controversy, when he defended the stage against
the attack of an opponent far above him in stature the great
mystic William Law 5 and to John Wesley himself it seemed
that " a great deal more might be said in defence of seeing a
serious tragedy " than of taking part in the amusements of
bear-baiting and cock-fighting. On the other hand, the demands
of the stage and those of its patrons and of the public of the
" Augustan " age, and of that which succeeded it, were, in
general, fast bound by the trammels of a taste with which a
revival of the poetic drama long remained irreconcilable. There
is every reason to conclude that the art of acting progressed
in the same direction of artificiality, and became stereotyped
in forms corresponding to the " chant " which represented
tragic declamation in a series of actors ending with Quin and
Macklin. In the latter must be recognized features of a pre-
cursor, but it was reserved to the genius of Garrick, whose
theatrical career extended from 1741 to 1776, to open
a new era in his art. His unparalleled success was due
in the first instance to his incomparable natural gifts; yet
these were indisputably enhanced by a careful and continued
1 A Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English
Stage. 'Sir Novelty Fashion (Lord Foppington), &c.
1 The Lying Lover ; The Tender Husband.
* The Conscious Lovers.
' The Absolute Unlawfulness of Stage Entertainments fully Demon-
strated; The Stage defended, &c. (1726).
Ga/rfci.
literary training, and ennobled by a purpose which prompted
him to essay the noblest, as he was capable of performing
the most various, range of English theatrical characters. By
devoting himself as actor and manager with special zeal to the
production of Shakespeare, Garrick permanently popularized
on the national stage the greatest creations of English drama,
and indirectly helped to seal the doom of what survived of the
tendency to maintain in the most ambitious walks of dramatic
literature the nerveless traditions of the pseudo-classical school.
A generation of celebrated actors and actresses, many of whom
live for us in the drastic epigrams of Churchill's Rosciod (1761),
were his helpmates or his rivals; but their fame has paled,
while his is destined to endure as that of one of the typical
masters of his art.
The contrast between the tragedy of the i8th century and
those plays of Shakespeare and one or two other Elizabethans
which already before Garrick were known to the
English stage, was weakened by the mutilated form
in which the old masterpieces generally, if not always,
made their appearance there. Even so, however, there are
perhaps few instances in theatrical history in which so unequal
a competition was so long sustained. In the hands of the
tragic poets of the age of Pope, as well as that of Johnson,
tragedy had hopelessly stiffened into the forms of its accepted
French models. Direct reproductions of these continued, as in
Ambrose Philips's and Charles Johnson's (1679-1748) transla-
tions from Racine, and Aaron Hill's from Voltaire. Among
other tragic dramatists of the earlier part of the century may be
mentioned J. Hughes, who, after assisting Addison in his Cato,
produced at least one praiseworthy tragedy of his own ; 6
E. Fenton, a joint translator of " Pope's Homer " and the
author of one extremely successful drama on a theme of singularly
enduring interest, 7 and L. Theobald the first hero of the Dunciad,
who, besides translations of Greek dramas, produced a few
more or less original plays, one of which he was daring enough
to father upon Shakespeare. 8 A more distinguished name is
that of J. Thomson, whose unlucky Sophonisba and subsequent
tragedies are, however, barely remembered by the side of his
poems (The Seasons, &c.). The literary genius of E. Young, on
the other hand, possessed vigour and variety enough to distin-
guish his tragedies from the ordinary level of Augustan plays;
in one of them he seems to challenge comparison in the treatment
of his theme with a very different rival, 9 but by his main charac-
teristics as a dramatist he belongs to the school of his contem-
poraries. The endeavour of G. Lillo, in his London Merchant,
or George Barmvell (1731), to bring the tragic lessons of terror
and pity directly home to his fellow-citizens exercised an extra-
ordinarily widespread as well as enduring effect on the history
of the 1 8th-century drama. At home, they gave birth to the new,
or, more properly speaking, to the revived, species of domestic
tragedy, which connects itself more or less closely with a notable
epoch in the history of English prose-fiction as well as of EngJish
painting. Abroad, this play whose success was of the kind
which nothing can kill supplied the text to the teachings of
Diderot, as well as an example to his own dramatic attempts;
and through Diderot the impulse communicated itself to Lessing,
and long exercised a great effect upon the literature of the
German stage. At the same time, it must be allowed that
Lillo's pedestrian muse failed in the end to satisfy higher artistic
demands than those met in his most popular play, while in
another 10 she was less consciously guilty of an aberration
towards that " tragedy of destiny," which, in the modern drama
at least, obscures the ethical character of all tragic actions.
" Classical " tragedy in the generation of Dr Johnson pursued
the even tenor of its way, the dictator himself treading with
solemn footfall in the accustomed path," and W. Mason
making the futile attempt to produce a close imitation of Greek
7 Mariamne.
The Revenge (Othello).
6 The Siege of Damascus.
The Double Falsehood.
10 Fatal Curiosity.
11 Irene (1749); The Patriot., attributed to Johnson, is by Joseph
Simpson.
530
DRAMA
[ENGLISH
models. 1 The best-remembered tragedy of the century, Home's
Douglas (1757), was the production of an author whose famous
kinsman, David Hume (though no friend of the contemporary
English stage), had advised him " to read Shakespeare, but to
get Racine and Voltaire by heart." The indisputable merits
of the play cannot blind us to the fact that Douglas is the
offspring of Merope.
While thus no high creative talent arose to revive the poetic
genius of English tragedy, comedy, which had to contend
against the same rivals, naturally met the demands
f tne cornet with greater buoyancy. The history of
the most formidable of those rivals, Music, forms po
part of this sketch; but the points of contact between its
progress and the history of dramatic literature cannot be alto-
gether left out of sight. H. PurcelFs endeavours to unite
English music to the words of English poets were now a thing
of the past; analogous attempts in the direction of musical
dialogue, which have been insufficiently noticed, had likewise
proved transitory; and the isolated efforts of Addison 2 and
others to recover the operatic stage for the native tongue had
proved powerless. Italian texts, which had first made their
entrance piecemeal, in the end asserted themselves in their
entirety; and the marvellously assimilative genius of Handel
completed the triumphs of a form of art which no longer had
any connexion with the English drama, and which reached the
height of its fashionable popularity about the time when Garrick
began to adorn the national stage. In one form, however, the
English opera was preserved as a pleasing species of the popular
drama. The pastoral drama had (in 1725) produced an isolated
aftergrowth in Allan Ramsay's Gent'e Shepherd, which, with
genuine freshness and humour, but without a trace of burlesque,
transferred to the scenery of the Pentland Hills the lovely tale
of Florizel and Perdita. The dramatic form of this poem is
only an accident, but it doubtless suggested an experiment of a
different kind to the most playful of London wits. Gay's
" Newgate Pastoral " of The Beggar's Opera (1728), in which the
amusing text of a burlesque farce was interspersed with songs
set to popular airs, caught the fancy of the town by this novel
combination, and became the ancestor of a series of agreeable
productions, none of which, however, not even its own continua-
tion, Polly (amazingly successful in book form, after its produc-
tion was forbidden by the lord chamberlain), have ever rivalled
it in success or celebrity. Among these may be mentioned the
pieces of I. Bickerstaffe * and C. Dibdin. 4 The opera in England,
as elsewhere, thus absorbed what vitality remained to the
pastoral drama, while to the ballet and the pantomime (whose
glories 'in England began at Covent Garden in 1733, and to
whose popularity even Garrick was obliged to defer) was left (in
the i8th century at all events) the inheritance of the external
attractions of the mask and the pageant.
In the face of such various rivalries it is not strange that
comedy, instead of adhering to the narrow path which Steele
and others had marked out for her, should have
%ue. permitted herself some vagaries of her own. Gay's
example pointed the way to a fatally facile form of the
comic art; and burlesque began to contribute its influence to
the decline of comedy. In an age when party-government was
severely straining the capabilities of its system, dramatic satire
had not far to look for a source of effective seasonings. The
audacity of H. Fielding, whose regular comedies (original or
adapted) have secured no enduring remembrance, but whose love
of parody was afterwards to suggest to him the theme of the
first of the novels which have made his name immortal,
J** accordingly ventured in two extravaganzas 6 (so we
Act. "' "* should call them in these days) upon a larger admixture
of political with literary and other satire. A third
attempt' (which never reached the stage) furnished the
offended minister, Sir Robert Walpole,with the desired occasionfor
1 Elfrida ; Caractacus. J Rosamunda.
' Love in a Village, &c. 4 The Waterman, &c.
Pasquin ; The Historical Register for 1736.
The Golden Rump.
placing a curb upon the licence of the theatre, such as had already
been advocated by a representative of its old civic adversaries.
The famous act of 1737 asserted no new principle, but converted
into legal power the customary authority hither exercised by the
lord chamberlain (to whom it had descended from the master
of the revels). The regular censorship which this act established
has not appreciably affected the literary progress of the English
drama, and the objections which have been raised against it
seem to have addressed themselves to practice rather than to
principle. The liberty of the stage is a question differing in its
conditions from that of the liberty of speech in general, or even
from that of the liberty of the press; and occasional lapses of
official judgment weigh lightly in the balance against the obvious
advantages of a system which in a free country needs only the
vigilance of public opinion to prevent its abuse. The policy of
the restraint which the act of 1737 put upon the number of
playhouses is a different, but has long become an obsolete,
question. 7
Brought back into its accustomed grooves, English comedy
seemed inclined to leave to farce the domain of healthy ridicule,
and to coalesce with domestic tragedy in the attempt Comea ^
to make the stage a vehicle of homespun didactic the latter
morality. Farce had now become a genuine English half of the
species, and has as such retained its vitality through I8th
all the subsequent fortunes of the stage; it was
actively cultivated by Garrick as both actor and author; and
he undoubtedly had more than a hand in the very best farce
of this age, which is ascribed to clerical authorship. 8 S. Foote,
whose comedies ' and farces are distinguished both by wit and
by variety of characters (though it was an absurd misapplication
of a great name to call him the English Aristophanes), introduced
into comic acting the abuse of personal mimicry, for the ex-
hibition of which he ingeniously invented a series of entertain-
ments, the parents of a long progeny of imitations. Meanwhile,
the domestic drama of the sentimental kind achieved, though
not immediately, a success only inferior to that of The London
Merchant, in The Gamester of E. Moore, to which Garrick seems
to have directly contributed ; 10 and sentimental comedy courted
sympathetic applause in the works of A. Murphy, the single
comedy of W. Whitehead, " and the earliest of H. Kelly. u It
cannot be said that this species was extinguished, as it is some-
times assumed to have been, by O. Goldsmith; but he certainly
published a direct protest against it between the production
of his admirable character-comedy of Tlie Good-Nature^ Man,
and his delightfully brisk and fresh She Stoops to Conquer, which,
after startling critical propriety from its self-conceit, taught
comedy no longer to fear being true to herself. The most
successful efforts of the elder G. Colman 13 had in them something
of the spirit of genuine comedy, besides a finish which, however
playwrights may shut their eyes to the fact, is one of the qualities
which ensure a long life to a play. And in the masterpieces of
R. B. Sheridan some of the happiest features of the comedy of
Congreve were revived, together with its too uniform brilliancy
of dialogue, but without its indecency of tone. The varnish
of the age is indeed upon the style, and the hollowness of its
morality in much of the sentiment (even where that sentiment is
meant for the audience) of The Rivals and The School for Scandal;
but in tact of construction, in distinctness of characters, and in
pungency of social satire, they are to be ranked among the glories
7 The first dramatic performance licensed by the lord chamberlain
after the passing of the act was appropriately entitled The Nest of
Plays, and consisted of three comedies named respectively The
Prodigal Reformed, In Happy Constancy and The Trial of Conjugal
Love. It is a curious fact that in the first decade of tne reign of
George III. a severe control of the theatre was very actively exerted
after a positive as well as a negative fashion objectionable passages
being ruthlessly suppressed and plays actually written and licensed
for the purpose of upholding the existing regime.
T. Townley, High Life Below Stairs (1759).
The Minor; Taste; The Author, &c.
10 This celebrated play was at first persistently attributed i
Miss Elizabeth Carter.
11 The School for Lovers. " False Dehcacy.
" The Jealous Wife; The Clandestine Marriage.
ENGLISH]
DRAMA
of English comedy. Something in Sheridan's style, but quite
without his brilliancy, is the most successful play 1 of the un-
fortunate General Burgoyne. R. Cumberland, who too con-
sciously endeavoured to excel both in sentimental morality and
in comic characterization, in which he was devoid of depth,
closes the list of authors of higher pretensions who wrote for the
theatre.* Like him, Mrs Cowley 3 (" Anna Matilda "), T. Hoi-
croft, 4 and G. Colman the younger, 6 all writers of popular
comedies, as well as the prolific J. O'Keefe (1746-1833), who
contributed to nearly every species of the comic drama, survived
into the ipth century. To an earlier date belong the favourite
burlesques of O'Keefe's countryman K. O'Hara 6 (d. 1782), good
examples of a species the further history of which may be left
aside. In the hands of at least one later writer, J. R. Planche,
it proved capable of satisfying a more refined taste than his
successors have habitually consulted.
The decline of dramatic composition of the higher class,
perceptible in the history of the English theatre about the
The beginning of the igth century, was justly attributed
English by Sir Walter Scott to the wearing out of the French
dnma of model that had been so long wrought upon; but when
he 19th j,e asser ted that the new impulse which was sought in
l " y ' the dramatic literature of Germany was derived from
some of its worst, instead of from its noblest, productions
from Kotzebue rather than from Lessing, Schiller and Goethe
he showed a very imperfect acquaintance with a complicated
literary movement which was obliquely reflected in the stage-
plays of Inland and his contemporaries. The change which was
coming over English literature was in truth of a wider and
deeper nature than it was possible for even one of its chief
representatives to perceive. As that literature freed itself from
the fetters so long worn by it as indispensable ornaments, and
threw aside the veil which had so long obscured both the full
glory of its past and the lofty capabilities of its future, it could not
resort except tentatively to a form which like the dramatic is
bound by a hundred bonds to the life of the age itself. Soon, the
poems with which ScottandByron,andtheunrivalledprosefictions
with which Scott, both satisfied and stimulated the imaginative
demands of the public, diverted the attention of the cultivated
classes from dramatic literature, which was unable to escape,
with the light foot of verse or prose fiction, into " the new, the
romantic land." New themes, new ideas, new forms occupied
a new generation of writers and readers; nor did the drama
readily lend itself as a vessel into which to pour so many ferment-
ing elements. In Byron the impressions produced upon a mind
not less open to impulses from without than subjective in its
way of recasting them, called forth a series of dramatic attempts
betraying a more or less wilful ignorance of the demands of
dramatic compositions; his beautiful Manfred, partly suggested
by Goethe's Faust, and his powerful Cain, have but the form of
plays; his tragedies on Italian historical subjects show some
resemblance in their political rhetoric to the contemporary works
of Alfieri; his Sardanapalus, autobiographically interesting,
fails to meet the demands of the stage; his Werner (of which the
authorship has been ascribed to the duchess of Devonshire) is a
hastily dramatized sensation novel. To Coleridge (1772-1834),
who gave to English literature a splendidly loose translation of
Schiller's Walknstein, the same poet's Robbers (to which Words-
worth's only dramatic attempt, the Borderers, is likewise in-
debted) had probably suggested the subject of his tragedy of
Osorio, afterwards acted under the title of Remorse. Far superior
to this is his later drama of Zapolya, a genuine homage to Shake-
speare, out of the themes of two of whose plays it is gracefully
woven. Scott, who in his earlier days had translated Goethe's
Gotz von Berlichingen, gained no reputation by his own dramatic
compositions. W. S. Landor, apart from those Imaginary
Conversations upon which he best loved to expend powers of
observation and characterization such as have been given to
1 The Heiress. The West Indian; The Jew.
* The Belle's Stratagem; A Bold Stroke for a Husband, &c.
4 The Road to Ruin, &c. 6 John Bull; The Heir at Law, &c.
' Midas; The Golden Pippin.
few playwrights, cast in a formally dramatic mould studies of
character of which the value is far from being confined to their
wealth in beauties of detail. Of these the magnificent, but in
construction altogether undramatic, Count Julian, is the most
noteworthy. Shelley's The Cenci, on the other hand, is not only
a poem of great beauty, but a drama of true power, abnormally
revolting indeed in theme, but singularly pure and delicate in
treatment. A humbler niche in the temple of dramatic literature
belongs to some of the plays of C. R. Maturin, 7 Sir T. N. Talfourd,*
and Dean Milman. 9
Divorced, except for passing moments, from the stage, English
dramatic literature could during much the greater part of the
ipth century hardly be regarded as a connected national growth;
though, already in the last decades of the Victorian age, the
revival of public interest in the theatre co-operated with a
gradual change in poetic taste to awaken the hope of a future
living reunion. Among English poets who lived in this period,
Sir Henry Taylor probably approached nearest to the objective
treatment and the amplitude of style characteristic of the
Elizabethan drama. 10 R. H. Home, long an almost solitary
survivor of the romantic school, was able in at least one memorable
dramatic attempt to revive something of the early Elizabethan
spirit. 11 Of the chief poets of the age, Tennyson only in his later
years addressed himself to a form of composition little suited
to his genius, though the very fact of the homage paid by him to
the national forms of the historic drama and of romantic comedy
could not fail to ennoble the contemporary stage. 12 Matthew
Arnold's stately revival of the traditions of classical tragedy
proper, on the other hand, deliberately excluded itself from any
such contact; 13 while Longfellow's refined literary culture and
graceful facility of form made ready use of a quasi-dramatic
medieval vesture. 14 William Morris's single " morality," too,
cannot be regarded as a contribution to dramatic literature
proper. 16 Of very different importance are the. excursions into
dramatic composition of Robert Browning, whose place in the
living inheritance of the English drama has in one instance at
least been not unsuccessfully vindicated by a later age, and
some of whose greatest gifts are beyond a doubt displayed in his
dramatic work; 16 and the sustained endeavours of A. C. Swin-
burne, after adding a flower of exquisite beauty to the wreath
which the lovers of the Attic muse have laid at her feet, to enrich
the national historic drama by a trilogy instinct with the ardent
eloquence of passion. 17 Until a date too near the times in which
we live to admit of its being fixed with precision, most of the
English writers who sought to preserve a connexion between
their dramatic productions and the demands of the stage
addressed themselves to the theatrical rather than the literary
public for the distinction, in those times at all events, was by
no means without a difference. The modestly simple and judici-
ously concentrated efforts of Joanna Baillie deserve a respectful
remembrance in the records of literature as well as of the stage,
though the day has passed when the theory which suggested
her Plays on the Passions could find acceptance among critics,
or her exemplifications of it satisfy the demands of playgoers.
Sheridan Knowles, on the other hand, composed his conventional
semblances of genuine tragedy and comedy with a thorough
knowledge of stage effect, and some of them can hardly yet be
said to have vanished from the stage. 18 The first Lord Lytton,
though his plays were for the most part of a lighter texture,
showed even more artificiality of sentiment in their conception
and execution; but the romantic touch which he imparted to at
least one of them accounts for its long-lived popularity. Among
later Victorian playwrights T. W. Robertson brought back a
breath of naturalness into the acted comic drama; Tom Taylor,
rivalling Lope in fertility, made little pretence to original
invention, but adapted with an instinct that rarely failed him,
and materially helped to keep the theatrical diversions of his
7 Bertram. * Ion. 9 Fazio. w Philip van Artevelde.
11 The Death of Marlowe. I2 Becket; The Cup. " Merope.
14 The Golden Legend. " Love is Enough.
16 Straff ord; The Blot on the Scutcheon.
17 Atalanta in Calydon; Bothwett; Chastelard; Mary Stuart.
18 Virginius; The Hunchback.
532
DRAMA
[ENGLISH
age sound and pure ; an endeavour in which he had the co-
operation of Charles Reade and that of most of those who
competed with them for the favour of generations of playgoers
more easily contented than their successors. The one deplorable
aspect of this age of the English drama was to be found neither
in the sphere of tragedy nor in that of comedy nor even in that
of farce. It was presented in the low depths of contemporary
burlesque, which had degenerated from the graceful extravaganza
of J. R. Planche into witless and tasteless emptiness.
Curiously enough, it was at this point that something like
real originality discovering a new sub-species of its own
first began, with the aid of a sister-art, to renovate the English
popular comic stage. At the beginning of the igth century the
greatest tragic actress of the English theatre, Mrs Siddons, had
passed her prime; and before its second decade had closed, not
only she (1812) but her brother John Kemble (1817), the repre-
sentative of a grand style of acting which later generations
might conceivably find overpowering, had withdrawn from the
boards. Mrs Siddons was soon followed into retirement by her
successor Miss O'Neill (1819); while Kemble's brilliant later
rival, Edmund Kean, an actor the intuitions of whose genius seem
to have supplied, so far as intuition ever can supply, the absence
of a consecutive self -culture, remained on the stage till his death
in 1833. Young, Macready, and others handed down some of
the traditions of the older school of acting to the very few artists
who remained to suggest its semblance to a later generation.
Even these among them S. Phelps, whose special merit it was
to present to a later age, accustomed to elaborate theatrical
environments, dramatic masterpieces as dependent upon them-
selves and adequate interpretation; and the foremost English
actress of the earlier Victorian age, Helen Faucit (Lady Martin)
were unable to leave a school of acting behind them. Still less
was this possible to Charles Kean the younger, with whom the
decorative production of Shakespearian plays really had its
beginning; or even to Sir Henry Irving, an actor of genius, but
also an irrepressible and almost eccentric theatrical personality,
whose great service to the English drama was his faith in its
masterpieces. The comic stage was fortunate in an ampler
aftergrowth, from generation to generation, of the successors
of the old actors who live for us all in the reminiscences of
Charles Lamb; nor were the links suddenly snapped which
bound the humours of the present to those of the past. In the
first decade of the zoth century a generation still survived which
could recall, with many other similar joys, the brilliant levity
of Charles Mathews the younger; the not less irresistible stolidity
of J. B. Buckstone; the solemn fooling of H. Compton (1805-
1877); the subtle humours of J. L. Toole, and the frolic charm
of Marie Wilton (Lady Bancroft), the most original comic
actress of her time. (A. W. W.)
Recent English Drama. In England the whole mechanism
of theatrical life had undergone a radical change in the middle
decades of the ipth century. At the root of this change lay the
immense growth of population and the enormously increased
facilities of communication between London and the provinces.
Similar causes came into operation, of course, in France, Germany
and Austria, but were much less distinctly felt, because the
numerous and important subventioned theatres of these countries
remained more or less unaffected by economic influences. Free
trade in theatricals (subject only to certain licensing regulations
and to a court censorship of new plays) was established in
England by an act of 1843, which abolished the long moribund
monopoly of the " legitimate drama " claimed by the " Patent
Theatres " of Drury Lane and Covent Garden. The drama was
thus formally subjected to the operation of the law of supply and
demand, like any other article of commerce, and managers were
left, unaided and unhampered by any subvention or privilege,
to cater to the tastes of a huge and growing community. Theatres
very soon multiplied, competition grew ever keener, and the
long run, with its accompaniments of ostentatious decoration
and lavish advertisement, became the one object of managerial
effort. This process of evolution may be said to have begun in
the second quarter of the igth century and completed itself in
the 3rd. The system which obtains to-day, almost unforeseen
in 1825, was in full operation in 1875. The repertory theatre,
with its constant changes of programme, maintained on the
continent partly by subventions, partly by the mere force of
artistic tradition, had become in England a faint and far-off
memory. There was not a single theatre in London at which
plays, old and new, were not selected and mounted solely with
a view to their continuous performance for as many nights as
possible, anything short of fifty nights constituting an igno-
minious and probably ruinous failure. It was found, too, that
those theatres were most successful which were devoted exclu-
sively to exploiting the talent of an individual actor. Thus
when the fourth quarter of the century opened, the long " run "
and the actor-manager were in firm possession of the field.
The outlook was in many ways far from encouraging. It
was not quite so black, indeed, as it had been in the late 'fifties
and early 'sixties, when the " legitimate " enterprises of Phelps
at Sadler's Wells and Charles Kean at the Princess's had failed
to hold their ground, and when modern comedy and drama were
represented almost exclusively by adaptations from the French.
There had been a slight stirring of originality in the series of
comedies produced by T. W. Robertson at the Prince of Wales's
theatre, where, under the management of Bancroft (q.v.) a new
school of mounting and acting, minutely faithful (in theory at
any rate) to everyday reality, had come into existence. But
the hopes of a revival of English comedy seemed to have died
with Robertson's death. One of his followers, James Albery,
possessed both imagination and wit, but had not the strength
of character to do justice to his talent, and sank into a mere
adapter. In the plays of another disciple, H. J. Byron, the
Robertsonian or " cup-and-saucer " school declined upon sheer
inanity. Of the numerous plays signed by Tom Taylor some
were original in substance, but all were cast in the machine-made
French mould. Wilkie Collins, in dramatizing some of his novels,
produced somewhat crude anticipations of the modern " problem
play." The literary talent of W. S. Gilbert displayed itself in a
group of comedies both in verse and prose; but Gilbert saw life
from too peculiar an angle to represent it otherwise than fantastic-
ally. The Robertsonian impulse seemed to have died utterly
away, leaving behind it only five or six very insubstantial
comedies and a subdued, unrhetorical method in acting. This
method the Bancrofts proceeded to apply, during the 'seventies,
to revivals of stage classics, such as The School for Scandal,
Money and Masks and Faces, and to adaptations from the French
ofjSardou.
While the modern drama appeared to have relapsed into a
comatose condition, poetic and romantic drama was giving
some signs of life. At the Lyceum in 1871 Henry Irving had
leapt into fame by means of his performance of Mathias in
The Bells, an adaptation from the French of Erckmann-Chatrian.
He followed this up by an admirably picturesque performance
of the title-part in Charles I. by W. G. Wills. In the
autumn of 1874 the great success of Irving's Hamlet was hailed
as the prelude to a revival of tragic acting. As a matter of fact,
it was the prelude to a long series of remarkable achievements
in romantic drama and melodrama. Irving's lack of physical
and vocal resources prevented him from scaling the heights of
tragedy, and his Othello, Macbeth, and Lear could not be ranked
among his successes; but he was admirable in such parts as
Richard III., Shylock, lago and Wolsey, while in melodramatic
parts, such as Louis XI. and the hero and villain of The Lyons
Mail, he was unsurpassed. Mephistopheles in a version of
Faust (1885), perhaps the greatest popular success of his career,
added nothing to his reputation for artistic intelligence; but
on the other hand his Becket in Tennyson's play of that name
(1893) was one of his most masterly efforts. His management
of the Lyceum (1878-1899) did so much to raise the status of
the actor and to restore the prestige of poetic drama, that the
knighthood conferred upon him in 1895 was felt to be no more
than an appropriate recognition of his services. But his
managerial career had scarcely any significance for the living
English drama. He seldom experimented with a new play,
ENGLISH]
DRAMA
533
and, of the few which he did produce, only The Cup and
Becket by Lord Tennyson have the remotest chance of being
remembered.
To trace the history of the new English drama, then, we must
go back to the Prince of Wales's theatre. Even while it seemed
that French comedy of the school of Scribe was resuming its
baneful predominance, the seeds of a new order of things were
slowly germinating. Diplomacy, an adaptation of Sardou's
Dora, produced in 1878, brought together on the Prince of Wales's
stage Mr and Mrs Bancroft, Mr and Mrs Kendal, John Clayton
and Arthur Cecil in other words, the future managers of the
Haymarket, the St James's and the Court theatres, which were
destined to see the first real stirrings of a literary revival. Mr
and Mrs Kendal, who, in conjunction with John Hare, managed
the St James's theatre from 1879 to 1888, produced A. W.
Pinero's first play of any consequence, The Money-Spinner (1881),
and afterwards The Squire (1882) and The Hobby Horse (1887).
The Bancrofts, who, after entirely rebuilding the Haymarket
theatre, managed it from 1880 till their retirement in 1885,
produced in 1883 Pinero's Lords and Commons; and Messrs
Clayton and Cecil produced at the Court theatre between 1885
and 1887 his three brilliant farces, The Magistrate, The School-
mistress and Dandy Dick, which, with the sentimental comedy,
Sweet Lavender, produced at Terry's theatre in 1888, assured his
position as an original and fertile dramatic humorist of no small
literary power. It is to be noted, however, that Pinero was
almost the only original playwright represented under the
Bancroft, Hare-Kendal and Clayton-Cecil managements, which
relied for the rest upon adaptations and revivals. Adaptations
of French vaudevilles were the staple productions of Charles
Wyndham's management at the Criterion from its beginning
in 1876 until 1893, when he first produced an original play of any
importance. When Herbert Beerbohm Tree went into manage-
ment at the Haymarket in 1887, he still relied largely on plays
of foreign origin. George Alexander's first managerial ventures
(Avenue theatre, 1890) were two adaptations from the French.
Until well on in the 'eighties, indeed, adaptation from the French
was held the normal occupation of the British playwright, and
original composition a mere episode. Robertson, Byron, Albery,
Gilbert, Tom Taylor, Charles Reade, Herman Merivale, G. W.
Godfrey, all produced numerous adaptations ; Sydney Grundy
was for twenty years occupied almost exclusively in this class
of work; Pinero himself has adapted more than one French play.
The 'eighties, then, may on the whole be regarded as showing
a very gradual decline in the predominance of France on the
English stage, and an equally slow revival of originality, so far
as comedy and drama were concerned, manifesting itself mainly
in the plays of Pinero.
The reaction against French influence, however, was no less
apparent in the domain of melodrama and operetta than in that
of comedy and drama. Until well on in the 'seventies, D'Ennery
and his disciples, adapted and imitated by Dion Boucicault and
others, ruled the melodramatic stage. The reaction asserted
itself in two quarters in the East End at the Grecian theatre,
and in the West End at the Princess's. In The World, produced
atDrury Lane in 1880, Paul Meritt (d. 1895) and Henry Pettitt
(d. 1893) brought to the West End the " Grecian " type of popular
drama ; and at Drury Lane it survived in the elaborately
spectacular form imparted to it by Sir Augustus Harris, who
managed that theatre from 1879 till his death in 1896. The
production of G. R. Sims's Lights o' London at the Princess's in
1 88 1, under Wilson Barrett's management, also marked a new
departure. This style of melodrama was chiefly cultivated at
the Adelphi theatre, from 1882 until the end of the century,
when it died out there as a regular institution, apparently because
a host of suburban theatres drew away its audiences. Of all
these English melodramas, only one, The Silver King, by Henry
Arthur Jones (Princess's, 1882), could for a moment compare in
invention or technical skill with the French dramas they sup-
planted. The fact remains, however, that even on this lowest
level of dramatic art the current of the time set decisively towards
home-made pictures of English life, however crude and puerile.
For twenty-five years, from 1865 to 1890, the English stage
was overrun with French operettas of the school of Offenbach.
Hastily adapted by slovenly hacks, their librettos (often witty
in the original) became incredible farragos of metreless doggrel
and punning ineptitude. The great majority of them are now
so utterly forgotten that it is hard to realize how, in their heyday,
they swarmed on every hand in London and the provinces. The
reaction began in 1875 with the performance at the Royalty
theatre of Trial by Jury, by W. S. Gilbert and Arthur Sullivan.
This was the prelude to that brilliant series of witty and melodious
extravaganzas which began with The Sorcerer at the Opera
Comique theatre in 1877, but was mainly associated with the
Savoy theatre, opened by R. D'Oyly Carte (d. 1901) in 1881.
Little by little the Gilbert and Sullivan operettas (of which
the most famous, perhaps, were H.M.S. Pinafore, 1878, Patience,
1881, and The Mikado, 1885) undermined the popularity of the
French opera-bouffes, and at the same time that of the indigenous
" burlesques " which, graceful enough in the hands of their
inventor J. R. Planche, had become mere incoherent jumbles of
buffoonery, devoid alike of dramatic ingenuity and of literary
form. When, early in the 'nineties, the collaboration between
Gilbert and Sullivan became intermittent, and the vogue of the
Savoy somewhat declined, a new class of extravaganza arose,
under the designation of " musical comedy" or " musical farce."
It first took form in a piece called In Town, by Messrs " Adrian
Ross " and Osmond Carr (Prince of Wales's theatre, 1892), and
rapidly became very popular. In these plays the scene and
costumes are almost always modern though sometimes exotic,
and the prose dialogue, setting forth an attenuated and entirely
negligible plot, is frequently interrupted by musical numbers.
The lyrics are often very clever pieces of rhyming, totally different
from the inane doggrel of the old opera-bouffes and burlesques.
In other respects there is little to be said for the literary or
intellectual quality of " musical farce " ; but, being an entirely
English (or Anglo-American) product, it falls into line with the
other indications we have noted of the general decline one might
almost say extinction of French influence on the English
stage.
To what causes are we to trace this gradual disuse of adapta-
tion ? In the domain of modern comedy and drama, to two
causes acting simultaneously : the decline in France of the
method of Scribe, which produced " well-made," exportable
plays, more or less suited to any climate and environment;
and the rise in England of a generation of playwrights more
original, thoughtful and able than their predecessors. It is not
at all to be taken for granted that the falling off in the supply of
exportable plays meant a decline in the absolute merit of French
drama. The historian of the future may very possibly regard
the movement in France, no less than the movement in England,
as a step in advance, and may even see in the two movements
co-ordinate manifestations of one tendency. Be this as it may,
the fact is certain that as the playwrights of the Second Empire
gradually died off, and were succeeded by the authors of the
" new comedy," plays which would bear transplantation became
ever fewer and farther between. Of recent years Henri Bernstein,
author of Le Voleur and Samson, has been almost the only
French dramatist whose works have found a ready and steady
market in England. Attempts to acclimatize French poetical
drama Pour la Couronne, Le Chemineau, Cyrano de Bergerac
were all more or less unsuccessful.
Having noted the decline of adaptation, we may now trace a
stage farther the development of the English drama. The first
stage, already surveyed, ends with the production of Sweet
Lavender in 1888. Up to this point its author, Pinero (b. 1855),
stood practically alone, and had won his chief successes as a
humorist. Henry Arthur Jones (b. 1851) was known as little
more than an able melodramatist, though in one play, Saints
and Sinners (1884), he had made some attempt at a serious
study of provincial life. R. C. Carton (b. 1856) had written, in
collaboration, one or two plays of slight account. Sydney
Grundy (b. 1848) had produced scarcely any original work.
The second stage may be taken as extending from 1889 to 1893.
534
DRAMA
[ENGLISH
On the 24th of April 1889 John Hare opened the new Garrick
theatre with The Profligate, by Pinero an unripe and superficial
piece of work in many ways, but still a great advance, both in
ambition and achievement, upon any original work the stage
had seen for many a year.
With all its faults, it may be said that The Profligate notably
enlarged at one stroke the domain open to the English dramatist.
And it did not stand alone. The same year saw the production
of two plays by H. A.- Jones, Wealth and The Middleman, in
which a distinct effort towards a serious criticism of life was
observable, and of two plays by Sydney Grundy, A Fool's
Paradise and A White Lie, which, though very French in method,
were at least original in substance. Jones during the next two
years made a steady advance with Judah (1890), The Dancing
Girl and The Crusaders ( 1 89 1 ) . Pinero in these years was putting
forth less than his whole strength in The Cabinet Minister (1890),
Lady Bountiful and The Times (1891), and The Amazons (March
1893). But meanwhile new talents were coming forward. The
management of George Alexander, which opened at the Avenue
theatre in 1890, but was transferred in the following year to the
St James's, brought prominently to the front R. C. Carton,
Haddon Chambers and Oscar Wilde. Carton's two sentimental
comedies, Sunlight and Shadow (1890) and Liberty Hall (1892),
showed excellent workmanship, but did not yet reveal his true
originality as a humorist. Haddon Chambers's work (notably
The Idler, 1891) was as yet sufficiently commonplace ; but in
Lady Windermere's Fan (1892) Oscar Wilde showed himself at
his first attempt a brilliant and accomplished dramatist. Wilde's
subsequent plays, A Woman of No Importance (1893) and An
Ideal Husband and The Importance of being Earnest (1895),
though marred by mannerism and insincerity, did much to
promote the movement we are here tracing.
As the production of The Profligate marked the opening
of the second period in the revival of English drama, so the
production of the same author's The Second Mrs Tanqueray is
very clearly the starting-point of the third period. Before
attempting to trace its course we may do well to glance at certain
conditions which probably influenced it.
In the first place, economic conditions. The Bancroft-
Robertson movement at the old Prince of Wales's, between
1865 and 1870, was of even more importance from an economic
than from a literary point of view. By making their little theatre
a luxurious place of resort, and faithfully imitating in their
productions the accent, costume and furniture of upper and
upper-middle class life, the Bancrofts had initiated a reconcilia-
tion between society and the stage. Throughout the middle
decades of the century it was the constant complaint of the
managers that the world of wealth and fashion could not be
tempted to the theatre. The Bancroft management changed all
that. It was at the Prince of Wales's that half-guinea stalls were
first introduced; and these stalls were always filled. As other
theatres adopted the same policy of upholstery, both on and off
the stage, fashion extended its complaisance to them as well. In
yet another way the reconciliation was promoted by the ever-
increasing tendency of young men and women of good birth and
education to seek a career upon the English stage. The theatre,
in short, became at this period one of the favourite amuse-
ments of fashionable (though scarcely of intellectual) society in
London. It is often contended that the influence of the sensual
and cynical stall audience is a pernicious one. In some ways,
no doubt, it is detrimental; but there is another side to the case.
Even the cynicism of society marks an intellectual advance upon
the sheer rusticity which prevailed during the middle years of the
1 9th century and accepted without a murmur plays (original and
adapted) which bore no sort of relation to life. In a celebrated
essay published in 1879, Matthew Arnold (whose occasional
dramatic criticisms were very influential in intellectual circles)
dwelt on the sufficiently obvious fact that the result of giving
English names and costumes to French characters was to make
their sayings and doings utterly unreal and " fantastic." During
the years of French ascendancy, audiences had quite forgotten
that it was possible for the stage to be other than " fantastic "
in this sense. They no longer thought of comparing the mimic
world with the real world, but were content with what may be
called abstract humour and pathos, often of the crudest quality.
The cultivation of external realism, coinciding with, and in
part occasioning, the return of society to the playhouse, gradually
led to a demand for some approach to plausibility in character
and action as well as in costume and decoration. The stage
ceased to be entirely " fantastic," and began to essay, however
imperfectly, the representation, the criticism of life. It cannot
be denied that the influence of society tended to narrow the
outlook of English dramatists and to trivialize their tone of
thought. But this was a passing phase of development; and
cleverly trivial representations of reality are, after all, to be
preferred to brainless concoctions of sheer emptiness.
Quite as important, from the economic point of view, as the
reconciliation of society to the stage, was the reorganization
of the mechanism of theatrical life in the provinces which took
place between 1865 and 1875. From the Restoration to the
middle of the I9th century the system of " stock companies "
had been universal. Every great town in the three kingdoms
had its established theatre with a resident company, playing
the " legitimate " repertory, and competing, often by illegitimate
means, for the possession of new London successes. The smaller
towns, and even villages, were grouped into local " circuits, "
each served by one manager with his troupe of strollers. The
" circuits " supplied actors to the resident stock companies,
and the stock companies served as nurseries to the patent
theatres in London. Metropolitan " stars " travelled from one
country theatre to another, generally alone, sometimes with
one or two subordinates in their train, and were " supported,"
as the phrase went, by the stock company of each theatre. Under
this system, scenery, costumes and appointments were often
grotesquely inadequate, and performances almost always rough
and unfinished. On the other hand, the constant practice in a
great number and variety of characters afforded valuable training
for actors, and developed many remarkable talents. As a source
of revenue to authors, the provinces were practically negligible.
Stageright was unprotected by law; and even if it had been
protected, it is doubtful whether authors could have got any
considerable fees out of country managers, whose precarious
ventures usually left them a small enough margin of profit.
The spread of railways throughout the country gradually put
an end to this system. The "circuits" disappeared early in the
'fifties, the stock companies survived until about the middle
of the 'seventies. As soon as it was found easy to transport
whole companies, and even great quantities of scenery, from
theatre to theatre throughout the length and breadth of Great
Britain, it became apparent that the rough makeshifts of the
stock company system were doomed. Here again we can trace
to the old Prince of Wales's theatre the first distinct impulse
towards the new order of things. Robertson's comedies not only
encouraged but absolutely required a style of art, in mounting,
stage-management and acting, not to be found in the country
theatres. To entrust them to the stock companies was well-
nigh impossible. On the other hand , to quote Sir Squire Bancroft ,
" perhaps no play was ever better suited than Caste to a travelling
company; the parts being few, the scenery and dresses quite
simple, and consequently the expenses very much reduced."
In 1867, then, a company was organized and rehearsed in London
to carry round the provincial theatres as exact a reproduction
as possible of the London performance of Caste and Robertson's
other comedies. The smoothness of the representation, the
delicacy of the interplay among the characters, were new to
provincial audiences, and the success was remarkable. About
the same time the whole Haymarket company, under Buckstone's
management, began to make frequent rounds of the country
theatres; and other " touring combinations " were soon organized.
It is manifest that the " combination " system and the stock
company system cannot long coexist, for a manager cannot
afford to keep a stock company idle while a London combination
is occupying his theatre. The stock companies, therefore, soon
dwindled away, and were probably quite extinct before the end
ENGLISH]
DRAMA
535
of the 'seventies. Under the present system, no sooner is a play
an established success in London than it is reproduced in one,
two or three exact copies and sent round the provincial theatres
(and the numerous suburban theatres which have sprung up
since 1895), Company A serving first-class towns, Company B
the second-class towns, and so forth. The process is very like
that of taking plaster casts of a statue, and the provincial
companies often stand to their London originals very much in
the relation of plaster to marble. Even the London scenery is
faithfully reproduced in material of extra strength, to stand the
wear-and-tear of constant removal. The result is that, instead
of the square pegs in round holes of the old stock company
system, provincial audiences now see pegs carefully adjusted
to the particular holes they occupy, and often incapable of fitting
any other. Instead of the rough performances of old, they are
now accustomed to performances of a mechanical and soulless
smoothness.
In some ways the gain in this respect is undeniable, in other
ways the loss is great. The provinces are no longer, in any
effective sense, a nursery of fresh talents for the London theatres,
for the art acquired in touring combinations is that of mimicry
rather than of acting. Moreover, provincial playgoers have lost
all personal interest and pride in their local theatres, which have
no longer any individuality of their own, but serve as a mere
frame for the presentation of a series of ready-made London
pictures. Christmas pantomime is the only theatrical product
that has any really local flavour in it, and even this is often only
a second-hand London production, touched up with a few
topical allusions. Again, the railways which bring London pro-
ductions to the country take country playgoers by the thousand
to London. The wealthier classes, in the Lancashire, Yorkshire
and Midland towns at any rate, do almost all their theatre-going
in London, or during the autumn months when the leading
London companies go on tour. Thus the better class of comedy
and drama has a hard fight to maintain itself in the provinces,
and the companies devoted to melodrama and musical farce
enjoy an ominous preponderance of popularity.
On the whole, however and this is the main point to be
observed with regard to the literary development of the drama
the economic movement of the five- and twenty years between
1865 and 1890 was enormously to the advantage of the dramatic
author. A London success meant a long series of full houses at
high prices, on which he took a handsome percentage. The
provinces, in which a popular playwright would often have
three or four plays going the rounds simultaneously, became a
steady source of income. And, finally, it was found possible,
even before international copyright came into force, to protect
stageright in the United States, so that about the beginning of
the 'eighties large receipts began to pour in from America. Thus
successful dramatists, instead of living from hand to mouth, like
their predecessors of the previous generation, found themselves
in comfortable and even opulent circumstances. They had
leisure for reading, thought and careful composition, and they
could afford to gratify their ambition with an occasional artistic
experiment. Failure might mean a momentary loss of prestige,
but it would not spell ruin. A distinctly progressive spirit, then,
began to animate the leading English dramatists a spirit which
found intelligent sympathy in such managers as John Hare,
George Alexander, Beerbohm Tree and Charles Wyndham.
Nor must it be forgotten that, though the laws of literary
property, internal and international, remained far from perfect,
it was found possible to print and publish plays without incurring
loss of stageright either at home or in America. The playwrights
of the present generation have accordingly a motive for giving
literary form and polish to their work which was quite inoperative
with their predecessors, whose productions were either kept
jealously in manuscript or printed only in miserable and totally
unreadable stage editions. It is no small stimulus to ambition
to know that even if a play prove to be in advance of the standards
of taste or thought among the public to which it is originally
presented, it will not perish utterly, but will, if it have any
inherent vitality, continue to live as literature.
Having now summed up the economic conditions which made
for progress, let us glance at certain intellectual influences which
tended in the same direction. The establishment
of the Theatre Libre in Paris, towards the close of 1887, '"/^^
unquestionably marked the beginning of a period of drama.
restless experiment throughout the theatrical world of
Europe. A. Antoine and his supporters were in open rebellion
against the artificial methods of Scribe and the Second Empire
playwrights. Their effort was to transfer to the stage the
realism, the so-called " naturalism," which had been dominant
in French fiction since 1870 or earlier ; and this naturalism
was doubtless, in its turn, the outcome of the scientific movement
of the century. New methods (or ideals) of observation, and new
views as to the history and destiny of the race, could not fail to
produce a profound effect upon art ; and though the modern
theatre is a cumbrous contrivance, slow to adjust its orientation
to the winds of the spirit, even it at last began to revolve, like a
rusty windmill, so as to fill its sails in the main current of the
intellectual atmosphere. Within three or four years of its
inception, Antoine's experiment had been imitated in Germany,
England and America. The " Freie Biihne " of Berlin came
into existence in 1889, the Independent Theatre of London in
1891. Similar enterprises were set on foot in Munich and other
cities. In America several less formal experiments of a like
nature were attempted, chiefly in Boston and New York. Nor
must it be forgotten that in Paris itself the Theatre Libre did
not stand alone. Many other theatres A cole sprang up, under
such titles as " Theatre d'Art," " Theatre Moderne," " Theatre
de 1'Avenir Dramatique." The most important and least
ephemeral was the " Theatre de 1'CEuvre," founded in 1893 by
Alex. Lugne-Poe, which represented mainly, though not ex-
clusively, the symbolist reaction against naturalism.
The impulse which led to the establishment of the Th6atre
Libre was, in the first instance, entirely French. If any foreign
influence helped to shape its course, it was that of the great
Russian novelists. Tolstoi's Puissance des tenebres was the only
" exotic " play announced in Antoine's opening manifesto.
But the whole movement was soon to receive a potent stimulus
from the Norwegian poet Henrik Ibsen.
Ibsen's early romantic plays had been known in Germany
since 1875. In 1878 Pillars of Society and in 1880 A Doll's
House achieved wide popularity, and held the German stage
side by side with A Bankruptcy, by Bjornstjerne Bjornson.
But these plays had little influence on the German drama.
Their methods were, indeed, not essentially different from those
of the French school of the Second Empire, which were then
dominant in Germany as well as everywhere else. It was Ghosts
(acted in Augsburg and Meiningen 1886, in Berlin 1887) that gave
the impulse which, coalescing with the kindred impulse from
the French Theatre Libre, was destined in the course of a few
years to create a new dramatic literature in Germany. During
the middle decades of the century Germany had produced some
dramatists of solid and even remarkable talent, such as Friedrich
Hebbel, Heinrich Laube, Karl Gutzkow and Gustav Freytag.
Even the generation which held the stage after 1870, and in-
cluded Paul Heyse, Paul Lindau and Adolf Wilbrandt, with
numerous writers of light comedy and farce, such as E. Wichert,
O. Blumenthal, G. von Moser, A. L'Arronge and F. von Schon-
than, had produced a good many works of some merit. But, in
the main, French artificiality and frivolity predominated on
the German stage. In point of native talent and originality,
the Austrian popular playwright Ludwig Anzengruber was well
ahead of his North German contemporaries. It was in 1889,
with the establishment of the Berlin Freie Btihne, that the
reaction definitely set in. In Berlin, as afterwards in London,
Ghosts was the first play produced on the outpost stage, but it
was followed in Berlin by a very rapid development of native
talent. Less than a month after the performance of Ibsen's
play, Gerhart Hauptmann came to the front with Vor Son-
nenaufgang, an immature piece of almost unrelieved Zolaism,
which he soon followed up, however, with much more important
works. In Das Friedensfest (1890) and Einsame Menschen
536
DRAMA
[ENGLISH
(1891) he transferred his allegiance from Zola to Ibsen. His
true originality first manifested itself in Die Weber (1892);
and subsequently he produced plays in several different styles,
all bearing the stamp of a potent individuality. His most popular
productions have been the dramatic poems Hannele and Die
versunkene Glockc, the low-life comedy Der Biberpelz, and the
low-life tragedy Fuhrmann Henschel. Other remarkable play-
wrights belonging to the Freie Biihne group are Max Halbe
(b. 1865), author of Jugend and Mutter Erde, and Otto Erich
Hartleben (b. 1864), author of Hanna Jagert and Rosenmontag.
These young men, however, so quickly gained the ear of the
general public, that the need for a special " free stage " was no
longer felt, and the Freie Biihne, having done its work, ceased
to exist. Unlike the French Theatre Libre and the English
Independent theatre, it had been supported from the outset by
the most influential critics, and had won the day almost without
a battle. The productions of the new school soon made their
way even into some of the subventioned theatres; but it was the
unsubventioned Deutsches Theater of Berlin that most vigorously
continued the tradition of the Freie Biihne. One or two play-
wrights of the new generation, however, did not actually belong
to the Freie Biihne group. Hermann Sudermann produced his
first play, Die Ehre, in 1888, and his most famous work, Heimat,
in 1892. In him the influence of Ibsen is very clearly perceptible;
while Arthur Schnitzler of Vienna, author of Liebelei, may rather
be said to' derive his inspiration from the Parisian " new
comedy." Originality, verging sometimes on abnormality,
distinguishes the work of Frank Wedekind (b. 1864), author
of Erdgeist and Friihlingserwachen. Hugo von Hofmannsthal
(b. 1874), in his Elektra and Odipus, rehandles classic themes
in the light of modern anthropology and psychology.
The promoters of the Theatre Libre had probably never heard
of Ibsen when they established that institution, but three years
later his fame had reached France, and Les Revenants was pro-
duced by the Theatre Libre (29th May 1890). Within the next
two or three years almost all his modern plays were acted in
Paris, most of them either by the Theatre Libre or by L'CEuvre.
Close upon the heels of the Ibsen influence followed another,
less potent, but by no means negligible. The exquisite tragic
symbolism of Maurice Maeterlinck began to find numerous
admirers about 1890. In 1891 his one-act play L'Intruse was
acted; in 1893, Pelltas et Melisande. By this time, too, the
reverberation of the impulse which the Theatre Libre had given
to the Freie Biihne began to be felt in France. In 1893 Haupt-
mann's Die Weber was acted in Paris, and, being frequently
repeated, made a deep and lasting impression.
The English analogue to the Theatre Libre, the Independent
theatre, opened its first season (March 13, 1891) with a perform-
ance of Ghosts. This was not, however, the first introduction
of Ibsen to the English stage. On the 7th of June 1889 (six weeks
after the production of The Profligate) A Doll's House was acted
at the Novelty theatre, and ran for three weeks, amid a storm
of critical controversy. In the same year Pillars of Society was
presented in London. In 1891 and 1892 A Doll's House was
frequently acted; Rosmersholm was produced in 1891, and
again in 1893; in May and June 1891 Hedda Gabler had a run
of several weeks; and early in 1893 The Master Builder enjoyed a
similar passing vogue. During these years, then, Ibsen was very
much " in the air " in England, as well as in France and Germany.
The Independent theatre, in the meantime, under the manage-
ment of J. T. Grein, found but scanty material to deal with. It
presented translations of Zola's Therese Raquin, and of A Visit,
by the Danish dramatist Edward Brandes; but it brought to
the front only one English author of any note, in the person
of George Bernard Shaw, whose " didactic realistic play,"
Widowers' Houses, it produced in December 1892.
None the less is it true that the ferment of fresh energy, which
between 1887 and 1893 had created a new dramatic literature
both in France and in Germany, was distinctly felt in England as
well. England did not take at all kindly to it. The productions
of Ibsen's plays, in particular, were received with an outcry of
reprobation. A great part of this clamiur was due to sheer
misunderstanding; but some of it, no doubt, arose from genuine
and deep-seated distaste. As for the dramatists of recognized
standing, they one and all, both from policy and from conviction,
adopted a hostile attitude towards Ibsen, expressing at most
a theoretical respect overborne by practical dislike. Yet his
influence permeated the atmosphere. He had revealed possi-
bilities of technical stagecraft and psychological delineation
that, once realized, were not to be banished from the mind of
the thoughtful playwright. They haunted him in spite of
himself. Still subtler was the influence exerted over the critics
and the more intelligent public. Deeply and genuinely as many
of them disliked Ibsen's works, they found, when they returned
to the old-fashioned play, the adapted frivolity or the home-
grown sentimentalism, that they disliked this still more. On
every side, then, there was an instinctive or deliberate reaching
forward towards something new; and once again it was Pinero
who ventured the decisive step.
On the 27th of May 1893 The Second Mrs Tanqueray was
produced at the St James's theatre. With The Second Mrs
Tanqueray the English acted drama ceased to be a merely insular
product, and took rank in the literature of Europe. Here
was a play which, whatever its faults, was obviously comparable
with the plays of Dumas,of Sudermann,of Bjornson,of Echegaray.
It might be better than some of these plays, worse than others;
but it stood on the same artistic level. The fact that such a
play could not only be produced, but could brilliantly succeed,
on the London stage gave a potent stimulus to progress. It
encouraged ambition in authors, enterprise in managers. What
Hernani was to the romantic movement of the 'thirties, and
La Dame aux Camillas to the realistic movement of the 'fifties,
The Second Mrs Tanqueray was to the movement of the 'nineties
towards the serious stage-portraiture of English social life.
All the forces which we have been tracing Robertsonian realism
of externals, the leisure for thought and experiment involved
in vastly improved financial conditions, the substitution in France
of a simpler, subtler technique for the outworn artifices of the
Scribe school, and the electric thrill communicated to the whole
theatrical life of Europe by contact with the genius of Ibsen
all these slowly converging forces coalesced to produce, in The
Second Mrs Tanqueray, an epoch-marking play.
Pinero followed up Mrs Tanqueray with a remarkable series
of plays The Notorious Mrs Ebbsmith, The Benefit of the Doubt,
The Princess and the Butterfly, Trelawny of the " Wells," The
Gay Lord Quex, Iris, Letty, His House in Order and The Thunder-
bolt all of which show marked originality of conception and
intellectual force. In January 1893 Charles Wyndham initiated
a new policy at the Criterion theatre, and produced an original
play, The Bauble-Shop, by Henry Arthur Jones. It belonged
very distinctly to the pre-Tanqueray order of things; but the
same author's The Case of Rebellious Susan, in the following year,
showed an almost startlingly sudden access of talent, which was
well maintained in such later works as Michael and his Lost
Angel (1896), that admirable comedy The Liars (1897), and
Mrs Dane's Defence (1900). Sydney Grundy produced after
1893 by far his most important original works, The Greatest of
These (1896) and The Debt of Honour (1900). R. C. Carton,
breaking away from the somewhat laboured sentimentalism of his
earlier manner, produced several light comedies of thoroughly
original humour and of excellent literary workmanship Lord
and Lady Algy, Wheels within Wheels, Lady Huntworlh's Ex-
periment, Mr Hopkinson and Mr Preedy and the Countess.
Haddon Chambers, in The Tyranny of Tears (1899) and The
Awakening (1901), produced two plays of a merit scarcely fore-
shadowed in his earlier efforts.
What was of more importance, a new generation of play-
wrights came to the front. Its most notable representatives
were J. M. Barrie, who displayed his inexhaustible gift of humor-
ous observation and invention in Quality Street (1902), The
Admirable Crichton (1903), Little Mary (1903), Peter Pan (1904),
Alice Sit-by-the-Fire (1905) and What Every Woman Knows
(1908); Mrs Craigie (" John Oliver Hobbes "), who produced in
The Ambassador (1898) a comedy of fine accomplishment;
ENGLISH]
DRAMA
537
and H. V. Esmond, Alfred Sutro, Hubert Henry Davies, W. S.
Maugham, Rudolf Besier, Roy Horniman and J. B. Fagan.
Meanwhile, the efforts to relieve the drama from the pressure
of the long-run system had not been confined to the Independent
theatre. Several other enterprises of a like nature had proved
more or less short-lived; but the Stage Society, founded in 1900,
was conducted with more energy and perseverance, and became
a real force in the dramatic world. After two seasons devoted
mainly to Bernard Shaw, Ibsen, Maeterlinck and Hauptmann,
it produced in its third season The Marrying of Ann Leele, by
Granville Barker (b. 1877), who had developed in its service his
remarkable gifts as a producer of plays. A year or two later,
Barker staged for another organization, the New Century
theatre, Professor Gilbert Murray's rendering of the Hippolytus
of Euripides; and it was partly the success of this production
that suggested the Vedrenne-Barker partnership at the Court
theatre, which, between 1904 and 1907, gave an extraordinary im-
pulse to the intellectual life of the theatre. Adopting the " short-
run " system, as a compromise between the long-run and the
repertory systems, the Vedrenne-Barker management made the
plays of Bernard Shaw (both old and new) for the first time really
.popular. Of the plays already published You Never Can Tell
and Man and Superman were the most successful; of the new
plays, John Bull's Other Island, Major Barbara and The Doctor's
Dilemma. But though Shaw was the mainstay of the enter-
prise, it gave opportunities to several other writers, the most
notable being John Galsworthy (b. 1867), author of The Silver
Box and Strife, St John Hankin (1869-1909), author of The
Return of the Prodigal and The Charity that began at Home, and
Granville Barker himself, whose plays The Voysey Inheritance
and Waste (1907) were among the most important products of
this movement. It should also be noted that the production
of the Hippolylus was followed up by the production of the
Trojan Women, the Electra and the Medea of Euripides, all
translated by Gilbert Murray.
The impulse to which were due the Independent theatre, the
Stage Society and the Vedrenne-Barker management, combined
with local influences to bring about the foundation in Dublin
of the Irish National theatre. Its moving spirit was the poet
W. B. Yeats (b. 1865), who wrote for it Cathleen-ni-Hoolihan, The
Hour-Glass, The King's Threshold and one or two other plays.
Lady Gregory, Padraic Collum, Boyle and other authors also
contributed to the repertory of this admirable little theatre; but
its most notable products were the plays of J. M. Synge (1871-
1909), whose Riders to the Sea, Well of the Saints and Playboy
of the Western World showed a fine and original dramatic faculty
combined with extraordinary beauty of style.
Both in Manchester and in Glasgow endeavours have been
made, with considerable success, to counteract the evils of the
touring system, by the establishment of resident companies
acting the better class of modern plays on a " short-run " plan,
similar to that of the Vedrenne-Barker management. The
Manchester enterprise was to some extent subsidized by Miss E.
Horniman, and may therefore claim to be the first endowed
theatre in England. The need for endowment on a much larger
scale was, however, strongly advocated in the early years of the
zoth century by the more progressive supporters of English
drama, and in 1908 found a place in the scheme for a Shakespeare
National theatre, which was then superimposed on the earlier
proposal for a memorial commemorating -the Shakespeare
tercentenaiy, organized by an influential committee under the
chairmanship of the Lord Mayor of London. The scheme
involved the raising of 500,000, half to be devoted to the
requisite site and building, while the remainder would be in-
vested so as to furnish an annual subvention.
It remains to say a few words of the English literary drama,
as opposed to the acted drama. The two classes are not nearly
so distinct as they once were; but plays continue to be produced
from time to time which are wholly unfitted for the theatre,
and others which, though they may be experimentally placed
on the stage, make their appeal rather to the reading public.
Tennyson had essayed in his old age an art which is scarcely
to be mastered after the energy of youth has passed. He con-
tinued to the last to occupy himself more or less with drama,
and all his plays, except Harold, found their way to the stage.
The Cup and Becket, as we have seen, met with a certain success,
but The Promise of May (1882), an essay in contemporary drama,
was a disastrous failure, while The Falcon (1879) and The
Foresters (acted by an American company in 189.3) made little
impression. Lord Tennyson was certainly not lacking in dramatic
faculty, but he worked in an outworn form which he had no
longer the strength to renovate. Swinburne continued now and
then to cast his creations in the dramatic mould, but it cannot
be said that his dramas attained either the vitality or the popu-
larity of his lyrical poems. Mary Stuart (1881) brought his
Marian trilogy to a close. In Locrine he produced a tragedy in
heroic couplets a thing probably unattempted since the age
of Dryden. The Sisters is a tragedy of modern date with a
medieval drama inserted by way of interlude. Rosamund,
Queen of the Lombards (1899), perhaps approached more nearly
than any of his former works to the concentration essential to
drama. It may be doubted, however, whether his copious and
ebullient style could ever really subject itself to the trammels ot
dramatic form. Of other dramas on the Elizabethan model,
the most notable, perhaps, were the works of two ladies who
adopt the pseudonym of " Michael Field "; Callirrhoe (1884),
Brutus Ultor (1887), and many other dramas, show considerable
power of imagination and expression, but are burdened by a
deliberate artificiality both of technique and style. Alfred Austin
put forth several volumes in dramatic form, such as Savonarola
(1881), Prince Lucifer (1887), England's Darling (1896), Flodden
Field (1905). They are laudable in intention and fluent in
utterance. Notable additions to the purely literary drama were
made by Robert Bridges in his Prometheus (1883), Nero (1885),
The Feast of Bacchus (1889), and other .solid plays in verse, full
of science and skill, but less charming than his lyrical poems.
Sir Lewis Morris made a dramatic experiment in Gycia, but was
not encouraged to repeat it.
From the outset of his career, John Davidson (1857-1909) was
haunted by the conviction that he was a born dramatist ; but
his earlier plays, such as Smith: a Tragedy (1886), Bruce: a
Chronicle Play (1884) and Scaramouch in Naxos (1888), contained
more poetry than drama; and his later pieces, such as Self's
the Man (1901), The Theatrocrat (1905) and the Triumph of
Mammon (1907), showed a species of turbulent imagination,
but became more and more fantastic and impracticable.
Stephen Phillips (b. 1867), on the other hand, having had some
experience as an actor, wrote always with the stage in view.
In his first play, Paolo and Francesca (1899; produced in 1902),
he succeeded in combining great beauty of diction with intense
dramatic power and vitality. The same may be said of Herod
(1900); but in Ulysses (1902) and Nero (1906) a great falling-
off in constructive power was only partially redeemed by the
fine inspiration of individual passages.
The collaboration of Robert Louis Stevenson with William
Ernest Henley produced a short series of interesting experiments
in drama, two of which, Beau Austin (1883) and Admiral Guinea
(1884), had more than a merely experimental value. The
former was an emotional comedy, treating with rare distinction
of touch a difficult, almost an impossible, subject; the latter was
a nautical melodrama, raised by force of imagination and diction
into the region of literature. Imcomparably the most important
of recent additions to the literary drama is Thomas Hardy's
vast panorama of the Napoleonic wars, entitled The Dynasts
(1904-1908). It is rather an epic in dialogue than a play; but
however we may classify it we cannot but recognize its extra-
ordinary intellectual and imaginative powers.
United States. American dramatists have shown on their
own account a progressive tendency, quite as marked as that
which we have been tracing in England. Down to about 1800
the influence of France had been even more predominant in
America than in England. The only American dramatist of
eminence, Bronson Howard (1842-1908), was a disciple, though
a very able one, of the French school. A certain stirring of native
DRAMA
[GERMAN
originality manifested itself during the 'eighties, when a series
of semi-improvised farces, associated with the names of two
actor-managers, Harrigan and Hart, depicted low life in New
York with real observation, though in a crude and formless
manner. About the same time a native style of popular melo-
drama began to make its appearance a play of conventional and
negligible plot, which attracted by reason of one or more faith-
fully observed character-types, generally taken from country
life. The Old Homestead, written by Denman Thompson, who
himself acted in it, was the most popular play of this class.
Rude as it was, it distinctly foreshadowed that faithfulness
to the external aspects, at any rate, of everyday life, in which
lies the strength of the native American drama. It was at a
sort of free theatre in Boston that James A. Herne (1840-1901)
produced in 1891 his realistic drama of modern life, Margaret
Fleming, which did a great deal to awaken the interest of literary
America in the theatrical movement. Herne, an actor and a
most accomplished stage-manager, next produced a drama of
rural life in New England, Shore Acres (1892), which made an
immense popular success. It was a play of the Old Homestead
type, but very much more coherent and artistic. His next
play, Griffith Davenport (1898), founded on a novel, was a drama
of life in Virginia during the Civil War, admirable in its strength
and quiet sincerity; while in his last work, Sag Harbour (1900),
Herne returned to the study of rustic character, this time in
Long Island. Herne showed human nature in its more obvious
and straightforward aspects, making no attempt at psychological
subtlety; but within his own limits he was an admirable crafts-
man. The same preoccupation with local colour is manifest in the
plays of Augustus M. Thomas, a writer of genuine humour and
originality. His localism announces itself in the very titles of
his most popular plays Alabama, In Mizznura, Arizona. He
also made a striking success in The Witching Hour, a play dealing
with the phenomena of hypnotism and suggestion. Clyde Fitch
(1865-1909), an immensely prolific playwright of indubitable abil-
ity, after becoming known by some experiments in quasi-historic
drama (notably Nathan Hale, 1898; Barbara Frietchie, 1899),
devoted himself mainly to social drama on the French model,
in which his most notable efforts have been The Climbers (1900),
The Truth (1906), and The Girl with the Green Eyes (1902). In
popular drama, with elaborate scenic illustration, William
Gillette (b. 1856), David Belasco (b. 1859) and Charles Klein
(b. 1867) have done notable work. William Vaughn Moody
(b. 1869) produced in The Great Divide (1907) a play of somewhat
higher artistic pretensions; Eugene Walter in Paid in Full
(1908) and The Easiest Way (1909) dealt vigorously with char-
acteristic themes of modern life; and Edward Sheldon produced in
Salvation Nell a slum drama of very striking realism. The poetic
side of drama was mainly represented by Percy Mackaye (b.
1875), whose Jeanne A' Arc (1006) and Sappho and Phaon showed
a high ambition and no small literary power. On the whole it
may be said that, though the financial conditions of the American
stage are even more unfortunate than those which prevail in
England, they have failed to check a very strong movement
towards nationalism in drama. Season by season, America
writes more of her own plays, good or bad, and becomes less
dependent on imported work, whether French or English.
(W. A.)
(g) German Drama.
The history of the German drama differs widely from that
of the English, though a close contact is observable between
them at an early point, and again at relatively recent points, in
their annals. The dramatic literature of Germany, though in its
beginnings intimately connected with the great national move-
ment of the Reformation, soon devoted its efforts to a sterile
imitation of foreign models; while the popular stage, persistently
suiting itself to a robust but gross taste, likewise largely due to
the influence of foreign examples, seemed destined to a hopeless
decay. The literary and the acted drama were thus estranged
from one another during a period of extraordinary length;
nor was it till the middle of the i8th century that, with the
opening of a more hopeful era for the life and literature of the
nation, the reunion of dramatic literature and the stage began to
accomplish itself. Before the end of the same century the
progress of the German drama in its turn began to influence
that of other nations, and by the widely comprehensive character
of its literature, as well as by the activity of its stage, to invite a
steadily increasing interest.
It should be premised that in its beginnings the modern
German drama might have seemed likely to be influenced even
more largely than the English or the French by the
copious imitation of classical models which marked J* e MJJ*
the periods of the Renaissance and the Reformation; aermaay.
but here the impulse of originality was wanting to
bring about a speedy and gradually a complete emancipation,
and imitative reproduction continued in an all but endless
series. The first German (and indeed the earliest transalpine)
writer to follow in the footsteps of the modern Latin drama of
the Italians was the famous Strassburg humanist Jacob
Wimpheling (1450-1528), whose comedy of Stylpho (1480), an
attack upon the ignorance of the pluralist beneficed clergy,
marks a kind of epoch in the history of German dramatic effort.
It was succeeded by many other Latin plays of various kinds,
among which may be mentioned J. Kerckmeister's Codrus (1485),
satirizing pedantic schoolmasters; a series of historical dramas
in a moralizing vein, partly on the Turkish peril, as well as of
comedies, by Jacob Locher (1471-1528); two plays by the great
Johann Reuchlin, of which the so-called Henno went through
more than thirty editions; and the Ludus Dianae, with another
play likewise in honour of the emperor Maximilian I., by the
celebrated Viennese scholar Conrad Celtes(i459-i 508). Sebastian
Brant's Hercules in Bivio (1512) is lost; but Wilibald Pirck-
heimer's Eckius dedolatus (1520) survives as a dramatic contribu-
tion to Luther's controversy with one of his most active opponents.
The Acolastus (1525) of W. Gnaphaeus (alias Fullonius, his
native name was de Voider) should also be mentioned in the
present connexion, as, though a Dutchman by birth, he spent
most of his literary life in Germany. This Terentian version of
the parable of the Prodigal Son was printed in an almost endless
number of editions, as well as in various versions in modern
tongues, among which reference has already been made to the
English, for the use of schools, by J. Palsgrave (1540). Macro-
pedius (Langhveldt) belongs wholly to the Low Countries. In
Germany the stream of thesfe compositions continued to flow
almost without abatement throughout the earlier half of the
1 6th century; but in the days of the Reformation it takes a
turn to scriptural subjects, and during the latter part of the
century remains on the whole faithful to this preference. 1 These
Latin plays may be called school-dramas in the most .precise
sense; for they were both performed in the schools and read
in class with commentaries specially composed for them; nor
was it except very reluctantly that in this age the vernacular
drama was allowed to intrude into scholastic circles. It should
be noticed that the Jesuit order, which afterwards proved so
keenly alive to the influence which dramatic per-
r ..u it* 1 J I Tlle Jesuit
formances exercise over the youthful mind, only dra/na .
very gradually abandoned the principle, formally
sanctioned in their Ratio studiorum, that the acting of plays
(these being always in the Latin tongue) should only rarely be
permitted in their seminaries. The flourishing period of the
Jesuit drama begins with the spread of the order in the west
and south-west of the Empire in the last decade of the i6th
century, and then continues, through the vicissitudes of good
and evil, with a curious intermixture of Latin and German
plays, during the whole of the i7th and the better part of the
1 8th. These productions, which ranged in their subjects from
biblical and classical story to themes of contemporary history
(such as the relief of Vienna by Sobiesky and the peace of Rys-
wick), seem generally to bear the mark of their authorship that
of teachers appointed by their superiors to execute this among
other tasks allotted to them; but, as it seems unnecessary to
return to this special growth, it may be added that the
*A drama entitled Speculum vitae humanae is mentioned as
produced by Archduke Ferdinand of the Tirol in 1584.
GERMAN)
DRAMA
539
extraordinary productiveness of the Jesuit dramatists, and the
steadiness of self-repetition which is equally characteristic of
them, should warn us against underrating its influence upon a
considerable proportion of the nation's educational life during a
long succession of generations.
While the scholars of the German Renaissance, who became
so largely the agents of the Reformation, eagerly dramatized
Begin- scriptural subjects in the Latin, and sometimes (as in
"/"/te the case of Luther ' s P rot ege P. Rebhun 1 ) in the native
vernacular tongue, the same influence made itself felt in another
Herman sphere of dramatic activity. Towards the close of the
drama. middle ages, as has been seen, dramatic performances
had in Germany, as in England, largely fallen into the hands of
the civic gilds, and the composition of plays was more especially
cultivated by the master-singers of Nuremberg and other towns.
It was thus that, under the influence of the Reformation, and of
the impulse given by Luther and others to the use of High
German as the popular literary tongue, Hans Sachs, the immortal
shoemaker of Nuremberg, seemed destined to become
the father of the popular German drama. In his
plays, " spiritual," " secular," and Fastnochlsspiele
alike, the interest indeed lies in the dialogue rather than in the
action, nor do they display any attempt at development of
character. In their subjects, whether derived from Scripture
or from popular legend and fiction, 2 there is no novelty, and in
their treatment no originality. But the healthy vigour and
fresh humour of this marvellously fertile author, and his innate
sympathy with the views and sentiments of the burgher class
to which he belonged, were elements of 'genuine promise a
promise which the event was signally to disappoint. Though
the manner of Hans Sachs found a few followers, and is recogniz-
able in the German popular drama even of the beginning of the
1 7th century, the literature of the Reformation, of which his
works may claim to form part, was soon absorbed in labours of
a very different kind. The stage, after admitting novelties
introduced from Italy or (under Jesuit supervision) from Spain,
was subjected to another and enduring influence. Among the
foreign actors of various nations who flitted through the in-
numerable courts of the empire, or found a temporary
home there, special prominence was acquired, towards
comedians, the close of the i6th and in the early years of the lyth
century, by the " English comedians," who appeared
at Cassel, Wolfenbuttel, Berlin, Dresden, Cologne, &c. Through
these players a number of early English dramas found their way
into Germany, where they were performed in more or less
imperfect versions, and called forth imitations by native authors.
Duke Henry Julius of Brunswick-Liineburg 3 (1564-1613) and
Jacob Ayrer (a citizen of Nuremberg, where he died, 1605)
represent the endeavours of the early German drama to suit its
still uncouth forms to themes suggested by English examoles;
and in their works, and in those of contemporary playwrights,
there reappears no small part of what we may conclude to have
been the " English comedians' " repertoire.* (The converse
influence of German themes brought home with them by the
English actors, or set in motion by their strolling ubiquity,
cannot have been equal in extent, though Shakespeare himself
may have derived the idea of one of his plots 5 from such a
source). But, though welcome to both princes and people, the
exertions of these foreign comedians, and of the native imitators
who soon arose in the earliest professional companies of actors
known in Germany, instead of bringing about a union between
the stage and literature, led to a directly opposite result. The
popularity of these strollers was owing partly to" the (very real)
blood and other horrors with which their plays were deluged,
partly to the buffoonery with which they seasoned, and the
various tricks and feats with which they diversified, their per-
1 Susanna (Geistliches Spiel) (1536), &c. Sixt Birk also brought
put a play on the story of Susanna, which he had previously treated
in a Latin form, in the vernacular (1552).
2 Siegfried ; Eulenspiegel, &c.
8 Susanna ; Vincentius Ladislaus, &c.
4 Mahomet ; Edward HI. ; Hamlet ; Romeo and Juliet, &c.
' The Tempest (Ayrer, Comedia v. d. schonen Sidea).
literature.
formances. The representatives of the English clowns had
learnt much on their way from their brethren in the Netherlands,
where in this period the art of grotesque acting greatly flourished.
Nor were the aids of other arts neglected, to this day in Germany
professors of the " equestrian drama " are known by the popular
appellation of " English riders." From these true descendants
of the mimes, then, the professional actors in Germany inherited
a variety of tricks and traditions; and soon the favourite
figures of the popular comic stage became conventional, and
were stereotyped by the use of masks. Among these an ac-
knowledged supremacy was acquired by the native Hans Wurst
(Jack Pudding) of whose name Luther disavowed the invention,
and who is known already to Hans Sachs the privileged buffoon,
and for a long series of generations the real lord and master, of
the German stage. If that stage, with its grossness and ribaldry,
seemed likely to become permanently estranged from ^ ..
the tastes and sympathies of the educated classes, between
the fault was by no means entirely its own and that the stage
of its patron the populace. The times were evil times
for a national effort of any kind; and poetic literature
was in all its branches passing into the hands of scholars who
were often pedants, and whose language was a jargon of learned
affectations. Thus things continued, till the awful visitation
of the Thirty Years' War cast a general blight upon the national
life, and the traditions of the popular theatre were left to the
guardianship of the marionettes (Puppempiele)\
When, in the midst of that war, German poets once more
began to essay the dramatic form, the national drama was left
outside their range of vision. M. Opitz, who holds an The
honoured place in the history of the German language literary
and literature, in this branch of his labours contented drama ot
himself with translation's of classical dramas and of
Italian pastorals among the latter one of Rinuccini's
Daphne, with which the history of the opera in Germany begins.
A. Gryphius, though as a comic dramatist lacking neither vigour
nor variety, and acquainted with Shakespearian * as well as Latin
and Italian examples, chiefly devoted himself to the imitation
of Latin, earlier French, and Dutch tragedy, the rhetorical
dialogue of which he effectively reproduced in the Alexandrine
metre. 7 Neither the turgid dramas of D. C. von Lohenstein
(1665-1684), for whose Cleopatra the honour of having been the
first German tragedy has been claimed, nor even the much
healthier comedies of Chr. Weise (1642-1708) were brought upon
the stage; while the religious plays of J. Klay (1616-1656) are
mere recitations connected with the Italian growth of the
oratorio. The frigid allegories commemorative of contemporary
events, with which the learned from time to time supplied the
theatre, and the pastoral dramas with which the idyllic poets of
Nuremberg " the shepherds of the Pegnitz " after the close of
the war gratified the peaceful longings of their fellow-citizens,
were alike mere scholastic efforts. These indeed continued in
the universities and gymnasia to keep alive the love of both
dramatic composition and dramatic representation, and to
encourage the theatrical taste which led so many students into
the professional companies. But neither these dramatic exercises
nor the ludi Caesarei in which the Jesuits at Vienna revived
the pomp and pageantry, and the mixture of classical and
Christian symbolism, of the Italian Renaissance, had any in-
fluence upon the progress of the popular drama.
The history of the German stage remains to about the second
decennium of the i8th century one of the most melancholy,
as it is in its way one of the most instructive, chapters
of theatrical history. Ignored by the world of letters, ** s ' a **
the actors in return deliberately sought to emancipate reform.
their art from all dependence upon literary material.
Improvisation reigned supreme, not only in farce,where Hans
Wurst, with the aid of Italian examples, never ceased to charm
' Herr Peter Squenz (Pyramus and Thisbe); Horribilicribrifax
(Pistol?).
7 His son, Christian Gryphius, was author of a curious dramatic
summary^ (or revue) of German history, both literary and political ;
but the title of this school-drama is far too long for quotation.
540
DRAMA
[GERMAN
his public, but hi the serious drama likewise (in which, however,
he also played his part) in those Haupt- und Staatsaclionen (high-
matter-of-state-dramas), the plots of which were taken from
the old stores of the English comedians, from the religious drama
and its sources, and from the profane history of all times. The
hero of this period is " Magister " J. Velthen (or Veltheim),
who at the head of a company of players for a time entered the
service of the Saxon court, and, by reproducing comedies of
Moliere and other writers, sought to restrain the licence which he
had himself carried beyond all earlier precedent, but who had
to fall back into the old ways and the old life. His career exhibits
the climax of the efforts of the art of acting to stand alone;
after his death (c. 1693) chaos ensues. The strolling companies,
which now included actresses, continued to foster the popular
love of the stage, and even under its most degraded form to uphold
its national character against the rivalry of the opera, and that of
the Italian commedia dell' arte. From the latter was borrowed
Harlequin, with whom Hans Wurst was blended, and who became
a standing figure in every kind of popular play. 1 He established
his sway more especially at Vienna, where from about 1712 the
first permanent German theatre was maintained. But for the
actors in general there was little permanence, and amidst miseries
of all sorts, and under the growing ban of clerical intolerance,
the popular stage seemed destined to hopeless decay. A certain
vitality of growth seems, under clerical guidance, to have
characterized the plays of the people in Bavaria and parts of
Austria.
The first endeavours to reform what had thus apparently
passed beyond all reach of recovery were neither wholly nor
generally successful; but this does not diminish the
Neuber, honour due to two names which should never be
dottsched, mentioned without respect in connexion with the
and the history of the drama. Friederike Karoline Neuber's
(1697-1 760) biography is the story of a long-continued
effort which, notwithstanding errors and weaknesses,
and though, so far as her personal fortunes were concerned,
it ended in failure, may almost be described as heroic. As direct-
ress of a company of actors which from 1727 had its headquarters
at Leipzig (hence the new school of acting is called the Leipzig
school), she resolved to put an end to the formlessness of the
existing stage, to separate tragedy and comedy, and to extinguish
Harlequin. In this endeavour she was supported by the Leipzig
professor J. Chr. Gottsched, who induced her to establish French
tragedy and comedy as the sole models of the regular drama.
Literature and the stage thus for the first time joined hands,
and no temporary mischance or personal misunderstanding can
obscure the enduring significance of the union. Not only were the
abuses of a century swept away from a representative theatre,
but a large number of literary works, designed for the stage, were
produced on it. It is true that they were but versions or imita-
tions from the French (or in the case of Gottsched's Dying Cato
from the French and English), 2 and that at the moment of the
regeneration of the German drama new fetters were thus imposed
upon it, and upon the art of acting at the same time. But the
impulse had been given, and the beginning made. On the one
hand, men of letters began to subject their dramatic compositions
to the test of performance; the tragedies and comedies of J. E.
Schlegel, the artificial and sentimental comedies of Chr. F.
Gellert and others, together with the vigorous popular comedies
of the Danish dramatist Holberg, were brought into competition
with translations from the French. On the other hand, the
gj^ Leipzig school exercised a continuous effect upon the
progress of the art of acting, and before long K. Ekhof
began a career which made his art a fit subject for the critical
study of scholars, and his profession one to be esteemed by
honourable men.
Among the authors contributing to Mme. Neuber's Leipzig
enterprise had been a young student destined to complete, after
One of his aliases was Pickelharnig. In 1702 the electress
Sophia is found requesting Leibniz to see whether a more satis-
factory specimen of this class cannot be procured from Berlin than
is at present to be found at Hanover.
2 Deschamps and Addison.
a very different fashion and with very different aims, the work
which she and Gottsched had begun. The critical genius of G.
E. Lessing is peerless in its comprehensiveness, as in its Lessia
keenness and depth; but if there was any branch of
literature and art which by study and practice he made pre-
eminently his own, it was that of the drama. As bearing upon
the progress of the German theatre, his services to its literature,
both critical and creative, can only be described as inestimable.
The Hamburgische Dramaturgic, a series of criticisms of plays
and (in its earlier numbers) of actors, was undertaken in further-
ance of the attempt to establish at Hamburg the first national
German theatre (1767-1769). This fact alone would invest
these papers with a high significance; for, though the theatrical
enterprise proved abortive, it established the principle upon
which the progress of the theatre in all countries depends that
for the dramatic art the immediate theatrical public is no
sufficient court of appeal. But the direct effect of the Drama-
turgie was to complete the task which Lessing had in previous
writings begun, and to overthrow the dominion of the arbitrary
French rules and the French models established by Gottsched.
Lessing vindicated its real laws to the drama, made clear the
difference between the Greeks and their would-be representatives,
and established the claims of Shakespeare as the modern master
of both tragedy and comedy. His own dramatic productivity
was cautious, tentative, progressive. His first step was, by his
Miss Sara Sampson (1755), to oppose the realism of the English
domestic drama to the artificiality of the accepted French
models, in the forms of which Chr. F. Weisse (1726-1804) was
seeking to treat the subjects of Shakespearian plays. 3 Then,
in his Minna von Barnhelm (1767), which owed something to
Farquhar, he essayed a national comedy drawn from real life,
and appealing to patriotic sentiments as well as to broad human
sympathies. It was written in prose (like Miss Sara Sampson),
but in form held a judicious mean between French and English
examples.
The note sounded by the criticisms of Lessing met with a
ready response, and the productivity displayed by the nascent
dramatic literature of Germany is astonishing, both e^,,^,,/
in the efforts inspired by his teachings and in those the theatre
which continued to controvert or which aspired end of
to transcend them. On the stage, Harlequin and utenture -
his surroundings proved by no means easy to suppress,
more especially at Vienna, the favourite home of frivolous
amusement; but even here a reform was gradually effected,
and, under the intelligent rule of the emperor Joseph IL, a
national stage grew into being. The mantle of Ekhof fell upon
the shoulders of his eager younger rival, F. L. Schroder, who
was the first to domesticate Shakespeare upon the German stage.
In dramatic literature few of Lessing's earlier contemporaries
produced any works of permanent value, unless the religious
dramas of F. G. Klopstock a species in which he had been
preceded by J. J. Bodmer and the patriotic Bardielten of the
same author be excepted. S. Gessner, J. W. L. Gleim, and G. K.
Pfeffel (1736-1809) composed pastoral plays. But a far more
potent stimulus prompted the efforts of the younger generation.
The translation of Shakespeare, begun in 1762 by C. M. Wieland,
whose own plays possess no special significance, and completed
in 1775 by Eschenburg, which furnished the text for many of
Lessing's criticisms, helps to mark an epoch in German literature.
Under the influence of Shakespeare, or of their conceptions of
his genius, arose a youthful group of writers who, while wor-
shipping their idol as the representative of nature, displayed but
slight anxiety to harmonize their imitations of him with the
demands of art. The notorious Ugolinooi H.W.vonGerstenberg
seemed a premonitory sign that the coming flood might merely
rush back to the extravagances and horrors of the old popular
stage; and it was with a sense of this danger in prospect that
Lessing in his third important drama, the prose tragedy Emilia
Galotti (1772), set the example of a work of incomparable nicety
in its adaptation of means to end. But successful as it proved,
it could not stay the excesses of the Sturrp, und Drang period
' Richard III. ; Romeo and Juliet.
GERMAN]
DRAMA
which now set in. Lessing's last drama, Nathan der Weise
(1779), was not measured to the standard of the contemporary
stage; but it was to exercise its influence in the progress of
time not only by causing a reaction in tragedy from prose to
blank verse (first essayed in J. W. von Brawe's Brutus, 1770),
but by ennobling and elevating by its moral and intel-
lectual grandeur the branch of literature to which in form it
belongs.
Meanwhile the young geniuses of the Sturm und Drang had
gone forth, as worshippers rather than followers of Shakespeare,
to conquer new worlds. The name of this group of
. writers, more remarkable for their collective significance
jturtn uno f ......... . . .
Drang. than lor their individual achievements, was derived
from a drama by one of the most prolific of their
number, M. F. von Klinger; 1 other members of the fraternity
were J. A. Leisewitz 2 (1752-1806), M. R. Lenz 3 and F. Miiller 4
the " painter." The youthful genius of the greatest of German
poets was itself under the influences of this period, when it
produced the first of its masterpieces. But Goethe's Gotz von
Berlichingen (1773), both by the choice and treatment of its
national theme, and by the incomparable freshness and originality
of its style, holds a position of its own in German dramatic
literature. Though its defiant irregularity of form prevented its
complete success upon the stage, yet its influence is far from
being represented by the series of mostly feeble imitations to
which it gave rise. The RUterdramen (plays of chivalry) had
their day like similar fashions in drama or romance; but the
permanent effect of Gotz was, that it crushed as with an iron
hand the last remnants of theatrical conventionality (those of
costume and scenery included), and extinguished with them
the lingering respect for rules and traditions of dramatic com-
position which even Lessing had treated with consideration.
Its highest significance, however, lies in its having been the first
great dramatic work of a great national poet, and having
definitively associated the national drama with the poetic glories
of the national literature.
Thus, in the classical period of that literature, of which Goethe
and Schiller were the ruling stars, the drama had a full share
of the loftiest of its achievements. Of these, the
dramatic works of Goethe vary so widely in form and
character, and connect themselves so intimately with the
different phases of the development of his own self-directed
poetic genius, that it was impossible for any of them to become
the starting-points of any general growths in the history of the
German drama. His way of composition was, moreover, so
peculiar to himself conception often preceding execution by
many years, part being added to part under the influence of
new sentiments and ideas and views of art, flexibly followed by
changes of form that the history of his dramas cannot be
severed from his general poetic and personal biography. His
Clavigo and Stella, which succeeded Gotz, are domestic dramas
in prose; but neither by these, nor by the series of charming
pastorals and operas which he composed for the Weimar court,
could any influence be exercised upon the progress of the national
drama. In the first conception of his Faust, he had indeed
sought the suggestion of his theme partly in popular legend,
partly in a domestic motive familiar to the authors of the Sturm
und Drang (the story of Gretchen); the later additions to the
First Part, and the Second Part generally, are the results of
metaphysical and critical studies and meditations belonging
to wholly different spheres of thought and experience. The
dramatic unity of the whole is thus, at the most, external only;
and the standard of judgment to be applied to this wondrous
poem is not one of dramatic criticism. Egmont, originally
designed as a companion to Gotz, was not completed till many
years later; there are few dramas more effective in parts, but
the idea of a historic play is lost in the elaboration of the most
graceful of love episodes. In Iphigenia and Tasso, Goethe
exhibited the perfection of form of which his classical period had
Goethe.
1 Die Zwillinge (The Twins) ; Die Soldaten, &c.
2 Julius von Tarent.
* Der Hofmeister (The Governor), &c.
1 Genoveva, &c.
enabled him to acquire the mastery; but the sphere of the
action of the former (perfect though it is as a dramatic action) ,
and the nature of that of the latter, are equally remote from
the demands of the popular stage. Schiller's genius, sci, IU g r
unlike Goethe's, was naturally and consistently suited
to the claims of .the theatre. His juvenile works, The Robbers,
Fiesco, Kabale und Liebe, vibrating under the influence of an
age of social revolution, combined in their prose form the truthful
expression of passion with a considerable admixture of extra-
vagance. But, with true insight into the demands of his art,
and with unequalled single-mindedness and self-devotion to it,
Schiller gradually emancipated -himself from his earlier style;
and with his earliest tragedy in verse, Don Carlos, the first period
of his dramatic authorship ends, and the promise of the second
announces itself. The works which belong to this from the
Wallenstein trilogy to Tell are the acknowledged masterpieces
of the German poetic drama, treating historic themes recon-
structed by conscious dramatic workmanship, and clothing their
dialogue in a noble vestment of rhetorical verse. The plays of
Schiller are the living embodiment of the theory of tragedy
elaborated by Hegel, according to which its proper theme is the
divine, or, in other words, the moving ethical, element in human
action. In one of his later plays, The Bride of Messina, Schiller
attempted a new use of the chorus of Greek tragedy; but the
endeavour was a splendid error, and destined to exercise no
lasting effect. The reaction against Schiller's ascendancy began
with writers who could not reconcile themselves with the cos-
mopolitan and non-national elements in his genius, and is still
represented by eminent critics; but the future must be left to
settle the contention.
Schiller's later dramas had gradually conquered the stage,
over which his juvenile works had in this time triumphantly
passed, but on which his Don Carlos had met with a
cold welcome. For a long time, however, its favourites T * e alar
were authors of a very different order, who suited stage.
themselves to the demands of a public tolerably in-
different to the literary progress of the drama. After popular
tastes had oscillated between the imitators of Gotz and those of
Emilia Galotti, they entered into a more settled phase, as the
establishment of standing theatres at the courts and in the large
towns increased the demand for good " acting " plays. Famous
actors, such as Schroder and A. W. Iffland, sought by translations
or compositions of their own to meet the popular likings, which
largely took the direction of that irrepressible favourite of
theatrical audiences, the sentimental domestic drama. 5 But the
most successful purveyor of such wares was an author who,
though not himself an actor, understood the theatre with a
professional instinct August von Kotzebue. His productivity
ranged from the domestic drama and comedy of all kinds to
attempts to rival Schiller and Shakespeare in verse; and though
his popularity (which ultimately proved his doom) brought
upon him the bitterest attacks of the romantic school and other
literary authorities, his self-conceit is not astonishing, and the
time has come for saying that there is some exaggeration in
the contempt which has been lavished upon him by posterity. 6
Nor should it be forgotten that German literature had so far
failed to furnish the comic stage with any successors to Minna
von Barnhelm; for Goethe's efforts to dramatize characteristic
events or figures of the Revolutionary age 7 must be dismissed
as failures, not from a theatrical point of view only. The joint
efforts of Goethe and Schiller for the Weimar stage, important in
many respects for the history of the German drama, at the same
time reveal the want of a national dramatic literature sufficient
5 Inland's best play is Die Jdger (1785), which recently still held
the stage. From Mannheim he in 1796 passed to Berlin by desire
of King Frederick William II., who thus atoned for the hardships
which he had allowed the pietistic tyranny of his minister Wollner
to inflict upon the Prussian stage as a whole.
6 Die deutschen Kleinstddter is his most celebrated comedy and
Menschenhass und Rette one of the most successful of his sentimental
dramas. According to one classification he wrote 163 plays with
a moral tendency, 5 with an immoral, and 48 doubtful.
7 Der Groosskophta (Cagliostro) ; Der Burgergeneral.
542
DRAMA
[GERMAN
to supply the needs of a theatre endeavouring to satisfy the
demands of art.
Meanwhile the so-called romantic school of German literature
was likewise beginning to extend its labours to original dramatic
composition. From the universality of sympathies
f tic P roc l a i me< i by this school, to whose leaders Germany
school. owed its classical translation of Shakespeare, 1 and
an introduction to the dramatic literatures of so many
ages and nations, 2 a variety of new dramatic impulses might be
expected; while much might be hoped for the future of the
national drama (especially in its mixed and comic species) from
the alliance between poetry and real life which they preached,
and which some of them sought personally to exemplify. But in
practice universality presented itself as peculiarity or even as
eccentricity; and in the end the divorce between poetry and
real life was announced as authoritatively as their union had
been. Outside this school, the youthful talent of Th. Korner,
whose early promise as a dramatist 3 might perhaps have ripened
into a fulness enabling him not unworthily to occupy the seat
left vacant by his father's friend Schiller, was extinguished by a
patriotic death. The efforts of M. von Collin (1770-1824) in the
direction of the historical drama remained isolated attempts.
But of the leaders of the romantic school, A. W. 4 and F. von
Schlegel 6 contented themselves with frigid classicalities; and
L. Tieck, in the strange alembic of his Phantasus, melted legend
and fairy-tale, novel and drama, 6 poetry and satire, into a com-
pound, enjoyable indeed, but hardly so in its entirety, or in many
of its parts, to any -but the literary mind.
F. de La Motte Fouque infused a spirit of poetry into the
chivalry drama. Klemens Brentano was a fantastic dramatist
unsuited to the stage. Here a feeble outgrowth of the
romanticists, the " destiny dramatists " Z. Werner 7
tifts. the most original of the group A. Mullner, 8 and
Baron C- E. v. Houwald, 9 achieved a temporary
jurore; and it was with an attempt in the same direction 10
that the Austrian dramatist F. Grillparzer began his long career.
He is assuredly, what he pronounced himself to be, the foremost
of the later dramatic poets of Germany, unless that tribute be
thought due to the genius of H. von Kleist, who in his short life
produced, besides other works, a romantic drama u and a rustic
comedy " of genuine merit, and an historical tragedy of singular
originality and power." Grillparzer's long series of plays includes
poetic dramas on classical themes 14 and historical subjects from
Austrian history, 16 or treated from an Austrian point of view.
The romantic school, which through Tieck had satirized the
drama of the bourgeoisie and its offshoots, was in its turn satirized
by Count A. von Platen-Hallermund's admirable imitations of
Aristophanic comedy. 16 Among the objects of his banter were
the popular playwright E. Raupach, and K. Immermann, a
true poet, who is, however, less generally remembered as a
dramatist. F. Hebbel " is justly ranked high among the foremost
later dramatic poets of his country, few of whom equal him in
intensity. The eminent lyrical (especially ballad) poet L. Uhland
left behind him a large number of dramatic fragments, but little
or nothing really complete. Other names of literary mark are
those of C. D. Grabbe, J. Mosen, O. Ludwig w (1813-1865), a
dramatist of great power, and " F. Halm " (Baron von Miinch-
BeUinghausen) (1806-1871), and, among writers of a more
1 A. W. von Schlegel and Tieck's (1797-1833).
I A. W. von Schlegel, Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature, &c.
8 Zriny, &c. * Ion. 5 Alarcos.
Kaiser Octavianus; Der gestiefelte Kater (Puss in Boots), &c.
7 Der 24. Februar (produced on the Weimar stage with Goethe's
sanction). * Der 29. Februar; Die Schuld (Guilt).
Das BOd (The Picture); Der Leuchtthurm (The Lighthouse).
u Die Ahnfrau (The Ancestress).
II Das Kathchen (Kate) von Heilbronn.
a Der zerbrochene Krug (The Broken Pitcher).
13 Prinz Friedrich von Hamburg. " Sappho, Medea, &c.
16 Konig Ottokar's Cluck und Ende (Fortune and Fall); Der
Bruderzunst (Fraternal Feud) in Habsburg.
16 Die verhdngnissvolle Gabel (The Fatal Fork); Der romantische
Oedipus.
17 Die Nibelungen ; Judith, &c. u Der Erbforster.
modern school, K. Gutzkow, 19 G. Freytag, 20 and H. Laube."
L. Anzengruber, a writer of real genius though restricted range,
imparted a new significance to the Austrian popular drama, 22
formerly so commonplace in the hands of F. Raimund and
J. Nestroy.
During the long period of transition which may be said to have
ended with the establishment of the new German empire, the
German stagein some measure anticipated the develop-
ments which more spacious times were to witness in J
the German drama. The traditions of the national stage of
theatre contemporary with the great epoch of the the latter
national literature were kept alive by a succession of
eminent actors such as the nephews of Ludwig
Devrient, himself an artist of the greatest originality,
whose most conspicuous success, though nature had fitted him for
Shakespeare, was achieved in Schiller's earliest play. 23 Among
the younger generation of Devrients the most striking person-
ality was that of Emil; his elder brother Karl August, husband of
Wilhelmine Schroder-Devrient, the brilliant star of the operatic
stage, and their son Friedrich, were also popular actors; yet
another brother, Eduard, is more widely remembered as the
historian of the German stage. Partly by reason of the number
and variety of its centres of intellectual and artistic life, Germany
was long enabled both to cherish the few masterpieces of its own
drama, and, with the aid of a language well adapted for transla-
tion, to give admittance to the dramatic masterpieces of other
nations also, and to Shakespeare in particular, without going far
in the search for theatrical novelty or effect. But a change
came over the spirit of German theatrical management with the
endeavours of H. Laube, from about the middle of the century
onwards, at Vienna (and Leipzig), which avowedly placed the
demands of the theatre as such above those of literary merit
or even of national sentiment. In a less combative spirit, F.
Dingelstedt, both at Munich, which under King Maximilian he
had made a kindly nurse of German culture, and, after his
efforts there had come to an untimely end, 24 at Weimar and at
Vienna, raised the theatre to a very high level of artistic achieve-
ment. The most memorable event in the annals of his manage-
ments was the production on the Weimar stage of the series of
Shakespeare's histories. At a rather later period, of which the
height extended from 1874 to 1890, the company of actors in
the service, and under the personal direction, of Duke George
of Saxe-Meiningen, created a great effect by their performances
both in and outside Germany not so much by their artistic
improvements in scenery and decoration, as by the extraordinary
perfection of their ensemble. But no dramaturgic achievement
in the century could compare in grandeur either of conception or
of execution with Richard Wagner's Bayreuth performances,
where, for the first time in the history of the modern stage, the
artistic instinct ruled supreme in all the conditions of the work
and its presentment. Though the Ring of the Nibelungs and its
successors belong to opera rather than drama proper, the im-
portance of their production (1876) should be overlooked by no
student of the dramatic art. Potent as has been, the influence
of foreign dramatic literatures whether French or Scandinavian
and that of a movement which has been common to them all,
and from which the German was perhaps the least likely to
exclude itself, the most notable feature in the recent history of
the German drama has been its quick response to wholly new
demands, which, though the attempt was made with some
persistence, could no longer be met without an effort to span the
widths and sound the depths of a more spacious and more
self-conscious era. 26
19 Uriel Acosta; Der Konigslieutenant.
20 Die Valentine. " Die Karlsschiiler.
21 Der Pfarrer von Kirchfeld; Der Meineidbauer ; Die Kreuzel-
schreiber ; Das vierte Gebot.
" The Robbers (Franz Moor). His next most famous part was Lear.
14 In connexion with the production in 1855 of ' F. Halm's "
Fechter von Ravenna, of which the authorship was claimed by a
half-demented schoolmaster.
26 As to more recent developments of German theatrical literature
see the article GERMAN LITERATURE, and the remarks on the influence
of foreign works in the section on Recent English Drama above.
OTHER EUROPEAN]
DRAMA
543
h. Dutch Drama.
Among other modern European dramas the Dutch is interesting
both in its beginnings, which to all intents and purposes form
part of those of the German, and because of the special influence
of the so-called chambers of the rederykers (rhetoricians), from
the early years of the isth century onwards, which bear some
resemblance to the associations of the master-singers in con-
temporary higher Germany. The earliest of their efforts,
which so effectively tempered the despotism of both church and
state, seem to have been of a dramatic kind ; and a manifold
variety of allegories, moralities and comic entertainments
(esbatementen or comedies, kluiten undfaclien or farces) enhanced
the attractions of those popular pageants in which the Nether-
lands surpassed all other countries of the North. The Low
Countries responded more largely to the impulse of the
Renaissance than, with some local exceptions, any other of the
Germanic lands. They necessarily had a considerable share
in the cultivation of the modern Latin drama; and, while the
author of Acolastus may be claimed as its own by the country
of his adoption as well as by that of his birth, G. M. Macropedius
(Langhveldt) (c. 1475-1508), who may be regarded as the fore-
most Latin dramatist of his age, was born and died at Hertogen-
bosch or in its immediate vicinity. Macropedius, who belonged
to the fraternity of the Common Life, was a writer of great
realistic power as well as of remarkable literary versatility. 1
The art of acting flourished in the Low Countries even during
the troubles of the great revolt; but the birth of the regular
drama was delayed till the advent of qujeter times. Dutch
dramatic literature begins, under the influence of the classical
studies cherished in the seats of learning founded before and after
the close of the war, with the classical tragedies of S. Roster
(c. is85~c. 1650). The romantic dramas and farces of Gerbrand
Bredero (1585-1618) and the tragedies of P. Hooft (1581-1647)
belong to the same period; but its foremost dramatic poet was
J. van den Vondel, who from an imitation of classical models
passed to more original forms of dramatic composition, including
a patriotic play and a dramatic treatment of part of what
was to form the theme of Paradise Lost. 2 But Vondel had no
successor of equal mark. The older form of Dutch tragedy in
which the chorus still appeared was, especially under the in-
fluence of the critic A. Pels, exchanged for a close imitation of
the French models, Corneille and Racine; nor was the attempt
to create a national comedy successful. Thus no national Dutch
drama was permanently called into life.
i. Scandinavian Drama.
Still more distinctly, the dramatic literature of the Scandi-
navian peoples springs from foreign growths. In Denmark,
where the beginnings of the drama in the plays of
the schoolmaster Chr. Hansen recall the mixture of
religious and farcical elements in contemporary German efforts,
the drama in the latter half of the i6th century remained essen-
tially scholastic, and treated scriptural or classical subjects,
chiefly in the Latin tongue. J. Ranch (1530-1607) and H. S.
Sthen were authors of this type. But often in the course of the
1 7th century, German and French had become the tongues of
Danish literature and of the Danish theatre; in the i8th Den-
mark could boast a comic dramatist of thorough originality
and of a wholly national cast. L. Holberg, one of the most note-
worthy comic poets of modern literature, not only marks an
epoch in the dramatic literature of his native land, but he
contributed to overthrow the trivialities of the German stage
in its worst period, which he satirized with merciless humour, 3
and set an example, never surpassed, of a series of comedies 4
deriving their types from popular life and ridiculing with healthy
directness those vices and follies which are the proper theme
of the most widely effective species of the comic drama. Among
1 Aluta; Asotus; Hecastus, &c.
* Gysbrecht van Aemstel; Lucifer. Ulysses of Ithaca.
1 The Politician- Tinman; Jean de France or Hans Franzen;
The Lying-in, &c.
Denmark.
his followers, P. A. Heiberg is specially noted. Under the
influence of the Romantic school, whose influence has nowhere
proved so long-lived as in the Scandinavian north, A. Ohlen-
schlager began a new era of Danish literature. His productivity,
which belongs partly to his native and partly to German literary
history, turned from foreign 6 to native themes; and other
writers followed him in his endeavours to revive the figures of
Northern heroic legend. But these themes ha vein their Th9
turn given way in the Scandinavian theatre to subjects modern
coming nearer home to the popular consciousness, Norwegitm
and treated with a direct appeal to the common anmm -
experience of human life, and with a searching insight into the
actual motives of human action. The most remarkable move-
ment to be noted in the history of the Scandinavian drama,
and one of the most widely effective of those which mark the
more recent history of the Western drama in general, had its
origin in Norway. Two Norwegian dramatists, H. Ibsen and
Bjornsterne Biornson, standing as it were side by side, though
by no means always judging eye to eye, have vitally influenced
the whole course of modern dramatic literature in the direction
of a fearlessly candid and close delineation of human nature.
The lesser of the pair in inventive genius, and in the power of
exhibiting with scornful defiance the conflict between soul and
circumstance, but the stronger by virtue of the conviction of
hope which lies at the root of achievement, is Bjornson. 4 Ibsen's
long career as a dramatist exhibits a succession of many changes,
but at no point any failure in the self-trust of his genius. His
early masterpieces were dramatic only in form. 7 His world-
drama of Emperor and Galilean was still unsuited to a stage
rarely trodden to much purpose by idealists of Julian's type.
The beginnings of his real and revolutionary significance as a
dramatist date from the production of his first plays of con-
temporary life, the admirable satirical comedy The Pillars of
Society (1877), the subtle domestic drama A Doll's House (1879),
and the powerful but repellent Ghosts (i88i), 8 which last, with
the effects of its appearance, modern dramatic literature may
even to this day be said to have failed altogether to assimilate.
Ibsen's later prose comedies (verse, he writes, has immensely
damaged the art of acting, and a tragedy in iambics belongs to the
species Dodo) for the most part written during an exile which
accounts for the note of isolation so audible in many of them,
succeeded one another at regular biennial intervals, growing more
and more abrupt in form, cruel in method, and intense in ele-
mental dramatic force. The prophet at last spoke to a listening
world, but without the amplitude, the grace and the whole-
heartedness which are necessary for subduing it. But it may be
long before the art which he had chosen as the vehicle of his
comments on human life and society altogether ceases to show
the impress of his genius.
j. Drama of the Slav Peoples.
As to the history of the Slav drama, only a few hints can be
here given. Its origins have not yet at least in works accessible
to Western students been authoritatively traced. The Russian
drama in its earliest 'or religious beginnings is stated to have
been introduced from Poland early in the izth century; and,
again, it would seem that, when the influence of the Renaissance
touched the east of Europe, the religious drama was cultivated
in Poland in the i6th, but did not find its way into Russia
till the 1 7th century. It is probable that the species was, like so
many other elements of culture, imported into the Carpathian
lands in the isth or i6th century from Germany. How far
indigenous growths, such as the Russian popular puppet-show
called vertep, which about the middle of the i7th century began
to treat secular and popular themes, helped to foster dramatic
tendencies and tastes, cannot here be estimated. The regular
drama of eastern Europe is to all intents and purposes of Western
origin. Thus, the history of the Polish drama may be fairly
6 Aladdin ; Corregio.
* Maria Stuart; A Bankruptcy; Leonardo,.
7 Brand ; Peer Gynt.
8 Samfundels Slottere ; Et Dukkehjem ; Gengangere.
544
DRAMA
[BIBLIOGRAPHY
dated as beginning with the reign of the last king of Poland,
Stanislaus II. Augustus, who in 1765 solemnly opened a national
p.. h theatre at Warsaw. This institution was carried on
till the fatal year 1794, and saw the production of
a considerable number of Polish plays, mostly translated or
adapted, but in part original as in the case of one or two of
those from the active pen of the secretary to the educational
commission, Zablonski. But it was not till after the last partition
that, paradoxically though not wholly out of accordance with
the history of the relations between political and literary
history, the attempts of W. Bogulawski and J. N. Kaminski to
establish and carry on a Polish national theatre were crowned
with success. Its literary mainstay was a gifted Franco-Pole,
Count Alexander Fredro (1793-1876), who in the period between
the Napoleonic revival and the long exodus fathered a long-lived
species of modern Polish comedy, French in origin ;(for Fredro
was a true disciple of Moliere), and wholly out of contact with
the sentiment that survived in the ashes of a doomed nation. 1
His complaint as to the exiguity of the Polish literary public a
brace of theatres and a bookseller's handcart may have been
premature; but a national drama was most certainly impossible
in a denationalized and dismembered land, in whose historic
capital the theatre in which Polish plays continued to be produced
seemed garrisoned by Cossack officers.
Much in the same way, though with a characteristic difference,
the Russian regular drama had its origin in the cadet corps at
Russian ^t Petersburg, a pupil of which, A. Sumarokov (1718-
1777), has been regarded as the founder of the modern
Russian theatre. As a tragic poet he seems to have imitated
Racine and Voltaire, though treating themes from the national
history, among others the famous dramatic subject of the False
Demetrius. He also translated Hamlet. As a comic dramatist
he is stated to have been less popular than as a tragedian; yet
it is in comedy that he would seem to have had the most note-
worthy successors. Among these it is impossible to pass by the
empress Catherine II., whose comedies seem to have been satirical
sketches of the follies and foibles of her subjects, and who in one
.comedy as well as in a tragedy had the courage to imitate
Shakespeare. Comedy aiming at social satire long continued
to temper the conditions of Russian society, and had representa-
tives of mark in such writers as A. N. Ostrovsky of Moscow and
Griboyedov, the author of Gore et uma.
In any survey of the Slav drama that of the Czech peoples,
whose national consciousness has so fully reawakened, must not
be overlooked. A Czech theatre was called into life at Prague
as early as the i8th century; and in the igth its demands,
centring in a sense of nationality, were met by J. N. Stepinek
.(1783-1844), W. C. Klicpera (1792-1859) and J. C. Tyl (1808-
1856); and later writers continued to make use of the stage for
a propaganda of historical as well as political significance.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The following works treat the general theory of
the drama and the dramatic art, together with the principles of
dramaturgy and of the art of acting. Works which have reference
to the drama of a particular period or of a particular nation only are
mentioned separately. Works which deal with special authors
only have been intentionally omitted in this bibliography, as being
mentioned in the articles in the several authors.
Aristotle's Poetics (text and transl. by S. H. Butcher, London,
1895; transl. by T. Twining, London, 1812; see also Donaldson's
Theatre of the Greeks) ; H. Baumgart, Aristoteles, Lessing, u. Goethe.
Ober das ethische u. asthetische Princip der Tragodie (Leipzig, 1877) ;
H. A. Bulthaupt, Dramaturgic des Schauspiels (4 vols., Oldenburg
u. Leipzig, 1893-1902) ; L. Campbell, Tragic Drama in Aeschylus,
Sophocles and Shakespeare (London, 1904) ; P. Corneille, Discours du
poeme dramatique de la tragedie des trots unites, (Enures, vol. i.
(Paris, 1862); W. L. Courtney, The Idea of Tragedy in Ancient and
Modern Drama (Westminster, 1900); Diderot, De la poesie drama-
tique. Entreliens sur le Fils Naturel, (Euvres completes, vii. (Paris,
1 875); J- Dryden, Essay 'of Dramatic Poesy and other critical
essays (Essays of J. Dryden, ed. W. P. Ker, 2 vols., Oxford, 1900};
G. Freytag, Die Technik des Dramas (5th ed., Leipzig, 1886);
G. W. F. Hegel, Vorlesungen uber Asthetik, ed. H. G. Hotno, bd. 3,
chap. iii. c. Die dramatische Poesie (Werke, x. 3; Berlin, 1838);
G. Larroumet, Etudes d'histoire et de critique dramatiques, 2 ser.
(Paris, 1892-1899); G. E. Lessing, Hamburgische Dramaturgie.
1 Pan Jowialski; Oludki i Poeta (The Misanthrope and the Poet).
Erlautert von F. Schroter u. R. Thiele (Halle, 1877); Materialien zu
Lessing's Hamburgische Dramaturgie, von W. Cosack (Paderborn,
1876) ; G. H. Lewes, On Actors and the Art of Acting (London, 1875) ;
Sir T. Martin, Essays on the Drama (London, 1874) ; K. Mantzius,
History of Theatrical Art in Ancient and Modern Times, transl. by
L. von Cossel (London, 1903, &c.); G. Meredith, Essay on Comedy
(Westminster, 1897) ; R. Prolss, Katechismus der Dramaturgie
(Leipzig, 1877) ; H. T. Rotscher, Die Kunst der dramatischen Dar-
stellung (3 vols., Berlin, 1841-1846); Jahrbiicher fur dramatische
Kunst u. Literatur (Berlin and Frankfort, 1848-1849); P. de Saint-
Victor, Les Deux Masques, tragedie comedie (3rd ed., 3 vols., Paris,
1881, &c.); Saint-Marc Girardin, Cours de litterature dramatique
(7th ed., 5 vols., Paris, 1868); A. W. von Schlegel, Lectures on
Dramatic Art and Literature (Eng. transl., London, 1846); Sir W.
Scott, Essays on Chivalry, Romance and the Drama (including his
article " Drama " written for the Supplement to the 4th edition of
the Ency. Brit., and reprinted in the 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th editions) ;
F. T. Vischer, Asthetik, vol. iv. (Stuttgart, 1857).
The fullest general history of the drama extant* is J. L. Klein's
Geschichte des Dramas, 13 vols. and index (Leipzig, 1865-1886).
See also, for encyclopaedic information, W. Davenport Adams, A
Dictionary of the Drama, vol. i. (London, 1904) ; C. M. E. Bequet,
Encyclopedic de I' art dramatique (Paris, 1886); A. Pougin, Diction-
naire historique et pittoresque du theatre et des arts qui s'y rattachent
(Paris, 1885).
The drama of the Eastern nations is generally treated in : A. P.
Brozzi, Teatri e spettacoli dei popoli orientali Ebrei, Arabi, Persani,
Indiani, Cinesi, Giapponesi e Giavanesi (Milan, 1887) ; Comte J. A.
de Gobineau, Les Religions et les philosophies dans I'Asie centrale
(2nd ed., Paris, 1866).
The following works deal with the Indian drama: M. Schuyler,
Bibliography of the Sanskrit Drama (Columbia Univ., Indo-Iranian,
ser. iii., New York, 1906) ; H. H. Wilson, Select Specimens of the
Theatre of the Hindus, transl. from the original Sanskrit(with intro-
duction on the dramatic system of the Hindus), 3rd ed., 2 vols.
(London, 1871); S. Levi, Le Theatre indien (supplements Wilson)
(Paris, 1891).
For Chinese: Tscheng-Ki-Tong, Le Theatre des Chinois (Paris,
1886); see also H. A. Giles, History of Chinese Literature (London,
1901).
For Japanese: C. Florenz, Gesch. d. japan. Litteratur, vol. i. i
(Leipzig, 1905); see also F. Brinkley, Japan, its History, Arts and
Literature, vol. iii. (Boston and Tokyo, 1901).
For Persian: A. Chodzko, Theatre persan. Choix de teazies ou
drames, traduits pour la premiere fois du persan par A . Chodzko (Paris,
1878); E. Montet, Le Theatre en Perse (Geneva, 1888); Sir L. Pelly,
The Miracle Play of Hasan and Husain, collected from oral tradition;
revised with explanatory notes by A.N. Wollaston (2 vols. , London , 1 879) .
Of works treating of the ancient Greek and Roman drama only
a small selection can be given here. In the case of the Greek drama,
the chief histories of literature such as G. Bernhardy's, K. O.
Miiller's (Eng. tr. by Sir G. C. Lewis, with continuation by J. W-
Donaldson) andG. Murray's and general histories suchasGrote's,
Thirlwall's, Curtius's, &c. should also be consulted; and for thje
administration and finance of the Attic theatre, Boeckh's Public
Economy of Athens, Eng. tr. (London, 1842). Much useful infor-
mation will be found in A Companion to Greek Studies, ed. by L.
Whibley (Cambridge, 1905). The standard collective edition of the
ancient Greek dramatic poets is the Po'etae scenici Graeci, ed. C. W.
Dindorf (sth ed., Leipzig, 1869), and that of the Comic poets A.
Meineke's Historia critica comicorum Graecorum. Cum fragmentis
(5 vols., Berlin, 1839-1857). Aristotle's Poetics, cited above, will
of course be consulted for the theory of the Greek drama in particular ;
and much valuable critical matter will be found in passages of
Bentley's Phalaris (1699), which are reprinted in Donaldson's Theatre
of the Greeks. The following later works, some of which treat of the
ancient classical drama in general, may be noted: E. A. Chaignet,
La Tragedie grecque (Paris, 1877) ; I. Denys, Histoire de la comedie
grecque (2 vols., Paris, 1886); I. W. Donaldson, The Theatre of the
Greeks (7th ed., London, 1860); Du Meril, Histoire de la comedie.
Periode primitive (Paris, 1864); Histoire de la comedie ancienne
(Paris, 1869); A. E. Haigh, The Tragic Drama of the Greeks (Oxford,
1896); The Attic Theatre (Oxford, 1898); G. Korting, Gesch. des
Theaters in seinen Beziehungen zur Kunstentwickelung der drama-
tischen Dichtkunst, Bd. i. Gesch. des griechischen u. romischen Theaters
(Paderborn, 1897); R. G. Moulton, The Ancient Classical Drama
(Oxford, 1898) ; M. Patin, Etude sur les tragiques grecs (3 vols., Paris,
1861); C. M. Rapp, Gesch. des griechischen Schauspiels vom Stand-
punkt der dramatischen Kunst (Tubingen, 1862); H. Weil, Etudes
sur le drame antique (Paris, 1897) ; F. G. Welcker, " Die griechischen
Tragodien, mit Rucksicht auf den epischen Cyklus " (Rhein. Mus.
Suppl. ii.) 3 pts. (Bonn, 1839-1841).
In addition to the works of individual Roman dramatists, and
critical writings concerning them, see Scaenicae Romanorum poesis
fragmenta, 2 vols. (I. Tragic, II. Comic) ed. by O. Ribbeck (3rd ed.
Leipzig, 1897-1898). W. S. Teuffel's History of Roman Literature,
Eng. tr. (2 vols., London, 1891-1892), and M. Schanz' Gesch. der
romischen Litteratur bis Justinian (2 vols., Munich, 1890-1892), may
be consulted for a complete view of the course of the Roman drama.
For its later developments consult Dean Merivale's History of the
BIBLIOGRAPHY]
DRAMA
545
Romans under the Empire, -and S. Dill's Roman Society in the Last
Days of the Western Empire (London, 1898). See also L. Friedlander,
Darstellungen aus der Sitlengeschickte Roms, 6th ed., vol. ii. (Leipzig,
1889) ; M. Meyer, Etude sur le theatre latin (Paris, 1847) ; O. Ribbeck,
Die romische Tragodie im Zeitalter der Republik (Leipzig, 1875).
The following works treat of the medieval drama, religious or
secular, of its origins and of usages connected with it: H. Anz, Die
lateinischen Magierspiele (Leipzig, 1905) ; E. K. Chambers, The
Medieval Stage (2 vols., Oxford, 1903), with full bibliography; E. de
Coussemaker, Drames liturgiques du moyen age (Pans, 1861) ; du
Meril, Theatri liturgici qiiae Laiina supersunt monumenta (Caen and
Paris, 1849); C. A. Hase, Miracle Plays and Sacred Dramas (Eng.
tr.), (London, 1880) ; Hilarius, Versus et ludi, ed. Champollion-
Figeac (Paris, 1838) ; R. Froning, Das Drama des Mittelalters
(3 vols., Stuttgart, 1891, &c.); Edwin Norris, Ancient Cornish
Drama (ed. and tr. 2 vols., 1859) ; W. Hone, Ancient Mysteries
Described (London, 1823) ; A. von Keller, Fastnachtsspiele aus dem
15. Jahrhundert (Stuttgart, 1858); C.Magmn, Les Origines duthedtre
'moderne, vol. i. only (Paris, 1838) ; F. J. Mone, Schauspiele des
Mittelalters (2 vols., Karlsruhe, 1846); A. Reiners, Die Tropen-,
Prosen- u. Prdfations-Gesdnge (Luxemburg, 1884); J. de Rothschild,
Le Mistere du Viel Testament, ed. J. de Rothschild (6 vols., Paris,
' 1878-1891) ; M. Sepet, Le Drame chretien au moyen age (Paris, 1878) ;
Origines catholiques au theatre moderne. Les drames liturgiques
(Paris, 1901); T. Wright, Early Mysteries and other Latin Poems of
the I2th and ijth Centuries (London, 1838) ; C. A. G. von Zezschwitz,
Das mittelalterliche Drama (Leipzig, 1881).
For French medieval drama in particular: L. Cledat, Le Theatre
en France au moyen age (Paris, 1896) ; E. Fournier, Le Theatre
franfais avant la Renaissance (Paris, 1872) ; Miracles de Notre
Dame par personnages, ed. G. Paris and U. Robert (8 vols., Paris,
1876-1893); L. J. N. Monmerque and F. Michel, Theatre franfais
au moyen age (Paris, 1839) ; L. Petit de Julleville, Histoire du
theatre en France au moyen age (5 vols., Paris, 1880-1886) ; E. L. N.
Viollet-le-Duc, Ancien Theatre frar.fais (10 vols., Paris, 1854-1857).
For the medieval Italian in particular: A. d'Ancona, Sacre
rappresentazioni dei secpli XIV., XV. e XVI. (Florence, 1872).
For medieval English in particular: Ahn, English Mysteries
and Miracle Plays (Treves, 1867); S. W. Clarke, The Miracle Play
in England (London, 1897) ; F. W. Fairholt, Lord Mayors' Pageants,
2 vols. (Percy Soc.) (London, 1843-1844); A. W. Pollard, English
Miracle Plays, Moralities and Interludes (3rd ed., Oxford 1898) ;
Chester Plays ed. T. Wright, 2 vols. (Shakespeare Soc.) (London,
1843), re-ed. by H. Deimling (part only) (E.E.T.S.) (London, 1893) ;
Coventry Plays, Ludus Coventriae, ed. J. O. Halliwell (-Phillipps)
(Shakespeare Soc.) (London, 1841); Coventry Plays. Dissertation
on the pageants or mysteries at Coventry, by T. Sharp (Coventry,
1825); Digby Plays, ed. F. J. Furnivall (E.E.T.S.) (London, 1896);
Towneley Mysteries, ed. G. England and A. W. Pollard (E.E.T.S.)
(London, 1897) ; York Plays, ed. L. T. Smith (Oxford, 1885).
For the German in particular: F. J. Mone, Altteutsche Schauspiele
(Quedlinburg, 1841) ; H. Reidt, Das geistliche Schauspiel des Mittel-
alters in Deutschland (Frankfort, 1868) ; E. Wilken, Gesch. der
geistlichen Spiele in Deutschland (Gottingen, 1872).
The revival of the classical drama in the Renaissance age is
treated in P. Bahlmann's Die Erneuerer des antiken Dramas und
ihre ersten dramatischen Versuche, 1314-1478 (Miinster, 1896); A.
Chassang's Des essais dramatiques imites de I'antiquite au XIV*
et XV' siecle (Paris, 1852) ; and in V. de Amitis" L'Imitazione latina
nella commedia del XVI. secolo (Pisa, 1871).
Both the medieval and portions of the later drama are treated in
W. Cloetta, Beitrdge zur Litteraturgeschichte des Mittelalters und der
Renaissance (2 vols., Halle, i89<>-i892) ; W. Creizenach, Geschichte
des neweren Dramas, vols. i.-iii. (Halle, 1893-1903); R. Prolss,
Geschichte des neueren Dramas (3 vols., Leipzig, 1881-1883). See
also L.-V. Gofflot, Le Theatre au college, du moyen age a nos jours,
Preface par Jules Claretie (Paris, 1907).
The history of the modern Italian drama, in its various stages, is
treated by A. d'Ancona, Origini del teatro italiano (2nd ed., 2 vols.,
Turin, 1891) ; J. Dornis, Le Theatre italien contemporain (Paris, 1904) ;
H. Lyonnet, Le Theatre en Italie (Paris, 1900) ; L. Riccoboni, Histoire
du theatre italien (2 vols., Rome, 1728-1731) ; J. C. Walker, Historical
Memoir on Italian Tragedy (London, 1799). See also A. Gaspary,
History of Early Italian Literature, transl. by H. Oelsner (London,
1901).
Some information as to the modern Greek drama is given in
R. Nicolai, Geschichte der neugriechischen Literatur (Leipzig, 1876).
Modern Spanish drama: M. A. Fee, Etudes sur I'ancien theatre
espagnol (Paris 1873) : A. Gassier, Le Theatre espagnol (Paris, 1898) ;
\. Lewes, The Spanish Drama (London, 1846) ; H. Lyonnet, Le
Theatre en Espagne (Paris, 1897); A. Schaffer, Gesch. des spanischen
Nationaldramas (2 vols., Leipzig, 1890); L. de Viel-Castel, Essai
sur le theatre espagnol (2 vols., Paris, 1882). See also G. Ticknor,
History of Spanish Literature (3 vols., London, 1863).
Modern Portuguese : H. Lyonnet, Le Theatre au Portugal (Paris,
1898) ; see also K. von Reinhardstoettner's Portugiesische Literatur-
geschichte (Sammlung Goschen) (Leipzig, 1904), which contains a
useful bibliography.
Regular French drama (tragedy and comedy): F. Brunetiere,
Les Epooues du theatre francos, 1636-1850 (Paris, 1892) ; E. Chasles,
vni. 1 8
La Comedie en France au XVI' siecle (Paris, 1862) ; E. Faguet, La
Tragedie fransaise au XVI' siecle (Paris, 1883); A. Filon, The
Modern French Drama (London, 1898); V. Fournel, Le Theatre au
XVII' siecle (Paris, 1892); E. Fournier, Le Theatre francais au
XVI' et au XVII' siecle (2 vols., Paris, s.d.) ; F. Hawkins, Annals
of the French Stage (London, 1884); H. Lucas, Hist, philosophique
et litteraire du theatre francais depuis son origine (3 vols., Pans) ;
Parfait, Hist, du theatre fran^ais (15 vols., Paris, 1745-1749); L.
Petit de Julleville, Le theatre en France depuis ses origines jusqu'd
nos jours (Paris, 1899) ; E. Rigal, Le theatre fran^ais avant la periode
classique (Paris, 1901); E. Roy, Etudes sur le theatre fran$ais du
XV' et du XVI' siicle (Dijon, 1901).
The connexion between the Italian and French theatre in the
I7th century is traced in L. Moland, Moliere et la comedie italienne
(2nd ed., Paris, 1867). See also J. C. Demogeot's, H. von Laun's
and Saintsbury's histories of French Literature.
Of the ample literature concerned with the modern English drama
the following works may be specially mentioned, as dealing with
the entire range of the English drama, or with more than one of its
periods: D. E. Baker, Biograpkia dramatica (continued to 1811
by J. Reed and S. Jones) (3 vols., London, 1812); J. P. Collier,
History of English Dramatic Poetry, new ed. (3 Vols., London, 1879) ;
C. Dibdin, A complete History of the English Stage (5 vols., London,
i8oo);J. J. Jusserand, Le Theatre en Angleterre (2nd ed., Paris, 1881);
G. Langbaine, Lives and Characters of the English Dramatic Poets
(London, 1699) ; The Poetical Register: or lives and characters of
the English dramatick poets (London, 1719) ; C. M. Rapp, Studien
iiber das englische Theater, 2 parts (Tubingen, 1862) ; " G. S. B. ",
Study of the Prologue and Epilogue in English Literature (London,
1884) ; The Thespian Dictionary: or dramatic biography of the
i8th century (London, 1802); A. W. Ward, History of English
Dramatic Literature to the Death of Queen Anne (2nd ed., 3 vols.,
London, 1899) ; see also the histories of English Literature or Poetry,
by Warton, Taine, ten Brinck, Courthope, Saintsbury, &c.
The following works contain the most complete lists of English
plays : W. W. Greg, A List of English Plays written before 1643 and
published before 1700 (Bibliogr. Soc.) (London, 1900) ; J. O. Halliwell
(-Phillipps), Dictionary of Old English Plays (London, 1860) ; W. C.
Hazlitt, A Manual for the Collector and Amateur of Old English Plays
(London, 1892) ; R. W. Lowe, Bibliographical Account of English
Dramatic Literature (London, 1888) is a valuable handbook for the
whole of English theatrical literature and matters connected with it.
The unique work of Genest, Some Account of the English Stage from
1660-1830 (10 vols., Bath, 1832), includes, with a chronological
series ot plays acted on the English stage, notices of unacted plays,
and critical remarks on plays and actors. " A Compleat List " of
English dramatic poets and plays to 1747 was published with T.
Whincop's Scanderbeg in that year.
The following are the principal collections of English plays
Ancient British Drama, ed. Sir W. Scott (3 vols., London, 1810);
Modern British Drama, ed. Sir W. Scott (5 vols., London, 1811);
W. Bang, Materialien zur Kunde des alteren englischen Dramas
(Louvain, 1902, &c.) ; A. H. Bullen, Collection of Old English Plays
(4 vols., London, 1882) ; R. Dodsley, A Select Collection of Old Plays,
4th ed. by W. C. Hazlitt (15 vols., London, 1874-1876) ; Dramatists
of the Restoration (14 vols., Edinburgh, 1872-1879) ; Early English
Dramatists, ed. J. S. Farmer (London, 1905, &c.); C. M. Gayley,
Representative English Comedies (vol. i., New York, 1903) ; T.
Hawkins, Origin of the English Drama (3 vols., Oxford, 1773);
Mrs Inchbald, British Theatre, new ed. (20 vols., London, 1824),
Modern Theatre (10 vols., London, 1811), Collection of Farces and
Afterpieces (7 vols., London, 1815) ; Malone Society publications
(London, 1907, &c.) ; J.M. Manly, Specimens of the Pre-Shakespearean
Drama (3 vols., London, 1897); Mermaid Series of Old Dramatists,
ed. Havelock Ellis (London, 1887, &c.) ; Old English Drama (2 vols.,
London, 1825); Pearson's Reprints of Elizabethan and Jacobean
Plays (London, 1871, &c.).
The following deal with the Elizabethan and Jacobean drama in
especial: W. Creizenach, Die Schauspiele der englischen Komo-
dianten (Berlin, 1895) ; J. W. Cunliffe, The Influence of Seneca on
Elizabethan Tragedy (London, 1893); F. G. Fleay, A Chronicle
History of the London Stage, 1559-1642 (London, 1890), A Bio-
graphical Chronicle of the English Drama, 1559-1642 (London, 1891) ;
W. C. Hazlitt, The English Drama and Stage under the Tudor and
Stuart Princes, 1543-1664 (London, 1869) ; W. Hazlitt, Dramatic
Literature of the Age of Elizabeth (Works, ed. A. R. Waller, vol. v.)
(London, 1902) ; A. F. von Schack, Die englischen Dramatiker vor,
neben, und nach Shakespeare (Stuttgart, 1893); J. A. Symonds,
Shakspere's Predecessors in the English Drama (London, 1884).
As to the Latin academical drama of the Elizabethan age see
G. B. Churchill and W. Keller, " Die latein. Universitats-Dramen
Englands in der Zeit d. Konigin Elizabeth " in Jahrbuch der deutschen
Shakespeare-Gesettschaft. For a short bibliography of the Oxford
academical drama, 1547-1663, see the introduction to Miss M. L.
Lee's edition of Narcissus (London, 1893). A list of Oxford plays
will also be found in Notes and Queries, ser. vii., vol. ii. For a list
of Cambridge plays from 1534 to 1671, the writer of this article is
indebted to Prof. G. C. Moore-Smith of the university of Sheffield.
For an account of the Mask see R. Brotanek, Die englischen Masken-
spiele (Vienna and Leipzig, 1902) ; H. A. Evans, English Masques
5
54-6
DRAMBURG DRAPER
(London, 1897); W. W. Greg, A List of Masques, Pageants, &c.
(Bibliogr. Soc.) (London, 1902).
As to early London theatres see T. F. Ordish, Early London
Theatres (London, 1894).
Some information as to puppet-plays, &c., will be found in Henry
Morley's Memoirs of Bartholomew Fair (London, 1859).
Among earlier critical essays on the Elizabethan and Stuart
drama should be mentioned those of Sir Philip Sidney, G. Putten-
ham and W. Webbe, T. Rymer and Dryden. For recent essays and
notes on the Elizabethan drama in general, see, besides the essays
of Coleridge, Lamb (including the introductory remarks in the
Specimens), Hazlitt, &c., and the remarkable series of articles in the
Retrospective Review (1820-1828), the Publications and Transactions
of the Old and New Shakespeare Societies (1841, &c. ; 1874, & c -).
which also contain reprints of early works of great importance for
the history of the Elizabethan drama and stage, such as Henslowe's
Diary, &c., the Jahrbuch der deutschen Shakespeare-Gesellschaft
(1865, &c.), as well as the German journals Anglia, Englische Studien,
&c., and the Modern Language Review (Cambridge).
The later English drama from the reopening of the theatres (1660)
is treated in L. N. Chase, The English Heroic Play (New York, 1903) ;
C. Gibber, Apology for the Life of C. Gibber, written by himself, new
ed. by R. W. Lowe (2 vols., London, 1889), who has also edited
Churchill's Rosciad and Apology (London, 1891); J. Doran, Their
Majesties' Servants: annals of the English Stage (3 vols., London,
1888) ; A. Filon, Le Theatre anglais: hier, aujourd'hui, demain
(Paris, 1896); W. Hazlitt, A View of the English Stage (Works, ed.
A. R. Waller, vol. viii.) (London, 1903) ; W. Nicholson, The Struggle
for a Free Stage in London (Westminster, 1907).
The following treat of the modern German drama in particular
periods: R. Prolss, Gesch. der deutschen Schauspielkunst von den
Anfdngen bis 1850 (Leipzig, 1900) ; R. E. Prutz, Vorlesungen iiber
die Geschichte des deutschen Theaters (Berlin, 1847) ; R. Froning,
Das Drama der Reformationszeit (Stuttgart, 1900) ; C. Heine, Das
Schauspiel der deutschen Wanderbuhne vor Gottsched (Halle, 1889);
J. Minor, Die Schicksalstragodie in ihren Hauptvertretern (Frankfort,
1883); M. Martersteig, Das deutsche Theater im XIX"' Jahrh.
(Leipzig, 1904). See also G. G. Gervinus, Geschichte der deutschen
Dichtung (sth ed., 5 vols., Leipzig, 1871-1874); and the literary
histories of K. Goedeke (Grundriss), A. Koberstein, &c. A special
aspect of the drama in modern Germany is dealt with in P. Bahlmann,
Dte lateinischen Dramen von Wimpheling's Stylpho bis zur Mitte des
XVI'" Jahrhunderts, 1480-1550 (Munster, 1893), and the same
author's Jesuiten-Dramen der niederrheinischen Ordensprovins
(Leipzig, 1896).
The standard history of the modern German stage is Eduard
Devrient, Gesch. der deutschen Schauspielkunst (2 vols., Leipzig,
1848-1861); see also R. Prolss, Gesch. der deutschen Schauspielkunst
von den Anfdngen bis 1850 (Leipzig, 1900); O. G. Fluggen, Bio-
graphisches Buhnen-Lexikon der deutschen Theater (Munich, 1892).
A good account of the history of the Dutch drama is F. von
Hellwald's Geschichte des holldndischen Theaters (Rotterdam, 1874).
See also the authorities under J. van den Vondel.
Information concerning the Danish drama will be found in the
autobiographies of Holberg, Ohlenschlager and Andersen; see also
vol. i. of G. Brandes's Main Currents in Nineteenth Century Literature
(Eng. tr., London, 1901). As to the modern Norwegian drama see
the same writer's Ibsen-Bjornson Studies (Eng. tr., London, 1899);
also E. Tisspt, Le Drame norvegien (Paris, 1893).
The Russian drama is treated in P. O. Morozov's Istoria Russkago
Teatra (History of the Russian Theatre), vol. i. (St Petersburg, 1889) ;
see also P. de Corvin, Le Thedtre en Russie (Paris, 1 890). A. Bruckner,
Geschichte der russischen Literatur (Leipzig, 1905), may be consulted
with advantage. Information as to the dramatic portions of other
Slav literatures will be found in A. Pipin and V. Spasovich's Istoria
Slavianskikh Literatur (History of Slavonic Literatures), German
translation by T. Pech (2 vols., Leipzig, 1880-1884). (A. W. W.)
DRAMBURG, a town of Germany in the kingdom of Prussia,
on the Drage, a tributary of the Oder, 50 m. E. of Stettin, on
the railway Ruhnow-Neustettin. Pop. 5800. It contains an
Evangelical church, a gymnasium, a hospital and various
administrative offices, and carries on cotton and woollen weaving,
tanning, brewing and distilling.
DRAMMEN, a seaport of Norway, in Buskerud and Jarlsberg-
Laurvik amter (counties), at the head of Drammen Fjord, a
western arm of Christiania Fjord, 33 m. by rail S.W. from
Christiania. Pop. (1900) 23,093. Its situation, at the mouth
of the broad Drammen river, between lofty hills, is very beautiful.
It is the junction of railways from Christiania to Haugsund,
Kongsberg and Honefos, and to Laurvik and Skien. The town
is modern, having suffered from fires in 1866, 1870 and 1880.
It consists of three parts: Bragernaes on the north, divided by
the river from Stromso and the port, Tangen, on the south.
The prosperity of Drammen depends mainly on the timber
trade; and saw-milling is an active industry, the logs being
floated down the river from the upland forests. Timber and
wood-pulp are exported (over half of each to Great Britain),
with paper, ice and some cobalt and nickel ore. The chief
imports are British coal and German machinery. Salmon are
taken in the upper reaches of the Drammen.
DRANE, AUGUSTA THEODOSIA (1823-1894), English writer,
was born at Bromley, near Bow, on the zgth of December 1823.
Brought up in the Anglican creed, she fell under the influence of
Tractarian teaching at Torquay, and joined the Roman Catholic
Church in 1850. She wrote, and published anonymously, an
essay questioning the Morality of Tractarianism, which was
attributed to John Henry Newman. In 1852, after a prolonged
stay in Rome, she joined the third order of St Dominic, to which
she belonged for over forty years. She was prioress (1872-1881)
of the Stone convent in Staffordshire, where she died on the 2gth
of April 1894. Her chief works in prose and verse are: The
History of Saint Dominic (1857; enlarged edition, 1891); The
Life of St Catherine of Siena. (1880; 2nd ed., 1899); Christian
Schools and Scholars (1867); The Knights of St John (1858);
Songs in the Night (1876); and the Three Chancellors (1859), a
sketch of the lives of William of Wykeham, William of Waynflete
and Sir Thomas More.
A complete list of her writings is given in the Memoir of Mother
Francis Raphael, O.S~D., Augusta Theodosia Drane, edited by B.
Wilberforce, O.P. (London, 1895).
DRAPER, JOHN WILLIAM (1811-1882), American scientist,
was born at St Helen's, near Liverpool, on the sth of May 1811.
He studied at Woodhouse Grove, at the University of London,
and, after removing to America in 1832, at the medical school of
the University of Pennsylvania in 1835-1836. In 1837 h e wa *
elected professor of chemistry in the University of the City of
New York, and was a professor in its school of medicine in 1840-
1850, president of that school in 1850-1873, and professor of
chemistry until 1881. He died at Hastings, New York, on the
4th of January 1882. He made important researches in photo-
chemistry, made portrait photography possible by his improve-
ments (1839) on Daguerre's process, and published a Text-book on
Chemistry (1846), Text-book on Natural Philosophy (1847), Text-
book on Physiology (1866), and Scientific Memoirs (1878) on
radiant energy. He is well known also as the author of The
History of the Intellectual Development of Europe (1862), applying
the methods of physical science to history, a History of the
American Civil War (3 vols., 1867-1870), and a History of the
Conflict between Religion and Science (1874).
His son, HENRY DRAPER (1837-1882), graduated at the
University of New York in 1858, became professor of natural
science there in 1860, and was professor of physiology (in the
medical school) and dean of the faculty in 1866-1873. He
succeeded his father as professor of chemistry, but only for a
year, dying in New York on the 2oth of November 1882. Henry
Draper's most important contributions to science were made in
spectroscopy; he ruled metal gratings in 1869-1870, made
valuable spectrum photographs after 1871, and proved the
presence of oxygen in the sun in a monograph of 1877. Edward
C. Pickering carried on his study of stellar spectra with the funds
of the Henry Draper Memorial at Harvard, endowed by his
widow (nte Mary Anna Palmer).
See accounts by George F. Barker in Biographical Memoirs of
the National Academy of Science, vols. 2 and 3 (Washington, 1886,
1888).
DRAPER, one who deals in cloth or textiles generally. The
Fr. drap, cloth, from which drapier and Eng. " draper " are
derived, is of obscure origin. It is possible that the Low Lat.
drappus or trappus (the last form giving the Eng. " trappings ")
may be connected with words such as " drub," Ger. treffen,
beat; the original sense would be fulled cloth. " Drab," dull,
pale, brown, is also connected, its first meaning being a cloth of
a natural undyed colour. The Drapers' Company is one of the
great livery companies of the city of London. The fraternity
is of very early origin. Henry Fitz-Alwyn (d. 1212 ?), the first
mayor of London, is said to have been a draper. The first
charter was granted in 1364. The Drapers' Gild was one of the
DRAUGHT DRAUGHTS
547
numerous subdivisions of the clothing trade, and appeared to
have been confined to the retailing of woollen cloths, the linen-
drapers forming in the isth century a separate fraternity,
which disappeared or was merged in the greater company. It
is usual for drapers to combine the sale of " drapery," i.e. of
textiles generally, with that of millinery, hosiery, &c. In Wills
v. Adams (reported in The Times, London, Nov. 20, 1908), the
term " drapery " in a restrictive covenant was held not to include
all goods that a draper might sell, such as furs or fur-lined goods.
DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word " to draw ";
cf. Ger. Tracht, load; the pronunciation led to the variant form
" draft," now confined to certain specific meanings), the act or
action of drawing, extending, pulling, &c. It is thus applied
to animals used for drawing vehicles or loads, " draught oxen,"
&c., to the quantity of fish taken by one " drag " of a net, to
a quantity of liquid taken or " drawn in " to the mouth, and to
a current of air in a chimney, a room or other confined space.
In furnaces the " draught " is " natural " when not increased
artificially, or " forced " when increased by mechanical methods
(see BOILER). The water a ship " draws," or her " draught,"
is the depth to which she sinks in the water as measured from
her keel. The word was formerly used of a " move " in chess or
similar games, and is thus, in the plural, the general English
name of the game known also as "checkers" (see DRAUGHTS).
The spelling " draft " is generally employed in the following
usages. It is a common term for a written order " drawn on "
a banker or other holder of funds for the payment of money to a
third person ; thus a cheque (q.v.) is a draft. A special form of
draft is a " banker's draft," an instruction by one bank to another
bank, or to a branch of the bank making the instruction, to pay
a sum of money to the order of a certain specified person. Other
meanings of " draft " are an outline, plan or sketch, or a pre-
liminary drawing up of an instrument, measure, document, &c.,
which, after alteration and amendment, will be embodied in a
final or formal shape; an allowance made by merchants or
importers to those who sell by retail, to make up a loss incurred
in weighing or measuring; and a detachment or body of troops
" drawn off " for a specific purpose, usually a reinforcement
from the depot or reserve units to those abroad or in the field.
For the use of the term " draft " or " draught " in masonry and
architecture see DRAFTED MASONRY.
DRAUGHTS (from A.S. dragon, to draw), a game played with
pieces (or " men ") called draughtsmen on a board marked in
squares of two alternate colours. The game is called Checkers
in America, and is known to the French as Les Dames and to the
Germans as Damenspiel. Though the game is not mentioned in
the Complete Gamester, nor the Academie dejeux, and is styled a
" modern invention " by Strutt, yet a somewhat similar game
was known to the Egyptians, some of the pieces used having
been found in tombs at least as old as 1600 B.C., and part of
Anect Hat-Shepsa's board and some of her men are to be
seen in the Egyptian gallery of the British Museum. An
Egyptian vase also shows a lion and an antelope playing at
draughts, with five men each, the lion making the winning move
and seizing the bag or purse that contains the stakes. Plato
ascribes the invention of the game of irtaaol, or draughts, to
Thoth, the Egyptian Hermes Trismegistus, and Homer represents
Penelope's suitors as playing it (Odyss. i. 107). In one form of
the game as played by the Greeks there were 25 squares, and each
player had 5 men which were probably moved along the lines.
In another there were 4 men and 16 squares with a "sacred
enclosure," a square of the same size as the others, marked in
the exact centre and bisected by one of the horizontal lines,
which was known as the " sacred line." From the incident in
the game of a piece hemmed in on this line by a rival piece
having to be pushed forward as a last resort, arose the phrase
" to move the man from the sacred line " as synonymous with
being hard pressed. This and other phrases based on incidents
in the game testify to the vogue the game enjoyed in ancient
Greece. The Roman game of Latrunculi was similar, but there
were officers (kings in modern draughts) as well as men. When
a player's pieces were all hemmed in he was stale-mated, to
use a chess phrase (ad incilas redactus est), and lost the game.
Other explanations of this phrase are, however, given (see Les
Jeux des anciens, by Becq de Fouquieres). The fullest account
of the Roman game is to be found in the De laude Pisonis,
written by an anonymous contemporary of Nero (see CALPURNIUS,
TITUS). Unfortunately the texts are full of obscurities, so that
it is difficult to make any definite statements as to how the
game was played.
As early as the nth century some form of the game was
practised by the Norsemen, for in the Icelandic saga of Grettir
the Strong the board and men are mentioned more than once.
The history of the modern forms of the game starts with
El Ingenio o juego de marro, de punto o damas, published by
Torquemada at Valencia in 1547. Another Spaniard, Juan
Garcia Canalejas, is said to have published in 1610 the first
edition of his work, a better-known edition of which appeared
in 1650. The third Spanish classic, that of Joseph Carlos Garcez,
was printed in Madrid in 1684. It is noteworthy that in an
illustration in Garcez's book the pieces depicted resemble some-
what some of those used by the Egyptians, and are not unlike
the pawns used in chess.
In 1668 Pierre Mallet had published the first French work on
the game, and elementary though his knowledge of the game
seems to have been, even in comparison with that of Canalejas
or Garcez, the historical notes, rules and instructions which he
gave, served as a basis for many later works. Mallet wrote on
Le Jeu de dames a la franfaise, which was almost identical with
the modern English game. The old French game is, however,
no longer practised in France, having been superseded by Le
Jeu de dames a la polonaise. Manoury gives reasons for believing
that the latter game originated in Paris about 1727.
About 1736 a famous player named Laclef published the first
book on Polish draughts, but the first important book on the
game is Manoury's Jeu de dames d la polonaise, in the production
of which it is said that the author had the assistance of Diderot
and other encyclopedistes. This book, which appeared in 1787,
was to the new game all that Mallet's was to the old French game,
and until the appearance of Poirson Prugneaux's Encydoptdie
du jeu de dames in 1855 it remained the standard authority on
so-called Polish draughts. The Polish game early attained
popularity in Holland, and in 1785 the standard Dutch work,
Ephraim van Embden's Verhandeling over het Damspel, was
produced. In German-speaking countries the progress of the
new game was slower, and the works produced in the first half
of the i gth century generally treat of the older game as well as
the Polish game. This is also the case with Petroff's book
published in St Petersburg in 1827; and similarly Zongono's,
which dates from 1832, deals with the new game and with the
older Italian game.
In 1694 Hyde wrote Historia dami ludi seu latrinctilorum,
in which he tried to prove the identity of draughts with ludus
latrinculorum. This work is historical and descriptive, but con-
tains nothing concerning the game as played in Great Britain.
The authentic history of draughts in England commences with
William Payne's Introduction to the Game of Draughts, the
dedication of which was written by Samuel Johnson. Payne's
games and problems were incorporated in a much more important
work, namely Sturges's Guide to the Game of Draughts, whick
appeared in 1800 and has gone through a score of editions.
About this time the game was much practised in both England
and Scotland, but the first important production of the Scottish
school was Drummond's Scottish Draught Player, the first part
of which dates from 1838, additional volumes appearing in 1851-
1853 and 1861. In 1852 Andrew Anderson published his Game
of Draughts Simplified. A first edition had appeared in 1848,
but the later print is the important one, as it standardized the
laws of the game, fixed the nomenclature of the openings,
introduced a better arrangement of the play, and, since Anderson
was one of the finest players of the game, excelled in accuracy.
In Anderson's time little was known about the openings com-
mencing with any move other than 11-15, an d it was not until
more than thirty years later that the other openings received
DRAUGHTS
more adequate recognition. This was done in Robertson's
Guide to the Game of Draughts, and perhaps better in Lees' Guide
(1892).
Andrew Anderson was the first recognized British champion
player of the game. He and Wyllie, better known as " the herd
laddie," contested five matches for the honour, Anderson win-
ning four to Wyllie's one. After his victory in 1847 Anderson
retired from match play and the title fell to Wyllie, who made
the game his profession and travelled all over the English-
speaking world to play it. In 1872 he successfully defended his
position against Martins, the English champion, and in 1874
against W. R. Barker, the American champion, but two years
later he was beaten by Yates, a young American. On the latter's
retirement from the game, the championship lapsed to Wyllie,
who held it successfully until his defeat by Ferric, the Scottish
champion, in 1894. Two years later Ferric was beaten in his
turn by Richard Jordan of Edinburgh, who had just gained the
Scottish championship; and the new holder defeated Stewart,
who challenged him in 1897, and successfully defended his title
against C. F. Barker, the American champion, to meet whom he
visited Boston in 1900 and played a drawn match.
In 1884 the first international match between England and
Scotland took place, and resulted in so decisive a victory for the
northerners that the contest was not renewed for ten years.
The matches played in 1894 and 1899 also went strongly, in
favour of the Scots, but in 1903 the Englishmen gained their
first victory.
In 1905 a British team visited America and defeated a side
representing the United States.
The tournament for the Scottish championship has been held
annually in Glasgow since 1893. The number and skill of the
Scottish players have given this tournament its pre-eminence;
but if the levelling up of the standards of play in Scotland and
England continues, the competition which is held biennially by
the English Draughts Association is likely to rank as a serious
rival to the Glasgow tourney.
The English Game. Draughts as played now in English-
speaking countries is a game for two persons with a board and
twenty-four men twelve white and twelve black which at
starting are placed as follows: the black men on the squares
numbered i to 12, and the white men on the squares numbered
2i to 32 on the diagram below. In printed diagrams the men are
usually shown on the white squares for the sake of clearness,
BLACK. but in actual play the black squares
are generally used now. In playing
on the black squares the board must
be placed with a black square in the
left-hand corner. The game is played
by moving a man forward, one square
at a time except when making a cap-
ture, along the diagonals to the right
or left. Thus a white man placed
on square 18 in the diagram can
move to 15 or 14. Each player
moves alternately, black always
moving first. If a player touch a
piece he must move that piece and no other. If the piece
cannot be moved, or if it is not the player's turn to
move, he forfeits the game. As soon as a man reaches
one of the squares farthest from his side of the board, he is
" crowned " by having one of the unused or captured men of
his own colour placed on him, and becomes a " king." A
king has the power of moving and taking backwards as well as
forwards.
If a man is on the square adjacent to an opponent's man,
and there is an unoccupied square beyond, the unprotected
man must be captured and removed from the board. Thus, if
there is a white man on square 18, and a black man on square
14, square 9 being vacant, and white having to move, he
jumps over 14 and remains on square 9, and the man on 14
is taken up.
If two or more men are so placed that one square intervenes
13
21
6
10
18
26
11
131
19
27
8
28
WHITE.
between each they may all be taken at one move. Thus if
white having to move has a man on 28, and black men on 24,
16 and 8, the intermediate squares and square 3 being vacant,
white could move from 28 to 3, touching 19 and 12 en route,
and take the men on 24, 16, and 8; but if there is a piece on 7
and square 10 is vacant, the piece on 7 cannot be captured,
for becoming a king ends the move.
It is compulsory to take if possible. If a player can take a
man (or a series of men) but makes a move that does not capture
(or does not capture all that is possible), his adversary may allow
the move to stand, or he may have the move retracted and compel
the player to take, or he may allow the move to stand and remove
the piece that neglected to capture from the board (called
" huffing "). " Huff and move " go together, i.e. the player
who huffs then makes his move. When one player has lost all
his pieces, or has all those left on the board blocked, he loses
the game.
The game is drawn when neither of the players has sufficient
advantage in force or position to enable him to win.
The losing game, or " first off the board," is a form of draughts
not much practised now by expert draught players. The player
wins who gets all his pieces taken first. There is no " huffing ";
a player who can take must do so.
Draughts Openings. As there are seven possible first moves, with
seven possible replies to each, or forty-nine in all, there is an abundant
variety of openings; but as two of these (914, 21 I7and 10-14, 2 I~I7)
are obviously unsound, the number is really reduced to forty-seven.
Much difference of opinion exists regarding the relative strength of
the various openings. It was at one time generally held that for the
black side 1115 wa s the best opening move.
Towards the end of the igth century this view became much
modified, and though 11-15 still remained the favourite, it was
recognized that 10-15, 9~I4 and 11-16 were little, if at all, inferior;
10-14 and 12-16 were rightly rated as weaker than the four moves
named above, whilst 913, the favourite of the " unscientific "
player, was found to be weakest of all.
The white replies to 11-15 have gone through many vicissitudes.
The seven possible moves have each at different times figured as the
general favourite. Thus 24-19, which analysis proved to be the
weakest of the seven, was at one period described by the title of
" Wyllie's Invincible." In course of time it came to be regarded as
decidedly weak, and its name was altered to the less pretentious
title of " Second Double Corner." In the Scottish Tournament of
1894 this opening was played between Ferrie and Stewart, and the
latter won the game with white, introducing new play which has
stood the test of analysis, and so rehabilitating the opening in public
favour. The 21-17 reply to 11-15 wa s introduced by Wyllie, who
was so successful with it that it became known as the " Switcher."
This opening perhaps lacks the solid strength of some of the others,
but it so abounds in traps as to be well worthy of its name. The other
five replies to 11-15, namely 24-20, 23-19, 23-18, 22-18 and 22-17,
are productive of games which give equal chances to both sides.
The favourite replies to 10-15 are 2318, 2218 and 2117, but
they do not appear to be appreciably stronger than the others, with
the possible exception of 24-20.
In response to 11-16, 23-18 is held to give white a trifling advan-
tage, but it is more apparent than real. With the exception of 2319,
which is weak, the other replies are of equal strength, and are only
slightly, if at all, inferior to the more popular 2318. 9-14 is most
frequently encountered by 22-18, but all white's replies are good,
except of course 21-17 which loses a man, and 23-18 which weakens
the centre of white's position.
Against 10-14 the most popular move is 22-17, which gives white
an advantage. Next in strength come 2218 and 2419. 23-18 is
weak.
The strongest reply to 12-16 is 24-20. The others, except 23-19,
which is weak, give no initial advantage to either side.
As already mentioned, 913 is black's weakest opening move,
both 22-18 and 24-19 giving white a distinct advantage. Neverthe-
less 9-13 is a favourite d6but with certain expert players, especially
when playing with inferior opponents.
The term " opening " is frequently applied in a more restricted
sense than that used above. When practically all games started with
1115 't was convenient to assign names to the more popular lines
of play. Thus 11-15, 23-19, 8-u, 22-17, if followed by 11-16, was
called the "Glasgow"; if followed by 9-13, 17-14, the "Laird
and Lady "; if by 3-8, the " Alma."
The variety possible in the opening is a fair reply to the objection
sometimes heard that the game does not afford sufficient scope for
variation. As a matter of fact a practically unlimited number of
different games might be played on any one opening.
The three following games are typical examples of the play arising
from three of the most frequently played openings :
DRAUGHTS
549
Game No. I. " Ayrshire Lassie " Opening.
a 11-15 25-18 10-15 22-17 b 15-18 24-6
a 24-20 3-8 23-19 13-22 24-20 2-9
8-1 i 26-22 6-io 26-17 18-27 17-10
28-24
5-9
30-26
27-23
11-16
31-24
16-23
8-1 1
Drawn.
R. Jordan.
9-13 30-26 9-14 20-11
22-18 1-5 18-9 7-16 20-16
15-22 32-28 5-14 29-25 12-19
a. 11-15, 24-20 forms the " Ayrshire Lassie " opening, so named
by Wyllie. It is generally held to admit of unusual scope for the
display of critical and brilliant combinations.
6. 16-20, 25-22, 20-27, 31-24, 8-1 i, 17-13, 2-6, 21-17, 14-21,
22-17, 21-25, 17-14, 10-17, 19-1- Drawn. R. Jordan.
26-23 28-19
9-14 2-6
18-9 20-11
5-14 8-24
29-25 27-20
11-16 10-15
2O-II 31-26
7-16 15-19
24-20 23-16
15-24 12-19
19-16 7-10
12-19 6-1
22-17 9-14
15-22 26-23
24-6 11-15
Game No. 2. " Kelso-Cross " Opening.
20-16
7-1 1
14-10
15-10
6-10
19-24
26-23
23-18
16-11
11-18
10-7
10-15
10-15
24-27
4-8
20-16
1 1-7
18-15
7-3
15-22
14-18
27-31
8-12
16-7
7-3
22-18
3-7
Drawn.
18-23
31-27
27-24
A. B. Scott.
3-7
18-14
7-1 1
V.
23-30
30-26
24-20
R. Jordan.
23-19
15-24
28-19
8-1 1
19-16
H-I5
27-24
22-25
29-22
14-18
16-11
18-25
17-14
10-17
21-14
25-30
20-16
Drawn.
R. Jordan.
o 10-15
8-12
13-22
5-9
14-18
22-25
a 23-18
25-21
26-17
20-16
17-14
29-22
12-16
1-6
d 19-26
2-7
10-17
17-26
21-17
32-27
30-23
24-19
21-14
5-1
9-13
12-16
15-22
15-24
6-10
26-30
17-14
27-23
24-19
23-19
14-9
15
16-19
7-10
9-14
24-27
10-14
30-26
24-20
14-7
19-12
31-24
19-15
5-9
6-9
3-10
11-15
9-13
14-17
26-23
b 27-24
c 22-17
28-24
24-20
9-5
Dra^
R. Jordan.
a. These two moves form the " Kelso-Cross " opening.
b. 27-23 is also a strong line for white to adopt.
c. 30-25, 4-8, 18-14, 9-27, 22-18, 15-22, 24-15, 11-18, 20^4,
27-32, 26-17, 13-22, 4-8, 22-26, and black appears to have a winning
advantage. R. Jordan.
d. Taking the piece on 18 first seems to lose, thus:
15-22 e 9-13 13-17 6-9 5-14
24-8 17-14 23-18 14-10 10-7 White
4-11 10-17 17-21 9 14 2-6 wins.
31-27 21-14 28-24 J 8-9 7-2 Dallas.
e. 2-7, 27-74, 22-26, 23-18, 26-31, 18-15, 11-18, 20-2, 9-13,
2-9, 5-14, 24-19, 13-22, 30-26. White wins.
Game No. 3. " Dundee " Opening.
12-16 11-15 c 8-12 4-8 9-14 1-26
24-20 20-n 17-13 18-15 26-22 31-22
8-12 7-16 5-9 2-' 14-17 19-23
28-24 24-20 22-18 30-26 21-14 !3"9
15-22 10-14 18-23 12-19
25-18 29-25 27-18 9-6
14-23 14-18 6-10 7-11
27-18 32-27 15-6 Drawn.
R. Jordan.
o. This move is the favourite at this point on account of its
" trappiness," but 25-22 is probably stronger, thus: 25-22, 16-19,
24-15, 11-25, 29-22, 8-1 1, 17-13, 11-16, 20-11, 7-16, and white
can with advantage continue by 2724, 2217, 23-19 or 22-18.
6. 15-19, 20-11, 8-15, 23-16, 12-19, 17-13, 5-9, 30-26, 4-8,
27-23, 8-12, 23-16, 12-19, 31-27- 1-5. 27-23, 19-24, 32-27, 24-31,
22-17. White wins. C. F. Barker.
9-14 b 16-19
22-17 23-16
3-8
026-22
12-19
20-16
c 8-1 1
16-7
2-1 1
22-18
H-23
27-18
15-22
25-18
10-15
18-14
I5-I8
14-10
6-15
17-14
II-I6
I4-IO
19-24
io-7
18-23
7-3
24-27
31-24
16-20
3-7
20-27
7-10
27-31
10-26
31-22
30-25
Drawn. R. Stewart v. R. Jordan.
Problem No. I is the simplest form of that known to draughts-
players as the " First Position." It is of more frequent occurrence
in actual play than any other end-game, and is, besides, typical of
a class of draughts problems which may be described as analytical,
in contradistinction to " strokes."
Problem No. I, by Wm. Payne.
BLACK.
,,
WHITE.
White to move and win.
Solution :
27-32 18-15 IS-" "-IS
28-24 2-28-24 12-16 19-24
23-18 32-28 28-32 32-28
3-0-24-28 1-24-20 16-19 24-27
a. 12-16 same as Var. I. at 5th move.
Var. I.
19-16
18-23
16-11
28-32
27-31
15-19
31-26
19-24
White
wins.
24-27 18-15
15-18 b 16-20
12-16 15-18
28-32 24-19
27-24 32-28
15-11
White
wins.
28-32 8-12
8-12 23-18
32-27 12-8
23-19 12-8 18-15
i 1-8 27-23 8-12
b. 24-28 same as Var. II. at 1st move.
Var. II. 12-16, 15-11, 16-19, 32-27, 28-32, 27-31, 32-28, 11-16,'
19-23, 16-19. White wins.
Var. III. 24-19,32-28,019-16,28-24,16-11,24-20,11-8,18-15.
White wins.
c. 12-16, 28-32, 19-24 or 16-20, same as Var. II. at 5th and 9th
moves respectively. White wins.
Problem No. 2.
BLACK.
I JROJMJ
IS kx !
WHIJE.
White to move and win.
Problem No. 2 is a fine example of another class of problems,
namely, " strokes." It is formed from the " Paisley " opening,
thus:
11-16 22-17 11-16 26-19 9-13 15-10
24-19 9-13 25-21 4-8 25-22 a 2-7
8-1 1 17-14 6-9 29-25 7-11
28-24 10-17 23-18 13-17 19-15
16-20 21-14 16-23 31-26 12-16
a. This forms the position on the diagram. The solution is as
follows:
27-23 7-H 18-9 H-23 26-3
20-27 9-6 5-H 21-7 27-31
14-9 i-io 23-18 3-10 3-7
White wins. Jacques and Campbell,
Other Varieties. The forms of draughts practised on the European
continent differ in some respects from the English variety, chiefly
in respect of the power assigned to a man after " crowning." The
game of Polish Draughts is played in France, Holland, Belgium and
Poland, where it has entirely superseded Le Jeu de dames d la
fran^aise. It is played on a board of 100 squares with 20 men a side.
The men move and capture as in English draughts, except that in
capturing they move either forward or backward. A' crowned man
becomes a queen, and can move any number of squares along the
diagonal. In her capture she takes any unguarded man or queen
in any diagonal she commands, leaping over the captured man or
queen and remaining on any_ unoccupied square she chooses of the
same diagonal, beyond the piece taken. But if there is another un-
guarded man she is bound to choose the diagonal on which it can be
taken. For example (using an English draught-board) place a
queen on square 29 and adverse men at squares 22, 16, 24, 14. The
queen is bound to move from 29 to II, 20, 27, and having made the
captures to remain at 9 or 5, whichever she prefers. The capturing
queen or man must take all the adverse pieces that are en prise, or
550
DRAUPADI DRAVIDIAN
that become so by the uncovering of any square from which a piece
has been removed during the capture, e.g. white queen at square 7,
black at squares 10, 18, 19, 22 and 27, the queen captures at 10,
22, 27 and 19, and the piece at 22 being now removed, she must go
to 15, take the man at 18, and stay at 22, 25 or 29. In consequence
of the intricacy of some of these moves, it is customary to remove
every captured piece as it is taken. If a man arrives at a crowning
square when taking, and he can still continue to take, he must do so,
and not stay on the crowning square as at draughts. Passing a
crowning square in taking does not entitle him to be made a queen.
In capturing, the player must choose the direction by which he can
take the greatest number of men or queens, or he may be huffed.
Numerical power is the criterion, e.g. three men must be taken in
preference to two queens. If the numbers are equal and one force
comprises more queens than the other, the player may take which-
ever lot he chooses. This form of draughts, played on a board of 1 44
squares with jo men a side, is extensively practised by British
soldiers in India.
The German Damenspiel is Polish draughts played on a board of
the same size and with the same number of men as in the English
game. It is sometimes called Minor Polish draughts, and is practised
in Germany and Russia^.
The Italian game differs from the English in two important
particulars a man may not take a king, and when a player has the
option of capturing pieces in more than one way he must take in the
manner which captures most pieces. There is a difference too in the
placing of the board, the black square in the corner of the board
being at the player's right hand, but until a king is obtained the
differences from the English system are unimportant in practice.
In Spanish draughts the board is set as for the Italian game. The
men move as in English draughts, but, in capturing, the largest
possible number of pieces must be taken, and the king has the same
powers as in the Polish game. The game does not differ essentially
from the English game until a king is obtained, and many games from
Spanish works will be found incorporated in English books. Some-
times the game is played with n men and a king, or 10 men and
2 kings a side, instead of the regulation 12 men.
Turkish draughts differs widely from all other modern varieties
of the game. It is played on a board of 64 squares, all of which are
used in play. Each player has_i6 pieces, which are not placed on
the two back rows of squares, as in chess, but on the second and third
back rows. The pieces do not move diagonally as in other forms
of the game, but straight forward or to the right or left horizontally.
The king has the same command of a horizontal or vertical row of
squares that the queen in Polish draughts has over a diagonal.
Capturing is compulsory, and the greatest possible number of pieces
must be taken, captured pieces being removed one at a time as taken.
AUTHORITIES. Falkener's Games Ancient and Oriental; Lees'
Guide to the Game oj Draughts; Drummond's Scottish Draught Players
(Kear's reprint); Gould's Memorable Matches and Book of Problems,
&c. The Draughts World is the principal magazine devoted to the
game. In Dunne's Draught Players' Guide and Companion a section
is devoted to the non-English varieties. (J. M. M. D. ; R. J.)
DRADPADI, in Hindu legend, the daughter of Drupada,
king of Panchala, and wife of the five Pandava princes. She is
an important character in the Mahabharata.
DRAVE, or DEAVA (Ger. Drau, Hung. Drdva, Lat. Drams),
one of the principal right-bank affluents of the Danube, flowing
through Austria and Hungary. It rises below the Innichner Eck,
near the Toblacher Feld in Tirol, at an altitude of a little over
4000 ft., runs eastward, and forms the longest longitudinal
valley of the Alps. The Drave has a total length of 450 m.,
while the length of its Alpine valley to Marburg is 150 m., and to
its junction with the Mur 250 m. Owing to its great extent and
easy accessibility the valley of the Drave was the principal road
through which the invading peoples of the East, as the Huns,
the Slavs and the Turks, penetrated the Alpine countries. The
Drave flows through Carinthia and Styria, and enters Hungary
near Friedau, where up to its confluence with the Danube, at
Almas, 14 m. E. of Esseg, it forms the boundary between that
country and Croatia-Slavonia. At its mouth the Drave attains
a breadth of 1055 ft. and a depth of 20 ft. The Drave is navig-
able for rafts only from Villach, and for steamers from Bares,
a distance of 05 m. The principal affluents of the Drave are:
on the left the Isel, the Gurk, the Lavant, and the largest of all,
the Mur; and on the right the Gail and the Drann.
DRAVIDIAN (Sanskrit Dravida), the name given to a collection
of Indian peoples, and their family of languages 1 comprising all
1 In Dravidian words a line above a vowel shows that it is long.
The dotted consonants (, d, and n are pronounced by striking the tip
of the tongue against the centre of the hard palate. The dotted I
is distinguished from / in a similar way. Its sound, however, differs
the principal forms of speech of Southern India. Their territory,
which also includes the northern half of Ceylon, extends north-
wards up to an irregular line drawn from a point on the Arabian
Sea about 100 m. below Goa along the Western Ghats as far as
Kolhapur, thence north-east through Hyderabad, and farther
eastwards to the Bay of Bengal. Farther to the north we find
Dravidian dialects spoken by small tribes in the Central Provinces
and Chota Nagpur, and even up to the banks of the Ganges in
the Rajmahal hills. A Dravidian dialect is, finally, spoken by
the Brahuls of Baluchistan in the far north-west. The various
Dravidian languages, with the number of speakers returned at
the census of 1901, are as follows:
Tamil . 17,494,901
Malayalam
Kanarese
Tulu .
Kodagu .
Toda
Kota .
Kurux .
Malto .
Gondi
Kui
Tdugu .
Bran til
6,022,131
10,368,515
535,210
39.191
805
1,300
609,721
60.777
I.I25.479
494,099
20,697,264
48,589
Total . . 57,497,982
Of these Tamil and Malayalam can be considered as two
dialects of one and the same language, which is, in its turn,
closely related to Kanarese. Tulu, Kodagu, Toda and Kota
can be described as lying between Tamil-Malayalam and
Kanarese, though they are more nearly related to the latter
than to the former. The same is the case with Kurux and Malto,
while Kui and Gondi gradually approach Telugu, which latter
language seems to have branched off from the common stock
at an early date. Finally, the Brahul dialect of Baluchistan has
been so much influenced by other languages that it is no longer
a pure Dravidian form of speech.
The Dravidian languages have for ages been restricted to the
territory they occupy at the present day. Moreover, they are
gradually losing ground in the north, where they meet with
Aryan forms of speech. If we compare the caste tables and the
language tables in the Indian census of 1901 we find that only
1,125,479 out of the 2,286,913 Gonds returned were stated to
speak the Dravidian Gondi. Similarly only 1505 out of 17,187
Kolams entered their language as Kolaml. Such tribes are
gradually becoming Hinduized. Their language adopts an ever-
increasing Aryan element till it is quite- superseded by Aryan
speech. In the north-eastern part of the Dravidian territory,
to the east of Chanda and Bhandara, the usual state of affairs
is that Dravidian dialects are spoken in the hills while Aryan
forms of speech prevail in the plains. The Dravidian Kui thus
stands out as an isolated island in the sea of Aryan speech.
This process has been going on from time immemorial. The
Dravidians were already settled in India when the Aryans
arrived from the north-west. The fair Aryans were at once struck
by their dark hue, and named them accordingly kri$na tuac,
the black skin. In the course of time, however, the two races
began to mix, and it is still possible to trace a Dravidian element
in the Aryan languages of North India.
The teaching of anthropology is to the same, effect. Most
speakers of Dravidian languages belong to a distinct anthropo-
logical type which is known as the Dravidian. " The Dravidian
race," says Sir H. Risley, " the most primitive of the Indian
types, occupies the oldest geological formation in India, the
medley of forest-clad ranges, terraced plateaus, and undulating
plains which stretches, roughly speaking, from the Vindhyas
to Cape Comorin. On the east and west of the peninsular area
the domain of the Dravidian is conterminous with the Ghats,
in the different districts. A Greek x marks the sound of ch in
" loch "; s. is the English sh; c the ch in " church "; and ri is an
r which is used as a vow_el. In the list of Dravidian languages the
names are spelt fully, with all the necessary diacritical marks. In
the rest of the article dots under consonants have been omitted in
these words.
DRAWBACK
while farther north it reaches on one side to the Aravallis and
on the other to the Rajmahal hills."
This territory is the proper home of the race. A strong
Dravidian element can, however, also be traced in the population
of northern India. In Kashmir and Punjab, where the Aryans
had already settled in those prehistoric times when the Vedic
hymns were composed, the prevailing type is the Aryan one. The
same is the case in Rajputana. From the eastern frontier of the
Punjab, on the other hand, and eastwards, a Dravidian element
can be traced. This is the case in the valleys of the Ganges
and the Jumna, where the Aryans only settled at a later period.
Anthropologists also state that there is a Dravidian element in
the population of western India, from Gujarat to Coorg.
It is thus probable that Dravidian languages have once been
spoken in many tracts which are now occupied by Aryan forms
of speech. The existence of a Dravidian dialect in Baluchistan
seems to show that Dravidian settlers have once lived in those
parts. The tribe in question, the Brahuls, are, however, now
Eranians and not Dravidians by race, and it is not probable
that there has ever been a numerous Dravidian population in
Baluchistan. The Brahuls are most likely the descendants of
settlers from the south.
There is no indication that the Dravidians have entered India
from outside or superseded an older population. For all practical
purposes they can accordingly be considered as the aborigines
of the Deccan, whence they appear to have spread over part of
northern India. Their languages from an isolated group, and
it has not been possible to prove a connexion with any other
family of languages. Such attempts have been made with
reference to the Munda family, the Tibeto-Burman languages,
and the dialects spoken by the aborigines of the Australian
continent. The arguments adduced have not, however, proved
to be sufficient, and only the Australian hypothesis can still
lay claim to some probability. Till it has been more closely
tested we must therefore consider the Dravidian family as an
isolated group of languages, with several characteristic features
of its own. _
The pronunciation is described as soft and mellifluous. Abrupt-
ness and hard combinations of sounds are avoided. There is, for
example, a distinct tendency to avoid pronouncing a short consonant
at the end of a word, a very short vowel being often added after it.
Thus the pronoun of the third person singular, which is avan, " he,"
in Tamil, is pronounced avanu in Kanarese; the Sanskrit word
vdk, " speech, is borrowed in the form t'dku in Tamil; the word
Currant, " horse," is commonly pronounced gurramu in Telugu, and
so on. Combinations of consonants are further avoided in many
cases where speakers of other languages do not experience any
difficulty in pronouncing them. This tendency is well illustrated
by the changes undergone by some borrowed words. Thus the
Sanskrit word brdhmana, " a Brahmin," becomes baramana in
Kanarese and pirdmana in Tamil; the Sanskrit Drami(fa, " Dravi-
dian," is borrowed by Tamil under the form Tirdmida. Dramida,
which also occurs as Dravi<fa, is in its turn developed from an older
Damifa, which is identical with the word Tamir, Tamil.
The forms pirdmana and Tirdmida in Tamil illustrate another
feature of Dravidian' enunciation. There is a tendency in all ol
them, and in Tamil and Malayalam it has become a law, against
any word being permitted to begin with a stopped voiced consonant
(g, j, 4, d, b), the corresponding voiceless sounds (k, c, (, t, p, re-
spectively) being substituted. In the middle of a word or compound,
on the other hand, every consonant must be voiced. Thus the
Sanskrit word danta, " tooth," has been borrowed by Tamil in the
form tandam, and the Telugu anna, " elder brother." tammulu,
" younger brother," become when compounded annadammulu,
" elder and younger brothers."
There is no strongly marked accent on any one syllable, though
there is a slight stress upon the first one. In some dialects this
equilibrium between the different parts of a word is accompaniec
by a tendency to approach to each other the sound of vowels in
consecutive syllables. This tendency, which has been called the
" law of harmonic sequence," is most apparent in Telugu, where
the short a of certain suffixes is replaced by i when the preceding
syllable contains one of the vowels ' (short and long) and ei. Com-
pare the dative suffix ku, ki, in gurramu- ku, "to a horse"; but
tammuni-ki, " to a younger brother." This tendency does not
however, play a prominent r61e in the Dravidian languages.
Words are formed from roots and bases by means of suffixec
formative additions. The root itself generally remains unchangec
throughout. Thus from the Tamil base per, great," we can form
adjectives such as per-iya and per-um, "great"; verbs such as
>er-u-gu, " to become increased " ; per-u-kku, " to cause to increase,"
ind so on.
Many bases can be used at will as nouns, as adjectives, and as
.erbs. Thus the Tamil kadu can mean " sharpness," " sharp," an_d
' to be sharp." Other bases are of course more restricted in their
respective spheres.
The inflection of words is effected by agglutination, i.e. various
additions are suffixed to the base in order to form what we would
call cases and tenses. Such additions have probably once been
separate words. Most of them are, however, now only used as
suffixes. Thus from the Tamil base kon, " king," we can form an
accusative kon-ei, a verb kon-en, " I am king," and so on.
Dravidian nouns are divided into two classes, which Tamil gram-
marians called high-caste and casteless respectively. The former
ncludes those nouns which denote beings endowed with reason,
:he latter all others. Gender is only distinguished in the formei
class, while all casteless nouns are neuter. The gender of animals
[which are irrational) must accordingly be distinguished by using
different words for the male and the female, or else by adding words
meaning male, female, respectively, to the name of the animal
arocesses which do not, strictly speaking, fall under the head of
jrammar.
There are two numbers, the singular and the plural. The latter
is formed by adding suffixes. It, however, often remains unmarked
in the case of casteless nouns.
Cases are formed by adding postpositions and suffixes, usually
to a modified form of the noun which is commonly called the oblique
base. Thus we have the Tamil maram, " tree ; maratt-dl, " from
a tree"; maratt-u-kku, "to a tree"; vidu, "a house"; in((-dl,
" from a house." The case terminations are the same in the singular
and in the plural. The genitive, which precedes the governing noun,
is often identical with the oblique base, or else it is formed by adding
suffixes.
The numeral system is decimal and higher numbers are counted in
tens; thus Tamil pattu, " ten "; iru-badu, " two tens," " twenty."
The personal pronoun of the first person in most dialects has a
double form in the plural, one including and the other excluding the
person addressed. Thus, Tamil nam, we," i.e. I and you ; ndngal,
we," i.e. I and they.
There is no relative pronoun. Relative clauses are effected by
using relative participles. Thus in Telugu the sentence " the book
which you gave to me " must be translated mlru naku iccina pus-
takatnu, i.e. " you me-to given book." There are several such
participles in use. Thus from the Telugu verb kot(a, " to strike,"
are formed koft-ut-unna, " that strikes," koff-i-na, " that struck,"
kotfe, " that would strike," " that usually strikes." By adding
pronouns, or the terminations of pronouns, to such forms, nouns are
derived which denote the person who performs the action. Thus
from Telugu kofte and vddu, " he," is formed kotle-vdtfu, " one who
usually strikes." Such forms are used as ordinary verbs, and the
usual verbal forms of Dravidian languages can broadly be described
as such nouns of agency. Thus, the Telugu, kotfinddu, " he struck,"
can be translated literally " a striker in the past."
Verbal tenses distinguish the person and number of the subject
by adding abbreviated forms of the personal pronouns. Thus in
Kanarese we have mddid-enu, " I did "; mddid-i, " thou didst ";
mddid-evu, " we did "; md<ftd-aru, " they did."
One of the most characteristic features of the Dravidian verb
is the existence of a separate negative conjugation. It usually has
only one tense and is formed by adding the personal terminations
to a negative base. Thus, Kanarese mad-en*, " I did not " ; md4-
evu, " we did not "' ; mdd-aru, " they did not."
The vocabulary has adopted numerous Aryan loan-words. This
was a necessary consequence of the early connexion with the superior
Aryan civilization.
The oldest Dravidian literature is largely indebted to the Aryans,
though it goes back to a very early date. Tamil, Malayalam,
Kanarese and Telugu are the principal literary languages. The
language of literature in all of them differs considerably from the
colloquial. The oldest known specimen of a_ Dravidian language
occurs in a Greek play which is preserved in a papyrus of the
2nd century A.D. The exact period to which the indigenous litera-
ture can be traced back, on the other hand, has not been fixed with
certainty.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Bishop R. Caldwell, A Comparative Grammar of
the Dravidian or South-Indian Family of Languages (London, 1856;
2nd edition, 1875) ; Dr Friedrich Muller, Reise der osterreichischen
Fregatte Novara um die Erde in den Jahren 1857, 1858, 1859, unter
den Befehlen des Commodore B. von Wullerstorjf- Urbair : Linguis-
tischer Theil. (Wien, 1867, pp. 73 and ffJ; Dr Friedrich Muller,
Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft, vol. iii. (Wien, 1884), pp. 106 and
ff. ; G. A. Grierson, Linguistic Survey of India, vol. iv. " Munda
and Dravidian Languages " (Calcutta, 1906), pp. 277 and ff., by
Sten Konow. - (S. K.)
DRAWBACK, in commerce, the paying back of a duty previ-
ously paid upon the exportation of excisable articles or upon the
re-exportation of foreign goods. The object of a drawback is to
enable commodities which are subject to taxation to be exported
552
DRAWING
and sold in a foreign country on the same terms as goods from
countries where they are untaxed. It differs from a bounty in
that the latter enables commodities to be sold abroad at less
than their cost price; it may occur, however, under certain
conditions that the giving of a drawback has an effect equivalent
to that of a bounty, as in the case of the so-called sugar bounties
in Germany (see SUGAR). The earlier tariffs contained elaborate
tables of the drawbacks allowed on the exportation or re-
exportation of commodities, but so far as the United Kingdom
is concerned the system of " bonded warehouses " practically
abolished drawbacks, as commodities can be warehoused (placed
" in bond ") until required for subsequent exportation.
DRAWING, in art. Although the verb " to draw " has various
meanings, the substantive drawing is confined by usage to its
artistic sense, delineation or design. The word " draw," from a
root common to the Teutonic languages (Goth, dragan, O.H.G.
drahan, Mod. Ger. iragen, which all have the sense of " carry,"
O. Norse draga, A.S. drazan, drazen, " draw," cf. Lat. trahere),
means to pull or " drag " (a word of the same origin) as distinct
from the action of pushing. It is thus used of traction generally,
whether by men, animals or machines. The same idea is pre-
served in " drawing " as applied to the fine arts. We do not
usually say, or think, that a sculptor is drawing when he is using
his chisel, although he may be expressing or defining forms,
nor that an engraver is drawing when he is pushing the burin
with the palm of the hand, although the result may be the
rendering of a design. But we do say that an artist is drawing
when he uses the lead pencil, and here we have a motion bearing
some resemblance to that of traction generally. The action of
the artist in drawing the pencil point with his fingers along the
paper is analogous, e.g., to that of a horse or man drawing a
pole over soft ground and leaving a mark behind. The same
analogy may be observed between two of the senses in which the
Freeh verb lirer is frequently employed. This word, the origin
of which is quite uncertain, was formerly used by good writers
in the two senses of the verb to draw. Thus Lafontaine says,
" Six forts chevaux tiraient un coche"; and Caillieres wrote,
" II n'y a pas longtemps que je me suis fait tirer par Rigaud,"
meaning that Rigaud had drawn or painted his portrait. At the
present day the verb tirer has fallen into disuse amongst culti-
vated Frenchmen with regard to drawing and painting, but it is
still universally used for all kinds of design and even for photo-
graphy by the common people.' The cultivated use it still for
printing, as for example " cette gravure sera tiree a cent exem-
plaires," in the sense of pulling. A verb much more nearly
related to the English verb to draw is the French traire (Lat.
trahere), which has trait for its past participle. Traire is now
used exclusively for milking cows and other animals, and though
the analogy between this and artistic drawing is not obvious at
first, nevertheless there is a certain analogy of motion, since the
hand passing down the teat draws the milk downwards. The
word trait is much more familiar in connexion with art as " les
traits du visage," the natural markings of the face, and it is very
often used in a figurative sense, as we say " traits of character."
It is familiar ii^ the English portrait, derived from protrahere.
The ancient Romans used words which expressed more clearly
the conception that drawing was done in line (delineare) or in
shade (adumbrare) , though there are reasons for believing that
the words were often indiscriminately applied. Although the
modern Italians have both traire and trarre, they use delineare
still is the sense of artistic drawing, and also adombrare. The
Greek verb ypafaiv appears in English in " graphic " and in
many compounds, such as photograph, &c. It is worth observing
that the Greeks seem to have considered drawing and writing
(q.v.) as essentially the same- process, since they used the same
word for both. This points to the early identity of the two arts
when' drawing was a kind of writing, and when such writing as
men had learned to practise was essentially what we should
call drawing, though of a rude and simple kind. Even in the
present day picture writing is not unfrequently resorted to by
travellers as a means of making themselves intelligible. There
is also a kind of art which is writing in the modern sense and
drawing at the same time, such as the work of the medieval
illuminators in their manuscripts. (X.)
The Art of Drawing. Rather than attempt here a historical
survey of the various so-called " styles " of drawing, or write a
personal appreciation of them, it seems of greater use to give a
logical account of drawing as an art, applicable to all times and
countries. Reference to the teaching of drawing will be occasion-
ally given rather to illustrate the argument than with a view to
its being of practical use.
At the outset a distinction must be made between drawing as
a means of symbolic or literary expression and drawing as the
direct and only means of expressing the beauty of form. If
Pharaoh wants to have it known that a hundred ducks were
consumed at one meal in his court, he employs a draughtsman
to register the fact on a frieze by picturing a row of cooks occupied
in preparing the hundred ducks. The artist in this case does not
represent the scene as he must have known it in the kitchen,
with all its variety of movement and composition (as an early
Greek vase painter conceived the interior of a vase factory),
but all he does and is required to do is to give the sufficient
number of figures and ducks. The more uniform the figures the
greater will be the effect of number. Drawing has been employed
here to tell a story, and it succeeds in so far as it tells the spectator
plainly what could be told, perhaps less conveniently, in words.
It matters not whether the figures and objects be feelingly
rendered and harmoniously composed. So, to-day, a child, or
any one who has a simple trick of symbolizing figures and objects
in nature, can describe any event or moral by this process,
provided the plot be not too elaborate to be expressed by a
scene, or series of scenes, enacted by dumb symbolic figures.
It is plain that the amusing pictures in Punch or Fliegende
Blatter would be none the more amusing if they were done by the
hand of Michelangelo, nor would the mystic designs of Blake
be more full of meaning if drawn by Rembrandt, for in neither
case do these works depend upon any subtle rendering of the
forms of nature for their success, but upon the dramatic or
intellectual imagination of the man who conceived them. When
the witty or ethical man is at the same time a master draughts-
man his work has two values, the "literary" content and the
beauty of his drawing of natural objects. But it must be borne
in mind that these values are fundamentally distinct; so much
so that the spectator who has no appreciation of the forms of
nature enjoys the story told and remains blind to the qualities
of draughtsmanship, whilst the lover of nature's forms may or
may not trouble to unravel the literary plot but finds perfect
satisfaction in the drawing. By far the greater part of illustra-
tion, and of artistic production generally, must be classed as
symbolic art. Magazine stories to-day are sometimes illustrated
even by photography, for the hand of the artist is not required.
Symbolic art describes indirectly and in a necessarily limited
scope what literature can do directly and with unlimited powers.
The only content of symbolic drawing is its literary meaning;
as drawing it may be quite worthless.
Pure drawing, however, whether it represent a dramatic
event or a knee-joint, has a content that cannot be expressed
by words, and is not necessarily directed towards literary ex-
pression. Just as a fragment of good sculpture pleases the
connoisseur without any reference either to the whole original
or to its spiritual significance, fine drawing can appeal to the
lover of nature independently of indirect considerations.
What is the content of pure drawing? It is held by some
that drawing or monochrome can suggest colour, and many
people, some consciously, others unconsciously, attempt to
represent in drawings the colours of figures and landscape. It
seems a strange aberration to argue that by different intensities
of the one colour various other colours can be suggested: it
would not be more unreasonable to maintain that E flat and F
could be suggested by striking the note G with varying strength.
Now the draughtsman employs various intensities of his mono-
chrome as light and shade by which to give roundness to his
forms. But if on the same drawing he uses the same means in
his attempt to express colour, a conflict would be at once set up
DRAWING
553
between that which makes for form and that which would make
for colour, and the result would generally be a confusion. Again,
let one attempt to give red hair to a monochrome drawing of
a man, and if the red be plain and unmistakable to all who
are not the artist's accomplices, then the artist has succeeded;
otherwise it is bootless to treat of colour and colour values (which
of course must depend upon the existence of colour) in mono-
chrome. Apart from theory, if we examine the drawings,
etchings and monochromes of great artists, where do we find
them attempting to give colour or colour values ? The hundreds
of costume studies by Rembrandt might have been done from
white plaster models, and there are only a few exceptions where
a man has, for instance, a black hat or cloak. But in these few
instances the " colour " tone is applied with such discretion
that the true representation of the form is scarcely, perhaps only
theoretically, impaired: they certainly have gained nothing in
colour value because no specific colour is manifest in them. In
Rembrandt's, Claude's or Turner's drawings of landscapes the
formation of the country, the architecture, &c., is expressed by
line, light and shade, and enhanced by shadows cast from clouds
dimension in all objects causes light and shade, which in their
turn bring about radical changes of the local colour, even in
uniformly coloured objects. Now since drawing cannot suggest
colour, local or atmospherical, any attempt to effect an illusion
by a monochrome is at once defeated. If the end of drawing
were to approach imitation or illusion as nearly as possible,
how is it that a mere " sketch " by a master draughtsman can
be for itself as valuable as his highly finished drawing? And
surely a masterly outline drawing of a figure or landscape does
not pretend to be an illusion. If then the draughtsman does not,
and cannot hope to imitate nature, he is compelled to state only
his ideas of it, ideas of three-dimensional form. For this reason
only drawing must be treated as an art, and not as a mechanical
act of getting an illusion.
It is interesting to trace in the history of an indigenous art
the development of drawing that shall ultimately express ideas
of three-dimensional form. Prof. Emanuel Loewy, in his
Rendering of Nature in Early Greek Art, demonstrates how the
early Greek sculpture (and that of all primitive peoples, children
and ungifted artists) shows an aversion from depth. Their reliefs
(From a Greek vase in the British
Museum (E. 46).
FIG. I.
(From Bullelino arch. Napol. (1843,
torn, i, tav. 7).
FlG. 2.
(From a drawing by Michelangelo (1854, 5,
13, U, Print Room, British Museum).
FIG. 3.
and trees. If, in the drawings of masters, we should find objects
darker or lighter than their position in the light would warrant,
they have value (perhaps not quite a legitimate one) for balancing
the composition as a flat pattern. They were never intended
to suggest colour, nor do they. Yet, in spite of the failure to
succeed, and contrary to logical argument and the practice of
great draughtsmen, the student of most of the schools of Europe
and America still persists in doing the hair dark, and, by attempt-
ing to give colour values to the clothes, breaks up the consistency
of the whole. For the same reason that the sculptor uses uni-
formly coloured material in order that the natural light and
shade may have full opportunity of making his forms manifest
to the spectator, the draughtsman confines himself to giving
light and shade only. If a monochrome has " colour tones," the
effect is similar to that produced by a draped statue made out of
variously coloured marbles an inartistic jumble.
As the immediate purpose and content of drawing there remains
the representation of form only. Drawing is, therefore, essen-
tially the same activity as sculpture, and has no additional scope.
" Pupils," says Donatello, " I give you the whole art of sculpture
when I tell you to draw " (cited by Holroyd, Michel Angela,
p. 295), and the only practical teaching of drawing might be
summed up by the inversion of the above.
Now if everything in nature men, mountains or clouds
were as flat targets, i.e. two-dimensional, drawing could be
legitimately reduced to a mechanical process, to trace their
contours upon a glass screen or even photograph them would
be all that would be required. Indeed, provided the size of the
drawing, the local colour and the texture be the same as those
of the original, a complete illusion would be the result, in fact
the proper end of one's labours. But the presence of the third
are of the flattest description, almost raised contours, and their
figures in the round have at first only one aspect, or flat facade,
so to speak, then three and four aspects, and finally at the date
of Lysippus the figures are fully rounded out, and the members
project at liberty in all directions. Then for the first time Greek
sculpture showed a complete conception of the body's corporeity
(Korperlichkeif). The primitive artist, however well he may be
intellectually aware of the three dimensions of an ybject, does
not fully apprehend its true aspect as offered to the eye from one
point of view. Following this conclusion, it is easy to see also
in the drawing of the early Greeks, children and so on, the same
lack of idea of the third dimension. The figures on the vases of
the " finest period " (about 475 B.C.), despite occasional fore-
shortenings, have, when considered as representations of solid
forms, a papery appearance. They have not half the draughts-
manship shown by the later period of the vase industry, where
the figures, though careless, stereotyped and ill-composed,
come forwards (to use Prof. Loewy's description of later sculp-
ture), go backwards, twist and turn in space in a manner which
cannot be excelled. The reproductions in figs, i, 2, 3 will
illustrate the development. The primitive draughtsman is at
first bound by the silhouette. Later, he desires to fill out the
interior, but this cannot be done without in great part modifying
his contour lines, because they are generally merely indications
of the disappearing and reappearing inner modelling, i.e. of the
figure's third dimension. Finally, the draughtsman in full posses-
sion of a feeling for the corporeity of the object will determine
his contour entirely from within, a procedure which is the exact
opposite to that of his first beginnings. He conceives the length,
breadth and depth of an object and all its parts as solid wholes.
To him a body in violent foreshortening is as easy as a simple
554
DRAWING
profile, and, though it may not be as attractive, it is perhaps
more interesting because its contours are more bound up with,
and dependent upon, the inner modelling; in other words, it has
more depth. The draughtsman's idea of a form in nature is
not a " flat idea," but one containing three dimensions. This
idea he seeks to express either by line alone or by light and shade.
If an artist has not a three-dimensional " grasp " of forms,
and, like a child, confines himself to the primitive tracing of the
silhouette, his compositions may be of excellent flat pattern,
and equal to any of the designs of ancient carpets or early Greek
vases; but in the light of the above argument, and when compared
with the productions of mature draughtsmen of all ages and
countries, they cannot be said to be complete drawings, any
more than the early unifacial statues of the Greeks can be called
true plastic, simply because in neither case has the artist yet
reached the highest possible development of corporeous con-
ception, by which truly to interpret the solid objects of nature as
we know them, and as master draughtsmen see them.
An attempt should be made to explain the psycho-physio-
logical process that must take place in the mind of the real
draughtsman. When we look at an object in nature we know
its length and breadth by the flat image on the retina; we see
also the light and shade, which at once gives us a correct idea
of the object's depth or relief. But we do not, nor could we,
have this idea from the flat image on the retina alone, i.e. from
the mere perception of the light and shade: our knowledge of
its depth is the result of experience, i.e. of our having from
infancy remarked a certain dispensation of light and shade on,
and peculiar to, every form we have touched or traversed, and
so, by association and inference, being early enabled to have
ideas of the depth of things by their various arrangements of
lights and darks without having to touch or traverse them.
Nevertheless the act (generally, but by no means always, an
unconscious one) of visually touching a form must necessarily
take place before we can apprehend the third dimension of a form.
It is, then, by the combination of the ideas derived from pure
vision and the ideas derived from touch that we know the
length, breadth and depth of a solid form. We have shown that
the art of drawing is not an imitation, but an expression of the
artist's ideas of form; therefore all drawing of forms that merely
reproduces the image on the retina, and leaves unconsulted
the ideas of touch, is incomplete and primitive, because it does
not express a conception of form which is the result of an associa-
tion of the two senses; in other words, it does not contain an idea
of the object's relief or solidity. And all teaching of drawing
that does not impress upon the student the necessity of combin-
ing the sense of vision with that of touch is erroneous, for it is
thereby limiting him to a mechanical task, viz. the tracing of the
flat image on the retina, which could be equally well done by
mechanical means, or by photography alone.
In most of the schools of Europe and America it is true that
great stress is laid upon the importance of giving life-like relief to
, drawings, but the
method by which
the students are
allowed to get
the relief is by
employing the
sense of vision
only. Tracing the
FlG - 4- silhouette of the
figure as minutely as possible, they then fill it out with inner-
modelling, which also is done by vision alone, for the lights
and darks of the original are copied down as so many flat
patterns fitted together and gradated like a child's puzzle,
and are not used merely as indication by which to " feel " the
depth of the object. Such a procedure is as if in drawing a
brick of which three sides were visible, one were first to draw
the entire contour (fig. 4, a), the subtle perspective of which he
might get correct with some mechanical apparatus or by infinite
mechanical pains, and then fill up the interior with its " shading "
(fig. 4, 6). The method would be plainly laborious, unintelligent
and unedifying, and in drawing the most complicated fore-
shortened forms of the human body it would seem still more
illogical. That this principle of instruction does not help the
student to grasp the three-dimensional character properly can
be proved by the twenty-minute studies of the average student
who in his fourth year has won a gold medal for an astounding
piece of life-like stippling. They are still unintelligent contour
tracings, as if of cardboard figures, with a few irrelevant patches
of dark here and there within the silhouette.
But high modelling that would make for illusion of reality is not
the first aim of draughtsmanship, nor have the best draughtsmen
employed it save by exception. Michelangelo, Ingres, Holbein
and Rembrandt have shown us that it is possible to give sufficient
relief with a mere outline drawing. Again, the desire for salience
often blunts the student's sense of the real character of the forms
he is rounding out. So his elaborately modelled portrait may
look very " life-like," but when compared with the original it will
generally be seen that the whole and each of the individual forms
of the drawing lack the peculiar character of those of the original.
It is by carefully watching for the character of each fresh variety
in figure and feature that great draughtsmen have excelled, and
not by " life-like " relief, or even a sophisticated exposition of
anatomical details at the expense of character. Can it be
seriously maintained that a masterly sudden grasp of true formal
character can be developed in a student by a system in which he
patiently spends many days and weeks in stippling into plastic
appearance one drawing which has originally been " laid in " by a
mechanical process?
It has been shown that to attempt tomakean illusion of nature
is neither within the power of monochrome nor has been the
chief aim of draughtsmen, but th0.t the art of drawing consists in
giving a plain statement of one's ideas, be they slight or studied,
of the solid forms of nature. But the question may still be asked:
Why is it that a rigorously accurate and finished drawing by a
student or artist with no such ideas or conception is not good
drawing, containing as it must do all that can be seen in the
original, missing only its complete illusion? Why, in a word, is
not a photograph a work of art?
The common explanation of the above important question is
that the artist " selects and eliminates from the forms of nature."
But surely this is the principle of the caricaturist and virtuoso?
A beautiful drawing, however slight, is but the precipitate of the
whole in the artist's mind. And a highly finished drawing by a
master does not show even any apparent selection or elimination.
The adoption of the principle of selection to differentiate art from
mechanical reproduction is fundamentally vicious, and could be
shown to be wholly inapplicable to the so-called formative arts.
Nor could the theory of " selection " be used as a principle of
teaching, for if to the first question the pupil would make, " What
am I to select?" it were answered, " Only the important things,"
then the next question, "What are the important things?" could
be answered only by saving, " That alone the real artist knows,
but cannot teach." Certainly there are important things that
can be taught the student in the initial stage of " laying-in " a
figure, but when to begin selecting or eliminating no teacher
could tell him, simply because he must be aware that a true
draughtsman can afford to eliminate nothing when the truth of
the whole is at stake. The artist's conception and its expression
may be slight or elaborate, but in neither case can selection or
elimination take place, for a true conception must be founded
upon the character of the whole, which is determined by the
entire complex of all the parts.
To explain the essential difference between art and mechanical
drawing or mechanical reproduction, a more applicable theory
must be found. Compare the art of telling a story. If, to
describe an incident in the street you had the entire affair re-
enacted on the same spot, you would have but made a mechanical
reproduction of it, leaving the spectator to simplify the affair, and
construct his own conception of it. You have not given your
ideas of the event, and so you have not made a work of art. So, if
a man draws an object detail for detail by any mechanical
process, or traces over its photograph, he has but reduplicated
DRAWING
555
the real aspect of the object, and has failed to give the spectator a
simple and intelligible idea of it. Starting out with the generous
notion of giving all, that there may be " something for everyone,"
he has given nothing. He did not originally form an intelligible
and simplified idea of the figure, so how can his drawing be
expected to give one to others ?
But how can forms be made more simple and intelligible than
by reproducing their aspect with absolute accuracy? Our
combined sense of vision and touch comprehends very easily
certain elementary solid forms, the sphere, the cube, the pyramid
and the cylinder. No forms but these, and their modifications,
can be apprehended by the mind in one and the same act of
vision. Every complex form, even so simple as that of a kidney,
for instance, must be first broken up into its component parts
before it can be fully apprehended or remembered. Analogously
with the above, Prof. Wundt has shown how the mind can
apprehend as separate units any number, of marbles for instance,
up to five, after which every number must be split up into lots of
twos, threes, fours and fives, or twenties, thirties and so on,
before it can realize the full content of that number in one and the
same mental picture. So the only way to receive an intelligible
idea of a complex form, such as a human figure, is first to discover
in the figure itself, and then in all its parts, only modifications of
the above elementary solid forms, and the drawing of a concep-
tion thus informed must needs be a very clear and intelligible
one. The more the artist is capable and practised, the more
clearly will he conceive and distinguish in nature each subtle
modification of these elementary forms, their direction, their
relation to, and their dependence upon one another. The only
difference between a good draughtsman and a bad one is the
degree of subtlety of his apprehension. Unless the draughtsman
has seen some such clear forms in his original, his labour to
produce a work of art will be grievous and fruitless. All good
drawing is stamped with this kind of structural insight. The
more the artist adheres to nature, and the more finished his
drawing, the more will the lines and forms that he makes be, so to
speak, in excess of those of nature, or dull imitation or photo-
graphy. It is not to be supposed that able draughtsmen work, or
need ever have worked, consciously in this manner. It is,
indeed, the virtue peculiar to the artist, as interpreter of form,
that he instinctively comprehends the real elemental character of
complex forms, whilst the majority of people (on the showing of
their own drawings) entertain but confused or no ideas of them.
It is because a good drawing reduces the chaos of ideas supplied
by the raw material of nature, to one intelligible manner of
seeing it, that all lovers of nature welcome it with joy. It is this
process of discovery and interpretation that marks the essential
difference between art and mechanical drawing or reproduction.
Art gives intelligible ideas of the forms of nature, mechanism
attempts to reduplicate their aspects.
There are some who hold that drawing is not exclusively a
matter of interpreting form, but that great artists have their own
" personalities " which they infuse into their work. They will
ask, How is it otherwise to be explained that two equally good
draughtsmen will invariably make different drawings of the same
figure ? Is it not for the same reason that one man will divide up
a row of eight marbles into groups of four, and another into five
and three ? The subjectivity of experience governs th*- different
conceptions that good draughtsmen will form of the same object.
Accordingly as a draughtsman feels form so will he draw it, and it
is only because our sense apparatuses are more or less similarly
constituted that we can understand and appreciate one another's
conceptions.
But if the master draughtsman gives the true character of
his model's form, why is it that his drawings are not pleasing to
all alike? Whence the doubts and criticism that have been
called forth by all original artists? If we first examine the
attitude of the average man, artist or layman, towards nature,
we can better explain his attitude towards works of art. The
average man or artist has not a highly developed appreciation of
form per se, whether it be the form of natural or manufactured
objects. And it would seem that he is still less a disinterested
spectator of the forms and features of his fellow beings and
animals, their movements, their colour, their value in a room or
landscape. He has sentimental, moral or intellectual prefer-
ences. In other words, he likes or dislikes only those faces or
figures which hundreds of personal associations have taught
him to like or dislike. The riding man's admiration for the look
of a particular horse is based upon the fact that it looks like " a
horse to go," and hence it is what he calls beautiful, while the
artist, in the capacity of artist and not of sportsman, is not
particular in his choice of horse-flesh, but finds each animal
equally interesting for itself alone. Consequently in art any face,
figure or object that does not come into the category of what
the average man cares for is condemned by him even as it would
be in real life, since he is no lover of form for form's sake, but
provided the subject or moral be pleasing the quality of the
draughtsmanship is of small account. The picture of a dwarf,
or of an anatomy lesson, or of a group of ordinary bourgeois
folk would not really please him, even though he were told that
the work was by Velazquez, Rembrandt or Manet. We have
only to listen to the common criticism of works of art to know
that it is founded upon personal predilection only. We do not
hear such personal criticism upon drawings of landscape, not
because artists do them better, but because natural landscape
has no interest for any one other than for its form, or, at least,
people do not hold such definite personal likes or dislikes with
regard to its various manifestations. But the artist, though his
own personal predilections may, and generally do, lead him to
work within that agreeable milieu, has, in the capacity of artist,
no subjective prejudices; indeed, if he had them, he could not
represent them by line, light and shade. He seeks always new
varieties of form; hence his subjects, and his manner of posing
them, are often unpleasing to the man who is busy with other
affairs, and has no great experience of nature's forms. Let a good
draughtsman make a successful likeness of the mother of some
average man, and the latter will be delighted, but it by no means
follows that he will delight in a drawing of the wife of the artist,
though done by the same hand and with equal skill.
If drawing is the art of giving one's ideas of the forms of
nature, then all criticism of drawing must be based upon the
question, " How far does such and such a work show an intimate
knowledge of or intelligent visualization of the forms we know
in nature? " and no other principle of judgment can be applicable
to all drawing alike. Hence only those who have by natural
endowment a clear sense of the forms of things, and who have
made more than ordinary study of them, are in a position to
apply to drawings the above criterion with any approach to
infallibility. It is a fact that there are, and always have been,
a certain number of people who agree perfectly in their apprecia-
tion of the works of certain draughtsmen of different times and
countries, and who can state reasons for their appreciation in
definite and almost identical terms, for it is based upon knowledge
and experience. To such people all fine draughtsmanship owes
its public fame, and its immortality lies in their safe keeping.
It may be argued that each has a right to his own opinion
about form and its representation, on the supposed ground that
we all see form in different ways. But there is a fallacy in this
argument. If we take the average man's drawing of any form
more complex than a loaf of bread as a fair and only testimony
of his power of visualization of forms, we must conclude that most
of us see not differently, but wrongly, or rather confusedly and
disconnectedly, and that some can visualize form scarcely at all.
If this be true, the average person's sight and ability to judge
drawing is seriously diminished. If, then, drawing can be judged
and appreciated only by knowledge and experience of the forms
of nature, no critical formula could be made out so as to enable
a child or savage or ordinary civilized adult to estimate or enjoy
it. If it be argued that drawings are to be judged from some
abstract or symbolic point of view, independently of its subtle
representation of form, then incompetent drawing might be as
beautiful as the competent, which would be absurd. However,
if the competent characterization of form were admitted as at
least the first condition of beautiful drawing, it would follow
556
DRAWING
that any abstract value it might have must be wholly dependent
upon the manner in which form is represented, and so it would
be superfluous to judge it by any standard other than the direct,
definite and concrete one of form. Abstract beauty, since no
one has yet defined it agreeably to all, is, apparently, with those
who affect a feeling for it, a matter of individual taste, and
therefore cannot be questioned. But the clear visualization of
the forms of nature is based upon a special endowment and
knowledge, and can be criticized by demonstration. People
may differ in their tastes, but they may not, nor do they, differ
upon questions of real knowledge. Drawing, as the activity of
giving one's ideas of form, must therefore be judged not by taste
but by knowledge.
In view of the purpose and content of drawing as here demon-
strated, there is no other principle of judgment that is relevant.
Yet we often hear drawing judged by criteria which are founded
upon no such concrete base but upon certain vague abstractions;
or, again, upon a literary or moral base which could be applicable
only to symbolic art.
It is said that this'or that draughtsman excels in " beauty of
line." Now in spite of the labours of many painters and theorists,
it cannot reasonably be held that one purely abstract line or
curve is more beautiful than another, for the simple reason that
people have no common ground upon which to establish the
nature of abstract beauty. It may be, however, that even as
certain simple forms are more easily apprehended than complex
ones, there is the same distinction with regard to lines. If then
an artist of clean vision sees in an object of reality such clear
characteristic lines, he draws them not for their abstract beauty,
but merely because by them alone can he express his idea of
the form before him. The early Greek vase painters, and all
great artists of primitive periods, being attracted only by the
silhouette, became very subtle to observe nature's outlines in
their most intelligible character, and to this capacity is due their
" beauty of line," and not to any preconceived notion of an
abstract line of perfect beauty, and nowhere will " beauty of
line " be found on Greek vases, or elsewhere, that is not informed
by, and does not express, a fine conception of nature's contours.
So too in later three-dimensional drawing there is no beauty of
line which does not intelligibly express not only the directions
and angles of the main contour, but the inner modelling, i.e.
the relief of the figure. It is only a superficial judgment that
would prefer one drawing to another, even if both may be equally
good, because the line of one is neat and the other " tormented."
Contour being in nature an ideal line between one form and
another, it is illogical to treat it or criticize it in a drawing as an
actual and specific thing, apart from the forms that make it
and are made by it. If an artist drew a dragon with deliberate
disregard for animal construction, his drawing would be silly,
and only by a profound knowledge of the forms of nature could
it be made to have beautiful lines. Truth to nature is always
originality, and it is the only originality worth the name.
Again, some people judge one drawing as better than another
in that it shows more ' individuality" or "temperament." Now
a man's individuality is, presumably, a vague feeling in our
minds produced by the net result of the ways in which he sees,
hears, loves, thinks and so on, so that we could not tell a man's
individuality from any single one of his manifestations. With
his entire work as an artist before us, i.e. his manner of seeing,
we could do no more than infer, with the help of outside data,
from the subjects he chooses, and the neatness or boldness of his
line, something about his general character, and that with small
degree of certainty. To regard a man's works of art, or indeed
any of his manifestations, from this point of view, is, after all,
nothing but a kind of inquisitive cheiromancy. Those who
pretend to like the drawings of Watteau or Michelangelo " because
they show more individuality " than the incompetent work of a
beginner or poor artist cannot be skilled in their own business,
because the lady who tells your character by your handwriting
finds as much individuality in bad writing as in good, some-
times even more. It may be entertaining to some to guess at the
artist's character from his works by this process of inference
and comparison, but it is unreasonable to imagine that "in-
dividuality," as such, can be made a serious criterion of aesthetic
judgment. The only individuality a draughtsman can show
directly by his drawing is his individual way of conceiving the
forms of nature, and even this is immaterial provided the
conception and drawing be good.
A word or two are necessary upon " style," which unfortunate
word has made much mystery in criticism. The great draughts-
men of every time and country are known by their own words,
as well as their works, to have been infinitely respectful to the
form of every detail in nature. Their drawings always recall
to our minds reality as we ourselves have seen it (provided we
have studied from nature and not from pictures). The drawing
of a hand, for instance, by Hokusai, Ingres or Diirer, revives
in us our own impressions of the forms and aspects of real hands.
In short there is manifest in all good drawings, whatever their
difference of medium or superficial appearance, an entire de-
pendence upon the forms of nature. Hence we cannot imagine
that they were conceived and executed with the conscious
effort to obtain some abstract style independent of the material
treated. The style they plainly have can spring from this
common quality, their truthful and well understood representa-
tion of forms. Style, then, is the expression of a clear under-
standing of the material from which the artist works. Unless
a drawing shows this understanding it would be as impossible
as it would be gratuitous to argue that it could have style. But
it would seem that some people mean by style nothing more
than the mere superficial appearance of the work. They would
have a draughtsman draw " in the style of Holbein," but not
" in the style " of Rembrandt. This kind of preference, as
remarked above, is superficial, for it overlooks the main issue
and purpose of drawing, viz. the representation, by any means
whatever, of the artist's ideas of form. It is as though one
should prefer a letter from Holbein to one from Rembrandt,
though both were equally expressive, simply because Holbein's
handwriting was prettier than Rembrandt's. Each draughtsman
manifests a kind of handwriting peculiar to himself even in
his most faithful rendering of form; and by this we can imme-
diately recognize the artist; many, for instance Hogarth and
some Japanese, seem to have let their quirks, full stops
and so on, get the upper hand at the expense of serious,
sensitive draughtsmanship.
It is fair to suppose that all abstract principles of aesthetic
judgment, such as beauty of line, personality, style, nobility
of thought, romanticism, are merely pretexts set up by people
who would still affect to admire the drawings of recognized
masters when they have neither the knowledge of, nor the care
for, the forms of nature by virtue of which alone these drawings
are what they are, and by which alone they can be immediately
appreciated. (J. R. Fo.)
Drawing-Office Work. In modern engineering, few pieces of
mechanism are ever produced in the shops until their design has
been settled in the " drawing office," and embodied in suitable
drawings showing general and detailed views. This is a broad
statement to which there are exceptions, to be noted presently.
Drawing-office work is divisible into four principal groups.
First, there is the actual designing, by far the most difficult
work, which is confined to relatively few well-paid men. The
qualifications necessary for it are a good scientific, mathematical
and engineering training, and a specialized experience gathered
in the particular class of mechanism to which the designing
relates. Second, there is the work of the rank and file who take
instructions from the chiefs, and elaborate the smaller details and
complete the drawings. Third, there are the tracers, either
youths or girls, who copy drawings on tracing paper without
necessarily understanding them. Fourth, there is a printing
department in which phototypes are produced on sensitized
paper from tracings.
The character of the drawings used includes the general
drawings, or those which show a mechanism complete; and the
detailed drawings, which illustrate portions isolated from their
connexions and relationships. The first are retained in the office
DRAWING AND QUARTERING DRAYTON
557
for reference, and copies are only sent out to the men who have to
assemble or erect and complete mechanisms. The second are
distributed to the several shops and departments where sectional
portions are being prepared, as pattern shop, smithy, turnery,
machine shop, &c. General drawings are, as a rule, drawn to a
small scale, ranging say from J in. to i in. to the foot; but
details are either to actual size, or to a large scale, as from i| in.
to the foot or 3 in. or 6 in. to the foot.
A large number of minutiae are omitted from general drawings,
but in the detailed ones that are sent into the shops nothing is
apparently too trivial for insertion. In this respect, however,
there is much difference observable in the practice of different
firms, and in the best practice of the present compared with that
of former years. In the detailed drawings issued by many firms
now, every tiny element and section is not only drawn to actual
size, but also fully dimensioned, and the material to be used is
specified in every case. This practice largely adds to the work of
the drawing-office staff, but it pays.
The present tendency therefore is to throw more responsibility
than of old on the drawing-office staff, in harmony with the
tendency towards greater centralization of authority. Much of
detail that was formerly left to the decision of foremen and
skilled hands is now determined by the drawing-office staff.
Heterogeneity in details is thus avoided, and the drawings reflect
accurately and fully the past as well as the present practice of the
firm. To so great an extent is this the case that the preparation
of the tools, appliances, templets, jigs and fixtures used in the
shops is often now not permitted to be undertaken until proper
drawings have been prepared for them, though formerly the
foreman's own hand sketches generally sufficed. The practice of
turret work has been contributory to this result. In many
establishments now the designing of shop tools and fixtures is
done in a department of the office specially set apart for that
kind of work.
The growing specialization of the engineer's work is reflected
in the drawing office. Specialists are sought after, and receive
the highest rates of pay. A man is required to be an expert in
some one branch, as electric cranes or hydraulic machines, steel
works plant, lathes, or heavy or light machine tools. The days
are past in which all-round men were in request. In those firms
which manufacture a large range of machinery, the drawing-
office staff is separated into departments, each under its own
chief, and there is seldom any transference of men from one to
another.
Although in the majority of instances designs and drawings are
completed before the manufacture is undertaken, exceptions to
this rule occur in connexion with the work of standardizing
machines and motors, for repetitive and interchangeable manu-
facture on a large scale. Here it is so essential to secure the most
minute economies in manufacture that the first articles made
are of a more or less experimental character. Only after no
further improvement seems for the time being possible are the
drawings made or completed for standard use and reference.
In some modern shops even standardized drawings are scarcely
used, but their place is taken by the templets, jigs and fixtures
which are employed by the workmen as their sole guides in
machining and assembling parts. By the employment of these
aids locations and dimensions are embodied and fixed absolutely
for any number of similar parts; reference to drawings thus
becomes unnecessary, and they therefore fall into disuse.
The mechanical work of the drawing office is confined strictly
to orthographic projections and sections of objects. Per-
spective views are of no value, though occasionally an object is
sketched roughly in perspective as an aid to the rapid grasp of an
idea. Drawings involve plans, elevations, and sectional views,
in vertical and angular relations.
There are a good many conventionalities adopted which have
no correspondences in fact, with the object of saving the draughts-
man's time; or else, as in the case of superposition of plans and
sections, to show in one view what would otherwise require two
drawings. Among the convenient conventionalities are the
indications of toothed wheels by their pitch lines only, of screws
by parallel lines and by diagonal shade lines; and of rivets,
bolts and studs by their centres only. The adoption of this
practice never leads to error.
In the preliminary preparation of drawings in pencil no
distinction is made between full or unbroken lines, and dotted
or centre lines, and the actual outlines of the objects. These
differences are made when the inking-in is being done. Indian
or Chinese ink is used, because it does not run when colours are
applied. There are conventional colours used to indicate
different materials. But colouring is not adopted so much as
formerly, because of the practice of making sun prints instead of
the more expensive tracings for the multiplication of drawings.
When tracings are coloured the colour is applied on the back
instead of on the side where the ink lines are drawn.
The economical importance of the printing department of the
drawing office cannot be overestimated. Before its introduction
drawings could only be reproduced by laborious tracing on paper
or cloth, the first being flimsy, the second especially liable to
absorb grease from the hands of the workmen. By the sun
copying processes (see SUN COPYING) any number of prints can be
taken from a single tracing. But even the fickle sun is being
displaced by electricity, so that prints can be made by night as
well as day, on cloudy days as well as on bright ones. Twenty
minutes of bright sunshine is required for a print, but the electric
light produces the same result within five minutes. Prints are
blue, white or brown. The advantage of white is that they can
be coloured. But the majority are blue (white lines on blue
ground). All can be had on stout, thin or medium paper.
An innovation in drawing-office equipment is that of vertical
boards, displacing horizontal or sloping ones. They have the
advantage that the draughtsman is able to avoid a bending
posture at his work. The objection on the ground that the tee-
square must be held up constantly with one hand is overcome by
supporting and balancing it with cords and weights. (J. G. H.)
DRAWING AND QUARTERING, part of the penalty anciently
ordained in England for treason. Until 1870 the full punishment
for the crime was that the culprit be dragged on a hurdle to the
place of execution; that he be hanged by the neck but not till
he was dead; that he should be disembowelled or drawn and his
entrails burned before his eyes; that his head be cut off and his
body divided into four parts or quartered. This brutal penalty
was first inflicted in 1284 on the Welsh prince David, and on
Sir William Wallace a few years later. In Richard III.'s reign
one Collingbourne, for writing the famous couplet " The Cat, the
Rat and Lovel the Dog, Rule all England under the Hog," was
executed on Tower Hill. Stow says, " After having been hanged,
he was cut down immediately and his entrails were then extracted
and thrown into the fire, and all this was so speedily done that
when the executioners pulled out his heart he spoke and said
' Jesus, Jesus.' " Edward Marcus Despard and his six accom-
plices were in 1803 hanged, drawn and quartered for conspiring
to assassinate George III. The sentence was last passed (though
not carried out) upon the Fenians Burke and O'Brien in 1867.
There is a tradition that Harrison the regicide, after being
disembowelled, rose and boxed the ears of the executioner.
DRAWING-ROOM (a shortened form of " with-drawing room,"
the longer form being usual in the i6th and i7th centuries), the
English name generally employed for a room used in a dwelling-
house for the reception of company. It originated in the setting
apart of such a room, as the more private and exclusive preserve
of the ladies of the household, to which they withdrew from the
dining-room. The term " drawing-room " is also used in a special
sense of the formal receptions or " courts " held by the British
sovereign or his representative, at which ladies are presented, as
distinguished from a " levee," at which men are presented.
DRAYTON, MICHAEL (1563-1631), English poet, was born
at Hartshill, near Atherstone, in Warwickshire in 1563. Even
in childhood it was his great ambition to excel in writing verses.
At the age of ten he was sent as page into some great family,
and a little later he is supposed to have studied for some time
at Oxford. Sir Henry Goodere of Powlesworth became his
patron, and introduced him to the countess of Bedford, and for
DREAM
several years he was esquire to Sir Walter Aston. How the early
part of his life was spent, however, we possess no means of
ascertaining. It has been surmised that he served in the army
abroad. In 1590 he seems to have come up to London, and to
have settled there.
In 1591 he produced his first book, The Harmony of the Church,
a volume of spiritual poems, dedicated to Lady Devereux. The
best piece in this is a version of the Song of Solomon, executed
with considerable richness of expression. A singular and now
incomprehensible fate befell the book; with the exception of
forty copies, seized by the archbishop of Canterbury, the whole
edition was destroyed by public order. It is probable that he
had come up to town laden with poetic writings, for he published
a vast amount within the next few years. In 1593 appeared
Idea: The Shepherd's Garland, a collection of nine pastorals,
in which he celebrated his own love-sorrows under the poetic
name of Rowland. The circumstances of this passion appear
more distinctly in the cycle of 64 sonnets, published in 1594,
under the title of Idea's Mirror, by which we learn that the lady
lived by the river Ankor in Warwickshire. It appears that he
failed to win his " Idea," and lived and died a bachelor. In
1593 appeared the first of Dray ton's historical poems, The Legend
of Piers Gaveston, and the next year saw the publication of
Matilda, an epical poem in rhyme royal. It was about this time,
too, that he brought out Endimion and Phoebe, a volume which
he never republished, but which contains some interesting
autobiographical matter, and acknowledgments of literary help
from Lodge, if not from Spenser and Daniel also. In his Fig
for Momus, Lodge has reciprocated these friendly courtesies.
In 1596 Dray ton published his long and important poem of
Mortimerades, which deals with the Wars of the Roses, and is a
very serious production in ottava rima. He afterwards enlarged
and modified this poem, and republished it in 1603 under the
title of The Barons' Wars. In 1596 also appeared another
historical poem, The Legend of Robert, Duke of Normandy, with
which Piers Gaveston was reprinted. In 1597 appeared England's
Heroical Epistles, a series of historical studies, in imitation of
those of Ovid. These last poems, written in the heroic couplet,
contain some of the finest passages in Drayton's writings.
With the year 1597 the first half of the poet's literary life closes.
He had become famous by this rapid production of volumes, and
he rested on his oars. It would seem that he was much favoured
at the court of Elizabeth, and he hoped that it would be the
same with her successor. But when, in 1603, he addressed a
poem of compliment to James I., on his accession, it was ridiculed,
and his services rudely rejected. His bitterness of spirit found
expression in a satire, The Owl, which he printed in 1604, although
he had no talent in this kind of composition. Not much more
entertaining was his scriptural narrative of Moses in a Map of
his Miracles, a sort of epic in heroics printed the same year.
In 1605 Dray ton reprinted his most important works, that is to
say, his historical poems and the Idea, in a single volume which
ran through eight editions during his lifetime. He also collected
his smaller pieces, hitherto unedited, in a volume undated, but
probably published in 1605, under the title of Poems Lyric and
Pastoral; these consisted of odes, eclogues, and a fantastic
satire called The Man in the Moon. Some of the odes are
extremely spirited. In this volume he printed for the first time
the famous Ballad of Agincourt.
He had adopted as early as 1598 the extraordinary resolution
of celebrating all the points of topographical or antiquarian
interest in the island of Great Britain, and on this laborious work
he was engaged for many years. At last, in 1613, the first part
of this vast work was published under the title of Poly-Olbion,
eighteen books being produced, to which the learned Selden
supplied notes. The success of this great work, which has since
become so famous, was very small at first, and not until 1622
did Drayton succeed in finding a publisher willing to undertake
the risk of bringing out twelve more books in a second part.
This completed the survey of England, and the poet, who had
hoped " to crown Scotland with flowers," and arrive at last at
the Orcades, never crossed the Tweed. In 1627 he published
another of his miscellaneous volumes, and this contains some
of his most characteristic and exquisite writing. It consists of
the following pieces: The Battle of Agincourt, an historical poem
in ottava rima (not to be confused with his ballad on the same
subject), and The Miseries of Queen Margaret, written in the
same verse and manner; Nimphidia, the Court of Faery, a most
joyous and graceful little epic of fairyland; The Quest of Cinthia
and The Shepherd's Sirena, two lyrical pastorals; and finally
The Moon Calf, a sort of satire. Of these Nimphidia is perhaps
the best thing Drayton ever wrote, except his famous ballad on
the battle of Agincourt; it is quite unique of its kind and full of
rare fantastic fancy.
The last of Drayton's voluminous publications was The Muses'
Elizium in 1630. He died in London on the 23rd of December
1631, was buried in Westminster Abbey, and had a monument
placed over him by the countess of Dorset, with memorial lines
attributed to Ben Jonson. Of the particulars of Drayton's life
we know almost nothing but what he himself tells us; he
enjoyed the friendship of some of the best men of the age.
He corresponded familiarly with Drummond; Ben Jonson,
William Browne, George Wither and others were among his
friends. There is a tradition that he was a friend of Shakespeare,
supported by a statement of John Ward, once vicar of Stratford-
on-Avon, that " Shakespear, Drayton and Ben Jonson had a
merry meeting, and it seems, drank too hard, for Shakespear
died of a feavour there contracted." In one of his poems, an
" elegy " or epistle to Mr Henry Reynolds, he has left some
valuable criticisms on poets whom he had known. He was even
engaged in the labour of the dramatists; at least he had a
share, with Munday, Chettle and Wilson, in writing Sir John
Oldcastle, which was printed in 1600. That he was a restless and
discontented, as well as a worthy, man may be gathered from his
own admissions.
The works of Drayton are bulky, and, in spite of the high place
that he holds in critical esteem, it cannot be pretended that he
is much read. For this his ponderous style is much to blame.
The Poly-Olbion, the most famous but far from the most suc-
cessful of his writings, is tedious and barren in the extreme.
It was, he tells us, a " Herculean toil " to him to compose it,
and we are conscious of the effort. The metre in which it is
composed, a couplet of alexandrines, like the French classical
measure, is wholly unsuited to the English language, and becomes
excessively wearisome to the reader, who forgets the learning and
ingenuity of the poet in labouring through the harsh and over-
grown lines. His historical poems, which he was constantly re-
writing and improving, are much more interesting, and often
rise to a true poetic eloquence. His pastorals are brilliant, but
overladen with colour and sweet to insipidity. He is, with the
one magnificent exception of " Since there's no help, come let
us kiss and part," which was first printed in 1619, an indifferent
sonneteer. The poet with whom it is most natural to compare
him is Daniel; he is more rough and vigorous, more varied and
more daring than the latter, but Daniel surpasses him in grace,
delicacy and judgment. In their elegies and epistles, however,
the two writers frequently resemble each other. Drayton,
however, approaches the very first poets of the Elizabethan era
in his charming Nimphidia, a poem which inspired Herrick
with his sweet fairy fancies and stands alone of its kind in
English literature; while some of his odes and lyrics are inspired
by noble feeling and virile imagination.
In 1748 a folio edition of Drayton's complete works was published
under the editorial supervision of William Oldys, and again in 1753
there appeared an issue in four volumes. But these were very un-
intelligently and inaccurately prepared. A complete edition of
Drayton's works with variant readings was projected by Richard
Hooper in 1876, but was never carried to a conclusion; a volume of
selections, edited by A. H. Bullen, appeared in 1883. See especially
Oliver Elton, Michael Drayton (1906). (E. G.)
DREAM (from a root dreug, connected with Germ, triigen, to
deceive), the state of consciousness during sleep; it may also
be defined as a hallucination or illusion peculiarly associated
with the condition of sleep, but not necessarily confined to that
state. In sleep the withdrawal of the mind from the external
DREAM
559
world is more complete and the objectivity of the dream images
is usually unquestioned, whereas in the waking state the
hallucination is usually recognized as such; we may, however,
be conscious that we are dreaming, and thus in a measure be
aware of the hallucinatory character of our percepts. The
physiological nature of sleep (q.v. ; see also MUSCLE AND NERVE)
and of dreaming is obscure. As a rule the control over the
voluntary muscles in dreams is slight; the sleep-walker is the
exception and not the rule, and the motor activity represented
in the dream is seldom realized in practice, largely, no doubt,
because we are ignorant, under these circumstances, of the
spatial relations of our bodies. Among the psychological
problems raised by dreams are the condition of attention, which
is variously regarded as altogether absent or as fixed, the extent
of mental control, and the relation of ideas and motor impulses.
There is present in all dreams a certain amount of dissociation
of consciousness, or of obstructed association, which may
manifest itself in the preliminary stage of drowsiness by such
phenomena as the apparent transformation or inversion of the
words of a book. We may distinguish two types of dreams,
(a) representative or centrally initiated, (b) presentative or
due to the stimulation of the end organs of sense. In both cases,
the dream having once been initiated, we are concerned with a
process of reasoning, i.e. the combination of ideas suggested by
resemblances or other associative elements. The false reasoning
of dreams is due in the first place to the absence, to a large extent,
of the memory elements on which our ordinary reasoning
depends, and, secondly, to the absence of sensory elements.
Objectivity of Dreams. In waking life we distinguish ideas or
mental images from real objects by the fact that we are able
under normal circumstances to dismiss the former at will. In
sleep, on the other hand, we have, in the first place, no real objects
with which to compare the images, which therefore take on a
character of reality comparable to the hallucination of waking
life; moreover, powers of visualization and other faculties are
enhanced in sleep, so that the strength of dream images con-
siderably exceeds those of the mental images of the ordinary
man; changes in powers of attention, volition and memory
help to increase the hallucinatory force of the dream. In the
second place, the ideas of our dreams are presented in the form
of images, which we are unable to dismiss; we therefore
mistake them for realities, exactly as the sufferer from delirium
tremens in waking life is apt to regard his phantoms as real.
Relations of Dreaming and Sleep. It has been maintained by
Hamilton and others (see below, Modern Views) that dreams
invariably accompany sleep, and that we always find ourselves
dreaming when we are awakened. But even if it were true
that dreams were invariably experienced at the moment of
waking, this would not by any means establish the invariable
concomitance of dreams and sleep of all sorts; at most it would
show that imperfect sleep is a condition of dreaming; in the
same way, dreams before wakening, known to have taken place
either from the recollection of the dreamer or from the observation
of another person, may clearly be due to imperfect wakening,
followed by a deepening of sleep. It is, however, by no means
true that awakening from sleep is invariably accompanied by a
dream; in considering the question it must be recollected that
it is complicated by the common experience of very rapid
forgetfulness of even a vivid and complicated dream, only the
fact of having dreamt remaining in the memory; it is clear
that amnesia may go so far that even the fact of dreaming may
be forgotten. On the whole, however, there appear to be no
good grounds for the assertion that we always dream when we
are asleep. On the other hand, there is no proof that partial
awakening is a necessary condition of dreaming.
Representative Dreams. Centrally initiated dreams may be due
to a kind of automatic excitation of the cerebral regions, especially
in the case of those clearly arising from the occupations or
sensations of the day or the hours immediately preceding the
dream. To the same cause we may attribute the recalling of
images apparently long since forgotten. Some of these revivals
of memory may be due to the fact that links of association which
are insufficient to restore an idea to consciousness in the waking
state may suffice to do so in sleep. Just as a good visualizer in
his waking moments may call up an object never clearly seen
and yet distinguish the parts, so in sleep, as L. F. A. Maury
(1817-1892) and others have shown, an image may be more
distinct in a dream than it was when originally presented (see
also below, Memory).
Presentative Dreams. The dreams due to real sensations, more
or less metamorphosed, may arise (a) from the states of the
internal organs, (b) from muscular states, (c) from subjective
sensations due to the circulation, &c., or (<f) from the ordinary
cause of the action of external stimuli on the organs of sense.
(a) The state of the stomach,heart, &c., haslongbeenrecognized
as important in the causation of dreams (see below, Classical
Views). The common sensation of flying seems to be due in
many cases to the disturbance of these organs setting up sen-
sations resembling those felt in rapidly ascending or descending,
as in a swing or a lift. Indigestion is a frequent cause of night-
marethe term given to oppressive and horrible dreams and
bodily discomfort is sometimes translated into the moral region,
giving rise to the dream that a murder has been committed.
(b) Dreams of flying, &c., have also been attributed to the
condition of the muscles during sleep; W. Wundt remarks that
the movements of the body, such as breathing, extensions of the
limbs and so on, must give rise to dream fancies; the awkward
position of the limbs may also excite images, (c) Especially
important, probably, for the dreams of the early part of the
night are the retinal conditions to which are due the illusions
hypnagogiques of the preliminary drowsy stage; but probably
Ladd goes too far in maintaining that entoptic stimuli, either
intra- or extra-organic in origin, condition all dreams. Illusions
hypnagogiques, termed popularly " faces in the dark," of which
Maury has given a full account, are the not uncommon sensations
experienced, usually visual and seen with both open and closed
eyes, in the interval between retiring to rest and actually falling
asleep; they are comparable to the crystal-gazing visions of
waking moments; though mainly visual they may also affect
other senses. Besides the eye the ear may supply material for
dreams, when the circulation of the blood suggests rushing
waters or similar ideas, (d) It is a matter of common observation
that the temperature of the surface of the body determines in
many cases the character of the dreams, the real circumstances,
as might be expected from the general character of the
dream state, being exaggerated. In the same way the pres-
sure of bed-clothes, obstruction of the supply of air, &c.,
may serve as the starting-point of dreams. The common dream
of being unclothed may perhaps be due to this cause, the
sensations associated with clothing being absent or so far
modified as to be unrecognizable. In the same way the absence
of foot-gear may account for some dreams of flying. It is
possible to test the influence of external stimuli by direct
experiment; Maury made a number of trials with the aid of an
assistant.
Rapidity of Dreams. It has often been asserted that we
dream with extreme rapidity; but this statement is by no
means borne out by experiment. In a trial recorded by J.
Claviere the beginning of the dream was accurately fixed by the
sounding of an alarm clock, which rang, then was silent for
22 seconds, and then began to ring continuously; the dream
scene was in a theatre, and he found by actual trial that the time
required in ordinary life for the performance of the scenes during
the interval of silence was about the same as in ordinary life.
Spontaneous dreams seem to show a different state of things;
it must be remembered that (i) dreams are commonly a succes-
sion of images, the number of which cannot be legitimately
compared with the number of extra-organic stimuli which would
correspond to them in ordinary life; the real comparison is
with mental images; and (2) the rapidity of association varies
enormously in ordinary waking life. No proof, therefore, that
some dreams are slow can show that this mentation in others
is not extremely rapid. The most commonly quoted case is
one of Maury 's; a bed-pole fell on his neck, and (so it is stated)
560
DREAM
he dreamt of the French Revolution, the scenes culminating in
the fall of the guillotine on his neck ; this has been held to show
that (i) dreams are extremely rapid; and (2) we construct a
dream story leading up to the external stimulus which is assumed
to have originated the dream. But Maury's dream was not
recorded till many years after it had occurred; there is nothing
to show that the dream, in this as in other similar cases, was not
in progress when the bed-pole fell, which thus by mere coincidence
would have intervened at the psychological moment; Maury's
memory on waking may have been to some extent hallucinatory.
But there are records of waking states, not necessarily abnormal,
in which time-perception is disturbed and brief incidents seem
interminably long; on the other hand, it appears from the
experiences of persons recovered from drowning that there is
great rapidity of ideation before the extinction of consciousness;
the same rapidity of thought has been observed in a fall from a
bicycle.
Reason in Dreams. Studies of dreams of normal individuals
based on large collections of instances are singularly few in
number; such as there are indicate great variations in the
source of dream thoughts and images, in the coherence of the
dream, and in the powers of memory. In ordinary life attention
dominates the images presented; in dreams heterogeneous and
disconnected elements are often combined; a resemblance need
not even have been consciously recognized for the mind to com-
bine two impressions in a dream; for example, an aching tooth
may (according to the dream) be extracted, and found to resemble
rocks on the sea-shore, which had not struck the waking mind
as in any way like teeth. Incongruence and incoherence are not,
however, a necessary characteristic of dreams, and individuals
are found whose dream ideas and scenes show a power of
reasoning and orderliness equal to that of a scene imagined or
experienced in ordinary life. In some cases the reasoning power
may attain a higher level than that of the ordinary conscious
life. In a well-authenticated case Professor Hilprecht was able
in a dream to solve a difficulty connected with two Babylonian
inscriptions, which had not previously been recognized as com-
plementary to each other; a point of peculiar interest is the
dramatic form in which the information came to him an old
Babylonian priest appeared in his dream and gave him the clue
to the problem (see also below, Personality).
Memory in Dreams. Although prima facie the dream memory
is fragmentary and far less complete than the waking memory,
it is by no means uncommon to find a revival in sleep of early,
apparently quite forgotten, experiences: more striking is the
recollection in dreams of matters never supraliminally (see
SUBLIMINAL SELF) apperceived at all.
The relation between the memory in dreams and in the
hypnotic trance is curious: suggestions given in the trance may
be accepted and then forgotten or never remembered in ordinary
life; this does not prevent them from reappearing occasionally
in dreams; conversely dreams forgotten in ordinary life may be
remembered in the hypnotic trance. These dream memories
of other states of consciousness suggest that dreams are some-
times the product of a deeper stratum of the personality than
comes into play in ordinary waking life. It must be remembered
in this connexion that we judge of pur dream consciousness by
our waking recollections, not directly, and our recollection of
our dreams is extraordinarily fragmentary; we do not know
how far our dream memory really extends. Connected with
memory of other states is the question of memory in dreams of
previous dream states; occasionally a separate chain of memory,
analogous to'a secondary personality, seems to be formed. We
may be also conscious that we have been dreaming, and subse-
quently, without intermediate waking, relate as a dream the
dream previously experienced. In spite of the irrationality of
dreams in general, it by- rip means follows that the earlier and
later portions of a dream do not cohere; we may interpolate an
episode and again take up the first motive, exactly as happens
in real life. The strength of the dream memory is shown by the
recurrence of images in dreams; a picture, the page of a book,
or other image may be reproduced before our eyes several times
in the course of a dream without the slightest alteration, although
the waking consciousness would be quite incapable of such a feat
of visualizing. In this connexion may be mentioned the pheno-
menon of redreaming; the same dream may recur either on
the same or on different nights; this seems to be in many cases
pathological or due to drugs, but may also occur under normal
conditions.
Personality. As a rule the personality of the dreamer is
unchanged; but it also happens that the confusion of identity
observed with regard to other objects embraces the dreamer
himself; he imagines himself to be some one else; he is alter-
nately actor and observer; he may see himself playing a part
or may divest himself of his body and wander incorporeally.
Ordinary dreams, however, do not go beyond a splitting of
personality; we hold conversations, and are intensely surprised
at the utterances of a dream figure, which, however, is merely
an alter ego. As in the case of Hilprecht (see above) the informa-
tion given by another part of the personality may not only
appear but actually be novel.
Supernormal Dreams. In addition to dreams in which there
is a revival of memory or a rise into consciousness of facts
previously only subliminally cognized, a certain number of dreams
are on record in which telepathy (q.v.) seems to play a part;
much of the evidence is, however, discounted by the possibility
of hallucinatory memory. Another class of dreams (prodromic)
is that in which the abnormal bodily states of the dreamer are
brought to his knowledge in sleep, sometimes in a symbolical
form; thus a dream of battle or sanguinary conflict may presage
a haemorrhage. The increased power of suggestion which is
the normal accompaniment of the hypnotic trance may make
its appearance in dreams, and exercise either a curative influence
or act capriciously in producing hysteria and the tropic changes
known as " stigmata." We may meet with various forms of
hyperaesthesia in dreams; quite apart from the recovery of
sight by those who have lost it wholly or in part (see below,
Dreams of the Blind), we find that the powers of the senses may
undergo an intensification, and, e.g., the power of appreciating
music be enormously enhanced in persons usually indifferent to
it. Mention must also be made of the experience of R. L.
Stevenson, who tells in Across the Plains how by self-suggestion
he was able to secure from his dreams the motives of some of his
best romances.
Voluntary Action in Dreams. Connected with dreams volun-
tarily influenced is the question of how far dreams once initiated
are modifiable at the will of the dreamer. Some few observers,
like F. W. H. Myers and Dr F. van Eeden, record that they can
at longer or shorter intervals control their actions in their
dreams, though usually to a less extent than their imagined
actions in waking life. Dr van Eeden, for example, tells us that
he has what he calls a " clear dream " once a month and is able
to predetermine what he will do when he becomes aware that
he is dreaming.
Dreams of Children. Opinions differ widely as to the age at
which children begin to dream; G. Compayre maintains that
dreaming has been observed in the fourth month, but reflex
action is always a possible explanation of the observed facts.
S. de Sanctis found that in boys of eleven only one out of eight
said that he dreamt seldom, as against four out of seven at the
age of six; but we cannot exclude the possibility that dreams
were frequent but forgotten. If correct, the observation suggests
that dreams appear comparatively late. Individual cases of
dreaming, or possibly of waking hallucination, are known as
early as the age of two and a half years; according to de Sanctis
dreams occur before the fifth year, but are seldom remembered;
as a rule the conscious dream age begins with the fourth year;
speech or movement, however, in earlier years, though they may
be attributed to reflex action, are more probably due to dreams.
Dreams of the Old. In normal individuals above the age of
sixty-five de Sanctis found dreams were rare; atmospheric
influences seem to be important elements in causing them;
memory of them is weak; they are emotionally poor, and deal
with long past scenes.
DREAM
561
Dreams of Adults. Any attempt to record or influence our
dreams may be complicated by (a) direct suggestion, leading to
the production of the phenomena for which we are looking, and
(b) indirect suggestion leading to the more lively recollection of
dreams in general and of certain dreams in particular. Conse-
quently it cannot be assumed that the facts thus ascertained
represent the normal conditions. According to F. Heerwagen's
statistics women sleep more lightly and dream more than men;
the frequency of dreams is proportional to their vividness;
women who dream sleep longer than those who do not; dreams
tend to become less frequent with advancing age. The total
number of remembered dreams varies considerably with different
observers, some attaining an average of ten per night. The
senses mainly active in dreams are, according to one set of
experiments, vision in 60%, hearing in 5%, taste in 3%, and
smell in 1.5%, where the dreamers had looked at coloured
papers before falling asleep; when taste or smell had been
stimulated, the visual dreams fell to about 50%, and the sense
stimulated was active twice as often as it would otherwise be;
dreams in which motion was a prominent feature were 10% of
the former class, 14% and 18% of the two latter. Experiments
by J. Mourly Void show even more distinctly the influence of
suggestion both as to the form, visual or otherwise, and the
content (colours and forms of objects) of dreams. According to
most observers dreams are most vivid and frequent between the
ages of 20 and 25, but H. Maudsley puts the maximum between
30 and 35. De Sanctis got replies from 165 men and 55 women:
the proportion between the sexes closely agrees with the results
attained by Heerwagen and M. W. Calkins; 13% of men and
33% of women said they always dreamt, 27% and 45% often,
50% and 13% rarely, and the remainder (precisely the same
percentage for men and women 9.09) either did not dream or
did not remember that they dreamt. Nearly twice as many
women as men had vivid dreams; in the matter of complication
of the dream experiences the sexes are about equal; daily life
supplies more material in the dreams of men; nearly twice as
many women as men remember their dreams clearly, a fact
which hangs together to some extent with the vividness of the
dreams, though it by no means follows that a vivid dream is well
remembered. There are great variations in the emotional
character of dreams; some observers report twice as many
unpleasant dreams as the reverse; in other cases the emotions
seem to be absent ; others again have none but pleasing dreams.
Individual experience also varies very largely as to the time
when most dreams are experienced; in some cases the great
majority are subsequent to 6.30 A.M. ; others find that quite half
occur before 4.0 A.M.
Dreams of the Neuropathic, Insane, Idiots, &c. Much attention
has been given to the dreams of hysterical subjects. It appears
that their dreams are specially liable to exercise an influence over
their waking life, perhaps because they do not distinguish them,
any more than their waking hallucinations, from reality. P.
Janet maintains that the cause of hysteria may be sought in a
dream. The dreams of the hysterical have a tendency to recur.
Epileptic subjects dream less than the hysterical, and their dreams
are seldom of a terrifying nature; certain dreams seem to take the
place of an epileptic attack. Dreaming seems to be rare in
idiots. De Sanctis divides paranoiacs into three classes: (a)
those with systematized delusions, (b) those with frequent
hallucinations, and (c) degenerates; the dreams of the first
class resemble their delusions; the second class is distinguished
by the complexity of its dreams; the third by their vividness, by
their delusions of megalomania, and by their influence on daily
life. Alcoholic subjects have vivid and terrifying dreams,
characterized by the frequent appearance of animals in them, and
delirium tremens may originate during sleep.
Dreams of the Blind, Deaf, 6*c. As regards visual dreams the
blind fall into three classes (i) those who are blind from birth or
become blind before the age of five; (2) those who become blind
at the " critical age " from five to seven; (3) those who become
blind after the age of seven. The dreams of the first class are
non-visual; but in the dreams of Helen Keller there are traces of
a visual content; the second class sometimes has visual dreams;
the third class does not differ from normal persons, though visual
dreams may fade away after many years of blindness. In the
case of the partially blind the clearness of vision in a dream
exceeds that of normal life when the partial loss of sight occurred
in the sixth or later years. The education of Helen Keller is
interesting from another point of view; after losing the senses of
sight and hearing in infancy she began her education at seven
years and was able to articulate at eleven; it is recorded
that she "talked" in her dreams soon after. This accords
with the experience of normal individuals who acquire a foreign
language. Her extraordinary memory enables her to recall
faintly some traces of the sunlit period of her life, but they
hardly affect her dreams, so far as can be judged. The dreams of
the blind, according to the records of F. Hitschmann, present
some peculiarities; animals as well as man speak; toothache and
bodily pains are perceived as such; impersonal dreaming,
taking the form of a drama or reading aloud, is found; and he
had a strong tendency to reproduce or create verse.
Dreams of Animals. We are naturally reduced to inference in
dealing with animals as with very young children; but various
observations seem to show that dreams are common in older dogs,
especially after hunting expeditions; in young dogs sleep seems to
be quieter; dogs accustomed to the chase seem to dream more
than other kinds.
Dreams among the Non-European Peoples. In the lower
stages of culture the dream is regarded as no less real and its
personages as no less objective than those of the ordinary waking
life; this is due in the main to the habit of mind of such peoples
(see ANIMISM) , but possibly in some measure also to the occurrence
of veridical dreams (see TELEPATHY). In either case the savage
explanation is animistic, and animism is commonly assumed to
have been developed very largely as a result of theorising
dreams. Two explanations of a dream are found among the
lower races: (i) that the soul of the dreamer goes out, and visits
his friends, living or dead, his old haunts or unfamiliar scenes and
so on; or (2) that the souls of the dead and others come to visit
him, either of their own motion or at divine command. In
either of the latter cases or at a higher stage of culture when the
dream is regarded as god-sent, though no longer explained in
terms of animism, it is often regarded as oracular (see ORACLE),
the explanation being sometimes symbolical, sometimes simple.
There are two classes of dreams which have a special import-
ance in the lower cultures: (i) the dream or vision of the initia-
tion fast; and (2) the dream caused by the process known as
incubation, which is often analogous to the initiation fast. In
many parts of North America the individual Indian acquires a
tutelary spirit, known as manito or nagual, by his initiation
dream or vision ; the idea being perhaps that the spirit by the act
of appearing shows its subjection to the will of the man.
Similarly, the magician acquires his familiar in North America,
Australia and elsewhere by dreaming of an animal. Incubation
consists in retiring to sleep in a temple, sometimes on the top of a
mountain or other unusual spot, in order to obtain a revelation
through a dream. Fasting, continence and other observances
are frequently prescribed as preliminaries. Certain classes of
dreams have, especially in the middle ages, been attributed to the
influence of evil spirits (see DEMONOLOGY).
Classical and Medieval Views of Dreams. Side by side with the
prevalent animistic view of dreams we find in antiquity and
among the semi-civilized attempts at philosophical or physio-
logical explanations of dreams. Democritus, from whom the
Epicureans derived their theory, held the cause of them to be
the simulacra or phantasms of corporeal objects which are
constantly floating about the atmosphere and attack the soul
in sleep a view hardly distinguishable from animism. Aristotle,
however, refers them to the impressions left by objects seen with
the eyes of the body; he further remarks on the exaggeration
of slight stimuli when they are incorporated into a dream; a
small sound becomes a noise like thunder. Plato, too, connects
dreaming with the normal waking operations of the mind;
Pliny, on the other hand, admits this only for dreams which take
562
DREDGE AND DREDGING
place after meals, the remainder being supernatural. Cicero,
however, takes the view that they are simply natural occurrences
no more and no less than the mental operations and sensations
of the waking state. The pathological side of dreams attracted
the notice of physicians. Hippocrates was disposed to admit
that some dreams might be divine, but held that others were
premonitory of diseased states of the body. Galen took the same
view in some of his speculations.
Symbolical interpretations are combined with pathological
no less than animistic interpretations of dreams; they are
also extremely common among the lower classes in Europe at
the present day, but in this case no consistent explanation of
their importance for the divination of future events is usually
discoverable. Among the Greeks Plato in the Timaeus (ch. xlvi.,
xlvii.) explains dreams as prophetic visions received by the lower
appetitive soul through the liver; their interpretation requires
intelligence. The Stoics seem to have held that dreams may be
a divine revelation, and more than one volume on the interpreta-
tion of dreams has come down to us, the most important being
perhaps the 'OvetpoKptruci of Daldianus Artemidorus. We find
parallels to this in a Mussulman work by Gabdorrachaman,
translated by Pierre Vattier under the name of Onirocrite
mussulman, and in the numerous books on the interpretation of
dreams which circulate at the present day. In Siam dream books
are found (Intern. Archiv fur Anlhr. viii. 150); one of the
functions of the Australian medicine man is to decide how a
dream is to be interpreted.
Modern Views, The doctrine of Descartes that existence
depended upon thought naturally led his followers to maintain
that the mind is always thinking and consequently that dreaming
is continuous. Locke replied to this that men are not always
conscious of dreaming, and it is hard to be conceived that the
soul of the sleeping man should this moment be thinking, while
the soul of the waking man cannot recollect in the next moment
a jot of all those thoughts. That we always dream was main-
tained by Leibnitz, Kant, Sir W. Hamilton and others; the
latter refutes the argument of Locke by the just observation
that the somnambulist has certainly been conscious, but fails
to recall the fact when he returns to the normal state.
It has been commonly held by metaphysicians that the nature
of dreams is explained by the suspension of volition during
sleep; Dugald Stewart asserts that it is not wholly dormant
but loses its hold on the faculties, and he thus accounts for the
incoherence of dreams and the apparent reality of dream images.
Cudworth, from the orderly sequence of dream combinations
and their novelty, argues that the state arises, not from any
" fortuitous dancings of the spirits," but from the " phantastical
power of the soul." According to K. A. Schemer, dreaming
is a decentralization of the movement of life; the ego becomes
purely receptive and is merely the point around which the
peripheral life plays in perfect freedom. Hobbes held that
dreams all proceed from the agitation of the inward parts of a
man's body, which, owing to their connexion with the brain,
serve to keep the latter in motion. For Schopenhauer the cause
of dreams is the stimulation of the brain by the internal regions
of the organism through the sympathetic nervous system.
These impressions the mind afterwards works up into quasi-
realities by means of its forms of space, time, causality, &c.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For full lists of books and articles see J. M.
Baldwin's Dictionary of Philosophy, bibliography volume (1906),
and S. de Sanctis, / Sogni, also translated in German with additions
as Die Trdume. Important works are: Binz, Vber den Traum;
Giessler, Aus den Tiejen des Traumlebens; Maury, Le Sommeti et les
rives; Radestock, Schlaf und Traum; Tessie, Les Reves; Spitta,
Schlaf und Traumzustdride. For super-normal dreams see F. W. H.
Myers, Human Personality, vol. i., and Proc. S.P.R. viii. 362. For
voluntary dreams see Proc. S.P.R. iv. 241, xvii. 112. On prophetic
dreams see Monist, xi. 161; Bull. Soc. Anth. (Paris, 1901), 196,
(1902), 228; Rev. de synttese histprique (1901), 151, &c. On in-
cubation see Deubner, De incubatione; Maury, La Magie. On the
dreams of American Indians see Handbook of American Indians
(Washington, 1907), s.v. "Dreams" and Manito." On the
interpretation of dreams see Freud, Die Traumdeutung. Other works
are F. Greenwood, Imagination in Dreams; Hutchinson, Dreams
and their Meanings. (N. W. T.)
DREDGE AND DREDGING. The word " dredge " is used
in two senses, (i) From Mid. Eng. dragie, through Fr. dragee,
from Gr. rpayi)fiaTa, sweetmeats, it means a confection of sugar
formed with seeds, bits of spice or medicinal agents. The word
in this sense is obsolete, but survives in " dredger," a box with a
perforated top used for sprinkling such a sugar-mixture, flour
or other powdered substance. " Dredge " is also a local term
for a mixed crop of oats and barley sown together (" muslin "
or " meslin," cf. Fr. dragie), and hi mining is applied to ore
of a mixed value. (2) Connected with " drag," or at least derived
from the same root, dredge or dredger is a mechanical appliance
for collecting together and drawing to the surface (" dredging ")
objects and material from the beds of rivers or the bottom of the
sea. In the following account the operations of dredging in this
sense are discussed (i) as involved in hydraulic engineering, (2)
in connexion with the work of the naturalist in marine biology.
i. HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING
Dredging is the name given by engineers to the process of
excavating materials under water, raising them to the surface
and depositing them in barges, or delivering them through a
shoot, a longitudinal conveyor, or pipes, to the place where it is
desired to deposit them. It has long been useful in works of
marine and hydraulic engineering, and has been brought in
modern times to a state of high perfection.
The employment of dredging plant and the selection of special
appliances to be used in different localities and hi varying
circumstances require the exercise of sound judgment on the
part of the engineer. In rivers and estuaries where the bottom
is composed of light soils, and where the scour of the tide can be
governed by training walls and other works constructed at
reasonable expense, so as to keep the channel clear without
dredging, it is manifest that dredging machinery with its large
cost for working expenses and for annual upkeep should be as
far as possible avoided. On the other hand, where the bottom
consists of clay, rock or other hard substances, dredging must,
in the first instance at any rate, be employed to deepen and
widen the channel which it is sought to improve. In some
instances, such as the river Mississippi, a deep channel has for
many years been maintained by jetties, with occasional resort
to dredging to preserve the required channel section and to
hasten its enlargement. The bar of the river Mersey is n m.
from land, and the cost of training works would be so great as to
forbid their construction; but, by a capital expenditure of
120,000 and an annual expense of 20,000 for three years, the
depth of water over the bar at low tide has been increased by
dredging from n ft. to 27 ft., the channel being 1500 ft. wide.
" Bag and Spoon " Dredger. The first employment of
machinery for dredging is, like the discovery of the canal lock,
claimed by Holland and Italy, hi both of which countries it is
believed to have been in use before it was introduced into
Britain. 'The Dutch, at an early period, used what is termed
the " bag and spoon " dredger for cleansing their canals. The
"spoon" consisted of a ring of iron about 2 ft. hi diameter
flattened and steeled for about a third of its circumference and
having a bag of strong leather attached to it by leathern thongs.
The ring and bag were fixed to a pole which was lowered to the
bottom from the side of a barge moored in the canal or river.
The " spoon " was then dragged along the bottom by a rope
made fast to the iron ring actuated by a windlass placed at the
other end of the barge, the pole being prevented from rising by a
hitched rope which caused the " spoon " to penetrate the bottom
and fill the bag. When the " spoon " reached the end of the barge
where the windlass was placed, the winding was still continued,
and the suspended rope being nearly perpendicular the " bag "
was raised to the gunwale of the barge and the excavated
material emptied into the barge. The " bag " was then hauled
back to the opposite end to be lowered for another supply. This
system is still in use, but is only adaptable to a limited depth of
water and a soft bottom; it has been largely used in canals and
frequently hi the Thames. At the Fosdyke Canal in Lincolnshire
135,000 tons were raised in the manner described. According
DREDGE AND DREDGING
to J. J. Webster (Proc. Inst. C. E. vol. 89), the first applica-
tion of steam power for dredging operations was to a " spoon
& bag " dredger for cleansing Sunderland harbour, the engine
being made by Messrs Boulton & Watt of Soho, Birmingham.
Dredging by Bucket between Two Lighters. Another plan of
dredging, practised at an early period in rivers of considerable
breadth, was to moor two barges, one on each side of the river.
Between them was slung an iron dredging bucket, which was
attached to both barges by chains wound on the barrels of a
crab winch worked by six men in one barge and round a simple
windlass worked by two men in the other barge. The bucket,
being lowered at the side of the barge carrying the windlass,
was drawn across the bottom of the river by the crab winch on
the other barge; and having been raised and emptied, it was
hauled across by the opposite windlass for repetition of the
process. This process was in use in the River Tay until 1833.
Bucket Ladder Dredgers. The earliest record of a bucket
ladder dredger is contained in the first paper of the first volume
(1836) of the Transactions of the Institution of Civil Engineers.
This machine was brought into use at the Hull Docks about
1782. The bucket chain was driven by two horses working a
horse-gear on the deck of the vessel. The buckets were con-
structed of f in. bars of iron spaced \ in. apart, and were 4 ft.
long, 13 in. deep, 12 in. wide at the mouth and about 6 in. wide
at the bottom. This dredger raised about 30 tons per hour at the
cost of 2 jd. per ton, which covered the wages of three men working
the dredger, eight men working the lighters and the keep of three
horses. A dredger of this kind and power would only work in
ballast, mud or other soft material, but the machine was gradu-
ally improved and increased in capacity and power by different
manufacturers until it became a very efficient machine in skilful
hands, excavating and raising material from depths of 5 ft. to
60 ft. of water at a cost not very different from, and in many
cases less than, that at which the same work could be performed
on land. With the powerful dredgers now constructed, almost
all materials, except solid rock or very large boulders, can be
dredged with ease. Loose gravel is perhaps the most favourable
material to work in, but a powerful dredger will readily break up
and raise indurated beds of gravel, clay and boulders, and has
even found its way through the surface of soft rock, though it
will not penetrate very far into it. In some cases steel diggers
alternating with the buckets on the bucket frame have been
successfully employed. The construction of large steam dredgers
is now carried on by many engineering firms. The main feature
of the machine is the bucket ladder which is hung at the top end
by eye straps to the frame of the vessel, and at the lower end by
a chain reived in purchase blocks and connected to the hoisting
gear, so that the ladder may be raised and lowered to suit the
varying depths of water in which the dredger works. The upper
tumbler Jor working the bucket chain is generally square or
pentagonal in form and made of steel with loose steel wearing
pieces securely bolted to it. The tumbler is securely keyed to
the steel shaft which is connected by gearing and shafting to
the steam engine, a friction block being inserted at a convenient
point to prevent breakage should any hidden obstacle causing
unusual strain be met with in the path of the buckets. The
lower tumbler is similar in construction to the upper tumbler,
but is usually pentagonal or hexagonal in shape. The buckets
are generally made with steel backs to which the plating of the
buckets is riveted; the cutting edge of the buckets consists of a
strong steel bar suitably shaped and riveted to the body. The
intermediate links are made of hammered iron or steel with
removable steel bushes to take the wear of the connecting pins,
which are also of steel. The hoisting gear may be driven either
from the main engine by frictional gearing or by an independent
set of engines. Six anchors and chains worked by powerful steam
crabs are provided for regulating the position of the dredger in
regard to its work.
Barge-loading Dredgers used formerly to be provided with two
ladders, one on each side of the vessel, or contained in wells
formed in the vessel near each side. Two ladders were adopted,
partly to permit the dredger to excavate the material close to a
quay or wall, and partly to enable one ladder to work while the
other was being repaired. Bucket ladder dredgers are now,
however, generally constructed with one central ladder working
in a well; frequently the bucket ladder projects at either the
head or stern of the vessel, to enable it to cut its own way through
a shoal or bank, a construction which has been found very useful.
In one modification of this method the bucket ladder is supported
upon a traversing frame which slides along the fixed framing of
the dredger and moves the bucket ladder forward as soon as it
has been sufficiently lowered to clear the end of the well. In
places where a large quantity of dredging has to be done, a
stationary dredger with three or four large hopper barges proves
generally to be the most economical kind of plant. It has,
however, the disadvantage of requiring large capital expenditure,
while the dredger and its attendant barges take up an amount
of space which is sometimes inconvenient where traffic is large
and the navigable width narrow. The principal improvements
made in barge-loading dredgers have been the increase in the
size of the buckets and the strength of the dredging gear, the
application of more economical engines for working the machinery,
and the use of frictional gearing for driving the ladder-hoisting
gear. It is very important that the main drive be fitted with
the friction blocks or clutches before alluded to.
Up to the year 1877 dredgers were seldom made with buckets
of a capacity exceeding 9 cub. ft., but since that time they have been
gradually increased in capacity. In the dredger " Melbourne,"
constructed by Messrs William Simons & Co. to the design and
specification of Messrs Cpode, Son & Matthews, about the year 1886,
the buckets had a capacity of 22 cub. ft., the dredger being capable
of making 37 ft. of water. The driving power consists of two pairs of
surface-condensing engines, each of 250 i.h.p., having cylinders 20 in.
and 40 in. in diameter respectively, with a 30 in. stroke, the boiler
pressure being 90 Ib per sq. in. The vessel is 200 ft. long by 36 ft.
wide and n ft. 6 in. deep, and is driven by twin screw propellers.
The gearing is arranged so that either pair of engines can be em-
ployed for dredging. The speed under steam is 7 knots, and in free-
getting material 800 tons per hour can be dredged with ease. On
one occasion the dredger loaded 400 tons in 20 minutes. The speed
of the bucket chain is 83 lineal ft. per minute. The draught of the
dredger in working trim is 7 ft. forward and 9 ft. aft. The efficiency
of the machine, or the net work in raising materials compared with
the power exerted in the cylinders, is about 25%. The dredged
material is delivered into barges moored alongside. Contrasting
favourably with former experience, the " Melbourne " worked for
the first six months without a single breakage. She is fitted with
very powerful mooring winches, a detail which is of great importance
to ensure efficiency in working.
The " St Austell " (Plate I. fig. 3), a powerful barge-loading
dredger 195 ft. long by 35 ft. 6 in. beam by 13 ft. deep, fitted with
twin-screw compound surfa_ce-condensing propelling engines of
1000 i.h.p., either set of engines being available for dredging, was
constructed for H.M. Dockyard, Devonport, by Messrs Wm. Simons
& Co. in 1896. This dredger loaded thirty-five soo-ton hopper
barges in the week ending April 2, 1898, dredging 17,500 tons of
material in the working time of 29 hours 5 minutes.
An instance of a still larger and more powerful dredger is the
"Develant," constructed by Messrs Wm. Simons & Co., for Nicolaiev,
South Russia. She is a bow-well, barge-loading, bucket ladder
dredger, with a length of 186 ft., a breadth, moulded, of 36 ft., and a
depth, moulded, of 13 ft. The bucket ladder is of sufficient length
to dredge 36 ft. below the water level. The buckets are exceptionally
large, each having a capacity of 36 cub. ft., or fully two tons weight of
material, giving a lifting capacity of 1890 tons per hour. At the
dredging trials 2000 tons of spoil were lifted in one hour with an
expenditure of 250 i.h.p. The propelling power is supplied by one
pair of compound surface-condensing marine engines of 850 i.h.p.,
having two cylindrical boilers constructed for a working pressure
of 120 Ib per sq. in. Each boiler is capable of supplying steam to
either the propelling or dredging machinery, thus allowing the vessel
to always have a boiler in reserve. On the trials a speed of 8f knots
was obtained. The bucket ladder, which weighs over loo tons, ex-
clusive of dredgings, is raised and lowered by a set of independent
engines. For manoeuvring, powerful winches driven by independent
engines are placed at the bow and stern. The vessel is fitted
throughout with electric light, arc Jamps being provided above the
deck to enable dredging to be carried on at night. Steam steering
gear, a repairing shop, a three-ton crane, and alfthe latest appliances
are installed on board.
The '' Derocheuse " (Plate II. fig. 12), constructed by Messrs
Lobnitz & Co., is a good example of the dredger fitted with their
patent rock cutters, as used on the Suez Canal. These rock cutters
consist of stamps passing down through the bottom of the dredger,
slightly in advance of the bucket chain, and are employed for break-
ing up rock in front of the bucket ladder so that it may be raised by
564
DREDGE AND DREDGING
buckets afterwards. This system of subaqueous rock cutting plant, on
Messrs Lobnitz's patent system, was effectively employed in deepen-
ing the Manchester Ship Canal, and removed a considerable length
of rock, increasing the depth of water from 26 ft. to 28 ft. at a cost
of about gd. per cub. yd. A full and illustrated description of this
plant, and of a similar plant supplied to the Argentine Government,
was published in Engineering of August 17, 1906. An illustration
of a bucket of 54 cub. ft. capacity constructed by Messrs Lobnitz
& Co. is given (Plate II. fig. n), from which some idea of the size
of dredging machinery as developed in recent practice may be ob-
tained. In regard to the depth of water that can be obtained by
dredging, it is interesting to note that the dredger " Diver," con-
structed by Messrs. Hunter & English for Mr Samuel Williams of
London, is capable of working in 60 ft. of water. In this vessel an
ingenious arrangement was devised by Mr Williams, by which part
of the weight of the dredger was balanced while the ladder itself
could be drawn up through the bucket well and placed upon the
deck, enabling a long ladder to be used for a comparatively short
vessel. The " Tilbury " dredger, also constructed by Messrs Hunter
& English, was able to dredge to a depth of 45 ft. below the surface
of the water.
Hopper Barges. To receive the materials excavated by barge-
loading dredgers, steam hopper barges are now generally
employed, capable of carrying 500 tons or more of excavation
and of steaming loaded at a speed of about 9 m. per hour. These
hopper barges are made with hinged flaps in their bottoms,
which can be opened when the place of deposit is reached and
the dredgings easily and quickly discharged.
Good examples of these vessels are the two steam hopper barges
built for the Conservators of the river Thames in 1898. The
dimensions are: length 190 ft., breadth 30 ft., depth 13 ft.
3 in., hopper capacity 900 tons. They are propelled by a set of
triple expansion engines of 1200 i.h.p., with two return-tube
boilers having a working pressure of 160 Ib. Special appliances
are provided to work the hopper doors by steam power from
independent engines placed at the forward end of the hopper.
A steam windlass is fixed forward and a steam capstan aft. The
vessels are fitted with cabins for the officers and crew. On
their trial trip, the hoppers having their full load, a speed of
ii knots was obtained, the coal consumption being 1-44 Ib
per i.h.p.
Methods of Dredging. In river dredging two systems are
pursued. One plan consists in excavating a series of longitudinal
furrows parallel to the axis of the stream; the other in dredging
cross furrows from side to side of the river. It is found that
inequalities are left between the longitudinal furrows when that
system is practised, which do not occur, to the same extent, in
side or cross dredging; and cross dredging leaves a more uniform
bottom. In either case the dredger is moored from the head
and stern by chains about 250 fathoms in length. These chains
in improved dredgers are wound round windlasses worked by
the engine, so that the vessel can be moved ahead or astern by
simply throwing them into or out of gear. In longitudinal
dredging the vessel is worked forward by the head chain, while
the buckets are at the same time performing the excavation, so
that a longitudinal trench is made in the bottom of the river.
After proceeding a certain length, the dredger is stopped and
permitted to drop down and commence a new longitudinal
furrow, parallel to the first one. In cross dredging, on the other
hand, the vessel is supplied with four additional moorings, two
on each side, and these chains are, like the head and stern chains,
wound round barrels worked by steam power. In cross dredging
we may suppose the vessel to be moored at one side of the
channel to be excavated. The bucket frame is set in motion,
but instead of the dredger being drawn forward by the head chain,
she is drawn across the river by the starboard chains, and, having
reached the extent of her work in that direction, she is then
drawn a few feet forward by the head chain, and the bucket
frame being still in motion the vessel is hauled across by the
port chains to the side whence she started. By means of this
transverse motion of the dredger a series of cross cuts is made;
the dredger takes out the whole excavation from side to side
to a uniform depth and leaves no protuberances such as are
found to exist between the furrows in longitudinal dredging,
even when it is executed with great care. The two systems
will be understood by reference to fig. i, where A and B are the
bead and stern moorings, and C, D, E and F the side moorings.
The arc ef represents the course of the vessel in cross dredging;
FIG. i. Diagram showing Moorings for Transverse Dredging.
while in longitudinal dredging, as already explained, she is
drawn forward towards A, and again dropped down to commence
a new longitudinal furrow.
Hopper Dredgers. In places where barge-loading dredgers
are inconvenient, owing to confined space and interference with
navigation, and where it is necessary to curtail capital expendi-
ture, hopper dredgers are convenient and economical. These
dredgers were first constructed by Messrs. Wm. Simons & Co.
of Renfrew, who patented and constructed what they call the
" Hopper Dredger," combining in itself the advantages of a
dredger for raising material and a scow hopper vessel for con-
veying it to the place of discharge, both of which services are
performed by the same engines and the same crew.
The vessel for this type of dredger is made of sufficient length
and floating capacity to contain its own dredgings, which it
carries out to the depositing ground as soon as its hopper is full.
Considerable time is of course occupied in slipping and recovering
moorings, and conveying material to the depositing ground,
but these disadvantages are in many instances counterbalanced
by the fact that less capital is required for plant and that less
room is taken up by the dredger. If the depositing ground is
far away, the time available for dredging is much curtailed,
but the four-screw hopper dredger constructed by Messrs Wm.
Simons & Co. for Bristol has done good work at the cost of
Sd. per ton, including wages, repairs, coals, grease, sundries and
interest on the first cost of the plant, notwithstanding that the
material has to be taken 10 m. from the Bristol Dock. She can
lift 400 tons of stiff clay per hour from a depth of 36 ft. below
the water line, and the power required varies from 120 i.h.p.
to 150 i.h.p., according to the nature of the material. The
speed is 9 knots, and 4 propellers are provided, two at the head
and two at the stern, to enable the vessel to steam equally well
either way, as the river Avon is too narrow to permit her to be
turned round.
The hopper dredger "La Puissante " (Plate I. fig. 4), constructed
by Messrs Wm. Simons & Co. for the Suez Canal Co. for the improve-
ment of Port Said Roads, is a fine example of this class of dredger.
She is 275 ft. long by 47 ft. beam by 19 ft. deep. The hopper capacity
is 2000 tons, and the draught loaded 16 ft. 5 in. The maximum
dredging depth is 40 ft., and the minimum dredging depth is only
limited by the vessel's draught, she being able to cut her own way.
The bucket ladder works through the well in the stern and weighs with
buckets 120 tons. The buckets have each a capacity of 30 cub. ft.
and raised on trial 1600 tons per hour. The dredger is propelled by
two sets of independent triple expansion surface-condensing engines
of 1800 i.h.p. combined, working with steam at 160 Ib pressure,
supplied by two mild steel multitubular boilers. Each set of engines
is capable of driving the buckets independently at speeds of 16 and
20 buckets per minute. The bucket ladder is fitted with buffer
springs at its upper end to lessen the shock when working in a sea-
way. The dredger can deliver the dredged material either into its
own hopper or into barges lying on either side. The vessel obtained
a speed of gf knots per hour on trial. The coal consumption during
6 hours' steaming trial was 1-66 ft per i.h.p. hour. Fig. 9 (Plate I.)
shows a still larger hopper dredger by the same constructors.
Dredgers fitted with Long Shoot or Shore Delivering Apparatus.
The first instance of dredgers being fitted with long shoots was
in the Suez Canal. The soil in the lakes was very variable, the
surface being generally loose mud which lay in some places in
the sand, but frequently more or less on hard clay. Resort was
had to shoots 230 ft. long, supported on pontoons connected
with the hull of the dredger. The sand flowed away with a
moderate supply of water to the shoots when they were fixed
DREDGE AND DREDGING
565
at an inclination of about i in 20, but when the sand was mixed
with shells these formed a coating which prevented the stream
of water from washing out the shoot, and even with an inclination
of i in 10 material could not be delivered. A pair of endless
chains working down the long shoot overcame the difficulty,
and also enabled hard clay in lumps to be dealt with. One
dredger turned out about 2000 cub. yds. of thick clay in 15 hours,
and when the clay was not hard it could deliver 150,000 cub. yds.
in a month for several consecutive months.
Shore delivery has been successfully effected by raising the
material by buckets in the ordinary way and delivering it into
a vertical cylinder connected with floating jointed pipes through
which the dredgings pass to the shore. This, of course, can only
be done where the place of deposit is near the spot where the
material is dredged. Two plans have been satisfactorily employed
for this operation. At the Amsterdam Canal the stuff was
discharged from the buckets into a vertical cylinder, and after
being mingled with water by a revolving Woodford pump was
sent off under a head of pressure of 4 or 5 ft. to the place of
deposit in a semi-fluid state through pipes made of timber,
hooped with iron. These wooden pipes were made in lengths
of about 15 ft., connected with leather joints, and floated on the
surface of the water. A somewhat similar process was also
employed on the Suez Canal.
A dredger (Plate I. fig. 5), constructed by Messrs Hunter & English
for reclamation works on Lake Copais in Greece was fitted with de-
livery belts running on rollers in steel lattice frames on each side of
the vessel supported by masts and ropes. It could deliver 100 cub.
metres per hour at 85 ft. from the centre of the dredger, at a cost of
l-82d. per cub. .metre for working expenses, with coal at 453. per ton,
including o-66d. per cub. metre for renewal of belts, upon which the
wear and tear was heavy.
Another instance of the successful application of shore delivery
apparatus is that of a dredger for Lake Titicaca, Peru, constructed
by Messrs Hunter & English, which was fitted with long shoots on
both sides, conveying the dredged material about 100 ft. from the
centre of the dredger upon either side. The shoots were supported
by shear-legs and ropes, and were supplied with water from a centri-
fugal pump in the engine room. This dredger could excavate and
deliver 120 cub. yds. per hour at a cost of i-725d. percub. yd. with coal
costing 403. per ton. If coal had been available at the ordinary rate
in England of 2os. per ton, the cost of the dredging and delivery
would have been o-82d. per cub. yd. for wages, coal, oil, &c., but
not including the salary of the superintendent.
An interesting example of a shore delivering dredger is a light
draught dredger constructed by Messrs Hunter & English for the
Lakes of Albufera at the mouth of the river Ebro in Spain (Plate I.
fig. 6). The conditions laid down for this dredger were that it should
float in 18 in. of water and deliver the dredged material at 90 ft.
from the centre of its own hull. In order to meet these requirements
the vessel was made of steel plates J in. thick, and longitudinal
girders from end to end of the vessel, the upward strain of flotation
being conveyed to them from the skin plating by transverse bulk-
heads at short intervals. The dredger was 94 ft. long, 25 ft. wide,
and 3 ft. deep, and the height of the top tumbler above the water
was 25 ft. When completed the dredger drew 17 in. of water. The
dredgings were delivered by the buckets upon an endless belt, driven
from the main compound surface-condensing engine, which ran over
pulleys supported upon a steel lattice girder, the outer end of which
rested upon an independent pontoon. This belt delivered the
dredgings at 90 ft. from the centre of the dredger round an arc of
180. The dredger delivered 125 cub. yds. per hour of compact clay
at a cost of i-i6d. per cub. yd. or o-86d. per ton for wages, coal and
stores. Another method of delivering dredgings is that of pneu-
matic delivery, introduced by Mr F. E. Duckham, of the Millwall
Dock Co., by which the dredgings are delivered into cylindrical
tanks in the dredger, closed by air-tight doors, and are expelled by
compressed air either into the sea or through long pipes to the land.
The Millwall Dock dredger is 113 ft. long, with a beam of 17 ft. and
a depth of 12 ft. The draught loaded is 8 ft. It contains two
cylindrical tanks, having a combined capacity of 240 cub. yds., and
is fitted with compound engines of about 200 i.h.p., with a 20 in.
air-compressing cylinder. The discharge pipe is 15 in. diameter by
150 yds. long. The nozzles of the air-injection pipes must not be
too small, otherwise the compressed air, instead of driving out the
material, simply pierces holes through it and escapes through the
discharging pipe, carrying with it all the liquid and thin material in
the tanks. The cost of working the Millwall Dock dredger is given
by Mr Duckham at i'75d. per cub. yd. of mud lifted, conveyed
and deposited on land 450 ft. from the water-side, for working ex-
penses only. This dredger is believed to be the first machine con-
structed with a traversing ladder, as suggested by Captain Gibson
when dock-master of the Millwall Docks.
Blasting combined with Dredging. In some cases it has been
found that the bottom is too hard to be dredged until it has
been to some extent loosened and broken up. Thus at Newry,
John Rennie, after blasting the bottom in a depth of from 6 to
8 ft. at low water, removed the material by dredging at an
expense of from 45. to 53. per cub. yd. The same process was
adopted by Messrs Stevenson at the bar of the Erne at Bally-
shannon, where, in a situation exposed to a heavy sea, large
quantities of boulder stones were blasted, and afterwards raised
by a dredger worked by hand at a cost of IDS. 6d. per cub. yd.
Sir William Cubitt also largely employed blasting in connexion
with dredging on the Severn (see Proc. Inst. C.E. vol. iv. p. 362).
The cost of blasting and dredging the marl beds is given as being
43. per cub. yd. A combination of blasting and dredging was
employed in 1875 by John Fowler of Stockton at the river Tees.
The chief novelty was in the barge upon which the machinery
was fixed. It was 58 ft. by 28 ft. by 4 ft., and had eight legs
which were let down when the barge was in position. The
legs were then fixed to the barge, so that on the tide falling it
became a fixed platform from which the drilling was done.
Holes were bored and charged, and when the tide rose the legs
were heaved up and the barge removed, after which the shots
were discharged. There were 24 boring tubes on the barge,
and that was the limit which could at any time be done in one
tide. The area over which the blasting was done measured
500 yds. in length by 200 in breadth, a small part being un-
covered at low water. The depth obtained in mid-channel was
14 ft. at low water, the average depth of rock blasted being about
4 ft. 6 in. The holes, which were bored with the diamond drill,
varied in depth from 7 to 9 ft., the distance between them
being 10 ft. Dynamite in tin canisters fired by patent fuse was
used as the explosive, the charges being 2 Ib and under. The
rock is oolite shale of variable hardness, and the average time
occupied in drilling holes 5 ft. deep was 12 minutes. The
dredger raised the blasted rock. The cost for blasting, lifting
and discharging at sea was about 43. per cub. yd., including
interest on dredging and other plant employed. The dredger
sometimes worked a face of blasted material of from 7 to 8 ft.
The quantity blasted was 110,000 cub. yds., and the contract
for blasting so as to be lifted by the dredger was 33. id. per cub.
yd. A similar plan was adopted at Blyth Harbour (see Proc.
Inst. C.E. vol. 81, p. 302). The cost of the explosives per cub.
yd. was is. 4d., of boring is. gd. per cub. yd., and of dredging
33. per cub. yd., including repairs, but nothing for the use of
plant. The whole cost worked out at 6s. id. per cub. yd. on
the average.
Sand-pump Dredgers. Perhaps the most important develop-
ment which has taken place in dredging during recent years has
been the employment of sand-pump dredgers, which are very
useful for removing sandy bars where the particular object is to
remove quickly a large quantity of sand or other soft material.
They are, however, apt to make large holes, and are therefore
not fitted for positions where it is necessary to finish off the
dredging work to a uniform flat bottom, for which purpose
bucket dredgers are better adapted. Pump dredgers are, how-
ever, admirable and economical machines for carrying out the
work for which they are specially suited.
In the discussion upon Mr J. J. Webster's paper upon " Dredging-
Appliances " (Proc. Inst. C.E. vol. 89) at the Institution of Civil
Engineers in 1886, Sir John Coode stated that he had first seen sand-
pump dredgers at the mouth of the Maas in Holland. The centri-
fugal pump was placed against the bulkheads in the after part of the
vessel, and the sand and water were delivered into a horizontal
breeches-piece leading into two pipes running along the full length
of the hopper. The difficulty of preventing the sand from running
overboard was entirely obviated by its being propelled by the pump
through these pipes, the bottoms of which were perforated by a series
of holes. In addition, there were a few small flap-doors fixed at
intervals, by means of which the men were able to regulate the
discharge. On being tested, the craft pumped into its hopper 400
tons of sand in 22 minutes. The coamings round the well of the
hoppers were constructed with a dip, and when the hopper was full
the water ran over in a steady stream on either side. The proportion
of sand delivered into the hopper was about 20% of the total
capacity of the pump. The dredger was constructed by Messrs
566
DREDGE AND DREDGING
Smit of Kindcrdijk, near Rotterdam. In the same discussion
Mr A. A. Langley, then engineer to the Great Eastern railway, gave
particulars of a sand pump upon the Bazin system, which had been
used successfully at Lowestoft. The boat was 60 ft. long by 20 ft.
wide, and the pump was 2 ft. in diameter, with a two-bladed disk.
The discharge pipe was 12 in. in diameter. The pump raised 400
tons of sand, gravel and stones per hour as a maximum quantity,
the average quantity being about 200 tons per hour. The depth
dredged was from 7 ft. to 25 ft. The pump was driven by a double-
cylinder engine, having cylinders of 9 in. diameter by 10 in. stroke,
and making 120 revolutions per minute. An important improvement
was made by fitting the working faces of the pump with india-rubber,
which was very successful and largely reduced the wear and tear.
The cost of the dredging at Lowestoft was given by Mr Langley at
2d. per ton, including delivery 2 m. out at sea. The quantity
dredged was about 200,000 tons per annum.
One of the earliest pumps to be applied to dredging purposes was
the Woodford, which consisted of a horizontal disk with two or
more arms working in a case somewhat similar to the ordinary
centrifugal pump. The disk was keyed to a vertical shaft which was
driven from above by means of belts or other gear coupled to an
ordinary portable engine. The pump within rested on the ground ;
the suction pipe was so arranged that water was drawn in with the
sand or mud, the proportions being regulated to suit the quality of
the material. The discharge pipe was rectangular and carried a
vertical shaft, the whole apparatus being adjustable to suit different
depths of water. This arrangement was very effective, and has been
used on many works. Burt & Freeman's sand pump, a modification
of the Woodford pump, was used in the construction of the Amster-
dam Ship Canal, for which it was designed. The excavations from
the canal had to be deposited on the banks some distance away from
the dredgers, and after being raised by the ordinary bucket dredger,
instead of being discharged into the barges, they were led into a
vertical chamber on the top side of the pump, suitable arrangements
being made for regulating the delivery. The pump was 3! ft. in
diameter, and made about 230 revolutions per minute. The water
was drawn up on the bottom side and mixed with the descending
mud on the top side, and the two were discharged into a pipe 15 in.
in diameter. The discharge pipe was a special feature, and consisted
of a series of wooden pipes jointed together with leather hinges
and floated on buoys from the dredger to the bank. In some cases
this pipe was 300 yds. long, and discharged the material 8 ft. above
the water level. Each dredger and pump was capable of discharg-
ing an average of 1500 cub. yds. per day of 12 hours. Schmidt s
sand pump is claimed to be an improvement on the Burt & Freeman
pump. It consists of a revolving wheel 6 ft. in diameter, with cutters
revolving under a hood which just allows the water to pass under-
neath. To the top side of the hood a 20 in. suction pipe from an
ordinary centrifugal pump is attached. The pump is driven by two
1 6 in. by 20 in. cylinders, at 134 revolutions per minute, the boiler
pressure being 95 Ib per sq. in. This apparatus is capable of ex-
cavating sticky blue clayey mud, and will deliver the material at
500 to 650 yds. distance. The best results are obtained when the
mixture of mud and water is as I to 6-5. The average quantity
excavated per diem by the apparatus is 1300 cub. yds., the maximum
quantity being 2500 cub. yds.
Kennard's sand pump is entirely different from the pumps already
described, and is a direct application of the ordinary lift pump. A
wrought iron box has a suction pipe fitted at the bottom, rising about
half way up the inside of the box; on the top of the box is fitted the
actual pump and the flap valves. The apparatus is lowered by
chains, and the pump lowered from above. As soon as the box is
filled with sand it is raised, the catches holding up the bottom
released, and the contents discharged into a punt.
Sand-pump dredgers, designed and arranged by Mr Darnton
Hutton, were extensively used on the Amsterdam Ship Canal. A
centrifugal pump with a fan 4 ft. in diameter was employed, the
suction and delivery pipes, each 18 in. in diameter, being attached
to an open wrought-iron framework. The machine was suspended
between guides fixed to the end of the vessel, which was fitted with
tackle for raising, lowering and adjusting the machine. The vessel
was fitted with a steam engine and boiler for working and mani-
pulating the pumps and the heavy side chains for the guidance of the
dredger. The engine was 70 h.p., and the total cost of one dredger
was .{8000. The number of hands required for working this sand-
pump dredger was one captain, one engineer, one stoker and four
sailors. Each machine was capable of raising about 1300 tons of
material per day, the engines working at 60 and the pump at 180
revolutions per minute. The sand was delivered into barges along-
side the dredger. The cost of raising the material and depositing
it in barges was about id. per ton when the sand pumps were work-
ing, but upon the year's work the cost was 2-40. per cub. yd. for
working expenses and repairs, and l-24d. per cub. yd. for interest
and depreciation at 10% upon the cost of the plant, making a total
cost for dredging of 3-64d. per cub. yd. The cost for transport was
3~588d. per cub. yd., making a total cost for dredging and transport
of 7-234d. per cub. yd. Dredging and transport on the same works
by an ordinary bucket dredger and barges cost 8-328d. per cub. yd.
Two of the largest and most successful instances of sand-pump
dredgers are the Brancker " and the " G. B. Crow," belonging
to the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board. Mr A. G. Lyster gave
particulars of the work done by these dredgers in a paper read before
the Engineering Congress .in 1899. They are each 320 ft. long, 47 ft.
wide and 20-5 ft. deep, the draught loaded being 16 ft. They are
fitted with two centrifugal pumps, each 6 ft. in diameter, with 36 in.
suction and delivery pipes, united into a 45 in. diameter pipe, hung
by a ball and socket joint in a trunnron, so as to work safely in a sea-
way when the waves are 10 ft. high. The suction pipe is 76 ft. long
and will dredge in 53 ft. of water. The eight hoppers hold 3000 tons,
equivalent when solid to 2000 cub. yds. ; they can be filled in three-
quarters of an hour and discharged in five minutes. Mr Lyster
stated that up to May 1899, the quantity removed _from bar and
main-channel shoals amounted to 41,240,360 tons, giving a width
of channel of 1500 ft. through the bar, with a minimum depth of
27 ft. The cost of dredging on the bar by the " G. B. Crow " during
1898, when 4,309,350 tons of material were removed, was o-6iol!
per ton for wages, supplies and repairs. These figures include all
direct working costs and a proportion of the charge for actual
superintendence, but no allowance for interest on capital cost or
depreciation. On an average, 20% of the sand and mud that are
raised escapes over the side of the vessel. Mr Lyster has, however,
to a considerable extent overcome this difficulty by a special
arrangement added to the hoppers (see Proc. Insl. C.E. vol. 188).
At the Engineering Conference, 1907, Mr Lyster read a note in
which he stated that the total quantity of material removed from
the bar of the Mersey, from the Crosby channel, and from other
points of the main channel by the " G. B. Crow " and " Brancker "
suction dredgers amounted to 108,675,570 tons up to the 1st of May
1907. " In the note of 1899 (he added) it was pointed out that the
Mersey was a striking instance of the improvement of a river by
dredging rather than by permanent works, and the economy of the
system as well as the advantage which its elasticity and adapta-
bility to varying circumstances permit, was pointed out
The most recent experience, which has resulted in the adoption of
the proposal to revet the Taylor's bank, indicates that the dredging
method has its limitations and cannot provide for every contingency
which is likely to arise ; at the same time, the utility and economy
of the dredging system is in no way diminished Having
regard to the ever-increasing size of vessels, a scheme for new docks
and entrances on a very large scale received the authority of parlia-
ment during the session of 19051906 In this scheme it was con-
sidered necessary to make provision for vessels of 1000 ft. in length
and 40 ft. in draught, and having regard to this prospective growth
of vessels it has been determined still further to deepen and improve
the outer channel of the Mersey. No fixed measure of improvement
has been decided on, but after careful survey of existing conditions
and a comparison with probable requirements, it has been determined
to construct a dredger of 10,000 tons capacity, provided with pump-
ing power equivalent to about three times that of any existing
dredgers. By the use of this vessel it is anticipated that it will be
possible to deal with very much larger quantities of sand at a cheaper
rate, and to 10 ft. greater depth than the existing plant permits.
The vessel in question was launched on the Mersey from the yard
of Messrs Cammell, Laird & Co. in October 1908, and was named
the " I^eviathan." Her length is 487 ft., beam 69 ft., and depth
30 ft. 7 in. Her dredging machinery consists of four centrifugal
pumps driven by four sets of inverted triple expansion engines, and
connected to four suction tubes 90 ft. long and 42 in. in internal
diameter. Her propelling machinery, consisting of two sets of triple
expansion engines, is capable of driving her at a speed of 10 knots.
Another powerful and successful sand-pump dredger, "Kate"
(Plate I. fig. 7), was built in 1897 by Messrs Wm. Simons & Co. Ltd.
for the East London Harbour Board, South Africa. Its dimensions
are: length 200 ft., breadth 39 ft., depth 14 ft. 6 in., hopper capacity
looo tons. The pumping arrangements for filling the hopper with
sand or discharging overboard consist of two centrifugal pumps,
each driven from one of the propelling engines. The suction pipes
are each 27 in. in diameter, and are so arranged that they may be
used for pumping either forward or aft, as the state of the weather
may require. Four steam cranes are provided for manipulating the
suction pipes. Owing to the exceptional weather with which the
vessel had to contend, special precautions were taken in designing
the attachments of the suction pipes to the vessel. The attachment
is above deck and consists of a series of joints, which give a perfectly
free and universal movement to the upper ends of the pipes. The
joints, on each side of the vessel, are attached to a carriage, which
is traversed laterally by hydraulic gear. By this means the pipes
are pushed out well clear of the vessel's sides when pumping, and
brought inboard when not in work. Hydraulic cushioning cylinders
are provided to give any required resistance to the fore and aft
movements of the pipes. When the vessel arrived at East London
on the i8th of July 1897, there was a depth of 14 ft. on the bar at
high tide. On the loth of October, scarcely three months afterwards,
there was a depth of 20 ft. on the bar at low water. Working 22 days
in rough weather during the month of November 1898, the " Kate"
raised and deposited 2} m. at sea 60,000 tons of dredgings. Her
best day's work (12 hours) was on the 7th of November, when she
dredged and deposited 6440 tons.
A large quantity of sand-pump dredging has been carried out at
Boulogne and Calais by steam hopper pump dredgers, workable when
DREDGE AND DREDGING
567
the head waves are not more than 3 ft. high and the cross waves not
more than I J ft. high. The dredgings are taken 2 m. to sea, and the
price for dredging and depositing from 800,000 to 900,000 cub.
metres in 5 or 6 years was 7-25d. per cub. yd. The contractor offered
to do the work at 4-625d. per cub. yd. on condition of being allowed
to work either at Calais or Boulogne, as the weather might permit.
Sand-pump dredging has also been extensively carried out at the
mouth of the ports of Amsterdam, Rotterdam and on the north coast
of France by sand dredgers constructed by Messrs L. Smit & Son
and G. & K. Smit. The largest dredger, the " Amsterdam," is
141 ft. by 27 ft. by 10 ft. 8 in., and has engines of 190 i.h.p. The
hopper capacity is 10,600 cub. ft., and the vessel can carry 600 tons
of dredgings. The pump fan is 6 ft. 3 in. in diameter by 10 in. wide,
the plates being of wrought iron, and makes 130 revolutions a minute.
The pump can raise 230 cub. ft. a minute from a depth of 33 ft.,
which, taking the proportion of I of sand to 7 of water, gives a
delivery of 29 cub. ft. of sand per minute. The hopper containing
10,600 cub. ft. was under favourable circumstances filled in 40
minutes. The vessels are excellent sea boats.
Combined Bucket-Ladder and Sand-Pump Dredgers. Bucket
ladders and sand pumps have also been fitted to the same
dredger. A successful example of this practice is furnished by
the hopper dredger " Percy Sanderson" (Plate I. fig. 8), con-
structed under the direction of Sir C. A. Hartley, engineer of
the Danube Commission for the deepening of the river Danube
and the Sulina bar. This dredger is 220 ft. by 40 ft. by 17 ft.
2 in., and has a hopper capacity for 1250 tons of dredgings.
The buckets have each a capacity of 25 cub. ft., and are able
to raise 1000 tons of ordinary material per hour. The suction
pump, which is driven by an independent set of triple expansion
engines, is capable of raising 700 tons of sand per hour, and of
dredging to a depth of 35 ft. below the water-line. The lower
end of the suction pipe is controlled by special steam appliances
by which the pipe can be brought entirely inboard. The " Percy
Sanderson " raises and deposits on an average 5000 tons of
material per day.
Grab Dredgers. The grab dredger was stated by Sir Benjamin
Baker (Proc. Inst. C.E. vol. 113, p. 38) to have been invented by
Gouff 6 in 1 703, and was worked by two ropes and a bar. Various
kinds of apparatus have been designed in the shape of grabs or
buckets for dredging purposes. These are usually worked by a
steam crane, which lets the open grab down to the surface of
the ground to be excavated and then closes it by a chain which
forces the tines into the ground ; the grab is then raised by the
crane, which deposits the contents either into the hopper of the
vessel upon which the crane is fixed or into another barge.
The Priestman grab has perhaps been more extensively used than
any other apparatus of this sort. It is very useful for excavating
mud, gravel and soft sand, but is less effective with hard sand or
stiff clay a general defect in this class of dredger. It is also capable
of lifting large loose pieces of rock weighing from I to 2 tons. A
dredger of this type, with grab holding I ton of mud, dredged during
six days, in 19 ft. of water, an average of 52 j tons and a maximum
of 68J tons per hour, and during 12 days, in 16 ft. of water, an
average of 48 tons and a maximum of 58 tons per hour, at a cost of
i -63d. per ton, excluding interest on the capital and depreciation.
The largest dredger to which this' apparatus has been applied is the
grab bucket hopper dredger " Miles K. Burton " (Plate I. fig. 9),
belonging to the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board. It is equipped
with 5 grabs on Morgan's patent system, which is a modification of
Priestman's, the grabs being worked by 5 hydraulic cranes. It
raised and deposited, 12 to 15 m. at sea, 1 1 loads of about 1450 tons
each with a double shift of hands, at a cost of about is. sd. per cub.
yd. of spoil, including the working expenses for wages of crew, fuel
and stores. Mr R. A. Marillier of Hull has stated that "the efficiency
of these grabs is not at all dependent upon the force of the blow in
falling for the penetration and grip in the material, as they do their
work very satisfactorily even when lowered quite gently on to the
material to be cut out, the jaws being so framed as to draw down
and penetrate the material as soon as the upward strain is put on
the lifting chain. Even in hard material the jaws penetrate so
thoroughly as to cause the bucket to be well filled. The grab is found
to work successfully in excavating hard clay from its natural bed
on dry land." It is claimed on behalf of grabs that they lift a smaller
proportion of water than any other class of dredger.
Since the^ beginning of the 2Oth century considerable advance has
been made in the use of Priestman grabs, not only for dredging and
excavating (for which work they were originally designed), but also
in discharging bulk cargo. The first quadruple dredger used by the
Liverpool Docks Board had grabs of a capacity of 30 cub. ft., but
subsequently second and third quadruple dredgers were put to work
in the Liverpool Docks, with grabs having a capacity of 70 and 100
cub. ft. respectively. In discharging coal at Southampton, Havre,
Erith, as well as at the coaling station at Purfleet on the Thames,
grabs having a capacity of about 80 cub. ft. are in constant use.
Perhaps the most difficult kind of bulk cargo to lift is " Narvick "
iron ore, which sets into a semi-solid body in the holds of the vessels,
and for this purpose one of the largest grabs, having about 150 cub.
ft. capacity and weighing about 8 tons, has been adopted. This grab
was designed as a result of experiments extending over a long period
in lifting iron ore. It is fitted with long, forged, interlocked steel
teeth for penetrating the compact material, which is very costly to
remove by hand labour. The Priestman grab is made to work with
either one or two chains or wire ropes. Grabs worked with two
chains or ropes have many advantages, and are therefore adopted
for large undertakings.
Wild's single chain half-tine grab works entirely with a single
chain, and has been found very useful in excavating the cylinders in
Castries harbour. Upon experimenting with an ordinary grab a
rather curious condition of things was observed with respect to
sinking. On penetrating the soil to a certain depth the ground was
found as it were nested, and nothing would induce the grab to sink
lower. Sir W. Matthews suggested that a further set of external
tines might possibly get over this difficulty. A new grab having been
made with this modification, and also with a large increase of
weight all the parts being of steel it descended to any required
depth with ease, the outside tines loosening the ground effectually
whilst the inside bucket or tines picked up the material.
Miscellaneous Appliances. There are several machines or
appliances which perhaps can hardly be called dredgers, although
they are used for cleansing and deepening rivers and harbours.
Kingfoot's dredger, used for cleansing the river Stour, consisted
of a boat with a broad rake fitted to the bow, capable of adjustment
to different depths. At the sides of the boat were hinged two wings
of the same depth as the rake and in a line with it. When the rake
was dropped to the bottom of the river and the wings extended to
the side, they formed a sort of temporary dam, and the water began
to rise gradually. As soon as a sufficient head was raised, varying
from 6 to 12 in., the whole machine was driven forward by the
pressure, and the rake carried the mud with it. Progress at the rate
of about 3 m. an hour was made in this manner, anal to prevent the
accumulation of the dredgings, operations were begun at the mouth
of the river and carried on backwards. The apparatus was very
effective and the river was cleansed thoroughly, but the distance
travelled by the dredger must have been great.
In 1876 J. J. Rietschoten designed a " propeller dredger " for
removing the shoals of the river Maas. It consisted of an old gun-
boat fitted with a pair of trussed beams, one at each side, each of
which carried a steel shaft and was capable of being lowered or
raised by means of a crab. An ordinary propeller 3 ft. 6 in. in
diameter was fixed to the lower end of the shaft, and driven by bevel
gear from a cross shaft which derived its motion by belting from
the fly-wheel of a 12 h.p. portable engine. The propellers were
lowered until they nearly reached the shoals, and were then worked
at 150 revolutions per minute. This operation scoured away the
shoal effectively, for in about 40 minutes it had been lowered about
3 ft. for a space of 150 yds. long by 8 yds. wide.
A. Lavalley in 1877 designed an arrangement for the harbour of
Dunkirk to overcome the difficulty of working an ordinary bucket-
ladder dredger when there is even a small swell. A pump injects
water into the sand down a pipe terminating in three nozzles to stir
up the sand, and another centrifugal pump draws up the mixed
sand and water and discharges it into a hopper, the pumps and all
machinery being on board the hopper. To allow for the rising and
falling of the vessel either by the action of the tide or by the swell
the ends of the pipes are made flexible. The hopper has a capacity
of 190 cub. yds., and is propelled and the pumps worked by an engine
of 150 i.h.p. From 50 to 80 cub. yds. per hour can be raised by this
dredger.
The " Aquamotrice," designed by Popie, and used on the
Garonne at Agen, appears to be a modification of the old bag and
spoon arrangement. A flat-bottomed boat 51 ft. long by 6J ft.
wide was fitted at the bow with paddles, which were actuated by the
tide. Connected with the paddles was a long chain, passing over a
pulley on uprights and under a roller, and a beam was attached to
the chain 14 ft. 8 in. long, passing through a hole in the deck. At
the end of the beam was an iron scoop 2 ft. wide and 2 ft. 6 in. deep.
When the tide was strong enough it drew the scoop along by means
of the paddles and chains, and the scoop when filled was opened by
a lever and discharged. About 65 cub. yds. of gravel could be
raised by the apparatus in 12 hours. When the tide failed the
apparatus was worked by men.
The Danube Steam Navigation Co. removed the shingle in the
shallow parts of the river by means of a triangular rake with wrought-
iron sides 18 ft. long, and fitted with 34 teeth of chilled cast iron
12 in. deep. This rake was hung from the bow of a steamer 180 ft.
long by 21 ft. beam, and dragged across the shallows, increasing the
depth of water in one instance from 5 ft. 6 in. to 9 ft., after passing
over the bank 355 times. .
A combination of a harrow and high pressure water jets, arranged
by B. Tydeman, was found very efficacious in removing a large
5 68
DREDGE AND DREDGING
quantity of mud which accumulated in the Tilbury Dock basin,
which has an area of about 17 acres, with a depth of 26 ft. at low-
water spring tides. In the first instance chain harrows merely were
used, but the addition of the water jets added materially to the
success of the operation. The system accomplished in six tides
more than was done in twelve tides without the water jets which
worked at about 80 ft pressure per sq. in. at the bottom of the dock.
Ive's excavator consists of a long weighted spear, with a sort of
spade at the end of it. The spade is hinged at the top, and is capable
of being turned at right angles to the spear by a chain attached to
the end of the spear. The spade is driven into the ground, and after
releasing the catch which holds it in position during its descent, it is
drawn up at right angles to the spear by the chain, carrying the
material with it. Milroy 's excavator is similar, but instead of having
only one spade it generally has eight, united to the periphery of an
octagonal iron frame fixed to a central vertical rod. When these
eight spades are drawn up by means of chains, they form one flat
table or tray at right angles to the central rod. In operation the
spades hang vertically, and are dropped into the material to be
excavated ; the chains are then drawn up, and the table thus formed
holds the material on the top, which is lifted and discharged by
releasing the spade. This apparatus has been extensively used both
in Great Britain and in India for excavating in bridge cylinders.
The clam shell dredger consists of two hinged buckets, which when
closed form one semi-cylindrical bucket. The buckets are held
open by chains attached to the top of a cross-head, and the machine
is dropped on to the top of the material to be dredged. The chains
holding the bucket open are then released, while the spears are held
firmly in position, the buckets being closed by another chain.
Bull's dredger, Gatmell's excavator, and Fouracre's dredger are
modifications with improvements of the clam shell dredger, and
have all been used successfully upon various works.
Bruce & Batho's dredger, when closed, is of hemispherical form,
the bucket being composed of three or four blades. It can be worked
by either a single chain or by means of a spear, the latter being
generally used for stiff material. The advantage of this form of
dredger bucket is that the steel points of the blades are well adapted
for penetrating hard material. Messrs Bruce & Batho also designed
a dredger consisting of one of these buckets, but worked entirely
by hydraulic power. This was made for working on the Tyne.
The excavator or dredger is fixed to the end of a beam which is
actuated by two hydraulic cylinders, one being used for raising the
bucket and the other for lowering it; the hydraulic power is supplied
by the pumps in the engine-room. The novelty in the design is the
ingenious way in which the lever in ascending draws the shoot under
the bucket to receive its contents, and draws away again as the
bucket descends. The hydraulic cylinder at the end of the beam
is carried on gimbals to allow for irregularities on the surface being
dredged. The hydraulic pressure is 700 Ib per sq. in., and the pumps
are used in connexion with a steam accumulator.
An unloading apparatus was designed by Mr A. Manning for the
East & West India Dock Co. for unloading the dredged materials
out of barges and delivering it on the marsh at the back of the bank
of the river Thames at Crossness, Kent. A stage constructed of
wooden piles commanded a series of barge beds, and the unloading
dredger running from end to end of the stage, lifted and delivered
the materials on the marsh behind the river wall at the cost of I d.
per cub. yd.
Dredging on the River Scheldt below Antwerp. This dredging
took place at Krankeloon and the Belgian Sluis under the direc-
tion of L. Van Gansberghe. At Melsele there is a pronounced
bend in the river, causing a bar at the Pass of Port Philip,
and just below the pass of Lillo there is a cross-over in the current,
making a neutral point and forming a shoal. After dredging to
8 metres (26-24 ft.) below low tide, in clay containing stone
and ferruginous matter, a sandstone formation was encountered,
which was very compact and difficult to raise. A suction
dredger being unsuited to the work, a bucket-ladder dredger
was employed. The dredging was commenced at Krankeloon
in September 1894 and continued to the end of 1897. A depth
of 6 metres (19-68 ft.) was excavated at first, but was afterwards
increased to 8 metres (26-24 ft-)- The place of deposit was at
first on lands acquired by the State, 2-17 m. above Krankeloon,
and placed at the disposal of the contractor. The dredgings
excavated by the bucket-ladder dredger were deposited in scows,
which were towed to the front of the deposit ground and dis-
charged by a suction pump fixed in a special boat, moored close
to the bank of the river. The material brought by the suction
dredger in its own hull was discharged by a plant fixed upon the
dredger itself. In both instances the material was deposited at
a distance of 1640 ft. from the river, the spoil bank varying
in depth from 2 to 7 metres. The water thrown out behind
the dyke with the excavated material returned to the river,
after settlement, by a special discharge lock built under the dyke.
After 1896 the material was delivered into an abandoned pass
by means of barges with bottom hopper doors or by the suction
dredger. One suction dredger and three bucket-ladder dredgers
were employed upon the work, and a vessel called " Scheldt I."
used for discharging the material from the scows. Four tug-
boats and twenty scows were also employed.
The largest dredger, "Scheldt III.," was 147-63 ft. long by 22-96
ft. wide by 10-98 ft. deep, and had buckets of 21-18 cub. ft. capacity.
The output per hour was 10,594 cub. ft. This dredger had also a
complete installation as a suction dredger, the suction pipe being
2 ft. diameter. The fan of the centrifugal pump was 5-25 ft. diameter,
and was driven by the motor of the bucket ladder. The three bucket
dredgers worked with head to the ebb tide. They could also work
with head to the flood tide, but it took so long a time to turn them
about that it was impracticable. The work was for from 13 to 14
hours a day on the ebb tide. The effective daily excavation
averaged 4839 cub. yds. Each dredger was fitted with six anchors.
The excavated cut was 164 ft. wide by 6-56 ft. deep. " Scheldt III."
was capable of lifting a mass 9-84 ft. thick. The suction dredger
" Scheldt II." was of the multiple type, and is stated to be unique
in construction. It can discharge material from a scow alongside,
fill its own hopper with excavations, discharge its own load upon the
bank or into a scow by different pipes provided for the purpose, and
discharge its own load through hopper doors. The machinery is
driven by a triple expansion engine of 300 i.h.p. working the pro-
peller by a clutch. Owing to the rise and fall in the tide of 23 ft.
the suction pipe is fitted with spherical joints and a telescopic
arrangement. The vessel is 157-5 ft. by 28-2 ft. by 12-8 ft. The
diameter of the pump is 5-25 ft. The wings of the pump are curved,
the surface being in the form of a cylinder parallel to the axis of
rotation, the directrix of which is an arc of a circle of 2-62 ft. radius
with the straight part beyond. The suction and discharge pipes are
2 ft. diameter. A centrifugal pump is provided for throwing water
into the scows to liquefy the material during discharge. The dredger,
which is fitted with electric lights for work at night, is held by two
anchors, to prevent lurching backwards and forwards; it can work
on the flood as well as on the ebb tide, and can excavate to a depth
of 42-65 ft., the output depending upon the nature of the material.
With good material it can fill its tanks in thirty minutes. To empty
the tanks by suction and discharge upon the bank over the dyke
takes about fifty minutes, depending upon the height and distance
to which the material requires to be delivered. The daily work has
averaged eighteen hours, ten trips being made when the distance
from the dredging ground to the point of delivery is about I m.
When the dredged material is discharged into the Scheldt, a quantity
of 5886 cub. yds. has been raised and deposited in a day, the mean
quantity being 4700 cub. yds. When the distance of transportation
is increased to 2j m., six voyages were made in a day, and the day's
work amounted to 3530 cub. yds.
Gold Dredgers. Dredgers for excavating from river beds soil
containing gold are generally fitted with a screen and elevator.
FIG. 2. Diagram showing Action of Lobnitz Gold Dredger.
They have been extensively designed and built by Messrs
Lobnitz & Co. (fig. 2) and also by Messrs Hunter & English.
The writer is indebted to the Proceedings of the Institution of
Civil Engineers, and especially to the paper of Mr J. J. Webster
(Proc. Inst. C.E. vol. 89), for much valuable information upon the
subject treated. He is also indebted to many manufacturers who
have furnished him with particulars and photographs of dredging
plant. (W. H.*)
2. MARINE BIOLOGY
The naturalist's dredge is an instrument consisting essentially
of a net or bag attached to a framework of iron which forms the
mouth of the net. When in use as the apparatus is drawn over
the sea-bottom mouth forwards, some part of the framework
passes beneath objects which it meets and so causes them to
DREDGING
PLATE I.
FIG. 3. Barge-loading dredger, "St Austell," constructed for
the British Government by Wm. Simons & Co.
FIG. 5- Dredger constructed for the Lake Copais Co.
by Hunter & English.
FIG. 4. Stern-well hopper-dredger " La Puissante," by Wm.
Simons & Co. Length 275 ft., breadth 47 ft., depth 19 ft.
FIG. 6. Light-draught dredger, with delivery apparatus work-
ing round an arc of 210, by Hunter & English.
FIG. 7. Twin-screw sand-pump dredger, "Kate," built for the
East London Harbour Board by Wm. Simons & Co.
FIG. 8. Twin-screw hopper-dredger, "Percy Sanderson," built
for the European Danube Commission by Wm. Simons & Co.
I
FIG. 9. Twin-screw grab-dredger, " Miles K. Burton,"
built for the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board by Wm.
Simons & Co.
VIII. 568.
FIG. 10. Hopper-dredger, " David Dale," with buckets of 54
cub. ft. capacity (see fig. n) built for the North Eastern Rail-
way Company by Lobnitz & Co.
PLATE II.
DREDGING
FIG. ii. BUCKETS OF 5 AND 54 CUBIC FEET CAPACITY COMPARED.
The latter, the largest ever made, were for the hopper-dredger "David Dale" (Plate I. fig. 10), built by Lobnitz & Co.
FIG. 12 MODEL OF ROCK-CUTTING DREDGER, "DEROCHEUSE. 1
Built for special work on the Suez Canal by Lobnitz & Co. Length 180 ft., breadth 40 ft., depth 12 ft.
DREDGE AND DREDGING
569
enter the net. It is intended for the collection of animals and
plants living on or near the sea-bottom, or sometimes of specimens
of the sea-bottom itself, for scientific purposes.
Until the. middle of the i8th century, naturalists who studied
the marine fauna and flora relied for their materials on shore
collection and the examination of the catches of fishing boats.
Their knowledge of creatures living below the level of low spring
tides was thus gained only from specimens cast up in storms, or
caught by fishing gear designed for the capture of certain edible
species only. The first effort made to free
marine biology from these limitations was
the use of the dredge, which was built
much on the plan of the oyster dredge.
The Oyster Dredge. At first naturalists made
use of the ordinary oyster dredge, which is
constructed as follows. The frame is an iron
triangle, the sides being the round iron " arms "
of the dredge, the base a flat bar called the
shere or lip, which is sloped a little, not per-
pendicular to the plane of the triangle; an
iron bar parallel to the base joins the arms.
The net is fastened to the parallel bars and
the portion of the arms^btfjween them, and
consists of two parts: tnaBpattached to the
FIG. 13. Otho shere is of round iron ringfTinked together by
Frederick Muller's smaller ones of wire lashings, that attached
Dredge (1770). to the upper bar is of ordinary network.
. Where these two portions of the bag meet a
wooden beam is fastened. In use the frame is towed forward by its
apex: the shere passes below oysters, &c., which pass back on to the
iron netting. The length of each side of the triangular frame is about
6 ft., the width of the shere 3 in. and the height of the mouth just
under a foot. The rings vary in size, but are usually some 2\ in. in
diameter. The weight is about 60 Ib. This dredge was soon aban-
doned: its weight was prohibitive for small boats, from which the
naturalist usually worked, its wide rings allowed precious specimens
to fall through, and its shallow net favoured the washing out of light
pbjects on hauling through the moving water of the surface. More-
over, it sometimes fell on its back and was then useless, although
when the apex or towing point was weighted no great skill is needed
to avoid this.
Otho Miiller used a dredge (fig. 13) consisting of a net with a
square iron mouth, each of whose sides was furnished with a thin
edge turned slightly away from the dredge's centre. As any one of
these everted lips could act as a scraper it was a matter of indifference
which struck the bottom when the dredge
was lowered. The chief defect of the instru-
ment was the ease with which light objects
could be washed out on hauling, owing to
the size of the mouth. However, with this
instrument Miiller obtained from the often
stormy Scandinavian seas all the material for
his celebrated Zoologia Danica, a descrip-
tion of the marine fauna of Denmark and
Norway which was published with excellent
coloured plates in 1778; and historical
interest attaches to the dredge as the first
made specially for scientific work.
Ball's Dredge. About 1838 a dredge de-
vised by Dr Ball of Dublin was introduced.
It. has been used all over the world, and is
so apt for its purpose that it has suffered
very little modification during its 70 years
of life. It is known as Ball's dredge or more
generally simply " the dredge."
Ball's dredge (fig. 14) consists of a rec-
tangular net attached to a rectangular
frame much longer than high, and furnished
with rods stretching from the four corners
FIG. 14. Ball's to meet at a point where they are attached
Naturalist's Dredge, to the dredge rope. It differs from Muller's
dredge in the slit-like shape of the opening,
which prevents much of the " washing out " suffered by the earlier
pattern, and in the edges. The long edges only are fashioned as
scrapers, being wider and heavier than Muller's, especially in later
dredges. The short edges are of round iron bar.
Like Muller's form, Ball's dredge will act whichever side touches
the bottom first, as its frame will not remain on its short edge, and
either of the long edges acts as a scraper. The scraping lips thicken
gradually from free edge to net ; they are set at no to the plane of
the mouth, and in some later patterns curve outwards instead of
merely sloping. All dredge frames are of wrought iron.
The thick inner edges of the scrapers are perforated by round
holes at distances of about an inch, and through these strong iron
rings about an inch in diameter are passed, and two or three similar
rings run on the short rods which form the ends of the dredge-frame.
| A light iron rod, bent to the form of the dredge opening, usually runs
through these ring's, and to this rod and to the rings the mouth of
the dredge-bag is securely attached by stout cord or strong copper
wire. Various materials have been used for the bag, the chief of
which are hide, canvas and netting. The hide was recommended
by its strength, but it is now abandoned. Canvas bags fill quickly
with mud or sand and then cease to operate: on the other hand
wide mesh net fails to retain small specimens. Probably the most
suitable material is hand-made netting of very strong twine, the
meshes half an inch to the side, the inter-spaces contracting to a
third of an inch across when the twine is thoroughly soaked, with an
open canvas or " bread-bag " lining to the last 6 in. of the net. A
return to canvas covering has latterly occurred in the small dredge
called the mud-bag, trailed behind the trawl of the " Albatross "
for obtaining a sample of the bottom, and in the conical dredge.
The dimensions of the first dredges were as follows : Frame about
12 in. by about 4 in.; scraping lips about 2 in. wide; all other iron
parts of round iron bar f in. diameter; bag rather more than I ft.
long. These small dredges were used from rowing boats. Larger
dredges were subsequently made for use from yawls or cutters.
The mouth of these was 18 by 5 in., the scraping lips about 2 in.
wide and bag 2 ft. deep; such a dredge weighs about 20 Ib. The
dredge of the " Challenger " had a frame 4 ft. 6 in. by I ft. 3 in. and
the bag had a length of 4 ft. 6 in.; the "Porcupine" used a dredge
of the same size weighing 225 Ib. Doubtless the size of Ball's dredge
would have grown still more had it not been proved by the
" Challenger ' expedition that for many purposes trawls could be
used advantageously instead of dredges.
Operation of the Dredge from Small Vessels. For work round
the coasts of Europe, at depths attainable from a row-boat or
yawl, probably the best kind of line is bolt-rope of the best
Russian hemp, not less than ij in. in circumference, containing
1 8 to 20 yarns in 3 strands. Each yarn should be nearly a
hundredweight, so that the breaking strain of such a rope ought
to be about a ton. Of course it is never voluntarily exposed to
such a strain, but in shallow water the dredge is often caught
among rocks or coral, and the rope should be strong enough in
such a case to bring up the boat, even if there were some little
way on. It is always well, when dredging, to ascertain the
approximate depth with the lead before casting the dredge; and
the lead ought always to be accompanied by a registering
thermometer, for the subsequent haul of the dredge will gain
greatly in value as an observation in geographical distribution,
if it be accompanied by an accurate note of the bottom tem-
perature. For depths under 100 fathoms the amount of rope
paid out should be at least double the depth; under 30 fathoms,
where one usually works more rapidly, it should be more nearly
three times; this gives a good deal of slack before the dredge if
the boat be moving very slowly, and keeps the lip of the dredge
well down. When there is anything of a current, from whatever
cause, it is usually convenient to attach a weight, varying from
14 Ib to half a hundredweight, to the rope 3 or 4 fathoms in front
of the dredge. This prevents in some degree the lifting of the
mouth of the dredge; if the weight be attached nearer the dredge
it is apt to injure delicate objects passing in.
In dredging in sand or mud, the dredge-rope may simply be
passed through the double eye formed by the ends of the two
arms of the dredge-frame; but in rocky or unknown ground it is
better to fasten the rope to the eye of one of the arms only, and to
tie the two eyes together with three or four turns of rope-yarn.
This stop breaks much more readily than the dredge-rope, so that
if the dredge get caught it is the first thing to give way under the
strain, and in doing so it often alters the position of the dredge so
as to allow of its extrication.
The dredge is slipped gently over the side, either from the bow
or from the stern in a small boat more usually the latter
while there is a little way on, and the direction which the rope
takes indicates roughly whether the dredge is going down
properly. When it reaches the ground and begins to scrape, an
experienced hand upon the rope can usually detect at once a
tremor given to the dredge by the scraper passing over the
irregularities of the bottom. The due amount of rope is then
paid out, and the rope hitched to a bench or rowlock-pin. The
boat should move very slowly, probably not faster than a mile an
hour. In still water or with a very slight current the dredge of
course anchors the boat, and oars or sails are necessary; but if
the boat be moving at all it is all that is required. It is perhaps
570
DREDGE AND DREDGING
most pleasant to dredge with a close-reefed sail before a light
wind, with weights, against a very slight tide or current; but
these are conditions which cannot be commanded. The dredge
may remain down from a quarter of an hour to twenty minutes,
by which time, if things go well, it ought to be fairly filled. In
dredging from a small boat the simplest plan is for two or three
men to haul in, hand over hand, and coil in the bottom of the
boat. For a large yawl or yacht, and for depths over 50 fathoms,
a winch is a great assistance. The rope takes a couple of turns
round the winch, which is worked by two men, while a third hand
takes it from the winch and coils it down.
It is easier to operate a dredge from a steam vessel than a
sailing boat, but if the steamer is of any size great care should be
taken that the dredge does not move too rapidly.
Two ingenious cases of dredging under unusual conditions are
worthy of mention, one case from shore, one from ice. In the
Trondligem Fjord, Canon A. M. Norman in 1890 worked by
hauling the dredge up the precipitous shores of the fjord. The
dredge was shot from a boat close to the shore, to which after
paying out some hundreds of fathoms of line it returned. The
dredge was then hauled from the top of the cliffs up whose side it
scraped. Hitches against projecting rocks were frequent and
were overcome by suddenly paying out line for a time. The
dredge was lifted into a boat when it reached the surface of the
sea. The other case occurred during the Antarctic expedition of
the " Discovery." Hodgson dropped loops of line along cracks
which occasionally formed in the ice. The ice always joined up
again, but with the line below it; and a hole being cleared at
each place at which the end of the line emerged, the dredge could
be worked between them.
The dredge comes up variously freighted according to the
locality, and the next step is to examine its contents and to store
the objects of search for future use. In a regularly organized
dredging expedition a frame or platform is often erected with a
ledge round it to receive the contents of the dredge, but it does
well enough to capsize it on an old piece of tarpaulin. There
are two ways of emptying the dredge; we may either turn it up
and pour out its contents by the mouth, or we may have a
contrivance by which the bottom of the bag is made to unlace.
The first plan is the simpler and the one more usually adopted;
the second has the advantage of letting the mass slide out more
smoothly and easily, but the lacing introduces rather a damaging
complication, as it is apt to loosen or give way. Any objects
visible on the surface of the heap are now carefully removed, and
placed for identification in jars or tubs of sea-water, of which
there should be a number secured in some form of bottle basket,
standing ready. The heap should not be much disturbed, for the
delicate objects contained in it have already been unavoidably
subjected to a good deal of rough usage, and the less friction
among the stones the better.
Examination of the Catch. Sifting. The sorting of the catch
is facilitated by sifting. The sieves used in early English expedi-
tions were of various sizes and meshes, each sieve having a finer
mesh than the sieve smaller than itself. In use the whole were
put together in the form of a nest, the smallest one with the
coarsest mesh being on top. A little of the dredge's contents
were then put in the top sieve, and the whole set moved gently up
and down in a tub of sea water by handles attached to the bottom
one. Objects of different sizes are thus left in different sieves.
A simple but effective plan is to let the sieves of various sized
mesh fit accurately on each other like lids, the coarsest on top,
and to pour water upon material placed on the top one. In the
United States Bureau of Fisheries ship " Albatross " these
sieves are raised to form a table and the water is led on them
from a hose: the very finest objects or sediments are retained by
the waste water escaping from a catchment tub by muslin bags
let into its sides. Any of these methods are preferable to sifting
by the agitation of a sieve hung over the side, as in the last
anything passing through the sieve is gone past recall.
Preservation of Specimens. The preservation of specimens
will of course depend on the purpose for which they are intended.
For microscopic observation formaldehyde has some advantages.
It can be stored in 40% solution and used in 2%, thus saving
space, and it preserves many animals in their colours for a time:
formalin preparations do not, however, last as well as do those in
spirit. The suitable fluids for various histological inquiries are
beyond the scope of the present article; but for general marine
histology Bles' fluid is useful, being simple to prepare and not
necessitating the removal of the specimen to another fluid. It is
composed of 70% alcohol 90 parts, glacial acetic acid 7 parts,
4% formaldehyde 7 parts.
The scientific value of a dredging depends mainly upon two
things, the care with which the objects procured are preserved and
labelled for future identification and reference, and the accuracy
with which all the circumstances of the dredging the position,
the depth, the nature of the ground, the date, the bottom-
temperature, &c. are recorded. In the British Marine Biological
Association's work in the North Sea, a separate sheet of a printed
book with carbon paper and duplicate sheets (which remain
always on the ship) is used for the record of the particulars of
each haul; depth, gear, &c., being filled into spaces indicated in
the form. This use of previously prepared forms has been found
to be a great saving of time and avoids risk of omission. Whether
labelled externally or not, all bottles should contain parchment
or good paper labels written with a soft pencil. These cannot
be lost. The more fully details of reference number of station,
gear, date, &c., are given the better, as should a mistake be made
in one particular it can frequently be traced and rectified by
means of the rest.
Growth of Scope of Operations. At the Birmingham meeting
of the British Association in 1839 an important committee was-
appointed " for researches with the dredge with a view to the
investigation of the marine zoology of Great Britain, the illlustra-
tion of the geographical distribution of marine animals, and the
more accurate determination of the fossils of the Pliocene period."
Of this committee Edward Forbes was the ruling spirit, and
under the genial influence of his contagious enthusiasm great
progress was made during the next decade in the knowledge
of the fauna of the British seas, and many wonderfully pleasant
days were spent by the original committee and by many others
who from year to year were " added to their number." Every
annual report of the British Association contains communications
from the English, the Scottish, or the Irish branches of the
committee; and in 1850 Edward Forbes submitted its first
general report on British marine zoology. This report, as might
have been anticipated from the eminent qualifications of the
reporter, was of the highest value; and, taken along with his
remarkable memoirs previously published, " On the Distribution
of the Mollusca and Radiata of the Aegean Sea," and " On the
Zoological Relations of the existing Fauna and Flora of the
British Isles," may be said to mark an era in the progress of
human thought.
The dredging operations of the British Association committee
were carried on generally under the idea that at the loo-fathom
line, by which amateur work in small boats was practically
limited, the zero of animal life was approached a notion which
was destined to be gradually undermined, and finally over-
thrown. From time to time, however, there were not wanting
men of great skill and experience to maintain, with Sir James
Clark Ross, that " from however great a depth we may be
enabled to bring up mud and stones of the bed of the ocean we
shall find them teeming with animal life." Samples of the sea-
bottom procured with great difficulty and in small quantity
from the first deep soundings in the Atlantic, chiefly by the use
of Brooke's sounding machine, an instrument which by a neat
contrivance disengaged its weights when it reached the bottom,
and thus allowed a tube, so arranged as to get filled with a sample
of the bottom, to be recovered by the sounding line, were eagerly
examined by microscopists; and the singular fact was established
that these samples consisted over a large part of the bed of the
Atlantic of the entire or broken shells of certain foraminifera.
Dr Wallich, the naturalist to the " Bulldog " sounding ex-
pedition under Sir Leopold M'Clintock, reported that star-fishes,
with their stomachs full of the deep-sea foraminifera, had come
DREDGE AND DREDGING
up from a depth of 1200 fathoms on a sounding line; and doubts
began to be entertained whether the bottom of the sea was in
truth a desert, or whether it might not present a new zoological
region open to investigation and discovery, and peopled by a
peculiar fauna suited to its special conditions.
In the year 1867, while the question was still undecided,
two testing investigations were undertaken independently. In
America Count L. F. de Pourtales (1824-1880), an officer em-
ployed in the United States Coast Survey under Benjamin Peirce,
commenced a series of deep dredgings across the Gulf Stream off
the coast of Florida, which were continued in the following year,
and were productive of most valuable results; and in Great
Britain the Admiralty, on the representation of the Royal Society,
placed the " Lightning," a small gun-vessel, at the disposal of a
small committee to sound and dredge in the North Atlantic
between Shetland and the Faroe Islands.
In the "Lightning," with the help of a donkey-engine
for winding in, dredging was carried on with comparative ease
at a depth of 600 fathoms, and at that depth animal life was
found to be still abundant. The results of the " Lightning's "
dredgings were regarded of so great importance to science that
the Royal Society pressed upon the Admiralty the advantage
of continuing the researches, and accordingly, during the years
1869 and 1870, the gun-boat " Porcupine " was put under the
orders of a committee consisting of Dr W. B. Carpenter, Dr
Gwyn Jeffreys, and Professor (afterwards Sir Charles) Wyville
Thomson, one or other of whom superintended the scientific work
of a series of dredging trips in the North Atlantic to the north
and west of the British Islands, which occupied two summers.
In the " Porcupine," in the summer of 1869, dredging was
carried down successfully to a depth of 2435 fathoms, upwards
of two miles and a half, in the Bay of Biscay, and the dredge
brought up well-developed representatives of all the classes of
marine invertebrates. During the cruises of the " Porcupine "
the fauna of the deep water off the western coasts of Great
Britain and of Spain and Portugal was tolerably well ascertained,
and it was found to differ greatly from the fauna of shallow
water in the same region, to possess very special characters, and
to show a very marked relation to the faunae of the earlier
Tertiary and the later Cretaceous periods.
In the winter of 1872, as a sequel to the preliminary cruises
of the " Lightning " and " Porcupine," by far the most consider-
able expedition in which systematic dredging had ever been
made a special object left Great Britain. H.M.S. " Challenger,"
a corvette of 2306 tons, with auxiliary steam working to 1234
h.p., was despatched to investigate the physical and biological
conditions of the great ocean basins.
The " Challenger " was provided with a most complete and
liberal organization for the purpose ; she had powerful deck
engines for hauling in the dredge, workrooms, laboratories and
libraries for investigating the results on the spot, and a staff of
competent naturalists to undertake such investigations and to
superintend the packing and preservation of the specimens
reserved for future study. Since the " Challenger " expedition
the use of wire rope has enabled far smaller vessels to undertake
deep sea work. The " Challenger," however, may be said to have
established the practicability of dredging at any known depth.
Operating Dredges and Trawls in deep Seas. Dredging opera-
tions from large vessels in deep seas present numerous difficulties.
The great weigh t of the ship makes hermotion , whether
of progress or rolling, irresistible to the dredge. The
latter tends to jump, therefore, which both lowers its
efficiency and causes it to exert a sudden strain on
the dredge rope.
The efficiency or evenness of dredging was secured,
therefore, by the special device of fastening a heavy
weight some 200 or 300 fathoms from the dredge end
of the dredge rope. This was either lowered with the
dredge or sent down after by means of a " messenger,"
a ring of rope fixed round, but running freely on, the
dredge rope. The latter plan was used on the " Chal-
lenger "; the weights were six 28 Ib leads in canvas
covers: their descent was arrested by a toggle or wooden cross-bar
previously attached to the rope at the desired point. When, how-
ever, the rope used is of wire this front weight is unnecessary.
The possibility of sudden strain necessitates a constant watching
of the dredge rope, as the ship's engines may at any moment be
needed to ease the tension by stopping the vessel's way, and the
hauling engines by paying out more rope. The use of accumulators
both renders the strain more gradual and gives warning of an
increase or decrease; indeed they can be calibrated and used as
dynamometers to measure the strain. One of the best forms of
accumulator consists of a pile of perforated rubber disks, which
receive the strain and become compressed in doing so. The arrange-
ment is in essence as follows. The disks form a column resting on
a cross-bar or base, from which two rods pass up one on each side of
the column. Another cross-bar rests on the top disk, and from it a
rod passes freely down the centre perforation of disks and base.
Eyes are attached to the lower end of this rod and to a yoke con-
necting the side rods at the top: a pull exerted on these eyes is thus
modified by the elasticity of the dredge. In the " Porcupine " and
other early expeditions the accumulator was hung from the main
yard arm, and the block through which the dredge rope ran sus-
pended from it. In more recent ships a special derrick boom is
rigged for this block, and a second accumulator is sometimes inserted
between the topping lift by which this is raised and the end of the
boom.
The margin of safety of steel wire rope is much larger than is that
of hempen rope, a fact of importance both in towing in a rough sea
and in hauling. Galvanized steel wire with a hempen core was first
used by Agassiz on the " Blake." He states that his wire weighed
one pound per fathom, against two pounds per fathom of hempen
rope, and had a breaking strain nearly twice that of hempen rope,
which bore two tons. Thus in hauling the wire rope has both greater
capability and less actual strain. It has also the advantages of
occupying a mere fraction (J) of the storage space needed for rope,
of lasting much longer, and its vibrations transmit much more rapid
and minute indications of the conduct of the dredge.
Wire rope is kept wound on reels supplied with efficient brakes to
check or stop its progress, and an engine is often fitted for winding
it in and veering it out. From the reel it passes to the drum of the
hauling engine, round which it takes some few turns ; care is taken
by watching or by the use of an automatic regulator (Tanner) that
it is taken at a rate equal to that at which it is moving over the side.
From the hauling engine it passes over leading wheels (one of which
should preferably be a registering wheel and indicate the amount of
rope which has passed it), and so it reaches the end of the derrick
boom.
The dredge is lowered from the derrick boom, which has been
previously trained over to windward so that its end is well clear
of the ship, while the ship is slowly moving forward. The rope
is checked until the net is seen to be towing clear, and then
lowered rapidly. Where a weight is used in front of the trawl
Captain Calver successfully adopted the plan of backing after
sufficient line had been paid out: the part of the rope from
weight to surface thus became more vertical, while the shorter
remainder, previously in line with it, sank to the bottom without
change of relative -position of weight and dredge. The ship was
then ready for towing. When no front weight is used the
manoeuvre is unnecessary.
There should be a relation maintained between speed of vessel
onward and of rope downward, or a foul haul may result owing
to the gear capsizing (in the case of a trawl), or getting the net
over the mouth (in a dredge). The most satisfactory method of
ensuring this relation seems to be so to manage the two speeds
that the angle made by the dredge rope is fairly constant. This
angle can be observed with a simple clinometer. The following
table abridged from Tanner most usefully brings together the
requisite angles with other useful quantities.
Depth of water.
Speed of ship
while shooting
dredge or trawl.
Length of
rope
required.
Angle of dredge
rope while
lowering trawl.
Angle of dredge
rope while
dragging trawl.
Fathoms.
Knots.
Fathoms.
IOO
3
200
60
55
200
3
400
60
55
400
3
700
60
52
600
2f
IOOO
55
5
800
2*
1200
5
44
IOOO
2 i
1500
50
40
1500
2j
2166
50
40
2000
2
2670
45
35
3000
2
4000
40
35
572
DREDGE AND DREDGING
The speed of towing, always slow, may be assumed to be approxi-
mately correct if the appropriate angle is maintained. Hauling
should at first be slow from great depths, but may increase in
speed as the gear rises.
For further details of deep-sea dredging, especially of the hauling
machinery and management of the gear, the special reports of the
various expeditions must be consulted. Commander Tanner, U.S.N.,
has given in Deep Sea Exploration (1897) a very full and good account
of the equipment of an exploring ship; and to this book the present
article is much indebted.
Modifications and Additions to the Dredge. From 1818, when
Sir John Ross brought up a fine Astrophyton from over 800
fathoms on a sounding line in Baffin's Bay, instances gradually
accumulated of specimens being obtained from great depths
without nets or traps. The naturalists of the " Porcupine "
and other expeditions found that echinoderms, corals and sponges
were often carried up adhering to the outer surface of the dredge
and the last few fathoms of dredge rope. In order to increase
the effectiveness of this method of capture a bar was fastened
to the bottom of the dredge, to which bunches of teased-out
hemp were tied. In this way specimens of the greatest interest,
and frequently of equal importance with those in the dredge
bag, were obtained. The tangle bar
was at first attached to the back of the
net. From the " Challenger" expedi-
tion onward it has been fixed behind the
net by iron bars stretching back from
the short sides of the dredge frame
which pass through eyes in their first
ends (fig. 15). The swabs are thus
unable to fold over the mouth of the
dredge. Rope lashings to the lips of
the dredge are sometimes added, and a
weight is tied to the larger bar to keep
it down.
Occasionally the tangle bar is used
alone (Agassiz), and one form (Tanner)
has two bars, stretching back like the
side strokes of the letter A from a strong
steel spring in the form of an almost
complete circle. The whole is pulled
forward from a spherical sinker fastened
in front of the spring apex; and should
t ne a p ex en t er a crevice between rock
the side bm afe dosed by the
pressure instead of catching and bringing up. This is said to
be a very useful instrument among corals.
The Blake Dredge. In the soft ooze which forms the bottom of
deep seas the common dredge sinks and digs much too deeply for its
ordinary purpose, owing partly to its chief weight bearing on the frame
only, partly to its everted lips. To obviate these defects Lieutenant
Commander Sigsbee of the " Blake " devised the Blake dredge. Its
novel features were the frame and lips. The former was in the form
of a skeleton box; that is, a rectangle of iron bars was placed at the
back as well as the front or mouth of the net and four more iron bars
connected the two rectangles. The lips instead of being everted
were in parallel planes those, namely, of the top and bottom of the
net. The effect of this was to minimize digging and somewhat
spread the incidences of the weight. Another advantage was that
the net being constantly distended by its frame, and, moreover,
protected top and bottom by an external shield of canvas, quite
delicate specimens reached the surface uninjured. The dredge
weighed 80 Ib and was 4 ft. square and 9 in. deep.
Rake Dredges. These are devices for collecting burrowing
creatures without filling the dredge with the soil in which they live.
Holt used, at Plymouth, a dredge whose side bars and lower lip were
of iron, the latter armed with forward and downward pointing teeth
which stirred up the sand and its denizens in front of the dredge
mouth. The upper lip of the dredge was replaced by a bar of wood.
The bag was of cheese-cloth or light open canvas, and the whole was
of light construction. The apparatus was very useful in capturing
small burrowing Crustacea. The Chester rake dredge is a Blake
dredge in front of which is secured a heavy iron rectangle with teeth
placed almost at right angles to its long sides and in the plane of the
rectangle. Each of these instruments has a width along the scraping
edge of about 3 ft.
Triangular and Conical Dredges. Two other dredges are worthy
of mention. The triangular dredge, much resembling Muller's but
with a triangular mouth, and hung by chains from its angles, is an
FIG. 15. Deep-sea
Dredge, with Tangle Bar.
old fashion now not in general use. It is, however, very useful for
rocky ground. At the Plymouth marine laboratory was also devised
the conical dredge (1901), the circular form being the suggestion of
Garstang. This dredge (fig. 1 6) was intended for digging deeply.
It is of wrought iron, and of the following dimensions: diameter of
mouth 16 in., length
33 in., depth of ring
at mouth 9 in. Its
weight is 67 Ib. As
at first used the
spaces between the
bars are closed by
wire netting; if used
for collecting bottom
samples it is fur-
nished with a lining
of strong sail-cloth.
Its weight and the
small length of edge
in contact with the
ground cause this
dredge to dig well,
and enable the user
to obtain many
objects which though
quite common are of
rare occurrence in an
ordinary dredge.
Thus on the Brown
Ridges, a fishing-
ground west of Hol-
land, although Donax
vittalus is known
from examination of
fish stomachs to be
abundant, it is rarely
taken except in the
conical dredge : the
same is true olEchino-
cyamus pusillus,
8
FlG.l6.-ConicalDredgebeinghoistedin.
Sea abundant in bottom samples and in no ordinary dredgings.
With the sail-cloth lining the conical dredge fills in about 10 minutes
on most ground, and no material washing out of fine sediment occurs
on hauling. In shallow seas such as the North Sea commercial
beam and other trawls are now used as quantitative instruments in
the estimation of the fish population, especially of the Pleuronectidae.
Use of Small Trawls for Dredging. Although these trawls do not
here concern us, certain adaptations of small beam trawls for bio-
logical exploration are of such identical use with the dredge, and
differ from it so little in structure and size, that they may be here
described.
A small beam trawl was first used from the " Challenger " (fig. 17).
It was sent down in 600 fathoms off Cape St Vincent, the reason for
its use being the frequency with which the dredge sank into the sea-
bottom and there remained until hauling. The experiment was
entirely successful. The sinking of the net was avoided, the net
had a much greater spread than the dredge, and in addition to
invertebrates it captured several fish. After this the trawl was
frequently used instead of the dredge. Indeed tangle bar, dredge
and trawl form a series which are fitted ,
for use on the roughest, moderately rough
and fairly firm, and the softest ground
respectively, although the dredge can be
used almost anywhere.
The frame of the " Challenger " trawl con-
sisted of a 15 ft. wooden beam which in use
was drawn over the sea-bed on two runners
resembling those of a sledge, by means of
two ropes or bridles attached to eyes in the
front of the runners or " trawl heads." A
net 30 ft. long was suspended by one side
to the beam by half-a-dozen stops. The
remainder of the net's mouth was of much
greater length than tie beam, and was
weighted with close-set ro'ls of sheet lead;
it thus dragged along the bottem in a curve
approximately to a semicircle, behind the "challenger. "By permission
beam. The net tapers towards the hinder of Macmillan& Co., Ltd
end, and contains a second net with open p IG I7 _ Trawl of the
bottom, which, reaching about three-quarters .'. Challenger."
of the way down the main net, acts as a
valve or pocket. Both heels (or hinder ends) of the trawl heads and
the tail of the net were weighted to assist the net in digging suffi-
ciently and to maintain its balance an important point, since if the
trawl lands on its beam the net's mouth remains Closed, and nothing
is caught.
The main differences of this trawl from the dredge are the replace-
ment of scraping lip by ground rope, the position of this ground rope
DRELINCOURT DRENTE
573
From Alexander E.
Agassiz's Three Cruises
oj the "Blake." By per-
mission of Houghton,
Miffiin & Co.
FIG. 18. Agassiz
or Blake Trawl.
and the greater size of the mouth. The absence of a lip makes it
less effective for burrowing and sessile creatures, but the weighted
ground rope nevertheless secures them to a very surprising extent.
The position of the ground rope is an important feature, as any free
swimming creature not disturbed until the arrival of the ground
rope cannot escape by simply rising or " striking " up. This and
the greater spread make the trawl especially suitable for the collec-
tion of fishes and other swiftly moving animals. The first haul of
the " Challenger " trawl brought up fishes, and most of our know-
ledge of fish of the greatest depths is due to it.
A tendency to return to the use of the small beam trawl for deep-
sea work has lately shown itself. That used by Tanner on the
" Albatross " has runners more heart-shaped than the " Challenger's "
instrument; the net is fastened to the downward and backward
sloping edge of the runner as well as to the beam, being thus fixed
on three sides instead of one ; and a Norwegian glass float is fastened
in a network cover to that part of the net which is above and in front
of the ground rope in use, to assist in keeping the opening clear.
These floats can stand the pressure at great
depths, and do not become waterlogged as do
cork floats. The largest "Albatross " trawl has
a beam 1 1 ft. long, runners 2 ft. 5 in. high, and
its frame weighs 275 Ib.
Agassiz or Blake Trawl. This is generally
considered to possess advantages over the pre-
ceding, and is decidedly better for those not
experts in trawling. Its frame (fig. 18) consists
of two iron runners each the shape of a capital
letter D, joined by iron rods or pipes which
connect the middle of each stroke with the
corresponding point on the other letter. The
net is a tapering one, its mouth being a strong
rope bound with finer rope for protection till
the whole reaches a thickness of some 2 in. It
is fastened to the frame at four points only, the
ends of the curved rods, and thus has a rect-
angular opening.
The chief advantage of this frame is that it
does not matter in the least which side lands
first on the bottom; it is to the other trawls
what Ball's dredge is to an oyster dredge. The
course can also be altered during shooting or
towing the Blake trawl with far greater ease
than is the case with others. An Agassiz trawl very successful
in the North Sea has the following dimensions: length of the con-
necting rods and therefore of the mouth 8 ft., height of runners and
of mouth i ft. 9 in., extreme length of runners 2 ft., length of net
ii ft. 3 in., weight of whole trawl 94 Ib, 63 of which are due to the
frame.
It is instructive to note how closely our knowledge of bottom-
living forms has been associated with the instruments of capture
in use. As long as small vessels were used in dredging, the belief
that life was limited to the regions accessible to them was widely
spread. The first known denizens of great depths were the
foraminifera and few echinoderms brought up by various sound-
ing apparatus. Next with the dredge and tangles the number
of groups obtained was much greater. As soon as trawls were
adopted fish began to make their appearance. The greatest gaps
in our knowledge still probably occur in the large and swiftly
moving forms, such as fish and cephalopods. As we can hardly
hope to move apparatus swiftly over the bottom in great depths,
the way in which improvement is possible probably is that of
increasing the spread of the nets; and a start in this direction
appears to have been made by Dr Petersen, who has devised a
modified otter sieve which catches fish at all events very well,
and has been operated already at considerable depths.
Of the economy of quite shallow seas, however, we are still
largely ignorant. Much as has been learnt of the bionomics
of the sea, it is but a commencement; and this is of course
especially true of deep seas. The dredge and its kindred have,
however, in less than a century enabled naturalists to compile an
immense mass of knowledge of the structure, development,
affinities and distribution of the animals of the sea-bed, and in
the most accessible seas to produce enumerations and morpho-
logical accounts of them of some approach to complete-
ness. (J. O. B.)
DRELINCOURT, CHARLES (1595-1669), French Protestant
divine, was born at Sedan on the roth of July 1595. In 1618
he undertook the charge of the French Protestant church at
Langres, but failed to receive the necessary royal sanction, and
early in 1620 he removed to Paris, where he was nominated
minister of the Reformed Church at Charenton. He was the
author of a large number of works in devotional and polemical
theology, several of which had great influence. His Catechism
(Catechisme ou instruction familiere, 1652) and his Christian's
Defense against the Fears of Death (Consolations de I'dme fidele
contrelesfrayeursdelamort, 1651) became well known in England
by means of translations, which were very frequently reprinted.
It has been said that Daniel Defoe wrote his fiction of Mrs Veal
(A True Relation of the Apparition of Mrs Veal), who came from
the other world to recommend the perusal of Drelincourt on
Death, for the express purpose of promoting the sale of an English
translation of the Consolations; Defoe's contribution is added
to the fourth edition of the translation (1706). Another popular
work of his was Les Visiles charitables pour toules sortes de
personnes affligees ( 1 669) . Drelincourt 's controversial works were
numerous. Directed entirely against Roman Catholicism, they
did much to strengthen and consolidate the Protestant party in
France. He died on the 3rd of November 1669.
Several of his sons were distinguished as theologians or
physicians. Laurent (1626-1681) became a pastor, and was the
author of Sonnets Chretiens sur divers sujels (1677); Charles
(1633-1697) was professor of physic at the university of Leiden,
and physician to the prince of Orange; Peter (1644-1722) was
ordained a priest in the Church of England, and became dean of
Armagh.
DRENTE, a province of Holland, bounded N. and N.E. by
Groningen, S.E. by the Prussian province of Hanover, S. and
S.W. by Overysel, and N.W. by Friesland; area, 1128 sq. m.;
pop. (1900) 149,551. The province of Drente is a sandy plateau
forming the kernel of the surrounding provinces. The soil
consists almost entirely of sand and gravel, and is covered with
bleak moorland, patches of wood, and fen. This is only varied
by the strip of fertile clay and grass-land which is found along
the banks of the rivers, and by the areas of high fen in the south-
eastern corner and on the western borders near Assen. The
surface of the province is a gentle slope from the south-west
towards the north-east, where it terminates in the long ridge of
hills known as the Hondsrug (Dog's Back) extending along the
eastern border into Groningen. The watershed of the province
runs from east to west across the middle of the province, along
the line of the Orange canal. The southern streams are all
collected at two points on the southern borders, namely, at
Meppel and Koevorden, whence they communicate with the
Zwarte Water and the Vecht respectively by means of the
Meppeler Diep and the Koevorden canal. The Steenwyker Aa,
however, enters the Zuider Zee independently. The northern
rivers all flow into Groningen. The piles of granite rocks some-
what in the shape of cromlechs which are found scattered about
this province, and especially along the western edge of the
Hondsrug, have long been named Hunebedden, from a popular
superstition that they were " Huns' beds." Possibly the word
originally meant " beds of the dead," or tombs.
Two industries have for centuries been associated with the
barren heaths and sodden fens so usually found together on the
sand-grounds, namely, the cultivation of buckwheat and peat-
digging. The work is conducted on a regular system of fen
colonization, the first operation being directed towards the
drainage of the country. This is effected by means of drainage
canals cut at regular intervals and connected by means of cross
ditches. These draining ditches all have their issue in a main
drainage canal, along which the transport of the peat and peat-
litter takes place and the houses of the colonists are built. The
heathlands when sufficiently drained are prepared for cultivation
by being cut into sods and burnt. This system appears to have
been practised already at the end of the I7th century. After
eight years, however, the soil becomes exhausted, and twenty
to thirty years are required for its refertilization. The cultiva-
tion of buckwheat on these grounds has decreased, and large
areas which were formerly thus treated now lie waste. Potatoes,
rye, oats, beans and peas are also largely cultivated. In con-
nexion with the cultivation of potatoes, factories are established
for making spirits, treacle, potato-meal, and straw-paper.
574
DRESDEN
Furthermore, agriculture is everywhere accompanied on the
sand-grounds by the rearing of sheep and cattle, which assist
in fertilizing the soil. Owing to the meagreness of their food these
animals are usually thin and small, but are quickly restored
when placed on richer grounds. The Breeding of pigs is also
widely practised on the sand-grounds, as well as forest culture.
Of the fen-colonies in Drente the best known are those of
Frederiksoord and Veenhuizen.
Owing to the general condition of poverty which prevailed
after the French evacuation in the second decade of the igth
century, attention was turned to the means of industry offered
by the unreclaimed heath-lands in the eastern provinces, and
in 1818 the Society of Charity (M ' aatschappij van Wddadigkeid)
was formed with Count van den Bosch at its head. This society
began by establishing the free agricultural colony of Frederiks-
oord, about 10 m. N. of Meppel, named after Prince Frederick,
son of William I., king of the Netherlands. An industrious
colonist could purchase a small farm on the estate and make him-
self independent in two years. In addition to this, various in-
dustries were set on foot for the benefit of those who were not
capable of field work, such as mat and rope making, and jute and
cotton weaving. In later times forest culture was added, and the
Gerard Adriaan van Swieten schools of forestry, agriculture and
horticulture were established by Major van Sweiten in memory
of his son. A Reformed and a Roman Catholic church are also
attached to the colony. To this colony the Society of Charity
later added the adjoining colonies of Willemsoord and Kolonie
VII. in Overysel, and Wilhelminasoord partly in Friesland.
The colony of Veenhuizen lies about 7 m. N.W. of Assen, and
was founded by the same society in 1823. In 1859, however,
the Veenhuizen estates were sold to the government for the
purpose of a penal establishment for drunkards and beggars.
Owing to its geographical isolation, the development of Drente
has remained behind that of every other province in the Nether-
lands, and there are few centres of any importance, either
agricultural or industrial. Hence the character and customs of
the people have remained peculiarly conservative. Assen is the
chief town. In the south Meppel and Koevorden absorb the
largest amount of trade. Hoogeveen, situated between these
two, owes its origin to the fen reclamation which was begun here
in 1625 by Baron van Echten. In the following year it was
erected into a barony which lasted till 1795. The original
industry has long since moved onwards to other parts, but the
town remains a prosperous market centre, and has a considerable
industrial activity. Extensive fir woods have been laid out in
the neighbourhood. Zuidlaren is a picturesque village at the
northern end of the Hondsrug, with an important market. The
railway from Amsterdam to Groningen traverses Drente; branch
lines connect Meppel with Leeuwarden and Assen with Delfzyl.
History. The early history of Drente is obscure. That it
was inhabited at a remote date is proved by the prehistoric
sepulchral mounds, the Hunebedden already mentioned. In the
Sth and 6th centuries the country was overrun by Saxon tribes,
and later on was governed by counts under the Prankish and
German kings. Of these only three are recorded, Eberhard
(943-944) Balderic (1006) and Temmo (1025). In 1046 the
emperor Henry III. gave the countship to the bishop and chapter
of Utrecht, who governed it through the burgrave, or chatelain,
of Koevorden, a dignity which became hereditary after 1143 in
the family of Ludolf or Roelof, brother of Heribert of Bierum,
bishop of Utrecht (1138-1150). This family became extinct
in the male line about 1232, and was succeeded by Henry I.
of Borculo ( 1 232-1 261), who had married the heiress of Roelof III.
of Koevorden. In 1395 Reinald IV. (d. 1410) of Borculo-Koe-
vorden was deposed by Bishop Frederick of Utrecht, and the
country was henceforth administered by an episcopal official
(amptman), who was, however, generally a native. With its
popularly elected assembly of twenty-four Etten (jurali) Drente
remained practically independent. This state of things con-
tinued till 1522, when it was conquered by Duke Charles of
Gelderland, from whom it was taken by the emperor Charles V.
in 1 536, and became part of the Habsburg dominions.
Drente took part in the revolt of the Netherlands, and being
a district covered by waste heath and moor was, on account of
its poverty and sparse population, not admitted into the union
as a separate province, and it had no voice in the assembly of the
states-general. It was subdued by the Spaniards in 1580, but
reconquered by Maurice of Nassau in 1594. During the years
that followed, Drente, though unrepresented in the states-
general, retained its local independence and had its own stadt-
holder. William Louis of Nassau-Siegen (d. 1620) held that
office, and it was held later by Maurice, Frederick Henry,
William II. and William III., princes of Orange. At the general
assembly of 1651 Drente put forward its claim to admission as a
province, but was not admitted. After the deaths of William II.
(1650) and of William III. (1702) Drente remained for a term of
years without a stadtholder, but in 1722 William Charles Henry
of the house of Nassau-Siegen, who, through the extinction of
the elder line, had become prince of Orange, was elected stadt-
holder. His descendants held that office, which was declared
hereditary, until the French conquest in 1795. In the following
year Drente at length obtained the privilege, which it had long
sought, of being reckoned as an eighth province with representa-
tion in the states-general. Between 1806 and 1813 Drente,
with the rest of the Netherlands, was incorporated in the French
empire, and, with part of Groningen, formed the department
of Ems Occidental. With the accession of William I. as king of
the Netherlands it was restored to its old position as a province
of the new kingdom.
DRESDEN, a city of Germany, capital of the kingdom of
Saxony, 71 m. E.S.E. from Leipzig and in m. S. from Berlin
by railway. It lies at an altitude of 402 ft. above the Baltic,
in a broad and pleasant valley on both banks of the Elbe. The
prospect of the city with its cupolas, towers, spires and the copper
green roofs of its palaces, as seen from the distance, is one of
striking beauty. On the left bank of the river are the Altstadt
(old town) with four old suburbs and numerous new suburbs,
and the Friedrichstadt (separated from the Altstadt by a long
railway viaduct); on the right, the Neustadt (new town),
Antonstadt, and the modern military suburb Alberstadt. Five
fine bridges connect the Altstadt and Neustadt. The beautiful
central bridge the Alte or Augustusbrticke with 16 arches,
built in 1727-1731, and 1420 ft. long, has been demolished (1906)
and replaced by a wider structure. Up-stream are the two
modern Albert and K6nigin Carola bridges, and, down-stream,
the Marien and the Eisenbahn (railway) bridges. The streets
of the Alstadt are mostly narrow and somewhat gloomy, those
of the Neustadt more spacious and regular.
On account of its delightful situation and the many objects of
interest it contains, Dresden is often called " German Florence,"
a name first applied to it by the poet Herder. The richness of
its art treasures, the educational advantages it offers, and its
attractive surroundings render it a favourite resort of people
with private means. There are a large number of foreign resi-
dents, notably Austro-Hungarians and Russians, and also a
considerable colony of English and Americans, the latter amount-
ing to about 1500. The population of the city on the ist of
December 1905 was 516,996, of whom 358,776 lived on the
left bank (Altstadt) and 158,220 on the right (Neustadt). The
royal house belongs to the Roman Catholic confession, but the
bulk of the inhabitants are Lutheran Protestants.
Dresden is the residence of the king, the seat of government
for the kingdom of Saxony, and the headquarters of the XII.
(Saxon) Army Corps. Within two decades ( 1 880-1900) the capital
almost at a single bound advanced into the front rank of German
commercial and industrial towns; but while gaining in prosperity
it has lost much of its medieval aspect. Old buildings in the
heart of the Altstadt have been swept away, and their place
occupied by modern business houses and new streets. Among
the public squares in the Altstadt must be mentioned the
magnificent Theaterplatz, with a fine equestrian statue of King
John, by Schilling; the Altmarkt, with a monument com-
memorative of the war of 1870-71; the Neumarkt, with a
bronze statue of King Frederick Augustus II., by E. J. Hahnel;
DRESDEN
575
the Postplatz, adorned by a Gothic fountain, by Semper; and
the Bismarckplatz in the Anglo-American quarter. In the
Neustadt are the market square, with a bronze equestrian statue
of Augustus the Strong; the Kaiser Wilhelmplatz; and the
Albertplatz. The continuous Schloss-, See- and Prager-Strasse,
and the Wilsdruffer- and Konig Johann-Strasse are the main
streets in the Altstadt, and the Hauptstrasse in the Neustadt.
The most imposing churches include the Roman Catholic
Hofkirche, built (1730-1751) by C. Chiaveri, in rococo style, with
a tower 300 ft. high. It contains a fine organ by Silbermann and
pictures by Raphael Mengs and other artists, the outside being
adorned with 59 statues by Mattielli. On the Neumarkt is the
Frauenkirche, with a stone cupola rising to the height of 3 1 1 f t. ;
close to the Altmarkt, the Kreuzkirche, rebuilt after destruction
by fire in 1897, also with a lofty tower surmounted by a cupola;
and near the Postplatz the Sophienkirche, with twin spires.
In the Neustadt is the Dreikonigskirche (dating from the
1 8th century) with a high pinnacled tower. Among more
modern churches may be mentioned: in the Altstadt, the
Johanneskirche, with a richly decorated interior; the Lukas-
kirche; and the Trinitatiskirche; and in the Neustadt, the
Martin Luther-Kirche and the new garrison church. Apart
from the chapels in the royal palaces, Dresden contains in all 32
churches, viz. 21 Evangelical, 6 Roman Catholic, a Reformed, a
Russian, an English (erected byGilbert Scott) with a graceful spire,
a Scottish (Presbyterian), and an American (Episcopal) church,
the last a handsome building, with a pretty parsonage attached.
Of secular buildings, the most noteworthy are grouped in the
Altstadt near 'the river. The royal palace, built in 1530-1535
by Duke George (and thus called Georgenschloss), was thoroughly
restored, and in some measure rebuilt between 1890 and 1902,
in German Renaissance style, and is now an exceedingly handsome
structure. The Georgentor has been widened, and through it,
and beneath the royal apartments, vehicular traffic from the
centre of the town is directed to the Augustusbriicke. The whole
is surmounted by a lofty tower 387 ft. the highest in Dresden.
The interior is splendidly decorated. In the palace chapel are
pictures by Rembrandt, Nicolas Poussin, Guido Reni and
Annibale Caracci. The adjoining Prinzen-Palais on the Taschen-
berg, built in 1715, has a fine chapel, in which are various works
of S. Torelli; it has also a library of 20,000 volumes. The
Zwinger, begun in 1711, and built in the rococo style, forms an
enclosure, within which is a statue of King Frederick Augustus I.
It was intended to be the vestibule to a palace, but now contains
a number of collections of great value. Until 1846 it was open
at the north side; but this space has since been occupied by
the museum, a beautiful Renaissance building, the exterior of
which is adorned by statues of Michelangelo, Raphael, Giotto,
Dante, Goethe and other artists and poets by Rietschel and
Hahnel, and it contains the famous picture gallery. The Briihl
palace, built in 1737 by Count Briihl, the minister of Augustus II.,
has been in some measure demolished to make room for the new
Standehaus (diet house), with its main facade facing the Hof-
kirche; before the main entrance there is an equestrian statue
(1906) of King Albert. Close by is the Briihl Terrace, approached
by a fine flight of steps, on which are groups, by Schilling,
representing Morning, Evening, Day and Night. The terrace
commands a view of the Elbe and the distant heights of Loschwitz
and the Weisser Hirsch, but the prospect has of late years
become somewhat marred, owing to the extension of the town
up the river and to the two new up-stream bridges. The Japanese
palace in the Neustadt, built in 1715 as a summer residence for
Augustus II., receives its name from certain oriental figures
with which it is decorated; it is sometimes called the Augusteum
and contains the royal library. Among other buildings of note
is the Hoftheatre, a magnificent edifice in the Renaissance
style, built after the designs of Semper, to replace the theatre
burnt in 1869, and completed in 1878. A new town hall of huge
dimensions, also in German Renaissance, with an octagon tower
400 ft. in height, stands on the former southern ramparts of the
inner town, close to the Kreuzkirche. In the Altstadt the most
striking of the newer edifices is the Kunstakademie, constructed
from designs by K. Lipsius in the Italian Renaissance stylo
1890-1894. The Albertinum, formerly the arsenal, built in
1559-1563, was rebuilt 1884-1889, and fitted up as a museum
of oriental and classical antiquities, and as the depository of the
state archives. On the right bank of the Elbe in Neustadt stand
the fine buildings of the ministries of war, of finance, justice,
the interior and education. The public monuments of Dresden
also include the Mori tz Monument, a relief dedicated bythe elector
Augustus to his brother Maurice, a statue of Weber the composer
by Rietschel, a bronze statue of Theodor Korner by Hahnel, the
Rietschel monument on the Briihl Terrace by Schilling, a bust
of Gutzkow, and a statue of Bismarck on the promenade. In
the suburbs which encircle the old town are to be noted the vast
central Hauptbahnhof (1893-1898) occupying the site of the old
Bohmischer railway station, the new premises of the municipal
hospital and the Ausstellungs- Halle (exhibition buildings).
The chief pleasure-ground of Dresden is the Grosser Garten,
in which there are a summer theatre, the Reitschel museum,
and a chateau containing a museum of antiquities. The
latter is composed chiefly of objects removed from the churches
in consequence of the Reformation. Near the chateau is the
zoological garden, formed in 1860, and excellently arranged.
A little to the south of Dresden, on the left bank of the Elbe,
is the village Racknitz, in which is Moreau's monument, erected
on the spot where he was mortally wounded in 1813. The moun-
tains of Saxon Switzerland are seen from this neighbourhood.
Art. Dresden owes a large part of its fame to its extensive
artistic, literary and scientific collections. Of these the most
valuable is its splendid picture gallery, founded by Augustus I.
and increased by his successors at great cost. It is in the museum,
and contains about 2500 pictures, being especially rich in speci-
mens of the Italian, Dutch and Flemish schools. The gem of the
collection is Raphael's " Madonna di San Sisto," for which a room
is set apart. There is also a special room for the " Madonna "
of the younger Holbein. Other paintings with which the name
of the gallery is generally associated are Correggio's " La Notte "
and " Mary Magdalene "; Titian's " Tribute Money " and
" Venus "; " The Adoration " and " The Marriage in Cana,"
by Paul Veronese; Andrea del Sarto's " Abraham's Sacrifice ";
Rembrandt's " Portrait of Himself with his Wife sitting on his
Knee "; " The Judgment of Paris " and " The Boar Hunt," by
Rubens; Van Dyck's " Charles I., his Queen, and their Children."
Of modern painters, this magnificent collection contains
masterpieces by Defregger, Vautier, Makart, Munkacsy, Fritz
von Uhde, Bocklin, Hans Thoma; portraits by Leon Pohle,
Delaroche and Sargent; landscapes by Andreas and Oswald
Achenbach and allegorical works by Sascha Schneider. In
separate compartments there are a number of crayon portraits,
most of them by Rosalba Camera, and views of Dresden by
Canaletto and other artists. Besides the picture gallery the
museum includes a magnificent collection of engravings and
drawings. There are upwards of 400,000 specimens, arranged
in twelve classes, so as to mark the great epochs in the history
of art. A collection of casts, likewise in the museum, is designed
to display the progress of plastic art from the time of the Egyp-
tians and Assyrians to modern ages. This collection was begun
by Raphael Mengs, who secured casts of the most valuable
antiques in Italy, .some of which no longer exist.
The Japanese palace contains a public library of more than
400,000 volumes, with about 3000 MSS. and 20,000 maps. It is
especially rich in the ancient classics, and in works bearing on
literary history and the history of Germany, Poland and France.
There are also a valuable cabinet of coins and a collection of
ancient works of art. A collection of porcelain in the " Museum
Johanneum " (which once contained the picture gallery) is made
up of specimens of Chinese, Japanese, East Indian, Sevres and
Meissen manufacture, carefully arranged in chronological order.
There is in the same building an excellent Historical Museum.
In the Grtine Gewolbe (Green Vault) of the Royal Palace, so
called from the character of its original decorations, there is an
unequalled collection of precious stones, pearls and works of art in
gold, silver, amber and ivory. The objects, which are about 3000
576
DRESDEN
in nu mber, are arranged in eight rooms. They include the regalia
of Augustus II. as king of Poland; the electoral sword of Saxony;
a group by Dinglinger, in gold and enamel, representing the court
of the grand mogul Aurungzebe, and consisting of 132 figures
upon a plate of silver 4 ft. 4 in. square; the largest onyx known,
6f in. by 2j in.; a pearl representing the dwarf of Charles II.
of Spain; and a green brilliant weighing 40 carats. The royal
palace also has a gallery of arms consisting of more than 2000
weapons of artistic or historical value. In the Zwinger are the
zoological and mineralogical museums and a collection of instru-
ments used in mathematical and physical science. Among other
collections is that of the Korner museum with numerous
reminiscences of the Goethe-Schiller epoch, and of the wars of
liberation (1813-15), and containing valuable manuscripts and
relics. Founded by Hofrath Dr Emil Peschel, it has passed into
the possession of the city.
Education. Dresden is the seat of a number of well-known
scientific associations. The educational institutions are numerous
and of a high order, including a technical high school (with about
noo students), which enjoys the privilege of conferring the
degrees of doctor of engineering, doctor of technical sciences,
&c., a veterinary college, a political-economic institution
(Gehestiftung), with library, a school of architects, a royal and
four municipal gymnasia, numerous lower grade and popular
schools, the royal conservatorium for music and drama, and a
celebrated academy of painting. Dresden has several important
hospitals, asylums and other charitable institutions.
Music and the Theatres. Besides the two royal theatres,
Dresden possesses several minor theatres and music halls. The
pride of place in the world of music is held by the orchestra
attached to the court theatre. Founded by Augustus II., it has
become famous throughout the world, owing to the masters who
have from time to time been associated with it such as Paer,
Weber, Reissiger and Wagner. Symphony and popular concerts
are held throughout the year in various public halls, and, during
the winter, concerts of church music are frequently given in the
Protestant Kreuz- and Frauen-Kirchen, and on Sundays in the
Roman Catholic church.
Communications and Industries. Dresden lies at the centre of
an extensive railway system, which places it in communication
with the chief cities of northern and central Germany as well as
with Austria and the East. Here cross the grand trunk lines
Berlin-Vienna, Chemnitz-Gorlitz-Breslau. It is connected by
two lines of railway with Leipzig and by local lines with neighbour-
ing smaller towns. The navigation on the Elbe has of recent
years largely developed, and, in addition to trade by river with
Bohemia and Magdeburg-Hamburg, there is a considerable
pleasure-boat traffic during the summer months. The com-
munications within the city are maintained by an excellent
system of electric trams, which bring the more distant suburbs
into easy connexion with the business centre. A considerable
business is done on the exchange, chiefly in local industrial
shares, and the financial institutions number some fifty banks,
among them branches of the Reichs Bank and of the Deutsche
Bank. Among the more notable industries may be mentioned
the manufacture of china (see CERAMICS), of gold and silver
ornaments, cigarettes, chocolate, coloured postcards, perfumery,
straw-plaiting, artificial flowers, agricultural machinery, paper,
photographic and other scientific instruments. There are several
great breweries; corn trade is carried on, and an extensive business
is done in books and objects of art.
Surroundings. The environs of the city are delightful. To
the north are the vine-clad hills of the Lossnitz commanding
views of the valley of the Elbe from Dresden to Meissen; behind
them, on an island in a lake, is the castle of Moritzburg, the
hunting box of the king of Saxony. On the right bank of the
Elbe, 3 m. above the city, lies the village of Loschwitz, where
Schiller, in the summer of 1786, wrote the greater part of his
Don Carlos: above it on the fringe of the Dresdner Heide, the
climatic health resort Weisser-Hirsch; farther up the river
towards Pirna the royal summer palace Pillnitz; to the south
the Plauensche Grund, and still farther the Rabenauer Grund.
History. Dresden (Old Slav Drezga, forest, Drezgajan, forest-
dwellers), which is known to have existed in 1206, is of Slavonic
origin, and was originally founded on the right bank of the Elbe,
on the site of the present Neustadt, which is thus actually the old
town. It became the capital of Henry the Illustrious, margrave
of Meissen, in 1270, but belonged for some time after his death,
first to Wenceslaus of Bohemia, and next to the margrave of
Brandenburg. Early in the I4th century it was restored to the
margrave of Meissen. On the division of Saxony in 1485 it
fell to the Albertine line, which has since held it. Having been
burned almost to the ground in 1491, it was rebuilt; and in the
i6th century the fortificationswere begunand gradually extended.
John George II., in the I7th century, formed the Grosser Garten,
and otherwise greatly improved the town; but it was in the first
half of the i8th century, under Augustus I. and Augustus II., who
were kings of Poland as well as electors of Saxony, that Dresden
assumed something like its present appearance. The Neustadt,
which had been burned down in the I7th century, was founded
anew by Augustus I. ; he also founded Friedrichstadt. The town
suffered severely during the Seven Years' War, being bombarded
in 1760. Some damage was also inflicted on it in 1813, when
Napoleon made it the centre of hisoperations; oneof the buttresses
and two arches of the old bridge were then blown up. The dis-
mantling of the fortifications had been begun by the French in
1810, and was gradually completed after 1817, the space occupied
by them being appropriated to gardens and promenades. Many
buildings were completed or founded by King Anthony, from
whom Antonstadt derives its name. Dresden again suffered
severely during the revolution of 1849, but all traces of the
disturbances which then took place were soon effaced. In 1866 it
was occupied by the Prussians, who did not finally evacuate it
until the spring of the following year. Since that time numerous
improvements have been carried out.
See Lindau, Geschichte der Haupt- und Residenzstadt Dresden
(2 vols., Dresden, 1884-1885); PrSlss, Geschichte des Hof theaters
in Dresden (Dresden, 1877); Schumann, Ftihrer durch die konigl.
Sammlungen zu Dresden (1903); Woerl, Fiihrer durch Dresden;
Daniel, Deutschland (1894).
BATTLE OF DRESDEN. The battle of Dresden, the last of the
great victories of Napoleon, was fought on the 26th and 27th
of August 1813. The intervention of Austria in the War of
Liberation, and the consequent advance of the Allies under the
Austrian field-marshal Prince Schwarzenberg from Prague upon
Dresden, recalled Napoleon from Silesia, where he was engaged
against the Prussians and Russians under Bliicher. Only by a
narrow margin of time, indeed, was he able to bring back sufficient
troops for the first day's battle. He detached a column under
Vandamme to the mountains to interpose between Schwarzen-
berg and Prague (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS) ; the rest of the
army pressed on by forced marches for Dresden, around which
a position for the whole army had been chosen and fortified,
though at the moment this was held by less than 20,000 men
under Gouvion St Cyr, who retired thither from the mountains,
leaving a garrison in Konigstein, and had repeatedly sent reports
to the emperor as to the allied masses gathering to the south-
ward. The battle of the first day began late in the afternoon,
for Schwarzenberg waited as long as possible for the corps of
Klenau, which formed his extreme left wing on the Freiberg
road. At last, about 6 P.M. he decided to wait no longer, and
six heavy columns of attack advanced against the suburbs
defended by St Cyr and now also by the leading troops of the
main army. Three hundred guns covered the assault, and
Dresden was set on fire in places by the cannonade, while the
French columns marched unceasingly over the bridges and
through the Altstadt. On the right the Russians under Wittgen-
stein advanced from Striesen, the Prussians under Kleist through
the Grosser Garten, whilst Prussians under Prince Augustus and
Austrians under Colloredo moved upon the Moczinski redoubt,
which was the scene of the most desperate fighting, and was
repeatedly taken and retaken. The attack to the westward was
carried out by the other Austrian corps; Klenau, however, was
still far distant. In the end, the French defences remained
unshaken. Ney led a counter-attack against the Allies' left,
DRESS DRESSER
577
the Moczinski redoubt was definitely recaptured from Colloredo,
and the Prussians were driven out of the Grosser Garten. The
coup of the Allies had failed, for every hour saw the arrival of
fresh forces on the side of Napoleon, and at length the Austrian
leader drew off his men to the heights again. He was prepared
to fight another battle on the morrow indeed he could scarcely
have avoided it had he wished to do so, for behind him lay the
mountain defiles, towards which Vandamme was marching with
all speed.
Napoleon's plan for the 27th was, as usual, simple in its outline.
As at Friedland, a ravine separated a part of the hostile line of
battle from the rest. The villages west of the Plauen ravine and
even Lobda were occupied in the early morning by General
Metzko with the leading division of Klenau's corps from Freiberg,
and upon Metzko Napoleon intended first to throw the weight
of his attack, giving to Victor's infantry and the cavalry of
Murat, king of Naples, the task of overwhelming the isolated
Austrians. The centre, aided by the defences of the Dresden
suburbs, could hold its own, as the events of the 26th had
shown, the left, now under Ney, with whom served Kellermann's
cavalry and the Young Guard, was to attack Wittgenstein's
Russians on the Pirna road. Thus, for once, Napoleon decided
to attack both flanks of the enemy. His motives in so doing
have been much discussed by the critics; Vandamme's move-
ments, it may be suggested, contributed to the French emperor's
plan, which if carried out would open the Pirna road. Still,
the left attack may have had a purely tactical object, for in
that quarter was the main body of the Prussians and Russians,
and Napoleon's method was always to concentrate the fury of
the attack on the heaviest masses of the enemy, i.e. the best
target for his own artillery. A very heavy rainstorm during the
night seriously affected the movements of troops on the follow-
ing day, but all to Napoleon's advantage, for his more mobile
artillery, reinforced by every horse available in and about
Dresden, was still able to move where the Allied guns sank in
mud. Further, if the cavalry had to walk, or at most trot, through
the fields the opposing infantry was almost always unable to fire
their muskets. " You cannot fire; surrender," said Murat to
an Austrian battalion in the battle. " Never," they replied;
" you cannot charge us." On the appearance of Murat's horse
artillery, however, they had to surrender at once. Under such
conditions, Metzko, unsupported either by Klenau or the main
army beyond the ravine, was an easy victim. Victor from Lobda
drove in the advanced posts and assaulted the line of villages
Wolfnitz-Toltschen; Metzko had to retire to the higher ground
S.W. of the first line, and Murat, with an overwhelming cavalry
force from Cotta and Burgstadl, outflanked his left, broke up
viii. 19
whole battalions, and finally, with the assistance of the renewed
frontal attack of Victor's infantry, annihilated the division.
The Austrian corps of Gyulai arrived too late to save it. A few
formed bodies escaped across the ravine, but Metzko and three-
fourths of his men were killed or taken prisoners.
Meanwhile Ney on the other flank, with his left on the Pillnitz
road and his right on the Grosser Garten, had opened his attack.
The Russians offered a strenuous resistance, defending Seidnitz,
Gross Dobritz and Reick with their usual steadiness, and Ney was
so far advanced that several generals at the Allied headquarters
suggested a counter-attack of the centre by way of Strehlen,
so as to cut off the French left from Dresden. This plan was
adopted, but, owing to various misunderstandings, failed of
execution. Thus the Allied centre remained inactive all day,
cannonaded by the Dresden redoubts. One incident only, but
that of great importance, took place here. The tsar, the king
of Prussia, Schwarzenberg and a very large headquarter staff
watched the fighting from a hill near Racknitz and offered an
easy mark to the French guns. In default of formed bodies to
fire at, the latter had for a moment ceased fire; Napoleon,
riding by, half carelessly told them to reopen, and one of their
first shots, directed at 2000 yards range against the mass of
officers on the sky-line, mortally wounded General Moreau, who
was standing by the emperor Alexander. A council of war
followed. The Allied sovereigns 'were for continuing the fight;
Schwarzenberg, however, knowing the exhaustion of his troops
decided to retreat. As at Bautzen, the French cavalry was
unable to make any effective pursuit.
The forces engaged were 96,000 French, Saxons, &c., and
200,000 Austrians, Russians and Prussians. The French losses
were about 10,000, or a little over 10%, those of the Allies
38,000 killed, wounded and prisoners (the latter 23,000) or 19%.
They lost also 15 colours and 26 guns.
DRESS (from the Fr. dresser, to set out, arrange, formed from
Lat. direclus, arranged, dirigere, to direct, arrange), a substantive
of which the current meaning is that of clothing or costume in
general, or, specifically, the principal outer garment worn by a
woman (see COSTUME). The verb " to dress " has various
applications which can be deduced from its original meaning.
It is thus used not only of the putting on of clothing, but of the
preparing and finishing of leather, the preparation of food for
eating, the application of cleansing and healing substances or of
bandages, &c., to a wound, the drawing up in a correct line of a
body of troops, and, generally, adorning or decking out, as of
a ship with flags. In the language of the theatre the " dresser "
is the person who looks after the actor's wardrobe and assists
him in the changing of his costumes. For the printer's use of
" dresser " see TYPOGRAPHY.
DRESSER, in furniture, a form of sideboard. The name is
derived from the Fr. dressoir, a piece of furniture used to range or
dresser the more costly appointments of the table. The appliance
is the direct descendant of the credence and the buffet, and is,
indeed, a much more legitimate inheritor of their functions than
the modern sideboard, which, as we know it, is practically an
18th-century invention. It developed into its present shape
about the second quarter of the i7th century, and has since then
changed but little. As a piece of movable furniture it was
made rarely, if at all, after the beginning of the igth century
until the revival of interest in what is called " farmhouse
furniture " at the very beginning of the 2oth century led in
the first place to the construction of many imitation antique
dressers from derelict pieces of old oak, and especially from
panels of chests, and in the second to the making of avowed
imitations. The dresser conformed to a model which varied
only in detail and in ornament. Its simple and agreeable form
consisted of a long and rather narrow table or slab, with drawers
or cupboards beneath and a tall upright closed-in back arranged
with a varying number of shallow shelves for the reception of
plates; hooks for mugs were often fixed upon the face of these
shelves. Towards the end of the i?th century small cupboards
were often added to the superstructure. The majority of these
dressers were made of oak, but when, early in the Georgian period
578
DREUX DREW
mahogany came into general use, they were frequently inlaid
with that wood; holly and box were also used for inlaying, most
frequently in the shape of plain bands or lines. A peculiarly
effective combination of oak and mahogany is found in the
dressers, as in other " farmhouse furniture," made on the borders
of Staffordshire and Shropshire. The excellence of the work of
this kind in that district and in the country lying west of.it may
perhaps explain the expression " Welsh dresser," which is now
no more than a trade term, not necessarily suggestive of the
place of origin, and applied to all dressers of this type. They are
most frequently found in the houses of small yeomen and sub-
stantialfarmers.intowhichfashionpenetratedslowly. Thedresser
is now most familiar as necessary plenishing of the kitchen, in
which it is invariably a fixture. In form it is essentially identical
with the movable variety, but it is usually much larger, is made
of deal or other soft wood, and the superstructure has no back.
DREUX, a town of north-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Eure-et-Loir, 27 m. N.N.W.
of Chartres by rail. Pop. (1906) 8209. It is situated on the
Blaise, which at this point divides into several arms. It is
overlooked from the north by an eminence on which stands a
ruined medieval castle; within the enclosure of this building
is a gorgeous chapel, begun in 1816 by the dowager duchess of
Orleans, and completed and adorned at great cost by Louis
Philippe. It contains the tombs of the Orleans family, chief
among them that of Louis Philippe, whose remains were removed
from England to Dreux in 1876. The sculptures on the tombs
and the stained glass of the chapel windows are masterpieces
of modern art. The older of the two h6tels-de-ville of Dreux
was built in the early i6th century, chiefly by Clement Metezau,
the founder of a famous family of architects, natives of the
town. It is notable both for the graceful carvings of the facade
and for the fine staircase and architectural details of the interior.
The church of St Pierre, which is Gothic in style, contains good
stained glass and other works of art. The town has a statue of
the poet Jean de Rotrou, born there in 1609. Dreux is the seat
of a subprefect. Among the public institutions are tribunals of
first instance and of commerce, and a communal college. The
manufacture of boots and shoes, metal-founding and tanning,
are carried on, and there is trade in wheat and other agricultural
products and poultry.
Dreux was the capital of the Gallic tribe of the Durocasses.
In 1188 it was taken and burnt by the English; and in 1562
Gaspard de Coligny, and Louis I., prince of Conde, were defeated
in its vicinity by Anne de Montmorency and Francis, duke of
Guise. In 1593 Henry IV. captured the town after a fortnight's
siege. It was occupied by the Germans on the 9th of October
1870, was subsequently evacuated, and was again taken, on the
I7th of November, by General Von Tresckow. In the loth
century Dreux was the chief town of a countship, which Odo,
count of Chartres, ceded to king Robert, and Louis VI. gave to
his son Robert, whose grandson Peter of Dreux, younger brother
of Count Robert III., became duke of Brittany by his marriage
with Alix, daughter of Constance of Brittany by her second
husband Guy of Thouars. By the marriage of the countess
Jeanne II. with Louis, viscount of Thouars (d. 1370), the Capetian
countship of Dreux passed into the Thouars family. In 1377
and 1378, however, two of the three co-heiresses of Jeanne,
Perronelle and Marguerite, sold their shares of the countship
to King Charles V. Charles VI. gave it to Arnaud Amanien
d'Albret, but took it back in order to give it to his brother Louis
of Orleans (1407); later he gave it back to the lords of Albret.
Francis of Cleves laid claim to it in the i6th century as heir of
the d'Albrets of Orval, but the parlement of Paris declared the
countship to be crown property. It was given to Catherine de'
Medici (1539), then to Francis, duke of Alencon (1569); it was
pledged to Charles de Bourbon, count of Soissons, and through
him passed to the houses of Orleans, Vend&me and Conde.
DREW, the name of a family of American actors. JOHN
DREW (1827-1862) was born in Dublin and made his first New
York appearance in 1846. He played Irish and light comedy
parts with success in all the American cities, and was manager
of the Arch Street theatre in Philadelphia. He visited England
in 1855, and Austrah'a in 1859, and died in Philadelphia. His
wife, LOUISE LANE DREW (1820-1897), was the daughter of a
London actor, and in 1827 went to America, appearing as the
Duke of York to the elder Booth's Richard III., and as Albert
to Edwin Forrest's William Tell. After this she starred as a
child actress, and then as leading lady. She had been twice
married before she became Mrs Drew in 1850. Fom 1861 to
1892 she had the management of the Arch Street theatre in
Philadelphia. In 1880 she toured with Joseph Jefferson in his
elaborate revival of The Rivals, playing Mrs Malaprop to per-
fection. She had three children, John, Sidney and Georgiana,
wife of Maurice Barrymore (1847-1905), and mother of
Lionel and Ethel Barrymore, all actors. The eldest son, JOHN
DREW (b. 1853), began his stage career under his mother's
management in Philadelphia as Plumper in Cool as a Cucumber,
on the 22nd of March 1873; and after playing with Edwin
Booth and others, became leading man in Augustin Daly's
company in 1879. His association with this company, and with
Ada Rehan as the leading lady, constituted a brilliant period
in recent stage history, his Petruchio being only one, though
perhaps the most striking, of a series of famous impersonations.
In 1892 he left Daly's company, and began a career as a " star."
DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833), English theologian, was born
in the parish of St Austell, in Cornwall, on the 6th of March 1765.
His father was a poor farm labourer, and could not afford to
send him to school long enough even to learn to read and write.
At ten he was apprenticed to a shoemaker, and at twenty he
settled in the town of St Austell, first as manager for a shoemaker,
and in 1 787 began business on his own account. He had already
gained a reputation in his narrow circle as a keen debater and a
jovial companion, and it is said that he had several smuggling
adventures. He was first aroused to serious thought in 1785 by
a funeral sermon preached over his elder brother by Adam
Clarke. He joined the Methodists, was soon employed as a
class leader and local preacher, and continued to preach till
a few months before his death. His opportunities of gaining
knowledge were very scanty, but he strenuously set himself to
make the most of them. It is stated that an accidental intro-
duction to Locke's great essay determined the ultimate direction
of his studies. In 1798 the first part of Thomas Paine's Age of
Reason was put into his hands; and in the following year he
made his first appearance as an author by publishing his Remarks
on that work. The book was favourably received, and was
republished in 1820. Drew had begun to meditate a greater
attempt before he wrote his Remarks on Paine; and, encouraged
by the antiquary John Whitaker, he published his Essay on
the Immateriality and Immortality of the Soul in 1802. This
work made the " Cornish metaphysician," as he was called,
widely known, and for some time it held a high place in the
judgment of the religious world as a conclusive argument on
its subject. A fifth edition appeared in 1831. Drew continued
to work at his trade till 1805, when he entered into an engagement
with Dr Thomas Coke, a prominent Wesleyan official, which
enabled him to devote himself entirely to literature. In 1809
he published his Essay on the Identity and General Resurrection
of the Human Body, perhaps the most original of his works,
which reached a second edition in 1822. In 1814 he completed
a history of Cornwall begun by F. Hitchins. In 1819 he removed
to Liverpool, being appointed editor of the Imperial Magazine,
then newly established, and in 1821 to London, the business
being then transferred to the capital. Here he filled the post
of editor till his death, and had also the supervision of all
works issued from the Caxton Press. He was an unsuccessful
competitor for the Burnett prize offered in 1811 for an essay on
the existence and attributes of God. The work which he then
wrote, and which in his own judgment was his best, was published
in 1820, under the title of An Attempt to demonstrate from Reason
and Revelation the Necessary Existence, Essential Perfections, and
Superintending Providence of an Eternal Being, who is the Creator,
the Supporter, and the Governor of all Things (2 vols. 8 vo). This
procured him the degree of M.A. from the university of Aberdeen .
DREWENZ DRIFT
579
Among Drew's lesser writings are a Life of Dr Thomas Coke
(1817), and a work on the deity of Christ (1813). He died at
Helston in Cornwall on the 2pth of March 1833. He was a man
of strong mind, honourable spirit and affectionate disposition,
energetic both in speech and in writing.
A memoir of his life by his eldest son appeared in 1834.
DREWENZ, a river of Germany, a right-bank tributary of the
Vistula. It rises on the plateau of Hohenstein in East Prussia,
5 m. S.W. of the town of Hohenstein. After passing through
the lake of Drewenz (7 m. long), it flows S.W. through flat
marshy country, and forms, from just below the town of Strass-
burg to that of Leibitsch, a distance of 30 m., the frontier
between Prussia and Russian Poland. After a course of 148 m.
it enters the Vistula from the right, a little above the fortress of
Thorn. It is navigable only for rafts. Lake Drewenz is con-
nected with Elbing (and so with the Baltic) by the navigable
Elbing-Oberland Canal.
DREXEL, ANTHONY JOSEPH (1826-1893), American banker,
was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the I3th of September
1826. He was the son of Francis M. Drexel (1792-1863), a
native of Austrian Tirol, who emigrated to America in 1817, and,
after some years spent as a portrait-painter, became a banker
and the founder of the house of Drexel & Company. Anthony,
who entered his father's counting-house in 1839, eventually, with
his brothers Francis and Joseph, succeeded to the control of
the business, and organized the banking houses of Drexel,
Morgan & Company, New York, of which his brother Joseph W.
(1833-1888) was long the resident head, and of Drexel, Harjes
6 Company, Paris. In 1 864 he joined his friend George W. Childs
in the purchase of the Philadelphia Public Ledger, and with him
in 1892 founded the Printers' Home for union men at Colorado
Springs. In 1891 he founded, and endowed with $2,000,000,
the Drexel Institute of Art, Science and Industry in Philadelphia,
the buildings for which he constructed at a cost of $750,000.
This institution provides technical instruction for both night and
day classes and public lecture courses, and has a good museum
and a library of 35,000 volumes. Drexel died at Carlsbad,
Germany, on the 3oth of June 1893.
DREYFUS, ALFRED (1859- ), French soldier, of Jewish
parentage, the scandal of whose condemnation for treason and
subsequent rehabilitation convulsed French political life between
1894 and 1899, and only ended in 1906, was born in Mulhausen,
Upper Alsace, removing to Paris in 1874. After going through
the usual course of military instruction with credit, he became
a sous-lieutenant in the artillery in 1882, and was promoted
captain in 1889; and, after passing through the Ecole de Guerre
with distinction, he was appointed to the general staff. His name
was, however, unknown to the general public till he was arrested
on the isth of October 1894 on a charge of selling military
secrets to Germany, condemned, publicly degraded (January 4,
1895), and transported (March 10) to the He du Diable, French
Guiana. The story of the subsequent proceedings in this cele-
brated case is told in the article ANTI-SEMITISM, and need not
here be repeated. It was not till 1899 that the unfortunate
prisoner was brought back to France for retrial by court-martial,
and even then, so strong was the anti-Semitic and military
prejudice, he was again found guilty " with extenuating circum-
stances " at Rennes (September 9), though ten days later he
was " pardoned " by President Loubet. It was not till the Cour
de Cassation ordered a further investigation, and on the I2th
of July 1906 decided that his conviction had been based on a
forgery and that Dreyfus was innocent, that the agitation came
to a final conclusion. He was then restored to his rank in the
army and promoted major. But the anti-Semitic and anti-
Dreyfusard spirit in certain French circles could not easily be
quelled even then; and on the occasion of the translation of the
remains of Emile Zola (Dreyfus's determined champion) to the
Pantheon on the 4th of June 1908, Major Dreyfus was shot at
and wounded by a fanatical journalist named Gregori, who was
subsequently acquitted by a Paris jury of the charge of attempted
murder, his own plea being that he had merely intended a
" demonstration."
See Dreyfus's own Five Years of my Life (1901), and literature
cited under ANTI-SEMITISM.
DRIBURG, a town and spa of Germany, in Prussian West-
phalia, pleasantly situated on the Aa and the railway Soest-
Hoxter-Berlin. Pop. 2600. It has an Evangelical and a Roman
Catholic church and some glass manufactures. It is celebrated
for its saline-ferruginous springs, discovered in 766, and since
1779 largely frequented in summer. In the vicinity are the ruins
of Iburg, a castle destroyed by Charlemagne in 7 7 5 , and besto wed
by him upon the bishopric of Paderborn.
DRIFFIELD (officially Great Driffield), a market town in the
Buckrose parliamentary division of the East Riding of Yorkshire,
England, 19$ m. N. by W. from Hull, the junction of several
branch lines of the North Eastern railway. Pop. of urban
district (1901) 5766. It is pleasantly situated at the foot of the
Wolds, and is connected with Hull by a navigable canal. The
church of All Saints is of various dates from Norman onwards.
The town is the centre of a rich agricultural district, and large
markets and fairs are held. There are works for the manufacture
of oil-cake. Driffield is of high antiquity, and numerous tumuli
are seen in the vicinity, while there is an excellent private
antiquarian museum in the town.
DRIFT (from " drive "), a verb or noun used in various
connexions with the sense of propelled motion, especially (but
not necessarily) of an aimless sort, undirected. Thus it is possible
to speak of a snow-drift, an accumlation driven by the wind;
of a ship drifting out of its course; of the drift of a speech, i.e.
its general tendency. The word is also used in some technical
senses, more immediately resulting from the action of driving
something in. But the most important technical use of the word
is in geology, as introduced by C. Lyell in 1840 in place of
" Diluvium." The earlier geologists had been in the habit of
dividing the Quaternary deposits into an older Diluvium and a
younger Alluvium; the latter is still employed in England,
but the former has dropped out of use, though it is still retained
by some continental writers. The Alluvium was distinguished
from Diluvium by the fact that its mammalian fossils were
representatives of still living forms, but it is a matter of great
difficulty to separate these two divisions in practice. " The term
drift is now applied generally to the Quaternary deposits, which
consist for the most part of gravel, sand, loam or brickearth and
clay; it naturally refers to strata laid down at some distance
from the rocks to whose destruction they are largely due; but,
although applied to river deposits, the word drift is more appro-
priately used in reference to the accumulations of the Glacial
period.
" The occurrence of stones and boulders far removed from their
parent source early attracted the attention of geologists, but
for a long period the phenomena, now known as of glacial
origin, were unexplained, and the drifts were looked upon as
little more than ' extraneous rubbish,' the product of geological
agents, quite distinct from those which helped to form the more
' solid ' rocks that underlie them." (See H. B. Woodward, The
Geology of England and Wales, 2nd ed., 1887.) The conception
of an underlying " solid " geological structure covered by a
superficial mantle of " drift " is still retained for certain practical
purposes; thus, the Geological Survey of Great Britain issues
many of the maps in two forms, the " Solid Edition," showing
the " solid geology," which embraces all igneous rocks and the
stratified rocks older than Pleistocene, and the " Drift Edition,"
which shows onry such older strata as are unobscured by drift.
In writing and in conversation the geological expression
" drift " is now usually understood to mean Glacial drift,
including boulder clay and all the varieties of sand, gravel and
clay deposits formed by the agency of ice sheets, glaciers and
icebergs. But in the " Drift " maps many other types of deposit
are indicated, such, for instance, as the ordinary modern alluvium
of rivers, and the older river terraces (River-drift of various ages),
including gravels, brickearth and loam; old raised sea beaches
and blown-sand (Aeolian-drift) ; the " Head " of Cornwall and
Devon, an angular detritus consisting of stones with clay or
loam; clay-with-flints, rainwash (landwash), scree and talus;
5 8
DRILL DRINKING VESSELS
the " Warp," a marine and estuarine silt and clay of the Humber;
and also beds of peat and diatomite.
See GLACIAL PERIOD ; PLEISTOCENE ; BOULDER CLAY. (J. A. H.)
DRILL, (i) A tool for boring or making holes in hard sub-
stances, such as stone, metal, &c. (an adaptation in the i7th
century from the Dutch dril or drille, from drilkn, to turn,
bore a hole; according to the New English Dictionary the
word is not to be connected with the English " thrill ") . The word
drillen was used in Dutch, German and Danish, from the i7th
century for training in military exercises and was adopted into
English in the same sense. The origin of the application seems
to be in the primary sense of " to turn round," Irom the turning
of the troops in their evolutions and from the turning of the
weapons in the soldiers' hands. Drill is, formally, the prepara-
tion of soldiers for their duties in war by the practice or rehearsal
of movements in military order and the handling of arms, and,
psychologically, the method of producing in the individual soldier
habits of self-control and of mechanically precise actions under dis-
turbing conditions, and of rendering the common instinctive will
of a body of men, large or small, amenable to the control of, and
susceptible to a stimulus imparted by its commander's will. '
(2) A furrow made in the soil in which seed may be sown,
and a machine used for sowing seed in such furrows (see SOWING).
The word is somewhat doubtful in origin. It may be the same
as an obsolete word " drill," to trickle, flow in drops, also a
small stream or flow of water, a rill, and is possibly an altered
form of " trill."
(3) In zoology, the native name of a large short-tailed west
African baboon, Papio leutophaeus, closely allied to the mandrill
(q.v.), but distinguished by the absence of brilliant blue and
scarlet on the jaws of the fully adult males.
(4) The name of a fabric made in both linen and cotton, and
commonly bleached and finished stiff. The word is a shortened
form of " drilling," from the German drillich, or " three-
threaded," and is so named because the weave originally used
in its construction is what is termed the three-leaf twill, nine
repeats of which appear in the accompanying figure, while
immediately below the design is an intersec-
tion of all the nine threads with the first
pick. It is essentially a warp-faced fabric;
that is, the upper surface is composed mostly
of warp threads. In the figure it will be seen
that two out of every three threads appear
on the surface, and, by introducing a greater
number of threads per inch than picks per inch, the weft is made
to occupy a still more subordinate position so far as the upper
surface of the cloth is concerned. Although the weave shown
is still extensively used in this branch, there are others, e.g. the
4-thread and the 5-thread weaves, which are employed for the
production of this cloth. Large quantities of drill are shipped
to the Eastern markets and to other sub-tropical centres, from
which it is sold for clothing. In temperate climates it forms a
satisfactory material for ladies' and children's summer clothing,
and it is used by chefs, hairdressers, provision merchants, grocers,
buttermen, painters and decorators, &c.,while many of the long
jackets or overalls, such as those worn by many mill and factory
managers, are made from the same material.
DRINKING VESSELS. 1 The use of special vessels for drinking
purposes may fairly be assumed to have had a natural origin
and development. From a practical point of view it would soon
be found desirable to provide vessels for liquids in addition to
those serving to hold food. As in many other commonplace
details of modern life, we must turn to the primitive races to
understand how our present conditions were reached. In almost
all parts of the world many of the products of nature are capable
of serving such purposes, with little or no change at the hands
of man; in tropical and sub-tropical climates the coco-nut and
the gourd or calabash require but little change to adapt them
as the most convenient of drinking utensils; the eggs of the
larger birds, such as the ostrich or the emu, shells, like the
nautilus and other univalves, as well as the deeper bivalves,
'The verb "to drink" is Common Teut.; cf. Ger. trinken, &c.
are equally convenient. Such natural objects are in fact used
by the uncivilized tribes of Africa, America and Polynesia, as
well as, in some cases, by the white races who have intruded
into those parts of the world, and adopted some of the native
habits. In Paraguay, for example, the so-called " Paraguay
tea," an infusion of the yerba male (Ilex paraguayensis) , is drunk
through a tube from a small gourd held in the hand, and often
handsomely mounted in silver or even gold. In the same way,
as we shall see, civilized man has adopted nearly all the natural
forms that were found convenient by the savage, altering and
adorning them in accordance with the taste of the time or
country where they were used.
Another line of development, however, has been found to be
the natural outcome of the human mind. Nothing could form
a more practical drinking cup than the half of a coco-nut shell
or part of a gourd. Such cups, however, in the countries where
the plants producing them are common, would be easily obtained,
and every one, rich or poor, could possess one or more. In order,
therefore, to distinguish the chief's possessions from those of
his inferiors, his cup is often made with great labour, from some
more intractable material, wood or stone, though in practically
the same form as that of the natural object.
Among European races in medieval times the same lines have
been followed, though for different reasons. Human ingenuity,
though perhaps originally inspired by natural forms,
is apt to turn aside into more artificial channels. Early
The invention of the potter's art (see CERAMICS),
where the plastic nature of the raw material renders it
capable of infinite changes of form, gave rise to types of vessels
having no obvious or necessary relation to the productions of
nature. In Britain and in northern Europe generally, the
interments of the races of the Neolithic and Bronze Ages have
furnished vessels of pottery of a beaker-like form, to which the
name of " drinking-cups " has been given. It must be confessed
that the evidence for attributing such a use to them is slender,
and mainly consists of the fact that their thin lips would render
them better adapted for the purpose than the other pottery
vessels found with them, some of which, on equally slight
grounds, have been called food vessels. The general use and
acceptance of the term by two generations of archaeologists is,
however, an adequate reason for a passing mention in this place.
In the later prehistoric times of Europe vessels of gold, bronze
and other materials, including amber, were made, sometimes of
elegant forms, and would seem to have been used as drinking
vessels; still, this is again an assumption, though a fairly prob-
able one. A small gold cup with handle was found in a barrow
at Rillaton, Cornwall; one of amber of a similar form was found
at Hove, and a third of shale near Honiton. All of these doubtless
may be referred to the Bronze Age.
Schliemann found many drinking vessels in his exploration
of the superimposed cities of Troy. A pretty form is that found
in the first city. It is of clay, and closely resembles New . formt
an early Victorian tea cup on a high foot. This form found by
is of interest, as Schliemann discovered the same both Sc*e-
at Tiryns and Mycenae, five from the latter site being *"
of gold, while the type also occurs from lalysus in Rhodes in
association with bronze swords. This Trojan cup was found at
a depth of 50 ft. below the present surface and about 18 ft. below
the stratum of what Schliemann claimed to be the Homeric
Troy. In his second city appears a different type of ware,
somewhat fantastic in form, one vessel being in the form of a
sow, while others foreshadow the crater and amphora of later
and more familiar Greek wares.
But the drinking vessel to which Schliemann draws most
attention is the tall cup of a trumpet form furnished with two
earlike loop handles. This curious and original type occurs
also in the Third (or Homeric), Fourth and Sixth Cities, with
little if any change. Schliemann devotes some pages to the
discussion of the form, in which he sees the dena* an<f>t.KVTrt\\ov 1
of Homer, which has been more usually understood to mean
an hour-glass shaped cup, in which the distinguishing feature
1 See PLATE, Plate I.
DRINKING VESSELS
581
navtan
types.
was two cups, not two handles. He applies the same term to a
drinking vessel of a very different form, found with several others
in the Third City. This is a sauce-boat shaped vessel ' of gold,
made with a lip for pouring or drinking at either end, and with
two loop handles. This equals those previously mentioned in
originality of form; with it were found others of gold, silver
and electrum (i.e. 4 parts of gold to i of silver). Of these three
were shaped like 18th-century coffee cups but wanting handles.
In the Sixth City appear forms more nearly approaching those of
later times, particularly prototypes of the cantharus and scyphus.
These discoveries in the various strata of Troy may be taken
as the analogues in the Mediterranean and hither Asia of the
later Stone and Bronze Ages of northern Europe, with an
allowance of some centuries of greater antiquity for the former.
It is not proposed in this article to deal with the ceramic and
metallic drinking vessels of the Greeks and Romans, of what
is generally known as the classical period (see CERAMICS and
PLATE). It may be mentioned, however, that both on the Rhine
and in various places in Britain, notably at Castor in North-
amptonshire and in the New Forest, were factories where large
numbers of pocula or drinking cups were made; those made on
the Rhine and at Castor bearing legends to indicate their use.
Many of these are to be seen in the British Museum and in the
Wallraf-Richartz Museum in Cologne.
After the decline of Roman power, the Gothic and Scandinavian
races who replaced the Romans in central and northern Europe
Gothic ana brought with them their own forms and types of drink-
ing vessels. These, from about the 4th century, re-
placed the well-known Roman vessels. The northern
barbarians were as great drinkers as fighters, and their
literature recites with equal zest the richness of their drinking
cups as the power and deadly qualities of their arms. Fortu-
nately the practice of burying with the dead warrior all his
property, or at least as much of it as he would be supposed to
need, has preserved to our day the actual vessels in use by the
pagan northmen who pervaded northern Europe from the
4th century onward. Saxon graves in Britain have furnished
great numbers of drinking cups and horns, in many cases quite
unbroken. From the remains, of which the chief series are in
the British and Liverpool Museums, we can learn a great deal
to amplify the references in literature. The richest single
interment that has yet been found was within the present church-
yard at Taplow. Here under a huge mound lay buried a Saxon
chieftain surrounded by his belongings; arms defensive and
offensive, his drinking cups, and even his game of draughts.
The drinking vessels consisted of five cows' horns and four glass
cups. The former were of great size, 2 ft. long, richly mounted
at the mouth and at the point with silver bands embossed and
gilt. The glasses also were of great size and of a type familiar
in Saxon interments. Each was of a trumpet shape, with a
small foot, while the sides were ornamented with hollow pointed
tubes bent downwards, and open on the inner side, so that the
liquid would fill them. Such a plan is most unpractical, and it
must have been very difficult to keep the vessels clean. Glasses
of this uncommon form have not been found elsewhere than in
Saxon graves, either in England or in the north of the continent.
Other types are perhaps nearly as characteristic, though of simpler
construction. One of these is a simple cone of glass, sometimes
quite plain, at others ornamented with an applied spiral glass
thread, or more rarely with festoons of white glass embedded
in the body of the vessel. A third form is a plain cup or bowl
widely expanded at the mouth and with a rounded base, so
that it could only be set down when empty, in fact a true
" tumbler." This feature is in fact a very common one in the
drinking vessels of the Saxon race. There are many other
varieties, plain cylindrical goblets, generally with ornamental
glass threads on the outside, and a more usual type has a rounded
body somewhat of the shape of an orange with a wide plain
mouth. Many of all these classes were found in the famous
cemetery known as the King's Field at Faversham in Kent (the
relics from which are now in the British Museum), at Chessel
1 See PLATE, Plate I.
Down in the Isle of Wight, and in the cemetery within the
ancient camp on High Down, near Worthing. In Belgium,
France and Germany the same types occur, and even as far
north as Scandinavia, where they are found in association with
Roman coins of the 4th century. On the continent, however,
additional types are found that do not occur in Britain one
of these is a drinking glass in the form of a hunting hern with
glass threads forming an ornamental design on the outside.
From the wide distribution of these types, it seems certain
that they sprang originally from a common centre, and the slender
evidence available on the subject seems to point to that centre
having been somewhere on the lower Rhine. Although glass
seems to have been popular and by no means rare as a material
for drinking vessels, other materials also were used. A large
number of the smaller pottery vessels would serve such a purpose,
and in one grave at Broomfield hi Essex two small wooden cups
were found which, from their small size and thinness, were no
doubt used for liquid.
Of the later Saxon domestic utensils nothing remains, the
habit of burying such objects with the -dead having ceased on
the gradual introduction of Christianity through the country.
Manuscripts are our only resource, and they are not only of great
rarity, but in the main rudely and conventionally drawn in their
details. In those of the gth to the nth century various simple
forms are seen, some resembling our modern tumbler in shape,
others like a dice box. Horns as drinking vessels certainly
retained their popularity at all times, surviving especially among
the northern nations, and many of the vessels of this form were
no doubt actual horns, though horn-shaped vessels were often
made of other materials. Until we come to the I3th and I4th
centuries there is an absolute dearth of the actual objects used
in domestic life. And here we begin with plate used in the
service of the church.
The drinking vessel possessing the most unbroken history is
doubtless the chalice of the Christian Church. 2 Like other
ceremonial objects it was no doubt differentiated from
the drinking cups hi ordinary use by a gradual transi-
tion, and in the early centuries it is unlikely that it
differed either in form or material from the ordinary domestic
vessel of the time. Figures of such vessels, apparently with a
symbolic intention, are found upon early Christian tombstones,
and it has been contended that the vessel indicated the grave
of a priest. While this may be the case, the similarity of the
vessel represented to the ordinary non-liturgical form renders
the conclusion somewhat weak. Among objects found under
conditions which lend colour to their specific use as chalices are
the bottoms of glass vessels found inserted in plaster in the
Catacombs at Rome; but here again the Jesuit Padre Garrucci
was unable to find any evidence to support such a conclusion.
It is not in fact until the 6th century that the sacred vessel
would appear to have assumed a definite form. From about that
time date the lost golden chalices of Monza, representations
of which still exist in that city; and the famous chalice of
Gourdon in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris is probably of
about the same time. All of these are two-handled with a vase-
shaped body and supported on a high foot; and thus quite
unlike the more recent medieval types. Two glass vases of
exactly this two-handled form are in the Slade collection at the
British Museum, and may well have been chalices. Another
chalice, hi the same collection, of the 6th or 7th century, was
found with a silver treasure at Lampsacus on the Hellespont.
It is of silver, with a cylindrical body and small expanding
foot; with it were found a number of silver spoons and dishes,
the former inscribed with the names of Apostles, Greek hexa-
meters and lines from Virgil's Eclogues. No doubt the whole
was the treasure of a monastery, buried and never reclaimed.
So far as evidence exists for the form of the chalice, the vase-
shape with two handles seems to have been mainly succeeded
by a goblet with straight sides and without handles; these latter
in great part disappeared. Then came the rounded cup-shaped
bowl as seen hi the well-known Kremsmunster chah'ce. An
2 For two illustrations see PLATE, Plate II.
582
DRINKING VESSELS
interesting silver vessel, probably a chalice, found at Trewhiddle
in Cornwall, is in the British Museum. It is of plain semi-
oviform shape, and dates from the gth century. The i3th century
chalice was usually a broad somewhat shallow cup, on a conical
base, and squat in its general lines as compared with those of
later date. These gradually became taller, and with a bowl
smaller in proportion, following the tendency of the civil vessels
towards more elegant lines. Both civil and religious vessels
eventually carried this tendency to an extreme point, so that in
the 1 7th century the continental chalices and standing cups
had lost all sense of true artistic proportions; the bowl of the
chalice had greatly shrunk in size while the foot had become
huge and highly elaborate, both in general form and in ornamental
details. In Britain chalices ceased to be used in the English
church in the reign of Edward VI., and were replaced by com-
munion cups. These were much plainer in make, recalling in
their outlines the goblet form of about a thousand years earlier,
the sides of the bowl being concave, or nearly straight, as opposed
to the convexity of the chalice, while the paten was reversed
over the mouth and so arranged as to form a closely fitting cover.
With the beginning of the i7th century English communion
cups again followed the civil fashion in adapting the outline of
the Venetian drinking glass, a shape which has survived to our
own days.
The materials of which chalices were made in the early
centuries seem to have been as various as those of ordinary
vessels. Glass was undoubtedly a favourite substance, perhaps
from its lending itself readily to scrupulous cleanliness; but
wood, horn, ivory and similar materials were undoubtedly in
use, and were from time to time condemned as improper by the
Fathers of the Church. Pewter was in common use, and it was
not an unusual practice in the i2th and I3th centuries to place
sacramental vessels, of this or more precious metal, in the grave
of an ecclesiastic. Bronze was also used, and the Kremsmunster
chalice is of that metal, which was a favourite one in the Celtic
church. But gold or silver chalices were no doubt always
preferred when they could be obtained.
It may be mentioned here that it was a common practice
in the i6th century and later in England for laymen to make
gifts to the church of vessels of an entirely domestic character
for use in the service. Many of these from their associations,
and in the character of the designs upon them, were entirely
unsuited for such purposes, and in our own time, when a healthy
desire has sprung" up for the proper investigation of such matters,
many such unsuitable vessels have been withdrawn from use.
Domestic plate, however, being much more highly appreciated
by collectors, there has been a regrettable tendency on the part
of the holders of such pieces to sell them to the highest bidders;
the tendency is to be deplored, for while they remain the pro-
perty of the church, they are a national asset; if sold by auction,
there is a great probability of their going abroad.
It would seem fairly certain that the ordinary drinking vessel
of medieval times was, like the trenchers of wood, turned on the
Medieval lathe. Of these the commoner varieties have entirely
vessels for disappeared, having become useless from distortion
common or o ther damage. Such as have come down to our
own time owe their preservation to the added refine-
ment of a silver mount. Vessels of this kind are known as
mazer bowls, a word of uncertain origin, but undoubtedly,
Mazers * n tne me dieval sense, indicating wood of some more
or less valuable kind, and not improbably, in the i6th
century, maple or a wood of that appearance. Spenser in the
" Shepherd's Kalendar " speaks of ' a mazer ywrought of the
maple warre." Although such vessels are mentioned in the
inventories and other contemporary records as far back as the
1 2th century, no example is known to exist of an earlier date
than the I4th century, of which date there are two in the posses-
sion of Harbledown hospital. This type of drinking vessel
was in common use in well-to-do households until the i6th
century, when a change of fashion and the greater luxury and
refinement dictated the adoption of more elegant and complex
forms. The ordinary mazer was a shallow bowl (see PLATE,
Plate II.) about 6 in. in diameter, with a broad expanding
rim of silver gilt often engraved with a motto in black letter
or Lombardic capitals, at times referring to the function of
the cup, such as:
" In the name of the Trinity
Fille the Kup and drinke to me."
or,
" Potum et nos benedicat Agios."
Within the bowl, in the centre is often found a circular medallion
called a " print " with some device upon it, engraved and filled
with enamel. The reason of this addition may conceivably
be found in the fact that such bowls were Sometimes made from
the lower half of a gourd or calabash, in the centre of which
would be a rough projection whence the fibres of the fruit had
diverged. A rarer form of mazer has the characters just men-
tioned and in addition is mounted upon a high foot, bringing
it nearer to the category of standing cups or "hanaps." The
famous Scrope mazer belonging to York Minster (early isth
century) stands upon three small feet. Of the hanap type
examples are in the possession of Pembroke College, Cambridge
(the Foundress' Cup), and All Souls' College, Oxford, the former
an exceedingly fine specimen, of the third quarter of the i5th
century. The form dictated originally by the simple wooden
cup was at times carried out entirely in silver, or even in stone,
mazer-like cups being found either entirely in metal or with
the main portion made of serpentine or some other ornamental
stone. An example of the former from the Hamilton Palace
collection, as well as several ordinary mazers, are to be seen in
the British Museum. The types above described are of English
origin, with the exception of that made entirely of silver, which is
thought to be French. Most of the continental forms differed
from the English, and were more elaborately finished. One of
the finest is that which belonged to Louis de Male, last count of
Flanders. It is an exceedingly thin, shallow bowl of fine-grained
wood, with a cover of the same make. The latter is surmounted
by a silver figure of a falcon holding a shield in its mouth with
the arms of the count. The foot is of silver with lozenge-shaped
panels inserted, bearing in enamel the arms of the count. A
German form of the i6th century consisted of a depressed
sphere of wood for the bowl, with a silver rim, and a cover
formed of a similarly shaped sphere, called in France a " creuse-
quin." Such mazers were furnished in addition with a short
metal handle turned up at the end, a feature unknown in the
English types. All of these again are to be seen in the British
Museum series.
Although the use of wooden vessels more or less elaborately
mounted was continued well into the i6th century as a fashion,
many other materials of far greater value were in use w ,
among the wealthy long before that time. Crystal,
agate and other hard stones, ivory, Chinese porcelain, as well as
more ordinary wares, were all in use, as well as the precious
metals. The inventories of the I4th and i5th centuries are full
of entries showing that such precious cups were fairly common.
Of gold cups of any antiquity naturally but few remain; the
intrinsic value of the metal probably is a sufficient explanation.
One of the most important in existence is however preserved
in the British Museum, viz. the royal gold cup of the kings of
England and France. It is of nearly pure gold with a broad
bowl and a high foot, the cover pyramidal. The whole is orna-
mented with translucent enamels of the most perfect quality,
and with a little damage in one part, absolutely well preserved.
The subjects represented on it are scenes from the life of St
Agnes, in two rows, one on the cover and one outside the bowl;
on the foot are the symbols of the four Evangelists, and around
the base a coronal of leaves alternating with pearls; the cover
originally had a similar adjunct, but it has unfortunately been
cut away. This is the only piece of royal plate of the treasures
of the kings of England and France that now remains, and its
history has been traced from the time it was made, about the
year 1380, to the present time. It was made by one of the
goldsmiths of the luxurious Due de Berri, the brother of Charles
V. of France, no doubt to offer as a gift to the king, whose
DRINKING VESSELS
PLATE I.
FIG. i. ROMAN GLASS CUP. With re- FIG. 2. TEUTONIC GLASS CUP. From FIG. 3. SAXON GLASS " TUMBLER,
presentation of a chariot race. Found at a grave at Selzen, Rhenish Hesse.
Colchester.
FIG. 4. PRANKISH GLASS DRINKING HORN. Bingerbruck.
FIG. 5. SAXON COW'S HORN. Mounted in silver. Taplow.
FIG. 6. SAXON TRUMPET-
SHAPED DRINKING VESSEL
OF GLASS. With hollow tubular
ornamentation. Foun'l in a
barrow at Taplow.
VIII. S 8a.
FIG. 7 THE ROYAL GOLD ENAMELLED HANAP.
Made about 1380.
FIG. 8. SARACENIC ENAMELLEE
GOBLET. With French silve:
mountings. Fourteenth century.
PLATE II.
DRINKING VESSELS
FIG. i. VENETIAN GLASS GOBLET. With
enamelled decoration. Fifteenth century.
All Ihe objects represented on these two pl.ites are in the British Museu
FIG. 2. ENGLISH "BLACKJACK." With
initials of Charles I. and date 1646
FIG. 3. THE ROCHESTER MAZER. Presented
by Brother Robert Pcacham. Sixteenth century.
FIG. 4. CHINESE CUP. Carved from rhinoceros horn.
Eighteenth century.
IG. 8. A GLASS
"YARD .OF
ALE" (English).
Eighteenth cen-
tury.
FIG. 5. ENGLISH GLASS TANKARD.
Bearing the Arms of Lord Burleigh.
FIG. 6. COCO-NUT CUP.
With Silver mountings.
German, about 1600.
FIG. 7 SWISS " TANZENMANN."
Carved in wood. Seventeenth
century. The German name for
DRINKING VESSELS
583
birthday was St Agnes' day. It was, however, never presented,
probably owing to the death of Charles V. in 1380. The due
de Berri was not on friendly terms with his nephew Charles VI.,
but on their being reconciled he presented the young king with
this cup. The troubles of his reign led to the invasion of France
by Henry V. of England, and the ultimate appointment of his
brother, John, duke of Bedford, as regent. The necessities
of the half-insane Charles doubtless caused this cup and other
valuables to pass into the possession of the regent in exchange
for ready money, for it appears in the duke of Bedford's will,
under which it passed into the treasury of Henry VI. There
it remained and appears in all subsequent royal inventories
up to the time of James I. This monarch, whose motto was
" Beati pacifici," received with joy the embassy sent from
Spain in the year 1610 to conclude the first treaty of peace with
England since the Armada, and showered upon the envoy, Don
Juan de Velasco, constable of Castile, the most lavish and
extravagant gifts. The constable, in fact, was so impressed by
the warmth of his reception that he printed an account of his
embassy, and from this work the main story of the cup has
eventually been traced. On his return to Spain the constable,
a piously disposed man, presented this cup, with many other
valuable gifts, to the convent of Santa Clara Medina de Pomar
at Burgos, of which his sister was Superior. Although it was a
domestic vessel, a " hanap " in fact, the constable elected that
it should be consecrated and made use of as a chalice at great
festivals. And so it continued to be used from the early years of
the 1 7th century until about the year 1882, when the convent
having fallen upon evil times, it was decided to sell this precious
relic. A priest from the Argentine being at the time in Burgos,
it was confided to him to sell in Paris, and he deposited the sum
of 100 by way of security. This was all that the unfortunate
nuns at Burgos ever received in return for their chalice, for
they never saw the priest again. He took the cup to Paris,
arriving in the month of September, when the majority of the
well-to-do are away from town. After many failures to dispose
of it, he ultimately succeeded in selling it to Baron Jerome
Pichon for the sum of about 400, practically its weight in gold.
The baron, after vainly trying to resell it at various sums from
20,000 downwards, eventually parted with it to Messrs Wert-
heimer of Bond Street for 8000, and that firm very liberally
ceded it to Sir Wollaston Franks for the same sum, and it was
finally secured by a subscription for the British Museum.
Such is the story of one of the most remarkable " hanaps "
in existence. The word " hanap " is translated by Cotgrave in his
French dictionary of 1660 as " a drinking cup or goblet," and
probably was intended to mean what would be called a standing
cup, that is, raised on a foot, to distinguish it from a bowl of the
mazer class. Such vessels were chiefly used to ornament the
dinner table or sideboard, in the way that loving-cups are now
used at civic banquets, where, almost alone in fact, the ancient
ceremonial of the table is still observed to some extent; and the
loving-cup is the direct descendant of the hanap of the middle
ages.
Of all the ornaments of the table in medieval times the most con-
spicuous was probably the " nef ." This was in the form of a ship
Nefs. (navis) , as its name implies, and originally was designed
to hold the table utensils of the host knives, napkins,
and at times even the wine. Some of the later examples which
alone survive are carried out with the greatest elaboration, the
sails and rigging being carefully finished and with a number of
figures on the deck. The reason for the existence of such an
article of table furniture was doubtless the fear of poison. As
in course of time this became less, the nef changed its character,
and became either a mere ornament, or sometimes was capable
of being used as a drinking vessel. The former, however, was
much more common, and the number of nefs that can be practi-
cally used as drinking cups is small.
In the 1 5th and i6th centuries the shapes, decoration and
materials of drinking vessels were almost endless. A favourite
object to be so adapted was an ostrich egg, and many can be
seen in museums in elaborate silver mounts; coco-nuts were also
types.
used in the same way, and Chinese and other Oriental wares
then of great variety, were often turned into cups and vases by
ingeniously devised silver mounting. The use of drink-
ing vessels either formed of actual horns or of other
materials was common in the isth and i6th centuries,
especially in the north. They were usually provided
with feet so as to serve as standing cups, and some of them were
mounted with great richness. An excellent example is the
famous drinking-horn in the possession of Queen's College,
Oxford, dating from the I4th century. The medieval beliefs
about " griffins' claws " still survived to this late date, and a
horn cup in the British Museum bears the inscription " Ein
Greifen Klau bin ich genannt, In Asia, Africa wohl bekannt."
Another horn, probably that of an ibex, is in the same institution,
and has a silver mount inscribed " Gryphi unguis divo Cuthberto
dunelmensi sacer." The elegant natural curve of the horn adds
greatly to the charm of the vessel. In Germany the ingenuity
of the silversmith was turned in the direction of making vessels
in the forms of animals, at times in allusion to the coat of arms
of the patron. Stags, lions, bears and various birds are often
found; the head generally removable so as to form a small cup.
Switzerland and south Germany had a special type, in the form
of the figure of a peasant, generally in wood, carrying on his back
a large basket, which edged with silver formed the drinking cup.
This type is only found in wine-growing districts, the basket
being used for carrying grapes. In Germany such cups are called
" Buttenmann," in Switzerland " Tanzenmann." The royal and
princely museums of Germany contain great numbers of such
vessels, the Green Vault in Dresden in particular, Awhile a good
number are to be seen in our own great museums. A curious
fancy, combining instruction with conviviality, was to make cups
in the form of a globe, terrestrial or celestial, which are still useful
as showing the state of geographical or astronomical knowledge
at the time. Several of those made in the i6th century are still
in existence, one in the British Museum, a second at Nancy, and
others are in Copenhagen and Zurich and in private collections.
The upper half of the globe is removable, leaving the lower as
the drinking cup. Ivory both from the beauty of its colour and
the evenness of its structure has been a favourite material for
drinking vessels at all times, and would seem to have been
continuously used from the earliest period, whether derived from
Asia or Africa, while the semi-fossil mammoth ivory of Siberia
has not been neglected. In general, however, the vessels made
from this material presented no essential differences of form from
those in wood, until the art of lathe-turning attained great
perfection, when a wide field was opened for ingenuity and even
extravagance of form. The most remarkable examples of the
possibilities of this kind of mechanical skill are seen in the
productions of the Nuremberg turners of the 1 7th century, whose
elaborate and entirely useless tours deforce comprise among many
other things standing cups of ivory sometimes 2 ft. high, exempli-
fying every eccentricity of which the lathe is capable. Peter
Zick (d. 1632) and his three sons were celebrated for such work.
Several pieces, doubtless from their hands, are in the British
Museum.
The use of glass cups was not common in England until the
i6th century, Venice having practically the monopoly of the
supply. A silver-mounted glass goblet which belonged
to the great Lord Burghley is, however, in the British
Museum, where there is also a very large series of
Venetian drinking glasses of various kinds, clear and lace glass
as well as some of the 15th-century goblets with enamelled
designs, now of the greatest rarity. The relations of Venice with
the East were of so intimate a character that the earlier forms of
Venetian glasses were nearly identical with those of the Mahom-
medan East.
A common type of Arab drinking glass resembled our modern
tumbler (a beaker), but gradually expanding in a curve towards
the mouth, and often enamelled. The enamelled designs were
at times related to the purpose of the vessel, figures drinking and
the like, but more commonly bore either a mark of ownership,
such as the armorial device of an emir, or some simple decorative
Glass
cups.
5 8 4
DRIPSTONE DRISLER
design. This simple form probably has its origin in the horn
cup made from the base of a cow's horn and closed at the smaller
end. The later forms in the late 1 5th century and after, followed
the fashion in other materials, and were raised on a tall foot,
so that from the i6th century onwards the type of wine glass
has hardly changed, except in details. An interesting variety
in one detail is seen in the German fashion of providing an
elaborate silver stand into which the foot of such an ordinary-
shaped glass was made to fit. Frequently, as might be expected,
such stands are found without glasses, and their use then seems
difficult to explain.
Another characteristic German type is the " wiederkom," a
vessel more conspicuous for capacity than for its artistic qualities.
It is usually a cylindrical vessel of green glass often holding as
much as a quart, elaborately enamelled with coats of arms and
views of well-known places; and at times when the cup was a
wedding gift the figures of the bride and bridegroom are seen
upon it.
A very fanciful kind of cup was known in England as a " yard
of ale, " a long tube of glass generally shaped Like a coach horn,
but ending sometimes in three prongs as a trident, the opening
in the latter being at the end of the handle, which was about a
yard in length.
Small silver cups were often made in dozens with various
devices, differing in each, such as the signs of the zodiac, the
occupations of the months, or figures of the classical gods and
goddesses, engraved upon them.
The tankard came into fashion in the i6th century, a practical,
but seldom graceful object. At first some attempt was made, by
shaping the sides, to attain to some artistic quality, but usually
the tankard from the late i6th century to the present time is
found with straight sides, either vertical or contracting towards
the top, which is of course always furnished with a hinged lid.
A material that has one obvious merit, that of being practically
unbreakable, is leather, and drinking cups were often made of it.
I7th ana The flagon called a " black jack " is the best-known,
isth and examples are very common, mostly of the i7th
century an( j jgj.^ cen (; Ur i eSi A quaint fashion was to have
a leather cup made in the form of a lady's shoe; this,
however, was confined to Germany and might be thought in
somewhat questionable taste.
In the i7th and i8th centuries a great impetus was given to
the production of curious drinking vessels in pottery. In England
at various potting centres a great number of cups called " tygs "
were made: capacious mugs with several handles, three or four,
round the sides, so that the cup could be readily passed from one
to the other. Many of these have quaint devices and inscriptions
upon them. Another favourite plan is to make a jug with open-
work round the neck and a variety of spouts, one only com-
municating with the liquid. These " puzzle jugs " no doubt
caused a good deal of amusement when attempted by a novice,
who would inevitably spill some of the contents.
The horn of the rhinoceros is much favoured by the Chinese
as a material for drinking cups often of a somewhat archaic form.
The dense structure of the horn is well adapted for the purpose,
and its beautiful amber hue makes the vessel a very agreeable
object to the eye. The usual form is of a boat shape on a square
foot, and the carved decoration is often copied from that of the
bronze vessels of the earlier dynasties. Others are treated in a
freer and more naturalistic manner, the bowl being formed as
the flower of the magnolia, and the entire horn, at times more
than 2 ft. in length, is utilized in carrying out the design. One
of this kind is in the Victoria and Albert Museum. Cups of
the former type are commonly found imitated in ivory-white
porcelain, and are known as " libation cups." Rhinoceros horn
is held by the Chinese to be an antidote against poison, a belief
shared by other nations.
There is but little to be said about the vessels used in the
drinking of tea and coffee. In Europe the type has practically
remained unchanged since the introduction of tea and coffee
drinking, except that in the i8th century the tea-cups imported
from China had no handles, and were generally thinner than the
coffee cups. In Japan there is a ceremonious way of drinking
tea, known as Cha no yu. Here powdered green tea is used;
the party assembles in a small pavilion in a garden,
and the tea is made in accordance with a rigid etiquette. Tea aaa
The infusion is stirred with a whisk in a rudely ^f"
fashioned bowl, holding about a pint, and passed from
one guest to another. The bowls are of very thick pottery,
never of porcelain, and the most valued kind is that made in
Korea. In the drinking of rice spirit (sake) in Japan small wide
shallow cups are used, made generally of porcelain, but sometimes
of finely lacquered wood. Both kinds are usually ornamented
with elaborate and sometimes allusive designs.
Among savage races the most peculiar drinking ceremony is
that of kava drinking in Polynesia, principally in the Fijian,
Tongan and Samoan groups. The best description
of the process is given in Mariner's Tonga. The
principal vessel is usually a large bowl, sometimes
measuring 2 or 3 ft. in diameter, cut from a solid block of wood.
It has four short legs and an ear at one side to which a rope of
coco-nut fibre is generally attached. The liquid is prepared in
this bowl and ladled out in small cups often made of coco-nut
shells, and these are handed round with great ceremony. Both
the bowl and the cups become coated in the inside with a highly
polished layer, pale blue in colour; but this beautiful tint fades
when the vessel is out of use, and it is therefore very rarely seen
in specimens in Europe. The kava itself is prepared from the
root of a tree of the pepper family (Piper methysticum ) ; the
root is cut into pieces of a convenient size, and these are given
to young men and women of the company, who masticate them,
and the lumps thus shredded are placed in the large bowl, water
is poured over them, and the mass is strained with great care by
wringing it in strips of the inner bark of the hibiscus. The liquor
is slightly intoxicating.
If the Polynesian method of preparing kava as a drink is
distasteful to our ideas, the favourite drinking bowl of the old
Tibetans is even more so. Friar Odoric (i4th century), quoted
by Yule, describes how the Tibetan youth " takes his father's
head and straightway cooks and eats it, and of the skull he makes
a goblet from which he and all his family always drink devoutly
to the memory of the deceased father." This recalls Livy's
account of the Boii in Upper Italy, who made a drinking vessel
of the head of the Roman consul Postumus. Among the
Tibetans skulls are still used, but generally for libations only;
for this purpose great care is exercised in the selection of the
skull, and the " points " of a good skull are well understood by
the Lamas. (C. H. RD.)
DRIPSTONE, in architecture, a projecting moulding weathered
on the upper surface and throated underneath so as to form a
drip. The term is more correctly applied to a string course.
When carried round an arch its more correct description would
be a hood (q.v.). When employed inside a building it serves
a decorative purpose only.
DRISLER, HENRY (1818-1897), American classical scholar,
was born on the 27th of December 1818, on Staten Island, New
York. He graduated at Columbia College in 1839, taught classics
in the Columbia grammar school for four years, and was then
appointed tutor in classics in the college. In 1845 he became
adjunct professor of Latin and Greek there, in 1857 was appointed
to the new separate chair of Latin language and literature, and
ten years later succeeded Dr Charles Anthon as Jay professor
of Greek language and literature. He was acting president in
1867 and in 1888-1889, an d from 1890 to his retirement as
professor emeritus in 1894 was dean of the school of arts. He
died in New York City on the 3oth of November 1897. Dr
Drisler completed and supplemented Dr Anthon's labours as
an editor of classical texts. His criticisms and corrections of
Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon, of which he brought
out a revised American edition in 1846, won his name a place on
the title-page of the British edition in 1879, and in 1870 he
published a revised and enlarged edition of Yonge's English-
Greek Lexicon. He was ardently opposed to slavery, and
brilliantly refuted The Bible View of Slavery, written by Bishop
DRIVER DRIVING
585
J. H. Hopkins of Vermont, in a Reply (1863), which meets the
bishop on purely Biblical ground and displays the wide range of
Dr Drisler's scholarship.
DRIVER, SAMUEL ROLLES (1846- ), English divine
and Hebrew scholar, was born at Southampton on the 2nd of
October 1846. He was educated at Winchester and New College,
Oxford, where he had a distinguished career, taking a first class
in Literae Humaniores in 1869. He was awarded the Pusey and
Ellerton scholarship in 1866, the Kennicott scholarship in 1870
(both Hebrew), and the Houghton Syriac prize in 1872. From
1870 he was a fellow, and from 1875 also a tutor, of New College,
and in 1883 succeeded Pusey as regius professor of Hebrew and
canon of Christ Church. He was a member of the Old Testament
Revision Committee (1876-1884) and examining chaplain to the
bishop of Southwell (1884-1904); received the honorary degrees
of doctor of literature of Dublin (1892), doctor of divinity of
Glasgow (1901), doctor of literature of Cambridge (1905); and
was elected a fellow of the British Academy in 1902. Dr Driver
devoted his life to the study, both textual and critical, of the
Old Testament. Among his numerous works are commentaries
on Joel and Amos (1897); Deuteronomy (1902); Daniel (1901);
Genesis (1909); the Minor Prophets, Nahum to Malachi (1905);
Job (1905); Jeremiah (1906); Leviticus (1894 Hebrew text,
1898 trans, and notes); Samuel (Hebrew text, 1890). Among
his more general works are: Treatise on the Use of the Tenses in
Hebrew (1892); Isaiah, his Life and Times (1893); Introd. to
the Literature of the Old Test. (1897, ed. 1909) ; Sermons on Subjects
connected with the Old Testament (1892); The Parallel Psalter
(1904); Heb. and Eng. Lexicon of the O.T. (in collaboration,
1906); Modern Research as illustrating the Bible (1909); articles
in the Ency. Brit., Ency. Bibl. and Hastings' Diet, of the Bible.
DRIVING (from " to drive," i.e. generally to propel, force
along or in, a word common in various forms to the Teutonic
languages), a word used in a restricted sense for the art of con-
trolling and directing draught animals from a coach or other
conveyance or movable machine to which they are harnessed
for the purpose of traction. This has been an occupation prac-
tised since domesticated animals were first put to this use. In
various parts of the world a number of different animals have
been, and still are, so employed; of these the horse, ox, mule
and ass are the most common, though their place is taken by
the reindeer in northern latitudes, and by the Eskimo dog in
arctic and antarctic regions. The driving of each of these
requires special skill, only to be acquired by practice combined
with knowledge of the characteristics peculiar to the several
animals employed. The most accomplished driver of spirited
horses would probably be in difficulties if called upon to drive
sixteen or twenty dogs in an arctic sledge, or a team of oxen
or mules drawing the guns of a mountain battery; and the adept
in either of these branches of the art might provoke the com-
passion of a farmer from Lincolnshire or Texas by his attempts
to manage a pair of Clydesdale horses in the plough or the
reaping machine.
Under all these different conditions driving is a work of
utility, of economic value to civilized society. But from very
early times driving, especially of horses, has also been regarded
as a sport or pastime. This probably arose in the first instance
from its association with battle. In the earliest historical
records, such as the Old Testament and the Homeric poems,
the driver of the chariot fills a place of importance in the economy
of war; and on his skill and efficiency the fate of kings, and even
of kingdoms, must often have depended. The statement in the
Book of Kings that Jehu the son of Nimshi was recognized from
a distance by his style of driving appears to indicate that the
warrior himself on occasion took the place of the professional
charioteer; and although it would be unsafe to infer from the
story that the pleasure derived from the occupation was his
motive for doing so, the name of this king of Israel has become
the eponym of drivers. Among the Greeks at an equally early
period driving was a recognized form of sport, to the popularity
of which Horace afterwards made allusion. Racing between
teams of horses harnessed to war-chariots took the place occupied
by saddle-horse racing and American trotting races (see HORSE-
RACING) in the sport of modern times. The element of danger
doubtless gave pleasurable excitement to chariot racing and
kept alive its association with incidents familiar in war; just
as at a later period, when the institution of chivalry had given
the armed knight on horseback a conspicuous place in medieval
warfare, the tournament became the most popular sport of the
aristocracy throughout Europe.
This element of danger cannot be said to enter usually into
the enjoyment of driving at the present day. Though accidents
occasionally happen, the pastime is practically unattended by
serious risk; and the source of the pleasure it affords the driver
must be sought in the skill it requires, combined with the love
of the horse which is common to sportsmen, and of exercise of
power. The art of driving as practised to-day for pleasure
without profit, and without the excitement of racing, is of quite
modern development. Oliver Cromwell, indeed, met with a
mishap in Hyde Park while driving a team of four horses pre-
sented to him by the count of Oldenburg, which was the subject
of more than one satirical allusion by contemporary royalist
writers; but two things were needed before much enjoyment
could be found in driving apart from utility. These were the
invention of carriages on springs, and the construction of roads
with smooth and solid surface. The former did not come into
general use till near the end of the i8th century, and it was
about the same period that the engineering skill of Thomas
Telford and the invention of John London Macadam combined
to provide the latter. The influence on driving of these two
developments was soon apparent. Throughout the i8th century
stage-coaches, ponderous unwieldy vehicles without springs,
had toiled slowly over rough and deeply rutted tracks as a
means of communication between different parts of Great
Britain; but those who made use of them did so as a matter
of necessity and not for enjoyment. But by the beginning
of the 1 9th century the improvement in carriage-building
and road-construction alike had greatly diminished the dis-
comfort of travel; and interest in driving for its own sake grew
so rapidly that in 1807 the first association of amateur coachmen
was formed. This was the Bensington Driving Club, the fore-
runner of many aristocratic clubs for gentlemen interested in
driving as a pastime. i
In modern driving one, two or four horses are usually em-
ployed. When a greater number than four is put in harness, as
in the case of the state equipages of royal personages on occasions
of ceremony, the horses are not driven but are controlled by
" postillions " mounted on the near-side horse of each pair.
When two horses are used they may either be placed side by
side, in " double harness," which is the commoner mode of driving
a pair of horses, or one following the other, in a " tandem."
Four horses, or " four-in-hand," are harnessed in two pairs,
one following the other, and called respectively the " leaders "
and the " wheelers " the same terms being used for the two
horses of a tandem.
Though it is a less difficult accomplishment to drive a single
horse than a tandem or four-in-hand, or even a pair, it neverthe-
less requires both knowledge and the skill that practice alone
confers. The driver should have some knowledge of equine
character, and complete familiarity with every part of the
harness he uses, and with the purpose which each buckle or
strap is intended to serve. The indefinable quality known
in horsemanship as " good hands " is scarcely less desirable
on the box-seat than in the saddle. It is often said to be un-
attainable by those who do not possess it by nature; but though
this may be true to some extent, " good hands " are partly at
least the result of learning the correct position for the arm and
hand that holds the reins. The reins are held in the left hand,
which should be kept at about the level of the lowest button
of the driver's waistcoat, and near the body though not pressed
against it. The driving hand should never be reached forward
more than a few inches, nor raised as high as the breast. The
upper arm should lie loosely against the side, the forearm hori-
zontal across the front of the body, forming a right angle or
586
DRIVING
thereabouts at the elbow-joint, the wrist very slightly bent in-
wards, and the back of the hand and knuckles facing outwards
towards the horses. In this position the three joints of the arm
form a kind of automatic spring that secures the " give " to the
movement of the horse's mouth which, in conjunction with
firmness, is a large part of what is meant by " good hands."
But this result is only obtained if the reins be also held with
the proper degree of bearing on the bit. What the proper degree
may be depends greatly on the character of the horses and the
severity of the bit. Pulling horses must be restrained by a
strong draw on their bits, such as would bring other animals
to a standstill. But under no circumstances, no matter how
sluggish the horses may be, should the reins be allowed to lie
slack; for if this is done the horse receives no support in the
event of a sudden stumble, and no control if he shies unex-
pectedly. The driver should therefore always just " feel his
horse's mouth " as lightly as possible; he then has the animal
well under control in readiness for every emergency, while
avoiding such a pull on the mouth as would cause a high-spirited
horse to chafe and fret. Well-broken carriage horses should
always be willing to run into their bits, and those that draw
back when lightly held in hand should be kept up to the bit
with the whip.
These principles are common to all branches of the art of
driving, whether of one, two or four horses. When they are
observed no great difficulty confronts the coachman who is
content with single or double harness, provided he has acquired
the eye for pace and distance, and the instinctive realization
of the length of the carriage behind him, without which he may
suffer collision with other vehicles, or allow insufficient room in
turning a corner or entering a gateway. For before he can have
had the practice by which alone this knowledge is to be gained,
the beginner will have learnt such elementary facts as that his
horses must be held well in hand going down hill and given
their heads on an ascent, and that on no account should the
horse's mouth be " jobbed " by the driver jerking the reins;
he will also have learnt a good deal about the character and
temperament of the horse, on which so much of the art of driving
depends, and which can best be studied on the box-seat and
not at all in the library. If he has pursued this study with any
degree of insight, he will have learnt further to be sparing in
the use of the hand-brake with which most modern carriages are
provided. This apparatus is most useful in case of emergency,
or for taking weight off the carriage on a really steep descent;
but the habit which too many coachmen fall into of using the
brake on every trifling decline should be avoided. Its effect
is that the horses are continually doing collar-work, and are
thus deprived of the relief which ought to be given them by
occasional light pole or shaft work instead.
When the ambition of the amateur coachman leads him to
attempt a tandem or four-in-hand he enters on a much more
complex department of the art of driving. In the
and four- nrst place he has now four reins instead of two to
in-hand, manipulate, and the increase of weight on his hand,
especially when four horses are being driven, requires
considerable strength of wrist to support it without tiring. It is
of the first importance, moreover, that he should know instinct-
ively the position in his hand of each of the reins, and be able
automatically and instantaneously to lay a finger on any one of
them. The driver who has to look at his reins to find the off-side
leader's rein, or who touches the near-side wheeler's in mistake
for it, is in peril of a catastrophe. It is therefore essential that
the reins should be correctly disposed between the fingers of
the left hand, and that the driver should as quickly as possible
accustom himself to handle them automatically. This is some-
what more difficult in driving tandem than in driving four-in-
hand, because in the latter case there is greater spread of the
reins in front of the hand than with tandem, where the reins lie
much more nearly parallel one above the other. The actual
holding of the reins is the same in both cases. The coachman
should be careful to take the reins in his hand before mounting
to the box-seat, as otherwise his team may make a start without
his having the means to control them. It is customary to hitch
the reins, ready for him to take them, on the outside terret (the
ring on the pad through which the rein runs) of the wheeler
the off-side wheeler in four-in-hand. Standing on the ground
beside the off-side wheel of his carriage, ready to mount to the
box-seat, the coachman, after drawing up his reins till he almost
feels the horses' mouths, must then let out about a foot of slack
in his off-side reins, in order that when on his seat he may find
all the reins as nearly as possible equal in length in his hand.
He mounts with them disposed in his right hand precisely as they
will be in his left when ready to start. The leaders' reins should
be separated by the forefinger, and the wheelers' by the middle
finger. The near-leader's rein will then be uppermost of the
four, between the forefinger and thumb; then between the
forefinger and middle finger are two reins together the off-
leader's and the near- wheeler's in the order named; while at
the bottom, between the middle and third fingers, is the off-
wheeler's rein. It will be found that held thus the reins spread
immediately in front of the hand in such a way that each several
rein, and each pair of reins two near-side, two off-side, two
wheelers' or two leaders' can be conveniently manipulated ;
and the proficient driver can instinctively and instantaneously
grasp any of them he chooses with his right hand without having
to turn his eyes from the road before him to the reins in his hand.
Having seated himself on the box and transferred the reins, thus
disposed, from the right to the left hand, the coachman should
shorten them till he just feels his wheelers' mouths and holdi
back his leaders sufficiently to prevent them quite tightening
their traces; then, when he has taken the whip from its socket
in his right hand, he is ready to start. This is an operation
requiring careful management, to secure that leaders and
wheelers start simultaneously; for if the leaders start first they
will be drawn up sharp by their bits, or, what is worse, if their
reins have not been sufficiently shortened they will jump into
their collars and possibly break a swinging bar, and in either case
they will be fretted and disconcerted and will possibly in con-
sequence either kick or rear; if the wheelers start before the
leaders they will ram the swinging bars under the tails of the
latter, with results equally unfortunate. The worst possible
method of starting is suddenly to give the horses their heads and
use the whip. But no positive rule can be laid down, for it is
just one of those points which depend largely on familiarity
with the horses forming the team. Horses even moderately
accustomed to the work will generally start best in obedience
to the voice, and their attention may simultaneously be aroused
by gently feeling their mouths. When once started the driver
should at once see that his team is going straight. If the leaders
and wheelers are not exactly on the same line, this or that rein
must be shortened or lengthened as the case may require; and
it is to be noticed that as the near-wheeler's and off-leader's
reins lie together between the same fingers, a simultaneous
shortening or lengthening of these two reins will usually produce
the desired result. With rare exceptions, reins should be
shortened or lengthened by pushing them back or drawing them
forward with the right hand from in front of the driving hand,
and not from behind it. As soon as the team is in motion the
leaders may be let out till they draw their traces taut; but
draught should be taken off them on falling ground or while
rounding a corner. Good drivers touch the reins as little as
possible with the whip-hand, and nothing is less workmanlike
than for a coachman to act as if he were an angler continually
letting out or reeling in his line. In rounding a corner a loop of
an inch or two of the leaders' rein on the side to which the turn
is to be made is taken up by the right hand and placed under
the left thumb. This " points the leaders," who accordingly
make the required turn, while at the same time the right hand
bears lightly on the wheelers' rein of the opposite side, to prevent
them making the turn too sharply for safety to the coach behind
them. As soon as the turn is made and all this applies equally
to the passing of other vehicles or obstacles on the road the
driver's left thumb releases the loop, which runs out of itself,
and the team returns to the straight formation. A circumstance
DROGHEDA
587
useful to bear in mind is that the swinging bars are wider than
the maximum width of the coach; consequently the driver
knows that wherever the swinging bars can pass through with
safety and as they are before his eyes the calculation is easy
the coach will safely follow.
A necessary part of driving four horses or tandem is the proper
use of the whip. The novice, before beginning to drive, should
acquire the knack which can only be learnt by
practical instruction and experiment of catching
up the thong of the whip on to the stick by a flick
of the wrist. With practice this is done almost automatically
and without looking at the whip. It is not merely an ornamental
accomplishment, but a necessary one; for in no other way can
the whip be kept in constant readiness for use either on wheelers
or leaders as the need of the moment may dictate. The point
of the thong is confined in the whip-hand when striking the
wheelers (which should be done in front of the pad), and is
released for reaching the leaders. Considerable dexterity is
required in using the whip on the leaders without at the same
time touching, or at all events alarming or fretting, the wheelers.
The thong of the whip should reach the leaders from beneath
the swinging bar; and proficient "whips" can unerringly strike
even the near leader from under the off-side bar without disturb-
ing the equanimity of any other member of. the team. This
demands great skill and accuracy; but no coachman is competent
to drive four horses until he is able to touch with the whip any
particular horse that may require it, and no other.
Essential as is proficiency in the use of the whip when driving
four horses, it is even more imperative for the driver of tandem.
For in four-in-hand the leaders act in some measure as a restraint
upon each other's freedom of action, whereas the leader in
tandem is entirely independent and therefore more difficult to
control. If he takes it into his head to turn completely round
and face the driver, there is no effectual means of preventing
him. It is here that a prompt and accurate use of the whip is
important. A sharp cut with the thong of the whip on the side
to which he is turning will often drive the leader back into his
place. But it must be done instantaneously, and the driver
who has got his thong coiled round the stick of his whip, or who
cannot make certain of striking the horse on precisely the
desired spot, will miss the opportunity and may find his team
in a sad mess, possibly with disastrous results. If the leader,
in spite of a stroke from the whip at the right moment and on the
right spot, still persists in turning, the only thing to be done is
to turn the wheeler also; and then when the tandem has been
straightened, to turn the horses back once more to their original
direction. For this reason it is never safe to harness a tandem
to a four-wheeled vehicle; because if it should be necessary to
turn the wheeler sharply round, the fore-carriage would probably
lock and the trap be overturned. Of comparatively recent years
a great improvement has been effected in the harnessing of a
tandem by the introduction of swinging bars similar to those
used in four-in-hand. Formerly the leading traces in tandem
drew direct from tugs on the wheeler's hames, or less frequently
from the stops on the shafts. This left a considerable length
of trace which, when draught was taken off the leader, hung
slack between the two horses; with the result that either of
them might get a leg over the leading trace, with dangerous
consequences. In the more modern arrangement short traces
attached to the wheeler's tugs hold a bar, which is kept in place
by a few inches of chain from the kidney-link on the wheeler's
collar. This bar is connected by short traces or chains with
a second bar to which the leader's true traces are hooked in the
usual way, allowing him a comfortable distance clear of the bar
precisely as in four-in-hand. The leader thus draws as before
from the wheeler's tugs; but the length of trace is broken up
by the two swinging bars, and as these are prevented from
falling low by their attachment to the wheeler's collar, the
danger from a too slack leading trace is reduced to a minimum;
though care is needed when the leader is not pulling to prevent
the bar falling on his hocks.
Expert tandem driving, owing to the greater freedom of the
leader from control, is a more difficult art than the driving of
four horses, in spite of the fact that the weight on the hand is
much less severe; but the general principles of the two are the
same. In Great Britain, however, the coach-and-four is the more
popular. It is more showy than tandem; it keeps alive the
romantic associations of the days when the stagecoach was the
ordinary means of locomotion; and a coach, or " drag," accommo-
dates a larger party of passengers to a race-meeting or other
expedition for pleasure than a dogcart. But for those whose
means do not permit the more costly luxury of a four-horse
team, a tandem will be found to make all the demand on skill
and nerve which, in combination with the taste for horses,
makes the art of driving a source of enjoyment.
See Donald Walker, British Manly Exercises: in which Riding,
Driving, Racing are now first described (London, 1834) ; Fuller, Essay
on Wheel Carriages (London, 1828); William Bridges Adams,
English Pleasure Carriages: their Origin, History, Materials, Con-
struction (London, 1837) ; The Equestrian: A Handbook of Horseman-
ship, containing Plain Rules for Riding, Driving and the Management
of the Horse (London,- 1854) ; a Cavalry Officer, The Handy Horse
Book; or Practical Instruction in Driving and the Management of the
Horse (London, 1865-1867, 1871-1881); H. I. Helm, American
Roadsters and Trotting Horses (Chicago, 1878); E. M. Stratton,
The World on Wheels (New York, 1878); J. H. Walsh (" Stone-
henge "), Riding and Driving (London, 1863); James A. Garland,
The Private Stable (2nd ed., Boston, 1902) ; the Duke of Beaufort,
Driving (The Badminton Library, London, 1889), containing a
bibliography; F. H. Huth, Works on Horses and Equitation: A
Bibliographical Record of Hippology (London, 1887). (R. J. M.)
DROGHEDA, a municipal borough, seaport and market town,
on the southern border of Co. Louth, Ireland, in the south
parliamentary division, on the river Boyne, about 4 m. from its
mouth in Drogheda Bay, and 31 |m. N. by W. from Dublin on
the Great Northern main line. Pop. (1901) 12,760. It occupies
both banks of the river; but the northern division is the larger
of the two, and has received greater attention in modern times.
The ancient fortifications, still extant in the beginning of the
igth century, have disappeared almost entirely, but of the four
gateways one named after St Lawrence remains nearly perfect,
consisting of two loopholed circular towers; and there are
considerable ruins of another, the West or Butler Gate. Among
the public buildings are a mansion-house or mayoralty, with a
suite of assembly rooms attached; and the Tholsel, a square
building with a cupola. St Peter's chapel formerly served as
the cathedral of the Roman Catholic archbishopric of Armagh;
and In the abbey of the Dominican nuns there is still preserved
the head of Oliver Plunkett, the archbishop who was executed
at Tyburn in 1681 on an unfounded charge of treason. There
was formerly an archiepiscopal palace in the town, built by
Archbishop Hampton about 1620; and the Dominicans, the
Franciscans, the Augustinians, the Carmelites and the knights
of St John have monastic establishments. Of the Dominican
monastery (1224) there still exists the stately Magdalen tower;
while of the Augustinian abbey of St Mary d'Urso (1206) there
are the tower and a fine pointed arch. At the head of the educa-
tional institutions there is a classical school endowed by Erasmus
Smith. There is also a blue-coat school, founded about 1727
for the education of freemen's sons. The present building was
erected in 1870. Benjamin Whitworth, M.P., was a generous
benefactor to the town, who built the Whitworth Hall, furnished
half the funds for the construction of waterworks, established
a cotton factory, and is commemorated by a statue in the Mall.
The industrial establishments comprise cotton, flax and flour
mills, sawmills, tanneries, salt and soap works, breweries,
chemical manure and engineering works. The town is the
headquarters of the valuable Boyne salmon-fishery. A brisk
trade is carried on mainly in agricultural produce, especially
with Liverpool (which is distant 135 m. due E.) and with Glasgow.
Many works of improvement have been effected from time to
time in the harbour, the quays of which occupy both sides of the
river, the principal, 1000 yds. in length, being on the north side.
Here is a depth of 21 ft. at the highest and 14 ft. at the lowest
tides. The tide reaches 25 m. above the town to Oldbridge;
and barges of 50 tons burden can proceed 19 m. inland to Navan.
The river is crossed by a bridge for ordinary traffic, and by a
588
DROIT DROITWICH
fine railway viaduct. The town is governed by a mayor, 6
aldermen and 18 councillors.
In the earliest notices the town of Drogheda is called Inver-
Colpa or the Port of Colpa; the present name signifies " The
Bridge over the Ford." In 1152 the place is mentioned as the
seat of a synod convened by the papal legate, Cardinal Paparo;
in 1224 it was chosen by Lucas de Netterville, archbishop of
Armagh, for the foundation of the Dominican friary of which
there are still remains; and in 1228 the two divisions of the
town received separate incorporation from Henry III. But
there grew up a strong feeling of hostility between Drogheda
versus Uriel and Drogheda versus Midiam, in consequence of
trading vessels lading their cargoes in the latter or southern
town, to avoid the pontage duty levied in the former or northern
town. At length, after much blood had been shed in the dispute,
Philip Bennett, a monk residing in the town, succeeded by his
eloquence, on the festival of Corpus Christi, 1412, in persuading
the authorities of the two corporations to send to Henry IV.
for a new charter sanctioning their combination, and this was
granted on the ist of November. Drogheda was always con-
sidered by the English a place of much importance. In the reign
of Edward III. it was classed along with Dublin,Waterford and
Kilkenny as one of the four staple towns of Ireland. Richard II.
received in its Dominican monastery the submissions of O'Neal,
O'Donnell and other chieftains of Ulster and Leinster. The
right of coining money was bestowed on the town, and parlia-
ments were several times held within its walls. In the reign
of Edward IV. the mayor received a sword of state and an
annuity of 20, in recognition of the services rendered by the
inhabitants at Malpus Bridge against O'Reilly; the still greater
honour of having a university with the same privileges as that
of Oxford remained a mere paper distinction, owing to the
poverty of the town and the unsettled state of the country;
and an attempt made by the corporation in modern times to
resuscitate their rights proved unsuccessful. In 1495 Poyning's
laws were enacted by a parliament held in the town. In the
civil wars of 1641 the place was besieged by O'Neal and the
Northern Irish forces; but it was gallantly defended by Sir
Henry Tichbourne, and after a long blockade was relieved by
the Marquess of Ormond. The same nobleman relieved it a
second time, when it was invested by the Parliamentary army
under Colonel Jones. In 1649 it was captured by Cromwell,
after a short though spirited defence; and nearly every individual
within its walls, without distinction of age or sex, was put to
the sword. Thirty only escaped, who were afterwards trans-
ported as slaves to Barbados. In 1690 it was garrisoned by
King James's army; but after the decisive battle of the Boyne
(?.D.) it surrendered to the conqueror without a struggle, in
consequence of a threat that quarter would not be granted if
the town were taken by storm.
Drogheda ceased to be a parliamentary borough in 1885,
and a county of a town in 1898. Before 1885 it returned one
member, and before the Union in 1800 it returned four members
to the Irish parliament.
From the close of the i2th century, certainly long before the
Reformation and for some time after it, the primates of Ireland
lived in Drogheda. Being mostly Englishmen, they preferred
to reside hi the portion of their diocese within the gate, and
Drogheda, being a walled town, was less liable to attack from
the natives. From 1417 onwards Drogheda was their chief
place of residence and of burial. Its proximity to Dubh'n, the
seat of government and of the Irish parliament, in which the
primates were such prominent figures, induced them to prefer
it to Ardmacha, inter Hibernicos. Archbishop O'Scanlain, who
did much in the building of the cathedral at Armagh, preferred
to live at Drogheda, and there he was buried in 1270. Near
Drogheda in later times was the primates' castle and summer
palace at Termonfeckin, some ruins of which remain. In
Drogheda itself there is now not a vestige of the palace, except
the name " Palace Street." It stood at the corner of the main
street near St Lawrence's gate, and its grounds extended back
to St Peter's church. The primates of the isth century were
buried in or near Drogheda. After the Reformation five in
succession lived in Drogheda and there were buried, though
there is now nothing to fix the spot where any of them lies. The
last of these Christopher Hampton who was consecrated to
the primacy in 1613, repaired the ruined cathedral of Armagh.
He built a new and handsome palace at Drogheda, and he
repaired the old disused palace at Armagh and bestowed on it a
demesne of 300 acres.
DROIT (Fr. for " right," from Lat. directus, straight), a legal
title, claim or due; a term used in English law in the phrase
droits oj admiralty, certain customary rights or perquisites
formerly belonging to the lord high admiral, but now to the crown
for public purposes and paid into the exchequer. These droits
(see also WRECK) consisted of flotsam, jetsam, ligan, treasure,
deodand, derelict, within the admiral's jurisdiction; all fines,
forfeitures, ransoms, recognizances and pecuniary punishments;
all sturgeons, whales, porpoises, dolphins, grampuses and such
large fishes; all ships and goods of the enemy coming into any
creek, road or port, by durance or mistake; all ships seized
at sea, salvage, &c., with the share of prizes such shares being
afterwards called " tenths," in imitation of the French, who
gave their admiral a droit de dixieme. The droits of admiralty
were definitely surrendered for the benefit of the public by Prince
George of Denmark, when lord high admiral of England in 1702.
American law does not recognize any such droits, and the dis-
position of captured property is regulated by various acts of
Congress.
The term droit is also used in various legal connexions (for
French law, see FRANCE: Law), such as the droit of angary (g.v.),
the droit d'achal (right of pre-emption) in the case of contraband
(q.v.), the feudal droit de bris (see WRECK), the droit de regale or
ancient royal privilege of claiming the revenues and patronage
of a vacant bishopric, and the feudal droits of seignory generally.
DROITWICH, a market town and municipal borough in the
Droit wich parliamentary division of Worcestershire, England,
55 m. N.N.E. of Worcester, and 1 26 m. N.W. by W. from London
by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 4201. It is served
by the Bristol-Birmingham line of the Midland railway, and by
the Worcester-Shrewsbury line of the Great Western. It stands
on the river Salwarpe, an eastern tributary of the Severn. There
is connexion with the Severn by canal. There are three parish
churches, St Andrew, St Peter and St Michael, of which the two
first are fine old buildings in mixed styles, while St Michael's
is modern. The principal occupation is the manufacture of the
salt obtained from the brine springs or wyches, to which the
town probably owes both its name and its origin. The springs
also give Droitwich a considerable reputation as a health resort.
There are Royal Brine baths, supplied with water of extreme
saltness, St Andrew's baths, and a private bath hospital. The
water is used in cases of gout, rheumatism and kindred diseases.
Owing to the pumping of the brine for the salt-works there is a
continual subsidence of the ground, detrimental to the buildings,
and new houses are mostly built in the suburbs. In the pleasant
well-wooded district surrounding Droitwich the most noteworthy
points are Hindlip Hall, 3 m. S., where (in a former mansion)
some of the conspirators in the Gunpowder Plot defied search
for eight days (1605); and Westwood, a fine hall of Elizabethan
and Carolean date on the site of a Benedictine nunnery, a mile
west of Droitwich, which offered a retreat to many Royalist
cavaliers and churchmen during the Commonwealth. Droitwich
is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area,
1856 acres.
A Roman villa, with various relics, has been discovered here,
but it is doubtful how far the Romans made use of the brine
springs. Droitwich (Wic, Salturic, Wich) probably owed its
origin to the springs, which are mentioned in several charters
before the Conquest. At the time of the Domesday Survey all
the salt springs belonged to the king, who received from them a
yearly farm of 65, but the manor was divided between several
churches and tenants-in-chief. The burgesses of Droitwich are
mentioned in the Domesday Survey, but they probably only
had certain franchises in connexion with the salt trade. The
DROME DRONE
589
town is first called a borough in the pipe roll of 2 Henry II.,
when an aid of 203. was paid, but the burgesses did not receive
their first charter until 1215, when King John granted them
freedom from toll throughout the kingdom and the privilege of
holding the town at a fee-farm of 100. The burgesses appear
to have had much difficulty in paying this large farm; in 1227
the king pardoned twenty-eight marks of the thirty-two due as
tallage, while in 1237 they were 23 in arrears for the farm.
They continued, however, to pay the farm until the payment
gradually lapsed in the i8th century. In medieval times
Droitwich was governed by two bailiffs and twelve jurats, the
former being elected every year by the burgesses; Queen Mary
granted the incorporation charter in 1554 under the name of
the bailiffs and burgesses. James I. in 1625 granted another
and fuller charter, which remained the governing charter until
the Municipal Reform Act. King John's charter granted the
burgesses a fair on the feast of SS. Andrew and Nicholas lasting
for eight days, but Edward III. in 1330 granted instead two fairs
on the vigil and day of St Thomas the Martyr and the vigil and
day of SS. Simon and Jude. Queen Mary granted three new
fairs, and James I. changed the market day from Monday
to Friday.
DROME, a department in the south-east of France, formed of
parts of Dauphin6 and Provence, and bounded W. by the Rhone,
which separates it from Ardeche, N. and N.E. by Isere, E. by
Hautes-Alpes, S.E. by Basses-Alpes, and S. by Vaucluse;
area 2533 sq. m.; pop. (1906) 297,270. Dr6me is traversed
from east to west by numerous rivers of the Rhone basin, chief
among which are the Isere in the north, the Dr6me in the centre
and the Aygues in the south. The left bank of the Rhone is
bordered by alluvial plains and low hills, but to the east of this
zone the department is covered to the extent of two-thirds of
its surface by spurs of the Alps, sloping down towards the west.
To the north of the Dr6me lie the Vercors and the Royans, a
region of forest-clad ridges running uniformly north and south.
South of that river the mountain system is broken, irregular and
intersected everywhere by torrents. The most easterly portion
of the department, where it touches the mountains of the
Devoluy, contains its culminating summit (7890 ft.). North
of the Isere stretches a district of low hills terminating on the
limits of the department in the Valloire, its most productive
portion. The climate, except in the valleys bordering the
Rhone, is cold, and winds blow incessantly. Snow is visible
on the mountain-tops during the greater part of the year.
The agriculture of the department is moderately prosperous.
The main crops are wheat, which is grown chiefly on the banks
of the Isere and Rhone, oats and potatoes. Large flocks of sheep
feed on the pastures in the south; cattle-raising is carried on
principally in the north-east. Good wines, among which the
famous Hermitage growth ranks first, are grown on the hills and
plains near the Rhone and Drome. Fruit culture is much
practised. Olives and figs are grown in the south; the cultiva-
tion of mulberries and walnuts is more widely spread. In the
rearing of silkworms Dr6me ranks high in importance among
French departments. The Montelimar district is noted for its
truffles, which are also found elsewhere in the department.
The mineral products of Drdme include lignite, blende, galena,
calamine, freestone, lime, cement, potter's clay and kaolin.
Brick and tile works, potteries and porcelain manufactories
exist in several localities. The industries comprise flour-milling,
distilling, wood-sawing, turnery and dyeing. The chief textile
industry is the preparation and weaving of silk, which is carried
on in a number of towns. Woollen and cotton goods are also
manufactured. Leather working and boot-making, which are
carried on on a large scale at Romans, are important, and the
manufacture of machinery, hats, confectionery and paper
employs much labour. Dr6me exports fruit, oil, cheese, wine,
wool, live stock and its manufactured articles; the chief import
is coal. It is served by the Paris-Lyon railway, and the Rhone
and Isere furnish over 100 m. of navigable waterway. The canal
de la Bourne, the only one in the department, is used for purposes
of irrigation only. Dr6me is divided into the arrondissements
of Valence, Die, Montelimar and Nyons, comprising 29 cantons
and 379 communes. The capital is Valence, which is the seat of
a bishopric of the province of Avignon. The department forms
part of the academic (educational division) of Grenoble, where
its court of appeal is also located, and of the region of the
XIV. army corps.
Besides Valence, the chief towns of the department are Die,
Montelimar, Crest and Romans(^..). Nyons is a small industrial
town with a medieval bridge and remains of ramparts. Suze-la-
Rousse is dominated by a fine chateau with fortifications of the
1 2th and i4th centuries; in the interior the buildings are in
the Renaissance style. At St Donat there are remains of the
palace of the kings of Cisjuran Burgundy; though but little of
the building is of an earlier date than the i2th century, it is the
oldest example of civil architecture in France. The churches of
Leoncel, St Restitut and La Garde-Adh6mar, all of Romanesque
architecture, are also of antiquarian interest. St Paul-Trois-
Chateaux, an old Roman town, once the seat of a bishopric,
has a Romanesque cathedral. At Grignan there are remains
of the Renaissance chateau where Madame de Sevigne died.
At Tain there is a sacrificial altar of A.D. 184.
DROMEDARY (from the Gr. 5po/i<is, Spo/wl&K, running,
8pantiv, to run), a word applied to swift riding camels of either
the Arabian or the Bactrian species. (See CAMEL.)
DROMORE, a market town of Co. Down, Ireland, in the west
parliamentary division, on the upper Lagan, 17^ m. S.W. of
Belfast by a branch of the Great Northern railway. Pop. of
urban district (1901) 2307. It is in the linen manufacturing
district. The town is of high antiquity, and was the seat of
a bishopric, which grew put of an abbey of Canons Regular
attributed to St Colman hi the 6th century, and was united in
1 842 to Down and Connor. The town and cathedral were wholly
destroyed during the insurrection of 1641, and the present church
was built by Bishop Jeremy Taylor in 1661, who is buried here,
as also is Thomas Percy, another famous bishop of the diocese,
who laid out the fine grounds of the palace. Remains of a castle
and earthworks are to be seen, together with a large rath or
encampment known as the Great Fort. The town gives its name
to a Roman Catholic diocese.
DROMOS (Gr. for running-place), in architecture, the name
of the entrance passage leading down to the beehive tombs in
Greece, open to the air and enclosed between stone walls.
DRONE, in music l (corresponding to Fr. bourdon; Ger.
Summer, Slimmer, Hummel; Ital. bordone), the bass pipe or
pipes of the bagpipe, having no lateral holes and therefore giving
out the same note without intermission as long as there is wind
in the bag, thus forming a continuous pedal, or drone bass.
The drone consists of a jointed pipe having a cylindrical bore and
usually terminating in a bell. During the middle ages bagpipes
are represented in miniatures with conical drones, 2 and M.
Praetorius 3 gives a drawing of a bagpipe, which he calls Grosser
Bock, having two drones ending in a curved ram's horn. The
drone pipe has, instead of a mouthpiece, a socket fitted with
a reed, and inserted into a stock or short pipe immovably fixed
in an aperture of the bag. The reed is of the kind known as
beating reed or squeaker, prepared by making a cut in the direction
of the circumference of the pipe and splitting back the reed from
the cut towards a joint or knot, thus leaving a flap or tongue
which vibrates or beats, alternately opening and closing the
aperture. The sound is produced by the stream of air forced
from the bag by the pressure of the performer's arm causing the
reed tongue to vibrate over the aperture, thus setting the whole
column of air in vibration. Like all cylindrical pipes with reed
mouthpiece, the drone pipe has the acoustic properties of the
closed pipe and produces a note of the same pitch as that of an
open pipe twice its length. The conical drones mentioned above
1 For the " drone," the male of the honey bee, see BEE. The
musical sense, both for the noise made and for the instrument, comes
from the buzzing of the bee.
1 British Museum, Add. MS. 12,228 (Italian work), Reman du
Roy Meliadus, I4th century, fol. 221 b., and Add. MS. 18,851, end
1 5th century (Spanish work illustrated by Flemish artists), fol. 13.
3 Syntagma musicum. Theatrum instrumentorum, pi. xi. No. 6.
59
DRONFIELD DROPSY
would, therefore, speak an octave higher than a cylindrical
drone of the same length. The drones are tuned by means of
sliding tubes at the joints.
The drones of the old French cornemuse played in concert
with the hautbois de Poitou (see BAGPIPE), and differing from
the shepherd's cornemuse or chalemie, formed an exception to
this method of construction, being furnished with double reeds
like that of the oboe. The drones of the musette and of the
union pipes of Ireland are also constructed on an altogether
different plan. Instead of having long cumbersome pipes,
pointing over the shoulder, the musette drones consist of a short
barrel containing lengths of tubing necessary for four or five
drones, reduced to the most compact form and resembling the
rackett (q.v.). The narrow bores are pierced longitudinally
through the thickness of the barrel in parallel channels communi-
cating with each other in twos or threes, and so arranged as to
provide the requisite length for each drone. The reeds are double
reeds all set in the wooden stock within the bag. By means
of regulating slides (called in English regulators and in French
layettes), which may be pushed up and down in longitudinal
grooves round the circumference of the barrel, the length of
each drone tube can be so regulated that a simple harmonic
bass consisting of the common chord is obtainable. In the
union pipes the drones are separate pipes having keys played
by the elbow, which correspond to the sliders in the musette
drone and produce the same kind of harmonic bass. The modern
Egyptian arghool consists of a kind of clarinet with a drone
attached to it by means of waxed thread; in this case the
beating reed of the drone is set in vibration directly by the
breath of the performer, who takes both mouthpieces into his
mouth, without the medium of a wind reservoir. Mersenne
gave very clear descriptions of the construction of cornemuse
and musette, with clear illustrations of the reeds and stock. 1
There are allusions in the Greek classics which point to the
existence of a pipe with a drone, either of the arghool or the
bagpipe type. 2 (K. S.)
DRONFIELD, an urban district in the north-eastern parlia-
mentary division of Derbyshire, England, 6 m. S. of Sheffield,
on the Midland railway. Pop. (1901) 3809. It lies on the small
river Drone, a tributary of the Rother, in a busy industrial
district in which are numerous coal-mines, and there are iron
foundries and manufactures of tools and other iron and steel
goods. The church of St John the Baptist, with a lofty spire,
is a good example of Decorated work, with Perpendicular
additions.
DROPSY (contracted from the old word hydropisy, derived
from the Gr. BSpco^; vS up, water, and on/-, appearance), the
name given to a collection of simple serous fluid in all or any of
the cavities of the body, or in the meshes of its tissues. Dropsy
of the subcutaneous connective tissue is termed oedema when
it is localized and limited in extent; when more diffuse it is
termed anasarca; the term oedema is also applied to dropsies
of some of the internal organs, notably to that of the lungs.
Hydrocephalus signifies an accumulation of fluid within the
ventricles of the brain or in the arachnoid cavity; hydrothorax,
a collection of fluid in one or both pleural cavities; hydroperi-
cardium, in the pericardium; ascites, in the peritoneum; and,
when anasarca is conjoined with the accumulation of fluid in
one or more of the serous cavities, the dropsy is said to be
general (see also PATHOLOGY).
Dropsy (excluding " epidemic dropsy," for which see below)
is essentially a symptom and not a specific disease, and is merely
an exaggeration of a certain state of health. Fluid, known as
lymph, is continually passing through the capillary walls into
the tissues, and in health this is removed as fast as it is exuded,
in one or more of three ways: part of it is used in the nutrition
1 L'Harmonie universelle (Paris, 1636-1637), t. ii. bk. 5, pp. 282-
287 and p. 305.
2 Plato, Crito, 54; Aristophanes, Acharnians, 865, where some
musicians are in derision dubbed " bumblebee pipers." See BAG-
PIPE; also Kathleen Schlesinger, " Researches into the Origin of
the Organs of the Ancients," Intern, mus. Ges. vol. ii. (1001), Sammel-
band ii. pp. 188-202.
of the tissues, part is returned to the general circulation by the
veins, and part by the lymphatics. Any accumulation con-
stitutes dropsy and is a sign of disease, though not a disease in
itself. The serous effusions due to inflammation are not included
under the term dropsy. A dropsical fluid varies considerably in
composition according to its position in the body, but varies
only slightly according to the disease which has given rise to
it. Its specific gravity ranges between 1008 and 1018; the
mineral salts present are the same and in about the same pro-
portion as those of blood, nor do they vary with the position of
the exudation. The quantity of albumin, however, depends much
on the position of the fluid, and slightly on the underlying
disease. In oedema the fluid contains only traces, whereas a
pleural or peritoneal effusion is always highly albuminous.
Also an effusion due to heart disease contains more albumin
than one due to kidney disease. In appearance it may he
colourless, greenish or reddish from the presence of blood pigment,
or yellowish from the presence of bile pigment; transparent or
opalescent or milky from the presence of fatty matter derived
from the chyle. The membrane from which the dropsical fluid
escapes is healthy, or at least not inflamed, and only somewhat
sodden by long contact with the fluid the morbid condition
on which the transudation depends lying elsewhere.
The simplest cause of dropsy is purely mechanical, blood
pressure being raised beyond a certain point owing to venous
obstruction. This may be due to thrombosis of a vein as in
phlegmasia dolens (white leg), retardation of venous circulation
as in varicose veins, or obstruction of a vein due to the pressure
of an aneurism or tumour. Cardiac and renal dropsy are more
complicated in origin, but cardiac dropsy is probably due to
diminished absorption, and renal dropsy, when unassociated
with heart failure, to increased exudation. But the starting
point of acute renal dropsy, of the dropsy sometimes occurring
in diabetes, and that of chlorosis is the toxic condition of the
blood. For accounts of the various local dropsies see HYDRO-
CEPHALUS; ASCITES; LIVER, &c.; general dropsy, or dropsy
which depends on causes acting on the system at large, is due
chiefly to diseases of the heart, kidneys or lungs, occasionally
on lardaceous disease, more rarely still on diabetes or one of the
anaemias.
Broadly speaking, 50% of cases of general dropsy are due to
disease of the heart or aorta, and 25% to renal troubles. The
natural tendency of all diseases of the heart is to transfer the
blood pressure from the arteries to the veins, and, so soon as this
has reached a sufficient degree, dropsy in the form of local
oedema commences to appear at whatever may be the most
depending part of the body the instep and ankle in the upright
position, the lower part of the back or the lungs if the patient
be in bed and this tends gradually to increase till all the cavities
of the body are invaded by the serous accumulation. The
diseases of the lungs which produce dropsy are those which
obstruct the passage of the blood through them, such as emphy-
sema and fibrosis, and thus act precisely like disease of the
heart in transferring the blood pressure from the arteries to the
veins, inducing dropsy in exactly a similar manner. The dropsy
of renal disease is dependent for the most part on an excess of
exudation, due largely to an increase of arterial and cardiac
tension. This in its turn produces arterial thickening and
cardiac hypertrophy, which, if the case be sufficiently prolonged,
brings about a natural removal of the fluid. In kidney cases,
in the absence of cardiac disease, the dropsy will be found to
appear first about the loose cellular tissue surrounding the eyes,
where the vessels, turgid with watery blood, have less efficient
support. The dropsy of chlorosis is very similar to renal dropsy,
a toxic condition of blood being present in both; also other
forms of anaemia, as also hydraemia, tend to produce or assist
in the production of dropsical effusions.
For the treatment of dropsy the reader is referred to the
articles on the several diseases of which it is a symptom. Briefly,
however, tapping of the abdomen or puncture of the legs are
constantly resorted to in severe cases. Dehydration by diet
is very valuable under certain circumstances when the dropsy
DROPWORT DROUAIS
is other than renal. And there is the routine treatment by
drugs, purgative, diaphoretic and diuretic as the symptoms of
the case may demand.
It may be well to mention that there are certain affections
which may be termed spurious dropsies, such as ovarian dropsy,
which is only a cystic disease of the ovary; hydrometria, dropsy
of the uterus, due to inflammatory occlusion of the os uteri;
hydronephrosis, dropsy of the kidney, due to obstruction of the
ureter, and subsequent distension of these organs by serous
accumulations; other hollow organs may also be similarly
affected.
Having no known relation to the preceding is epidemic dropsy,
the first recorded outbreak of which occurred in Calcutta in the
year 1877. It disappeared during the hot weather of the following
year, only to recur over a wider area in the cold months of 1878
to 1879, and once again in the cold of 1879 to 1880. Since then
only isolated cases have been recorded in the immediate neigh-
bourhood of Calcutta, though epidemics have broken out in
other places both by land and sea. At the end of 1902 an
outbreak occurred in the Barisal gaol, Bengal, in which nearly
one-third of the cases ended fatally. Dropsy was an invariable
feature of the disease, and was either the first symptom or
occurred early. The lower limbs were first affected, trunk and
upper limbs later in severe cases, the face very rarely. It was
accompanied by pyrexia, gastro-enteritis, deep-seated pains in
limbs and body, and burning and pricking of the skin. Various
rashes appeared early in the attack, while eczema, desquamation
and even ulceration supervened later. Anaemia was very marked,
giving rise in Mauritius to the name of acute anaemic dropsy.
The duration of the disease was very variable, the limits being
three weeks and three months. Death was often sudden,
resulting chiefly from cardiac and respiratory complications.
The cause of the disease has remained obscure, but there is
reason to suppose that it was originally imported from the
Madras famine tracts.
DROPWORT, in botany, the common name for a species of
Spiraea, S. filipendula (nat. ord. Rosaceae), found in dry pastures.
It is a perennial herb, with much divided radical leaves and an
erect stem 2 to 3 ft. high bearing a loose terminal inflorescence
of small white flowers, closely resembling those of the nearly
allied species 5. Ulmaria, or meadowsweet.
Water Dropwort, Oenanthe crocata (nat. ord. Umbettiferae),
is a tall herbaceous plant growing in marshes and ditches. The
stem, which springs from a cluster of thickened roots, is stout,
branched, hollow and 2 to 5 ft. high; the leaves are large and
pinnately divided, and the flowers are borne in a compound
umbel, the long rays bearing dense partial umbels of small
white flowers. The plant, which is very poisonous, is often
mistaken for celery.
DROSHKY (Russ. drozhki, diminutive of drogi, a wagon),
a light four-wheeled uncovered carriage used in Russia. Pro-
perly it consists of two pairs of wheels joined by a board. This
forms a seat for the passengers who sit sideways, while the driver
sits astride in front. The word Droschke, however, is applied
especially in Germany to light carriages generally which ply
for hire.
DROSTE-HULSHOFF, ANNETTE ELISABETH, FREIJN VON
(1797-1848), German poet, was born at the family seat of
Hulshoff near Miinster in Westphalia on the loth of January
1797. Her early mental training was largely influenced by her
cousin, Clemens August, Freiherr von Droste zu Vischering,
who, as archbishop of Cologne, became notorious for his extreme
ultramontane views (see below); and she received a more
liberal education than in those days ordinarily fell to a woman's
lot. After prolonged visits among the intellectual circles at
Coblenz, Bonn and Cologne, she retired to the estate of Rusch-
haus near Miinster, belonging to her mother's family. In 1841,
owing to delicate health, she went to reside in the house of her
brother-in-law, the well-known scholar, Joseph, Freiherr von
Lassberg (1770-1855), at Schloss Meersburg on the Lake of
Constance, where she met Levin Schiicking (<?..); and there
she died on the 24th of May 1848. Annette von Droste-HiilshoS
is, beyond doubt, the most gifted and original of German women
poets. Her verse is strong and vigorous, but often unmusical
even to harshness; one looks in vain for a touch of sentimentality
or melting sweetness in it. As a lyric poet, she is at her best
when she is able to attune her thoughts to the sober landscape
of the Westphalian moorlands of her home. Her narrative
poetry, and especially Das Hospiz auf dem Grossen St Bernard
and Die SMacht im Loener Bruch (both 1838), belongs to the
best German poetry of its kind. She was a strict Roman Catholic,
and her religious poems, published in 1852, after her death,
under the title Das geistliche Jahr, nebst einem Anhang religioser
Gedichte, enjoyed great popularity. i
Annette von Droste-Hiilshoff s Gedichte were first published in
1844 during her lifetime, and a number of her poems were translated
into English by Thomas Medwin. The most complete edition of her
works is that in 4 vols. edited by E. von Droste-Hiilshoff (Miinster,
1886). The Ausgewdhlte Gedichte were edited by W. von Scholz
(Leipzig, 1901). See Levin Schiicking, Annette von Droste-Hiilshoff,
ein Lebensbtld (2nd ed., Hanover, 1871) her letters to L. Schiicking
were published at Leipzig in 1893; also H. Hueffer, Annette von
Drosle-Hiilshoff und ihre Werke (Gotha, 1887), and W. Kreiten,
Annette von Droste-Hiilshoff (2nd ed., Paderborn, 1900).
DROSTE-VISCHERING, CLEMENS AUGUST, BARON VON
(1773-1845), German Roman Catholic divine, was born at
Miinster on the 2ist of January 1773. He was educated in his
native town and entered the priesthood in 1798; in 1807 the
local chapter elected him vicar-general. This office he resigned
in 1813 through his opposition to Napoleon, but assumed it
again after the battle of Waterloo (1815) until a disagreement
with the Prussian government in 1820 led to his abdication.
He remained in private life until 1835, when he was appointed
archbishop of Cologne. Here again his zeal for the supremacy
of the church led him to break the agreement between the state
and the Catholic bishops which he had signed at his installation,
and he was arrested by the Prussian government in November
1837. A battle of pamphlets raged for some time; Droste was
not re-installed but was obliged to accept a coadjutor. His
chief works were: fjber die Religionsfreiheit der Katholiken
(1817), and Uber den Frieden unter der Kirche und den Staaten
(1843)-
See Carl Mirbt's article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyk. fur prot.
Theol. v. 23.
DROUAIS, JEAN GERMAIN (1763-1788), French historical
painter, was born at Paris on the 25th of November 1763. His
father, Francois Hubert Drouais, and his grandfather, Hubert
Drouais, were well-known portrait painters; and it was from his
father that he received his first artistic instruction. He was after-
wards entrusted to the care of Brenet, an excellent teacher, though
his own pictures did not take high rank. In 1 780 David, who had
just returned from Rome, opened a school of painting in Paris,
and Drouais was one of his earliest and most promising pupils.
He adopted the classical style of his master, and gave his whole
time to study painting during the day, and spending a great
part of every night in designing. For weeks together it is said
that he never left his studio. In 1783 he was admitted to com-
pete for the great prize of painting offered by the Academy, the
subject being the " Widow of Nain." After inspecting the works
of his fellow-competitors, however, he lost hope and destroyed
his own canvas, but was consoled by the assurance of his master
David that had he not done so he would have won the prize.
Next year he was triumphantly successful, the " Woman of
Canaan at the Feet of Christ," with which he gained the prize,
being compared by competent critics with the works of Poussin.
He was carried shoulder high by his fellow-students through the
streets to his mother's house, and a place was afterwards found
for his picture in the Louvre. His success making him only
the more eager to perfect himself in his art, he accompanied
David to Rome, where he worked even more assiduously than in
Paris. He was most strongly influenced by the remains of ancient
art and by the works of Raphael. Goethe, who was at Rome
at the time it was finished, has recorded the deep impression
made by his " Marius at Minturno," which he characterizes as
in some respects superior to the work of David, his master. The
last picture which he completed was his " Philoctetus on the
592
DROUET DROWNING AND LIFE SAVING
Island of Lemnos." He died on the isth of July 1788. A
monument to his memory was erected by his fellow-students
in the church of Santa Maria in the Via Lata.
DROUET, JEAN BAPTISTS (1763-1824), French Revolu-
tionist, chiefly noted for the part he played in the arrest of
Louis XVI. at Varennes, was born at Sainte-Menehould. He
served for seven years in the army, and afterwards assisted his
father, who was post-master of his native town. The carriages
conveying the royal family on their flight to the frontier stopped
at his door on the evening of the 2ist of June 1791; and the
passengers, travelling under assumed names, were recognized
by Drouet, who immediately took steps which led to their arrest
and detection on reaching Varennes. For this service the
Assembly awarded him 30,000 francs, but he appears to have
declined the reward. In September 1702 he was elected deputy
to the Convention, and took his place with the most violent
party. He voted the death of the king without appeal, showed
implacable hostility to the Girondins, and proposed the slaughter
of all English residents in France. Sent as commissioner to the
army of the north, he was captured at the siege of Maubeuge
and imprisoned at Spielberg till the close of 1795. He then
became a member of the Council of Five Hundred, and was
named secretary. Drouet was implicated in the conspiracy of
Babeuf, and was imprisoned; but he made his escape into
Switzerland, and thence to Teneriffe. There he took part in
the successful resistance to the attempt of Nelson on the island,
in 1797, and later visited India. The first empire found in him
a docile sub-prefect of Sainte-Menehould. After the second
Restoration he was compelled to quit France. Returning
secretly he settled at Macon, under the name of Merger and a
guise of piety, and preserved his incognito till his death on the
nth of April 1824.
See G. Lenotre, Le Drame de Varennes (Paris, 1905).
DROWNING AND LIFE SAVING. To " drown " (a verb used
both transitively and intransitively, of which the origin, though
traced to earlier forms, is unknown) is to suffer or inflict death
by submersion in water, or figuratively to submerge entirely
in water or some other liquid. As a form of ancient capital
punishment, the method of drowning is referred to at the end
of this article, but the interest of the subject is mainly associated
with rescue-work in cases of accident.
Death from drowning is the result of asphyxia, due to the
stoppage of a supply of fresh air to the lungs. There is a certain
amount of stationary air in the lungs, and into this is diffused
oxygen from the fresh air taken in, while the carbonic acid which
it has taken from the blood through the walls of the capillaries
is driven out. This process of exchange is ever proceeding, the
whole of it being regulated from the nervous centre at the base
of the brain. When a person gets under water and cannot swim,
there is a natural tendency to struggle, and in the efforts to
respire water is drawn into the windpipe and cough is brought
on. This expels the air from the lungs with the water which
threatened to suffocate him, and as further efforts are made to
respire more water is taken in and has to be swallowed. Mean-
while, the oxygen in the lungs is gradually diminishing, the
quantity of carbonic acid is increasing, and at length the air in
the lungs becomes too impure to effect an exchange with the
blood. Then the blood passing into the heart becomes venous
and the heart begins to send out venous instead of arterial
blood to all parts of the body. Immediately a dull, sickening
pain becomes apparent at the base of the neck, and insensibility
rapidly ensues. This arises from the affection of the respiratory
nerve centre. In a short space of time the face becomes dark
and congested through the veins being gorged with blood, and
the heart ultimately ceases to beat.
When a person unable to swim falls into the water, he usually
rises to the surface, throws up his arms and calls for help. This,
with the water swallowed, will make him sink, and if the arms
are moved above the head when under water, he will, as a natural
consequence, sink still lower. The struggle will be prolonged a
few seconds, and then probably cease for a time, allowing him
to rise again, though perhaps not sufficiently high to enable him
to get another breath of air. If still conscious, he will renew his
struggle, more feebly perhaps, but with the same result. As
soon as insensibility occurs, the body sinks altogether, owing
to the loss of air and the filling of the stomach with water. There
is a general belief that a drowning person must rise three times
before he finally sinks,
but this is a fallacy.
The question whether
he rises at all, or how <
often he does so, en-
tirely depends upon
circumstances. A man
may get entangled
among weeds, which
prevent his coming
to the surface, or he
may die through heart
failure from the shock
or fright of entering
the water.
On seeing a per-
son struggling in the FlG " I -~ Ist Release Method,
water in danger of drowning, no time should be lost in going
to his assistance, for he may sink at once, and then there is
danger of missing the body when searching under water for
it, or it may get entangled among weeds and then the rescuer's
task is rendered doubly dangerous. Before diving in to the
rescue the boots and heavy clothing should be discarded
if possible, and in cases where a leap has to be made from
a height, such as a bridge, high embankment, vessel or
pier, or where the depth of the water is not known, it is best
to drop in feet first. Where weeds abound there is always
danger of entanglement, and therefore progress should be made
in the direction of the stream. When approaching a drowning
man there is always the danger of being clutched, but a swimmer
who knows the right way to deal with a man in the water can
easily avoid this; but if through some mistake he finds himself
seized by the drowning person, a necessary thing for the swimmer
to do is to take advantage of his knowledge of the water and
keep uppermost, as this weakens the drowning person and makes
the effort of effecting a release much easier than would otherwise
be the case. To the Royal Life Saving Society in England is
due the credit of disseminating, throughout the entire world,
the ideas of swimmers, based on practical experience, as to the
safest methods which should be adopted for release and rescue,
and their methods, as well as the approved ones for resuscitation,
are now taught in almost every school and college.
If the rescuer be held by the wrists, he must turn both arms
simultaneously against the drowning person's thumbs, and
bring his arms at right angles to the body, thus dislocating the
thumbs of the drowning person if he does not leave go (fig. i)
If he be clutched
round the neck he
must take a deep
breath and lean well
over the drowning
person, at the same
time placing one hand
in the small of his
back, then raise the
other arm in line with
the shoulder, and
pass it over the
drowning person's
arm, then pinch the
nostrils close with
the fingers, and at FlG - 2. 2nd Release Method,
the same time place the palm of the hand on the chin and push
away with all possible force. By the firm holding of the nose the
drowning person is made to open his mouth for breathing, and
as he will then be under water, choking ensues and he gives way
to the rescuer, who then gains complete control (fig. 2). One of
DROWNING AND LIFE SAVING
593
the most dangerous clutches is that round the body and arms
or round the body only. When so tackled the rescuer should
lean well over the drowning person, take a breath as before, and
either withdraw both arms in an upward direction in front of
his body, or else act in the same way as when releasing oneself
when clutched round
the neck. In any case
one hand must be placed
on the drowning man's
shoulder, and the palm
of the other hand
against his chin, and at
the same time one knee
should be brought up
against the lower part
of his chest. Then,
with a strong and sud-
den push, the arms and
legs should be stretched
out straight and the
whole weight of the
body thrown backwards.
FIG. 3. 3rd Release Method.
This sudden and totally
unexpected action will
break the clutch and leave the rescuer free to get hold of the
drowning person in such a manner as to be able to bring him to
'and (fig. 3).
There are several practical methods of carrying a person
through the water, the easiest assistance to render being that
to a swimmer attacked by cramp or exhaustion, or a drowning
person who may be obedient and remain quiet when approached
and assured of safety. Then the person assisted should place
his arms on the rescuer's shoulders, close to the neck, with the
arms at full stretch, lie on his back perfectly still, with the
head well back. The
rescuer will then be
uppermost, and hav-
ing his arms and legs
v>)free can, with the
breast stroke, make
rapid progress to the
shore; indeed a good
FIG. 4. Easiest method of carrying .,
a person not struggling. P 2 "* ^ an easil y be
made (fig. 4). In
this, as in the other methods afterwards described, every care
should be taken to keep the face of the drowning person above
the water. All jerking, struggling or tugging should be avoided,
and the stroke of the legs be regular and well timed, thus hus-
banding strength for further effort. The drowning person being
able to breathe with freedom is reassured, and is likely to cease
struggling, feeling that he is in safe hands.
When a drowning person is not struggling, but yet seems
likely to do so when approached, the best method of rescue is
to swim straight up, turn him on his back, and then place the
FIG. 5. ist Rescue Method.
hands on either side of his face. Then the rescuer should lie
on his back, holding the drowning man in front of him, and swim
with the back stroke, always taking care to keep the man's face
above water (fig. 5). If the man be struggling and in a condition
difficult to manage, he should be turned on his back as before,
and a firm hold taken of his arms just above his elbows. Then
the man's arms should be drawn up at right angles to his body
and the rescuer should start swimming with the back stroke
(fig. 6). He should take particular care not to go against the
current or stream, and thereby avoid exhaustion. If the arms
be difficult to grasp, or the struggling so violent as to prevent a
firm hold, the rescuer should slip his hands under the armpits
of the drowning per-
son, and place them
on his chest or round
his arms, then raise
them at right angles
to his body,thus plac-
ing the drowning per- -^> ~
son completely in his
power. The journey
to land can then be
made by swimming
on the back as in the
other methods (fig. 7)
FIG. 6. 2nd Rescue Method.
In carrying a person through the water, it
will be of much advantage to keep his elbows well out from the
sides, as this expands the chest, inflates the lungs and adds to his
buoyancy. The legs should be kept well up to the surface and
the whole body as horizontal as possible. This avoids a drag
through the water, and will considerably help the rescuer. In
some cases it may happen that the drowning person has sunk to
the bottom and does not rise again. In that event the rescuer
should look for bubbles rising to the surface before diving in.
In still water the bubbles rise perpendicularly; in running water
they rise obliquely, so that the rescuer must look for his object
higher up the stream than where the bubbles rise. It is also
well to remember that in running water a body may be carried
along by the current and must be looked for in the direction in
which it flows. When a drowning person is recovered on the
bottom, the rescuer should seize him by the head or shoulders,
place the left foot on the ground and the right knee in the small
of his back, and then, with a vigorous push, come to the surface.
When the rescuer reaches land with an insensible person, no
time should be lost in sending for a medical man, but in the
meantime an attempt to induce artificial respiration may be
made. The first recorded cases of resuscitating the apparently
drowned are mentioned in the notes to William Derham's
Physico-Theology, as having occurred at Troningholm and Oxford,
about 1650. In 1 745 Dr J. Fothergill read a paper on the subject
before the Rcyal Society. It dealt with the recovery of a man
dead in appearance by distending the lungs by Mr William
Tossack, surgeon in Alloa, in 1744. In 1767 several cases of
resuscitation were reported in Switzerland, and shortly after a
society was formed at Amsterdam for recovery of the apparently
drowned, and to instruct the common people as to the best
manner of treating them when rescued, and to reward the people
for their services. In 1773 Dr A. Johnson suggested the forma-
tion of a similar society in England, and Dr Thomas Cogan
translated the memoirs
of the Amsterdam
society. Dr William
Hawes secured a copy
and tried to form a
society. There was,
however, a strong pre-
judice against the idea,
but he publicly offered
rewards to persons who ,
between Westminster
and London Bridges,
should rescue drowning
personsand bring them FlG " 7-~3ni Rescue Meth d -
to certain places on shore in order that resuscitation might be
attempted. In this way he was instrumental in the saving of
several lives, and paid the rewards out of his own pocket, until
his zeal brought him sympathy and the Royal Humane Society
was founded. This was in 1774. The system then in vogue was
a means of inducing artificial respiration by inserting the pipe
594
DROWNING AND LIFE SAVING
of a pair of bellows into one nostril and closing the other. Air
was forced into the lungs and then expelled by pressing the chest,
thus imitating respiration. Dr Hawes used for his resuscitation
work a kind of cradle, in which the subject was placed, and then
raised over a furnace. Bleeding, holding up by the heels, rolling
on casks, &c. were at various times resorted to. Simple means
are often as effective as the official ones. In 1891 a subject was
restored in Australia by being held over a smoky fire, which is
the native method of restoring life; while a few years back,
at an English riverside town, a patient was saved by the placing
of a handkerchief over his mouth and the alternate blowing into
and drawing air out of the lungs until natural breathing was
restored.
One of the oldest methods of resuscitation was that of Dr
Marshall Hall (1790-1857), introduced in 1856. In this method
the operator takes his place at the patient's left side, and places
a roll of clothing or pillow (which must be the same length as
that used in the previous methods) , so that it may be in position
under the chest when the patient is turned over. The assistant
at the head pays particular attention to the patient's arms,
that they may not be laid upon or twisted at the wrists, elbows,
hands or shoulders. The patient is then turned face downwards,
with the body reclining over the pillow, the operator makes a
firm pressure with the hand upon the back, between and on the
shoulder blades, he then pulls the patient slowly up on to the side
towards himself. Once in position, the operator pushes the
patient back again until the face is downward, when the pressure
on the back is to be repeated. These three movements must be
continued at the rate of about fifteen times a minute, until
natural breathing has been restored.
Then came the methods of Dr H. R. Silvester and Dr Benjamin
Howard, of New York.
When using the Silvester method, or, for the matter of that,
any other method, the first thing to do is to send for medical
assistance. Dr Silvester recommended that the patient should
not be carried face downwards or held up by his feet. All rough
usage should be avoided, especially twisting or bending of limbs,
and the patient must not be allowed to remain on the back unless
the tongue is pulled forward. In the event of respiration not
being entirely suspended when a person is lifted out of the water,
it may not be necessary to imitate breathing, but natural respira-
tion may be assisted by the application of an irritant substance
to the nostrils and tickling the nose. Smelling-salts, pepper and
snuff may be used, or hot and cold water alternately dashed on
the face or chest. Provided no sign of life can be seen or felt or
the heart's action heard, promotion of breathing, not circulation
must be the first aim and effort. Lay the patient flat on his back,
with the head at a slightly higher level than the feet. Remove
all tight clothing about the neck, chest and abdomen, and loosen
the braces, belts or corsets. The operator taking his place at
the head, with an assistant on one side, will turn the patient over
until he is lying face downwards, his head resting upon one arm.
He should then, after the assistant has given one or two sharp
blows with the open hand between the shoulder blades, wipe and
dear the mouth, throat and nostrils of all matter that may
prevent the air from entering the lungs, using a handkerchief
for this purpose. This being done, the patient should be turned
upon his back, the tongue pulled forward and kept in position
by means of a dry cloth, handkerchief or piece of string tied
round the jaw. Every care must be taken not to let it fall back
into the mouth and thus obstruct the air passages. When this
work has been accomplished (it should only last a few seconds)
the operator at the head should lift the patient, handling the
head and shoulders very carefully, hi order that the assistant
may place a roll of clothing or pillow under the shoulder blades.
The roll being placed in position, the operator will lean forward
and grasp the arms below the elbows. He will then draw the
patient's arms steadily upwards and outwards, above the head,
until fully extended in line with the body. Having held the arms
in this position for about one second, the operator will carry them
back again and press them firmly against the side and front of
the chest for another second. By these means an exchange of
air is produced in the lungs similar to that effected by natural
respiration. These movements must be repeated carefully and
deliberately about fifteen times a minute, and persevered in.
When natural respiration is once established, the operator should
cease to imitate the movements of breathing, and proceed with
the treatment for the promotion of warmth and circulation.
Friction over the surface of the body must be at once resorted
to, using handkerchiefs, flannels, &c., so as to propel the blood
along the veins towards the heart, while the operator attends
to the mouth, nose and throat. The friction along the legs,
arms and body should all be towards the heart and should be
continued after the patient has been wrapped in blankets or
some dry clothing. As soon as possible, the patient should be
removed to the nearest house and further efforts made to promote
warmth by the application of hot flannels to the pit of the
stomach, and bottles or bladders of hot water, heated bricks, &c.
to the armpits, between the thighs and to the soles of the feet.
If there be pain or difficulty in breathing, apply a hot linseed
meal poultice to the chest. On the restoration of life, a teaspoon-
ful of warm water should be given; and then, if the power of
swallowing has returned, very small quantities of wine, warm
brandy and water, beef tea or coffee administered, the patient
kept in bed, and a disposition to sleep encouraged. The patient
should be carefully watched for some time to see that breathing
does not fail, and, should any signs of failure appear, artificial
respiration should at once be resumed. While the patient is
in the house, care should be taken to let the air circulate freely
about the room and all overcrowding should be prevented.
In the Howard method there are only two movements; its
knowledge is said to be necessary in case the patient's arm
be in any way injured, or a more vigorous method than the
" Silvester " deemed necessary, but care should be exercised not to
injure the patient by loo forcible pressure. The patient is laid on
his back, the roll is larger than that used in the Silvester method,
and is placed farther under the back in order that the lower part
of the chest may be highest. After adjusting the roll, the oper-
ator kneels astride of the patient, while his assistant goes to the
head, lifts the patient's arms beyond the head, and holds them
to the ground, cleans the mouth and nose, and attends to the
tongue. The operator, with his fingers spread well apart, taking
care that the thumbs do not press into the pit of the stomach,
grasps the most compressible part of the lower ribs, and with
both hands applies pressure firmly by leaning over the patient;
then he springs back, lifting his hands off the patient. Artificial
respiration is thus effected, and continued at the rate of about
fifteen times a minute. When natural breathing has been
restored, the treatment is the same as in the Silvester method.
These methods have now been superseded by the Schafer
method, which has been taken up by the Royal Life Saving
Society, a body instituted in 1891 for the promotion of technical
education in life saving and resuscitation of the apparently
drowned. The Schafer method has much to recommend it,
owing to its extreme simplicity and the ease with which the
physical operations necessary to carry on artificial respiration
may be performed, hardly any muscular exertion being required.
It involves no risk of injury to the congested liver or to any
other organ, and as the patient is laid face downwards, there is
no possibility of the air passages being blocked by the falling
back of the tongue into the pharynx. The water and mucus can
also be expelled much more readily from the air passages through
the mouth and nostrils.
It was due to the happy selection of Professor E. A. Schafer,
as chairman of a committee appointed by the Royal Medical &
Chirurgical Society for the investigation of the methods in use
for resuscitation of the apparently drowned, that the new
method was devised. This committee made many experiments
upon the cadaver but failed to arrive at any definite conclusion
by that means. The necessity then appeared of thorough
investigation of the subject by experiments upon animals, so
that the phenomena attendant upon drowning might be better
known, and the various methods of resuscitation properly tried.
These experiments were made in Edinburgh by Professor
DROWNING AND LIFE-SAVING
595
Schafer, with the co-operation of Dr P. T. Herring, and the
results obtained were embodied in the report of the committee,
which was presented to the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society
in 1904, and published as a supplement to volume 86 of the
Transactions of the society. As the direct outcome of these
experiments, Professor Schafer was led to believe that a pressure
method of resuscitation was not only simpler to perform'but
also more efficacious than any other. This conclusion was' put
to the test by measurements of the results obtained upon the
normal human subject by the various methods in vogue; from
these measurements, which were published in the Proceedings
of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in December 1903, it appeared
that when such pressure is exerted in the prone
position the highest degree of efficiency as well as
simplicity is obtained. The description of this method
was communicated to the Royal Medical and Chirur-
gical Society, and was published in the following year
(1904) in volume 87 of the Transactions of the
society.
Thus it came about that by investigating the
phenomena of drowning, and the means of resuscita-
tion in dogs, and by applying the results obtained to
man, the method which the society now advocates
as the best was arrived at. In the experiments
referred to, it was found necessary to drown 38
dogs, all but two of which were from first to last in
a complete state of anaesthesia, the two exceptions having
been simply drowned without anaesthesia. It is important
that the public should understand that the evolution of a
method which will probably be the means of saving thousands
of lives has resulted from the painless sacrifice of less
than 40 dogs, a number which would doubtless in any case
have been destroyed by drowning or some other form of suffoca-
of the operator is swayed slowly forwards and backwards upon
the arms from twelve to fifteen times a minute, and should be
continued for at least half an hour, or until the natural respira-
tions are resumed. Whilst one person is carrying out artificial
respiration in this way, others may, if there be opportunity,
busy themselves with applying hot flannels to the body and
limbs, and hot bottles to the feet, but no attempt should be
made to remove the wet clothing or to give any restoratives by
the mouth until natural breathing has recommenced.
In his paper read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh in
December 1903 Professor Schafer gave the following table of the
relative exchanges of air under different methods:
Mode of Respiration.
Number
per
minute.
Amount of air
exchanged per
respiration.
Amount of air
exchanged per
minute.
Natural respiration (supine) .
Natural ,, (prone)
Prone (pressure), " Schafer "
Supine (pressure), " Howard "
Rolling (with pressure), "Marshall
Hall "
Rolling (without pressure), "Mar-
shall Hall " . . . .
13
12-5
13
13-6
13
12
489 c.c.
422
520
295 ,.
254
IQ2
6-460 c.c.
5-24 ..
6-760 ,,
4-020
3-300
Traction (with pressure), " Sil-
vester "
12-8
178
2-280
FIG. 8. Schafer method of treatment of the apparently drowned.
Position A.
tion, but without the benefit of the anaesthetics which were
employed in the experiments.
Professor Schafer describes the method as follows: Lay the
subject face downwards on the ground, then without stopping
to remove the clothing the operator should at once place himself
in position astride or at one side of the subject, facing his head
and kneeling upon one or both knees. He then places his
hands flat over the lower part of the back (on the lowest ribs),
one on each side (fig. 8), and then gradually throws the weight
of his body forward on to them so as to produce firm pressure
(fig. 9) which must not be violent, or upon the patient's chest.
By this means the air, and water if any, are driven out of the
patient's lungs. Immediately thereafter the operator raises
his body slowly so as to remove the pressure, but the hands are
FIG. 9. Schafer method of treatment of the apparently drowned.
Position B.
left in position. This forward and backward movement is
repeated every four or five seconds; in other words, the body
These experiments all tend to show that by far the most
efficient method of performing artificial respiration is that of
intermittent pressure upon the lower ribs with the subject in the
prone position or face downward. It is also the easiest to perform,
requiring practically no exertion, as the weight of the operator's
body produces the effect, and the swinging forwards and back-
wards of the body some thirteen times a minute, which alone
is required, is by no means fatiguing, and has the further great
advantage that it can be effectively carried out by one person.
See Taylor, Medical Jurisprudence; " Description of a simple
and efficient method of performing artificial respiration in the human
subject, especially in cases of drowning," by E. A. Schafer, F.R.S.
(vol. 87, Medico-Chirurgical Society's Transactions); "The relative
efficiency of certain methods of performing artificial respiration in
man," by E. A. Schafer, F.R.S. (vol. 23, part i. Proceedings of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh); A Method for the Treatment of the
Apparently Drowned, by R. S. Bowles (London, 1903); Handbook
of Instruction, Royal Life Saving Society (London, 1908).
(W. HY.)
Penal Use of Drowning. As a form of capital punishment,
drowning was once common throughout Europe, but it is now
only practised in Mahommedan countries and the Far East.
Tacitus states that the ancient Germans hanged criminals of
any rank, but those of the low classes were drowned beneath
hurdles in fens and bogs. The Romans also drowned convicts.
The Lex Cornelia ordained that parricides should be sewn in a
sack with a dog, cock, viper and ape, and thrown into the sea.
The law of ancient Burgundy ordered that an unfaithful wife
should be smothered in mud. The Anglo-Saxon punishment
for women guilty of theft was drowning. So usual was the
penalty in the middle ages that grants of life and death juris-
diction were worded to be "cum fossa et furca" (i.e. " with
drowning-pit and gallows "). The owner of Baynard's Castle,
London, in the reign of John, had powers of trying criminals,
and his descendants long afterwards claimed the privileges,
the most valued of which was the right of drowning in the Thames
traitors taken within their jurisdiction. Drowning was the punish-
ment ordained by Richard Cceur de Lion for any soldier of his
army who killed a fellow-crusader during the passage to the
Holy Land. Drowning was usually reserved for women as being
the least brutal form of death-penalty, but occasionally a male
criminal was so executed as a matter of favour. Thus in Scotland
in 1526 a man convicted of theft and sacrilege was ordered to
be drowned "by the queen's special grace." In 1611 a man
was drowned at Edinburgh for stealing a lamb, and in 1623
eleven gipsy women suffered there. By that date the penalty
was obsolete in England. It survived in Scotland till 1685
(the year of the drowning of the Wigtoun martyrs). The last
DROYSEN DROZ
execution by drowning in Switzerland was in 1652, in Austri
1776, in Iceland 1777; while in France during the Revolution
the penalty was revived in the terrible Noyades carried out by th
terrorist Jean Baptiste Carrier at Nantes. It was abolished in
Russia at the beginning of the i8th century.
DROYSEN, JOHANN GUSTAV (1808-1884), German historian
was born on the 6th of July 1808 at Treptow in Pomerania
His father, Johann Christoph Droysen, was an army chaplain, in
which capacity he was present at the celebrated siege of Kolberg
in 1806-7. As a child young Droysen witnessed some of the
military operations during the War of Liberation, for his fathe
was pastor at Greifenhagen, in the immediate neighbourhood o
Stettin, which was held by the French during the greater part o
1813. The impressions of these early years laid the foundation
of the ardent attachment to Prussia which distinguished him
like so many other historians of his generation. He was educate(
at the gymnasium of Stettin and at the university of Berlin
in 1829 he became a master at the Graue Kloster (or Grey Friars)
one of the oldest schools in Berlin; besides his work there he
gave lectures at the university, from 1833 as privat-dozent, and
from 1835 as professor, without a salary. During these years
he was occupied with classical antiquity; he published a trans-
lation of Aeschylus and a paraphrase of Aristophanes, but the
work by which he made himself known as a historian was his
Geschichte Alexanders des Grossen (Berlin, 1833, and other
editions), a book which still remains probably the best work
on the subject. It was in some ways the herald of a new schoo!
of German historical thought, for it shows that idealization oi
power and success which he had learnt from the teaching of Hegel.
It was followed by other volumes dealing with the successors
of Alexander, published under the title of Geschichte des Hellenis-
mus (Hamburg, 1836-1843). A new and revised edition of the
whole work was published in 1885; it has been translated into
French, but not into English.
In 1840 Droysen was appointed professor of history at Kiel.
He was at once attracted into the political movement for the
defence of the rights of the Elbe duchies, of which Kiel was
the centre. Like his predecessor F. C. Dahlmann, he placed
his historical learning at the service of the estates of Schleswig-
Holstein and composed the address of 1844, in which the estates
protested against the claim of the king of Denmark to alter
the law of succession in the duchies. In 1848 he was elected
a member of the Frankfort parliament, and acted as secretary
to the committee for drawing up the constitution. He was a
determined supporter of Prussian ascendancy, and was one of
the first members to retire after the king of Prussia refused
the imperial crown in 1849. During the next two years he con-
tinued to support the cause of the duchies, and in 1850, with
Carl Samwer, he published a history of the dealings of Denmark
with Schleswig-Holstein, Die Herzogthumer Schleswig-Holstein
und das Konigreich Dane-mark seil dent Jahre 1806 (Hamburg,
1850). A translation was published in London in the same
year under the title The Policy of Denmark towards the Duchies
of Schleswig-Holstein. The work was one of great political
importance, and had much to do with the formation of German
public opinion on the rights of the duchies in their struggle with
Denmark.
After 1851 it was impossible for him to remain at Kiel, and he
was appointed to a professorship at Jena; in 1859 he was called
to Berlin, where he remained till his death. In his later years he
was almost entirely occupied with Prussian history. In 1851
he brought out a life of Count Yorck von Wartenburg (Berlin,
1851-1852, and many later editions), one of the best biographies
in the German language, and then began his great work on the
Geschichte der preussischen Politik (Berlin, 1855-1886). Seven
volumes were published, the last not till after his death. It
forms a complete history of the growth of the Prussian monarchy
down to the year 1756. This, like all Droysen's work, shows a
strongly marked individuality, and a great power of tracing the
manner in which important dynamic forces worked themselves
out in history. It was this characteristic quality of compre-
hensiveness that also gave him so much influence as a teacher.
Droysen, who was twice married, died in Berlin on the i 9 th
of June 1884. His eldest son, Gustav, is the author of several
well-known historical works, namely, Gustav Adolf (Leipzig
1869-1870); Herzog Bernhard von Weimar (Leipzig, 1885)'
an admirable Historischer Handatlas (Leipzig, 1885), and several
writings on various events of the Thirty Years' War. Another
son; Hans Droysen, is the author of some works on Greek history
and antiquities.
tsf=? M '^ D n n M ker ' J w" n G K Sta ?, Dr y sen ' ein Nachruf (Berlin,
1 885); and Dahlmann- Waitz, Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte
(Leipzig, 1906). (J W HE )
DROZ, ANTOINE GUSTAVE (1832-1895), French man of
letters, son of the sculptor J. A. Droz (1807-1872), was born in
Paris on the 9th of June 1832. He was educated as an artist
and began to exhibit in the Salon of 1857. A series of sketches
dealing gaily and lightly with the intimacies >f family life,
published in the Vie parisienne and issued in book form as
Monsieur, Madame et Bebe (1866), won for the author an im-
mediate and great success. Entre nous (1867) was built on a
similar plan, and was followed by some psychological novels'
Le Cahier bleu de Mile Cibot (1868); Autour d'une source (1869)-
Un Paquetde letlres (1870); Babolein (1872); Les Etangs (1875);
L'Enfant (1885). His Tristesses et sourires (1884) is a delicate
analysis of the niceties of family intercourse and its difficulties.
Droz's first book was translated into English under the title of
Papa, Mamma and Baby (1887). Un Ete a la campagne, a book
which caused considerable scandal, was erroneously attributed
to him. He died on the 22nd of October 1895
DROZ, FRANCOIS-XAVIER JOSEPH (1773-1850), French
writer on ethics and political science, was born on the 3131 of
October 1773 at Besancon, where his family had furnished
men of considerable mark to the legal profession. His own legal
studies led him to Paris in 1792; he arrived on the very day
after the dethronement of the king, and was present during the
massacres of September; on the declaration of war he joined
the volunteer balaillon of the Doubs, and for the next three years
served in the Army of the Rhine. Receiving his discharge on
the score of ill-health, he obtained a much more congenial post
in the newly-founded ecole centrale of Besancon; and in 1799
he made his first appearance as an author by an Essai sur I'art
oratoire (Paris, Fructidor, An VII.), in which he acknowledges
his indebtedness more especially to Hugh Blair. Removing to
Paris in 1803, he became intimate not only with the like-minded
Ducis, but also with the sceptical Cabanis; and it was on this
philosopher's advice that, in order to catch the public ear, he
produced the romance of Lina, which Sainte-Beuve has char-
acterized as a mingled echo of Florian and Werther. Like several
other literary men of the time, he obtained a post in the revenue
office known as the Droiis reunis; but from 1814 he devoted
himself exclusively to literature and became a contributor to
various journals. Already favourably known by his Essai sur
"artd'elreheureux (Paris, 1806), his Elogede Montaigne (1812), and
his Essai sur le beau dans les arts (1815), he not only gained the
Monthyon prize in 1823 by his work De la philosophie morale ou
des different! systemes sur la science de la vie, but also in 1824
obtained admission to the Academic Francaise. The main
doctrine inculcated in this last treatise is that society will never
se in a proper state till men have been educated to think of
their duties and not of their rights. It was followed in 1825 by
Application de la morale a la philosophie et a la polilique, and
n 1829 by Economic polilique, ou principes de la science
des richesses, a methodical and clearly written treatise, which
was edited by Michel Chevalier in 1854. His next and greatest
work was a Histoire du regne de Louis X VI (3 vols., Paris, 1839-
842). As he advanced in life Droz became more and more
lecidedly religious, and the last work of his prolific pen was
Pensees du Christianisme (1842). Few have left so blameless a
eputation: in the words of Sainte-Beuve, he was born and he
emained all his life of the race of the good and the just.
See Guizot, Discours academiques ; Montalembert, " Discours de
Deception," in Memoires de I' Academic franc,aise; Sainte-Beuve,
-auseries du lundi, t. iii. ; Michel Chevalier, Notice prefixed to the
Economic politique.
DRUG DRUIDISM
597
DRUG, a district and town of British India, in the Chhattis-
garh division of the Central Provinces. The district was formed
in 1906 out of portions of the districts of Bilaspur and Raipur.
It has an area of 3807 sq. m., and the population on that area
in 1901 was 628,885, showing a heavy decrease in the preceding
decade, owing to the famines of 1897 and 1900. The district
is a long narrow tract, with lofty ridges of gravel in the centre
and north, but otherwise consisting of open rolling country.
The Tendula and Seonath are the principal rivers. Rich black
soil covers a large part of the district, and rice, wheat and other
crops are grown. The main line of the Bengal-Nagpur railway
passes through the district. DRUG, the capital of the district,
is on the railway, 685 m. from Bombay, and had in 1901 a popula-
tion of 4002. Bell-metal-founding and cotton-weaving are
carried on.
DRUG (from Fr. drogue, a word common in Romance languages,
cf. Span, and Ital. droga; the origin of the word is obscure, but
may possibly be connected with Dutch droog, dry), any organic
and inorganic substance used in the preparation of medicines,
by itself or in combination with others, and either prepared by
some method or used in a natural state (see PHARMACOLOGY
and PHARMACOPOEIA). In a particular sense " drug " is often
used synonymously for narcotics or poisonous substances, and
hence " to drug " means to stupefy or poison. The word is also
applied to any article for which there is no sale, or of which the
value has greatly depreciated a " drug in the market."
DRUIDISM, the name usually given to the religious system
of the ancient inhabitants of Gaul and the British Islands. The
word Druid (Lat. druida) probably represents a Gaulish druid-s,
Irish drui, gen. sing, drtiad. On the analogy of Irish sAi<su-
vid-s the word has been analysed into dru-md-, " very knowing,
wise." The ancient Welsh form of the word does not exist.
Welsh derwydd and dryw are probably to be regarded as of recent
coinage, as also the Breton forms drouiz, druz. The important
part played by the oak in the religious cults of other countries
suggests a connexion with Greek 5pOs, oak, but this etymology
is rather in disfavour at the present time.
We find in Caesar the first and at the same tune the most
circumstantial account of the Druids to be met with in the
classical writers. He tells us that all men of any rank and
dignity in Gaul were included among the Druids or the nobles.
In other words, the Druids constituted the learned and the
priestly class, and they were in addition the chief expounders
and guardians of the law. We are, however, informed by
Diodorus and Strabo that this class was composed of Druids, bards
and soothsayers. Hence Caesar seems to assign more extensive
functions to the Druids than they actually possessed. The
substance of Caesar's account is as follows. On those who
refused to submit to their decisions they had the power of in-
flicting severe penalties, of which excommunication from society
was the most dreaded. As they were not a hereditary caste and
enjoyed exemption from service in the field as well as from pay-
ment of taxes, admission to the order was eagerly sought after
by the youth of Gaul. The course of training to which a novice
had to submit was protracted, extending sometimes over twenty
years. All instruction was communicated orally, but for
ordinary purposes they had a written language in which they
used the Greek characters. The president of the order, whose
office was elective and who enjoyed the dignity for life, had
supreme authority among them. They taught that the soul was
immortal. Astrology, geography, physical science and natural
theology were their favourite studies.
Britain was the headquarters of Druidism, but once every
year a general assembly of the order was held within the terri-
tories of the Carnutes in Gaul. The Gauls were accustomed to
offer human sacrifices, usually criminals. Cicero remarks on
the existence among the Gauls of augurs or soothsayers, known
by the name of Druids, with one of whom, Divitiacus, an Aeduan,
he was acquainted. Diodorus informs us that a' sacrifice accept-
able to the gods must be attended by a Druid, fcr they are the
intermediaries. Before a battle they often throw themselves
between two armies to bring about peace. They are said to
have had a firm belief in the immortality of the soul and in
metempsychosis, a fact which led several ancient writers to
conclude that they had been influenced by the teaching of the
Greek philosopher Pythagoras.
A rescript of Augustus forbade Roman citizens to practise
druidical rites. In Strabo we find the Druids still acting as
arbiters in public and private matters, but they no longer deal
with cases of murder. Under Tiberius the Druids were sup-
pressed by a decree of the senate, but this had to be renewed by
Claudius in A.D. 54. In Mela we find the Druids teaching in the
depths of a forest or in caverns. In Pliny their activity is limited
to the practice of medicine and sorcery. According to this
writer the Druids held the mistletoe in the highest veneration.
Groves of oak were their chosen retreat. Whatever grew on
that tree was thought to be a gift from heaven, more especially
the mistletoe. When thus found, the mistletoe was cut with a
golden knife by a priest clad in a white robe, two white bulls
being sacrificed on the spot. Tacitus, in describing the attack
made on the island of Mona (Anglesea) by the Romans under
Suetonius Paulinus, represents the legionaries as being awe-
struck on landing by the appearance of a band of Druids, who,
with hands uplifted towards heaven, poured forth terrible
imprecations on the heads of the invaders. The courage of the
Romans, however, soon overcame such fears; the Britons were
put to flight; and the groves of Mona, the scene of many a
sacrifice and bloody rite, were cut down.
After this the continental Druids disappear entirely, and are
only referred to on very rare occasions. Ausonius, for instance,
apostrophizes the rhetorician Attius Patera as sprung from a
race of Druids.
When we turn to the British Islands we find, as we should
expect, no traces of the Druids in England and Wales after the
conquest of Anglesea mentioned above, except in the story of
Vortigern as recounted by Nennius. After being excommuni-
cated by Germanus the British leader invites twelve Druids to
assist him. These probably came from North Britain. In
Irish literature, however, the Druids are frequently mentioned,
and their functions hi the island seem to correspond fairly well
to those of their Gaulish brethren described by classical writers.
The functions of Caesar's Druids we here find distributed amongst
Druids, bards and poets (fili), but even in very early times the
poet has usurped many of the duties of the Druid and finally
supplants him with the spread of Christianity. The following
is the position of the Druid in the pagan literature. The most
important documents are contained in MSS. of the izth century,
but the texts themselves go back in large measure to about
A.D. 700. In the heroic cycles the Druids do not appear to have
formed any corporation, nor do they seem to have been exempt
from military service. Cathbu (Cathbad), the Druid connected
with Conchobar, king of Ulster, in the older cycle is accompanied
by a number of youths (100 according to the oldest version)
who are desirous of learning his art, though what this consisted
in we are not told. The Druids are represented as being able
to foretell the future and to perform magic. Before setting out
on the great expedition against Ulster, Medb, queen of Connaught,
goes to consult her Druid, and just before the famous heroine
Derdriu (Deirdre) is born, Cathbu prophesies what sort of a
woman she will be. We may cite two instances of the magical
skill of the Druids. The hero Cuchuhnn has returned from the
land of the fairies after having been enticed thither by a fairy-
woman named Fand, whom he is now unable to forget. He is
given a potion by some Druids, which banishes all memory of his
recent adventures and which also rids his wife Emer of the pangs
of jealousy. More remarkable still is the story of Etain. This
lady, now the wife of Eochaid Airem, high -king of Ireland, was
in a former existence the beloved of the god Mider, who again
seeks her love and carries her off. The king has recourse to his
Druid Dalan, who requires a whole year to discover the haunt
of the couple. This he accomplished by means of four wands of
yew inscribed with ogam characters. The following description
of the band of Cathbu's Druids occurs in the epic tale, the
Cattle-spoiling of Cualnge (Cooley) : " The attendant raises his
598
DRUIDS, ORDER OF DRUM
eyes towards heaven and observes the clouds and answers the
band around him. They all raise their eyes towards heaven,
observe the clouds, and hurl spells against the elements, so that
they arouse strife amongst them and clouds of fire are driven
towards the camp of the men of Ireland." We are further told
that at the court of Conchobar no one had the right to speak
before the Druids had spoken. In other texts the Druids are
able to produce insanity.
In the religious literature they are almost exclusively repre-
sented as magicians and diviners opposing the Christian mission-
aries, though we find two of them acting as tutors to the daughters
of Laegaire, the high-king, at the coming of St Patrick. They
are represented as endeavouring to prevent the progress of St
Patrick and St Columba by raising clouds and mist. Before the
battle of Culdremne (561) a Druid made an airbe drtiad (fence
of protection?) round one of the armies, but what is precisely
meant by the phrase is obscure. The Irish Druids seem to have
had a peculiar tonsure. The word Arid is always used to render
the Latin magus, and in one passage St Columba speaks of Christ
as his Druid.
See D'Arbois de Jubainville, Les Druides et les dieux celtiques a
forme d'animaux (Paris, 1906), and Introduction a I' etude, de la
literature celtique (Paris, 1883); P. W. Joyce, A Social History oj
Ancient Ireland, (London, 1903). (E. C. Q.)
DRUIDS, ORDER OF, a friendly society founded, as an
imitation of the ancient Druids, in London in 1781. They
adopted Masonic rites and spread to America (1833) and Aus-
tralia. Their lodges are called " Groves." In 1872 the Order
was introduced into Germany. (See FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.)
DRUM (early forms drome or dromme, a word common to many
Teut. languages, cf. Dan. tromme, Ger. Trommel: the word is
ultimately the same as " trumpet," and is probably onomatopoeic
in origin; it appears late in Eng. about the middle of the i6th
century), the name given to the well-known musical instrument
(see below) and also to many objects resembling it in shape.
Thus it is used of any receptacle of similar shape, as a " drum "
of oil, &c.; in machinery, of a revolving cylinder, round which
belting is passed; of the tympanum or cylindrically shaped
middle ear, and specially of the membrane that closes the
external auditory meatus; and, in architecture, of the sub-
structure of a dome when raised to some height above the
pendentives. The architectural drum had a twofold object;
first, to give greater elevation to the dome externally so that it
should rise well above the surrounding building, and secondly,
to allow of the interior being lighted with vertical windows cut
in the drum, instead of forming penetrations in the dome itself,
as in St Sophia, Constantinople. The term is also applied to the
circular blocks of stone, which in columns of large dimensions
were built with a series of drums. At Selinus in Sicily some of
these great circular blocks are found on the road between the
quarries and the temples; they vary from 8 to 10 ft. in diameter,
being about 6 ft. high. The term frusta is sometimes applied to
them.
In music the drum (Fr. tambour; Ger. Trommel; Ital. tamburo)
is an instrument of percussion common in some form to all
nations and ages. It consists of a frame or vessel forming a
resonant cavity, over one or both ends of which is stretched a
skin or vellum set in vibration by direct percussion of hand or
stick. Drums fall into two divisions according to the nature of
their sonority: (i) instruments producing sounds of definite
musical pitch, and qualified thereby to take part in the harmony
of the orchestra, such as the kettledrum (q.v.); (2) instruments
of indefinite sonorousness, and therefore excluded from the
harmony of the orchestra; such are the bass drum, the side
or snare drum, the tenor drum, the tambourine, all used for
marking the rhythm and adding tone colour.
Drums are further divided into three classes according to
special features of construction: (i) instruments having a
skin stretched over one end of the resonant cavity, the other
being open, such as the tambourine (q.ii.) and the darabukkeh
or Egyptian drum, shaped like a mushroom; (2) instruments
consisting of a cup-shaped receptacle of metal, wood or earthen-
ware entirely closed by a skin or vellum stretched across the
opening, as in the kettledrum; (3) a receptacle in the shape of a
cylinder closed at both ends by skins, as in the bass drum, side
drum, &c.
Skin or parchment only acquires the elasticity requisite to
produce vibration by tension; the vibrations of the parchment
are taken up by the air enclosed in the receptacle, which thus
reinforces the sound produced by the parchment. The tone of
the instrument whether definite or indefinite depends upon the
dimensions of the vellum, the shape of the resonant receptacle,
and the method of percussion. The intensity of the sound
depends upon the degree of percussive force used and the dia-
meter of the vellum in proportion to the dimensions of the
resonant receptacle; the material of which the latter consists
has little or no influence on the tone of the instrument. The
pitch of the sound is determined by the dimensions of the vellum
taken in conjunction with the degree of tension, the pitch
varying in acuteness directly with the degree of tension and
inversely with the size of the vellum.
The bass drum or Turkish drum (Fr. grosse caisse; Ger. Crosse
Trommel; Ital. gran cassa or tamburo grande) consists of a
short cylinder of very wide diameter covered at both ends by
vellum stretched over thin hoops, which in turn are kept in place
by larger hoops fitting
tightly over them. At
regular intervals in the
two large hoops are
bored holes through
which passes an endless
cord stretched in zig-zag
round the cylinder and
connecting the two
hoops. The tension of
the vellum is controlled
by means of leather
braces which are made
to slide up and down
the zig-zag of cord,
slackening or tighten-
ing the large hoops, and
with them the vellum,
at the will of the per-
former. Systems of rods
and screws are also used
for the purpose. The
bass drum is mounted on a stand when used in the orchestra.
The sound is produced by striking the centre of the vellum on
the one end of the drum with a stick having a large soft round
knob composed of wood covered with cork, sponge or felt. The
bass drum cannot be tuned since it gives out no definite note, but
the pitch may be varied, according as a rich full tone or a
mere dull thud be required, by tightening or loosening the
braces; the instrument can, moreover, be muffled by covering
it with a piece of cloth. The music for the bass drum is generally
written on a stave with a bass clef, M, I ~ , the C being
merely used to show the rhythm and accents. Some-
times the stave is dispensed with, a single note on a single
line being sufficient. The bass drum has a place in every
orchestra, although it is used but sparingly to accentuate the
rhythm. It is possible to make gradations in forte and piano
on the bass drum, and to play quavers and semi-quavers in
moderate tempo. A roll is sometimes played by holding a short
stick, furnished with a knob at each end, in the middle and
striking in quick succession with each knob alternately; two
kettledrum sticks answer the purpose still better. It is under-
stood that the cymbals play the same music as the bass drum
unless the composer has written senza pialti over the part
Wagner did not once score for the bass drum after he composed
Rienzi, but Verdi, Gounod, Berlioz and Sullivan used it effect-
ively. The bass drum was formerly known as the long drum,
the cylinder being long in proportion to the diameter.
The side or snare drum (Fr. tambour militaire; Ger. Mttitar-
trommel; Ital. tamburo mUitare) is an instrument consisting of
FIG. i. Military Bass Drum
'Besson & Co.)
DRUM
599
a small wooden or brass cylinder with a vellum at each end.
The parchments are lapped over small hoops and pressed firmly
down by larger hoops. As in the bass drum, these and the
vellums are tightened or slackened by means of cords and leather
braces, or by a system of rods and screws. Acioss the lower head
are stretched two or more catgut strings called snares, which
produce a rattling sound at each stroke on the upper head,
owing to the sympathetic vibration of the lower head which
jars against the snares. The upper head, set in vibration by
FIG. 2. Guards pattern
Side Drum (Besson & Co.).
FIG. 3. Regulation Side
Drum (Besson & Co.).
direct percussion from the sticks, induces sympathetic vibrations
in the air contained within the resonating receptacle, and these
vibrations are communicated to the lower head. The presence
of the snares across the diameter of the latter produces a pheno-
menon which gives the side drum its peculiar timbre, changing
the nature of the vibrations, now no longer free: the snares
form a kind of nodal contact, inducing double the number of
vibrations and a sound approximately an octave higher than
would be the case were the heads left to vibrate freely. More-
over, the vibrations of the upper head being weaker, the latter
is compelled to vibrate synchronously with the lower vellum. 1
The side drum, so called because it is worn at the side, is
struck in the centre by two small wooden sticks with elongated
heads or knobs of hard wood, producing a hard rasping sound
when the drum is played singly and in close proximity to the
hearer; when, however, several drums are played simultaneously
or with other instruments the effect is brilliant and exhilarating.
The roll is produced by striking two blows alternately with each
hand quite regularly and very rapidly, the result being a rattling
tremolo. This roll (" daddy-mammy ") is very difficult to
acquire, and requires long practice. The side drum can be
muffled by loosening the snares or by inserting a piece of silk
or cloth between the snares and the parchment. An impressive
effect is produced by a continued roll on muffled drums in funeral
marches. The notation for the side drum is similar to that in use
for the bass drum; the value of the note is alone of importance;
the place of the note on the staff is immaterial and purely a
matter of custom. In orchestral scores, a single line is often
used, or the part for side and bass drum is written on the same
staff. A great variety of rhythmical figures can be played on the
side drum, such as
The tenor drum (Fr. caisse roulante; Ger. Roll- or Riihrtrommel;
Ital. lamburo rulanle) is similar to the side drum but has a larger
cylinder of wood and no snares; consequently its timbre lacks
the brilliancy and incisiveness of the side drum. It is used for
the roll in military bands, in some theatre orchestras, and on the
stage.
The lambourin de Provence is a small drum with a long cylinder
of narrow diameter used in the Basque provinces with a small
pipe (galoubet) having three holes. The drum is beaten with one
stick only, the performer steadying it with the hand which fingers
1 See Victor Mahillon, Catalogue descriptif (Ghent, 1880), vol. i.
pp. 19 and 20.
the pipe. The tambourin and galoubet are in fact a survival of
the pipe and tabor (<?..).
The popularity of all kinds of drums in the most ancient
civilizations is established beyond a doubt by the numerous
representations of the instrument in a variety of shapes and
sizes on the monuments and paintings of Egypt, Assyria,
India and Persia. The tympanon, under which name seem to
have been included tambourines and kettledrums, as well as
the dulcimer (during the middle ages), was in use among Greeks
and Romans chiefly in the worship of Cybele and Bacchus; it
was introduced through the medium of the Roman civilization
into western Europe. It is often said that the drum was intro-
duced by the crusaders, but it was certainly known in England
long before the crusades, for Bede (Musica practica) mentions
it in his list of instruments, and Cassiodorus (ii. p. 507) describes
it. The side drum was, until the reign of Elizabeth, of a much
larger size than now and was held horizontally and beaten on
one head only. It is not known at what date snares were added;
Praetorius (Syntagma musicum, 1618) and Mersenne (L'Harmonie
universelle, Paris, 1636) both mention them. A drawing of a side
drum showing a snare appears in a book 2 from the printing press
of J. Badius Ascensius (1510); the instrument also has cords
and braces. Another woodcut of the same century is given as
frontispiece to an edition of Flavius Vegetius Renatus. 3 An actual
side drum with two curved drumsticks belonging to the ancient
Egyptians was found during the excavations conducted at Thebes
in i823. 4 It measured if ft. in height by 2 ft. in diameter; the
tension of the heads was regulated by cords braced by means of
catgut encircling both ends of the drum, and wound separately
round each cord so that these could be tightened or slackened
at will by pulling the catgut bands closer together or pushing
them farther apart. The Berlin Museum possesses some ancient
Egyptian straight drumsticks with handle and knob. Drums
were used at the battle of Halidon Hill (1333). An old ballad
celebrating Edward III.'s victory on this occasion appears in a
chronicle of the i4th century, preserved in the British Museum
(Harl. MS. 4690),
" This was do with merry sowne,
With pipes trumpes and tabers thereto,
And loud clariones they blew also."
A prose account of the battle in the same MS. states that the
" Englische mynstrelles beaten their tabers and blewen their
trompes and pipers pipenede loude and made a great schowte
upon the Skottes."
Froissart, under date 1338, gives details of the means taken
by the Scots to intimidate the soldiers of Edward III. 6 Having
mentioned their great horns, he adds, " ils font si grand' noise
avec grands tambours qu'ils ont aussi." The same chronicler,
describing the triumphal entry of Edward III. into Calais (1347),
gives the following list of instruments used: " trompes, tambours,
nacaires, chalemies, muses." 6
Drums were used in the British army in the i6th century to
give signals in war and peace side drums by the infantry and
dragoons, and kettledrums by the cavalry. 7 In the reign of
Henry VIII. two drummers were allowed to every company of
100 men. The chief drum beats used by the infantry in the
1 7th century 8 were call, troop, preparative, march, battaile and
retreat; these were later s changed to general, reveille, assembly
or troop, tattoo, chamade, &c. The side drum was admitted into
the orchestra in the i7th century, when Marais (1636-1728)
scored for it in his opera Alcione. (K. S.)
* Joannes Mauburnius, Rosetum exercitiorum spirilualium et
sacrarum meditationum (Paris, 1510), Alphabetum, ix.
8 Vier Bucher der Ritterschaft; mil manicherleyen gerusten, &c.;
(Augsburg, 1534).
4 Carl Engel, The Music of the Most Ancient Nations (London,
1864), p. 219.
6 Chron. ii. p. 737, see also Grose's Military Antiquities, ii. 41.
6 See Froissart in J. A. Buchon, Pantheon litt. (Paris, 1837), vol. i.
cap. 322, p. 273.
7 Sir John Smythe, A Brief Discourse (London, 1594), pp. 158-159.
8 Lieut.-Col. W. Bariffe, Militarie Discipline, or the Young
Artilleryman (London, 1643).
Sir James Turner, Pallas armata (1685), xxi. 302.
6oo DRUMMOND, H. DRUMMOND OF HAWTHORNDEN
DRUMMOND, HENRY (1786-1860), English banker, politician
and writer, best known as one of the founders of the Catholic
Apostolk or " Irvingite " Church, was born at the Grange, near
Alresford, Hampshire, on the $th of December 1786. He was the
eldest son of Henry Drummond, a prominent London banker,
by a daughter of the first Lord Melville. He was educated at
Harrow and at Christ Church, Oxford, but took no degree. His
name is permanently connected with the university through the
chair of political economy which he founded in 1825. He
entered parliament hi early life, and took an active interest from
the first in nearly all departments of politics. Thoroughly
independent and often eccentric in his views, he yet acted
generally with the Conservative party. His speeches were often
almost inaudible but were generally lucid and informing, and on
occasion caustic and severe. From 1847 until his death in
1860 he represented West Surrey in parliament. Drummond
took a deep interest in religious subjects, and published numerous
books and pamphlets on such questions as the interpretation of
prophecy, the circulation of the Apocrypha, the principles of
Christianity, &c., which attracted considerable attention. In
1817 he met Robert Haldane at Geneva, and continued his
movement against the Socinian tendencies then prevalent in
that city. In later years he was intimately associated with the
origin and spread of the Catholic Apostolic Church. Meetings
of those who sympathized with the views of Edward Irving
were held for the study of prophecy at Drummond's seat,
Albury Park, in Surrey; he contributed very liberally to the
funds of the new church; and he became one of its leading
office-bearers, visiting Scotland as an " apostle " and being
ordained as an " angel " for that kingdom. The numerous
works he wrote in defence of its distinctive doctrines and practice
were generally clear and vigorous, if seldom convincing. He
died on the 2oth of February 1860.
DRUMMOND, HENRY (1851-1807), Scottish evangelical
writer and lecturer, was born in Stirling on the 1 7th of August
1851. He was educated at Edinburgh University, where he
displayed a strong inclination for physical and mathematical
science. The religious element was an even more powerful
factor in his nature, and disposed him to enter the Free Church
of Scotland. While preparing for the ministry, he became for
a time deeply interested in the evangelizing missi9n of Moody
and Sankey, hi which he actively co-operated for two years. In
1877 he became lecturer on natural science in the Free Church
College, which enabled him to combine all the pursuits for which
he felt a vocation. His studies resulted in his writing Natural
Law in the Spiritual World,, the argument of which was that the
scientific principle of continuity extended from the physical
world to the spiritual. Before the book issued from the press
(1883), a sudden invitation from the African Lakes Company
drew Drummond away to Central Africa. Upon his return in
the following year he found himself famous. Large bodies of
serious readers, alike among the religious and the scientific
classes, discovered in Natural Law the common standing-ground
which they needed; and the universality of the demand proved,
if nothing more, the seasonableness of its publication. Drum-
mond continued to be actively interested in missionary and other
movements among the Free Church students. In 1888 he
published Tropical Africa, a valuable digest of information.
In 1890 he travelled in Australia, and in 1893 delivered the
Lowell Lectures at Boston. It had been his intention to reserve
them for mature revision, but an attempted piracy compelled
him to hasten their publication, and they appeared in 1894
under the title of The Ascent of Man. Their object was to vin-
dicate for altruism, or the disinterested care and compassion
of animals for each other, an important part in effecting " the
survival of the fittest," a thesis previously maintained by
Professor John Fiske. Drummond's health failed shortly after-
wards, and he died on the nth of March 1897. His character
was full of charm. His writings were too nicely adapted to the
needs of his own day to justify the expectation that they would
long survive it, but few men exercised more religious influence
in their -own generation, especially on young men.
DRUMMOND, THOMAS (1797-1840), British inventor and
administrator, was born at Edinburgh on the loth of October
1797, and was educated at the high school there. He was
appointed to a cadetship at the Royal Military Academy,
Woolwich, in 1813; and in 1815 he entered the Royal Engineers.
In 1819, when meditating the renunciation of military service
for the bar, he made the acquaintance of Colonel T. F. Colby
(1784-1852), from whom in the following year he received an
appointment on the trigonometrical survey of Great Britain.
During his winters in London he attended the chemical lectures
of W. T. Brande and M. Faraday at the Royal Institution, and
the mention at one of these of the brilliant luminosity of lime
when incandescent suggested to him the employment of the lime
light for making distant surveying stations visible. In 1825,
when he was assisting Colby in the Irish survey, his lime-light
apparatus (" Drummond light ") was put to a practical test,
and enabled observations to be completed between Divis
mountain, near Belfast, and Slieve Snaght, a distance of 67 m.
About the same tune he also devised an improved heliostat, and
in 1829 he was employed in adopting his light for lighthouse
purposes. In 1831 he entered political life and was appointed
superintendent of the boundary commission. Four years later
he was made under-secretary of state for Ireland, where he
proved himself a most successful administrator, and did much
to promote law and order. It was he who in 1838 told the Irish
landlords that " property has its duties as well as its rights."
In 1836 he proposed the appointment of a commission on rail-
ways in Ireland, and took a large share in its work, which resulted
in the recommendation, not, however, carried out, that the state
should construct a system of lines throughout the island.
Drummond's health was undermined by overwork, and he died
at Dublin on the isth of April 1840.
See Life by J. F. M'Lennan (1867) ; Life and Letters by R. Barry
O'Brien (1889) ; and Sir T. A. Larcom in Papers on the Duties of the
Royal Engineers, vol. iv. (1840).
DRUMMOND, WILLIAM (1585-1649), called " of Hawthorn-
den," Scottish poet, was born at Hawthornden, near Edinburgh,
on the I3th of December 1585. His father, John Drummond, was
the first laird of Hawthornden; and his mother was Susannah
Fowler, sister of William Fowler (?..)., poet and courtier.
Drummond received his early education at the high school of
Edinburgh, and graduated in July 1605 as M.A. of the recently
founded university of Edinburgh. His father was a gentleman
usher at the English court (as he had been at the Scottish court
from 1590) and William, in a visit to London in 1606, describes
the festivities in connexion with the visit of the king of Denmark.
Drummond spent two years at Bourges and Paris in the study
of law; and, in 1609, he was again in Scotland, where, by the
death of his father in the following year, he became laird of
Hawthornden at the early age of twenty-four. The list of books
he read up to this time is preserved in his own handwriting.
It indicates a strong preference for imaginative literature, and
shows that he was keenly interested in contemporary verse.
His collection (now in the library of the university of Edinburgh)
contains many first editions of the most famous productions of
the age. On finding himself his own master, Drummond natur-
ally abandoned law for the muses; " for," says his biographer in
1711, " the delicacy of his wit always run on the pleasantness
and usefulness of history, and on the fame and softness of
poetry." In 1612 began his correspondence with Sir William
Alexander of Menstrie, afterwards earl of Stirling (<?..)> which
ripened into a life-long friendship after Drummond's visit to
Menstrie in 1614.
Drummond's first publication appeared in 1613, an elegy on
the death of Henry, prince of Wales, called Teares on the Death
of Meliades (Moeliades, 3rd edit. 1614). The poem shows the
influence of Spenser's and Sidney's pastoralism. In the same
year he published an anthology of the elegies of Chapman,
Wither and others, entitled Mausoleum, or The Choisest Flowres
of the Epitaphs. In 1616, the year of Shakespeare's death,
appeared Poems: Amorous, Funerall, Divine, Pastorall: in
Sonnets, Songs, Sextains, Madrigals, being substantially the
DRUNKENNESS
. 601
story of his love for Mary Cunningham of Barns, who was about
to become his wife when she died in 1615. The poems bear
marks of a close study of Sidney, and of the Italian poets. He
sometimes translates direct from the Italian, especially from
Marini. Forth Feasting: A Panegyricke to the King's Most
Excellent Majestic (1617), a poem written in heroic couplets of
remarkable facility, celebrates James's visit to Scotland in that
year. In 1618 Drummond began a correspondence with Michael
Drayton. The two poets continued to write at intervals for
thirteen years, the last letter being dated in the year of Drayton's
death. The latter had almost been persuaded by his " dear
Drummond " to print the later books of Poly-Olbion at Hart's
Edinburgh press. In the winter of 1618-1619, Drummond had
included Ben Jonson in his circle of literary friends, and at
Christmas 1618 was honoured with a visit of a fortnight or more
from the dramatist. The account of their conversations, long
supposed to be lost, was discovered in the Advocates' Library,
Edinburgh, by David Laing, and was edited for the Shakespeare
Society in 1842 and printed by Gifford & Cunningham. The
conversations are full of literary gossip, and embody Ben's
opinion of himself and of his host, whom he frankly told that
" his verses were too much of the schooles, and were not after
the fancie of the time," and again that he " was too good and
simple, and that oft a man's modestie made a fool of his witt."
But the publication of what was obviously intended merely
for a private journal has given Jonson an undeserved reputation
for harsh judgments, and has cast blame on Drummond for
blackening his guest's memory.
In 1623 appeared the poet's fourth publication, entitled
Flowers of Sion: By William Drummond of Hawthornedenne:
to which is adjoyned his Cypresse Grove. From 1625 till 1630
Drummond was probably for the most part engaged in travelling
on the Continent. In 1627, however, he seems to have been
home for a short time, as, in that year, he appears in the entirely
new character of the holder of a patent for the construction of
military machines, entitled "Litera Magistri Gulielmi Drummond
de Fabrica Machinarum Militarium, Anno 1627." The same
year, 1627, is the date of Drummond's munificent gift (referred
to above) of about 500 volumes to the library of the university
of Edinburgh.
In 1630 Drummond again began to reside permanently at
Hawthornden, and in 1632 he married Elizabeth Logan, by
whom he had five sons and four daughters. In 1633 Charles
made his coronation-visit to Scotland; and Drummond's pen
was employed in writing congratulatory speeches and verses.
As Drummond preferred Episcopacy to Presbytery, and was an
extremely loyal subject, he supported Charles's general policy,
though he protested against the methods employed to enforce
it. When Lord Balmerino was put on his trial on the capital
charge of retaining in his possession a petition regarded as a
libel on the king's government, Drummond in an energetic
" Letter " (1635) urged the injustice and folly of the proceedings.
About this time a claim by the earl of Menteith to the earldom
of Strathearn, which was based on the assertion that Robert III.,
husband of Annabella Drummond, was illegitimate, roused the
poet's pride of blood and prompted him to prepare an historical
defence of his house. Partly to please his kinsman the earl
of Perth, and partly to satisfy his own curiosity, the poet made
researches in the genealogy of the family. This investigation
was the real secret of Drummond's interest in Scbttish history;
and so we find that he now began his History of Scotland during
the Reigns of the Five Jameses, a work which did not appear till
1655, and is remarkable only for its good literary style. His next
work was called forth by the king's enforced submission to the
opposition of his Scottish subjects. It is entitled Irene: or a
Remonstrance for Concord, Amity, and Love amongst His Majesty's
Subjects (1638), and embodies Drummond's political creed of
submission to authority as the only logical refuge from democracy,
which he hated. In 1639 Drummond had to sign the Covenant
in self-protection, but was uneasy under the burden, as several
political squibs by him testify. In 1643 he published S(aa/iaxta:
or a Defence of a Petition tendered to the Lords of the Council of
Scotland by certain NobUmen and Gentlemen, a political pamphlet
in support of those royalists in Scotland who wished to espouse
the king's cause against the English parliament. Its burden is
an invective on the intolerance of the then dominant Presby-
terian clergy.
His later works may be described briefly as royalist pamphlets,
written with more or less caution, as the times required. Drum-
mond took the part of Montrose; and a letter from the Royalist
leader in 1646 acknowledged his services. He also wrote a
pamphlet, " A Vindication of the Hamiltons," supporting the
claims of the duke of Hamilton to lead the Scottish army which
was to release Charles I. It is said that Drummond's health
received a severe shock when news was brought of the king's
execution. He died on the 4th of December'i649. He was
buried in his parish church of Lasswade.
Drummond's most important works are the Cypresse Grove
and the poems. The Cypresse Grove exhibits great wealth of
illustration, and an extraordinary command of musical English.
It is an essay on the folly of the fear of death. " This globe of
the earth," says he, " which seemeth huge to us, in respect of
the universe, and compared with that wide pavilion of heaven,
is less than little, of no sensible quantity, and but as a point."
This is one of Drummond's favourite moods; and he uses
constantly in his poems such phrases as " the All," " this great
All." Even in such of his poems as may be called more distinc-
tively Christian, this philosophic conception is at work.
A noteworthy feature in Drummond's poetry, as in that of
his courtier contemporaries Ayton (q.v.), Lord Stirling and
others, is that it manifests no characteristic Scottish element,
but owes its birth and inspiration rather to the English and
Italian masters. Drummond was essentially a follower of
Spenser, but, amid all his sensuousness, and even in those lines
most conspicuously beautiful, there is a dash of melancholy
thoughtfulness a tendency deepened by the death of his first
love, Mary Cunningham. Drummond was called " the Scottish
Petrarch"; and his sonnets, which are the expression of a
genuine passion, stand far above most of the contemporary
Petrarcan imitations. A remarkable burlesque poem Polemo-
Middinia inter Vitaroam et Nebernam (printed anonymously in
1684) has been persistently, and with good reason, ascribed to
him. It is a mock-heroic tale, in dog-Latin, of a country feud
on the Fifeshire lands of his old friends the Cunninghams.
Drummond's Poems, with Cypresse Grove, the History, and a few
of the minor tracts, were collected in 1656 and edited by Edward
Phillips, Milton's nephew. The Works of William Drummond, of
Hawthornden (1711), edited by Bishop Sage and Thomas Ruddiman,
contains a life by the former, and some of the poet's letters. A
handsome edition of the Poems was printed by the Maitland Club
in 1832. Later editions are by Peter Cunningham (1833), by
William R. Turnbull in " The Library of Old Authors " (1856), and
by W. C. Ward (1894) for " The Muses' Library." The standard
biography of Drummond is by David Masson (1873). Extracts from
the Hawthornden MSS. preserved in the Library of the Society of
Antiquaries of Scotland were printed by David Laing \nArchaeologia
Scotica, vol. iv.
DRUNKENNESS, a term signifying generally a state resulting
from excessive drinking, and usually associated with alcoholic
intoxication, or alcohol poisoning. It may represent either an
act or a habit, the latter consisting in frequent repetitions of the
former. As an act it may be an accident, most usually arising
from the incautious use of one or other of the commonly employed
intoxicating agents; as a habit (as in the form of chronic
alcoholism) it is one of the most degrading forms of vice which
can result from the enfeeblement of the moral principle by
persistent self-indulgence.
What appears to be " intoxication " may arise from many
different causes (e.g. epilepsy, fractured skull, intracranial
haemorrhage, and the toxaemic coma of diabetes and uraemia),
and the close resemblance between the pathological and the
toxic phenomena has been the cause of many untoward accidents.
Cold alone may produce such peculiar effects that Captain Parry
said in his Journal, " I cannot help thinking that many a man
may have been punished for intoxication who was only suffering
from the benumbing effects of frost; for I have more than once
602
DRUNKENNESS
seen our people in a state so exactly resembling that of the most
stupid intoxication, that I should certainly have charged them
with the offence had I not been quite sure that no possible means
were afforded them on Melville Island to procure anything
stronger than snow water." The same confusion is frequently
found in cases which come before the police-courts, people being
arrested as " drunk and disorderly " who can prove that the
symptoms were not due to over-indulgence in drink at all.
Some individuals have, moreover, a special idiosyncrasy or
susceptibility to alcohol, due to heredity or to one of the sequelae
of sunstroke or cranial injury. The children of drunkards are
usually very susceptible to the poison, becoming intoxicated by
a far smaller quantity than is needed by a normal person.
But, as a rule, the phenomena of drunkenness are actually
due to excessive consumption of some intoxicating liquid.
The physiological action of all such agents may be described as
a cumulative production of paralysis of various parts of the
nervous system, but this effect results only in doses of a certain
amount a dose which varies with the agent, the race and the
individual. Even the cup so often said to " cheer, but not
inebriate," cannot be regarded as altogether free from the last-
named effect. Tea-sots are well known to be affected with
palpitation and irregularity of the heart, as well as with more
or less sleeplessness, mental irritability and muscular tremors,
which in some culminate in paralysis; while positive intoxication
has been known to be the result of the excessive use of strong tea.
In short, from tea to haschisch we have, through hops, alcohol,
tobacco and opium, a sort of graduated scale of intoxicants,
which stimulate in small doses and narcotize in larger, the
narcotic dose having no stimulating properties whatever, and
only appearing to possess them from the fact that the agent can
only be gradually taken up by the blood, and the system thus
comes primarily under the influence of a stimulant dose. In
certain circumstances and with certain agents as in the pro-
duction of chloroform narcosis this precursory stage is capable
of being much abbreviated, if not altogether annihilated; while
with other agents as tea the narcotic stage is by no means
always or readily produced.
No subject in modern times has led to more extreme opinions
than this of indulgence in " intoxicants " to any degree whatever.
It is well to remember that (in spite of apparently authoritative
modern views to the contrary) there is not a shadow of proof
that the moderate use of any one of these agents as a stimulant
has any definite tendency t,o lead to its abuse; it is otherwise
with their employment as narcotics, which, once indulged in, is
almost certain to lead to repetition, and to a more or less rapid
process of degradation, though there are many exceptions to
this latter statement. It is interesting to know that a former
English judge, who lived to nearly ninety years of age, believed he
had prolonged his life and added greatly to his comfort by the
moderate use of ether, which he was led to employ because
neither wine nor tobacco agreed with him; while the immoderate
use of the same agent has given rise to a most deleterious form
of drunkenness, both in parts of Ireland and in some of the large
industrial centres in Great Britain.
Various modern biologists have discussed, with more or less
acceptance in certain circles, the historical conditions in various
races and in different countries as to the use and abuse. of in-
toxicants, and have drawn varying conclusions from their
theories. It has even been contended, with much show of learned
authority, that since drunkenness leads to disease and early
death, the proneness to strong drink in the long run causes the
elimination of the unfit, and results in a general sobering of the
community, a race being therefore temperate in proportion to
its past sufferings through alcohol. But on this subject it may
be said that, at least, no agreement has been reached.
The effects of intoxicants are variously modified by the tem-
perament of the individual and the nature of the inebriant.
When that is alcohol, its action on an average individual is first
to fill him with a serene and perfect self-complacency. His
feelings and faculties are exalted into a state of great activity
and buoyancy, so that his language becomes enthusiastic, and
his conversation vivacious if not brilliant. The senses gradually
become hazy, a soft humming seems to fill the pauses of the
conversation, and modify the tones of the speaker, a filmy haze
obscures the vision, the head seems lighter than usual, the
equilibrium unstable. By-and-by objects appear double, or flit
confusedly before the eyes; judgment is abolished, secretive-
ness annihilated, and the drunkard pours forth all that is
within him with unrestrained communicativeness; he becomes
boisterous, ridiculous, and sinks at length into a mere animal.
Every one around him, the very houses, trees, even the earth
itself, seem drunken and unstable, he alone sober, till at last the
final stage is reached, and he falls on the ground insensible
dead drunk (alcoholic coma) a state from which, after profound
slumber, he at last awakes feverish, exhausted, sick and giddy,
with ringing ears, a throbbing heart and a violent headache.
The poison primarily affects the cerebral lobes, and the other
parts of the cerebro-spinal system are consecutively involved, till
in the state of dead-drunkenness the only parts not invaded by
a benumbing paralysis are those automatic centres in the medulla
oblongata which regulate and maintain the circulation and
respiration. But even these centres are not unaffected; the
paralysis of these as of the other sections of the cerebro-spinal
system varies in its incompleteness, and at times becomes
complete, the coma of drunkenness terminating in death. More
usually the intoxicant is gradually eliminated, and the individual
restored to consciousness, a consciousness disturbed by the
secondary results of the agent he has abused, which vary with
the nature of that agent. Whether, however, directly or in-
directly through the nervous system, the stomach suffers in
every case; thus nutrition is interfered with by the defective
ingestion of food, as well as by the mal-assimilation of that
which is ingested; and from this cause, as well as by the peculiar
local action of the various poisons, the various organic degenera-
tions are induced (cirrhosis of the liver, &c.) which in most cases
shorten the drunkard's days.
The primary discomforts of an act of drunkenness are readily
removed for the time by a repetition of the cause. Thus what
has been an act may readily become a habit, all the more readily
that each repetition more and more enfeebles both the will and
the judgment, till they become utterly unfit to resist the
temptation to indulgence supplied by the knowledge of the
temporary relief to suffering which is sure to follow, and in spite
of the consciousness that each repetition of the act only forges
their chains more tightly. From this condition there is no hope
of relief but in enforced abstinence; any one in this condition
must be regarded as temporarily insane (see INSANITY and
NEUROPATHOLOGY) , and ought to be placed in an inebriate
asylum till he regain sufficient self-control to enable him to
overcome his love for drink. Numerous " cures " have been
started in recent years, which have often succeeded in individual
cases. An anti-alcoholic serum obtained from alcoholized
horses has been advocated by Dr Sapelier.
For the law concerning drunkenness the reader is referred to
INEBRIETY, LAW OF. Its prevalence as a vice has varied con-
siderably according to the state of education or comfort in
different classes of society. In considering the extent to which
intemperance has prevailed, the statistics of prosecutions upon
which such comparisons are usually based are far from being
completely satisfactory, but, inasmuch as they constitute the
only possible data for such comparisons, we are compelled to
accept them. The following table gives the average number
of persons per 1000 of the population proceeded against for
drunkenness in England and Wales for quinquennial periods,
dating from 1857. the first year of the Judicial Statistics:
1857-1861 4-28
1862-1866 478
1867-1871 5-47
1872-1876 7-83
1877-1881 7-25
1882-1886 6-90
1887-1891 6-19
1892-1896 5-84
1897-1901 6-42
1902-1906 . ...... 6-51
DRURY DRUSES
603
The figures, it will be seen, show a steady decline from 1872-
1876 (when the consumption of alcohol was quite abnormal)
to 1892-1896. After that year, however, the figures again rose.
The increase was especially marked in 1899, when a tide of
exceptional prosperity was again accompanied by great drunken-
ness. It is also disquieting to discover that the average number
of prosecutions for drunkenness in the three years 1897-1899
was 51% higher than the average for 18.57-1861, and 35%
higher than the average for 1862-1866. That the increase was
partly due to more efficient police administration is probable,
but that this is not a complete explanation of the figures is
made evident by an analysis of the general statistics of crime
during the same period, from which it may be seen that, while
crime generally (excluding drunkenness) decreased 28% in
England and Wales since 1857-1861, drunkenness increased
51%. Speaking generally, it may be said that in the United
Kingdom drunkenness appears chiefly prevalent in the seaport
and mining districts. If a line be drawn from the mouth of the
Severn to the Wash, it will be found that the " black " counties,
without exception, lie to the north-west of this line. The worst
counties in England and Wales in the matter of drunkenness
are Northumberland, Durham and Glamorganshire, while
Pembrokeshire and Lancashire follow close behind. The most
sober counties, on the other hand, are Cambridgeshire, Suffolk,
Oxfordshire and Wiltshire. Averages based upon the returns
of entire counties do not, however, afford a complete guide to
the distribution of drunkenness, inasmuch as offences are not
equally distributed over the whole area of a county. A heavy
ratio of drunkenness in a small district may often give a county
an unfavourable position in the general averages, notwithstanding
favourable conditions in the rest of its area.
Analysis of the prosecutions for drunkenness shows that about
24% of the total number of offences are committed by women.
In the larger towns the proportion, as a rule, is higher. In
London, 38% of the drunkenness is attributable to women;
in Manchester, 36%; in Belfast and Glasgow, 32%. In
Liverpool, on the other hand, the proportion is only 24%.
The much-controverted question as to whether intemperance
is increasing among women can hardly, however, be decided
by an appeal to the criminal statistics. So far as these statistics
throw any light at all upon the question, they suggest important
local differences. A more direct clue is afforded by the registrar-
general's annual returns of deaths directly attributed to in-
temperance. The figures are given below. In order to eliminate
accidental variations, the comparison is based upon the average
mortality during consecutive periods:
Years.
Average No. of deaths
(England and Wales).
Males
per cent.
Females
per cent.
1877-1881
1882-1886
1887-1891
1892-1896
1897-1899
1899
1071
1320
1710
2044
2577
2871
69
66
64
61
61
60
31
34
36
39
39
40
For the ten years ending 1904, out of 26,426 deaths from
alcoholism, 59-34% were males and 40-66% females.
The figures are certainly striking. They show, it will be noticed,
that out of every 100 deaths from alcoholic excess in England
and Wales women contributed nine more at the end of the
century then they did in 1880. If, instead of taking the total
number of deaths, we take the ratio per million persons living,
the increase is seen even more clearly:
Years.
Males per
million living.
Females per
million living.
1877-1881
1882-1886
1887-1891
1892-1896
1897-1899
1899
60
67
79
86
103
112
25
32
42
51
63
70
It appears that, while the ratio of mortality from alcoholic
excess increased 87% among males during the last two
decades of the century, among females it increased by no less
than 1 80%.
See also LIQUOR LAWS and TEMPERANCE.
DRURY, SIR WILLIAM (1527-1579), English statesman and
soldier, was a son of Sir Robert Drury of Hedgerley in Bucking-
hamshire, and grandson of another Sir Robert Drury (d. 1536),
who was speaker of the House of Commons in 1495. He was
born at Hawstead in Suffolk on the 2nd of October 1527, and
was educated at Gonville Hall, Cambridge. Fighting in France,
Drury was taken prisoner in 1544; then after his release he
helped Lord Russell, afterwards earl of Bedford, to quell a rising
in Devonshire in 1549, but he did not come to the front until
the reign of Elizabeth. In 1559 he was sent to Edinburgh to
report on the condition of Scottish politics, and five years
later he became marshal and deputy-governor of Berwick. Again
in Scotland in January 1570, it is interesting to note that the
regent James Stewart, earl of Murray, was proceeding to keep
an appointment with Drury in Linlithgow when he was mortally
wounded, and it was probably intended to murder the English
envoy also. After this event Drury led two raids into Scotland;
at least thrice he went to that country on more peaceable errands,
during which, however, his life was continually in danger from
assassins; and he commanded the force which compelled
Edinburgh Castle to surrender in May 1573. In 1576 he was
sent to Ireland as president of Munster, where his stern rule
was very successful, and in 1578 he became lord justice to the
Irish council, taking the chief control of affairs after the departure
of Sir Henry Sidney. The rising of the earl of Desmond had
just broken out when Sir William died in October 1579.
Drury's letters to Lord Burghley and others are invaluable for the
story of the relations between England and Scotland at this time.
DRUSES, or DRUZES (Arab. Druz), a people of mid-Syria (for
the derivation of the name see History section below) , distributed
nowadays into three isolated groups, of which the most numerous
inhabits Jebel Hauran (Jebel Druz), E. of Jordan (about 55,000) ;
the second, the cazas of Shuf and Metn in Lebanon (about
50,000) ; the third, the cazas of Hasbeya, Rasheya, W. al Ajem,
Horns, Hamadiyeh and Selimiyeh in Anti-Lebanon and Hermon
(about 45,000). The first group, which has been greatly increased
by migrants from the second, since the establishment of the
privileged Lebanon province (1861) under Christian auspices,
lives apart from other peoples in semi-independence. The
second is now confined to the southern Lebanon, and even there
is greatly outnumbered by Maronites, who, in the whole " Moun-
tain," stand to Druses as 9 to 2. The third is counterbalanced
everywhere by a large population of Moslem and Orthodox
Syrians. The Hauran, therefore, has become the stronghold
of the Druses, offering nowadays the best field for studying
their peculiar customs and religion; and the group there still
increases at the expense of the other groups, despite efforts on
the part of the Ottoman government to check Druse migration
by both conciliatory and repressive measures. The actual
distinction of the Druses, as a racial unity, despite their disper-
sion, depends so exclusively on the peculiarity of their common
religion, that it will be well at once to give an account of Druse
creed and practice as they are understood to stand at the present
day. How this religion may have grown up and come to be
theirs will be considered later.
Religion. Druse religion is a secret faith, and the following
account is given with all reserves. There are many indications
that a more primitive cult, containing elements of Nature
worship, preceded it, and still survives in the popular practices
of the more remote Druse districts, e.g. in the eastern Hauran.
The Muwahhidin (Unitarians), as the Druses call themselves,
believe that there is one and only one God, indefinable, incom-
prehensible, ineffable, passionless. He has made himself known
to men by successive incarnations, of which the last was Hakim,
the sixth Fatimite caliph. How many these incarnations have
been is stated variously; but seventy, one for each period of
the world, seems the best-attested number. Jesus appears to
604
DRUSES
be accepted as one such incarnation, but not Mahomet, although
it is agreed that, in his time, the " Universal Intelligence "
(see later) was made flesh, in the person of Mikdad al-Aswad.
No further incarnation can now take place: in Hakim a final
appeal was made to mankind, and after the door of mercy had
stood open to all for twenty-six years, it was finally and for ever
closed. When the tribulation of the faithful has reached its
height, Hakim will reappear to conquer the world and render
his religion supreme. Druses, believed to be dispersed in China,
will return to Syria. The combined body of the Faithful will
take Mecca, and finally Jerusalem, and all the world will accept
the Faith. The first of the creatures of God is the Universal
Intelligence or Spirit, impersonated in Hamza, Hakim's vizier.
This Spirit was the creator of all subordinate beings, and alone
has immediate communion with the Deity. Next in rank, and
equally supporting the throne of the Almighty, are four Minister-
ing Spirits, the Soul, the Word, the Right Wing and the Left
Wing, who, in Hakim's time, were embodied respectively in
Ismael Darazi, Mahommed ibn Wahab, Selama ibn Abd al-
Wahal and Baha ud-Din; and beneath these again are spiritual
agents of various ranks. The material world is an emanation
from, and a " mirror " of, the Divine Intelligence. The number
of human beings admits neither of increase nor of decrease,
and a regular process of metempsychosis goes on continually.
The souls of the virtuous pass after death into ever new incar-
nations of greater perfection, till at last they reach a point at
which they can be re-absorbed into the Deity itself; those of
the wicked may be degraded to the level of camels or dogs. All
previous religions are mere types of the true, and their sacred
books and observances are to be interpreted allegorically. The
Gospel and the Koran are both regarded as inspired books, but
not as religious guides. The latter function is performed solely
by the Druse Scriptures. As the admission of converts is no
longer permitted, the faithful are enjoined to keep their doctrine
secret from the profane; and in order that their allegiance may
not bring them into danger, they are allowed (like Persian
mystics) to make outward profession of whatever religion is
dominant around them. To this latter indulgence is to be
attributed the apparent indifferentism which leads to their
joining Moslems in prayers and ablutions, or sprinkling themselves
with holy water in Maronite churches. Obedience is required
to the seven commandments of Hamza, the first and greatest
of which enjoins truth in words (but only those of Druse speaking
with Druse); the second, watchfulness over the safety of the
brethren; the third, absolute renunciation of every other
religion; the fourth, complete separation from all who are in
error; the fifth, recognition of the unity of " Our Lord " in all
ages; the sixth, complete resignation to his will; and the
seventh, complete obedience to his orders. Prayer, however,
is regarded as an impertinent interference with the Creator;
while, at the same time, instead of the fatalistic predestination
of Mahommedanism, the freedom of the human will is distinctly
maintained. Not only is the charge of secrecy rigidly obeyed
in regard to the alien world, but full initiation into the deeper
mysteries of the creed is permitted only to a special class desig-
nated Akils, (Arabic' A kl, intelligence), in contradistinction from
whom all other members of the Druse community, whatever
may be their position or attainments, are called Jahel, the
Ignorant. About 15 % of the adult population belong to the
order of Akils. Admission is granted to any Druse of either
sex who expresses willingness to conform to the laws of the
society, and during a year of probation gives sufficient proof of
sincerity and stability of purpose. There appears to be no
formal distinction of rank among the various members; and
though the amir, Beshir Shehab, used to appoint a sheikh of the
Akils, the person thus distinguished obtained no primacy over
his fellows. Exceptional influence depends upon exceptional
sanctity or ability. All are required to abstain from tobacco
and wine; the women used not to be allowed to wear gold or
silver, or silk or brocade, but this rule is commonly broken now;
and although neither celibacy nor retirement from the affairs
of the world is either imperative or customary, unusual respect
is shown to those who voluntarily submit themselves to ascetic
discipline. While the Akils mingle frankly with the common
people, and are remarkably free from clerical pretension, they
are none the less careful to maintain their privileges. They
are distinguished by the wearing of a white turban, emblematic
of the purity of their life. Their food must be purchased with
money lawfully acquired; and lest they should unwittingly
partake of any that is ceremonially unclean, they require those
Jahels, whose hospitality they share, to supply their wants from
a store set apart for their exclusive use. The ideal Akil is grave,
calm and dignified, with an infinite capacity of keeping a secret,
and a devotion that knows no limits to the interests of his
creed. On Thursday evening, the commencement of the weekly
day of rest, the members of the order meet together in the
various districts, probably for the reading of their sacred books
and consultation on matters of ecclesiastical or political import-
ance. Their meeting-houses, khalwas, are plain, unornamented
edifices. These have property attached to them, the revenues
of which are consecrated to the relief of the poor and the demands
of hospitality. In the eastern Hauran, there are hill-top
shrines containing each a black stone, on which rugs, &c., are
hung, and these seem to perpetuate features of pre-Islamic
Arabian cult, including the sacrifice of animals, e.g. goats. They
are held in reverence by the Bedouins. The women assemble
in the khalwas at the same time as the men, a part of the space
being fenced off for them by a semi-transparent black veil.
Even while the Akils are assembled, strangers are readily enough
admitted to the khalivas; but as long as these are present the
ordinary ceremonies are neglected, and the Koran takes the
place of the Druse Scriptures. It has been frequently asserted
that the image of a calf is kept in a niche, and traces of phallic
and gynaecocratic worship have been vaguely suspected;
but there is no authentic information in support of either state-
ment. The calf, if calf there be, is probably a symbol of the
execrable heresy of Darazi, who is frequently styled the calf by
his Orthodox opponents. Ignorance is the mother of suspicion
as well as of superstition; and accordingly the Christian in-
habitants of the Lebanon have long been persuaded that the
Druses in their secret assemblies are guilty of the most nefarious
practices. For this allegation, so frequently repeated by Euro-
pean writers, there seems to be little evidence; and it is certain
that the sacred books of the religion contain moral teaching of a
high order on the whole.
As a formulated creed, the Druse system is not a thousand
years old. In the year A.D. 996 (386 A.H.) Hakim Biamrillahi
(i.e. he who judges by the command of God), sixth of the Fatimite
caliphs (third in Egypt), began to reign; and during the next
twenty-five years he indulged in a tyranny at once so terrible
and so fantastic that little doubt can be entertained of his
insanity. He believed that he held direct intercourse with the
deity, or even that he was an incarnation of the divine intelli-
gence; and in A.D. 1016 (407 A.H.) his claims were made known
in the mosque at Cairo, and supported by the testimony of
Ismael Darazi. The people showed such bitter hostility to the
new gospel that Darazi was compelled to seek safety in flight;
but even in absence he was faithful to his god, and succeeded
in winning over certain ignorant inhabitants of Lebanon. Accord-
ing to the Druses, this great conversion took place in A.D. 1019
(410 A.H.). Meanwhile the endeavours of the caliph to get
his divinity acknowledged by the people of Cairo continued.
The advocacy of Hasan ibn Haidara Fergani was without
avail; but in 1017 (408 A.H.) the new religion found a more
successful apostle in the person of Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmed,
a Persian mystic, felt-maker by trade, who became Hakim's
vizier, gave form and substance to his creed, and by an ingenious
adaptation of its various dogmas to the prejudices of existing
sects, finally enlisted an extensive body of adherents. In 1020
(411 A.H.) the caliph was assassinated by contrivance of his
sister Sitt ul-Mulk; but it was given out by Hamza that he had
only withdrawn for a season, and his followers were encouraged to
look forward with confidence to his triumphant return. Darazi,
who had acted independently in his apostolate, was branded
DRUSES
605
by Hamza as a heretic, and thus, by a curious anomaly, he is
actually held in detestation by the very sect which perhaps
bears his name. The propagation of the faith in accordance
with Hamza's initiation was undertaken by Ismael ibn Mahom-
med Tamimi, Mahommed ibn Wahab, Abul-Khair Selama ibn
Abd al-Wahal ibn Samurri, and Moktana Baha ud-Din, the
last of whom became known by his writings from Constantinople
to the borders of India. In two letters addressed to the em-
perors Constantine VIII. and Michael the Paphlagonian he
endeavoured to prove that the Christian Messiah reappeared
in the person of Hamza.
It is possible, even probable, that the segregation of the
Druses as a people dates only from the adoption of Hamza's
creed. But when it is recalled that other inhabitants of the
same mountain system, e.g. the Maronites, the Ansarieh, the
Metawali and the " Isma'ilites," also profess creeds which, like
the Druse system, differ from Sunni Islam in the important
feature of admitting incarnations of the Deity, it is impossible
not to suspect that Hamza's emissaries only gave definition and
form to beliefs long established in this part of the world. Many
of the fundamental ideas of Druse theology belong to a common
West Asiatic stock; but the peculiar history of the Mountain
is no doubt responsible for beliefs, held elsewhere by different
peoples, being combined there in a single creed. Some allowance,
too, must be made for the probability that Hamza's system owed
something to doctrines Christian and other, with which the metro-
politan position of Cairo brought Fatimite society into contact.
History There is good reasonto regard theDruses as, racially,
a mixture of refugee stocks, in which the Arab largely predomi-
nates, grafted on to an original mountain population of Aramaic
blood and Incarnationist tendencies. The latter is represented
more purely by the Maronites (q.v.). The native tradition
regards an immigration of Hira Arabs into S. Lebanon, under
Khalid ibn Walid in the gth century, as the beginning of Druse
distinctiveness and power; but it also accepts Turkoman and
Kurdish elements in the original Druse state. About the same
time, or a little later (in the reign of Saladin), it believes that
Hermon was colonized by a population of 15,000 Hira and
Yemenite Arabs, who had sojourned awhile in Hauran. The
name Druse is met with first in Benjamin of Tudela (c. A.D. 1170),
and its origin has been much disputed. Some authorities see
in it a descriptive epithet, derived from Arabic darasa (those
who read the Book), or darisa (those in possession of Truth)
or durs (the clever or initiated); but more connect it with the
name of the first missionary, Ismael Darazi.
As soon as we begin to know anything of the Druses they were
living in a feudal state of society, as village communities under
sheikhs, themselves generally subordinate to one or more amirs.
In the time of the first crusades the main power was in the hands
of the Arslan family, which, however, suffered so severely in
wars with the Franks, that it was superseded by the Tnuhs, who,
holding Beirut and nearly all the Phoenician coast, came into
conflict with the sultans of Egypt. One of these latter, Malik
Ashraf, about A.D. 1300, forced outward compliance with Sunni
Islam on the Mountain, after defeating the Druses at Ain Sofar.
Meanwhile, however, the Maan family, lately immigrant from
N. Arabia, was growing in power, and throwing in its lot with the
Osmanli invaders in the reign of Selim I., it was promoted to the
supreme amirate about 1517. Fakr ud-Din Maan II. increased
Druse dominion until it included all the N. Syrian region from
the edge of the Antioch plain to Acre, with part of the eastern
desert, dominated by his castle at Tadmor (Palmyra), and the
important towns of Latakia, Tripoli, Beirut and Saida; and
forming further ambitious designs, he intrigued with Christians
and broke with the Turks. In 1614 the pasha of Damascus
moved against him with a large force, and compelled him to fly
from Syria. He sought the courts of Tuscany and Naples and
tried to enlist Frank sympathies, inventing (probably) the
curious myth, so often credited since, that the Druses are of
crusading origin and owe their name to the counts of Dreux. 1
1 Sophisticated Druses still sometimes claim connexion with
Rosicrucians, and a special relation to Scottish freemasons.
He landed again at Saida in 1619 and recovered his old position.
But in 1633 Kuchuk Ahmed Pasha was sent against him with
a large army, and succeeded in capturing him with his sons.
The family was sent to Constantinople, and two years later
strangled. The dynasty struggled on till the end of the century,
amid civil war, in which the parties seem to have been divided
by the earlier Arab factions of Kaisites (Qaisites) and Yemenites,
the Maan belonging to the latter.
The Shehab family, originally Hira Arabs, which had governed
Hauran under the early caliphs of Damascus, and thereafter
held power in Hermon, intermarried with the Maan; and in the
latter's day of weakness sided with the Kaisi faction and obtained
the supreme amirate of the Mountain. But it appears never to
have professed the Druse creed, remaining Sunnite. Haidar
Shehab, third of the line, inflicted a notable defeat on the pasha of
Saida (capital of an Ottoman eyalet since 1688) and the Yemenite
Druses at Ain Dara, near Zahleh, in 1711, and proceeded to
consolidate Shehab power, breaking up the old feudal society
and substituting for the sheikhs mukatajis (tax-contractors),
who had penal jurisdiction. The Yemenite Druses thereupon
emigrated in large numbers to the Hauran, and laid the founda-
tion of Druse power there. The Turks recognized the status quo,
and made terms with the Shehab amir in 1748; but his power
was none too well secured against the opposition of the Kurdish
Jumblat family, even though he was supported by the Talhuk,
Abd al-Malik and Yezbeki families; and it appears that some
members of the Shehab joined the Maronite faith in the middle
of the i8th century, causing a suspicion of secret apostasy to
fall on all the family.
It is said that the amir Beshir, who succeeded about 1786, was
himself a crypto-Christian. This remarkable man, who ruled
the Mountain for fifty-four years, maintained his power by taking
the side of one rebel pasha after another, betraying each in turn,
and cultivating relations with European admirals. His earliest
ally was Ahmed " Jezzar," who established himself in Acre in
contumacious independence late in the i8th century. Beshir
supported Jezzar against Napoleon in 1799 and earned the
friendship of Sir Sidney Smith. Falling out with Jezzar, Beshir
fled to Cairo in 1805, attached himself to Mehemet Ali, and
returned to take up the reins. Once more chased out by the
Turks, he was again in the Mountain in 1823, allied with Abdallah,
on whom Jezzar's mantle had ultimately fallen at Acre, and
maintaining friendly relations with the " English Princess,"
Lady Hester Stanhope. He now finally worsted the Jumblat.
The invasion of Syria by Mehemet Ali in 1831 caused Beshir to
desert Abdallah and throw in his lot with Ibrahim Pasha; but
he was not cordially followed by the Druses in general, and had
good excuse for revolt in 1839, and intrigue with the British
admiral in 1840. Ibrahim, however, by his possession of Druse
hostages, restrained the amir, and after the bombardment of
Acre, the Turks called him to account for his record of rebellion
and treachery. He fled to Malta on a British ship, but was
induced to go to Constantinople, where he died in 1851.
His successor, Beshir al-Kassim, openly joined the Maronites,
and instigating these against the malcontents of his own people,
brought enmities, which had been growing for a century, to a
head, and initiated a devastating internecine warfare which was
to continue for twenty years. The state of the Lebanon went
from bad to worse, and at last, in January 1842, the Turkish
government appointed Omar Pasha as administrator of the
Druses and Maronites, with a council of four chiefs from each
party; but the pasha, attempting to effect a disarming, was
besieged in November in the castle of Beit ed-Din by the Druses
under Shibli el-Arrian. At the instigation of the European
powers he was recalled in December, and the Druses and Maro-
nites were placed under separate kaimakams (governors), who,
it was stipulated, were not to be of the family of Shehab. Dis-
turbances again broke out in 1845, the native mukatajis refusing
to obey the kaimakams. The Maronites flew to arms, but with
the assistance of the Turks their opponents carried the day.
A superficial pacification effected by Shekib Effendi, the Ottoman
commissioner, lasted only till his departure; and the Porte
6o6
DRUSIUS
was obliged to despatch a force of 12,000 men to the Lebanon.
Forty of the chiefs were seized, the people was nominally dis-
armed, and in 1846 a new constitution was inaugurated, by
which the kaimakam was to be assisted by two Druses, two
Maronites, four Greeks, two Turks and one Metawali. All,
however, was in vain: the conflict was continued through 1858,
1859 and 1860; and the disturbance culminated in the famous
Damascus massacre (see SYRIA). The European powers now
determined to interfere; and, by a protocol of the 3rd of May
1860, it was decided that the Lebanon should be occupied by a
force of 20,000 men, of whom half were to be French. A body
of troops was accordingly landed on the i6th of August under
General Beaufort d'Hautpoul; and Fuad Pasha, who had been
appointed Turkish commissioner with full powers, proceeded
to bring the leaders of the massacres to justice. The French
occupation continued till the sth of June 1861, and the French
and English squadrons cruised on the coast for several months
after. In accordance with the recommendation of the European
powers the Porte determined to appoint a Christian governor
not belonging to the district, and independent of the pasha of
Beirut, to hold office for three years. The choice fell on Daud
Pasha, an Armenian Catholic, who was installed on the 4th of
July. In spite of many difficulties, and especially the ambitious
conduct of the Maronite Jussuf Karam, he succeeded in restoring
order; and by the formation of a military force from the in-
habitants of the Lebanon he rendered unnecessary the presence
of the Turkish soldiery.
The privileged province of Lebanon (q.v.) was finally con-
stituted by the Organic Statute of the 6th of September 1864,
and the subsequent history of the Lebanon Druses is one of
gradual withdrawal from the jurisdiction of that state, in which
they see their ancient independence irretrievably compromised,
and their religion subordinated to Christian supremacy. Many
now emigrate, when occasion offers, to America.
Meanwhile, the Hauran, the old seat of the Shehab family
and Hermon Druses, had been steadily receiving a Druse influx,
since the day of Ain Dara (see above). Towards the close of the
i Sth century some 600 families left Lebanon for the Hauran,
in discontent with the rule of the Shehab dynasty, and their
place and property were taken by 1500 families driven out of
Jebel Ansarieh by To pal Ali in 1811. The Hauran Druses
increased by the middle of the igth century to 7000 souls. They
had successfully resisted Ibrahim, the Egyptian, in 1839 in the
Lija, and asserted complete independence of the Turks, living
under a theocratic government directed by the chief Akil in
Suweda. A great effort, made by Kibrisli Pasha in 1852 to
subdue the Hauran, came to nothing. In 1879 the population
numbered 20,000, and by a murderous raid attracted the atten-
tion of Midhat Pasha, then vali of the province of Syria. After
experiencing one disaster he defeated their forces and imposed a
kaimakam, at first drawn from the Talhuks, but subsequently
chosen from the Atrash family of Kunawat. But the Druses
still refused to pay taxes, to serve in the Ottoman army, or to
recognize the kaimakam, and maintained their contumacy under
the lead of the Jumblat, till 1896; when, as the result of a
military expedition under Tahir Pasha and a great defeat at
Ijun, a compromise was arrived at, under which the Druses
agreed to pay taxes, but to serve in their own territory only as a
frontier guard. The government was put into the hands of a
mutessarif resident at Sheikh Saad, under whom are kaimakams
at Suweda and Salkhad. Since that epoch there has been
comparative peace between the Druses and the government,
largely because the latter, having learned wisdom, leaves the
people very much to itself, maintaining only a small garrison of
regular troops, and enlisting Druse police for service in Jebel
Druz itself. The Druses are allowed to carry on their feuds
with the Bedouins of the E. Desert as they will, so long as they
do not disturb western districts. With the recent opening out
of the W. Hauran by railway, the Druse sheikhs are beginning
to acquire commercial ambitions, and to desire peace.
The Hauran Druses are a vigorous, independent folk, with a
well-deserved reputation for courage, very astute, and hospitable
to Europeans, especially the British, with whom they have an
old tradition of friendship. But, like most persecuted but semi-
independent peoples, they are both cruel, and, by our standards,
treacherous. They are a handsome race, the women being often
beautiful. The latter no longer carry the head-horn which used
to support the veil dropped over the face out of doors. But
their dress is still black with the exception of red slippers, and
the veil is never abandoned, not even, it is said, during sleep.
An English lady, who has been much among them, states that
the Druse women of the Hauran never unve/led before her.
The men wear a tarbush with white roll, a black under-robe
with white girdle, a short loose jacket, and when necessary an
aba or parti-coloured cloak over all. They go habitually armed
with scimitar and half-moon axe, besides gun or rifle.
Polygamy is forbidden. Marriage retains certain traces of
the original system of capture; but Druse women enjoy much
consideration, and are comparatively well educated, dignified
and free in their bearing in spite of their close veiling. As has
been stated above, they join the men in religious functions.
Divorce is easy and can be initiated by the woman; but re-
marriage of the pair can only be effected by the good offices
of a proxy (as in Moslem societies, after a third divorce). Burial
takes place in family mausoleums, walled up after each interment ;
but Akils are buried in their own houses. The body is laid on its
side, with its face to the south (Mecca).
Education is widely spread, and there is a considerable religious
literature, much of which is known in Europe. A copy of the
Book of the Testimonies to the Mysteries of the Unity, consisting
of seventy treatises in four folio volumes, was found in the
house of the chief Akil at Bakhlin, and presented in. 1700 to
Louis XIV. by Nusralla ibn Gilda, a Syrian doctor. Other
manuscripts are to be found at Rome in the Vatican, at Oxford
in the Bodleian, at Vienna, at Leiden, at Upsala and at Munich;
and Dr J. L. Porter got po'ssession of seven standard works of
Druse theology while at Damascus. The Munich collection was
presented to the king of Bavaria by Clot Bey, the chief physician
in the Egyptian army during its occupation of Syria; and for a
number of the other manuscripts we are indebted to the elder
Niebuhr. A history of the Druse nation by the amir Haidar
Shehab is quoted by Urquhart.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Adler, " Druze Catechism," in Museum Cuficum
Borgianum (1782) ; Silvestre de Sacy, Expose de la religion des Druses
(1838) ; Ph. Wolff, Reise in das gelobte Land, and Die Drusen und ihre
Vorldufer (1842); C. H. Churchill, Ten Years' Residence in Mount
Lebanon (3 vols., 1853) ; G. W. Chasseaud, The Druzes of the Lebanon
(1855) ; E. G. Ray, Voyage dans le Haouran, execute pendant le:
annees 1857 el 1858; C. H. Churchill, The Druzes and Maronites
under the Turkish Rule from 1840 to 1860 (London, 1862) ; H. Guys,
Le Theogonie des Druses (1863), and La Nation Druse (1864);
M. von Oppenheim, Vom Mittelmeer, &c. (1899) ; Gertrude L. Bell,
The Desert and the Sown (1907). (D. G. H.; G. BE.)
DRUSIUS (or VAN DEN DRIESCHE), JOHANNES (1550-1616),
Protestant divine, distinguished specially as an Orientalist and
exegete, was born at Oudenarde, in Flanders, on the 28th of June
1550. Being designed for the church, he studied Greek and
Latin at Ghent, and philosophy at Louvain; but his father
having been outlawed for his religion, and deprived of his estate,
retired to England, where the son followed him in 1567. He
found an admirable teacher of Hebrew in Chevalier, the cele-
brated Orientalist, with whom he resided for some time at
Cambridge. In 1572 he became professor of Oriental languages
at Oxford. Upon the pacification of Ghent (1576) he returned
with his father to their own country, and was appointed professor
of Oriental languages at Leiden in the following year. In 1585
he removed to Friesland, and was admitted professor of Hebrew
in the university of Franeker, an office which he discharged with
great honour till his death, which happened in February 1616.
He acquired so extended a reputation as a professor that his
class was frequented by students from all the Protestant countries
in Europe. His works prove him to have been well skilled in
Hebrew and in Jewish antiquities; and in 1600 the states-general
employed him, at a salary of 400 florins a year, to write notes
on the most difficult passages in the Old Testament; but this
work was not published until after his death. As the friend of
DRUSUS
607
Arminius, he was charged by the orthodox and dominant party
with unfairness in the execution of the task, and the last sixteen
years of his life were therefore somewhat embittered by contro-
versy. He carried on an extensive correspondence with the
learned in different countries; for, besides letters in Hebrew,
Greek and other languages, there were found amongst his papers
upwards of 2000 written in Latin. He had a son, John, who
died in England at the age of twenty-one, and was accounted
a prodigy of learning. He had mastered Hebrew at the age of
nine, and Scaliger said that he was a better Hebrew scholar than
his father. He wrote a large number of letters in Hebrew,
besides notes on the Proverbs of Solomon and other works.
Paquot states the number of the printed works and treatises of
the elder Drusius at forty-eight, and of the imprinted at upwards
of twenty. Of the former more than two-thirds were inserted in
the collection entitled Critici sacri, sive annotate doctissimorum
virorum in Vetus et Novum Testamentum (Amsterdam, 1698, in 9
vols. folio, or London, 1660, in 10 vols. folio). Amongst the works
of Drusius not to be found in this collection may be mentioned (l)
Alphabetum Hebraicum vetus (1584, 4to); (2) Tabulae in gramma-
ticam Chaldaicam ad usum juventutis (1602, 8vo) ; (3) An edition
of Sulpicius Severus (Franeker, 1807, I2mo); (4) Opuscula quae ad.
grammaticam spectant omnia (1609, 410) ; (5) Lacrymae in obitum
J. Scaligeri (1609, 4to) ; and (6) Grammatica linguae sanctae nova
(1612, 410).
DRUSUS, MARCUS LIVIUS, Roman statesman, was colleague
of Gaius Gracchus in the tribuneship, 122 B.C. The proposal
of Gracchus (q.v.) to confer the full franchise on the Latins had
been opposed not only by the senate, but also by the mob, who
imagined that their own privileges would thereby be diminished.
Drusus threatened to veto the proposal. Encouraged by this,
the senatorial party put up Drusus to outbid Gracchus. Gracchus
had proposed to found colonies outside Italy; Drusus provided
twelve in Italy, to each of which 3000 citizens were to be sent.
Gracchus had proposed to distribute allotments to the poorer
citizens subject to a state rent-charge; Drusus promised them
free of all charge, and further that they should be inalienable.
In addition to the franchise, immunity from corporal punishment
(even in the field) was promised the Latins. The absence of
Gracchus, and the inefficiency of his representative at Rome,
led to the acceptance of these proposals, which were never
intended to be carried. Drusus himself declined all responsi-
bility in connexion with carrying them out. He was rewarded
for his services by the consulship (112), and the title of patronus
senalus. He received Macedonia for his province, where he
distinguished himself in a campaign against the Scordisci, whom
he drove across the Danube, being the first Roman general who
reached that river. It is possible that he is the Drusus mentioned
by Plutarch as having died in 109, the year of his censorship.
Appian, Bell. Civ. \. 23; Plutarch, Gaius Gracchus, 8-1 1; Florus
iii. 4; A. H. J. Greenidge, Hist, of Rome, vol. i. (1904).
His son, MARCUS LIVIUS DRUSUS, became tribune of the
people in 91 B.C. He was a thoroughgoing conservative, wealthy
and generous, and a man of high integrity. With some of the
more intelligent members of his party (such as Marcus Scaurus
and L. Licinius Crassus the orator) he recognized the need of
reform. At that time an agitation was going on for the transfer
of the judicial functions from the equites to the senate; Drusus
proposed as a compromise a measure which restored to the
senate the office of judices, while its numbers were doubled by
the admission of 300 equites. Further, a special commission
was to be appointed to try and sentence all judices guilty of
taking bribes. But the senate was lukewarm, and the equites,
whose occupation was threatened, offered the most violent
opposition. In order, therefore, to catch the popular votes,
Drusus proposed the establishment of colonies in Italy and
Sicily, and an increased distribution of corn at a reduced rate.
By help of these riders the bill was carried. Drusus now sought
a closer alliance with the Italians, promising them the long-
coveted boon of the Roman franchise. The senate broke out
into open opposition. His laws were abrogated as informal,
and each party armed its adherents for the civil struggle which
was now inevitable. Drusus was stabbed one evening as he was
returning home. His assassin was never discovered.
See Rome: History, ii. " The Republic " (Period C) ; also Appian,
Bell. Civ. i. 35; Florus iii. 17; Diod. Sic. xxxvii. 10; Livy, Epit.
70; Veil. Pat. ii. 13.
DRUSUS, NERQi CLAUDIUS (38-9 B.C.) Roman general,
son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla, stepson of
Augustus and younger brother of the emperor Tiberius. Having
held the office of quaestor and acted as praetor for his brother
during the latter's absence in Gaul, he began (in 15 B.C.) the
military career which has made his name famous. In conjunction
with Tiberius, he carried on a successful campaign against the
Raeti and Vindelici, who, although repulsed from Italy, continued
to threaten the frontiers of Gaul. The credit of the decisive
victory, however, must be assigned to Tiberius. Two of the
Odes of Horace (iv. 4 and 14) were written to glorify the exploits
of the brothers. In 13 Drusus was sent as governor to the
newly organized province of the three Gauls, where considerable
discontent had been aroused by the exactions of the Roman
governor Licinius. Drusus made a fresh assessment for taxation
purposes, and summoned the Gallic representatives to a meeting
at Lugdunum to discuss their grievances. It was of great
importance to pacify the Gauls, in order to have his. hands free
to deal with the German tribes, one of which, the Sugambri,
on the right bank of the Rhine, had seized the opportunity,
during the absence of Augustus, to cross the river (12). Drusus
drove them back and pursued them through the island of the
Batavi and the land of the Usipetes (Usipes, Usipii) to their
own territory, which he devastated. Sailing down the Rhine,
he subdued the Frisii and, in order to facilitate operations against
the Chauci, dug a canal (Fossa Drusiana) leading from the
Rhenus (Rhine) tothelsala (Yssel) 2 into the lacus Flevus (Zuider-
see) and the German Ocean. Making his way along the Frisian
coast, he conquered the island of Burchanis (Borkum), defeated
the Bructeri in a naval engagement on the Amisia (Ems), and
went on to the mouth of the Visurgis (Weser) to attack the Chauci.
On the way back his vessels grounded on the shallows, and were
only got off with the assistance of the Frisii. Winter being close
at hand, the campaign was abandoned till the following spring,
and Drusus returned to Rome with the honour of having been
the first Roman general to reach the German Ocean.
In his second campaign (n), Drusus defeated the Usipetes,
threw a bridge over the Luppia (Lippe), attacked the Sugambri,
and advanced through their territory and that of the Tencteri and
Chatti as far as the Weser, where he gained a victory over the
Cherusci. Lack of provisions, the approach of winter, and an
inauspicious portent prevented him from crossing the Weser.
While making his way back to the Rhine he fell into an ambus-
cade, but the carelessness of the enemy enabled him to inflict a
crushing defeat upon them. In view of future operations, he
built two castles, one at the junction of the Luppia and Aliso
(Alme), the other in the territory of the Chatti on the Taunus,
near Moguntiacum (Mainz).
The third campaign (10) was of little importance. The Chatti
had joined the Sugambri in revolt; and, after some insignificant
successes, Drusus returned with Augustus and Tiberius to Rome,
and was elected consul for the following year. In spite of
unfavourable portents at Rome, he determined to enter upon his
fourth and last campaign (9) without delay. He attacked and
defeated the Chatti, Suebi, Marcomanni and Cherusci, crossed
the Weserand penetrated as faras the Albis (Elbe). Here trophies
were set up to mark the farthest point ever reached by a Roman
army. Various measures were taken to secure the possession
of the conquered territory: fortresses were erected along the Elbe,
Weser and Maas (Meuse, Mosa); a flotilla was placed upon the
Rhine and a dam built upon the right arm of its estuary to in-
crease the flow of water into the canal mentioned above. Drusus
was said to have been deterred from crossing the Elbe by the
sudden appearance of a woman of supernatural size, who pre-
dicted his approaching end. On his return, probably between
the Elbe and the Saale (Sala), his horse stumbled and threw him.
His leg was fractured and he died thirty days after the accident,
1 Originally Decimus.
2 The district extending from Westervoort to Doesborgh.
6o8
DRUSUS CAESAR DRYBURGH ABBEY
on the i4th of September. Suetonius mentions an absurd rumour
that he had been poisoned by order of Augustus, because he had
refused to obey the order for his recall. The body was carried to
the winter quarters of the army, whence it was escorted by
Tiberius to Rome, the procession being joined by Augustus at
Ticinum (Pavia) . Tiberius delivered an oration over the remains
in the Forum, whence they were conveyed to the Campus
Martius and cremated, and ashes being deposited in the mauso-
leum of Augustus.
Drusus was one of the most distinguished men of his time.
His agreeable manners, handsome person and brilliant military
talents gained him the affection of the troops, while his sympathy
with republican principles, endeared him to the people. It is
not too much to say that, had he and his son lived long enough,
they might have brought about the abolition of the monarchy.
Although the successes of Drusus, resulting in the subjection
of the German tribes from the Rhine to the Elbe, were too rapid
to be lasting, they brought home the fact of the existence of
the Romans to many who had never heard their name. For
his victories he received the title of Germanicus. He married
Antonia, the daughter of Marcus Antonius the triumvir, by whom
he had three children: Germanicus, adopted by Tiberius;
Claudius, afterwards emperor; and a daughter Livilla.
The chief ancient authorities for the life of Drusus are Dio Cassius,
the epitomes of Livy, Suetonius (Claudius), Tacitus (portions of the
Annals), Florus (whose chief source is Livy), Velleius Paterculus, and
the Consolatio ad Liviam. The German campaigns were described
in the last books of Livy and the lost Bella Germaniae of the elder
Pliny. As would naturally be expected, they have produced an
extensive literature in Germany, J. Asbach's " Die Feldziige des
Nero Claudius Drusus " (Rhein. Jahrb. Ixxxv. 14-30) being especi-
ally recommended; see also Mommsen's History of the Roman
Provinces, i. ; Merivale, History of the Romans under the Empire,
ch. 36; A. Stein in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopadie (1899), where
other authorities are given; J. C. Tarver, Tiberius the Tyrant
(1902).
DRUSUS CAESAR (c. 15 B.C.-A.D. 23), commonly called Drusus
junior, to distinguish him from his uncle Nero Claudius Drusus,
was the only son of the emperor Tiberius by his first wife Vipsania
Agrippina. After having held several curule offices, he was
consul elect in A.D. 14, the year of Augustus's death. His father,
on his accession to the throne, immediately sent him to put down
a mutiny of the troops in Pannonia, a task which he successfully
accomplished (Tacitus, Annals, i. 24-30). As governor of Illyri-
cum (17), he set the Germanic tribes against one another, and
encouraged Catualda, chief of the Gothones, to drive out Marbod
(Maroboduus), king of the Marcomanni. On his return Drusus
was consul a second time (21) and in the following year received
the tribunician authority from Tiberius, which practically indi-
cated him as heir to the throne. Sejanus, who also aspired
to the supreme power, determined to remove Drusus. He
endeavoured to poison Tiberius's mind against him, seduced
Drusus's wife and persuaded her to assist him in murdering her
husband. Her physician Eudemus prepared and the eunuch
Lygdus administered a slow poison, from the effects of which
Drusus died after a lingering illness. Although Tiberius is said
to have received the news of his death with indifference, there is
no reason to suppose that he had any hand in it; indeed, he
seems to have entertained a genuine affection for his son. Drusus
was a man of violent passions, a drunkard and a debauchee,
but not entirely devoid of better feelings, as is shown by his
undoubtedly sincere grief at the death of Germanicus. The
cunning and reserve which he exhibited on occasion were prob-
ably due to the instructions or influence of Tiberius (Annals,
iii. 8), since he was himself naturally frank and open, and for this
reason, notwithstanding his vices, more popular than his father.
He revelled in bloody gladiatorial displays, and the sharpest
swords used on such occasions were called " Drusine."
See Tacitus, Annals, i. 76, iv. 8-n; Dip Cassius Ivii. 13, 14;
Suetonius, Tiberius, 62; J. C. Tarver, Tiberius the Tyrant (1902).
DRYADES, or HAMADRYADES, in Greek mythology, nymphs
of trees and woods. Each particular tree (Spw) was the home of
its own special Dryad, who was supposed to be born and to
die with it
DRYANDER, JONAS (1748-1810), Swedish botanist, was born
in 1 748. By his uncle, Dr Lars Montin, to whom his education
was entrusted, he was sent to the university of Gothenburg,
whence he removed to Lund. After taking his degree there in
1776, he studied at Upsala under Linnaeus, and then became
for a time tutor to a young Swedish nobleman. He next visited
England, and, on the death of his friend Dr Daniel Charles
Solander (1736-1782), succeeded him as librarian to Sir Joseph
Banks. He was librarian to the Royal Society and also to the
Linnean Society. Of the latter, in 1788, he was one of the
founders, and, when it was incorporated by royal charter in 1802,
he took a leading part in drawing up its laws and regulations.
He was vice-president of the society till his death, which took
place in London on the ipth of October 1810. Besides papers
in the Transactions of the Linnean and other societies, Dryander
published Dissertatio gradualis fungos regno vegetabili vindicans
(Lund, 1776), and Catalogue bib'iothecae historico-naturalis
Josephi Banks, Bart. (London, 1796-1800, 5 vols.). He also
edited the first and part of the second edition of W. Aiton's
Hortus Kewensis and W. Roxburgh's Plants of the Coast of
Coromandel.
DRYBURGH ABBEY, a monastic ruin in the extreme south-
west of Berwickshire, Scotland, about 5 m. S.E. of Melrose, and
iy m. E. of St Boswells station on the North British railway's
Waverley route from Edinburgh to Carlisle. The name has been
derived from the Gaelic darach bruach, " oak bank, " in allusion
to the fact that the Druids once practised their rites here. The
abbey occupies the spot where, about 522, St Modan, an Irish
Culdee, established a sanctuary a secluded position on a tongue
of land washed on three sides by the Tweed. Founded in 1 1 50
by David I. though it has also been ascribed to Hugh de
Morville (d. 1162), lord of Lauderdale and constable of Scotland
it enjoyed great prosperity until 1322, when it was partially
destroyed by the English under Edward II. ' It suffered again at
the hands of Richard II. in 1385, and was reduced to ruin during
the expedition of the earl of Hertford in 1545. After the Refor-
mation the estate was erected into a temporal lordship and given
( 1 604) by James VI. to John Erskine, 2nd earl of Mar. At a later
date it was sold, but reverted to a branch of the Erskines in
1786, when it was acquired by the nth earl of Buchan. In 1700
the abbey lands belonged to Thomas Haliburton, Scott's great-
grandfather, and, but for an extravagant grand-uncle who became
bankrupt and had to part with the property, they would have
descended to Sir Walter by inheritance. " We have nothing left
of Dryburgh," he said, " but the right of stretching our bones
there." The style in general is Early English, but the west door
and the restored entrance from the nave to the cloisters are fine
examples of transitional Norman. Though in various stages of
decay, nearly every one of the monastic buildings is represented
by a fragment. Of the cruciform church 190 ft. long by 75
broad at the transepts there remain some of the outer walls,
a segment of the choir, the east aisle of the north transept, the
stumps of some of the pillars of the nave, the west gable, the
south transept and its adjacent chapel of St Modan. The most
beautiful of these relics is St Mary's aisle of the north transept,
in which were buried Sir Walter Scott (1832), his wife, son, his
son-in-law John Gibson Lockhart, and his ancestors, the Hali-
burtons of New Mains. Sir Walter's tomb is a plain block of
polished Peterhead granite, inscribed only with his name and the
dates of his birth and death. The next aisle is the burial-place
of the Erskines of Shielhill and the Haigs of Bemersyde. On
the south side of the church, at a lower level, stand the cloisters,
about ico ft. square, bounded on the west by the dungeons,
on the south-west by the cellars and refectory, in the west wall
of which is an exquisite ivy-clad rose window, and on the east
by the chapter-house, on a still lower level. The chapter-house,
a lofty building with vaulted roof, is the most complete structure
of the group, and adjoining it on the south are, first the abbot's
parlour and then the library, the three apartments communicat-
ing with each other, and constituting the oldest portion of the
abbey. In the grounds are many venerable trees, a yew near the
chapter- ho use being at least coeval with the abbey.
DRYDEN
609
DRYDEN, JOHN (1631-1700), English poet, born on or about
the pth of August 1631, at Aldwinkle, in Northamptonshire,
was of Cumberland stock, though his family had been settled
for three generations in Northamptonshire, had acquired estates
and a baronetcy, and intermarried with landed families in that
county. His great-grandfather, who first carried the name south,
and acquired by marriage the estate of Canons Ashby, is said
to have known Erasmus, and to have been so proud of the great
scholar's friendship that he gave the name of Erasmus to his
eldest son. The name Erasmus was borne by the poet's father,
the third son of Sir Erasmus Dryden. The leanings and con-
nexions of the family were Puritan and anti-monarchical. Sir
Erasmus Dryden went to prison rather than pay loan money to
Charles I.; the poet's uncle, Sir John Dryden, and his father
Erasmus, served on government commissions during the Com-
monwealth. His mother's family, the Pickerings, were still more
prominent on the Puritan side. Sir Gilbert Pickering, his cousin,
was chamberlain to the Protector, and was summoned to Crom-
well's House of Lords in 1657. A trustworthy tradition asserts
that John Dryden was born at the rectory of Aldwinkle All
Saints, of which his maternal grandfather, Henry Pickering,
was rector.
Dryden's education was such as became a scion of these
respectable families of squires and rectors, among whom the
chance contact with Erasmus had left a certain tradition of
scholarship. His father, whose own fortune, added to his wife's,
was not large, procured for the poet, who was the eldest of
fourteen children, admission to Westminster school as a king's
scholar, under the famous D^r. Busby. Some elegiac verses which
Dry3en wrote there on the death of a schoolfellow, Henry, Lord
Hastings, son of the earl of Huntingdon, in 1649, were published
in Lacrymae Musarum, among other elegies by " divers persons
of nobility and worth " in commemoration of the same event.
He appeared soon after again in print, among writers of com-
mendatory verses to a friend of his, John Hoddesdon, who
published a volume of Epigrams in 1650. Dryden's contribution
is signed " John Dryden of Trinity C.," as he had gone up from
Westminster to Cambridge in May 1650. He was elected a
scholar of Trinity on the Westminster foundation in October of
the same year, and took his degree of B.A. in 1654. The only
recorded incident of his college residence is some unexplained
act of disobedience to the vice-master, for which he was " put
out of commons " and " gated " for a fortnight. His father died
in 1654, leaving him master of two-thirds of a small estate near
Blakesley, worth about 60 a year. The next three years he is
said to have spent at Cambridge. In any case they were spent
somewhere in study; for his first considerable poem bears
indisputable marks of scholarly habits, as well as of a command
of verse that could not have been acquired without practice.
The middle of 1657 is given as the date of his leaving the
university to take up his residence in London. In one of his
many subsequent literary quarrels, it was said by Shadwell that
he had been clerk to Sir Gilbert Pickering, his cousin, who was
chamberlain to Cromwell; and nothing is more likely than that
he obtained some employment under his powerful cousin when
he came to London. He is said to have lived at first in the house
of his first publisher, Herringman, with whom he was connected
till 1679, when Jacob Tonson began to publish his books. He
first emerged from obscurity with his Heroic Stanzas (1659) to the
memory of the Protector. That these stanzas should have made
him a name as a poet does not appear surprising when we compare
them with Waller's verses on the same occasion. Dryden took
some time to consider them, and it was impossible that they
should not give an impression of his intellectual strength. Donne
was his model; it is obvious that both his ear and his imagination
were saturated with Donne's elegiac strains when he wrote;
yet when we look beneath the surface we find unmistakable
traces that the pupil was not without decided theories that ran
counter to the practice of the master. It is plainly not by
accident that each stanza contains one clear-cut brilliant point.
The poem is an academic exercise, and it seems to be animated
by an under-current of strong contumacious protest against the
vm. 20
irregularities tolerated by the authorities. Dryden had studied
the ancient classics for himself, and their method of uniformity
and elaborate finish commended itself to his robust and orderly
mind. In itself the poem is a magnificent tribute to the memory
of Cromwell.
To those who regard the poet as a seer with a sacred mission,
and refuse the name altogether to a literary manufacturer to
order, it comes with a certain shock to find Dryden, the hereditary
Puritan, the panegyrist of Cromwell, hailing the return of King
Charles in Astraea Redux (1660), deploring his long absence,
and proclaiming the despair with which he had seen " the rebel
thrive, the loyal crost." A Panegyric on the Coronation followed
in 1661. From a literary point of view also, Astraea Redux is
inferior to the Heroic Stanzas.
Dryden was compelled to supplement his slender income by
his writings. He naturally first thought of tragedy, his own
genius, as he has informed us, inclining him rather to that species
of composition; and in the first year of the Restoration he wrote
a tragedy on the fate of Henry, duke of Guise. But some friends
advised him that its construction was not suited to the require-
ments of the stage, so he put it aside, and used only one scene
of the original play later on, when he again attempted the subject
with a more practised hand. Having failed to write a suitable
tragedy, he next turned his attention to comedy, although, as
he admitted, he had little natural turn for it. " I confess,"
he said, in a short essay in his own defence, printed before The
Indian Emperor, " my chief endeavours are to delight the age
in which I live. If the humour of this be for low comedy, small
accidents and raillery, I will force my genius to obey it, though
with more reputation I could write in verse. I know I am not
so fitted by nature to write comedy; I want that gaiety of
humour which is required to it. My conversation is slow and
dull; my humour saturnine and reserved; in short, I am none
of those who endeavour to break jests in company or make
repartees. So that those who decry my comedies do me no
injury, except it be in point of profit; reputation in them is the
last thing to which I shall pretend." He was really as well as
ostentatiously a playwright; the age demanded comedies, and
he endeavoured to supply the kind of comedy that the age
demanded. His first attempt was unsuccessful. Bustle, intrigue
and coarsely humorous dialogue seemed to him to be part of the
popular demand; and, looking about for a plot, he found some-
thing to suit him in a Spanish source, and wrote The Wild
Gallant. The play was acted in February 1663, by Thomas
Killigrew's company in Vere Street. It was not a success, and
Pepys showed good judgment in pronouncing the play " so
poor a thing as ever I saw in my life." Dryden never learned
moderation in his humour; there is a student's clumsiness and
extravagance in his indecency; the plays of Etheredge, a man
of the world, have not the uncouth riotousness of Dryden's.
Of this he seems to have been conscious, for when the play was
revived, in 1667, he complained in the epilogue of the difficulty
of comic wit, and admitted the right of a common audience to
judge of the wit's success. Dryden, indeed, took a lesson from
the failure of The Wild Gallant; his next comedy, The Rival
Ladies, also founded on a Spanish plot, produced before the end
of 1663, and printed in the next year, was correctly described by
Pepys as " a very innocent and most pretty witty play," though
there was much in it which the taste of our time would consider
indelicate. But he never quite conquered his tendency to
extravagance. The Wild Gallant was not the only victim. The
Assignation, or Love in a Nunnery, produced in 1673, shared
the same fate; and even as late as 1680, when he had had twenty
years' experience to guide him, The Kind Keeper, or Mr Limber-
ham was prohibited, after three representations, as being too
indecent for the stage. Dislike to indecency we are apt to think
a somewhat ludicrous pretext to be made by Restoration play-
goers, and probably there was some other reason for the sacrifice
of Limberham; still there is a certain savageness in the spirit
of Dryden's indecency which we do not find in his most licentious
contemporaries. The undisciplined force of the man carried
him to an excess from which more dexterous writers held back.
6io
DRYDEN
After the production of The Rival Ladies in 1663, Dryden
assisted Sir Robert Howard in the composition of a tragedy in
heroic verse, The Indian Queen, produced with great splendour
in January 1664. He married Lady Elizabeth Howard, Sir
Robert's sister and daughter of the ist earl of Berkshire, on the
ist of December 1663. Lady Elizabeth's reputation was some-
what compromised before this union, which was not a happy one,
and there is some evidence for the scandal in a letter written by
her before her marriage to Philip, 2nd earl of Chesterfield. The
Indian Queen was a great success, one of the greatest since the
reopening of the theatres. This was in all likelihood due much
less to the heroic verse and the exclusion of comic scenes from
the tragedy than to the magnificent scenic accessories the
battles and sacrifices on the stage, the spirits singing in the air,
and the god of dreams ascending through a trap. The novelty
of these Indian spectacles, as well as of the Indian characters,
with the splendid Queen Zempoalla, acted by Mrs Marshall in
a real Indian dress of feathers presented to her by Mrs Aphra
Behn, as the centre of the play, was the chief secret of the success
of The Indian Queen. These melodramatic properties were so
marked a novelty that they could not fail to draw the town.
Dryden was tempted to return to tragedy; he followed up
The Indian Queen with The Indian Emperor, or the Conquest of
Mexico by the Spaniards, which was acted in 1665, and also proved
a success.
But Dryden was not content with writing tragedies in rhymed
verse. He took up the question of the propriety of rhyme in
serious plays immediately after the success of The Indian Queen,
in the preface to an edition (1664) of The Rival Ladies. In that
first statement of his case, he considered the chief objection to
the use of rhyme, and urged his chief argument in its favour.
Rhyme was not natural, some people had said; to which he
answers that it is as natural as blank verse, and that much of
its unnaturalness is not the fault of the rhyme but of the writer,
who has not sufficient command of language to rhyme easily.
In favour of rhyme he has to say that it at once stimulates the
imagination, and prevents it from being too discursive in its
flights.
During the Great Plague, when the theatres were closed, and
Dryden was living at Charlton, Wiltshire, at the seat of his
father-in-law, the earl of Berkshire, he occupied a considerable
part of his time in thinking over the principles of dramatic com-
position, and threw his conclusions into the form of a dialogue,
which he called an Essay of Dramatick Poesie and published in
1668. The essay takes the form of a dialogue between Neander
(Dryden), Eugenius (Charles, Lord Buckhurst, afterwards earl
of Dorset), Crites (Sir R. Howard), and Lisideius (Sir C. Sedley),
who is made responsible for the famous definition of a play as a
" just and lively image of human nature, representing its passions
and humours, and the changes of fortune to which it is subject,
for the delight and instruction of mankind." Dryden's form
is of course borrowed from the ancients, and his main source
is the critical work of Corneille in the prefaces and discourses
contained in the edition of 1660, but he was well acquainted
with the whole body of contemporary French and Spanish
criticism. Crites maintains the superiority of the classical
drama; Lisideius supports the exacting rules of French dramatic
writing; Neander defends the English drama of the preced-
ing generations, including, in a long speech, an examination of
Ben Jonson's Silent Woman. Neander argues, however, that
English drama has much to gain by the observance of exact
methods of construction without abandoning entirely the liberty
which English writers had always claimed. He then goes on to
defend the use of rhyme in serious drama. Howard had argued
against the use of rhyme in a " preface " to Four New Plays
(1665), which had furnished the excuse for Dryden's essay.
Howard replied to Dryden's essay in a preface to The Duke of
Lerma (1668). Dryden at once replied in a masterpiece of
sarcastic retort and vigorous reasoning, A Defence of an Essay of
Dramatique Poesie, prefixed to the second edition (1668) of The
Indian Emperor. It is the ablest and most complete statement of
his views about the employment of rhymed couplets in tragedy.
Before his return to town at the end of 1666, when the theatres
(which had been closed during the disasters of 1665 and 1666)
were reopened, Dryden wrote a poem on the Dutch war and the
Great Fire entitled Annus Mirabilis. The poem is in quatrains,
the metre of his Heroic Stanzas in praise of Cromwell, which
Dryden chose, he tells us, " because he had ever judged it more
noble and of greater dignity both for the sound and number
than any other verse in use amongst us." The preface to the
poem contains an interesting discussion of what he calls " wit-
writing," introduced by the remark that " the composition of all
poems is or ought to be of wit." His description of the Great
Fire is a famous specimen of this wit-writing, much more
careless and daring, and much more difficult to sympathize
with, than the graver conceits in his panegyric of the Pro-
tector. In Annus Mirabilis the poet apostrophizes the newly
founded Royal Society, of which he had been elected a member
in 1662.
From the reopening of the theatres in 1666 till November
1681, the date of his Absalom and Achitophel, Dryden produced
nothing but plays. The stage was his chief source of income.
Secret Love, or the Maiden Queen, a tragi-comedy, produced in
March 1667, was based on an episode in the Artamene, ou le
Grand Cyrus of Mile de Scudery, the historical original of the
" Maiden Queen" being Christina, queen of Sweden. The pro-
logue claims that the piece is written with pains and thought,
by the exactest rules, with strict observance of the unities,
and " a mingled chime of Jonson's humour and of Corneille's
rhyme "; but it owed its success chiefly to the charm of Nell
Gwyn's acting in the part of Florimel. It is noticeable that
only the more passionate parts of the dialogue are rhymed,
Dryden's theory apparently being that rhyme is then demanded
for the elevation of the style. His next play, Sir Martin Mar-all,
or the Feigned Innocence, an adaptation in prose of the duke
of Newcastle's translation of Moliere's L'Etourdi, was produced
at the Duke's theatre, without the author's name, in 1667. It
was about this time that Dryden became a retained writer
under contract for the King's theatre, receiving from it 300
or 400 a year, till it was burnt down in 1672, and about 200
for six years more till the beginning of 1678. His co-operation
with Davenant in a new version (1667) of Shakespeare's Tempest
for his share in which Dryden can hardly be pardoned on the
ground that the chief alterations were happy thoughts of Dave-
nant's, seeing that he affirms he never worked at anything with
more delight must also be supposed to be anterior to the
completion of his contract with the Theatre Royal. He was
engaged to write three plays a year, and he contributed only
ten plays during the ten years of his engagement, finally ex-
hausting the patience of his partners by joining in the composi-
tion of a play for the rival house. In adapting L'Etourdi,
Dryden did not catch Moliere's lightness of touch; his alterations
go towards making the comedy into a farce. Perhaps all the
more on this account Sir Martin Mar-all had a great run at
the theatre in Lincoln's Inn Fields. There is always a certain
coarseness in Dryden's humour, apart from the coarseness of
his age, a certain forcible roughness of touch which belongs
to the character of the man. His An Evening's Love, or the Mock
Astrologer, an adaptation from Le Feint Astrologue of the younger
Corneille, produced at the King's theatre in 1668, seemed to
Pepys " very smutty, and nothing so good as The Maiden Queen
or The Indian Emperor of Dryden's making." Evelyn thought
it foolish and profane, and was grieved " to see how the stage
was degenerated and polluted by the licentious times." Ladies
a la Mode, another of Dryden's cgntract comedies, produced in
1668, was " so mean a thing," Pepys says, that it was only once
acted, and Dryden never published it. Of his other comedies,
Marriage a la Mode (produced 1672), The Assignation, or Love
in a Nunnery (1673), The Kind Keeper, or Mr Limberham (1678),
only the first was moderately successful.
While Dryden met with such indifferent success in his willing
efforts to supply the demand of the age for low comedy, he
struck upon a really popular and profitable vein in heroic
tragedy. Tyrannic Love, or the Royal Martyr, a Roman play
DRYDEN
611
dealing with the persecution of the Christians by Maximin, in
which St Catherine is introduced, and with her some supernatural
machinery, was produced in 1669. It is in rhymed couplets,
but the author again did not trust solely for success to them;
for, besides the magic incantations, the singing angels, and the
view of Paradise, he made Nell Gwyn, who had stabbed herself
as Valeria, start to life again as she was being carried off the
stage, and speak a riotous epilogue, in violent contrast to the
serious character of the play. Almanzor and Almahide, or the
Conquest of Granada, a tragedy in two parts, was written in 1669
to 1670. The historical background is taken chiefly from Mile de
Scudery's romance of Almahide, but Dryden borrows freely from
other books of hers and her contemporaries. This piece seems
to have given the crowning touch of provocation to the wits,
who had never ceased to ridicule the popular taste for these
extravagant heroic plays. Dryden almost invited burlesque
in his epilogue to the second part of The Conquest of Granada,
in which he charged the comedy of the Elizabethan age with
coarseness and mechanical humour, and its conceptions of
love and honour with meanness, and claimed for his own time
and his own plays an advance in these respects. The Rehearsal,
written by the duke of Buckingham, with the assistance, it
was said, of Samuel Butler, Martin Clifford, Thomas Sprat and
others, and produced in 1671, was a severe and just punishment
for this boast. Davenant was originally the hero, but on his
death in 1668 the satire was turned upon Dryden, who is here
unmercifully ridiculed under the name of Bayes, the name being
justified by his appointment in 1670 as poet laureate and historio-
grapher to the king (with a pension of 300 a year and a butt
of canary wine). It is said that The Rehearsal was begun in
1663 and ready for representation before the plague. But this
probably only means that Buckingham and his friends had
resolved to burlesque the absurdities of Davenant's operatic
heroes in The Siege of Rhodes, and the extravagant heroics of
The Indian Queen. Materials accumulated upon them as the
fashion continued, and by the time Dryden had produced his
Tyrannic Love, and his Conquest of Granada, he had so established
himself as the chief offender as to become naturally the central
figure of the burlesque. Later Dryden fully avenged himself
on Buckingham by his portrait of Zimri in Absalom and Achito-
phel. His immediate reply is contained in the preface " Of
Heroic Plays " and the " Defence of the Epilogue," printed in
the first edition (1672) of his Conquest of Granada. In these, so
far from laughing with his censors, he addresses them from the
eminence of success. " But I have already swept the stakes;
and, with the common good fortune of prosperous gamesters,
can be content to sit quietly; to hear my fortune cursed by some,
and my faults arraigned by others, and to suffer both without
reply." Heroic verse, he assures them, is so established that few
tragedies are likely henceforward to be written in any other
metre. In the course of a year or two The Conquest of Granada
was attacked also by Elkanah Settle, on whom Dryden revenged
himself later, making him the " Doeg " of the second part of
Absalom and Achitophel.
His next tragedy, Amboyna (1673), an exhibition of certain
atrocities committed by the Dutch on English merchants in
the East Indies, put on the stage to inflame the public mind in
view of the Dutch war, was written, with the exception of a few
passages, in prose, and those passages in blank verse. An opera
which he wrote in rhymed couplets, called The State of Innocence,
and Fall of Man, an attempt to turn part of Paradise Lost into
rhyme, as a proof of its superiority to blank verse, was prefaced
by an " Apology for Heroique Poetry and Poetique Licence,"
and entered at Stationers' Hall in 1674, but it was never acted.
The redeeming circumstance about the performance is the
admiration professed by the adapter for his original, which he
pronounces " undoubtedly one of the greatest, most noble and
most sublime poems ~which either this age or nation has pro-
duced." Dryden is said to have had the elder poet's leave " to
tag his verses." In Aurengzebe, which was Dryden's last, and
also his best, rhymed tragedy, he borrowed from contemporary
history, for the Great Mogul was still living. In the prologue
he confessed that he had grown weary of his long-loved mistress
rhyme and retracted, with characteristic frankness, his disparag-
ing contrast of the Elizabethan with his own age. But the stings
of The Rehearsal had stimulated him to do his utmost to justify
his devotion to his mistress, and he claims that Aurengzebe is
" the most correct " of his plays. It was entered at Stationers'
Hall and probably acted in 1675, and published in the following
year.
After the production of Aurengzebe he seems to have rested
for an interval from writing, enabled to do so, probably by an
additional pension of 100 granted to him by the king. During
this interval he would seem to have reconsidered the principles
of dramatic composition, and to have made a particular study of
the works of Shakespeare. The fruits of this appeared in All
for Love, or the World Well Lost, a version of the story of Antony
and Cleopatra, produced in 1678, which must be regarded as
a very remarkable departure for a man of his age, and a wonderful
proof of undiminished openness and plasticity of mind. In his
previous writings on dramatic theory, Dryden, while admiring
the rhyme of the French dramatists as an advance in art, did
not give unqualified praise to the regularity of their plots; he
was disposed to allow the irregular structure of the Elizabethan
dramatists, as being more favourable to variety both of action
and of character. But now, in frank imitation of Shakespeare,
he abandoned rhyme, and, if we might judge from All for Love,
and the precepts laid down in his " Grounds of Criticism in
Tragedy," prefixed to Troilus and Cressida (1679), the chief
point in which he aimed at excelling the Elizabethans was in
giving greater unity to his plot. He upheld still the superiority
of Shakespeare to the French dramatists in the delineation of
character, but he thought that the scope of the action might be
restricted, and the parts bound more closely together with
advantage. All far Love and Antony and Cleopatra are two
excellent plays for the comparison of the two methods. Dryden
gave all his strength to All for Love, writing the play for himself,
as he said, and not for the public. Carrying out the idea ex-
pressed in the title, he represents the two lovers as being more
entirely under the dominion of love than Shakespeare's Antony
and Cleopatra. Shakespeare's Antony is moved by other im-
pulses than the passion for Cleopatra; it is his master motive,
but it has to maintain a struggle for supremacy; " Roman
thoughts " strike in upon him even in the very height of the
enjoyment of his mistress's love, he chafes under the yoke, and
breaks away from her of his own impulse at the call of spontane-
ously reawakened ambition. Dryden's Antony is so deeply sunk
in love that no other impulse has power to stir him; it takes
much persuasion and skilful artifice to detach him from Cleopatra
even in thought, and his soul returns to her violently before the
rupture has been completed. On the other hand, Dryden's
Cleopatra is so completely enslaved by love for Antony that she
is incapable of using the calculated caprices and meretricious
coquetries which Shakespeare's Cleopatra deliberately practises
as the highest art of love, the surest way of maintaining her
empire over her great captain's heart. It is with difficulty that
Dryden's Cleopatra will agree, on the earnest solicitation of a
wily counsellor, to feign a liking for Dolabella to excite Antony's
jealousy, and she cannot keep up the pretence through a few
sentences. The characters of the two lovers are thus very much
contracted, indeed almost overwhelmed, beneath the pressure of
the one ruling motive. And as Dryden thus introduces a greater
regularity of character into the drama, so he also very much
contracts the action, in order to give probability to this temporary
subjugation of individual character. The action of Dryden's
play takes place wholly in Alexandria, within the compass of
a few days; it does not, like Shakespeare's, extend over several
years, and present incessant changes of scene. Dryden chooses,
as it were, a fragment of a historical action, a single moment
during which motives play within a narrow circle, the culminating
point in the relations between his two personages. He devotes
his whole play, also, to those relations; only what bears upon
them is admitted. In Shakespeare's play we get a certain
historical perspective, in which the love of Antony and Cleopatra
6l2
DRYDEN
appears in its true proportions beneath the firmament that
overhangs human affairs. In Dryden's play this love is our
universe; all the other concerns of the world retire into a
shadowy, indistinct background. If we rise from a comparison
of the plays with an impression that the Elizabethan drama is a
higher type of drama, taking Dryden's own definition of the
word as " a just and lively image of human nature," we rise also
with an impression of Dryden's power such as we get from
nothing else that he had written since his Heroic Stanzas, twenty
years before.
It was twelve years before Dryden produced another tragedy
worthy of the power shown in All for Love. Don Sebastian was
acted and published in 1690. In the interval, to sum up briefly
Dryden's work as a dramatist, he wrote Oedipus (pr. 1679) and
The Duke of Guise (pr. 1683) in conjunction with Nathaniel Lee;
Troilus and Cressida (1679); The Spanish Friar (1681); Albion
and Albanius, an opera (1685); Amphitryon (1690). In Troilus
and Cressida he follows Shakespeare closely in the plot, but the
dialogue is rewritten throughout, and not for the better. The
versification and the language of the first and the third acts of
Oedipus, which with the general plan of the play were Dryden's
contribution to the joint work, bear marked evidence of his
recent study of Shakespeare. The Duke of Guise provided an
obvious parallel with contemporary English politics. Henry III.
was identified with Charles II., and Monmouth with the duke.
The lord chamberlain refused to license it until the political
situation was less disturbed. The plot of Don Sebastian is more
intricate than that of All for Love. It has also more of the
characteristics of his heroic dramas; the extravagance of
sentiment and the suddenness of impulse remind us occasionally
of The Indian Emperor; but the characters are much more
elaborately studied than in Dryden's earlier plays, and the verse
is sinewy and powerful. It would be difficult to say whether Don
Sebastian or All for Love is his best play; they share the palm
between them. Dryden's subsequent plays are not remarkable.
Their titles and dates are King Arthur, an opera (1691), for
which Purcell wrote the music; Cleomenes (1692); Love
Triumphant (1694).
Soon after Dryden's abandonment of heroic couplets in tragedy,
he found new and more congenial work for his favourite instru-
ment in satire. As usual the idea was not original to Dryden,
though he struck in with his majestic step and energy divine,
and immediately took the lead. The pioneer was Mulgrave in
his Essay on Satire, an attack on Rochester and the court,
which was circulated in MS. in 1679. Dryden himself was
suspected of the authorship, and it is not impossible that he gave
some help hi revising it; but it is not likely that he attacked
the king on whom he was dependent for the greater part of his
income, and Mulgrave in a note to his Art of Poetry in 1717
expressly asserts Dryden's ignorance. Dryden, however, was
attacked in Rose Street, Covent Garden, and severely cudgelled
by a company of ruffians who were generally supposed to have
been hired by Rochester. In the same year Oldham's satire on
the Jesuits had immense popularity, chiefly owing to the excite-
ment about the Popish plot. Dryden took the field as a satirist
towards the close of 1 68 1, on the side of the court, at the moment
when Shaftesbury, baffled hi his efforts to exclude the duke of
York from the throne as a papist, and secure the succession of
the duke of Monmouth, was waiting his trial for high treason.
Absalom and Achitophel produced a 'great stir. Nine editions
were sold in rapid succession in the course of a year. There was
no compunction in Dryden's ridicule and invective. Delicate
wit was not one of Dryden's gifts; the motions of his .weapon
were sweeping, and the blows hard and trenchant. The advan-
tage he had gained by his recent studies of character was fully
used in his portraits of Shaftesbury and Buckingham, Achitophel
and Zimri. In these portraits he shows considerable art in the
introduction of redeeeming traits to the general outline of
malignity and depravity. It is not impossible that the fact
that his pension had not been paid since the beginning of 1680
weighed with him in writing this satire to gain the favour of the
court. In a play produced in 1681, The Spanish Friar, he had
written on the other side, gratifying the popular feeling by
attacking the Roman Catholic priesthood.
Three other satires followed Absalom and Achitophel, one of
them hardly inferior in point of literary power. The Medall; a
Satyr e against Sedition (March 1682) was written in ridicule of
the medal struck to commemorate Shaftesbury's acquittal.
Then Dryden had to take vengeance on the literary champions
of the Whig party who had opened upon him with all their
artillery. Their leader, Shadwell, had attacked him in The
Medal of John Bayes, which Dryden answered in October 1682
by Mac Flecknoe, or a Satyr upon the True-Blew Protestant Poet,
T.S. This satire, in which Shadwell filled the title-role, served
as the model of the Dunciad. To the second part of Absalom
and Achitophel (November 1682), written chiefly by NahumTate,
he contributed a long passage of invective against Robert
Ferguson, one of Monmouth's chief advisers, Elkanah Settle,
Shadwell and others. Religio Laid, which appeared in the same
month, though nominally an exposition of a layman's creed,
and deservedly admired as such, was not without a political
purpose. It attacked the Papists, but declared the " fanatics "
to be still more dangerous.
Dryden's next poem in heroic couplets was in a different strain.
On the accession of James, in 1685, he became a Roman Catholic.
There has been much discussion as to whether this conversion
was or was not sincere. It can only be said that the coincidence
between his change of faith and his change of patron was sus-
picious, and that Dryden's character for consistency is certainly
not of a kind to quench suspicion. The force of the coincidence
cannot be removed by such pleas as that his wife had been a
Roman Catholic for several years, or that he was converted by
his son, who was converted at Cambridge, even if there were
any evidence for these statements. Scott defended Dryden's con-
version, as Macaulay denounced it, from party motives. It is
worth while, however, to notice that in his earlier defence of the
English Church he exhibits a desire for the definite guidance of a
presumably infallible creed, and the case for the Roman Church
brought forward at the time may have appeared convincing to a
mind singularly open to new impressions. At the same time
nothing can be clearer than that Dryden always regarded his
literary powers as a means of subsistence, and had little scruple
about accepting a brief on any side. The Hind and the Panther,
published in 1687, is an ingenious argument for Roman Catholi-
cism, put into the mouth of " a milk-white hind, immortal and
unchanged." There is considerable beauty in the picture of this
tender creature, and its enemies in the forest are not spared.
One can understand the admiration that the poem received
when such allegories were in fashion. It was the chief cause
of the veneration with which Dryden was regarded by Pope,
who, himself educated in the Roman Catholic faith, was taken
as a boy of twelve to see the veteran poet in his chair of honour
and authority at Wills's coffee-house. It was also very open to
ridicule, and was treated in this spirit by Prior and Montagu, the
future earl of Halifax, in The Hind and the Panther transversed
to the story of the Country Mouse and the City Mouse. Dryden's
other literary services to James were a savage reply to Stilling-
fleet who had attacked two papers published by the king
immediately after his accession, one said to have been written
by his late brother in advocacy of the Church of Rome, the
other by his late wife explaining the reasons for her conversion
and a translation of a life of Xavier in prose. He had written
also a panegyric of Charles, Threnodia Augustalis, and a poem
in honour of the birth of James II. 's heir, under the title of
Britannia rediviva (1688).
Dryden did not abjure his new faith on the Revolution, and
so lost his office and pension as laureate and historiographer
royal. For this act of constancy he deserves credit, if the new
powers would have considered his services worth having after
his frequent apostasies. His rival Shadwell reigned in his stead.
Dryden was once more thrown mainly upon his pen for support.
He turned again to the stage and wrote the plays already enumer-
ated. A great feature in the last decade of his life was his
translations from the classics. Ovid's Epistles translated appeared
DRYOPITHECUS DUALISM
613
in \ 1680; and numerous translations from Virgil, Horace,
Ovid, Lucretius and Theocritus appeared in the four volumes
of Miscellany Poems Miscellany Poems (1684), Sylvae (1685),
Examen poeticum (1693), The Annual Miscellany (1694 by the
"most eminent hands"); in 1693 was published the verse
translation of the Satires of Juvenal and of Persius by " Mr
Dryden and several other eminent hands," which contained his
" Discourse concerning the Original and Progress of Satire ";
and in 1697 Jacob Tonson published his most important transla-
tion, The Works of Virgil. The book, which was the result of
three years' labour, was a vigorous, rather than a close, rendering
of Virgil into the style of Dryden. Among other notable poems
of this period are the two " Songs for St Cecilia's Day," written
for a London musical society for 1687 and 1697, and published
separately. The second of these is the famous ode on " Alex-
ander's Feast." The well-known paraphrase of Veni, Creator
Spiritus was posthumously printed, and his " Ode to the memory
of Anne Killigrew," called by Dr Johnson the noblest ode in the
language, was written in 1686.
His next work was to render some of Chaucer's and Boccaccio's
tales and Ovid's Metamorphoses into his own verse. These trans-
lations appeared in November 1699, a few months before his
death, and are known by the title of Fables, Ancient and Modern.
The preface, which is an admirable example of Dryden's prose,
contains an excellent appreciation of Chaucer, and, incident-
ally, an answer to Jeremy Collier's attack on the stage. Thus
a large portion of the closing years of Dryden's life was spent
in translating fotbread. He had a windfall of 500 guineas from
Lord Abingdon for a poem on the death of his wife in 1691,
and he received liberal presents from his cousin John Driden
and from the duke of Ormonde, but generally he was in con-
siderable pecuniary straits. Besides, his three sons held various
posts in the service of the pope at Rome, and he could not
well be on good terms with both courts. ''However, he was not
molested in London by the government, and in private he was
treated with the respect due to his bid age and his admitted
position as the greatest of living Enjlishjaoets,. He held a small
court at Wills's coffee-house^" where he spent his evenings;
here he had a chair by the fire in winter and by the window in
summer; Congreve, Vanbrugh and Addison were among his
admirers, and here Pope saw the old poet of whom he was to be
the most brilliant disciple. He died at his house in Gerrard
Street, London, on the ist of May 1700 and was buried on the
I3th of the month in Westminster Abbey. Dryden's portrait,
by Sir G. Kneller, is in the National Portrait Gallery.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The Comedies, Tragedies and Operas written by
John Dryden, Esq. (2 vols., 1701) was published by Tonson, who
also issued the poet's Dramatick Works (6 vols., 1717), edited
by Congreve. Poems on Various Occasions and Translations from
Several Authors (i 701), also published by Tonson, was very incomplete,
and although other editions followed there was no satisfactory col-
lection until the edition of the Works (18 vols., 1808, 2nd ed. 1821)
by Sir Walter Scott, who supplied historical and critical notes with a
life of the author. This, as revised and corrected by G. Saintsbury
(18 vols., Edinburgh, 1882-1893), remains the standard edition.
His Critical and Miscellaneous Prose Works (4 vols., 1800) were
edited by Edmund Malone, who collected industriously the materials
for a life of Dryden. Convenient partial modern editions are the
Poetical Works (Globe edition, 1870) edited by W. D. Christie with
an excellent "life"; The Best Plays of John- Dryden (Mermaid
series, 2 vols.), edited by G. Saintsbury ; and Essays of John Dryden
(2 vols., 1900, Oxford), edited by W. P. Ker. Besides the critical
and biographical matter in these editions see Dr Johnson's Lives
of the Poets; Dryden (English Men of Letters series, 1881), by G.
Saintsbury; A. Beljame, Le Public et les hommes de lettres en Angle-
terre 1660-1744 (2nd ed. Paris, 1897); A. W. Ward, History of
English Dramatic Literature (new ed. 1899), vol. iii. pp. 346-392;
J. Churton Collins, Essays and Studies; W. J. Courthope, History
of English Poetry, vol. iv. (1903), chap, xiv., and L. N. Chase,
The English Heroic Play (New York, 1903). See also ENGLISH
LITERATURE. (W. M.; M. BR.)
DRYOPITHECUS (Gr. dpvs, oak, 7ri0i?/cos, ape, " the ape of the
oak-woods "), the name of an extinct ape or monkey from
Miocene deposits of France, believed to be allied to the baboons,
but perhaps with some affinity to the higher apes.
DRY ROT, a fungoid disease in timber which occasions the
destruction of its fibres, and reduces it eventually to a mass of dry
dust. It is produced most readily in a warm, moist, stagnant
atmosphere, while common or wet rot is the result of the exposure
of wood to repeated changes of climatic conditions. The most
formidable of the dry rot fungi is the species Merulius lacrytnans,
which is particularly destructive of coniferous wood; other
species are Polyporus hybridus, which thrives in oak-built ships,
and P. destructor and Thelephora puteana, found in a variety of
wooden structures.
The felling of trees when void of fresh sap, as a means of obviat-
ing the rotting of timber, is a practice of very ancient origin.
Vitruvius directs (ii. cap. 9) that, to secure good timber, trees
should be cut to the pith, so as to allow of the escape of their
sap, which by dying in the wood would injure its quality; also
that felling should take place only from early autumn until the
end of winter. The supposed superior quality of wood cut in
winter, and the early practice in England of felling oak timber at
that season, may be inferred from a statute of James I., which
enacted " that no person or persons shall fell, or cause to be felled,
any oaken trees meet to be barked, when bark is worth zs. a cart-
load (timber for the needful building and reparation of houses,
ships or mills only excepted), but between the first day of April
and last day of June, not even for the king's use, out of barking
time, except for building or repairing his Majesty's houses or
ships." In giving testimony before a committee of the House
of Commons in March 1771, Mr Barnard of Deptford expressed
it as his opinion that to secure durable timber for shipbuilding,
trees should be barked in spring and not felled till the succeeding
winter. In France, so long ago as 1669, a royal decree limited
the felling of timber from the ist of October to the isth of April;
and, in an order issued to the commissioners of forests, Napoleon
I. directed that the felling of naval timber should take place only
from November i to March 15, and during the decrease of the
moon, on account of the rapid decay of timber, through the
fermentation of its sap, if cut at other seasons. The burying
of wood in water, which dissolves out or alters its putrescible
constituents, has long been practised as a means of seasoning.
The old " Resistance " frigate, which went down in Malta
harbour, remained under water for some months, and on being
raised was found to be entirely freed from the dry rot fungus that
had previously covered her; similarly, in the ship " Eden,"
the progress of rot was completely arrested by 18 months'
submergence in Plymouth Sound, so that after remaining a
year at home in excellent condition she was sent out to the
East Indies. It was an ancient practice in England to place
timber for thrashing-floors and oak planks for wainscotting in
running water to season them. Whale and other oils have been
recommended for the preservation of wood; and in 1737 a
patent for the employment of hot oil was taken out by a
Mr Emerson.
For the modern processes of preserving timber see TIMBER.
DUALISM (from rare Lat. dualis, containing two, from duo),
a philosophical term apph'ed to all theories which attempt to
explain facts by reference to two coexistent principles. The
term plays an important part in metaphysical, ethical and
theological speculation.
In Metaphysics. Metaphysical dualism postulates the eter-
nal coexistence of mind and matter, as opposed to monism
both idealistic and materialistic. Two forms of this dualism
are held. On the one hand it is said that mind and matter
are absolutely heterogeneous, and, therefore, that any causal
relation between them is ex hypothesi impossible. On the other
hand is a hypothetical dualism, according to which it is held
that mind cannot bridge over the chasm so far as to know matter
in itself, though it is compelled by its own laws of cause and
effect to postulate matter as the origin, if not the motive cause,
of its sensations. It follows that, for the thinking mind, matter
is a necessary hypothesis. Hence the theory is a kind of monism,
inasmuch as it confessedly does not assert the existence of matter
save as an intellectual postulate for the thinking mind. Matter,
in other words, must be assumed to exist, though mind cannot
know it in itself. From this question there emerges a second
and more difficult problem. Consciousness, it is held, is of two
614
DUALLA DU BARRY
main kinds, sensation and reason. Sensation alone is insufficient
to explain all our intellectual phenomena; all sensation is
momentary and individual (cf. EMPIRICISM). How then are we
to account for memory and the principles of necessity, similarity,
universality? It is argued that there must be in the mind an
enduring, primary faculty whereby we retain, compare and
group the presentations of sense. This faculty is a priori,
transcendental, and entirely separate from all the data of ex-
perience and sense-perception. Here then we have a dualism
within experience. The mind is not to be regarded as a sensitized
film which automatically records the impressions of the senses.
It contains within itself this modifying critical faculty which
reacts upon and arranges the sense-given presentations.
In Ethics and Theology. In the domain of morals, dualism
postulates the separate existence of Good and Evil, as principles
of existence. In theology the appearance of dualism is sporadic
and has not the fundamental, determining importance which it
has in metaphysics. It is a result rather than a starting-point.
The old Zoroastrianism, and those Christian sects (e.g. Mani-
chaeism) which were influenced by it, postulate two contending
deities Ormuzd and Ahriman (Good and Evil), which war
against one another in influencing the conduct of men. So, in
Christianity, the existence of Satan as an evil influence, antago-
nistic to God, involves a kind of dualism. But generally speaking
this dualism is permissive, inasmuch as it is always held that God
will triumph over Satan in His own time. So in Zoroastrianism
the dualism is not ultimate, for Ahriman and Ormuzd are
represented as the twin sons of Zervana Akarana, i.e. limitless
time, wherein both will be finally absorbed. The postulate of an
Evil Being arises from the difficulty, at all times acutely felt by
a certain type of mind, of reconciling the existence of evil with
the divine attributes of perfect goodness, full knowledge and
infinite power. John Stuart Mill (Essay on Religion) preferred
to disbelieve in the omnipotence of God rather than forgo the
belief in His goodness. It follows from such a view that Satan
is not the creation of God, but rather a power coeval in origin,
over whose activity God has no absolute control.
In Theology. Dualism is also used in a Special theological
sense to describe a doctrine of the Nestorian heresy. According
to this doctrine the personality of Christ is twofold; the divine
Logos dwells as a distinct personality in the man Jesus Christ,
the union of the two natures being analogous to the relation
between the believer and the indwelling Holy Spirit.
History of the Doctrine. The earliest European thinkers
(see IONIAN SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY) endeavoured to reduce
all the facts of the universe to a single material origin, such as
Fire, Water, Air. It is only gradually that there appears any
recognition of a spiritual principle exercising a modifying or
causal influence over inert matter. Anaxagoras was the first
to postulate the existence of Reason (vovs) as the source of
change and progress. Yet even he did not conceive this Reason
as incorporeal; it was in reality only the most highly rarefied
form of matter in existence. In Plato for the first time we find
a truly dualistic conception of the universe. Asserting that
Ideas alone really exist, he yet found it necessary to postulate
a second principle of not-being, the groundwork of sensuous
existence and of imperfection and evil. Herein he identified
metaphysics and ethics, combining the good with the truly
existent and evil with the non-existent. Aristotle rebels against
this conception and substitutes the idea of irp&ni v\ij and develop-
ment. Nevertheless he does not escape from the dualism of
Form and Matter, vovs and v\ij. The scholastic philosophers
naturally held dualistic views resulting from their extreme
devotion to formalism. This blind dualism found its natural
consequence in the revolt of the Renaissance thinkers, Bruno
and Paracelsus, who asserted the unity of mind and matter in
all existence and were the precursors of the more intelligent
monism of Leibnitz and the scientific metaphysics of his suc-
cessors. The birth of modern physical science on the other
hand in the investigations of Bacon and Descartes obscured the
metaphysical issue by the predominance of the mechanical
principles of natural philosophy. They attempted to explain
the fundamental problems of existence by the unaided evidence
of the new natural science. Thus Descartes maintained the
absolute dualism of the res cogitans and the res extensa. Spinoza
realized the flaw in the division and preferred to postulate
behind mind and matter a single substance (unica substanlia)
while Leibnitz explained the universe as a harmony of spiritual
or semispiritual principles. Kant practically abandons the
problem. He never really establishes a relation between pure
reason and things-in-themselves (Dinge an sich), but rather seeks
refuge in a dualism within consciousness, the transcendental
and the empirical. Since Kant there are, therefore, two streams
of dualism, dealing, one with the radical problem of the relation
between mind and matter, the other with the relation between
the pure rational and the empirical elements within consciousness.
To the first problem there is one obvious and conclusive answer,
namely that matter in itself is inherently unthinkable and comes
within the vision of the mind only as an intellectual presentation.
It follows that philosophy is in a sense both dualist and monist;
it is a cosmic dualism inasmuch as it admits the possible existence
of matter as a hypothesis, though it denies the possibility of any
true knowledge of it, and is hence in regard of the only possible
knowledge an idealistic monism. It is a self-destructive dualism,
a confessedly one-sided monism, agnostic as to the fundamental
problem. To the second problem there are two main answers,
that of Associationism which denies to the mind any a priori.
existence and asserts that sensation is the only source of know-
ledge, and that which admits the existence of both transcen-
dental and empirical knowledge.
DUALLA, one of the principal negro peoples of Cameroon
estuary, West Africa. When the Germans established themselves
in that region, the Dualla were under many petty chiefs, whose
domains were usually restricted to one village. Over these were
two greater chiefs, Bell (Mbeli) and Akwa, representing the
principal families of the tribe. The Dualla are physically a
fine race. They are proud of their racial purity, and it was
formerly usual for all half-caste children to be strangled at birth.
The Dualla tattoo themselves, the women the whole body, the
men the face only. They also pull out their eyelashes, which
they believe prevent sharp sight. The monarchical system is
more developed among the Dualla than any other of the peoples
of Cameroon. The kings, many of whom have grown rich through
trade, retain part of their former power, subject to the German
government. The Dualla, who are laborious, industrious and
capable of great physical endurance, are great traders and are
proportionately prosperous. The average price for a wife among
the Dualla is from 90 to 120; but sometimes a great deal more
is paid. Girls are usually betrothed young and may be divorced
if sterile. The penalty for adultery is a fine imposed on the
seducer; if he cannot pay he becomes the husband's slave.
Cannibalism as a religious rite was formerly common among
the Dualla. All accessions to power were preceded by a sacrifice,
a king having no authority till his hands were stained with blood.
The religion is fetish blended with ancestor-worship, and certain
secret societies exist among them which seem to have a religious
connexion. The dead are buried within the hut, which is aban-
doned shortly afterwards; slaves were formerly buried with
men of importance. Missionary efforts have yielded many
converts, and some churches have been built. Many of the
natives can read. The Dualla are in possession of an interesting
code, in accordance with which messages can be sent and even
conversations maintained by means of drums, or rather gongs,
giving two notes. (See CAMEROON.)
DU BARRY, MARIE JEANNE BfiCU, COMTESSE (1746-
!793)> French adventuress, mistress of Louis XV., was the
natural daughter of a poor woman of Vaucouleurs, and was
born there on the igth of August 1746. Placed in a convent in
Paris at an early age, she received a very slight education,
learning little but the catechism and drawing; and at the age
of sixteen entered a milliner's shop in the rue St Honor6. Subse-
quently she lived as a courtesan under the name of Mdlle Lange.
Her great personal charms led the adventurer Jean, comte du
Barry, to take her into his house in order to make it more
DU BARTAS DU BELLAY, GUILLAUME
615
attractive to the dupes whose money he won by gambling. Her
success surpassing his expectations, his hopes took a higher
flight, and through Lebel, valet de chambre of Louis XV., and
the due de Richelieu, he succeeded in installing her as mistress
of the ki ng. In order to present her at court it was necessary to
find a title for her, and as Count Jean du Barry was married
himself his brother Guillaume offered himself as nominal
husband. The comtesse du Barry was presented at court on
the zznd of April 1769, and became official mistress of the king.
Her influence over the -monarch was absolute until his death,
and courtiers and ministers were in favour or disgrace with him
in exact accordance with her wishes. The due de Choiseul, who
refused to acknowledge her, was disgraced in 1771; and the
due d'Aiguillon, who had the reputation of being her lover,
took his place, and in concert with her governed the monarch.
Louis XV. built for her the magnificent mansion of Luciennes.
At his death in 1774 an order of his successor banished her to
the abbey of Pont-aux-Dames, near Meaux, but, the queen
interceding for her, the king in the following year gave her
permission to reside at Luciennes with a pension. Here she led
a retired life with the comte de Cosse-Brissac, and was visited
there by Benjamin Franklin and the emperor Joseph II., among
many other distinguished men. Having gone to England in 1 79 2
to endeavour to raise money on her jewels, she was on her return
accused before the Revolutionary Tribunal of having dissipated
the treasures of the state, conspired against the republic, and
worn, in London, " mourning for the tyrant." She was con-
demned to death on the 7th of December 1793, and beheaded
the same evening. Her contemporaries, scorning her low birth
rather than her vices, attributed to her a malicious political r61e
of which she was at heart incapable, and have done scant. justice
to her quick wit, her frank but gracious manners, and her seduc-
tive beauty. The volume of Lettres et Anecdotes (1779) which
bears her name was not written by her.
See E. and J. de Goncourt, La du Barry (Paris, 1880) ; C. Vatel,
Histoire de Madame du Barry (1882-1883), based on sources; R.
Douglas, The Life and Times of Madame du Barry (London, 1896).
DU BARTAS, GUILLAUME DE SALUSTE, SEIGNEUR (1544-
1590), French poet, was born near Auch in 1544. He was
employed by Henry IV. of France in England, Denmark and
Scotland; and he commanded a troop of horse in Gascony,
under the marshal de Martingan. He was a convinced Huguenot,
and cherished the idea of writing a great religious epic in which
biblical characters and Christian sentiment were to supplant
the pagan mise en scene then in fashion. His first epic, Judith,
appeared in a volume entitled La Muse chretienne (Bordeaux,
1573). This was followed five years later by his principal work,
La Sepmaine, a poem on the creation of the world. This work
was held by admirers of du Bartas to put him on a level with
Ronsard, and thirty editions of it were printed within six years
after its appearance. Its religious tone and fanciful style made
it a great favourite in England, where the author was called the
" divine " du Bartas, and placed on an equality with Ariosto.
Spenser, Hall and Ben Jonson, all speak in the highest terms of
what seems to us a most uninteresting poem. King James VI.
of Scotland tried his " prentice hand " at the translation of du
Bartas's poem L'Uranie, and the compliment was returned by
the French writer, who translated, as La Lepanthe, James's poem
on the battle of Lepanto. Du Bartas began the publication of
the Seconde Semaine in 1584. He aimed at a great epic which
should stretch from the story of the creation to the coming of
the Messiah. Of this great scheme he only executed a part,
marked by a certain elevation of style, but he did not succeed in
acclimatizing the religious epic in France. The work is spoiled
by a constant tendency to moralize, and is filled with the in-
discriminate information that passed under the name of science
in the i6th century. Du Bartas, perhaps more than any other
writer, brought the Ronsardist tradition into dispute. He
introduced many unwieldy compounds foreign to the genius
of the French language, and in his borrowings from old French,
from provincial dialects and from Latin, he failed to show the
sure instinct and prudence of Ronsard and du Bellay. He was
also guilty of reduplicating the first syllables of words, producing
such expressions as pepetiller, sousouflantes. Du Bartas died
in July 1590 in Paris from wounds received at the battle of
Ivry.
Joshua Sylvester translated the Sepmaine in 1598; other English
translations from du Bartas are The Historic of Judith . . . (1584),
by Thomas Hudson; of portions of the " Weeks " (1625) by William
Lisle (1569-1637), the Anglo-Saxon scholar; Urania (1589), by
Robert Ashley (1565-1641); and Sir Philip Sidney (see Florio s
dedication of the second book of his translation of Montaigne to
Lady Rich) wrote a translation of the first " Week," which is lost.
The (Euvres completes of du Bartas were printed at Paris (1579),
Paris and Bordeaux (161 1). See also G. Pellissier, La Vie et les ceuvres
de du Bartas (1883).
DUBAWNT, or DOOBAUNT (Indian Toobaung, i.e. turbid), a
river of Mackenzie and Keewatin districts, Canada. It rises in
Wholdaia (or Daly) Lake, in 104 20' W. and 60 15' N., and
flows northward to its confluence with the Thelon river, and
thence eastward to Chesterfield Inlet, an arm of Hudson Bay.
It passes through numerous lake-expansions, including Dubawnt
Lake, with an area of 1 700 sq. m. and an altitude of 500 ft. above
the sea; Aberdeen, altitude 130 ft.; and Baker, 30 ft. From
the head of Wholdaia Lake to the head of Chesterfield Inlet is
750 m. and thence to the west coast of Hudson Bay 125 m. The
river is shallow, and banks and bed are chiefly composed of
boulders; grassy slopes, however, occur at intervals along its
banks, especially on the shores of Dubawnt Lake, and are the
feeding grounds of large bands of cariboo. Discovered in 1770
by Samuel Hearne, the Dubawnt was explored by J. B. Tyrrell
in 1893, and the Thelon by David Hanbury in 1899.
See Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Canada for l8p6
(printed 1898).
DUBBO, a municipal town of Lincoln county, New South
Wales, Australia, on the Macquarie river, 278 m. by rail N.W. of
Sydney. Pop. (1901) 3409. It is a flourishing manufacturing
town in a pastoral district, in part also cultivated. Coal and
copper are found in the neighbourhood.
DU BELLAY, GUILLAUME, SIEUR DE LANGEY. (1491-1543),
French soldier and diplomat, was born at the chateau of Glatigny,
near Montmirail, in 1491. His father, Louis du Bellay-Langey,
was a younger son of the Angevin family of du Bellay, which
from the i4th century was distinguished in the service of the
dukes of Anjou and afterwards of the kings of France; and
Louis had six sons, who were among the best servants of Francis I.
Guillaume, the eldest, is one of the most remarkable figures of
the time; a brave soldier, a humanist and a historian, he was
above all the most able diplomat at the command of Francis I.,
prodigiously active, and excelling in secret negotiations. He
entered the military service at an early age, was taken prisoner
at Pavia (1525) and shared the captivity of Francis I. His skill
and devotion attached him to the king. His missions to Spain,
Italy, England and Germany were innumerable; sent three
times to England in 1529-1530, he was occupied with the execu-
tion of the treaty of Cambrai and also with the question of
Henry VIII. 's divorce, and with the help of his brother Jean,
then bishop of Paris, he obtained a decision favourable to Henry
VIII. from the Sorbonne (July 2, 1530). From 1532 to 1536,
though he went three times to England, he was principally
employed in uniting the German princes against Charles V.;
in May 1532 he signed the treaty of Scheyern with the dukes
of Bavaria, the landgrave of Hesse, and the elector of Saxony,
and in January 1534 the treaty of Augsburg. During the war
of 1537 Francis I. sent him on missions to Piedmont; he was
governor of Turin from December 1537 till the end of 1539, and
subsequently replacing Marshal d'Annebaut as governor of the
whole of Piedmont, he displayed great capacity in organization.
But at the end of 1542, overwhelmed by work, he was compelled
to return to France, and died near Lyons on the gth of January
1543. Rabelais, an eye-witness, has left a moving story of his
death (Panta gruel, iii. ch. 21, and iv.- ch. 27). He was buried
in the cathedral of Le Mans, where a monument was erected
to his memory, with the inscription, " Ci git Langey, dont la
plume et 1'epee Ont surmonte Ciceron et Pompee "; Charles V.
is said to have remarked that Langey, by his own unaided efforts,
6i6
DU BELLAY, JEAN DU BELLAY, JOACHIM
did more mischief and thwarted more schemes than all the
French together.
Guillaume du Bellay was the devoted protector of freedom
of thought ; without actually joining the reformers, he defended
the innovators against their fanatical opponents. In 1534-
1535 he even tried, unsuccessfully, to bring about a meeting
between Francis I. and Melanchthon; and in 1541 he intervened
in favour of the Vaudois. Rabelais was the most famous of his
clients, and followed him to Piedmont from 1540 to 1542.
Guillaume was himself a valuable historian, and a clear and
precise writer. He imitated Livy in his Ogdoades, a history of
the rivalry between Francis I. and the emperor from 1521, of
which, though he had no time to finish it, important fragments
remain, inserted by his brother Martin du Bellay (d. 1559) in
his Memoires (1569). The celebrated Instructions, reprinted as
Traits de la discipline militaire in 1554 and 1592, was formerly
attributed to him, but it has been proved that he could not have
written it (see Bayle, Diet. Hist. i. 502, and Jahns, Geschichte der
Kriegswissenschaften, i. 498 seq.) ; this work, however, is of the
highest value for the study of the military art of the i6th century;
in 1550 an Italian, in 1567 a Spanish, and in 1594 and 1619
German translations were published.
See also the edition of Martin du Bellay's Memoires by Michaud
and Poujoulat (1838), and Bourrilly's Fragments de la premiere
Ogdoade (Paris, 1905). There is an excellent study of Guillaume
du Bellay by V. L. Bourrilly (Paris, 1905). 0- L)
DU BELLAY, JEAN (c. 1493-1560), French cardinal and
diplomat, younger brother of Guillaume du Bellay, appears as
bishop of Bayonne in 1526, member of the privy council in 1530,
and bishop of Paris in 1532. Supple and clever, he was well
fitted for a diplomatic career, and carried out several missions
in England (1527-1534) and Rome (1534-1536). In 1535 he
received his cardinal's hat; in 1536-1537 he was nominated
" lieutenant-general " to the king at Paris and in the lie de
France, and was entrusted with the organization of the defence
against the imperialists. When Guillaume du Bellay went to
Piedmont, Jean was put in charge of the negotiations with the
German Protestants, principally through the humanist Johann
Sturm and the historian Johann Sleidan. In the last years of the
reign of Francis I., cardinal du Bellay was in favour with the
duchesse d'Etampes, and received a number of benefices the
bishopric of Limoges (1541), archbishopric of Bordeaux (1544),
bishopric of Le Mans (1546); but his influence in the council was
supplanted by that of Cardinal de Tournon. Under Henry II.,
being involved in the disgrace of all the servants of Francis I., he
was sent to Rome (1547), and he obtained eight votes in the con-
clave which followed the death of Pope Paul III. After three quiet
years passed in retirement in France (1550-1553), he was charged
with a new mission to Pope Julius III. and took with him to Rome
his young cousin the poet Joachim du Bellay (?.!>.). He lived
in Rome thenceforth in great state. In 1555 he was nominated
bishop of Ostia and dean of the Sacred College, an appointment
which was disapproved of by Henry II. and brought him into
fresh disgrace, lasting till his death in Rome on the i6th of
February 1560. Less resolute and reliable than his brother
Guillaume, the cardinal had brilliant qualities, and an open and
free mind. He was on the side of toleration and protected the
reformers. Budaeuswas his friend, Rabelais his faithful secretary
and doctor ; men of letters, like Etienne Dolet, and the poet
Salmon Macrin, were indebted to him for assistance. An orator
and writer of Latin verse, he left three books of graceful Latin
poems (printed with Salmon Macrin's Odes, 1 546, by R. Estienne) ,
and some other compositions, including Francisci Francorum
regis epistola apologetica (i 542) . His voluminous correspondence,
mostly in MS., is remarkable for its verve and picturesque
quality.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris has numer-
ous unpublished letters of Jean du Bellay. See also Ribier, Lettres
et memoires d'estat (Paris, 1666) ; V. L. Bourrilly and P. de Vaissiere,
Ambassade de Jean du Bellay en Angleterre, vol. i. (Paris, 1905);
marquis de la Jonquiere, Le Cardinal du Bellay (Alencjon, 1887) ;
Heulhard, Rabelais, ses voyages en Italie (Paris, 1891); Chamard,
Joachim du Bellay (Lille, 1900) ; V. L. Bourrilly, Guillaume du
Bellay (Paris, 1905); " Jeandu Bellay, lesprotestantsetlaSorbonne"
in the Bulletin du Protestantisme franqais (1903, 1904) ; and " Jean
Sleidan et le Cardinal du Bellay," in the Bulletin, &c. (1901, 1906).
a- D
DU BELLAY, JOACHIM (c. 1522-1560), French poet and
critic, member of the Pleiade, was born 1 at the chateau of La
Turmeliere, not far from Lire, near Angers, being the son of Jean
du Bellay, seigneur de Gonnor, cousin-german of the cardinal
Jean du Bellay and of Guillaume du Bellay. Both his parents
died while he was still a child, and he was left to the guardianship
of his elder brother, Rene du Bellay, who neglected his education,
leaving him to run wild at La Turmeliere. When he was twenty-
three, however, he received permission to go to Poitiers to study
law, no doubt with a view to his obtaining perferment through
his kinsman the Cardinal Jean du Bellay. At Poitiers he came
in contact with the humanist Marc Antoine Muret, and with
Jean Salmon Macrin (1490-1557), a Latin poet famous in his
day. There too he probably met Jacques Peletier du Mans, who
had published a translation of the Arspoetica of Horace, with a
preface in which much of the programme advocated later by the
Pleiade is to be found in outline.
It was probably in 1547 that du Bellay met Ronsard in an
inn on the way to Poitiers, an event which may justly be regarded
as the starting-point of the French school of Renaissance poetry.
The two had much in common, and immediately became fast
friends. Du Bellay returned with Ronsard to Paris to join the
circle of students of the humanities attached to Jean Daurat
(q.v.) at the College de Coqueret. While Ronsard and Antoine de
Baif were most influenced by Greek models, du Bellay was more
especially a La tinist, and perhaps his preference for a language
so nearly connected with his own had some part in determining
the more national and familiar note of his poetry. In 1548
appeared the Art poetique of Thomas Sibilet, who enunciated
many of the ideas that Ronsard and his followers had at heart,
though with essential differences in the point of view, since he
held up as models Clement Marot and his disciples. Ronsard
and his friends dissented violently from Sibilet on this and other
points, and they doubtless felt a natural resentment at finding
their ideas forestalled and, moreover, inadequately presented.
The famous manifesto of the Pleiade, the Defence et illustration
de la langue franc. oyse (1549), was at once a complement and a
refutation of Sibilet's treatise. This book was the expression
of the literary principles of the Pleiade as a whole, but although
Ronsard was the chosen leader, its redaction was entrusted to
du Bellay. To obtain a clear view of the reforms aimed at by
the Pleiade, the Defence should be further considered in con-
nexion with Ronsard's Abrege d'art poetique and his preface to
the Franciade. Du Bellay maintained that the French language
as it was then constituted was too poor to serve as a medium
for the higher forms of poetry, but he contended that by proper
cultivation it might be brought on a level with the classical
tongues. He condemned those who despaired of their mother
tongue, and used Latin for their more serious and ambitious
work. For translations from the ancients he would substitute
imitations. Not only were the forms of classical poetry to be
imitated, but a separate poetic language and style, distinct from
those employed in prose, were to be used. The French language
was to be enriched by a development of its internal resources and
by discreet borrowing from the Latin and Greek. Both du Bellay
and Ronsard laid stress on the necessity of prudence in these
borrowings, and both repudiated the charge of wishing to latinize
their mother tongue. The book was a spirited defence of poetry
and of the possibilities of the French language; it was also a
declaration of war on those writers who held less heroic views.
The violent attacks made by du Bellay on Marot and his
followers, and on Sibilet, did not go unanswered. Sibilet replied
in the preface to his translation (1549) of the Iphigenia of Euri-
pides; Guillaume des Autels, a Lyonnese poet, reproached
du Bellay with ingratitude to his predecessors, and showed the
weakness of his argument for imitation as opposed to translation
in a digression in his Replique aux furieuses defenses de Louis
Meigret (Lyons, 1550) ; Barth61emy Aneau, regent of the
1 For the date of his birth, commonly given as 1525, see H.
Chamard, Joachim du Bellay (Lille, 1900).
DUBLIN
617
College de la Trinite at Lyons, attacked him in hisQuintilHoratian
(Lyons, 1551), the authorship of which was commonly attributed
to Charles Fontaine. Aneau pointed out the obvious incon-
sistency of inculcating imitation of the ancients and depreciating
native poets in a work professing to be a defence of the French
language. Du Bellay replied to his various assailants in a preface
to the second edition (1550) of his sonnet sequence Olive, with
which he also published two polemical poems, the Musagnaeo-
machie, and an ode addressed to Ronsard, Conlre les envieux
poetes. Olive, a collection of love-sonnets written in close
imitation of Petrarch, first appeared in 1549. With it were
printed thirteen odes entitled Vers lyriques. Olive has been
supposed to be an anagram for the name of a Mile Viole, but
there is little evidence of real passion in the poems, and they
may perhaps be regarded as a Petrarcan exercise, especially
as, in the second edition, the dedication to his lady is exchanged
for one to Marguerite de Valois, sister of Henry II. Du Bellay
did not actually introduce the sonnet into French poetry, but
he acclimatized it; and when the fashion of sonneteering became
a mania he was one of the first to ridicule its excesses.
About this time du Bellay had a serious illness of two years'
duration, from which dates the beginning of his deafness. He had
further anxieties in the guardianship of his nephew. The boy
died in 1553, and Joachim, who had up to this time borne the
title of sieur de Lire, became seigneur of Connor. In 1549 he had
published a Recueil de />oe'esdedicatedto the Princess Marguerite.
This was followed in 1552 by a version of the fourth book of
the Aeneid, with other translations and some occasional poems.
In the next year he went to Rome as one of the secretaries of
Cardinal du Bellay. To the beginning of his four and a half years'
residence in Italy belong the forty-seven sonnets of his Antiquites
de Rome, which were rendered into English by Edmund Spenser
(The Ruins of Rome, 1591). These sonnets were more personal
and less imitative than the Olive sequence, and struck a note
which was revived in later French literature by Volney and
Chateaubriand. His stay in Rome was, however, a real exile.
His duties were those of an intendant. He had to meet the
cardinal's creditors and to find money for the expenses of the
household. Nevertheless he found many friends among Italian
scholars, and formed a close friendship with another exiled poet
whose circumstances were similar to his own, Olivier de Magny.
Towards the end of his sojourn in Rome he fell violently in love
with a Roman lady called Faustine, who appears in his poetry
as Columba and Columbelle. This passion finds its clearest
expression in the Latin poems. Faustine was guarded by an
old and jealous husband, and du Bellay's eventual conquest
may have had something to do with his departure for Paris at
the end of August 1557. Inthe next year he published the poems
he had brought back with him from Rome, the Latin Poemata,
the Antiquites de Rome, the Jeux rustiques, and the 191 sonnets
of the Regrets, the greater number of which were written in Italy.
The Regrets show that he had advanced far beyond the theories of
tbeDeffence. The simplicity and tenderness speciallycharacteristic
of du Bellay appear in the sonnets telling of his unlucky passion
for Faustine, and of his nostalgia for the banks of the Loire.
Among them are some satirical sonnets describing Roman
manners, and the later ones written after his return to Paris
are often appeals for patronage. His intimate relations with
Ronsard were not renewed; but he formed a close friendship
with the scholar Jean de Morel, whose house was the centre of a
learned society. In 1559 du Bellay published at Poitiers La
Nouvelle Maniere de faire son profit dcs lettres, a satirical epistle
translated from the Latin of Adrien Turnebe, and with it Le Poele
courtisan, which introduced the formal satire into French poetry.
These were published under the pseudonym of J. Quintil du
Troussay, and the courtier-poet was generally supposed to be
Melin de Saint-Gelais, with whom du Bellay had always, however,
been on friendly terms.
A long and eloquent Discours au roi (detailing the duties of a
prince, and translated from a Latin original written by Michel
de 1'Hopital, now lost) was dedicated to Francis II. in 1559,
and is said to have secured for the poet a tardy pension. In
Paris he was still in the employ of the cardinal, who delegated
to him the lay patronage which he still retained in the diocese.
In the exercise of these functions Joachim quarrelled with
Eustache du Bellay, bishop of Paris, who prejudiced his relations
with the cardinal, less cordial since the publication of the out-
spoken Regrets. His chief patron, Marguerite de Valois, to whom
he was sincerely attached, had gone to Savoy. Du Bellay's health
was weak; his deafness seriously hindered his official duties;
and on the ist of January 1 560 he died. There is no evidence that
he was in priest's orders, but he was a clerk, and as such held
various preferments. He had at one time been a canon of Notre
Dame of Paris, and was accordingly buried in the cathedral.
The statement that he was nominated archbishop of Bordeaux
during the last year of life is unauthenticated by documentary
evidence and is in itself extremely improbable.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The best edition of the works of J. du Bellay is
CEuvres franfaises (2 vols., 1866-1867), edited with introduction and
notes by C. Marty-Laveaux in his Pleiade franc.aise. His CEuvres
choisies were published by L. Becq de Fouquieres in 1876. The chief
source of his biography is his own poetry, especially the Latin elegy
addressed to Jean de Morel, " Elegia ad Janum Morellum Ebredu-
nensem, Pyladem suum," printed with a volume of Xenia (Paris, 1569).
A study of his life and writings by H. Chamard, forming vol. viii.
of the Travaux et memoiresde I'universitedeLille (Lille, 1900), contains
all the available information and corrects many common errors. See
also Sainte-Beuve, Tableau de la poesie franc,aise au XV If siecle
(1828); La Defense et illust. de la langue franc, aise (1905), with bio-
graphical and critical introduction by Leon Sche, who also wrote
Joachim du Bellay-, documents nouveaux et inedits (1880), and pub-
lished in 1903 the first volume of a new edition of the CEuvres;
Lettres de Joachim du Bellay (1884), edited by P. de Nolhac; G.
Wyndham, Ronsard and La Pleiade (1906) ; H. Belloc, Avril (1905) ;
A. Tilley, The Literature of the French Renaissance (2 vols., 1904).
DUBLIN, a county of Ireland in the province of Leinster,
bounded N. by Co. Meath, E. by the Irish Sea, S. by Wicklow,
and W. by KUdare and Meath. With the exception of Louth
and Carlow, Dublin is the smallest county in Ireland, having an
area of 218,873 acres, or about 342 sq. m. The northern portion
is flat, and the soil good, particularly on the borders of Meath;
but on the southern side the land rises into elevations of con-
siderable height. The mountains are chiefly covered with heath,
except where a subsidence in the ground affords a nucleus for
the formation of bog, with which about 2000 acres are covered.
There are also a few small tracts of bog in the northern part of
the county. The mountain district is well adapted for timber.
The northern coast of the county from Balbriggan to Howth
has generally a sandy shore, and affords only the small harbours
of Balbriggan and Skerries. In the promontory of Howth, the
coast suddenly assumes a bolder aspect; and between the town
of Howth and the rocky islet of Ireland's Eye an unsuccessful
artificial harbour was constructed. Kingstown harbour on the
south side of Dublin Bay superseded this, and is by far the best
in the county. Dalkey Island, about 22 acres in extent, lies
about midway between Kingstown harbour and the beautiful
bay of Killiney. North of Howth lies Lambay Island, about 600
acres in area. Shell fish, especially lobsters, are taken here in
abundance. Small islets lie farther north off Skerries; the most
interesting of which is that known as Inispatrick, reputed as the
first landing-place of St Patrick, and having the ruins of a church
said to be the saint's first foundation, though it shares this
reputation with other sites. Ireland's Eye, off Howth, is a very
picturesque rock with about 54 acres of grass land. It has
afforded great room for geological disquisition. The chief river
in the county is the Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow mountains
about 12 m. S.W. of Dublin, and, after running about 50 m.,
empties itself into Dublin Bay. The course of the river is so
tortuous that 40 m. may be traversed and only 10 gained in
direction. The scenery along the banks of the Liffey is remark-
ably beautiful. The mountains which occupy the southern
border of the county are the extremities of the great group
belonging to the adjacent county Wicklow. The principal
summits are the group containing Glendoo (1919 ft.) and Two
Rock (1699 ft.) within the county, and the border group of
Kippure, reaching in that summit a height of 2475 ft. The
grandest features of these hills are the great natural ravines
6i8
DUBLIN
which open in them, the most extraordinary being the Scalp
through which the traveller passes from Dublin to Wicklow.
Geology. -On the north a Silurian upland stretches, falling to the
sea at Balbriggan, where f ossiliferous strata contain contemporaneous
volcanic rocks. A limestone of Bala age comes out under shales and
andesites in the promontory of Portrane, and rocks of the same
series occur in the bold island of Lambay, associated with a large
mass of dark green porphyritic andesite (the " Lambay porphyry ' ).
Silurian rocks reappear at Tallaght in the south-west, where the
granite of Leinster rises through them, forming a moorland 2000 ft.
in height only a few miles south of Dublin. Old Red Sandstone,
seen at Donabate and Newcastle, leads up into Carboniferous Lime-
stone, which is often darkened by mud and even shaly (" calpy "
type). This rock produces a fairly level country, both north and
south of the valley of the Liffey, although the beds are greatly
folded. Beds of a higher Carboniferous zone are retained in syn-
clinals near Rush. The rugged peninsula of Howth, connected
by a raised bench with the mainland, is formed of old quartzites
and shales, crushed and folded, and probably of Cambrian age.
The rocks of the county show many signs of ice-action, and boulder-
clays and drift-gravels cover the lowland, the latter being banked up
on the mountain-slopes to heights of 1200 ft. or more. Much of this
glacial material has been imported from the area of the Irish Sea.
Lead-ore has been mined at the granite-contact at Ballycorus.
Industries. The extension of Dublin city and its suburbs has no
doubt had its influence on the decrease of acreage under both tillage
and pasture. Oats and potatoes are the principal crops, but live
stock, especially cattle, receives greater attention. A large pro-
portion of holdings are of the smallest, nearly one-half of those
beneath fifteen acres being also beneath one acre. The manufactures
of the county are mainly confined to the city and suburbs, but there
is manufacture of cotton hosiery at Balbriggan. The haddock,
herring and other fisheries, both deep-sea and coastal, are important,
and Kingstown is the headquarters of the fishery district. The
salmon fishery district of Dublin also affords considerable employ-
ment. As containing the metropolis of Ireland, the communications
of the county are naturally good, several important railways and
two canals converging upon the city of Dublin, under the head of
which they are considered.
Population and Administration. The population (148,210 in
1891; 157,568 in 1901) shows a regular increase, which, however,
is not consistent from year to year. About 70% are Roman
Catholics, the Protestant Episcopalians (24%) standing next.
The chief towns, apart from the capital, are Balbriggan (pop.
2236), Blackrock (8719), Dalkey (3398), Killiney and Ballybrack
(2744), Pembroke (25,799), Rathmines and Rathgar (32,602),
and the important port of Kingstown (17,377). These are urban
districts. Skerries, Howth and Rush are small maritime towns.
There are nine baronies in the county, which, including the city
of Dublin, are divided into 100 parishes, all within the Protestant
and Roman Catholic dioceses of Dublin. Assizes are held in
Dublin, and quarter sessions also in the capital, and at Bal-
briggan, Kilmainham, Kingstown and Swords. Previous to the
union with Great Britain, this county returned ten representatives
to the Irish Parliament, two for the county, two for the city,
two for the university, and two for each of the boroughs of
Swords and Newcastle. The county parliamentary divisions are
now two, north and south, each returning one member. The
city of Dublin constitutes a separate county.
History. Dublin is among the counties generally considered
to have been formed by King John, and comprised the chief
portion of country within the English pale. The limits of the
county, however, were uncertain, and underwent many changes
before they were fixed. As late as the i7th century the moun-
tainous country south of Dublin offered a retreat to the lawless,
and it was not until 1606 that the boundaries of the county
received definition in this direction, along with the formation
of the county Wicklow. Although so near the seat of government
67,142 acres of profitable land were forfeited in the Rebellion of
1641 and 34,536 acres in the Revolution of 1688. In 1867 the
most formidable of the Fenian risings took place near the village
of Tallaght, about 7 m. from the city. The rebels, who numbered
from 500 to 700, were found wandering at dawn, some by a small
force of constabulary who, having in vain called upon them to
yield, fired and wounded five of them; but the great bulk of
them were overtaken by the troops under Lord Strathnairn,
who captured them with ease and marched them into the city.
There are numerous antiquities in the county. Raths or en-
campments are frequent, and those at Raheny, Coolock, Lucan,
with the large specimen at Shankill or Rathmichael near the
Scalp pass may be mentioned. Cromlechs occur in Phoenix
Park, Dublin, at Howth, and elsewhere. There are fine round
towers at Swords, Lusk and Clondalkin, and there is the stump
of one at Rathmichael.
DUBLIN, a city, county of a city, parliamentary borough
and seaport, and the metropolis of Ireland, in the province of
Leinster. It lies at the head of a bay of the Irish Sea, to which
it gives name, about midway on the eastern coast of the island,
334 m. W.N.W. of London by the Holyhead route, and 70 m. W.
of Holyhead on the coast of Anglesey, Wales. (For map, see
IRELAND.) Its population in 1901 was 290,638.
Site, Streets and Buildings. Dublin lies on the great central
limestone district which stretches across the island from the Irish
Sea to the Atlantic Ocean, and occupies both banks of the river
Liffey. Its situation is justly admired. The populous shores
of the bay are exceedingly picturesque. To the north and west
the country is comparatively level, the central plain of Ireland
here reaching to the coast, but to the south the foothills of the
Wicklow Mountains practically touch the confines of Greater
Dublin, affording comprehensive views of the physical position
of the city, and forming a background to some of the finest
streets. The municipal boundary lies generally a little outside
the so-called Circular Road, which may be taken as encircling
the city proper, with a few breaks. It bears this name on both
the north and south sides of the river. As the city is approached
from the bay, the river Liffey, which divides the city from west
to east roughly into two equal parts, is seen to be lined with a
fine series of quays. At its mouth, on the north side, is the
North Wall quay, where ,the principal steamers lie, and in this
vicinity are the docks. At the opposite (western) end of the
city, the Phoenix Park may be taken as a convenient landmark.
Between this and North Wall the river is crossed by twelve
bridges, which, in order from west to east, are these: Sarah
Bridge, the bridge of the North Wall extension railway; King's,
commemorating a visit of George IV.; Victoria or Barrack;
Queen's; Whitworth, of interest as occupying the site where a
bridge has stood since the I2th century; Richmond, Grattan
and Wellington; O'Connell, Butt and a swivel bridge carrying
a loop railway. Of these O'Connell bridge (formerly known as
Carlisle) is the principal, as it connects the chief thoroughfare
on the north side, namely Sackville (or O'Connell) Street, with
Great Brunswick Street and others on the south. Sackville
Street, which gains in appearance from its remarkable breadth,
contains the principal hotels, and the post office, with a fine
Ionic portico, founded in 1815. At the crossing of Henry Street
and Earl Street is the Nelson pillar, a beautiful monument 134 ft.
in height, consisting of a fluted Doric column, raised on a massive
pedestal, and crowned by a statue of the admiral. At the southern
end of the street is Daniel O'Connell's monument, almost com-
pleted by John Henry Foley before his death, and erected in
1882. In Rutland Square, at the northern end, is the Rotunda,
containing public rooms for meetings, and adjoining it, the
Rotunda hospital with its Doric facade.
From the north end of Sackville Street, several large thorough-
fares radiate through the northern part of the city, ultimately
joining the Circular Road at various points. To the west there
are the Broadstone station, Dominion Street, and beyond this
the large workhouse, prison, asylum and other district buildings,
while the Royal barracks front the river behind Albert Quay.
Two other notable buildings face the river on the north bank.
Between Whitworth and Richmond bridges stands the " Four
Courts " (law courts), on the site of the ancient Dominican
monastery of St Saviour. It was erected between 1 786 and 1 796,
and is adjoined by other court buildings, the public record office,
containing a vast collection, and the police offices. Below the
lowest bridge on the river, and therefore in the neighbourhood
of the shipping quarter, is the customs house (1781-1791),
considered one of the chief ornaments of the city. It presents
four fronts, that facing the river being of Portland stone, in the
Doric order, while the rest are of granite. The centre is crowned
by a dome, surmounted by a statue of Hope. This building
DUBLIN
619
Christ
Church.
provides offices for the Local Government Board, Boards of
Trade and of Public Works and other bodies.
It is, however, to the south of the river that the most interest-
ing buildings are found. Crossing O'Connell bridge, the short
Westmoreland Street strikes into a thoroughfare which traverses
the entire city parallel with the river, and is known successively
(from west to east) as James, Thomas, High, Castle, Dame,
College and Great Brunswick streets. At the end of Westmore-
land Street a fine group of buildings is seen Trinity College
on the left and the Bank of Ireland on the right. Barely half a
mile westward down Dame Street, rises the Castle, and 300 yds.
beyond this again is the cathedral of Christ Church. These,
with the second cathedral of St Patrick, are more conveniently
described in the inverse order.
The cathedral of Christ Church, or Holy Trinity, the older
of the two Protestant cathedrals in the possession of which
Dublin is remarkable, was founded by Sigtryg, a
Christianized king of the Danes of Dublin, in 1038,
but dates its elevation to a deanery and chapter from
1541. It was restored in 1870-1877 by G. E. Street at the charge
of Mr Henry Roe, a merchant of Dublin, who also presented
the Synod House. The restoration involved the complete re-
building of the choir and the south side of the nave, but the
model of the ancient building was followed with great care.
The crypt embodies remains of the founder's work; the rest
is Transitional Norman and Early English in style. Among the
monuments is that of Strongbow, the invader of Ireland, to
whom the earlier part of the superstructure (1170) is due. Here
the tenants of the church lands were accustomed to pay their
rents. The monument was injured by the fall of one of the
cathedral walls, but was repaired. By its side is a smaller tomb,
ascribed to Strongbow's son, whom his father killed for showing
cowardice in battle. Synods were occasionally held in this
church, and parliaments also, before the Commons' Hall was
destroyed in 1566 by an accidental explosion of gunpowder.
Here also the pretender Lambert Simnel was crowned.
A short distance south from Christ Church, through the
squalid quarter of Nicholas and Patrick streets, stands the
other Protestant cathedral dedicated to St Patrick,
Patrick's. t ' le foundation of which was an attempt to supersede
the older foundation of Christ Church, owing to jeal-
ousies, both ecclesiastical and political, arising out of the Anglo-
Norman invasion. It was founded about 1190 by John Corny n,
archbishop of Dublin; but there was a church dedicated to the
same saint before. It was burnt about two hundred years
later, but was raised from its ruins with increased splendour.
At the Reformation it was deprived of its status as a cathedral,
and the building was used for some of the purposes of the courts
of justice. Edward VI. contemplated its change into a univer-
sity, but the project was defeated. In the succeeding reign
of Mary, St Patrick's was restored to its primary destination.
The installations of the knights of St Patrick, the first of which
took place in 1783, were originally held here, and some of their
insignia are preserved in the choir. This cathedral contains the
monuments of several illustrious persons, amongst which the
most celebrated are those of Swift (dean of this cathedral), of
Mrs Hester Johnson, immortalized under the name of " Stella ";
of Archbishop Marsh; of the first earl of Cork; and of Duke
Schomberg, who fell at the battle of the Boyne. The tablet over
Schomberg's grave contains what Macaulay called a " furious
libel," though it only states that the duke's relatives refused
the expense of the tablet. In the cathedral may be seen the
chain ball which killed General St Ruth at the battle of Aughrim,
and the spurs which he wore. The cathedral was restored by
Sir Benjamin Lee Guinness (1864), whom a fine statue by John
Henry Foley commemorates, and the work was resumed by his
son Lord Iveagh in 1900. Attached to the cathedral is Marsh's
library, incorporated in 1707, by a request of Primate Marsh,
archbishop of Armagh. It contains a good number of theological
works and of manuscripts, and is open to the public; but is
deficient in modern publications.
Dublin Castle stands high, and occupies about ten acres of
The
Castle.
ground, but excepting St Patrick's Hall, the apartments are
small, and the building is of a motley and unimposing appear-
ance, with the exception of the chapel (a Gothic building
of the early igth century) and great tower. The castle
was originally built in the first two decades of the
I3th century; and there are portions of this period, but nearly
the whole is of the i6th century and later. In St Patrick's hall
where the knights of St Patrick are invested, are the banners
of that order. Opposite the castle is the city hall (1779), in the
possession of the corporation, with statues in the central hall of
George III., of Grattan (a superb work by Sir Francis Chantry),
of Daniel O'Connell, and of Thomas Drummond by John Hogan
and several others.
The Bank of Ireland (see ARCHITECTURE, fig. 85) occupies
five acres, and was formerly the House of Parliament. There
are three fronts; the principal, towards College
Green, is a colonnade of the Ionic order, with facade
and two projecting wings; it connects with the
western portico by a colonnade of the same order, forming the
quadrant of a circle. The eastern front, which was the entrance
of the House of Lords, is, by their special wish, of the Corinthian
order, made conformable with the rest of the building not without
difficulty to the architect. The House of Lords contains tapestry
dating from 1733, and remains in its original condition, but the
octagonal House of Commons was demolished by the bank
directors, and replaced with a cash-office. The building was
begun in 1729, but the fronts date from the end of the century;
the remodelling took place in 1803.
Trinity College, or Dublin University, fronts the street with
a Palladian facade (1759), with two good statues by Foley, of
Goldsmith and Burke. Above the gateway is a hall
called the Regent House. The first quadrangle,
Parliament Square, contains the chapel (1798), with
a Corinthian portico, the public theatre or examination hall
(1787), containing portraits of Queen Elizabeth, Molyneux,
Burke, Bishop Berkeley and other celebrities, and the wain-
scotted dining hall, also containing portraits. A beautiful
modern campanile (1853), erected by Lord John George Beresford,
archbishop of Armagh and chancellor of the university, occupies
the centre of the square. Library Square takes its name from
the library, which is one of the four scheduled in the Copyright
Act as entitled to receive a copy of every volume published in
the United Kingdom. There is a notable collection of early
Irish manuscripts, including the magnificently ornamented
Book of Kells, containing the gospels. The building was begun
in 1 7 1 2. In this square are the oldest buildings of the foundation,
dating in part from the close of the I7th century, and the modern
Graduates' Memorial buildings ( 1 904) . These contain a theatre,
library and reading-room, the rooms of the college societies
and others. The schools form a fine modern pile (1856), and
other buildings are the provost's house (1760), printing house
(1760), museum (1857) and the medical school buildings, in three
blocks, one of the best schools in the kingdom. Other buildings
of the 2oth century include chemical laboratories. The College
Park and Fellows' Garden are of considerable beauty. In the
former most of the recreations of the students take place; but
the college also supports a well-known rowing-club. The college
observatory is at Dunsink, about 5 m. north-west of Dublin;
it is amply furnished with astronomical instruments. It was
endowed by Dr Francis Andrews, provost of Trinity College,
was erected in 1785, and in 1791, was placed by statute under
the management of the royal astronomer of Ireland, whose
official residence is here. The magnetic observatory of Dublin
was erected in the years 1837-1838 in the gardens attached to
Trinity College, at the expense of the university. A normal
climatological station was established in the Fellows' Garden in
1904. The botanic garden is at Ball's Bridge, i m. S.E. of the
college.
The alternative title of Dublin University or Trinity College,
Dublin (commonly abbreviated T.C.D.), is explained by the fact that
the university consists of only one college, that of the Holy and
Undivided Trinity." This was founded under charter from Queen
Elizabeth in 1591, and is the greatest foundation of its kind in the
620
DUBLIN
country. The corporation consists of a provost, 7 senior fellows,
25 junior fellows and 70 scholars. A vacancy among the fellows is
filled up by the provost and a select number of the fellows, after
examination comprised in five principal courses, mathematics,
experimental science, classics, mental and moral science and Hebrew.
Fellowships are held for life. Until the year 1840 the fellows were
bound to celibacy, but that restriction was then removed. All except
five (medical and law fellows) were bound to take Holy Orders until
1872. The scholars on the foundation (or " of the House ") are
chosen from among the undergraduates, for merit in classics, mathe-
matics or experimental science. The pecuniary advantages attaching
to scholarship (.{20 Irish, free commons, and rooms at half the charge
made to other students) last for four years. Students after an
examination are admitted as fellow-commoners, pensioners or sizars.
Fellow-commoners, who have decreased in numbers in modern times,
pay higher fees than the ordinary undergraduates or pensioners, and
have certain advantages of precedence, including the right of dining
at the fellows' table. Sizarships are awarded on examination to
students of limited means, and carry certain relaxations of fees.
They were formerly given on the nomination of fellows. Noblemen,
noblemen's sons and baronets (nobilis, filius nobilis, egues) have the
privilege of forming a separate order with peculiar advantages, on the
payment of additional charges. The mode of admission to the univer-
sity is in all cases by examination. Various exhibitions and prizes are
awarded both in connexion with the entrance of students and at
subsequent stages of the course of instruction, which normally lasts
four years. There are three terms in each year Michaelmas (begin-
ning the Academic year), Hilary and Trinity. The undergraduate is
called in his first year a junior freshman, in his second a senior
freshman, in his third a junior sophister, and in his fourth a senior
sophister. The usual arts and scientific courses are provided, and
there are four professional schools divinity, law, physic and
engineering. The undergraduate has certain examinations in each
year, and four " commencements " are held every year for the
purpose of conferring degrees. Freedom is offered to students who
wish to be transferred from Oxford, Cambridge, or certain colonial
universities to Trinity College, by the recognition of terms kept in the
former institutions as part of the necessary course at Trinity College.
In 1903 it was decided to bestow degrees on women, and in 1904
to establish women's scholarships. The funds of the college, arising
from lands and the fees of students, are managed solely by the
provost and seven senior fellows, who form a board, to which and
to the academic council the whole government of the university,
both in its executive and its legislative branches, is committed.
The council consists of the provost and sixteen members of the
senate elected by the_fellows, professors, &c; the senate consists
of the chancellor or his deputy and doctors and masters who keep
their names on the books. The average number of students on the
books is about 1300. By an act passed in 1873, known as Fawcett's
Act, all tests were abolished, and the prizes and honours of all
grades hitherto reserved for Protestants of the Established Church
were thrown open to all. The university returns two members to
parliament. (See Dublin University Calendar, annual.)
There remain to be mentioned the following buildings in
Dublin. The permanent building of the International Exhibition
of 1865 adjoins the pleasure ground of St Stephen's Green.
This building was occupied by the Royal University of Ireland
until its dissolution under the Irish Universities Act 1908, which
provided for a new university at Dublin, to which the building
was transferred under the act (see IRELAND: Education). The
new university is called the National University of Ireland.
At the same time a new college was founded under the name of
University College. The Royal University replaced the Queen's
University under the University Act (Ireland) in 1879. No
teaching was carried on, but examinations were held and degrees
conferred, both on men and on women. On the west side of St
Stephen's Green is the Catholic University (1854), which is under
the Jesuit Fathers and affiliated to the Royal University.
Between Trinity College and St Stephen's Green, a large group
of buildings includes the Royal Dublin Society, founded in
1683 to develop agriculture and the useful arts, with a library
and gallery of statuary; the Science and Arts Museum, and the
National Library, the former with a noteworthy collection of
Irish antiquities; the Museum of Natural History, with a splendid
collection of Irish fauna; and the National Gallery of Ireland,
founded in 1853. Here was once a residence of the duke of
Leinster, and the buildings surround the open space of Leinster
Lawn. Educational foundations include the Royal College
of Physicians, of Surgeons and of Science; the Royal Irish
Academy, with an unequalled collection of national antiquities,
including manuscripts and a library; and the Royal Hibernian
Academy of painting, sculpture and architecture. In 1904 the
formation of a municipally supported gallery of modern art
(mainly due to the initiative and generosity of Mr Hugh Lane)
was signalized by an exhibition including the pictures intended
to constitute the nucleus of the gallery. In 1905 King Edward
VII. laid the foundation stone of a college of science on a site
in the vicinity of Leinster Lawn. The full scheme for the occupa-
tion of the site included, not only the college, but also offices
for the Board of Works and the Department of Agriculture.
The famous Dublin Horse and Agricultural Shows are held at
Ball's Bridge in April, August and December.
The most notable churches apart from the cathedrals are
Roman Catholic and principally modern. The lofty church of the
Augustinians in Thomas Street; St Mary's, the pro-cathedral,
in Marlborough Street, with Grecian ornamentation within,
and a Doric portico; St Paul's on Arran Quay, in the Ionic
style; and the striking St Francis Xavier in Gardiner Street,
also Ionic, are all noteworthy, and the last is one of the finest
modern churches in Ireland. Among theatres Dublin has, hi
the Royal, a handsome building which replaced the old Theatre
Royal, burnt down in 1880. Clubs, which are numerous, are
chiefly found in the neighbourhood of Sackville Street; and
there should further be mentioned the Rotunda, at the corner
of Great Britain Street and Sackville Street, a beautiful building
of its kind, belonging to the adjacent hospital, and used for
concerts and other entertainments, while its gardens are used
for agricultural shows.
Suburbs. To the west of the city lies the Phoenix Park. Here,
besides the viceregal demesne and lodge and the magazine, are
a zoological garden, a people's garden, the Wellington monument,
two barracks, the Hibernian military school, the " Fifteen Acres,"
a natural amphitheatre (of much greater extent than its name
implies) used as a review ground, and a racecourse. The
amenities of Phoenix Park were enhanced in 1905 by the purchase
for the crown of land extending along the Liffey from Island
bridge to Chapelizod, which might otherwise have been built over.
To the south lies Kilmainham. Here is the royal hospital for
pensioners and maimed soldiers. Close by is Kilmainham prison.
To the west the valley of the Liffey affords pleasant scenery,
with the well-known grounds called the " Strawberry Beds "
on the north bank. In this direction lies Chapelizod, said to
take its name from that Iseult whom Tennyson, Matthew Arnold
and Wagner made a heroine; beyond which is Lucan connected
with the city by tramway. Northward lies Clondalkin, with its
round tower, marking the site of the important early see of
Cluain Dolcain; Glasnevin, with famous botanical gardens;
Finglas, with a ruined church of early foundation, and an Irish
cross; and Clontarf, a favoured resort on the bay, with its
modern castle and many residences of the wealthy classes in the
vicinity. South of the city are Rathmiues, a populous suburb,
near which, at the " Bloody Fields," English colonists were
murdered by the natives in 1209; and Donnybrook, celebrated
for its former fair. Rathmines, Monkstown, Clontarf, Dalkey
and Killiney, with the neighbourhood of Kingstown and Pem-
broke, are the most favoured residential districts. Howth,
Malahide and Sutton to the north, and Bray to the south, are
favoured seaside watering-places outside the radius of actual
suburbs.
Communications. The direct route to Dublin from London and
other parts of England is by the Holyhead route, controlled by
the London & North Western railway with steamers to the port
of Dublin itself, while the company also works in conjunction
with the mail steamers of the City of Dublin Steam Packet
Company to the outlying port of Kingstown, 7 m. S.E. Passenger
steamers, however, also serve Liverpool, Heysham, Bristol, the
south coast ports of England and London; Edinburgh and
Glasgow, and other ports of Great Britain. The railways leaving
Dublin are the following: the Great Northern, with its terminus
in Amiens Street, with suburban lines, and a main line running
north to Drogheda, Dundalk and Belfast, with ramifications
through the northern countries; the Great Southern & Western
(Kingsbridge terminus) to Kilkenny, Athlone and Cork; the
Midland Great Western (Broadstone terminus), to Cavan, Sligo
DUBLIN
621
and Galway; the Dublin & South-Eastern (Harcourt Street
and Westland Row for Kingstown) ; and there is the North Wall
station of the London & North-Western, with the line known
as the North Wall extension, connecting with the other main
lines. The internal communications of the city are excellent,
electric tramways traversing the principal streets, and connecting
all the principal suburbs.
Trade. Dublin was for long stigmatized as lacking, for so
large a city, in the proper signs of commercial enterprise. A
certain spirit of foolish pride was said to exist which sought
to disown trade; and the tendency to be poor and genteel in
the civil service, at the bar, in the constabulary, in the army,
in professional life, rather than prosperous in business, was one
of the most unfortunate and strongly marked characteristics of
Dublin society. This was attributable to the lingering yet
potent influence of an unhappy past was held by some; while
others attributed the weakness to the viceregal office and the
effects of a sham court. About the time of the Revolution, the
woollen trade flourished in Dublin, and the produce attained
great celebrity. The cheapness of labour attracted capitalists,
who started extensive factories in that quarter of the town
known even now as the Liberties. This quarter was inhabited
altogether by workers in wool, and as the 'city was small, the
aristocracy lived close by in noble mansions which are now miser-
able memorials of past prosperity. About 1700 the English
legislature prevailed on William III. to assent* to laws which
directly crushed the Irish trade. All exportation except to
England was peremptorily forbidden, and the woollen manu-
facture soon decayed. But at the close of the i8th century
there were 5000 persons at work in the looms of the Liberties.
About 1715 parliament favoured the manufacture of linen, and
the Linen Hall was built. The cotton trade was soon afterwards
introduced; and silk manufacture was begun by the Huguenots,
who had settled in Dublin in considerable numbers after the
revocation of the edict of Nantes. Acts favourable to these
enterprises were passed, and they flourished apace. But the
old jealously arose in the reign of George I., and in the reign of
George III. an act was passed which tended directly to the ruin
of the manufacture. The linen shared the same fate. Dublin
poplins, however, keep their reputation. However adverse
influences may have been combated, Dublin yet produces little
for export save whisky and porter, the latter from the famous
Guinness brewery and others; but a considerable export trade,
principally in agricultural produce, passes through Dublin from
the country. The total annual export trade may be valued at
about 120,000, while imports exceed in value 3,000.000. To
the manufacturing industries of the city there should be added
mineral water works, foundries and shipbuilding.
By continual dredging a great depth of water is kept available
in the harbour. The Dublin Port and Docks Board, which was
Harbour create d m ^98 and consists of the mayor and six
members of the corporation, with other members
representing the trading and shipping interests, undertook
considerable works of improvement at the beginning of the
20th century. These improvements, inter alia, enabled vessels
drawing up to 23 ft. to lie alongside the extensive quays which
border the Liffey, at low tide. The extensive Alexandra tidal
basin, on the north side of the Liffey, admits vessels of similar
capacity. The Custom House Works on the north side have about
17 ft. of water. With docks named after them are connected
the Royal and Grand Canals, passing respectively to north and
south of the city, the one penetrating the great central plain of
Ireland on the north, the other following the course of the Liffey,
doing the same on the south, and both joining the river Shannon.
The docks attached to the canals, and certain other smaller
docks, are owned by companies, and tolls are levied on vessels
entering these, but not those entering the docks under the Board.
Government. Dublin was formerly represented by two
members in the imperial parliament, but in 1885 the parlia-
mentary borough was divided into the four divisions of College
Green, Harbour, St Stephen's Green and St Patrick's, each
returning one member. The lord-lieutenant of Ireland occupies
Dublin Castle and the Viceregal Lodge in Phoenix Park. Dublin
is thus the seat of the viceregal court. It is also the seat of the
Irish courts of law and equity. In connexion with these it may
be noted that in 1904 a special court was established for children.
On the constitution of Dublin as a county borough in 1898, the
positions and duties of its corporation were left practically
unaltered. The corporation consists of a lord mayor, 20 aldermen
and 60 councillors, representing 20 wards. The income of the
body arises from rents on property, customs and taxes. Under an
act passed in 1875 the corporation has the right to forward every
year three names of persons suitable for the office of high sheriff
to the viceroy, one of which shall be selected by him. The
corporation has neither control over the police nor any judicial
duties, excepting as regards a court of conscience dealing with
debts under 403. (Irish); while the lord mayor holds a court
for debts over 405., and for the settlement of cases between
masters and servants. The lord mayor is clerk of the markets
and supervises weights and measures and deals with cases of
adulteration. Besides the usual duties of local government,
and the connexion with the port and docks boards already
explained, there should be noticed the connexion of the corpora-
tion with* such bodies as those controlling the city technical
schools, the Royal Irish Academy of Music, and the gallery of
modern art. The corporation has shown some concern for the
housing of the poor, and an extensive scheme taken up in 1904
included the provision of cottage dwellings in the suburbs, as at
Clontarf, besides improvements within the city itself. In 1505
a home on the model of the Rowton Houses in London, pro-
vided by Lord Iveagh, was opened in Bride Road. A competent
fire-brigade is maintained by the corporation. The city coroner
is a corporate officer. The city hall, used as municipal offices, has
already been mentioned; the official residence of the lord mayor
is the Mansion House, Dawson Street. The Dublin metropolitan
police is a force peculiar to the city, the remainder of Ireland being
protected civilly by the Royal Irish Constabulary. A large
military force is usually maintained in the city of Dublin,
which is the headquarters of the military district of Dublin and
of the staff of Ireland (q.v.). The troops are accommodated in
several large barracks in various parts of the city.
Charities. The number of charitable institutions is large.
The hospital and Free School of King Charles I., commonly
called the Blue Coat hospital, was founded in 1670. It is devoted
to the education and maintenance of the sons of citizens in
poor circumstances. Before the Irish Parliament Houses were
erected the parliament met in the school building. Among
hospitals those of special general interest are the Steevens,
the oldest in the city, founded under the will of Dr Richard
Steevens in 1720; the Mater Misericordiae (1861), which includes
a laboratory and museum, and is managed by the Sisters of
Mercy, but relieves sufferers independently of their creed; the
Rotunda lying-in hospital (1756); the Royal hospital for incur-
ables, Donnybrook, which was founded in 1744 by the Dublin
Musical Society; and the Royal Victoria Eye and Ear hospital,
Adelaide Road, which amalgamated (1904) two similar institu-
tions. Lunatics are maintained in St Patrick's hospital, founded
in 1745, pursuant to the will of Dean Swift, and conducted by
governors appointed under the charter of incorporation. The
Richmond lunatic asylum, erected near the House of Industry,
and placed under the care of officers appointed by government,
receives patients from a district consisting of the counties of
Dublin, Louth, Meath and Wicklow, each of these contributing
towards its expenses in proportion to the number of patients
sent in. Besides these public establishments for the custody of
lunatics, there are in the vicinity of Dublin various private
asylums. The principal institution for blind men (and also those
afflicted by gout) is Simpson's hospital (1780), founded by a
merchant of Dublin; while blind women are maintained at
the Molyneux asylum (1815). An institution for the maintenance
and education of children born deaf and dumb is maintained
at Claremont, near Glasnevin (1816). The plan of the Royal
hospital, for old and maimed soldiers, was first suggested by the
earl of Essex, when lord-lieutenant, and carried into effect
622
DUBLIN
through the repeated applications of the duke of Ormond to
Charles II. The site chosen for it was that of the ancient priory
of Kilmainham, founded by Strongbow for Knights Templars.
The building, completed in 1684, according to a plan of Sir
Christopher Wren, is an oblong, three sides of which are dwelling-
rooms, connected by covered corridors. The fourth contains the
chapel, the dining-hall, and the apartments of the master, who
is always the commander of the forces for the time being. The
Royal Hibernian military school in Phoenix Park (1765) provides
for soldiers' orphan sons. TheDrummond Institution, Chapelizod,
for the orphan daughters of soldiers, was established in 1864 by
John Drummond,alderman, who left 20,000 to found the asylum.
The Hibernian Marine Society for the maintenance of seamen's
sons was established in the city in 1766, but now has buildings at
Clontarf . The Roman Catholic Church has charge of a number
of special charities, some of them educational and some for the
relief of suffering.
History. The name of Dublin signifies the " Black pool."
The early history is mainly legendary. It is recorded that the
inhabitants of Leinster were defeated by the people of Dublin
in the year 291. Christianity was introduced by St. Patrick
about 450. In the gth century the Danes attacked Dublin and
took it. The first Norseman who may be reckoned as king was
Thorkel I. (832), though the Danes had appeared in the country
as early as the close of the previous century. Thorkel established
himself strongly at Armagh. In 1014 Brian Boroihme, king of
Munster, attacked the enemy and fought the battle of Clontarf,
in which he and his son and 1 1 ,000 of his followers fell. The Irish,
however, won the battle, but the Danes reoccupied the city.
Constant struggles with the Irish resulted in intermissions of
the Danish supremacy from 1052 to 1072, at various intervals
between 1075 and 1 1 18 and from 1 1 24 to 1 136. The Danes were
finally ousted by the Anglo-Normans in 1171. In 1172 Henry II.
landed at Waterford, and came to Dublin and held his court there
in a pavilion of wickerwork where the Irish chiefs were entertained
with great pomp, and alliances entered into with them. Previous
to his departure for England, Henry bestowed the government
on Hugh de Lacy, having granted by charter " to his subjects
of Bristol his city of Dublin to inhabit, and to hold of him and
his heirs for ever, with all the liberties and free customs which
his subjects of Bristol then enjoyed at Bristol and through
all England." In 1176 Strongbow, earl of Pembroke, and chief
leader of the Anglo-Norman forces, died in Dublin of a mortifica-
tion in one of his feet, and was buried in Christ Church Cathedral,
where his monument remains well preserved. A fresh charter
was granted in 1207 by King John to the inhabitants of Dublin,
who had not yet made their peace with the neighbourhood, but,
like the settlers in other towns, were at constant feud with the
native Irish; so that two years after the date of this charter,
whilst the citizens of Dublin were celebrating Easter at Cullens-
wood, they were set upon by the Irish of the neighbouring
mountains, and 500 of them killed. The scene of slaughter is
still called the Bloody Fields, and Easter Monday denominated
Black Monday. On each succeeding anniversary of that day,
with the prevalent desire of perpetuating a feud, the citizens
marched out to Cullenswood with banners displayed " a terror
to the native Irish." In 1216 Magna Carta, a copy of which is
to be found in the Red Book of the Exchequer, was granted
to the Irish by Henry III. In 1217 the fee farm of the city was
granted to the citizens at a rent of 200 marks per annum; and
about this period many monastic buildings were founded. In
1227 the same monarch confirmed the charter of John fixing
the city boundaries and the jurisdiction of its magistrates.
During the invasion of Ireland by Edward Bruce in 1315
some of the suburbs of Dublin were burnt to prevent them
from falling into his hand. The inroad of Bruce had been coun-
tenanced by the native Irish ecclesiastics, whose sentiments were
recorded in a statement addressed to Pope John XXII. Some
notion of the defence made against Brace's invasion may be
gained from the fact that the churches were torn down to supply
stones for the building of the city walls. Brace had seized
Greencastle on his march; but the natives re-took the town,
and brought to Dublin the governor who had yielded to Bruce.
He was starved to death.
Richard II. erected Dublin into a marquisate in favour of
Robert de Vere, whom he also created duke of Ireland. The same
monarch entered Dublin in 1394 with 30,000 bowmen and 4000
cavalry, bringing with him the crown jewels; but after holding
a parliament and making much courtly display before the native
chieftains, on several of whom he conferred knighthood, he
returned to England. Five years later, enriched with the spoils of
his uncle, John of Gaunt, Richard returned to Ireland, landing at
Waterford, whence he marched through the counties of Kilkenny
and Wicklow, and subsequently arrived in Dublin, where he
remained a fortnight, sumptuously entertained by the provost, as
the chief magistrate of the city was then called, till intelligence
of the invasion of his kingdom by Bolingbroke recalled him to
England.
In 1534 Lord Thomas Fitzgerald, better known as Silken
Thomas (so called because of a fantastic fringe worn in the helmet
of his followers), a young man of rash courage and good abilities,
son of the Lord Deputy Kildare, believing his father, who was
imprisoned in the Tower of London, to have been beheaded,
organized a rebellion against the English Government, and
marched with his followers from the mansion of the earls of
Kildare in Thomas Court, through Dame's Gate to St Mary's
Abbey, where, .in the council chamber, he proclaimed himself
a rebel. On his appearing before the wall with a powerful force,
the citizens were induced through fear to give admission to a
detachment of his troops to besiege the castle; but, on hearing
that he had met with a reverse in another quarter, they suddenly
closed their gates and detained his men as prisoners. He then
attacked the city itself; but, finding it too strong to be seized
by a coup de main, he raised the siege on condition of having
his captured soldiers exchanged for the children of some of the
principal citizens who had fallen into his hands. After much
vicissitude of fortune, Lord Thomas and others concerned in this
rebellion were executed at Tyburn in 1536.
At the outbreak of civil war in 1641, a conspiracy of the
Irish septs, under the direction of Roger Moore, to seize Dublin
Castle, was disclosed by one Owen Connolly on the eve of the day
on which the attempt was to have been made, and the city was
thus preserved for the king's party; but the Irish outside began
an indiscriminate extermination of the Protestant population.
In 1646 Dublin was besieged, but without success, by the Irish
army of 16,000 foot and 1600 horse, under the guidance of the
Pope's nuncio Rinuccini and others, banded together " to
restore and establish in Ireland the exercise of the Roman
Catholic religion." The city had been put in an efficient state of
defence by the marquess of Ormonde, then lord-lieutenant; but
in the following year, to prevent it falling into the hands of the
Irish, he surrendered it on conditions to Colonel Jones, com-
mander of the Parliamentary forces. In 1649 Ormonde was
totally defeated at the battle of Baggotrath, near Old Rathmines,
in an attempt to recover possession. The same year Cromwell
landed in Dublin, as commander-in-chief under the parliament,
with 9000 foot and 4000 horse, and proceeded thence on his
career of conquest.
When James II. landed in Ireland in 1689 to assert his right
to the British throne, he held a parliament in Dublin, which
passed acts of attainder against upwards of 3000 Protestants.
The governor of the city, Colonel Luttrell, at the same time issued
a proclamation ordering all Protestants not housekeepers, except-
ing those following some trade, to depart from the city within
24 hours, under pain of death or imprisonment, and in various
ways restricting those who were allowed , to remain. In the
hope of relieving his financial difficulties, the king erected a mint,
where money was coined of the " worst kind of old brass, guns
and the refuse of metals, melted down together," of the nominal
value of 1,568,800, with which his troops were paid, and trades-
men were compelled to receive it under penalty of being hanged
in case of refusal. Under these regulations the entire coinage
was put into circulation. After his defeat at the battle of the
Boyne, James returned to Dublin, but left it again before
DUBNER DUBOIS, GUILLAUME
623
daybreak the next day; and William III. advancing by slow
marches, on his arrival encamped at Finglas, with upwards of
30,000 men, and the following day proceeded in state to St
Patrick's cathedral to return thanks for his victory.
In 1783 a convention of delegates from all the volunteer corps
in Ireland assembled in Dublin for the purpose of procuring a
reform in parliament; but the House of Commons refused to
entertain the proposition, and the convention separated without
coming to any practical result. In May 1 798 the breaking out of
a conspiracy planned by the United Irishmen to seize the city
was prevented by the capture of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, son
of the duke of Leinster and husband of the celebrated " Pamela."
Lord Edward died in prison of the wounds received in the
encounter which preceded his capture. In 1803 an insurrection
headed by Robert Emmett, a young barrister of much promise,
broke out, but was immediately quelled, with the loss of some
lives in the tumult, and the death of its leaders on the scaffold.
In 1848 William Smith O'Brien, M.P. for Limerick, raised a
rebellion in Tipperary, and the lower classes in Dublin were
greatly agitated. Owing, however, to timely and judicious
disposition of the military and police forces the city was saved
from much bloodshed. In 1867 the most serious of modern
conspiracies, that known as the Fenian organization, came to
light. The reality of it was proved by a ship being found laden
with gunpowder in the Liverpool docks, and another with 5000
and 2000 pike-heads in Dublin. The Habeas Corpus Act was
suspended at one sitting by both Houses of Parliament and
about 960 arrests were made in Dublin in a few hours. Dublin
castle was fortified; and the citizens lived in a state of terror
for several weeks together. For later history, see IRELAND.
See W. Harris, History and Antiquities of the CityofDublin(Dub\in,
1766); Sir J. T. Gilbert, History of the City of Dublin (Dublin, 1859).
The history of the Norsemen in Dublin has been dealt with by a Nor-
wegian writer, L. J. Vogt, Dublin som Norsk By (Christiania, 1896).
DUBNER, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1802-1867), German
classical scholar (naturalized a Frenchman), was born in Hor
selgau, near Gotha, on the 20th of December 1802. After study-
ing at the university of Gottingen he returned to Gotha, where
from 1827-1832 he held a post (inspector coenobii) in connexion
with the gymnasium. Curing this period he made his name
known by, editions of Justin and Persius (after Casaubon). In
1832 he was invited by the brothers Didot to Paris, to co-operate
in a new edition of H. Etienne's Greek Thesaurus. He also
contributed largely to the Bibliotheca Graeca published by the
same firm, a series of Greek classics with Latin translation,
critical notes and valuable indexes. One of Diibner's most
important works was an edition of Caesar undertaken by com-
mand of Napoleon III., which obtained him the cross of the
Legion of Honour. His editions are considered to be models
of literary and philological criticism, and did much to raise
the standard of classical scholarship in France. He violently
attacked Burnouf's method of teaching Greek, but without
result. Diibner may have gone too far in his zeal for reform,
and his opinions may have been too harshly expressed, but
time has shown him to be right. The old text-books have been
discarded, and a great improvement in classical teaching has
taken place in recent years. Diibner died at Montreuil-sous-Bois,
near Paris, on the i3th of December 1867.
See F. Godefroy, Notice sur J. F. Diibner (1867) ; Sainte-Beuve,
Discours a la memoire de Diibner (1868); article in Allgemeine
deutsche Biographie.
DUBOIS, FRANCOIS CLEMENT THEODORE (1837- ),
French musical composer, was born at Rosney (Marne) on the
24th of August 1837. He studied at the Conservatoire under
Ambroise Thomas, and won the Grand Prix de Rome in 1861
with his cantata Atala. After the customary sojourn in Rome,
Dubois returned to Paris and devoted himself to teaching. He
was appointed " maltre de Chapelle " at the church of Ste
Clotilde, where Cesar Franck was organist, in 1863, and remained
at this post for five years, during which time he composed a
quantity of sacred music, notably Les Sept Paroles du Christ
(1867), a work which has become well known in France. In
1868 he became " maitre de Chapelle " at the church of the
Madeleine, and nine years later succeeded Camille Saint-Saens
there as organist. He became professor of harmony at the
Conservatoire in 1871, and was appointed professor of composi-
tion in succession to L6o Delibes in 1891. At the death of
Ambroise Thomas in 1896 he became director of the Conserva-
toire. Dubois is an extremely prolific composer and has written
in a variety of forms. His sacred works include four masses,
a requiem, Les Sept Paroles du Christ, a large number of motets
and pieces for organ. For the theatre he has composed La
Guzla de l',mir, an opera comique in one act, played at the
Theatre Lyrique de PAthenee in 1873; Le Pain bis, an opera
comique in one act, given at the Opera Comique in 1879; La
Farandole, a ballet in three acts, produced at the Grand Opera
in 1883; Aben-Hamet, a four-act opera, heard at the Theatre
Italien in 1884; Xaviere, a dramatic idyll in three acts, played
at the Opera Comique in 1895. His orchestral works include
two concert overtures, the overture to Frithiojf (1880), several
suites, Marche hercfique de Jeanne d' Arc (1888), &c. He is also
the author of Le Paradis perdu, an oratorio which gained for
him the prize offered by the city of Paris in 1878; L'Enlevement
de Proserpine (1879), a scene lyrique; Delivrance (1887), a
cantata; Hylas (1890), a scene lyrique for soli, chorus and
orchestra; Notre Dame de la mer, a symphonic poem (1897);
and a musical setting of a Latin ode on the baptism of Clovis
(1899). In addition, he composed much for the piano and
voice.
DUBOIS, GUILLAUME (1656-1723), French cardinal and
statesman, was born at Brive, in Limousin, on the 6th of
September 1656. He was, according to his enemies, the son of
an apothecary, his father being in fact a doctor of medicine
of respectable family, who kept a small drug store as part of
the necessary outfit of a country practitioner. He was educated
at the school of the Brothers of the Christian Doctrine at Brive,
where he received the tonsure at the age of thirteen. In 1672,
having finished his philosophy course, he was given a scholarship
at the college of St Michel at Paris by Jean, marquis de Pompa-
dour, lieutenant-general of the Limousin. The head of the
college, the abbe Antoine Faure, who was from the same part
of the country as himself, befriended the lad, and continued
to do so for many years after he had finished his course, finding
him pupils and ultimately obtaining for him the post of tutor
to the young duke of Chartres, afterwards the regent duke of
Orleans. Astute, ambitious and unrestrained by conscience,
Dubois ingratiated himself with his pupil, and, while he gave
him formal school lessons, at the same time pandered to his
evil passions and encouraged him in their indulgence. He
gained the favour of Louis XIV. by bringing about the marriage
of his pupil with Mademoiselle de Blois, a natural but legitimated
daughter of the king; and for this service he was rewarded with
the gift of the abbey of St Just in Picardy. He was present
with his pupil at the battle of Steinkirk, and " faced fire," says
Marshal Luxembourg, " like a grenadier." Sent to join the
French embassy in London, he made himself so active that he
was recalled by the request of the ambassador, who feared his
intrigues. This, however, tended to raise his credit with the
king. When the duke of Orleans became regent (1715) Dubois,
who had for some years acted as his secretary, was made councillor
of state, and the chief power passed gradually into his hands.
His policy was steadily directed towards maintaining the
peace of Utrecht, and this made him the main opponent of the
schemes of Cardinal Alberoni for the aggrandizement of Spain.
To counteract Alberoni's intrigues, he suggested an alliance
with England, and in the face of great difficulties succeeded
in negotiating the Triple Alliance (1717). In 1719 he sent an
army into Spain, and forced Philip V. to dismiss Alberoni.
Otherwise his policy remained that of peace. Dubois's success
strengthened him against the bitter opposition of a large section
of the court. Political honours did not satisfy him, however.
The church offered the richest field for exploitation, and in
spite of his dissolute life he impudently prayed the regent to
give him the archbishopric of Cambray, the richest in France.
His demand was supported by George I., and the regent yielded.
624
DUBOIS, J. A. DUBOIS, PIERRE
In one day all the usual orders were conferred on him, and even
the great preacher Massillon consented to take part in the
ceremonies. His next aim was the cardinalate, and, after long
and most profitable negotiations on the part of Pope Clement
XI., the red hat was given to him by Innocent XIII. (1721),
whose election was largely due to the bribes of Dubois. It is
estimated that this cardinalate cost France about eight million
francs. In the following year he was named first minister of
France (August). He was soon after received at the French
Academy; and, to the disgrace of the French clergy, he was
named president of their assembly.
When Louis XV. attained his majority in 1723 Dubois re-
mained chief minister. He had accumulated an immense private
fortune, possessing in addition to his see the revenues of seven
abbeys. He was, however, a prey to the most terrible pains of
body and agony of mind. His health was ruined by his de-
baucheries, and a surgical operation became necessary. This
was almost immediately followed by his death, at Versailles,
on the loth of August 1723. His portrait was thus drawn by the
due de St Simon: " He was a little, pitiful, wizened, herring-
gutted man, in a flaxen wig, with a weasel's face, brightened
by some intellect. All the vices perfidy, avarice, debauchery,
ambition, flattery fought within him for the mastery. He was
so consummate a liar that, when taken in the fact, he could
brazenly deny it. Even his wit and knowledge of the world
were spoiled, and his affected gaiety was touched with sadness,
by the odour of falsehood which escaped through every pore of
his body." This famous picture is certainly biassed. Dubois
was unscrupulous, but so were his contemporaries, and whatever
vices he had, he gave France peace -after the disastrous wars of
Louis XIV.
In 1789 appeared Vie prince du Cardinal Dubois, attributed to one
of his secretaries, Mongez; and in 1815 his Memoires secrets et corre-
spondance inedite, edited by L. de Sevelinges. See also A. Cheruel,
Saint-Simon et I' abbe Dubois; L. Wiesener, Le Regent, I'abbe Dubois
et les Anglais (1891) ; and memoirs of the time.
DUBOIS, JEAN ANTOINE (1765-1848), French Catholic
missionary in India, was ordained in the diocese of Viviers in
1792, and sailed for India in the same year under the direction
of the Missions Etrangeres. He was at first attached to the
Pondicherry mission, and worked in the southern districts of
the present Madras Presidency. On the fall of Seringapatam in
1799 he went to Mysore to reorganize the Christian community
that had been shattered by Tipu Sultan. Among the benefits
which he conferred upon his impoverished flock were the founding
of agricultural colonies and the introduction of vaccination as a
preventive of smallpox. But his great work was his record of
Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies. Immediately on his
arrival in India he saw that the work of a Christian missionary
should be based on a thorough acquaintance with the innermost
life and character of the native population. Accordingly he
abjured European society, adopted the native style of clothing,
and made himself in habit and costume as much like a Hindu as
he could. He gained an extraordinary welcome amongst people
of all castes and conditions, and is still spoken of in many parts
of South India with affection and esteem as " the prince's
son, the noblest of Europeans." Although Dubois modestly dis-
claimed the rank of an author, his collections were not so much
drawn from the Hindu sacred books as from his own careful
and vivid observations, and it is this, united to a remarkable
prescience, that makes his work so valuable. It is divided into
three parts: (i) a general view of society in India, and especially
of the caste system; (2) the four states of Brahminical life; (3)
religion feasts, temples, objects of worship. Not only does the
abb6 give a shrewd, clear-sighted, candid account of the manners
and customs of the Hindus, but he provides a very sound estimate
of the British position in India, and makes some eminently just
observations on the difficulties of administering the Empire
according to Western notions of civilization and progress with
the limited resources that are available. Dubois's French MS.
was purchased for eight thousand rupees by Lord William
Bentinck for the East India Company in 1807; in 1816 an
English translation was published, and of this edition about 1864
a curtailed reprint was issued. The abbe, however, largely recast
his work, and of this revised text (now in the India Office) an
edition with notes was published in 1897 by H. K. Beauchamp.
Dubois left India in January 1823, with a special pension con-
ferred on him by the East India Company, and on reaching Paris
was appointed director of the Missions Etrangeres, of which
he afterwards became superior (1836-1839). He translated into
French the famous book of Hindu fables called Panchatanlra,
and also a work called The Exploits of the Guru Paramarta. Of
more interest were his Letters on the State of Christianity in India,
in which he asserted his opinion that under existing circumstances
there was no human possibility of so overcoming the invincible
barrier of Brahminical prejudice as to convert the Hindus as a
nation to any sect of Christianity. He acknowledged that low
castes and outcastes might be converted in large numbers, but
of the higher castes he wrote: " Should the intercourse between
individuals of both nations, by becoming mere intimate and
more friendly, produce a change in the religion and usages of
the country, it will not be to turn Christians that they will forsake
their own religion, but rather ... to become mere atheists."
He died in 1848.
DUBOIS, PAUL (1829-1905), French sculptor and painter,
was born at Nogent-sur-Seine on the i8th of July 1829. He
studied law to please his family, and art to please himself,
and finally adopted the ktter, and placed himself under Tous-
saint. After studying at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Dubois went
to Rome. His first contributions to the Paris Salon (1860) were
busts of " The Countess de B." and " A Child." For his first
statues, " St John the Baptist " and " Narcissus at the Bath "
(1863), he was awarded a medal of the second class. The statue
of " The Infant St John," which had been modelled in Florence
in 1860, was exhibited in Paris in bronze, and was acquired
by the Luxemburg. "A Florentine Singer of the Fifteenth
Century," one of the most popular statuettes in Europe, was
shown in 1865; " The Virgin and Child " appeared in the Paris
Universal Exhibition in 1867; "The Birth of Eve" was pro-
duced in 1873, and was followed by striking busts of Henner,
Dr Parrot, Paul Baudry, Pasteur, Goimod and Bonnat, remark-
able alike for life, vivacity, likeness, refinement and subtle
handling. The chief work of Paul Dubois was " The Tomb of
General Lamoriciere " in the cathedral of Nantes, a brilliant
masterpiece conceived in the Renaissance spirit, with allegorical
figures and groups representing Warlike Courage, Charity, Faith
and Meditation, as well as bas-reliefs and enrichments; the two
first-named works were separately exhibited in the Salon of
1877. The medallions represent Wisdom, Hope, Justice, Force,
Rhetoric, Prudence and Religion. The statue of the " Constable
Anne de Montmorency " was executed for Chantilly, and that
of " Joan of Arc " (1889) for the town of Reims. The Italian
influence which characterized the earlier work of Dubois dis-
appeared as his own individuality became clearly asserted. As
a painter he restricted himself mainly to portraiture, " My
Children " (1876) being probably his most noteworthy achieve-
ment. His drawings and copies after the Old Masters are of
peculiar excellence: they include " The Dead Christ " (after
Sebastian del Piombo) and " Adam and Eve " (after Raphael).
In 1873 Dubois was appointed keeper of the Luxemburg Museum.
He succeeded Guillaume as director of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts,
1878, and Perraud as member of the Academic des Beaux-Arts.
Twice at the Salon he obtained the medal of honour (1865 and
1876), and once at the Universal Exhibition (1878). He also
won numerous other distinctions, and was appointed grand cross
of the Legion of Honour. He was made a member of several
European orders, and in 1895 was elected an honorary foreign
academician of the Royal Academy of London. He died at
Paris in 1905.
DUBOIS, PIERRE (c. 1250-*;. 1312), French publicist in the
reign of Philip the Fair, was the author of a series of political
pamphlets embodying original and daring views. He was
known to Jean du Tillet in the i6th, and to Pierre Dupuy in
the 1 7th century, but remained practically forgotten until the
DUBOIS DU BOIS-REYMOND
625
middle of the igth century, when his history was reconstructed
from his works. He was a Norman by birth, probably a native
of Coutances, where he exercised the functions of royal advocate
of the bailliage and procurator of the university. He was
educated at the university of Paris, where he heard St Thomas
Aquinas and Siger of Brabant. He was, nevertheless, no
adherent of the scholastic philosophy, and appears to have been
conversant with the works of Roger Bacon. Although he never
held any important political office, he must have been in the
confidence of the court when, in 1300, he wrote his anonymous
Summaria, brevis et compendiosa doctrina felicis expedicionis et
abbreviationis guerrarum et litium regni Francorum, which is
extant in a unique MS., but is analysed by N. de Wailly in the
Bibliotheque de I'Ecole des Charles (and series, vol. iii.). In the
contest between Philip the Fair and Boniface VIII. Dubois
identified himself completely with the secularizing policy of
Philip, and poured forth a series of anti-clerical pamphlets,
which did not cease even with the death of Boniface. His
Supplication du pueble de France au roy contre le pape Boniface
le VIII', printed in 1614 in Ada inter Bonifacium VIII. et
Philippum Pidchrum, dates from 1304, and is a heated indict-
ment of the temporal power. He represented Coutances in the
states-general of 1302, but in 1306 he was serving Edward I.
as an advocate in Guienne, without apparently abandoning his
Norman practice by which he had become a rich man. The
most important of his works, his treatise De recuperatione terrae
sanctae, 1 was written in 1306, and dedicated in its extant form
to Edward I., though it is certainly addressed to Philip. Dubois
outlines the conditions necessary to a successful crusade the
establishment and enforcement of a state of peace among the
Christian nations of the West by a council of the church; the
reform of the monastic, and especially of the military, orders;
the reduction of their revenues; the instruction of a number of
young men and women in oriental languages and the natural
sciences with a view to the government of Eastern peoples; and
the establishment of Philip of Valois as emperor of the East.
The king of France was in fact, when once the pope was deprived
of the temporal power, to become the suzerain of the Western
nations, and in a later and separate memoir Dubois proposed
that he should cause himself to be made emperor by Clement V.
His zeal for the crusade was probably subordinate to the desire
to secure the wealth of the monastic orders for the royal treasury,
and to transfer the ecclesiastical jurisdiction to the crown. His
ideas on education, on the celibacy of the clergy, and his schemes
for the codification of French law, were far in advance of his
time. He was an early and violent " Gallican," and the first of
the great French lawyers who occupied themselves with high
politics. In 1308 he attended the states-general at Tours.
He is generally credited with Quaedam proposila papae a rege
super factu Templariorum, a draft epistle supposed to be addressed
to Clement by Philip. This was followed by other pamphlets
in the same tone, in one of which he proposed that a kingdom
founded on the property of the Templars in the East should be
established on behalf of Philip the Tall.
See an article by E. Renan in Hist. litt. de la France, vol. xxvi.
pp. 471-536; P. Dupuy Hist, de la condemnation . . . des Templiers
(Brussels, 1713), and Hist, du differend entre le pape Boniface VIII
et Philippe le Bel (Paris 1655) ; and Notices et extrails de manuscrits,
vol. xx.
DUBOIS, a borough of Clearfield county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., 129 m. by rail N.E. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 6149,
(1900) 9375, of whom 1655 were foreign-born; (1910 census)
1 2,623. It is served by the Pennsylvania, the Buffalo, Rochester
& Pittsburg, and the Buffalo & Susquehanna railways. The
borough is built on a small plateau surrounded by hills, on the
west slope of the Alleghany Mountains, nearly 1400 ft. above
sea-level. Its chief importance is as a coal and lumber centre;
among its manufacturing establishments are blast furnaces,
iron works, machine shops, railway repair shops, tanneries,
planing mills, flour mills, locomotive works and a glass factory.
Dubois was first settled in 1872, was named in honour of its
founder, John Dubois, and was incorporated in 1881.
1 Printed in Collections a servir a I'Sttide de I'histoire (1891).
DUBOIS-CRANC6, EDMOND LOUIS ALEXIS (1747-1814),
French Revolutionist, born at Charleville,was at first a musketeer,
then a lieutenant of the marechaux,ot guardsmen of the old regime.
He embraced liberal ideas, and in 1789 was elected deputy to
the states-general by the third estate of Vitry-le-Francois. At
the Constituent Assembly, of which he was named secretary in
November 1789, he busied himself mainly with military reforms.
He wished to see the old military system, with its caste distinc-
tions and its mercenaries, replaced by an organization of national
guards in which all citizens should be admitted. In his report,
on the 1 2th of December 1789, he gave utterance for the first
time to the idea of conscription, which he opposed to the recruiting
system of the old regime. His report was not, however, adopted.
He succeeded in securing the Assembly's vote that any slave who
touched French soil should become free. After the Constituent,
Dubois-Crance was named marechal de camp, but he refused to be
placed under the orders of Lafayette and preferred to serve as
a simple grenadier. Elected to the Convention by the depart-
ment of the Ardennes, he sat among the Montagnards, but
without following any one leader, either Danton or Robespierre.
In the trial of Louis XVI. he voted for death without delay or
appeal. On the 2ist of February 1793 he was named president
of the Convention. Although he was a member of the two
committees of general defence which preceded that of public
safety, he did not belong to the latter at its creation. But he
composed a remarkable report on the army, recommending
two measures which contributed largely to its success, the rapid
advancement of the lower officers, which opened the way for
the most famous generals of the Revolution, and the fusion
of the volunteers with the veteran troops. In August 1793
Dubois-Crance was designated " representative on mission " to
the army of the Alps, to direct the siege of Lyons, which had
revolted against the republic. Accused of lack of energy, he
was replaced by G. Couthon. On his return he easily justified
himself, but was excluded from the Jacobin club at the instance
of Robespierre, before whom he refused to bend. Consequently
he was naturally drawn to participate in the revolution of the
9th of Thermidor of the year II., directed against Robespierre.
But he would not join the Royalist reaction which followed,
and was one of the committee of five which had to oppose the
Royalist insurrection of Vendemiaire (see FRENCH REVOLUTION).
It was also during this period that Dubois-Crance was named
a member of the committee of public safety, then much reduced
in importance. After the Convention, under the Directory,
Dubois-Crance was a member of the Council of the Five Hundred,
and was appointed inspector-general of infantry; then, in 1799,
minister of war. Opposed to the coup d'itat of the i8th of
Brumaire, he lived in retirement during the Consulate and the
Empire. He died at Rethel on the 29th of June 1814. His
portrait stands in the foreground in J. L. David's celebrated
sketch of the " Oath of the Tennis Court."
Among the numerous writings of Dubois-Crance may be noticed
his Observations sur la constitution militaire, ou bases du travail
propose au comite militaire. See H. F. T. Jung, Dubois de Crance.
L'armee et la Revolution, 1789-1794 (2 vols., Paris, 1884).
DU BOIS-REYMOND, EMIL (1818-1896), German physiologist,
was born in Berlin on the 7th of November 1818. The Prussian
capital was the place both of his birth and of his life's work,
and he will always be counted among Germany's great scientific
men; yet he was not of German blood. His father belonged
to Neuchatel, his mother was of Huguenot descent, and he spoke
of himself as " being of pure Celtic blood." Educated first at
the French college in Berlin, then at Neuchatel, whither his
father had returned, he entered in 1836 the university of Berlin.
He seems to have been uncertain at first as to the bent of his
studies, for he sat at the feet of the great ecclesiastical historian
August Neander, and dallied with geology; but eventually he
threw himself into the study of medicine, with such zeal and
success as to attract the notice of the great teacher of anatomy
and physiology, who was then making Berlin famous as a school
for the sciences ancillary to medicine. Johannes Miiller may be
regarded as the central figure in the history of modern physiology,
DUBOS
the physiology of the igth century. Miiller's earlier studies
had been distinctly physiological; but his inclination, no less
than his position as professor of anatomy as well as of physiology
in the university of Berlin, led him later on into wide studies of
comparative anatomy, and these, aided by the natural bent of
his mind towards problems of general philosophy, gave his views
of physiology a breadth and a depth which profoundly influenced
the progress of that science in his day. He had, about the time
when the young Du Bois-Reymond came to his lectures, published
his great Elements of Physiology, the dominant note of which
may be said to be this: " Though there appears to be something
in the phenomena of living beings which cannot be explained
by ordinary mechanical, physical or chemical laws, much may be
so explained, and we may without fear push these explanations
as far as we can, so long as we keep to the solid ground of observa-
tion and experiment." Miiller recognized in the Neuchatel lad
a mind fitted to carry on physical researches into the pheno-
mena of living things in a legitimate way. He made him in 1840
his assistant in physiology, and as a starting-point for an inquiry
put into his hands the essay which the Italian, Carlo Matteucci,
had just published on the electric phenomena of animals. This
determined the work of Du Bois-Reymond's life. He chose as
the subject of his graduation thesis " Electric Fishes," and so
commenced a long series of investigations on animal electricity,
by which he enriched science and made for himself a name.
The results of these inquiries were made known partly in papers
communicated to scientific journals, but also and chiefly in his
work Researches on Animal Electricity, the first part of which
appeared in 1848, the last in 1884.
This great work may be regarded under two aspects. On the
one hand, it is a record of the exact determination and approxima-
tive analysis of the electric phenomena presented by living
beings. Viewed from this standpoint, it represents a remarkable
advance of our knowledge. Du Bois-Reymond, beginning with
the imperfect observations of Matteucci, built up, it may be said,
this branch of science. He did so by inventing or improving
methods, by devising new instruments of observation or by
adapting old ones. The debt which science owes to him on this
score is a large one indeed. On the other hand, the volumes in
question contain an exposition of a theory. In them Du Bois-
Reymond put forward a general conception by the help of which
he strove to explain the phenomena which he had observed.
He developed the view that a living tissue, such as muscle,
might be regarded as composed of a number of electric molecules,
of molecules having certain electric properties, and that the
electric behaviour of the muscle as a whole in varying circum-
stances was the outcome of the behaviour of these native electric
molecules. It may perhaps be said that this theory has not
stood the test of time so well as have Du Bois-Reymond's other
more simple deductions from observed facts. It was early
attacked by Ludimar Hermann, who maintained that a living
untouched tissue, such as a muscle, is not the subject of electric
currents so long as it is at rest, is isoelectric in substance, and
therefore need not be supposed to be made up of electric molecules,
all the electric phenomena which it manifests being due to internal
molecular changes associated with activity or injury. Although
most subsequent observers have ranged themselves on Hermann's
side, it must nevertheless be admitted that Du Bois-Reymond's
theory was of great value if only as a working hypothesis, and that
as such it greatly helped in the advance of science.
Du Bois-Reymond's work lay chiefly in the direction of
animal electricity, yet he carried his inquiries such as could be
studied by physical methods into other parts of physiology,
more especially into the phenomena of diffusion, though he pub-
lished little or nothing concerning the results at which he arrived.
For many years, too, he exerted a great influence as a teacher.
In 1858, upon the death of Johannes Miiller, the chair of anatomy
and physiology, which that great man had held, was divided
into a chair of human and comparative anatomy, which was given
to K. B. Reichert (1811-1883), an d a chair of physiology, which
naturally fell to Du Bois-Reymond. This he held to his death,
carrying out his researches for many years under unfavourable
conditions of inadequate accommodation. In 1877, through his
influence, the government provided the university with a proper
physiological laboratory. In 1851 he was admitted into the
Academy of Sciences of Berlin, and in 1867 became its perpetual
secretary. For many years he and his friend H. von Helmholtz,
who like him had been a pupil of Johannes Miiller, were prominent
men in the German capital. Acceptable at court, they both used
their position and their influence for the advancement of science.
Both, from time to time as opportunity offered, stepped out of
the narrow limits of the professorial chair and gave the world their
thoughts concerning things on which they could not well dwell
in the lecture room. Du Bois-Reymond, as has been said, had
in his earlier years wandered into fields other than those of
physiology and medicine, and in his later years he went back
to some of these. His occasional discourses, dealing with general
topics and various problems of philosophy, show that to the end
he possessed the historic spirit which had led him as a lad to
listen to Neander; they are marked not only by a charm of style,
but by a breadth of view such as might be expected from Johannes
Miiller's pupil and friend. He died in the city of his birth and
adoption on the 26th of November 1896. (M. F.)
DUBOS, JEAN-BAPTISTE (1670-1742), French author, was
born at Beauvais in December 1670. After studying for the
church, he renounced theology for the study of public law and
politics. He was employed by M. de Torcy, minister of foreign
affairs, and by the regent and Cardinal Dubois in several secret
missions, in which he acquitted himself with great success.
He was rewarded with a pension and several benefices. Having
obtained these, he retired from political life, and devoted himself
to history and literature. He gained such distinction as an
author that in 1720 he was elected a member of the French
Academy, of which, in 1 7 23, he was appointed perpetual secretary
in the room of M. Dacier. He died at Paris on the 23rd of March
1742, repeating as he expired the well-known remark of an
ancient, " Death is a law, not a punishment." His first work
was L'Histoire des quatre Gordiens prouvee et illustree par des
medailles (Paris, 1695, I2mo), which, in spite of its ingenuity,
did not succeed in altering the common opinion, which only
admits three emperors of this name. About the commencement
of the war of 1701, being charged with different negotiations
both in Holland and in England, with the design to engage these
powers if possible to adopt a pacific line of policy, he, in order
to promote the objects of his mission, published a work entitled
Les Interns de I'Angleterre mal entendus dans la guerre presente
(Amsterdam, 1703, i2mo). But as this work contained indiscreet
disclosures, of which the enemy took advantage, and predictions
which were not fulfilled, a wag took occasion to remark that the
title ought to be read thus: Les Interets de I'Angleterre mal
entendus par I'abbe Dubos. It is remarkable as containing a
distinct prophecy of the revolt of the American colonies from
Great Britain. His next work was L'Histoire de la Ligue de
Cambray (Paris, 1709, 1728 and 1785, 2 vols. I2mo), a full,
clear and interesting history, which obtained the commendation
of Voltaire. In 1734 he published his Histoire critique de
I' etablissement de la monarchie franqaise dans les Catties (3 vols.
4to) a work the object of which was to prove that the Franks
had entered Gaul, not as conquerors, but at the request of the
nation, which, according to him, had called them in to govern it.
But this system, though unfolded with a degree of skill and
ability which at first procured it many zealous partisans, was
victoriously refuted by Montesquieu at the end of the thirtieth
book of the Esprit des lois. His Reflexions critiques sur la poesie
et sur la peinture, published for the first time in 1719 (2 vols.
i2mo), but often reprinted in three volumes, constitute one of
the works in which the theory of the arts is explained with the
utmost sagacity and discrimination. Like his history of the
League of Cambray, it was highly praised by Voltaire. The
work was rendered more remarkable by the fact that its author
had no practical acquaintance with any one of the arts whose
principles he discussed. Besides the works above enumerated,
a manifesto of Maximilian, elector of Bavaria, against the
emperor Leopold, relative to the succession in Spain, has been
DUBUQUE DU CANGE
627
attributed to Dubos, chiefly, it appears, from the excellence of
the style.
DUBUQUE, a city and the county-seat of Dubuque county,
Iowa, U.S.A., on the Mississippi river, opposite the boundary line
between Wisconsin and Illinois. Pop. (1890) 30,311; (1900)
16,297; (1905, state census) 41,941 (including 6835 foreign-born,
the majority of whom were German and Irish) 5(1910 U.S. census)
38,494. Dubuque is served by the Illinois Central, the Chicago,
Milwaukee & Saint Paul (which has repair shops here), the
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and the Chicago Great Western
railways; it also has a considerable river traffic. The river is
spanned here by a railway bridge and two wagon bridges. The
business portion of the city lies on the low lands bordering the
river; many of the residences are built on the slopes and summits
of bluffs commanding extensive and picturesque views. Among
the principal buildings are the Carnegie-Stout free public library
(which in 1908 had 23,600 volumes, exclusive of the valuable
Senator Allison collection of public documents), the public high
school, and the house of the Dubuque Club. Dubuque is a Roman
Catholic archiepiscopal see, and is the seat of St Joseph's College
(1873), a small Roman Catholic institution; of Wartburg
Seminary (1854), a small Evangelical Lutheran theological
school; of the German Presbyterian Theological School of the
Northwest (1852); of St Joseph's Ladies' Academy; and of
Bayless Business College. Fifteen miles from Dubuque is a
monastery of Trappist monks. Among the city's charitable
institutions are the Finley and the Mercy hospitals, a home for
the friendless, a rescue home, a House of the Good Shepherd,
and an insane asylum. In 1900 Dubuque ranked fourth and in
1905 fifth among the cities of the state as a manufacturing
centre, the chief products being those of the planing mills and
machine shops, and furniture, sashes and doors, liquors, carriages,
wagons, coffins, clothing, boots and shoes, river steam boats,
barges, torpedo boats, &c., and the value of the factory product
being $9,279,414 in 1905 and $9,651,247 in 1900. The city lies
in a region of lead and zinc mines, quantities of zinc ore in the
form of black-jack being taken from the latter. Dubuque is
important as a distributing centre for lumber, hardware,
groceries and dry-goods.
As early as 1788 Julien Dubuque (1765-1810), attracted by
the lead deposits in the vicinity, which were then being crudely
worked by the Sauk and Fox Indians, settled here and carried
on the mining industry until his death. In June 1829 miners
from Galena, Illinois, attempted to make a settlement here in
direct violation of Indian treaties, but were driven away by
United States troops under orders from Colonel Zachary Taylor.
Immediately after the Black Hawk War, white settlers began
coming to the mines. Dubuque was laid out under an act of
Congress approved on the 2nd of July 1836, and was incorporated
in 1841.
DU CAMP, MAXIME (1822-1894), French writer, the son of
a successful surgeon, was born in Paris on the 8th of February
1822. He had a strong taste for travel, which his father's means
enabled him to indulge as soon as his college days were over.
Between 1844 and 1845, and again, in company with Gustave
Flaubert, between 1849 and 1851, he travelled in Europe and
the East, and made excellent use of his experiences in books
published after his return. In 1851 he was one of the founders
of the Revue de Paris (suppressed in 1858), and was a frequent
contributor to the Revue des deux mondes. In 1853 he was made
an officer of the Legion of Honour. He served as a volunteer
with Garibaldi in 1860, and gave an account of his experiences
in his Expedition des deux Sidles (1861). In 1870 he was
nominated for the senate, but his election was frustrated by the
downfall of the Empire. He was elected a member of the French
Academy in 1880, mainly, it is said, on account of his history
of the Commune, published under the title of Les Convulsions
de Paris (1878-1880). His writings include among others the
Chants modernes (1855), Convictions (1858); numerous works on
travel, Souvenirs et paysages d'orient (1848), Egypte, Nubie,
Palestine, Syrie (1852); works of art criticism, Les Salons de
1857, 1859, 1861; novels, L'Homme au bracelet d'or (1862), Une
Histoire d'amour (1889) ; literary studies, Thlophile Gautier
(1890). Du Camp was the author of a valuable book on the daily
life of Paris, Paris, ses organes, sesfonctions, sa vie dans la seconde
moitit du XIX' siecle (1869-1875). He published several
works on social questions, one of which, the Mceurs de man
temps, was to be kept sealed in the Bibliotheque Nationale until
1910. His Souvenirs litleraires (2 vols., 1882-1883) contain much
information about contemporary writers, especially Gustave
Flaubert, of whom Du Camp was an early and intimate friend.
He died on the 9th of February 1894. Du Camp was one of the
earliest amateur photographers, and his books of travel were
among the first to be illustrated by means of what was then a
new art.
DU CANGE, CHARLES DU FRESNE, SIEUR (1610-1688), one
of the lay members of the great I7th century group of French
critics and scholars who laid the foundations of modern historical
criticism, was born at Amiens on the i8th of December 1610.
At an early age his father sent him to the Jesuits' college at
Amiens, where he greatly distinguished himself. Having com-
pleted the usual course at this seminary, he applied himself
to the study of law at Orleans, and afterwards went to Paris,
where in 1631 he was received as an advocate before the parlia-
ment. Meeting with very slight success in his profession, he
returned to his native city, and in July 1638 married Catherine
Dubois, daughter of a royal official, the treasurer in Amiens;
and in 1647 he purchased the office of treasurer from his father-
in-law, but its duties did not interfere with the literary and
historical work to which he had devoted himself since returning
to Amiens. Forced to leave his native city in 1 668 in consequence
of a plague, he settled in Paris, where he resided until his death
on the 23rd of October 1688. In the archives of Paris Du Cange
was able to consult charters, diplomas, manuscripts and a
multitude of printed documents, which were not to be met
with elsewhere. His industry was exemplary and unremitting,
and the number of his literary works would be incredible, if the
originals, all in his own handwriting, were not still extant. He
was distinguished above nearly all the writers of his time by his
linguistic acquirements, his accurate and varied knowledge,
and his critical sagacity. Of his numerous works the most
important are the Glossarium ad scriptores mediae et infimae
latinitalis (Paris, 1678), and the Glossarium ad scriptores mediae
et infimae graecitatis (Lyons, 1688), which are indispensable
aids to the student of the history and literature of the middle
ages. To the three original volumes of the Latin Glossarium,
three supplementary volumes were added by the Benedictines
of St Maur (Paris, 1733-1736), and a further addition of four
volumes (Paris, 1 766), by a Benedictine, Pierre Carpentier (1697-
1767). There were other editions, and an abridgment with
some corrections was brought out by J. C. Adelung (Halle,
1772-1784). The edition in seven volumes edited by G. A. L.
Henschel (Paris, 1840-1850) includes these supplements and
also further additions by the editor, and this has been improved
and published in ten volumes by Leopold Favre (Niort, 1883-
1887). An edition of the Greek Glossarium was published at
Breslau in 1889.
Du Cange took considerable interest in the history of the
later empire, and wrote Hisloria Byzanlina duplici commentario
illustrata (Paris, 1680), and an introduction to his edition and
translation into modern French of Geoffrey de Villehardouin's
Histoire de I 'empire de Constantinople sous les empereurs fran^ais
(Paris, 1657). He also brought out editions of the Byzantine
historians, John Cinnamus and John Zonaras, as Joannis Cinnami
historiarum de rebus gestis a Joanne et Manuele Comnenis (Paris,
1670) and Joannis Zonarae Annales ab exordia mundi ad mortem
Alexii Comneni (Paris, 1686). He edited Jean de Joinville's
Histoire de St Louis, roi de France (Paris, 1668), and his other
works which may be mentioned are Traitf historique du chef de
St Jean Baptiste (Paris, 1666); Lettre du Sieur N., conseiller du
roi (Paris, 1682); Cyrilli, Philoxeni, aliorumque veterum glos-
saria, and Mlmoire sur le projet d'un nouveau recueil des historiens
de France, avec le plan gineral de ce recueil, which has been
inserted by Jacques Lelong in his Bibliotheque historique de la
DUCANGE, V. H. J. B. DUCAT
France (Paris, 1768-1778). His last work, Chronicon Paschale
a mundo condito ad Heraclii imperatoris annum vigesimum
(Paris, 1689), was passing through the press when Du Cange
died, and consequently it was edited by Etienne Baluze, and
published with an eloge of the author prefixed.
His autograph manuscripts and his large and valuable library
passed to his eldest son, Philippe du Fresne, who died unmarried
in 1692. They then came to his second son, Francois du Fresne,
who sold the collection, the greater part of the manuscripts
being purchased by the abbe du Champs. The abbe handed
them over to a bookseller named Mariette, who resold part of
them to Baron Hohendorf. The remaining part was acquired
by a member of the family of Hozier, the French genealogists.
The French government, however, aware of the importance
of all the writings of Du Cange, succeeded, after much trouble,
in collecting the greater portion of the manuscripts, which were
preserved in the imperial library at Paris. Some of these were
subsequently published, and the manuscripts are now found in
various libraries. The works of Du Cange published after his
death are: an edition of the Byzantine historian, Nicephorus
Gregoras (Paris, 1 702) ; De imperatorum Constantinopolitanorum
seu inferioris aevi vel imperil uli vacant numismatibus dissertatio
(Rome, 1755); Histoire de I'etat de la ville d' Amiens et de ses
comtes (Amiens, 1840); and a valuable work Des principautes
d'outre-mer, published by E. G. Rey as Les Families d'outre-mer
(Paris, 1869).
See H. Hardouin, Essai sur la vie et sur les ouvrages de Ducange
(Amiens, 1849) ; and L. J. Feugere, in the Journal de I' instruction
publique (Paris, 1852).
DUCANGE, VICTOR HENRI JOSEPH BRAHAIN (1783-1833),
French novelist and dramatist, was born on the 24th of November
1 783 at the Hague, where his father was secretary to the French
embassy. Dismissed from the civil service at the Restoration,
Victor Ducange became one of the favourite authors of the
liberal party, and owed some part of his popularity to the fact
that he was fined and imprisoned more than once for his out-
spokenness. He was six months in prison for an article in his
journal Le Diable rose, ou le petit courrier de Lucifer (1822); for
Valentine (1821), in which the royalist excesses in the south of
France were pilloried, he was again imprisoned; and after
the publication of Helene ou I'amour et la guerre (1823), he took
refuge for some time in Belgium. Ducange wrote numerous
plays and melodramas, among which the most successful were
Marco Loricot, ou le petit Chouan de 1830 (1836), and Trente ans,
ou la vie d'un joueur (1827), in which Frederick Lemaitre found
one of his best parts. Many of his books were prohibited,
ostensibly for their coarseness, but perhaps rather for their
political tendencies. He died in Paris on the isth of October
1833-
DUCAS, DUKAS or DOUKAS, the name of a Byzantine family
which supplied several rulers to the Eastern Empire. The
family first came into prominence during the 9th century, but
was ruined when ConstantineDucas, a son of the general Androni-
cus Ducas, lost his life in his effort to obtain the imperial crown
in 913. Towards the end of the loth century there appeared
another family of Ducas, which was perhaps connected with the
earlier family through the female line and was destined to attain
to greater fortune. A member of this family became emperor
as Constantine X. in 1059, and Constantine's son Michael VII.
ruled, nominally in conjunction with his younger brothers,
Andronicus and Constantine, from 1071 to 1078. Michael left
a son, Constantine, and, says Gibbon, " a daughter of the house
of Ducas illustrated the blood, and confirmed the succession,
of the Comnenian dynasty." The family was also allied by
marriage with other great Byzantine houses, and after losing
the imperial dignity its members continued to take an active
part in public affairs. In 1 204 Alexius Ducas, called Mourzoufle,
deposed the emperor Isaac Angelus and his son Alexius, and
vainly tried to defend Constantinople against the attacks of the
Latin crusaders. Nearly a century and a half later one Michael
Ducas took a leading part in the civil war between the emperors
John V. Palaeologus and John VI. Cantacuzenus, and Michael's
grandson was the historian Ducas (see below). Many of the
petty sovereigns who arose after the destruction of the Eastern
Empire sought to gain prestige by adding the famous name of
Ducas to their own.
DUCAS (isth cent.), Byzantine historian, flourished under
Constantine XIII. (XI.) Dragases, the last emperor of the East,
about 1450. The dates of his birth and death are unknown.
He was the grandson of Michael Ducas (see above). After the
fall of Constantinople, he was employed in various diplomatic
missions by Dorino and Domenico Gateluzzi, princes of Lesbos,
where he had taken refuge. He was successful in securing a
semi-independence for Lesbos until 1462, when it was taken
and annexed to Turkey by Sultan Mahommed II. It ia
known that Ducas survived this event, but there is no record of
his subsequent life. He was the author of a history of the
period 1341-1462; his work thus continues that of Gregoras
and Cantacuzene, and supplements Phrantzes and Chalcondyles.
There is a preliminary chapter of chronology from Adam to
John Palaeologus I. Although barbarous in style, the history
of Ducas is both judicious and trustworthy, and it is the most
valuable source for the closing years of the Greek empire. The
account of the capture of Constantinople is of special importance.
Ducas was a strong supporter of the union of the Greek and
Latin churches, and is very bitter against those who rejected
even the idea of appealing to the West for assistance against the
Turks.
The history, preserved (without a title) in a single Paris MS., was
first edited by I. Bullialdus (Bulliaud) (Paris, 1649); later editions
are in the Bonn Corpus scriptorum Hist. Byz., by I. Bekker (1834)
and Migne, Patrologia Graeca, clvii. The Bonn edition contains a
1 5th century Italian translation by an unknown author, found by
Leopold Ranke in one of the libraries of Venice, and sent by him to
Bekker.
DUCASSE, PIERRE EMMANUEL ALBERT, BARON (1813-
1893), French historian, was born at Bourges on the i6th of
November 1813. In 1849 he became aide-de-camp to Prince
Jerome Bonaparte, ex-king of Westphalia, then governor of the
Invalides, on whose commission he wrote Memoires pour seroir
al'histoiredelacampagnede iSizen Russie (1852). Subsequently
he published Memoires du roi Joseph (1853-1855), and, as a
sequel, Histoire des negotiations diplomatiques relatives aux
traites de Morfontaine, de Luneville et d' Amiens, together with
the unpublished correspondence of the emperor Napoleon I.
with Cardinal Fesch (1855-1856). From papers in the possession
of the imperial family he compiled Memoires du prince Eugene
(1858-1860) and Refutation des memoires du due de Raguse (1857),
part of which was inserted by authority at the end of volume
ix. of the Memoires. He was attache to Jerome's son, Prince
Napoleon, during the Crimean War, and wrote a Precis historique
des operations militaires en Orient, de mars 1854 d octobre 1855
(1857), which was completed many years later by a volume
entitled La Crimee et Sebastopol de 1853 a 1856, documents intimes
et inedits, followed by the complete list of the French officers
killed or wounded in that war (1892). He was also employed
by Prince Napoleon on the Correspondance of Napoleon I.,
and afterwards published certain letters, purposely omitted
there, in the Revue historique. These documents, subsequently
collected in Les Rois freres de Napoleon (1883), as well as the
Journal de la reine Catherine de Westphalie (1893), were edited
with little care and are not entirely trustworthy, but their
publication threw much light on Napoleon I. and his entourage,
His Souvenirs d'un ojficier du 2' Zouaves, and Les Dessous du
coup d'etat (1891), contain many piquant anecdotes, but at times
degenerate into mere tittle-tattle. Ducasse was the author of
some slight novels, and from the practice of this form of literature
he acquired that levity which appears even in his most serious
historical publications.
DUCAT, the name of a coin, generally of gold, and of varying
value, formerly in use in many European countries. It was
first struck by Roger II. of Sicily as duke of Apulia, and bore an
inscription " Sit tibi, Christe, datus, quern tu regis, isle ducalus "
(Lord, thou nilest this duchy, to thee be it dedicated) ; hence,
it is said, the name. Between 1280 and 1284 Venice also struck
DU CHAILLU DUCHESNE
629
a gold coin, known first as the ducat, afterwards as the zecchino
or sequin, the ducat becoming merely a money of account.
The ducat was also current in Holland, Austria, the Netherlands,
Spain and Denmark (see NUMISMATICS). A gold coin termed a
ducat was current in Hanover during the reigns of George I.
and George III. A pattern gold coin was also struck by the
English mint in 1887 for a proposed decimal coinage. On the
reverse was the inscription " one ducat " within an oak wreath;
above " one hundred pence," and below the date between two
small roses. There is a gold coin termed a ducat in the Austria-
Hungary currency, of the value of nine shillings and fourpence.
DU CHAILLU, PAUL BELLONI (1835-1903), traveller and
anthropologist, was born either at Paris or at New Orleans
(accounts conflict) on the 3131 of July 1835. In his youth he
accompanied his father, an African trader in the employment
of a Parisian firm, to the west coast of Africa. Here, at a station
on the Gabun, the boy received some education from mission-
aries, and acquired an interest in and knowledge of the country,
its natural history, and its natives, which guided him to his
subsequent career. In 1852 he exhibited this knowledge in the
New York press, and was sent in 1855 by the Academy of Natural
Sciences at Philadelphia on an African expedition. From 1855
to 1859 he regularly explored the regions of West Africa in the
neighbourhood of the equator, gaining considerable knowledge of
the delta of the Ogowe river and the estuary of the Gabun.
During his travels he saw numbers of the great anthropoid apes
called the gorilla (possibly the great ape described by Cartha-
ginian navigators), then known to scientists only by a few
skeletons. A subsequent expedition, from 1863 to 1865, enabled
him to confirm the accounts given by the ancients of a pygmy
people inhabiting the African forests. Narratives of both
expeditions were published, in 1861 and 1867 respectively, under
the titles Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa, with
Accounts of the Manners and Customs of the People, and of the
Chace of the Gorilla, Crocodile, and other Animals; and A Journey
to Ashango-land, and further penetration into Equatorial Africa.
The first work excited much controversy on the score of its
veracity, but subsequent investigation proved the correctness
of du Chaillu's statements as to the facts of natural history;
though possibly some of the adventures he described as happening
to himself were reproductions of the hunting stories of natives
(see Proc. Zool. Soc. vol. i., 1905, p. 66). The map accompanying
Ashango-land was of unique value, but the explorer's photographs
and collections were lost when he was forced to flee from the
hostility of the natives. After some years' residence in America,
during which he wrote several books for the young founded
upon his African adventures, du Chaillu turned his attention to
northern Europe, and published in 1881 The Land of the Midnight
Sun, in 1889 The Viking Age, and in 1900 The Land of the Long
Night. He died at St Petersburg on the 29th of April 1903.
DUCHENNE, GUILLAUME BENJAMIN AMAND (1806-1875),
French physician, was born on the I7th of September 1806 at
Boulogne, the son of a sea-captain. He was educated at Douai,
and then studied medicine in Paris until the year 1831, when he
returned to his native town to practise his profession. Two
years later he first tried the effect of electro-puncture of the
muscles on a patient under his care, and from this time on
devoted himself more and more to the medical applications of
electricity, thereby laying the foundation of the modern science
of electro-therapeutics. In 1842 he removed to Paris for the
sake of its wider clinical opportunities, and there he worked
until his death over thirty years later. His greatest work,
U Electrisation localisee (1855), passed through three editions
during his lifetime, though by many his Physiologic des mouve-
ments (1867) is considered his masterpiece. He published over
fifty volumes containing his researches on muscular and nervous
diseases, and on the applications of electricity both for diagnostic
purposes and for treatment. His name is especially connected
with the first description of locomotor ataxy, progressive
muscular atrophy, pseudo-hypertrophic paralysis, glosso-labio
laryngeal paralysis and other nervous troubles. He died in
Paris on the i7th of September 1875.
For a detailed life see Archives generates de medicine (Decem-
ber 1875), and for a complete list of his works the 3rd edition of
L' Electrisation localisee (1872).
DU CHESNE [Latinized DUCHENIUS, QUERNEUS, or QUERCE-
TANUS], ANDRE (1584-1640), French geographer and historian,
generally styled the father of French history, was born at lie-
Bouchard, in the province of Touraine, in May 1584. He was
educated at Loudun and afterwards at Paris. From his earliest
years he devoted himself to historical and geographical research,
and his first work, Egregiarum seu selectarum lectionum et
antiquitatum liber, published in his eighteenth year, displayed
great erudition. He enjoyed the patronage of Cardinal Richelieu,
a native of the same district with himself, through whose influence
he was appointed historiographer and geographer to the king.
He died in 1640, in consequence of having been run over by a
carriage when on his way from Paris to his country house at
Verriere. Du Chesne's works were very numerous and varied,
and in addition to what he published, he left behind him more
than loo folio volumes of manuscript extracts now preserved
in the Bibliotheque Nationale (L.Delisle, Le Cabinet des manuscrits
de la bibliotheque imperiale, t. L, 333-334). Several of his larger
works were continued by his only son Francois du Chesne (1616-
1693), who succeeded him in the office of historiographer to the
king. The principal works of Andre du Chesne are Les Anti-
quites et recherches de la grandeur et majeste des rois de France
(Paris, 1609), Les Antiquites et recherches des miles, chateaux,
&c., de toute la France (Paris, 1609), Histoire d' Angleterre,
d' Ecosse, et d'Irelande (Paris, 1614), Histoire des Papes jusqu' a
Paul V (Paris, 1619), Histoire des rois, dues, et comtes de
Bourgogne (1619-1628, 2 vols. fol.), Historiae Normanorum
scriptores antiqui (1619, fol., now the only source for some
of the texts), and his Historiae Francorum scriptores (5 vols.
fol., 1636-1649). This last was intended to comprise 24 volumes,
and to contain all the narrative sources for French history in the
middle ages; only two volumes were published by the author,
his son Franffois published three more, and the work remained
unfinished. Besides these du Chesne published a great number
of genealogical histories of illustrious families, of which the best
is that of the house of Montmorency. His Histoire des cardinaux
fran$ais (2 vols. fol. 1660-1666) and Histoire des chanceliers et
gardes des sceaux de France (1630) were published by his son
Francois. Andre also published a translation of the Satires of
Juvenal, and editions of the works of Alcuin, Abelard, Alain
Chartier and Etienne Pasquier.
DUCHESNE, LOUIS MARIE OLIVIER (1843- ), French
scholar and ecclesiastic, was born at Saint Servan in Brittany on
the I3th of September 1843. Two scientific missions to Mount
Athos in 1874 and to Asia Minor in 1876 appeared at first to
incline him towards the study of the ancient history of the
Christian churches of the East. Afterwards, however, it was
the Western church which absorbed almost his whole attention.
In 1877 he received the degree of docteur es lettres with two
remarkable theses, a dissertation De Macario magnete, and an
Etude sur le Liber pontificalis, in which he explained with un-
erring critical acumen the origin of that celebrated chronicle,
determined the different editions and their interrelation, and
stated precisely the value of his evidence. Immediately after-
wards he was appointed professor at the Catholic Institute in
Paris, and for eight years presented the example and model,
then rare in France, of a priest teaching church history according
to the rules of scientific criticism. His course, bold even to the
point of rashness in the eyes of the traditionalist exegetists, was at
length suspended. In November 1885 he was appointed lecturer
at the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes. In 1886 he published
volume i. of his learned edition of the Liber pontificalis (completed
in 1892 by volume ii.), in which he resumed and completed the
results he had attained in his French thesis. In 1888 he was
elected member of the Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-
Lettres, and was afterwards appointed director of the French
school of archaeology at Rome. Much light is thrown upon
the Christian origins, especially those of France, by his Origines
du culte chretien, elude sur la liturgie latine avant Charlemagne
630
DUCIS DUCK
(1889; Eng. trans, by M. L. McClure,ChristianWorship: its Origin
and Evolution, London, 1902, 2nd ed. 1904); Mtmoire sur
I'origine des dioceses episcopaux dans I'ancienne Gaule (1890),
the preliminary sketch of a more detailed work, Pastes episcopaux
dans I'ancienne Cattle (vol. i. Les provinces du sud-est, 1894, and
vol. ii. L'Aquitaine et ks Lyonnaises, 1899); and Catalogues
episcopaux de la province de Tours (1898). When a proposal
was set on foot to bring about a reconciliation between the
Roman Church and the Christian Churches of the East, the Abb6
Duchesne endeavoured to show that the union of those churches
was possible under the Roman supremacy, because unity did not
necessarily entail uniformity. His Autonomies ecclesiastiques;
fglises separees (1897), in which he speaks of the origin
of the Anglican Church, but treats especially of the origin
of the Greek Churches of the East, was received with scant
favour in certain narrow circles of the pontifical court. In
1906 he began to publish, under the title of Histoire ancienne de
I'eglise, a course of lectures which he had already delivered
upon the early ages of the Church, and of which a few
manuscript copies were circulated. The second volume appeared
hi 1908. In these lectures Duchesne touches cleverly upon the
most delicate problems, and, .without any elaborate display
of erudition, presents conclusions of which account must be
taken. His incisive style, his fearless and often ruthless criticism,
and his wide and penetrating erudition, make him a redoubtable
adversary in the field of polemic. The Bulletin critique, founded
by him, for which he wrote numerous articles, has contributed
powerfully to spread the principles of the historical method
among the French clergy.
DUCIS, JEAN FRANCOIS (1733-1816), French dramatist and
adapter of Shakespeare, was born at Versailles on the 22nd of
August 1733. His father, originally from Savoy, was a linen-
draper at Versailles; and all through life he retained the simple
tastes and straightforward independence fostered by his bour-
geois education. In 1768 he produced his first tragedy, Amelise.
The failure of this first attempt was fully compensated by the
success of his Hamlet ( 1 769) , and Romeo et Juliette (1772). (Edipe
chez Admete, imitated partly from Euripides and partly from
Sophocles, appeared in 1778, and secured him hi the following
year the chair in the Academy left vacant by the death of Voltaire.
Equally successful was Le Roi Lear in 1783. Macbeth in 1783
did not take so well, and Jean sans peur in 1791 was almost a
failure; but Othello in 1792, supported by the acting of Talma,
obtained immense applause. Its vivid picturing of desert life
secured for Abufas, ou la famille arabe (1795), an original drama,
a flattering reception. On the failure of a similar piece, Phedor
et Vladimir ou la famille de Sibirie (1801), Ducis ceased to write
for the stage; and the rest of his life was spent in quiet retire-
ment at Versailles. He had been named a member of the Council
of the Ancients in 1798, but he never discharged the functions
of the office; and when Napoleon offered him a post of honour
under the empire, he refused. Amiable, religious and bucolic,
he had little sympathy with the fierce, sceptical and tragic times
in which his lot was cast. " Alas! " he said in the midst of the
Revolution, " tragedy is abroad in the streets ; if I step outside
of my door, I have blood to my very ankles. I have too often seen
Atreus in clogs, to venture to bring an Atreus on the stage."
Though actuated by honest admiration of the great English
dramatist, Ducis is not Shakespearian. His ignorance of the
English language left him at the mercy of the translations of
Pierre Letourneur (1736-1788) and of Pierre de la Place (1707-
1793); and even this modified Shakespeare had still to undergo
a process of purification and correction before he could be pre-
sented to the fastidious criticism of French taste. That such was
the case was not, however, the fault of Ducis; and he did good
service hi modifying the judgment of his fellow countrymen.
He did not pretend to reproduce, but to excerpt and refashion;
and consequently the French play sometimes differs from its
English namesake in everything almost but the name. The plot
is different, the characters are different, the motif different, and
the scenic arrangement different. To Othello, for instance, he
wrote two endings. In one of them Othello was enlightened in
time and Desdemona escaped her tragic fate. Le Banquet de
Vamitie, a poem hi four cantos (1771), Au roi de Sardaigne (1775),
Discours de reception a I'academie franchise (1779), Epttre a
I'amitiS (1786), and a Recueil de poesies (1809), complete the
list of Ducis's publications.
An edition of his works in three volumes appeared in 1813;
CEuvres posthumes were edited by Campenon in 1826; and Hamlet,
(Edipe chez Admete, Macbeth and Abufar are reprinted in vol. ii. of
Didot's Chefs-djceuvre tragiques. See Onesime Leroy, Etude sur la
personne et les ttrits de Ducis (1832), based on Ducis s own memoirs
preserved in the library at Versailles; Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du
lundi, t. vi., and Nouveaux lundis, t. iv. ; Villemain. Tableau de la
lilt, au XVI II' siecle.
DUCK, (i) (From the verb " to duck," to dive, put the head
under water, in reference to the bird's action, cf. Dutch duiker,
Ger. Toucher, diving-bird, duiken, tauchen, to dip, dive, Dan.
dukand, duck, and Ger. Enle, duck; various familiar and
slang usages are based on analogy with the bird's action), the
general English name for a large number of birds forming the
greater part of the family Anatidae of modern ornithologists.
Technically the term duck is restricted to the female, the male
being called drake (cognate with the termination of Ger. Enterich),
and in one species mallard (Fr. Malart).
The Anatidae may be at once divided into six more or less
well marked subfamilies (i) the Cygninae or swans, (2) the
Anserinae or geese which are each very distinct, (3) the Analinae
or freshwater-ducks, (4) those commonly called Fuligulinae or
sea-ducks, (5) the Erismaturinae or spiny-tailed ducks, and (6)
the Merginae or mergansers.
The Analinae are the typical group, and it is these only
that are considered here. We start with the Anas boschas of
Linnaeus, the common wild duck, which from every point of view
is by far the most important species, as it is the most plentiful, the
most widely distributed, and the best known being indeed the
origin of all the British domestic breeds. It inhabits the greater
part of the northern hemisphere, reaching hi winter so far as
the Isthmus of Panama in the New World, and in the Old being
abundant at the same season in Egypt and north-western India,
while in summer it ranges throughout the Fur-Countries, Green-
land, Iceland, Lapland and Siberia. Most of those which fill
British markets are no doubt bred hi more northern climes, but
a considerable proportion of them are yet produced in the British
Islands, though not in anything like the numbers that used to
be supplied before the draining of the great fen-country and
other marshy places. The wild duck pairs very early hi the
year the period being somewhat delayed by hard weather, and
the ceremonies of courtship, which require some little time.
Soon after these are performed, the respective couples separate
in search of suitable nesting-places, which are generally found,
by those that remain with us, about the middle of March. The
spot chosen is sometimes near a river or pond, but often very
far removed from water, and it may be under a furze-bush, on a
dry heath, at the bottom of a thick hedge-row, or even in any
convenient hole in a tree. A little dry grass is generally collected,
and on it the eggs, from 9 to n in number, are laid. So soon as
incubation'fommences the mother begins to divest herself of the
down which grows thickly beneath her breast-feathers, and adds
it to the nest-furniture, so that the eggs are deeply imbedded
in this heat-retaining substance a portion of which she is
always careful to pull, as a coverlet, over her treasures when she
quits them for food. She is seldom absent from the nest, how-
ever, but once, or at most twice, a day, and then she dares not
leave it until her mate, after several circling flights of observation,
has assured her she may do so unobserved. Joining him the pair
betake themselves to some quiet spot where she may bathe and
otherwise refresh herself. Then they return to the nest, and after
cautiously reconnoitring the neighbourhood, she loses no time
in reseating herself on her eggs, while he, when she is settled,
repairs again to the waters, and passes his day listlessly in the
company of his brethren, who have the same duties, hopes and
cares. Short and infrequent as are the absences of the duck
when incubation begins, they become shorter and more in-
frequent towards its close, and for the last day or two of the
DUCKING DUCKWEED
631
28 necessary to develop the young it is probable that she will not
stir from the nest at all. When all the fertile eggs are hatched
her next care is to get the brood safely to the water. This, when
the distance is great, necessarily demands great caution, and so
cunningly is it done that but few persons have encountered the
mother and offspring as they make the dangerous journey. 1
If disturbed the young instantly hide as they best can, while the
mother quacks loudly, feigns lameness, and flutters off to divert
the attention of the intruder from her brood, who lie motionless
at her warning notes. Once arrived at the water they are com-
paratively free from harm, though other perils present themselves
from its inmates in the form of pike and other voracious fishes,
which seize the ducklings as they disport in quest of insects on
the surface or dive beneath it. Throughout the summer the duck
continues her care unremittingly, until the young are full grown
and feathered; but it is no part of the mallard's duty to look
after his offspring, and indeed he speedily becomes incapable
of helping them, for towards the end of May he begins to undergo
his extraordinary additional moult, loses the power of flight, and
does not regain his full plumage till autumn. About harvest-
time the young are well able to shift for themselves, and then
resort to the corn-fields at evening, where they fatten on the
scattered grain. Towards the end of September or beginning
of October both old and young unite in large flocks and
betake themselves to the larger waters. If long-continued frost
prevail, most of the ducks resort to the estuaries and tidal
rivers, or even leave these islands almost entirely. Soon after
Christmas the return-flight commences, and then begins anew
the course of life already described.
For the farmyard varieties, descending from Anas boschas, see
POULTRY. The domestication of the duck is very ancient. Several
distinct breeds have been established, of which the most esteemed
from an economical point of view are those known as the Rouen
and Aylesbury; but perhaps the most remarkable deviation
from the normal form is the so-called penguin-duck, in which
the bird assumes an upright attitude and its wings are much
diminished in size. A remarkable breed also is that often named
(though quite fancifully) the " Buenos-Ayres " duck, wherein
the whole plumage is of a deep black, beautifully glossed or
bronzed. But this saturation, so to speak, of colour only lasts
in the individual for a few years, and as the birds grow older they
become mottled with white, though as long as their reproductive
power lasts they " breed true." The amount of variation in
domestic ducks, however, is not comparable to that found among
pigeons, no doubt from the absence of the competition which
pigeon-fanciers have so long exercised. One of the most curious
effects of domestication in the duck, however, is, that whereas
the wild mallard is not only strictly monogamous, but, as
Waterton believed, a most faithful husband, remaining paired
for life, the civilized drake is notoriously polygamous.
Very nearly allied to the common wild duck are a considerable
number of species found in various parts of the world in which
there is little difference of plumage between the sexes both
being of a dusky hue such as Anas obscura, the commonest
river-duck of America, A. superciliosa of Australia, A. poecilo-
rhyncha of India, A. melleri of Madagascar, A. xanthorhyncha of
South Africa, and some others.
Among the other genera of Anatinae, we must content our-
selves by saying that both in Europe and in North America there
are the groups represented by the shoveller, garganey, gadwall,
teal, pintail and widgeon each of which, according to some
systematists, is the type of a distinct genus. Then there is the
group Aix, with its beautiful representatives the wood-duck
(A. sponsa} in America and the mandarin-duck (4. galericulata)
in Eastern Asia. Besides there are the sheldrakes (Tadorna),
confined to the Old World and remarkably developed in the
Australian Region; the musk-duck (Cairina) of South
America, which is often domesticated and in that condition
1 When ducks breed in trees, the precise way in which the young
get to the ground is still a matter of uncertainty. The mother is
supposed to convey them in her bill, and most likely does so, but
they are often simply allowed to fall.
will produce hybrids with the common duck; and finally
the tree-ducks (Dendrocygna), which are almost limited to the
tropics. (For duck-shooting, see SHOOTING.) (A. N.)
2 (Probably derived from the Dutch doeck, a coarse linen
material, cf. Ger. Tuch, cloth), a plain fabric made originally
from tow yarns. The cloth is lighter than canvas or sailcloth,
and differs from these in that it is almost invariably single in
both warp and weft. The term is also used to indicate the colour
obtained at a certain stage in the bleaching of flax yarns; it is a
colour between half-white and cream, and this fact may have
something to do with the name. Most of the flax ducks (tow
yarns) appear in this colour, although quantities are bleached
or dyed. Some of the ducks are made from long flax, dyed black,
and used for kit-bags, while the dyed tow ducks may be used
for inferior purposes. The fabric, in its various qualities and
colours, is used for an enormous variety of purposes, including
tents, wagon and motor hoods, light sails, clothing, workmen's
overalls, bicycle tubes, mail and other bags and pocketings.
Russian duck is a fine white linen canvas.
DUCKING and CUCKING STOOLS, chairs used for the
punishment of scolds, witches and prostitutes in bygone days.
The two have been generally confused, but are quite distinct.
The earlier, the Cucking-stool 2 or Stool of Repentance, is of
very ancient date, and was used by the Saxons, who called it the
Scealding or Scolding Stool. It is mentioned in Domesday Book
as in use at Chester, being called cathedra stercoris, a name which
seems to confirm the first of the derivations suggested in the foot-
note below. Seated on this stool the woman, her head and feet
bare, was publicly exposed at her door or paraded through the
streets amidst the jeers of the crowd. The Cucking-stool was used
for both sexes, and was specially the punishment for dishonest
brewers and bakers. Its use in the case of scolding women
declined on the introduction in the middle of the i6th century
of the Scold's Bridle (see BRANKS), and it disappears on the
introduction a little later of the Ducking-stool. The earliest
record of the use of this latter is towards the beginning of the
1 7th century. It was a strongly made wooden armchair (the
surviving specimens are of oak) in which the culprit was seated,
an iron band being placed around her so that she should not fall
out during her immersion. Usually the chair was fastened to a
long wooden beam fixed as a seesaw on the edge of a pond or
river. Sometimes, however, the Ducking-stool was not a fixture
but was mounted on a pair of wooden wheels so that it could be
wheeled through the streets, and at the river-edge was hung by a
chain from the end of a beam. In sentencing a woman the
magistrates ordered the number of duckings she should have.
Yet another type of Ducking-stool was called a tumbrel. It
was a chair on two wheels with two long shafts fixed to the axles.
This was pushed into the pond and then the shafts released,
thus tipping the chair up backwards. Sometimes the punishment
proved fatal, the unfortunate woman dying of shock. Ducking-
stools were used in England as late as the beginning of the iQth
century. The last recorded cases are those of a Mrs Ganble at
Plymouth (1808); of Jenny Pipes, " a notorious scold " (1809),
and Sarah Leeke (1817), both of Leominster. In the last case
the water in the pond was so low that the victim was merely
wheeled round the town in the chair.
See W. Andrews, Old Time Punishments (Hull, 1890); A. M.
Earle, Curious Punishments of Bygone Days (Chicago, 1896) ; W. C.
Hazlitt, Faiths and Folklore (London, 1905) ; Llewellynn Jewitt
in The Reliquary, vols. i. and ii. (1860-1862); Gentleman s Magazine
for 1732.
DUCKWEED, the common botanical name for species of
Lemna which form a green coating on fresh-water ponds and
ditches. The plants are of extremely simple structure and are
the smallest and least differentiated of flowering plants. They
consist of a so-called " frond " a flattened green more or less
oval structure which emits branches similar to itself from
lateral pockets at or near the base. From the under surface a
root with a well-developed sheath grows downwards into the
water. The flowers, which are rarely found in Britain, are
2 Probably from " cuck," to void excrement; but variously
connected with Fr. coquin, rascal.
632
DUCKWORTH DUCLOS
developed in one of the lateral pockets. The inflorescence is a
very simple one, consisting of one or two male flowers each
comprising a single stamen, and a female flower comprising a
flask-shaped pistil. The order Lemnaceae to which they belong
1, Lemna minor (Lesser Duck- stamen, and a female flower,
weed) nat. size. the whole enclosed in a
2, Plant in flower. sheath.
3, Inflorescence containing two 4, Wolffia arrhiza.
male flowers each of one (2, 3, 4 enlarged.)
is regarded as representing a very reduced type nearly allied to
the Aroids. It is represented in Britain by four species of Lemna,
and a still smaller and simpler plant, Wolffia, in which the
fronds are only one-twentieth of an inch long and have no
roots.
DUCKWORTH, SIR JOHN THOMAS (1748-1817), British
admiral, was born at Leatherhead, in Surrey, on the 28th of
February 1748. He entered the navy in 1759, and obtained his
commission as lieutenant in June 1770, when he was appointed
to the " Princess Royal," the flagship of Admiral Byron, in which
he sailed to the West Indies. While serving on board this vessel
he took part in the engagement with the French fleet under
Count D'Estaing. In July 1779 he became commander, and
was appointed to the " Rover " sloop; in June of the following
year he attained the rank of post-captain. Soon afterwards
he returned to England in charge of a convoy. The outbreak of
the war with France gave him his first opportunity of obtaining
marked distinction. Appointed first to the " Orion " and then
to the " Queen " in the Channel Fleet, under the command of
Lord Howe, he took part in the three days' naval engagement
with the Brest fleet, which terminated in a glorious victory on the
ist of June 1794. For his conduct on this occasion he received a
gold medal and the thanks of parliament. He next proceeded
to the West Indies, where he was stationed for some time at St
Domingo. In 1798 he commanded the " Leviathan " in the
Mediterranean, and had charge of the naval detachment which,
in conjunction with a military force, captured Minorca. Early
in 1799 he was raised to the rank of rear-admiral, and sent to
the West Indies to succeed Lord Hugh Seymour. During the
voyage out he captured a valuable Spanish convoy of eleven
merchantmen. In March 1801 he was the naval commander of
the combined force which reduced the islands of St Bartholomew
and St Martin, a service for which he was rewarded with the order
of the Bath and a pension of 1000 a year. Promoted to be vice-
admiral of the blue, he was appointed in 1804 to the Jamaica
station. Two years later, while cruising off Cadiz with Lord
Collingwood, he was detached with his squadron to pursue a
French fleet that had been sent to the relief of St Domingo.
He came up with the enemy on the 6th February 1806, and, after
two hours' fighting, inflicted a signal defeat upon them, capturing
three of their five vessels and stranding the other two. For this,
the most distinguished service of his life, he received the thanks
of the Jamaica assembly, with a sword of the value of a thousand
guineas, the thanks of the English parliament, and the freedom
of the city of London. In 1807 he was again sent to the Medi-
terranean to watch the movements of the Turks. In command of
the " Royal George " he forced the passage of the Dardanelles,
but sustained considerable loss in effecting his return, the Turks
having strengthened their position while he was being kept in
slay by their diplomatists and Napoleon's ambassador General
Sebastiani. He held the command of the Newfoundland fleet
x>r four years from 1810, and at the close of that period he was
made a baronet. In 1815 he was appointed to the chief command
at Plymouth, which he held until his death on the i4th of April
1817. Sir John Duckworth sat in parliament for some time as
member for New Romney.
See Naval Chronicle, xviii. ; Ralfe's Naval Biography, ii.
DUCLAUX, AGNES MARY F. (1856- ), English poet and
critic, who first became known in England under her maiden
name of Mary F. Robinson, was born at Leamington on the
27th of February 1856. She was educated at University College,
London, devoting herself chiefly to the study of Greek literature.
Her first volume of poetry, A Handful of Honeysuckle, was
published in 1879. Her next work was a translation from
Euripides, The Crowned Hippolytus (1881). Monographs on
Emily Bronte (1883) and on Marguerite of Angoulme (1886)
followed; and The New Arcadia and other Poems (1884) and
An Italian Garden (1886) contain some of her best verses.
Her poems attracted the attention of the orientalist, James
Darmesteter (<?..), then in Peshawur, and he made an admirable
translation of them in French. The acquaintance led to their
marriage in 1888, and from that time a large part of her work
was done in French. Madame Darmesteter translated her hus-
band's Etudes anglaises into English (1896). Her most con-
siderable prose work is the Life of Ernest Renan (1897). She
also wrote the End of the Middle Ages (1888); the volume on
Froissart (1894) in the Grands ecrivains franc.ais; essays on the
Brontes, the Brownings and others, entitled Grands ecrivains
d'Outre-Manche (1901). After Darmesteter's death, she married
in 1901 Emile Duclaux, the associate of Pasteur, and director
of the Pasteur institute. He died in 1904. She published
Retrospect and other Poems in 1893, and in 1904 appeared The
Return to Nature, Songs and Symbols. The qualities of Mary
Robinson's work, its conciseness and purity of expression,
were only gradually recognized. Her Collected Poems, Lyrical
and Narrative were published in 1902.
DUCLOS, CHARLES PINOT (1704-1772), French author,
was born at Dinan, in Brittany, in 1704. At an early age he
was sent to study at Paris. After some time spent in dissipation
he began to cultivate the society of the wits of the time, and
became a member of the club or association of young men who
published their joint efforts in light literature under the titles of
Recueil de ces messieurs, Etrennes de la St-Jean, CEufs de Pdques,
&c. His romance of Acajou and Zirphile, composed to suit a
series of plates which had been engraved for another work, was
one of the fruits of this association, and was produced in conse-
quence of a sort of wager amongst its members. Duclos had
previously written two other romances, which were more favour-
ably received The Baroness de Luz (1741), and the Confessions
of the Count de*** (1747). His first serious publication was the
History of Louis XI., which is dry and epigrammatical in style,
but displays considerable powers of research and impartiality.
The reputation of Duclos as an author was confirmed by the
publication of his Considerations sur les mceurs de ce siecle (1751),
a work justly praised by Laharpe, as containing a great deal
of sound and ingenious reflection. It was translated into English
and German. The Memoires pour servir a I'histoire du dix-
huilieme siecle, intended by the author as a sort of sequel to the
preceding work, are much inferior in style and matter, and are,
in reality, little better than a kind of romance. In consequence
of his History of Louis XI., he was appointed historiographer of
France, when that place became vacant on Voltaire's retirement
to Prussia. His Secret Memoirs of the Reigns of Louis XI V. and
Louis XV. (for which he was able to utilize the Memoires of
Saint Simon, suppressed in 1755), were not published until after
the Revolution.
Duclos became a member of the Academy of Inscriptions in
1739, and of the French Academy in 1747, being appointed
perpetual secretary in 1747. Both academies were indebted to
him not only for many valuable contributions, but also for several
useful regulations and improvements. As a member of the
DUCOS DUCTLESS GLANDS
633
Academy of Inscriptions, he composed several memoirs on trial
by combat, on the origin and revolutions of the Celtic and French
languages, and on scenic representations and the ancient drama.
As a member of the French Academy, he assisted in compiling
the new edition of the Dictionary, which was published in 1762;
and he made some just and philosophical remarks on the Port
Royal Grammar. On several occasions he distinguished himself
by vindicating the honour and prerogatives of the societies to
which he belonged, and the dignity of the literary character in
general. He used to say of himself, " I shall leave behind me
a name dear to literary men." The citizens of Dinan, whose
interests he always supported with zeal, appointed him
mayor of their town in 1 744, though he was resident at
Paris, and in this capacity he took part in the assembly
of the estates of Brittany. Upon the requisition of this
body the king granted him letters of nobility. In 1763 he
was advised to retire from France for some time, having
rendered himself obnoxious to the government by the
opinions he had expressed on the dispute between the _.,
due d'Aiguillon and M. de la Chalotais, the friend and s
countryman of Duclos. Accordingly he set out first for
England (1763), then for Italy (1766); and on his return
he wrote his Considerations on Italy. He died at Paris on
the 26th of March 1772. The character of Duclos was
singular in its union of impulsiveness and prudence.
Rousseau described him very laconically as a man droil el
adroit. In his manners he displayed a sort of bluntness in
society, which frequently rendered him disagreeable; and
his caustic wit on many occasions created enemies. To
those who knew him, however, he was a pleasant com-
panion. A considerable number of his bans mots have been
preserved by his biographers.
A complete edition of the works of Duclos, including an
unfinished autobiography, was published by Auger (1821).
See also Saint-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, t. ix. ; Ren6
Kerviler, La Bretagne et I' Academic fran$aise du XVIII'
siecle (1889); L. Mandon, De la valeur historique des
memoires secrets de Duclos (1872).
DUCOS, PIERRE ROGER (1754-1816), French poli-
tician and director, was born at Dax. He was an advocate
when elected deputy to the Convention by the department
of the Landes. He sat in the " Plain," i.e. in the party which
had no opinion of its own, which always leaned to the
stronger side. He voted for the death of Louis XVI.,
without appeal or delay, but played no noticeable part in
the Convention. He was a member of the Council of the Five
Hundred, over which he presided on the i8th of Fructidor
in the year V. (see FRENCH REVOLUTION). At the end of his
term he became a judge of the peace, but after the parliamentary
coup d'etat of the 3oth of Prairial of the year VIII. he was named
a member of the executive Directory, thanks to the influence of
Barras, who counted on using him as a passive instrument.
Ducos accepted the coup d'etat of Bonaparte on the i8th cf
Brumaire, and was one of the three provisional consuls. He
became vice-president of the senate. The Empire heaped
favours upon him, but in 1814 he abandoned Napoleon, and
voted for his deposition. He sought to gain the favour of the
government of the Restoration, but in 1816 was exiled in virtue
of the law against the regicides. He died in March 1816 at Ulm,
from a carriage accident. In spite of his absolute lack of talent,
he attained the highest of positions an exceptional fact in the
history of the French Revolution.
DUCTLESS GLANDS, in anatomy. A certain number of
glands in the body, often of great physiological importance,
have no ducts (Lat. ductus, from ducere, to lead, i.e. vessels, tubes
or canals for conveying away fluid or other substance); and
their products, known as internal secretions, are at once carried
away by the veins or lymphatics which drain them. Amongthese
structures are the spleen, the adrenals, the thyroid gland, the
parathyroids, the thymus and the carotid and coccygeal bodies.
In addition to these the lymphatic glands are described in the
article on the lymphatic system (q.v.), and the pineal and
pituitary bodies in the article on the brain (q.v.).
THE SPLEEN
The human spleen (Gr. air\T]v) is an oval, flattened gland, of
a dull purple colour, and about 5 in. long by 3 broad, situated
in the upper and back part of the left side of the abdominal
cavity. If the right hand is passed round the left side of its
owner's body, as far as it will reach, it approximately covers
the spleen. The long axis of the organ is obliquely placed so
that the upper pole is much nearer the vertebral column than the
lower pole. For practical purposes the long axis of the left tenth
rib corresponds with that of the spleen. There is an external
Hilum
Pancreatic impression
Intermediate angle Posterior angle
From D. J. Cunningham. Cunningham's Text-book of Anatomy.
FIG. I. The Spleen Visceral Aspect.
or parietal surface and an internal or visceral, the latter of which
is again subdivided; these surfaces are limited by ventral and
dorsal borders. The external, parietal, or phrenic surface is
convex to adapt it to the concavity of the diaphragm, against
the posterior part of which it lies; external to the diaphragm
is the pleural cavity, and more externally still, the ninth, tenth
and eleventh ribs. The internal or visceral surface is divided
by a prominent ridge into a gastric or anterior and a renal or
posterior surface. Sometimes a triangular impression called
the basal surface is formed at the lower part of the visceral
surface by the left end of the transverse colon, though at other
times no such impression is seen. It is probable that the exact
shape of the spleen depends a good deal on the amount of dis-
tension of the surrounding hollow viscera at the time of death.
(For details of the basal surface see D. J. Cunningham, Journ.
Anal, and Phys. vol. xxix. p. 501.) The gastric surface is concave
and adapts itself to the fundus of the stomach, while just in
front of the ridge separating the gastric and renal surfaces is the
hilum, where the vessels enter and leave the organ; in front
of this the tail of the pancreas usually touches the spleen. The
renal surface is as a rule smaller than the gastric and, like it, is
concave; it is moulded on to the upper part of the outer border
of the left kidney and just reaches the left adrenal body. The
anterior or ventral border of the spleen has usually two or more
notches in it, though these are often also seen on the dorsal
border. The whole spleen is surrounded by peritoneum, which
is reflected off on to the stomach as the gastro-splenic omentum,
and on to the kidney as the lieno-renar ligament; occasionally
the lesser sac reaches it near its connexion with the pancreas.
Small accessory spleens are fairly often found in the neighbour-
hood of the spleen, though it is possible that some of these may
be haemo-lymph glands (see LYMPHATIC SYSTEM) .
634
DUCTLESS GLANDS
with livi
Microscopically the spleen has a fibre-elastic coat in which in-
voluntary muscle is found (fig. 2). This coat sends multitudes of
fine trabeculae into the interior of the organ, which subdivide it into
numbers of minute compartments, in which the red, highly vascular,
spleen pulp is contained. This pulp contains small spherical masses
of adenoid tissue, forming the Malpighian corpuscles,
situated on the terminal branches of the splenic
blood-vessels, together with numerous cells, some of
which are red blood corpuscles, others lymph cor- Surface in contact
puscles, others contain pigment granules or fat, while
others have in thejr interior numerous blood cor-
puscles. The arteries of the spleen in part end in
capillaries from which the veins arise, but more
frequently they open into lacunae or blood spaces,
which give origin to the veins.
Embryology. The spleen is developed in the dorsal
mesogastrium(see COELOM AND SEROUS MEMBRANES)
from the mesenchyme, or that portion of the meso-
derm, the cells of which lie scattered in a matrix.
Large lymphoid cells are early seen among those of
the mesenchyme, but whether these migrate from
the coelpmic epithelium, or are originally mesen-
chymal is doubtful, though the former seems more
probable. The network of the spleen seems certainly
to be derived from cells of the mesenchyme which
lose their nuclei.
Comparative Anatomy. The spleen is regarded as
the remains of a mass of lymphoid tissue which, in
a generalized type of vertebrate, stretched all along
the alimentary canal. It is absent as a distinct
gland in the Acrania and Cyclostomata. In the
fishes it is closely applied to the U-shaped stomach,
and in some of the Elasmobranchs e.g. the basking
and porbeagle sharks (Selache and Lamna), it is
different appearance in different parts. Most superficially is
the zona glomerulosa, then the zona fascicularis, and most
deeply the zona reticularis. These names convey a fair idea of
the appearance of the bundles. To the naked eye the cortical
Capsular vein
Surface covered
by inferior cava
Surface covered by
peritoneum
B
From D j Cunningham, Cunningham's Text-book of Anatomy.
p A Anterior surface of right suprarenal capsule. B, Anterior surface of
upper and inner parts of each kidney are indicated
thedotted Iin ' indicates the upper lirait of the
stomach. In the Anura (frogs and toads) among
the Amphibia it is a spherical mass close to the rectum, and
this may be explained by regarding it as derived from a
different part of the original mass, already mentioned, to that
which persists in other vertebrates. In the Iguana among the
reptiles the organ has
many notches, and each
one corresponds to the
point of entrance of a
vessel. In Mammals the
notches, when they are
present, so frequently
correspond to the points
of entrance of arteries
at the hilum that the
present writer believes
that the former are
determined by the latter
in many cases (see F. G.
Parsons on the Notches
of the Spleen, J. Anal,
and Phys. vol. 35, p.
416; also Charnock
Bradley, Proceedings of
R. Soc. Edin., vol. 24,
pt. 6, p. 521). The
Monotremata and Mar-
supialia have curious
FIG. 2. Section of the Spleen seen
under a low power.
A, Fibrous capsule. d, Blood-vessels.
b, Trabeculae. e, Spleen pulp.
c, Malpighian corpuscles.
Y-shaped spleens. As a
rule flesh-eating animals
have larger and more notched spleens than vegetable feeders,
though among the Cetacea the spleen is relatively very small.
ADRENAL GLANDS
The adrenal glands or suprarenal capsules are two conical
bodies, flattened from before backward, resting oil the upper
poles of the kidneys close to the sides of the vertebral column;
each has an anterior and posterior surface and a concave base
which is in contact with the kidney. When viewed from in
front the right gland is triangular and the left crescentic. On
the anterior surface there is a transverse sulcus or hilum from
which a large vein emerges. The arteries are less constant in
their points of entry, and are derived from three sources, the
phrenic, the abdominal aorta and the renal arteries. The glands
are entirely retro-peritoneal, though the right one, even on its
anterior surface, is very little covered by peritoneum. In a
vertical transverse section each gland is seen to consist of two
parts, cortical and medullary. The cortical substance is com-
part is yellow while the medullary is red. The medullary part
consists of small islets of cells, which resemble columnar epi-
thelium lying among venous sinuses; these cells are said to be
in close connexion with the sympathetic nerve filaments from
the great solar plexus.
Embryology. The generally accepted opinion at present is that
the cortical substance is derived from the coelomic epithelium
covering the mesoderm of the upper (cephalic) portion of the Wolffian
body, and corresponds to the nephrostomes of mesonephridial
tubules (see URINARY SYSTEM), while the medullary part grows out
from the sympathetic ganglia and so is probably ectodermal in
origin. J. Janosik, however (Archiv. f. mikrosk. Anal. bd. xxii.
1883 and Sitzungsber. d. Wiener Akad., 1885), thinks that the cortical
part is derived from the germ epithelium covering the upper part
of the genital ridge. C. S. Minot (Human Embryology, 1897) believes
that the original cells which grow in from the sympathetic disappear
later, and that the adult medullary cells are derived from the cortical.
In the early human embryo the adrenals are larger than the
kidneys, and at birth they are proportionately much larger than in
the adult. (For literature see Development of the Human Body,
J. P. McMurrich, London, 1906; and Handbuch der Entwickelungs-
lehre, by O. Hertwig, Jena.)
Comparative Anatomy. Adrenals are unknown in Amphioxus
and the Dipnoi (mud fish). In the Cyclostomata (hags and lampreys)
they are said by some to arise in connexion with the cephalic part
of the pronephros, though other writers deny their presence at all
(see W. E. Collinge and Swale Vincent, Anat. Anz. bd. xii., 1896).
In the Elasmobranchs and Holocephali the medullary and cortical
parts are apparently distinct, the former being represented by a series
of organs situated close to the intercostal arteries, while the latter
may be either median or paired, and, as they are placed between
the kidneys, are often spoken of as interrenals. In the Amphibia
the glands are sunk into the surface of the kidney. In reptiles and
birds they are long lobulated bodies lying close to the testis or ovary
and receiving an adrenal portal vein. In the lower mammals they
are not as closely connected with the kidneys as they are in man,
and their shape is usually oval or spherical.
THE THYROID GLAND
The thyroid body or gland is a deep red glandular mass con-
sisting of two lobes which lie one on each side of the upper part
of the trachea and lower part of the larynx; these are joined
across the middle line by the isthmus which lies in front of the
second and third rings of the trachea. Occasionally, from the
top of the isthmus, a nearly but not quite median pyramidal lobe
runs up toward the hyoid bone, while in other cases the isthmus
posed of bundles of cells, separated by a stroma, which have a may be absent. The gland is relatively larger in women and
DUCTLESS GLANDS
635
children than in the adult male. It is enclosed in a capsule of
cervical fascia and is supplied by the superior and inferior
thyroid arteries on each side, though occasionally a median
'thyroidea ima artery is present. On microscopical examination
the gland shows a large number of closed tubular alveoli, lined
by columnar epithelial cells, unsupported by a basement mem-
brane, and filled with colloid or jelly-like material. These are
supported by fibrous septa growing in from the true capsule,
which is distinct from the capsule of cervical fascia. The
lymphatic vessels are large and numerous, and have been shown
by E. C. Baber (Phil. Trans., 1881) to contain the same colloid
material as the alveoli. Accessory thyroids, close to the main
gland, are often found.
Embryology. The median part of the gland is developed from a
tube which grows down in the middle line from the junction of the
buccal and pharyngeal parts of the tongue (q.v.), between the first
and second branchial arches. This tube is called the thyro-glossal
duct and is entodermal in origin. The development of the hyoid
bone obliterates the middle part of the duct, leaving its upper part
as the foramen caecum of the tongue, while its lower part bifurcates,
and so the asymmetrical arrangement of the pyramidal lobe is
accounted for. A. Kanthack (J. Anal, and Phys. vol. xxv., 1891) has
denied the existence of this duct, but on slender grounds. The
lateral parts of the gland are developed from the entoderm of the
fourth visceral clefts, and, joining the median part, lose their pharyn-
geal connexion. Nearly, but not quite, the whole of the lateral
lobes probably belong to this part. (For literature and further
details see Quain's Anatomy, London; 1892, and J. P. McMurrich's
Development of the Human Body, London, 1906.)
Comparative Anatomy. The endostyle or hypobranchial groove
of Tunicata (sea squirts) and Acrama (Amphioxus) is regarded
as the first appearance of the median thyroid; this is a median
entodermal groove in the floor of the pharynx, secreting a glairy
fluid in which food particles become entangled and so pass into the
intestine. In the larval lamprey (Ammocoetes) among the Cyclo-
stomata the connexion with the pharynx is present, but in the adult
lamprey (Petromyzon), as in all adult vertebrates, this connexion is
lost. In the Elasmobranchs the single median thyroid lies close to
the mandibular symphysis, but in the bony fish (Teleostei) it is
paired. In the mud fish (Dipnoi) there is also an indication of a
division into two lobes. In the Amphibia the thyroid forms numer-
ous vesicles close to the anterior end of the pericardium. In Reptilia
it lies close to the trachea, and in the Chelonia and Crocodilia is
paired. In birds it is also paired and lies near the origin of the carotid
arteries. In Mammalia the lateral lobes make their first appearance.
In the lower orders of this class the isthmus is often absent. (For
further derails and literature see R. Wiedersheim's Vergleichende
Anatomic der Wirbeltiere, Jena, 1902, and also for literature, Quain's
Anatomy, London, 1896.)
PARATHYROID GLANDS
These little oval bodies, of considerable physiological import-
ance, are two in number on each side. From their position they
are spoken of as postero-superior and antero-inferior; the
postero-superior are embedded in the thyroid at the level of the
lower border of the cricoid cartilage, while the antero-inferior
may be embedded in the lower edge of the lateral lobes of the
thyroid or may be found a little distance below in relation to
the inferior thyroid veins. They are often very difficult to find,
but it is easiest to do so in a perfectly fresh, full-term foetus or
young child. Microscopically they consist of solid masses of
epithelioid cells with numerous blood-vessels between, while,
embedded in their periphery, are often found masses of thymic
tissue including the concentric corpuscles of Hassall. They
have been regarded as undeveloped portions of thyroid tissue
in an embryonic state, but the experiments of Gley (Comptes
rendus de la Soc. de Biol. No. n, 1895) and of W. Edmunds
(Proc. Physiol. Soc. Journ. Phys. vol. xviii., 1895) do not
confirm this. They are developed from the entoderm of the
third and fourth branchial grooves.
Parathyroids have been found in the orders of Primates, Cheirop-
tera, Carnivora, Ungulata and Rodentia among the Mammalia, and
also in Birds. In the other classes of vertebrates little is known of
them. The fullest and most recent account of these bodies is that
of D. A. Welsh in Journ. Anal, and Phys. vol. 32, 1898, pp. 292 and
380.
THE THYMUS GLAND
The thymus gland (Gr. 0vjuos, from a fancied resemblance
to the corymbs of the Thyme) is a light pink gland, consisting
of two unequal lobes, which lies in the superior and anterior
mediastina of the thorax in front of the pericardium and great
vessels; it also extends up into the root of the neck to within a
short distance of the thyroid gland. It continues to grow until
the second year of life, after which it remains stationary until
puberty, when it usually degenerates rapidly. The writer has
seen it perfectly well developed in a man between 40 and 50,
though such cases are rare; probably, however, some patches
of its tissue remain all through life. Each lobe is divided into a
large number of lobules divided by areolar tissue, and each of
these, under the microscope, is seen to consist of a cortical and
medullary part. The cortex is composed of lymphoid tissue and
resembles the structure of a lymphatic gland (see LYMPHATIC
SYSTEM); it is imperfectly divided into a number of follicles.
In the medulla the lymphoid cells are fewer, and nests of epithelial
cells are found, called the concentric corpuscles of Hassall. The
vascular supply is derived from all the vessels in the neighbour-
hood, the lymphatics are very large and numerous, but the
nerves, which come from the sympathetic and vagus, are few
and small. H. Watney (Phil. Trans., 1882) has discovered
haemoglobin, and apparently developing red blood corpuscles,
in the thymus. (For further details see Gray's or Quain's
Anatomy.)
Embryology. The thymus is formed from a diverticulum, on each
side, from the entoderm lining the third branchial groove, but the
connexion with the pharynx is soon lost. The lymphoid cells and
concentric corpuscles are probably the derivatives of the original
cells lining the diverticulum.
Comparative Anatomy. The thymus is always a paired gland.
In most fishes it rises from the dorsal part of all five branchial clefts ;
in Lepidosiren (Dipnoi), from all except the first; in Urodela from
3rd, 4th and 5th, and in Anura from the 2nd only (see T. H. Bryce,
Development of Thymus in Lepidosiren," Journ. Anat. and Phys.
vol. 40, p. 91). In all fishes, including the Dipnoi (mud fish) it is
placed dorsally to the gill arches on each side. In the Amphibia it
is found close to the articulation of the mandible. In the Reptilia
it is situated by the side of the carotid artery; but in young croco-
diles it is lobulated and extends all along the neck, as it does in birds,
lying close to the side of the oesophagus. In Mammals the Mar-
supials are remarkable for haying a well-developed cervical as well
as thoracic thymus (J. Symington, J. Anat. and Phys. vol. 32,
p. 278). In some of the lower mammals the gland does not disappear
as early as it does in man. The thymus of the calf is popularly
known as " the chest sweetbread."
CAROTID BODIES
These are two small bodies situated, one on each side, between
the origins of the external and internal carotid arteries. Micro-
scopically they are divided into nodules or cell balls by connective
tissue, and these closely resemble the structure of the para-
thyroids, but are without any thymic tissue. The blood-vessels
in their interior are extremely large and numerous. The modern
view of their development is that they are part of the sympathetic
system, and the reaction of their cells to chromium salts bears
this out. (See Kohn, Archivf. mikr. Anat. Ixx., 1907.)
In the Anura there is a rete or network into which the carotid
artery breaks up in the position of the carotid body, and this has
an important effect on the course of the circulation. It is probable,
however, that this structure has nothing to do with the carotid body
of Mammalia.
COCCYGEAL BODY
This is a small median body, about the size of a pea, situated
in front of the apex of the coccyx and between the insertions of
the levatores ani muscles. It resembles the carotid body in its
microscopical structure, but is not so vascular. Concentric
corpuscles, like those of the thymus, have been recorded in it.
It derives its arteries from the middle sacral and its nerves from
the sympathetic. Of its embryology and comparative anatomy
little is known, though J. W. Thomson Walker has recently
shown that numerous, outlying, minute masses of the same
structure lie along the course of the middle sacral artery
(Archil! f. mikroscop. Anat. Bd. Ixiv.). The probability is that,
like the carotid body, it is sympathetic in origin. (Quain's
Anatomy gives excellent illustrations of the histology of this as
well as of all the other ductless glands.)
For the literature on and further details concerning the foregoing
structures the following works should be consulted: Quain's
6 3 6
DUDERSTADT DUDLEY, SIR R.
Anatomy, vol. l(l9o8,London,Longman&Co.);McMurrich'sZ)eve/o/>-
ment of the Human Body (London, Rebman, 1906) ; Wiedersheim's
Vergleich. Anal, der Wirbeltiere (Jena, 1898). (F. G. P.)
DUDERSTADT, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Hanover, situated in a beautiful and fertile valley (formerly
called Goldene Mark) watered by the Hahle, and on the rail-
way Wulften-Leinefelde. Pop. (1905) 5327. It is an interesting
medieval town with many ancient buildings. Notable are the
two Roman Catholic churches, beautiful Gothic edifices of the
I4th century, the Protestant church, and the handsome town-
hall. Its chief industries are woollen and cotton manufactures,
sugar-refining and cigar-making; it has also a trade in singing-
birds. Duderstadt was founded by Henry I. (the Fowler) in
929, passed later to the monastery of Quedlinburg, and then to
Brunswick. It was a member of the Hanseatic League, and
during the Thirty Years' War became a stronghold of the
Imperialists. It was taken by Duke William of Weimar in 163 2 ;
in 1761 its walls were dismantled, and, after being alternately
Prussian and Hanoverian, it passed finally in 1866 with Hanover
to Prussia.
DUDLEY, BARONS AND EARLS OF. The holders of these
English titles are descended from John de Sutton (c. 1310-1359)
of Dudley castle, Staffordshire, who was summoned to parlia-
ment as a baron in 1342. Sutton was the son of another John
de Sutton, who had inherited Dudley Castle through his marriage
with Margaret, sister and heiress of John de Somery (d. 1321);
he was called Lord Dudley, or Lord Sutton of Dudley, the latter
being doubtless the correct form. However, his descendants,
the Suttons, were often called by the name of Dudley; and from
John Dudley of Atherington, Sussex, a younger son of John
Sutton, the sth baron, the earls of Warwick and the earl of
Leicester of the Dudley family are descended.
John Sutton or Dudley (c. 1400-1487), the sth baron, was
first summoned to parliament in 1440, having been viceroy of
Ireland from 1428 to 1430. He served Henry VI. as a diplo-
matist and also as a soldier, being taken prisoner at the first
battle of St Albans in 1455, but this did not prevent him from
enjoying the favour of Edward IV. He died on the 3oth of
September 1487. He was succeeded as 6th baron by his grandson
Edward (c. 1459-1532), and one of his sons, William Dudley,
was bishop of Durham from 1476 until his death in 1483. His
descendant Edward Sutton or Dudley, the gth baron (1567-
1643) , had several illegitimate sons. Among them was Dud Dudley
(1599-1684), who in 1665 published Metallum Martis, describing
a process of making iron with " pit-coale, sea-coale, &c." which
was put in operation at his father's ironworks at Pensnet,
Worcestershire, of which he was manager. His success aroused
much opposition on the part of other ironmasters, and his com-
mercial ventures at Himley, at Askew Bridge and at Bristol
ended in loss and disaster. During the Civil War he was a colonel
in the army of Charles I.
Dying without lawful male issue in June 1643, the 9th baron
was succeeded in the barony by his grand-daughter, Frances
(1611-1697); sne married Humble Ward (c. 1614-1670), the
son of a London goldsmith, who was created Baron Ward of
Birmingham in 1644. Their son Edward (1631-1701) succeeded
both to the barony of Dudley and to that of Ward, but these
were separated when his grandson William died unmarried in
May 1740. The barony of Dudley passed to a nephew, Ferdi-
nando Dudley Lea, falling into abeyance on his death in October
1757; that of Ward passed to the heir male, John Ward
(d. 1774), a descendant of Humble Ward. In 1763 Ward was
created Viscount Dudley, and in April 1823 his grandson, John
William Ward (1781-1833), became the 4th viscount.
Educated at Oxford, John William Ward entered parliament
in 1802, and except for a few months he remained in the House
of Commons until he succeeded his father in the peerage. In
1827 he was minister for foreign affairs under Canning and then
under Goderich and under Wellington, resigning office in May
1828. As foreign minister he was only a cipher, but he was a
man of considerable learning and had some reputation as a
writer and a talker. Dudley took an interest in the foundation
of the university of London, and his Letters to the bishop of
Llandaff were published by the bishop (Edward Copleston) in
1840 (new ed. 1841). He was created Viscount Ednam and earl
of Dudley in 1827, and when he died unmarried on the 6th of
March 1833 these titles became extinct. His barony of Ward,
however, passed to a kinsman, William Humble Ward (1781-
I ^35), whose son, William (1817-1885), inheriting much of the
dead earl's great wealth, was created Viscount Ednam and earl
of Dudley in 1860. The 2nd earl of Dudley in this creation was
the latter's son William Humble (b. 1866), who was lord-lieutenant
of Ireland from 1902 to 1906, and in 1908 was appointed governor-
general of Australia.
_ See H. S. Grazebrook in the Herald and Genealogist, vols. ii., v. and
vi. ; in Notes and Queries, 2nd series, vol. xi. ; and in vol. ix. of the
publications of the William Salt Society (1888).
DUDLEY, EDMUND (c. 1462-1510), minister of Henry VII.
of England, was a son of John Dudley of Atherington, Sussex,
and a member of the great baronial family of Sutton or Dudley.
After studying at Oxford and at Gray's Inn, Dudley came
under the notice of Henry VII., and is said to have been made a
privy councillor at the early age of twenty-three. In 1492 he
helped to negotiate the treaty of Etaples with France and soon
became prominent in assisting the king to check the lawlessness
of the barons, and at the same time to replenish his own ex-
chequer. He and his colleague Sir Richard Empson (q.v.) are
called fiscales judices by Polydore Vergil, and owing to their
extortions they became very unpopular. Dudley, who was
speaker of the House of Commons in 1504, in addition to aiding
Henry, amassed a great amount of wealth for himself, and
possessed large estates in Sussex, Dorset and Lincolnshire.
When Henry VII. died in April 1509, he was thrown into prison
by order of Henry VIII. and charged with the crime of con-
structive treason, being found guilty and attainted. After
having made a futile attempt to escape from prison, he was
executed on the i7th or i8th of August 1510. Dudley's nominal
crime was that during the last illness of Henry VII. he had
ordered his friends to assemble in arms in case the king died,
but the real reason for his death was doubtless the unpopularity
caused by his avarice. During his imprisonment he sought to
gain the favour of Henry VIII. by writing a treatise in support
of absolute monarchy called The Tree of Commonwealth. This
never reached the king's hands, and was not published until
1859, when it was printed privately in Manchester. Dudley's
first wife was Anne, widow of Roger Corbet of Morton, Shrop-
shire, by whom he had a daughter, Elizabeth, who married
William, 6th Lord Stourton. By his second wife, Elizabeth,
daughter of Edward Grey, Viscount Lisle, he had three sons:
John, afterwards duke of Northumberland (q.v.); Andrew
(d. 1559), who was made a knight and held various important
posts during the reign of Edward VI.; and Jasper.
See Francis Bacon, History of Henry VII., edited by J. R. Lumby
(Cambridge, 1881); and J. S. Brewer, The Reign of Henry VIII.,
edited by J. Gairdner (London, 1884).
DUDLEY, SIR ROBERT (1573-1649), titular duke of North-
umberland and earl of Warwick, English explorer, engineer and
author, was the son of Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester (q.v.),
the favourite of Queen Elizabeth. His mother was Lady Douglas
Sheffield, daughter of Thomas, first Baron Howard of Effingham.
Leicester, who deserted Lady Douglas Sheffield for Lettice
Knollys, widow of the first earl of Essex, denied that they were
married. She asserted that they were, at Esher in Surrey, but
her marriage with Sir Edward Stafford of Grafton, after her
desertion by Leicester, would seem to be a tacit confession that
her claim had no foundation. Her son Robert was born in May
I 573> was recognized by Leicester, and sent to Christ Church,
Oxford, in 1587. He inherited all Leicester's property under the
earl's will at his death in 1588, and in the following year the
property of Ambrose Dudley, earl of Warwick. In 1594 he
made a voyage to the West Indies, and in 1596 he took part in
the expedition to Cadiz and was knighted. In 1592 he had
married a sister of Thomas Cavendish the circumnavigator.
On her death he married Alicia Leigh in 1596, by whom he had
four daughters. After the death of Elizabeth he endeavoured
DUDLEY, T. DUDLEY
637
to secure recognition of his legitimacy, and of his right to inherit
the titles of his father and uncle. The proceedings were quashed
by the Star Chamber. In 1605 he obtained leave to travel
abroad, and went to Italy accompanied by the beautiful Miss
Elizabeth Southwell, daughter of Sir Robert Southwell of
Woodrising, in the dress of a page. When ordered to return home
and to provide for his deserted wife and family, he refused, was
outlawed, and his property was confiscated. On the continent
he avowed himself a Roman Catholic, married Elizabeth South-
well at Lyons, and entered the service of Cosimo II., grand-duke
of Tuscany. In the service of the grand-duke he is said to have
done some fighting against the Barbary pirates, and he was un-
doubtedly employed in draining the marshes behind Leghorn,
and in the construction of the port. In 1620 the emperor
Ferdinand II. gave him a patent recognizing his claim not only
to the earldom of Warwick but to the duchy of Northumberland,
which had been held by his grandfather, who was executed by
Queen Mary Tudor. In Italy Dudley was known as Duca di
Nortombria and Conte di Warwick. He died near Florence on
the 6th of September 1649, leaving a large family of sons and
daughters. His deserted wife, Alicia, was created duchess of
Dudley by Charles I. in 1644, and died in 1670, when the title
became extinct. Through a daughter who married the Marquis
Paleotti, Dudley was the ancestor of the wife of the first duke of
Shrewsbury (of the revolution of 1688), and of her brother who
was executed at Tyburn for murder on the I7th of March 1718.
Dudley was the author of a pamphlet addressed to King James I.,
showing how the " impertinences of parliament " could be bridled
by military force. But his chief claim to memory is the magnifi-
cent Arcano dell mare, published in Italian at Florence in 1645-
1646 in three volumes folio. It is a collection of all the naval
knowledge of the age, and is particularly remarkable for a scheme
for the construction of a navy in five rates which Dudley designed
and described. It was reprinted in Florence in two volumes folio
in 1 66 1 without the charts of the first edition.
AUTHORITIES. G. L.Cr&ik, Romance of the Peerage (London, 1848-
1850), vol. iii. ; Sir N. H. Nicolas, Report of Proceedings on the Claim
to the Barony of L'lsU (London, 1829) ; and The Italian Biography
of Sir R. Dudley, published anonymously, privately and without
date or name of place, but known to have been written by Doctor
Vaughan Thomas, vicar of Stoneleigh, who died in 1858. (D. H.)
DUDLEY, THOMAS (1576-1653), British colonial governor of
Massachusetts, was born in Northampton, England, in 1576,
a member of the elder branch of the family to the younger branch
of which Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester, belonged. He was
the son of a country gentleman of some means and high standing,
was captain of an English company in the French expedition of
1597, serving under Henry of Navarre, and eventually became the
steward of the earl of Lincoln's estates, which he managed with
great success for many years. Having been converted to
Puritanism, he became a strict advocate of its strictest tenets.
About 1627 he associated himself with other Lincolnshire
gentlemen who in 1629 entered into an agreement to settle in New
England provided they were allowed to take the charter with
them. This proposal the general court of the Plymouth Company
agreed to, and in April 1630 Dudley sailed to America hi the
same ship with John Winthrop, the newly appointed governor,
Dudley himself at the last moment being chosen deputy-governor
in place of John Humphrey (or Humfrey), the earl of Lincoln's
son-in-law, whose departure was delayed. Dudley was for
many years the most influential man in the Massachusetts Bay
colony, save Winthrop, with whose policy he was more often
opposed than in agreement. He was deputy-governor in 1629-
1634, in 1637-1640, in 1646-1650 and in 1651-1653, and was
governor four times, in 1634, 1640, 1645 and 1650. Soon after
his arrival in the colony he settled at Newton (Cambridge), of
which he was one of the founders; he was also one of the earliest
promoters of the plan for the establishment of Harvard College.
Winthrop's decision to make Boston the capital instead of
Newton precipitated the first of the many quarrels between
the two, Dudley's sterner and harsher Puritanism, being in strong
contrast to Winthrop's more tolerant and liberal views. He
was an earnest and persistent heresy-hunter not only the
Antinomians, but even such a good Puritan as John Cotton,
against whom he brought charges, feeling the weight of his stern
and remorseless hand. His position he himself best expressed
in the following brief verse found among his papers:
" Let men of God in courts and churches watch
O'er such as do a Toleration hatch,
Lest that ill egg bring forth a Cockatrice
To poison all with heresy and vice."
He died at Roxbury, Massachusetts, on the 3ist of July 1653.
See Augustine Jones, Life and Work of Thomas Dudley, the Second
Governor of Massachusetts (Boston, 1899); and the Life of Mr
Thomas Dudley, several times Governor of the Colony of Massachusetts,
written as is supposed by Cotton Mather, edited by Charles Deane
(Cambridge, 1870). Dudley's interesting and valuable "Letter to the
Countess of Lincoln," is reprinted in Alexander Young's Chronicles
of the Planters of the Colony of Massachusetts Bay (Boston, 1846), and
in the New Hampshire Historical Society Collections, vol. iv. (1834).
His son JOSEPH DUDLEY (1647-1720), colonial governor of
Massachusetts, was born in Roxbury, Massachusetts, on the
23rd of September 1647. He graduated at Harvard College in
1665, became a member of the general court, and in 1682 was sent
by Massachusetts to London to prevent the threatened revocation
of her charter by Charles II. There, with an eye to his personal
advancement, he secretly advised the king to annul the charter;
this was done, and Dudley, by royal appointment, became
president of the provisional council. With the advent of the
new governor, Sir Edmund Andros, Dudley became a judge
of the superior court and censor of the press. Upon the deposi-
tion of Andros, Dudley was imprisoned and sent with him to
England, but was soon set free. In 1691-1692 he was chief-
justice of New York, presiding over the court that condemned
Leisler and Milburn. Returning to England in 1693, he was
lieutenant-governor of the Isle of Wight and a member of
parliament, and in 1702, after a long intrigue, secured from
Queen Anne a commission as governor of Massachusetts, serving
until 1715. His administration was marked, particularly in
the earlier years, by ceaseless conflict with the general court,
from which he demanded a regular fixed salary instead of an
annual grant. He was active in raising volunteers for the so-
called Queen Anne's War, and in 1707 sent a fruitless expedition
against Port Royal. He was accused by the Boston merchants,
who petitioned for his removal, of being in league with smugglers
and illicit traders, and in 1708 a bitter attack on his administra-
tion was published in London, entitled The Deplorable State of
New England by reason of a Covetous and Treacherous Governor
and Pusillanimous Counsellors. His character may be best
summed up in the words of one of his successors, Thomas
Hutchinson, that " he had as many virtues as can consist with so
great a thirst for honour and power." He died at Roxbury on
the 2nd of April 1720.
Joseph Dudley's son, PAUL DUDLEY (1675-1751), graduated
at Harvard in 1690, studied law at the Temple in London, and
became attorney-general of Massachusetts (1702 to 1718). He was
associate justice of the superior court of that province from
1718 to 1745, and chief justice from 1745 until his death. He
was a member of the Royal Society (London), to whose Trans-
actions he contributed several valuable papers on the natural
history of New England, and was the founder of the Dudleian
lectures on religion at Harvard.
The best extended account of Joseph Dudley's administration
is in J. G. Palfrey's History of New England, vol. iv. (Boston, 1875).
DUDLEY, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough
and market-town of Worcestershire, England, in a portion of
that county enclaved in Staffordshire, 8 m. W.N.W. of Birming-
ham, and 121 N.W. of London by the London & North Western
railway. The Great Western railway also serves the town.
Pop. (1891) 45,724; (1901) 48,733- Dudley lies on an elevated
ridge, in the midst of the district of the midlands known as the
Black Country, which is given up to ironworks and coal mines.
The " ten-yard " coal, in the neighbourhood, is the thickest seam
worked in England. Limestone is extensively quarried, fire-clay is
abundant; and iron-founding, brass-founding, engineering works,
glass works andbrick works are comprised in the industries. Among
the principal buildings are the churches of the five parishes into
6 3 8
DUDO DUEL
which the town is divided, the town hall, county court, free
libraries, and school of art, grammar school with university and
foundation scholarships, technical school, mechanics' institute,
Guest hospital (founded by Joseph Guest, a citizen, in 1868),
and a dispensary. In the market-place stands a large domed
fountain, erected by the earl of Dudley (1867). There is a
geological society with a museum, for the neighbourhood of
Dudley is full of geological interest, the Silurian limestone
abounding in fossils. To the north of the town are extensive
remains of an ancient castle, surrounded by beautiful grounds.
The hill on which it stands is of limestone, which by quarrying
has been hollowed out in extensive chambers and galleries.
The view from the castle is remarkable. The whole district is
seen to be set with chimneys, pit-buildings and factories; and
at night the glare of furnaces reveals the tireless activity of
the Black Country. Dudley and its environs are connected
by a tramway system, and water communication is afforded
by the Dudley canal with Birmingham and with the river
Severn.
Included in the parliamentary borough, but in Staffordshire,
and 2j m. by rail S.W. of Dudley, is Brierley Hill, a market-
town on the river Stour and the Stourbridge and Birmingham
Canals. Its chief buildings are the modern church of St Michael,
standing on a hill, the Roman Catholic church of St Mary, by
A. W. Pugin, the town hall and free library. Between this and
Dudley lie the great ironworks of Roundoak, and the extensive
suburb of Netherton in the enclaved portion of Worcestershire.
The industries are similar to those of Dudley. Three miles W.
of Dudley is Kingswinford, a mining township, with large brick
works, giving name to a parliamentary division of Staffordshire.
The parliamentary borough of Dudley returns one member.
The town itself is governed by a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30
councillors. Area 3546 acres.
In medieval times the importance of Dudley (Dudelei) de-
pended on the castle, which is mentioned in the Domesday
Survey. Before the Conquest Earl Eadwine held the manor,
which in 1086 belonged to William FitzAnsculf, from whom
it passed, probably by marriage, to Fulk Paynel, afterwards
to the Somerys, Suttons and Wards, whose descendants (earls of
Dudley) now hold it. The first mention of Dudley as a borough
occurs in an inquisition taken after the death of Roger de Somery
in 1272. This does not give a clear account of the privileges
held by the burgesses, but shows that they had probably been
freed from some or all of the services required from them as
manorial tenants, in return for a fixed rent. In 1865 Dudley
was incorporated. Before that time it was governed by a high
and low bailiff appointed every year at the court leet of the
manor. Roger de Somery evidently held a market by prescrip-
tion in Dudley before 1261, in which year he came to terms with
the dean of Wolverhampton, who had set up a market in Wolver-
hampton to the disadvantage of Roger's market at Dudley.
According to the terms of the agreement the dean might con-
tinue his market on condition that Roger and his tenants should
be free from toll there. Two fairs, on the 2ist of September and
the 2ist of April, were granted in 1684 to Edward Lord Ward,
lord of the manor. Dudley was represented in the parliament of
1295, but not again until the privilege was revived by the Reform
Act of 1832. Mines of sea-coal in Dudley are mentioned as
early as the reign of Edward I., and by the beginning of the
1 7th century mining had become an important industry.
DUDO, or DUDON (fl. c. 1000), Norman historian, was dean of
St Quentin, where he was born about 965. Sent in 986 by
Albert I. count of Vermandois, on an errand to Richard I.,
duke of Normandy, he succeeded in his mission, and, having
made a very favourable impression at the Norman court, spent
some years in that country. During a second stay in Normandy
Dudo wrote his history of the Normans, a task which Duke
Richard I. had urged him to undertake. Very little else is
known about his life, except that he died before 1043. Written
between 1015 and 1030, his Historia Normannorum, orLibriHI.
de moribus et actis primorum Normanniae ducum, was dedicated
to Adalberon, bishop of Laon. Dudo does not appear to have
consulted any existing documents for his history, but to have
obtained his information from oral tradition, much of it being
supplied by Raoul, count of Ivry, a half-brother of Duke
Richard I. Consequently the Historia partakes of the nature of a
romance, and on this ground has been regarded as untrustworthy
by such competent critics as E. Diimmler and G. Waitz. Other
authorities, however, e.g. J. Lair and J. Steenstrup, while
admitting the existence of a legendary element, regard the book
as of considerable value for the history of the Normans.
Although Dudo was acquainted with Virgil and other Latin
writers, his Latin is affected and obscure. The Historia, which
is written alternately in prose and in verse of several metres, is
divided into four parts, and deals with the history of the Normans
from 852 to the death of Duke Richard I. in 996. It glorifies the
Normans, and was largely used by William of Jumieges, Wace,
Robert of Torigni, William of Poitiers and Hugh of Fleury in
compiling their chronicles, and was first published by A.Duchesne
in his Historiae Normannorum scriptores antiqui, at Paris in 1619.
Another edition is in the Patrologia Latina, tome cxli. of J. P.
Migne (Paris, 1844), but the best is perhaps the one edited by
J. Lair (Caen, 1865).
See E. Diimmler, " Zur Kritik Dudos von St Quentin " in the
Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte, Bande vi and ix. (Gottingen,
1866); G. Waitz, " Uber die Quellen zur Geschichte der Begriin-
dung der normannischen Herrschaft in Frankreich," in the Gottinger
gel. Anzeigen (Gottingen, 1866); J. C. H. R. Steenstrup, Nor-
mannerne, Band i. (Copenhagen 1876) ; J. Lair. Etude critique et
historique sur Dudon (Caen, 1865); G. Kortung, Ober die Quellen
des Roman de Rou (Leipzig, 1867) ; W. Wattenbach, Deutschlands
Geschichtsquellen, Band i. (Berlin, 1904) ; and A. Molinier, Les
Sources de I'histoire de France, tome ii. (Paris, 1902).
DUDWEILER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine
province, on the Sulzbach, 4 m. by rail N.E. from Saarbriicken.
It has extensive coal mines and ironworks and produces fire-
proof bricks. Pop. (1905) 16,320.
DUEL (Ital. duello, Lat. duellum old form of helium from
duo, two), a prearranged encounter between two persons, with
deadly weapons, in accordance with conventional rules, with the
object of voiding a personal quarrel or of deciding a point of
honour. The first recorded instance of the word occurs in
Coryate's Crudities (1611), but Shakespeare has duello in this
sense, and uses " duellist " of Tybalt in Romeo and Juliet. In
its earlier meaning of a judicial combat we find the word latinized
in the Statute of Wales (Edw. I., Act 12), " Placita de terris in
parlibus istis non habent terminari per duellum."
Duels in the modern sense were unknown to the ancient world,
and their origin must be sought in the feudal age of Europe.
The single combats recorded in Greek and Roman history and
legend, of Hector and Achilles, Aeneas and Turnus, the Horatii
and Curiatii, were incidents in national wars and have nothing
in common with the modern duel. It is, however, noteworthy
that in Tacitus (Germania, cap. x.) we find the rudiments of the
judicial duel (see WAGER, for the wager of battle). Domestic
differences, he tells us, were settled by a legalized form of combat
between the disputants, and when a war was impending a captive
from the hostile tribe was armed and pitted against a national
champion, and the issue of the duel was accepted as an omen.
The judicial combat was a Teutonic institution, and it was in
fact an appeal from human justice to the God of battles, partly
a sanction of the current creed that might is right, that the brave
not only will win but deserve to win.- It was on these grounds
that Gundobald justified, against the complaints of a bishop,
the famous edict passed at Lyons (A.D. 501) which established
the wager of battle as a recognized form of trial. It is God, he
argued, who directs the issue of national wars, and in private
quarrels we may trust His providence to favour the juster cause.
Thus, as Gibbon comments, the absurd and cruel practice of
judicial duels, which had been peculiar to some tribes of Germany,
was propagated and established in all the monarchies of Europe
from Sicily to the Baltic. Yet in its defence it may be urged
that it abolished a worse evil, the compurgation by oath which
put a premium on perjury, and the ordeal, or judgment of God,
when the cause was decided by blind chance, or more often by
priestcraft.
DUEL
639
Those who are curious to observe the formalities and legal
rules of a judicial combat will find them described at length in
the 28th book of Montesquieu's Esprit des lois. On
farfteto/ these regulations ne well remarks that, as there are an
combat. infinity of wise things conducted in a very foolish
manner, so there are some foolish things conducted
in a very wise manner. For our present purpose it is sufficient
to observe the development of the idea of personal honour from
which the modern duel directly sprang. In the ancient laws of
the Swedes we find that if any man shall say to another, " You
are not a man equal to other men," or " You have not the heart
of a man," and the other shall reply, " I am a man as good as
you," they shall meet on the highway, and then follow the
regulations for the combat. What is this but the modern
challenge ? By the law of the Lombards if one man call another
arga, the insulted party might defy the other to mortal combat.
What is arga but the dummer Junger of the German student ?
Beaumanoir thus describes a legal process under Louis le Debon-
naire: The appellant begins by a declaration before the judge
that the appellee is guilty of a certain crime; if the appellee
answers that his accuser lies, the judge then ordains the duel.
Is not this the modern point of honour, by which to be given
the lie is an insult which can only be wiped out by blood ?
From Germany the judicial combat rapidly spread to France,
where it flourished greatly from the loth to the I2th century,
the period of customary law. By French kings it was welcomed
as a limitation of the judicial powers of their half independent
vassals. It was a form of trial open to all freemen and in certain
cases, as under Louis VI., the privilege was extended to serfs.
Even the church resorted to it not unfrequently to settle disputes
concerning church property. Abbots and priors as territorial
lords and high justiciaries had their share in the confiscated
goods of the defeated combatant, and Pope Nicholas when applied
to in 858 pronounced it " a just and legitimate combat." Yet
only three years before the council of Valence had condemned
the practice, imposing the severest penance on the victor and
refusing the last rites of the church to the vanquished as to a
suicide. In 1385 a duel was fought, the result of which was so
preposterous that even the most superstitious began to lose faith
in the efficacy of such a judgment of God. A certain Jacques
Legris was accused by the wife of Jean Carrouge of having intro-
duced himself by night in the guise of her husband whom she
was expecting on his return from the Crusades. A duel was
ordained by the parlement of Paris, which was fought in the
presence of Charles VI. Legris was defeated and hanged on the
spot. Not long after, a criminal arrested for some other offence
confessed himself to be the author of the outrage. No institution
could long survive so open a confutation, and it was annulled by
the parlement. Henceforward the duel in France ceases to be
an appeal to Heaven, and becomes merely a satisfaction of
wounded honour. Under Louis XII. and Francis I. we find the
first vestiges of tribunals of honour. The last instance of a duel
authorized by the magistrates, and conducted according to the
forms of law, was the famous one between Francois de Vivonne
de la Chataignerie and Guy Chabot de Jarnac. The duel was
fought on the loth of July 1547 in the courtyard of the chateau
of St Germain-en-Laye, in the presence of the king and a large
assembly of courtiers. It was memorable in two ways. It en-
riched the French language with a new phrase; a sly and un-
foreseen blow, such as that by which de Jarnac worsted La
Chataignerie, has since been called a coup de Jarnac. And Henry,
grieved at the death of his favourite, swore a solemn oath that he
would never again permit a duel to be fought. This led to the
first of the many royal edicts against duelling. By a decree of
the council of Trent (cap. xix.) a ban was laid on " the detestable
use of duels, an invention of the devil to compass the destruction
of souls together with a bloody death of the body."
In England, it is now generally agreed, the wager of battle did
not exist before the time of the Norman Conquest. Some
previous examples have been adduced, but on examination they
will be seen to belong rather to the class of single combats
between the champions of two opposing armies. One such
instance is worth quoting as a curious illustration of the supersti-
tion of the time. It occurs in a rare tract printed in London,
1610, The Duello, or Single Combat. " Danish irruptions and
the bad aspects of Mars having drencht the common mother
earth with her sonnes' blood streames, under the reigne of
Edmund, a Saxon monarch, misso in compendium (so worthy
Camden expresseth it) hello utriusque gentis fata Edmundo
Anglorum et Canuto Danorum regibus commissa fuerunt, qui
singulari.certamine de summa imperij in hac insula (that is, the
Eight in Glostershire) depugnarunl." By the laws of William
the Conqueror the trial by battle was only compulsory when the
opposite parties were both Normans, in other cases it was optional.
As the two nations were gradually merged into one, this form
of trial spread, and until the reign of Henry II. it was the only
mode for determining a suit for the recovery of land. The
method of procedure is admirably described by Shakespeare
in the opening scene in Richard II., where Henry of Bolingbroke,
duke of Hereford, challenges Thomas, duke of Norfolk; in the
mock-heroic battle between Horner the Armourer and his man
Peter in Henry VI. ; and by Sir W. Scott in the Fair Maid of
Perth, where Henry Gow appears before the king as the champion
of Magdalen Proudfute. The judicial duel never took root in
England as it did in France. In civil suits it was superseded by
the grand assize of Henry II., and in cases of felony by indict-
ment at the prosecution of the crown. One of the latest instances
occurred in the reign of Elizabeth, 1571, when the lists were
actually prepared and the justices of the common pleas appeared
at TothUl Fields as umpires of the combat. Fortunately the
petitioner failed to put in an appearance, and was consequently
nonsuited (see Spelman, Glossary, s.v. " Campus "). As late as
1817 Lord Ellenborough, in the case of Thornton v. Ashford,
pronounced that " the general law of the land is that there shall
be a trial by battle in cases of appeal unless the party brings
himself within some of the exceptions." Thornton was accused
of murdering Mary Ashford, and claimed his right to challenge
the appellant, the brother of the murdered girl, to wager of
battle. His suit was allowed, and, the challenge being refused,
the accused escaped. Next year the law was abolished (59
Geo. III., c. 46).
In sketching the history of the judicial combat we have traced
the parentage of the modern duel. Strip the former of its
legality, and divest it of its religious sanction, and
the latter remains. We are justified, then, in dating
the commencement of duelling from the abolition of
the wager of battle. To pursue its history we must return to
France, the country where it first arose, and the soil on which it
has most flourished. The causes which made it indigenous to
France are sufficiently explained by the condition of society and
the national character. As Buckle has pointed out, duelling is
a special development of chivalry, and chivalry is one of the
phases of the protective spirit which was predominant //f Fnnce
in France up to the time of the Revolution. Add to
this the keen sense of personal honour, the susceptibility and
the pugnacity which distinguish the French race. Montaigne,
when touching on this subject in his essays, says, " Put
three Frenchmen together on the plains of Libya, and they will
not be a month in company without scratching one another's
eyes out." The third chapter of d'Audiguier's Ancien usage des
duels is headed, " Pourquoi les seuls Francais se battent en duel."
English literature abounds with allusions to this characteristic
of the French nation. Lord Herbert of Cherbury, who was
ambassador at the court of Louis XIII., says, " There is scarce
a Frenchman worth looking on who has not killed his man in a
duel." Ben Jonson, in his Magnetic Lady, makes Compass,
the scholar and soldier, thus describe France, " that garden of
humanity" :
" There every gentleman professing arms
Thinks he is bound in honour to embrace
The bearing of a challenge for another,
Without or questioning the cause or asking
Least colour of a reason."
Duels were not common before the i6th century. Hallam
640
DUEL
attributes their prevalence to the barbarous custom of wearing
swords as a part of domestic dress, a fashion which was not
introduced till the later part of the isth century. In 1560 the
states-general at Orleans supplicated Charles IX. to put a stop
to duelling. Hence the famous ordinance of 1366, drawn up
by the chancellor de 1'Hopital, which served as the basis of the
successive ordinances of the following kings. Under the frivolous
and sanguinary reign of Henry III., " who was as eager for
excitement as a woman," the rage for duels spread till it became
almost an epidemic. In 1602 the combined remonstrances of
the church and the magistrates extorted from the king an edict
condemning to death whoever should give or accept a challenge
or act as second. But public opinion was revolted by such
rigour, and the statue remained a dead letter. A duel forms a
fit conclusion to the reign. A hair-brained youth named L'Isle
Marivaux swore that he would not survive his beloved king,
and threw his cartel into the air. It was at once picked up, and
Marivaux soon obtained the death he had courted. Henry IV.
began his reign by an edict against duels, but he was known in
private to favour them; and, when de Crequi asked leave to
fight Don Philip of Savoy, he is reported to have said, " Go, and
if I were not a king I would be your second." Fontenay-Mareuil
says, in his MSmoires, that in the eight years between 1601 and
1609, 2000 men of noble birth fell in duels. In 1609 a more
effective measure was taken at the instance of Sully by the
establishment of a court of honour. The edict decrees that all
aggrieved persons shall address themselves to the king, either
directly or through the medium of the constables, marshals, &c. ;
that the king shall decide, whether, if an accommodation could
not be effected, permission to fight should be given; that the
aggressor, if pronounced in the wrong, shall in any case be sus-
pended from any public office or employment, and be mulcted
of one-third of his revenue till he has satisfied the aggrieved
party; that any one giving or receiving a challenge shall forfeit
all right of reparation and all his offices; that any one who kills
his adversary in an unauthorized duel shall suffer death without
burial, and his children shall be reduced to villanage; that
seconds, if they take part in a duel, shall suffer death, if not,
shall be degraded from the profession of arms. This edict has
been pronounced by Henri Martin " the wisest decree of the
ancient monarchy on a matter which involves so many delicate
and profound questions of morals, politics, and religion touching
civil rights " (Histoire de France, x. 466).
In the succeeding reign the mania for duels revived. Rostand's
Cyrano is a life-like modern portraiture of French bloods in the
first half of the zyth century. De Houssaye tells us that in
Paris when friends met the first question was, " Who fought
yesterday ? who is to fight to-day ? " They fought by night
and day, by moonlight and by torch-light, in the public streets
and squares. A hasty word, a misconceived gesture, a question
about the colour of a riband or an embroidered letter, such were
the commonest pretexts for a duel. The slighter and more
frivolous the dispute, the less were they inclined to submit
them to the king for adjudication. Often, like gladiators or
prize-fighters, they fought for the pure love of fighting. A
misunderstanding is cleared up on the ground. " N'importe,"
cry the principals, " puisque nous sommes ici, battons-nous."
Seconds, as Montaigne tells us, are no longer witnesses, but
must take part themselves unless they would be thought wanting
in affection or courage; and he goes on to complain that men
are no longer contented with a single second, " c'etait ancienne-
ment des duels, ce sont a cette heure rencontres et batailles."
There is no more striking instance of Richelieu's firmness and
power as a statesman than his conduct in the matter of duelling.
In his Testament politique he has assigned his reasons for dis-
approving it as a statesman and ecclesiastic. But this disapproval
was turned to active detestation by a private cause. His elder
brother, the head of the house, had fallen in a duel stabbed to
the heart by an enemy of the cardinal. Already four edicts
had been published under Louis XIII. with little or no effect,
when in 1626 there was published a new edict condemning to
death any one who had killed his adversary in a duel, or had
been found guilty of sending a challenge a second time. Banish-
ment and partial confiscation of goods were awarded for lesser
offences. But this edict differed from preceding ones not so
much in its severity as in the fact that it was the first which was
actually enforced. The cardinal began by imposing the penalties
of banishment and fines, but, these proving ineffectual to stay
the evil, he determined to make a terrible example. To quote
his own words to the king, " II s'agit de couper la gorge aux duels
ou aux edits de votre Majeste." The count de Boutteville, a
renommist who had already been engaged in twenty-one affairs
of honour, determined out of pure bravado to fight a twenty-
second time. The duel took place at midday on the Place
Royale. Boutteville was arrested with his second, the count de
Chapelles; they were tried by the parlement of Paris, condemned
and, in spite of all the influence of the powerful house of Mont-
morenci, of which de Boutteville was a branch, they were both
beheaded on the 2ist of June 1627. For a short time the
ardour of duellists was cooled. But the lesson soon lost its
effect. Only five years later we read in the Mercure de France
that two gentlemen who had killed one another in a duel were,
by the cardinal's orders, hanged on a gallows, stripped and with
their heads downwards, in the sight of all the people. This was
a move in the right direction, since, for fashionable vices, ridicule
and ignominy is a more drastic remedy than death. It was on
this principle that Caraccioli, prince of Melfi, when viceroy of
Piedmont, finding that his officers were being decimated by duel-
ling, proclaimed that all duels should be fought on the parapet
of the Ponte Vecchio, and if one of the combatants chanced
to fall into the river he should on no account be pulled out.
Under the long reign of Louis XIV. many celebrated duels
took place, of which the most remarkable were that between
the duke of Guise and Count Coligny, the last fought on the
Place Royale, and that between the dukes of Beaufort and
Nemours, each attended by four friends . Of the ten combatants,
Nemours and two others were killed on the spot, and none
escaped without some wound. No less than eleven edicts against
duelling were issued under le Grand Monarque. That of 1643
established a supreme court of honour composed of the marshals
of France; but the most famous was that of 1679, which con-
firmed the enactments of his predecessors, Henry IV. and Louis
XII. At the same time a solemn agreement was entered into by
the principal nobility that they would never engage in a duel
on any pretence whatever. A medal was struck to commemorate
the occasion, and the firmness of the king, in refusing pardon to
all offenders, contributed more to restrain this scourge of society
than all the efforts of his predecessors.
The subsequent history of duelling in France may be more
shortly treated. In the preamble to the edict of 1 704 Louis XIV.
records his satisfaction at seeing under his reign an almost entire
cessation of those fatal combats which by the inveterate force of
custom had so long prevailed. Addison (Spectator, 99) notes it
as one of the most glorious exploits of his reign to have banished
the false point of honour. Under the regency of Louis XV.
there was a brief revival. The last legislative act for the sup-
pression of duels was passed on the i2th of April 1723. Then
came the Revolution, which in abolishing the ancien regime
fondly trusted that with it would go the duel, one of the privileges
and abuses of an aristocratic society. Dupleix, in his Military
Law concerning the Duel (1611), premises that these have no
application to lawyers, merchants, financiers or justices. This
explains why in the legislation of the National Assembly there
is no mention of duels. Camille Desmoulins when challenged
shrugged his shoulders and replied to the charge of cowardice
that he would prove his courage on other fields than the Bois de
Boulogne. The two great Frenchmen whose writings preluded
the French Revolution both set their faces against it. Voltaire
had indeed, as a young man, in obedience to the dictates of
society, once sought satisfaction from a nobleman for a brutal
insult, and had reflected on his temerity in the solitude of the
Bastille. 1 Henceforward he inveighed against the practice,
1 Voltaire met the chevalier Rohan-Chabot at the house of the
Marquis of Sully. The chevalier, offended by Voltaire's free speech,
DUEL
641
not only for its absurdity, but also for its aristocratic exclusive-
ness. Rousseau had said of duelling, " It is not an institution
of honour, but a horrible and barbarous custom, which a
courageous man despises and a good man abhors." Napoleon
was a sworn foe to it. " Bon duelliste mauvais soldat " is one
of his best known sayings; and, when the king of Sweden sent
him a challenge, he replied that he would order a fencing-master
to attend him as plenipotentiary. After the battle of Waterloo
duels such as Lever loves to depict were frequent between dis-
banded French officers and those of the allies in occupation.
The restoration of the Bourbons brought with it a fresh crop of
duels. Since then duels have been frequent in France more
frequent, however, in novels than in real life fought mainly
between politicians and journalists, and with rare exceptions
bloodless affairs. If fought with pistols, the distance and the
weapons chosen render a hit improbable; and, if fought with
rapiers, honour is generally satisfied with the first blood drawn.
Among Frenchmen famous in politics or letters who have " gone
out " may be mentioned Armand Carrel, who fell in an encounter
with Emile Girardin; Thiers, who thus atoned for a youthful
indiscretion; the elder Dumas; Lamartine; Ste Beuve, who
to show at once his sangfroid and his sense of humour, fought
under an umbrella; Ledru Rollin; Edmond About; Clement
Thomas; Veuillot, the representative of the church militant;
Rochefort; and Boulanger, the Bonapartist fanfaron, whose
discomfiture in a duel with Floquet resulted in a notable loss of
popular respect.
Duelling did not begin in England till some hundred years
after it had arisen in France. There is no instance of a private
duel fought in England before the i6th century,
England. and tlle y are rare before the reign of James I. A very
fair notion of the comparative popularity of duelling,
and of the feeling with which it was regarded at various periods,
might be gathered by examining the part it plays in the novels
and lighter literature of the times. The earliest duels we re-
member in fiction are that in the Monastery between Sir Piercie
Shafton and Halbert Glendinning, and that inKenilworth between
Tressilian and Varney. (That in Anne of Geierstein either is an
anachronism or must reckon as a wager by battle.) Under
James I. we have the encounter between Nigel and Lord Dal-
garno. The greater evil of war, as we observed in French history,
expels the lesser, and the literature of the Commonwealth is in
this respect a blank. With the Restoration there came a reaction
against Puritan morality, and a return to the gallantry and loose
manners of French society, which is best represented by the
theatre of the day. The drama of the Restoration abounds in
duels. Passing on to the reign of Queen Anne, we find the
subject frequently discussed in the Taller and the Spectator,
and Addison points in his happiest way the moral to a con-
temporary duel between Mr Thornhill and Sir Cholmeley Dering.
" I come not," says Spinomont to King Pharamond, " I come
not to implore your pardon, I come to relate my sorrow, a sorrow
too great for human life to support. Know that this morning
I have killed in a duel the man whom of all men living I love
best." No reader of Esmond can forget Thackeray's description
of the doubly fatal duel between the duke of Hamilton and Lord
Mohun, which is historical, or the no less life-like though fictitious
duel between Lord Mohun and Lord Castlewood. The duel
between the two brothers in Stevenson's Master of Ballantrae
is one of the best conceived in fiction. Throughout the reigns of
the Georges they are frequent. Richardson expresses his opinion
on the subject in six voluminous letters to the Literary Repositor.
insolently asked the marquis, " Who is that young man?" " One,"
replied Voltaire, " who if he does not parade a great name, honours
that he bears." The chevalier said nothing at the time, but, seizing
his opportunity, inveigled Voltaire into his coach, and had him beaten
by six of his footmen. Voltaire set to work to learn fencing, and
then sought the chevalier in the theatre, and publicly challenged
him. A bon-mot at the chevalier's expense was the only satisfaction
that the philosopher could obtain. " Monsieur, si quelque affaire
d'interlt ne vous a point fait oublier 1'outrage dont j 'ai 4 me plaindre,
j'espere que vous m'en rendrez raison." The chevalier was said to
employ his capital in petty usury.
VIII. 21
Sheridan, like Farquhar in a previous generation, not only
dramatized a duel, but fought two himself. Byron thus com-
memorates the bloodless duel between Tom Moore and Lord
Jeffrey:
" Can none remember that eventful day,
That ever glorious almost fatal fray,
When Little's leadless pistols met the eye,
And Bow Street myrmidons stood laughing by?"
There are no duels in Miss Austen's novels, but in those of
Miss Edgeworth, her contemporary, there are three or four.
As we approach the ipth century they become rarer in fiction.
Thackeray's novels, indeed, abound in duels. " His royal high-
ness the late lamented commander-in-chief " had the greatest
respect for Major Macmurdo, as a man who had conducted
scores of affairs for his acquaintance with the greatest prudence
and skill; and Rawdon Crawley's duelling pistols, " the same
which I shot Captain Marker," have become a household word.
Dickens, on the other hand, who depicts contemporary English
life, and mostly in the middle classes, in all his numerous works
has only three; and George Eliot never once refers to a duel.
Tennyson, using a poet's privilege, laid the scene of a duel in the
year of the Crimean War, but he echoes the spirit of the times
when he stigmatizes " the Christless code that must have life
for a blow." Browning, who delights in cases of conscience,
has given admirably the double moral aspect of the duel in his
two lyrics entitled " Before " and " After."
To pass from fiction to fact we will select the most memorable
English duels of the last century and a half. Lord Byron killed
Mr Cha worth in 1765; Charles James Fox and Mr Adams fought
in 1779; duke of York and Colonel Lennox, 1789; William Pitt
and George Tierney, 1 796 ; George Canning and Lord Castlereagh,
1809; Mr Christie killed John Scott, editor of the London
Magazine, 1821; duke of Wellington and earl of Winchelsea,
1829; Mr Roebuck and Mr Black, editor of Morning Chronicle,
1835; Lord Alvanley and a son of Daniel O'Connell in the same
year; Earl Cardigan wounded Captain Tuckett, was tried by
his peers, and acquitted on a legal quibble, 1840.
The year 1808 is memorable in the annals of duelling in
England. Major Campbell was sentenced to death and executed
for killing Captain Boyd in a duel. In this case it is true that
there was a suspicion of foul play; but in the case of Lieutenant
Blundell, who was killed in a duel in 1813, though all had been
conducted with perfect fairness, the surviving principal and the
seconds were all convicted of murder and sentenced to death,
and, although the royal pardon was obtained, they were all
cashiered. The next important date is the year 1843, when
public attention was painfully called to the subject by a duel in
which Colonel Fawcett was shot by his brother-in-law, Lieutenant
Monro. The survivor, whose career was thereby blasted, had,
it was well known, gone out most reluctantly, in obedience to the
then prevailing military code. A full account of the steps taken
by the prince consort, and of the correspondence which passed
between him and the duke of Wellington, will be found in the
Life of the Prince by Sir Theodore Martin. The duke, un-
fortunately, was not an unprejudiced counsellor. Not only had
he been out himself, but, in writing to Lord Londonderry on
the occasion of the duel between the marquess and Ensign
Battier in 1824, he had gone so far as to state that he considered
the probability of the Hussars having to fight a duel or two a
matter of no consequence. In the previous year there had been
formed in London the association for the suppression of duelling.
It included leading members of both houses of parliament and
distinguished officers of both services. The first report, issued
in 1844, gives a memorial of the association presented to Queen
Victoria through Sir James Graham, and in a debate in the House
of Commons (isth of March 1844) Sir H. Hardinge, the secretary
of war, announced to the House that Her Majesty had expressed
herself desirous of devising some expedient by which the barbarous
practice of duelling should be as much as possible discouraged.
In the same debate Mr Turner reckoned the number of duels
fought during the reign of George III. at 172, of which 91 had
been attended with fatal results; yet in only two of these cases
642
DUEL
had the punishment of death been inflicted. But though the
proposal of the prince consort to establish courts of honour met
with no favour, yet it led to an important amendment of the
articles of war (April 1844). The p8th article ordains that " every
person who shall fight or promote a duel, or take any steps
thereto, or who shall not do his best to prevent duel, shall, if
an officer, be cashiered, or suffer such other penalty as a general
court-martial may award." These articles, with a few verbal
changes, were incorporated in the consolidated Army Act of
1879 (section 38), which is still in force.
In the German army duels are still authorized by the military
code as a last resort in grave cases. A German officer who is
involved in a difficulty with another is bound to
Germany. not ify tne circumstance to a council of honour at the
latest as soon as he has either given or received a
challenge. A council of honour consists of three officers of
different ranks and is instructed, if possible, to bring about a
reconciliation. If unsuccessful it must see that the conditions
of the duel are not out of proportion to the gravity of the quarrel.
Public opinion was greatly roused by a tragic duel fought by
two officers of the reserve in 1896; and the German emperor
in a cabinet order of 1897, confirmed in 1001, enforced the
regulation of the military court of honour, and gave warning
that any infringement would be visited with the full penalties
of the law. It is, notwithstanding, still the fact that a German
officer who is not prepared to accept a challenge and fight, if the
opinion of his regiment demands it, must leave the service.
The German penal code (Reichsstrofgesetzbuck, pars. 101-110)
only punishes a duel when it is fought with lethal weapons;
and much controversy has raged round the question of the
Mensuren or students' duels, which, as being conducted with
sharpened rapiers, have, despite the precautions taken, in the
way of bandaging the vital parts of the body which a cut would
reach, to reduce the risk of a fatal issue to a minimum, been
declared by the Supreme Court of the Empire to fall under the
head of duels, and as such to be punishable.
The Mensuren (German students' duels) above referred to
are frequently misunderstood. They bear little resemblance,
save in form, to the duel d outrance, and should rather be con-
sidered in the light of athletic games, in which the overflow of
high animal spirits in young Germany finds its outlet. These
combats are indulged in principally by picked representatives
of the " corps " (recognized clubs), and according to the position
and value of the Schmisse (cuts which have landed) points are
awarded to either side. Formerly these so-called duels could
be openly indulged in at most universities without let or hind-
rance. Gradually, however, the academic authorities took
cognizance of the illegality of the practice, and in many cases
inflicted punishment for the offence. Nowadays, owing to the
decision of the supreme court reserving to the common law
tribunals the power to deal with such cases, the governing bodies
at the universities have only a disciplinary control, which is
exercised at the various seats of learning in various degrees:
in some the practice is silently tolerated, or at most visited by
reprimand; in others, again, by relegation or career with the
result that the students of one university frequently visit another,
in order to be able to fight out their battles under less rigorous
surveillance.
Any formal discussion of the morality of duelling is, in England
at least, happily superfluous. No fashionable vice has been so
unanimously condemned both by moralists and
divines, and in tracing its history we are reminded
of the words of Tacitus, " in civitate nostra et vetabitur
semper et retinebitur." Some, however, of the problems, moral
and social, which it suggests may be shortly noticed. That
duelling flourished so long in England the law is, perhaps, as much
to blame as society. It was doubtless from the fact that duels
were at first a form of legal procedure that English law has
refused to take cognizance of private duels. A duel in the eye
of the law differs nothing from an ordinary murder. The
greatest English legal authorities, from the time of Elizabeth
downwards, such as Coke, Bacon and Hale, have all distinctly
Modern
affirmed this interpretation of the law. But here as elsewhere
the severity of the penalty defeated its own object. The public
conscience revolted against a Draconian code which made no
distinction between wilful murder and a deadly combat wherein
each party consented to his own death or submitted to the
risk of it. No jury could be found to convict when conviction
involved in the same penalty a Fox or a Pitt and a Turpin or a
Brownrigg. Such, however, was the conservatism of English
publicists that Bentham was the first to point out clearly this
defect of the law, and propose a remedy. In his Introduction
to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, published in 1789,
Bentham discusses the subject with his usual boldness and
logical precision. In his exposition of the absurdity of duelling
considered as a branch of penal justice, and its inefficiency as a
punishment, he only restates in a clearer form the arguments
of Paley. So far there is nothing novel in his treatment of the
subject. But he soon parts company with the Christian moralist,
and proceeds to show that duelling does, however rudely and
imperfectly, correct and repress a real social evil. " It entirely
effaces a blot which an insult imprints upon the honour. Vulgar
moralists, by condemning public opinion upon this point, only
confirm the fact." He then points out the true remedy for the
evil. It is to extend the same legal protection to offences
against honour as to offences against the person. The legal
satisfactions which he suggests are some of them extremely
grotesque. Thus for an insult to a woman, the man is to be
dressed in a woman's clothes, and the retort to be inflicted by
the hand of a woman. But the principle indicated is a sound
one, that in offences against honour the punishment must be
analogous to the injury. Doubtless, if Bentham were now alive,
he would allow that the necessity for such a scheme of legislation
had in a great measure passed away. That duels have since
become extinct is no doubt principally owing to social changes,
but it may be in part ascribed to improvements in legal remedies
in the sense which Bentham indicated. A notable instance is
Lord Campbell's Act of 1843, by which, in the case of a newspaper
libel, a public apology coupled with a pecuniary payment is
allowed to bar a plea. In the Indian Code there are special
enactments concerning duelling, which is punishable not as
murder but as homicide.
Suggestions have from time to time been made for the establish-
ment of courts of honour, but the need of such tribunals is doubt-
ful, while the objections to them are obvious. The present
tendency of political philosophy is to contract rather than
extend the province of law, and any interference with social
life is justly resented. Real offences against reputation are
sufficiently punished, and the rule of the lawyers, that mere
scurrility or opprobrious words, which neither of themselves
import nor are attended with any hurtful effects, are not punish-
able, seems on the whole a wise one. What in a higher rank
is looked upon as a gross insult may in a lower rank be regarded
as a mere pleasantry or a harmless joke. Among the lower
orders offences against honour can hardly be said to exist; the
learned professions have each its own tribunal to which its
members are amenable; and the highest ranks of society,
however imperfect their standard of morality may be, are
perfectly competent to enforce that standard by means of
social penalties without resorting either to trial by law or trial
by battle.
The duel, which in a barbarous age may be excused as " a
sort of wild justice," was condemned by Bacon as " a direct
affront of law and tending to the dissolution of magistracy."
It survived in more civilized times as a class distinction and as an
ultimate court of appeal to punish violations of the social code.
In a democratic age and under a settled government it is doomed
to extinction. The military duels of the European continent,
and the so-called American duel, where the lot decides which of
the two parties shall end his life, are singular survivals. For real
offences against reputation law will provide a sufficient remedy.
The learned professions will have each its own tribunal to which
its members are amenable. Social stigma is at once a surer and
a juster defence against conduct unworthy of a gentleman. Yet
DUENNA DUFF
643
the duel dies hard, and even to-day it is approved or palliated by
some notable publicists and professors in France and Germany.
M. H. Marion (La Grande Encyclopedic), in an article strongly
condemnatory of duels, still holds that the wrongdoer is bound
to accept a challenge, though he may not take the offensive,
and further allows that obligatory duels may be the only way
of evoking a sense of honour and of maintaining discipline in
the army. Dr Paulsen goes much further, and not only defends
the duels of university students (Mensuren) as an encouragement
of physical exercise, a proof of courage and a protest of worth
against wealth, but maintains generally that the duel should be
retained as an expedient in those exceptional cases when a man
cannot bring himself to drag before a law court the outrage done
to his personal honour. But in such cases Dr Paulsen would have
the courts hold the injured person scathless, whether he be
challenger or challenged, and visit the aggressor with condign
punishment.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Castillo, Tractatus de duello (Turin, 1525);). P.
Pigna, // Duello (1554); Muzio Girolamo, Traite du duel (Venice,
1553); Boyssat, Recherches sur les duels (Lyons, 1610); J. Savaron,
Traite centre les duels (Paris, 1610) ; Brantfime, Memoire sur les
duels rodomontades; F. Bacon, Charge concerning Duels, &c. (1614);
d'Audiguier, Le Vray et ancien usage des duels (Paris, 1617); His
Majesties Edict and severe Censure against private combats (London,
1618); Cockburn, History of Duels (London, 1720); Brillat Savarin,
Essai sur le duel (1819) ; Chateauvillard, Essai sur le duel (1836) ;
Colombey, Histoire anecdotique du duel (Paris); Fourgeroux de
Champigneules, Histoire des duels anciens et modernes (2 vols., Paris,
1835-1837) ; Millingen, History of Duelling (London, 1841) ; L. Sabine,
Notes on Duels (Boston, 1855) ; Steinmetz, Romance of Duelling
(London, 1868). See also Eugene Cauchy, Du duel, &c. (1846), a
learned and philosophic treatise by a French lawyer ; G. Letainturier-
Fradin, Le Duel a travers les Ages (Paris, 1892) ; Mackay, History
of Popular Delusions, Duels and Ordeals; and for a valuable list
of authorities, Buckle, History of Civilization in England, ii.
137, note 71. For judicial combats see Gibbon, Decline and Fall,
ch. xxxviii. For courts of honour see Armed Strength of the German
Empire (1876). For Mensur, see Paulsen, The German Universities
(1906), ch. vi. (F. S.)
DUENNA (Span, duena, a married lady or mistress, Lat.
domino), specifically the chief lady-in-waiting upon the queen of
Spain. The word is more widely applied, however, to an elderly
lady in Spanish and Portuguese households (holding a position
midway between a governess and companion) appointed to take
charge of the young girls of the family; and " duenna " is thus
used in English as a synonym for chaperon (q.v.).
DUET (an adaptation of the Ital. duetto, from Lat. duo, two) ,
a term in music for a composition for two performers, both either
vocal or instrumental. The term is not properly applied to a
composition for one voice and one instrument, the latter being
regarded as an accompaniment, though in the modern evolution
of this latter form of composition it often has the same character.
Both parts must be of equal importance; if one is subordinated
to the other it becomes an accompaniment and the work ceases
to be a duet. Instrumental duets are written either for two
different instruments, such as Mozart's duets for violin and
piano, or for two similar instruments. Duets written for the
pianoforte are either for two performers on two separate instru-
ments or for two performers on the same instrument, when they
are termed " duets d quatre mains."
DUFAURE, JULES ARMAND STANISLAS (1798-1881),
French statesman, was born at Saujon (Charente-Inferieure) on
the 4th of December 1 798. He became an advocate at Bordeaux,
where he won a great reputation by his oratorical gifts, but soon
abandoned law for politics, and in 1834 was elected deputy.
In 1839 he became minister of public works in the Soult ministry,
and succeeded in freeing railway construction in France from
the obstacles which till then had hampered it. Losing office
in 1840, Dufaure became one of the leaders of the Opposition,
and on the outbreak of the revolution of 1848 he frankly accepted
the Republic, and joined the party of moderate republicans.
On October i3th he became minister of the interior under G.
Cavaignac, but retired on the latter's defeat in the presidential
election. During the Second Empire Dufaure abstained from
public life, and practised at the Paris bar with such success that
he was elected batonnier in 1862. In 1863 he succeeded to
Pasquier's seat in the French Academy. In 1871 he became
a member of the Assembly, and it was on his motion that Thiers
was elected President of the Republic. Dufaure became the
minister of justice as chief of the party of the " left-centre,"
and his tenure of office was distinguished by the passage of the
jury-law. In 1873 he fell with Thiers, but in 1875 resumed his
former post under L. J. Buffet, whom he succeeded on the 9th
of March 1876 as president of the council. In the same year he
was elected a life senator. On December the 1 2th he withdrew
from the ministry owing to the attacks of the republicans of the
left in the chamber and of the conservatives in the senate.
After the check which the conservatives received on the i6th of
May he returned to power on the 24th of December 1877. Early
in i879Dufaure took part in compelling the resignation of Marshal
MacMahon, but immediately afterwards (ist February), worn out
by opposition, he himself retired. He died in Paris on the
28th of June 1881.
See G. Picot, M. Dufaure, sa vie et ses discours (Paris, 1883).
DUFF, ALEXANDER (1806-1878), Scottish missionary in
India, was born on the 26th of April 1806, at Auchnahyle in the
parish of Moulin, Perthshire. At St. Andrews University he
came under the influence of Dr Chalmers. He then accepted
an offer made by the foreign mission committee of the general
assembly to become their first missionary to India. He was
ordained in August 1829, and started at once for India, but was
twice shipwrecked before he reached Calcutta in May 1830,
and lost all his books and other property. Making Calcutta the
base of his operations, he at once identified himself with a policy
which had far-reaching results. Up to this time Protestant
missions in India had been successful only in reaching low-caste
and outcaste peoples, particularly in Tinevelly and south Travan-
core. The Hindu and Mahommedan communities had been
practically untouched. Duff saw that, to reach these com-
munities, educational must take the place of evangelizing
methods, and he devised the policy of an educational mission.
The success of his work had the effect (i) of altering the policy
of the government of India in matters of education, (2) of securing
the recognition of education as a missionary agency by Christian
churches at home, and (3) of securing entrance for Christian ideas
into the minds of high-caste Hindus. He first opened an English
school in which the Bible was the centre of the school work, and
along with it all kinds of secular knowledge were taught from
the rudiments upwards to a university standard. The English
language was used on the ground that it was destined to be the
great instrument of higher education in India, and also as giving
the Hindu the key of Western knowledge. The school soon began
to expand into a missionary college, and a government minute was
adopted on the 7th of March 1835, to the effect that in higher
education the object of the British government should be the
promotion of European science and literature among the natives
of India, and that all funds appropriated for purposes of education
would be best employed on English education alone. Duff
wrote a pamphlet on the question, entitled " A New Era of the
English Language and Literature in India." He returned home
in 1834 broken in health, but succeeded in securing the approval
of his church for his educational plans, and also in arousing much
interest in the work of foreign missions.
In 1840 he returned to India. In the previous year the earl
of Auckland, governor-general, had yielded to the " Orientalists "
who opposed Duff, and adopted a policy which was a compromise
between the two. At the Disruption of 1843 Duff sided with
the Free Church, gave up the college buildings, with all their
effects, and with unabated courage set to work to provide a new
institution. He had the support of Sir James Outram and Sir
Henry Lawrence, and the encouragement of seeing a new band
of converts, including several young men of high caste. In 1844
Viscount Hardinge opened government appointments to all
who had studied in institutions similar to Duff's foundation.
In the same year Duff took part in founding the Calcutta Review,
of which from 1845 to 1849 he was editor. In 1849 he returned
home. He was moderator of the Free Church assembly in 1851.
He gave evidence before various Indian committees of
644
DUFFERIN AND AVA, MARQUESS OF
parliament on matters of education. This led to an important des-
patch by Viscount Halifax, president of the board of control, to
the marquess of Dalhousie, the governor-general, authorizing an
educational advance in primary and secondary schools, the
provision of technical and scientific teaching, and the establish-
ment of schools for girls.
In 1854 Duff visited the United States, where what is now
New York University gave him the degree of LL.D.; he was
already D.D. of Aberdeen. In 1856 he returned to India,
where the mutiny soon broke out; his descriptive letters were
collected in a volume entitled The Indian Mutiny, its Causes and
Results (1858). Duff gave much thought and time to the
university of Calcutta, which owes its examination system and
the prominence given to physical sciences to his influence. In
1863 Sir Charles Trevelyan offered him the post of vice-chancellor
of the University, but his health compelled him to leave India.
As a memorial of his work the Duff Hall was erected in the centre
of the educational buildings of Calcutta; and a fund of i 1,000
was raised for his disposal, the capital of which was afterwards
to be used for invalided missionaries of his own church. In 1864
Duff visited South Africa, and on his return became convener
of the foreign missions committee of the Free Church. He
raised 10,000 to endow a missionary chair at New College,
Edinburgh, and himself became first professor. Among other
missionary labours of his later years, he helped the Free Church
mission on Lake Nyassa, travelled to Syria to inspect a mission
at Lebanon, and assisted Lady Aberdeen and Lord Polwarth
to establish the Gordon Memorial Mission in Natal. In 1873
the Free Church was threatened with a schism owing to negotia-
tions for union with the United Presbyterian Church. Duff
was called to the chair, and guided the church happily through
this crisis. He also took part in forming the alliance of Reformed
Churches holding the Presbyterian system. He died on the
I2th of February 1878. By his will he devoted his personal
property to found a lectureship on foreign missions on the model
of the Bampton Lectures.
See his Life, by George Smith (2 vols.). (D. MM.)
DUFFERIN AND AVA, FREDERICK TEMPLE HAMILTON-
TEMPLE-BLACKWOOD, IST MARQUESS OF (1826-1902), British
diplomatist, son of Price Blackwood, 4th Baron Dufferin, was
born at Florence, Italy, on the 2ist of June 1826. The Irish
Blackwoods were of old Scottish stock, 1 tracing their descent
back to the I4th century. John Blackwood of Bangor (1591-
1663), the ancestor of the Irish line, made a fortune and acquired
landed property in county Down, and his great-grandson Robert
was created a baronet in 1763. Sir Robert's son, Sir John,
married the heiress of the Hamiltons, earls of Clanbrassil and
viscounts of Clandeboye ("clan of yellow Hugh"), and thus
brought into the family a large property in the borough of
Killyleagh and barony of Dufferin, county Down. Sir John
Blackwood (d. 1799) declined a peerage, and so did his heir
James at the time of the Union, but the Irish title of Baroness
Dufferin was conferred (1800) on Sir John's widow, and James
(d. 1836) succeeded as second baron in 1808. His brother Hans
(d. 1839) became third baron, and by his marriage with Miss
Temple (a descendant of the Temples of Stowe) was the father
of Price Blackwood, 4th baron. Among other distinguished
members of the family was Admiral Sir Henry Blackwood, Bart.
(1770-1832) a brother of James and Hans one of Nelson's
captains, who commanded the " Euryalus " at Trafalgar.
Price Blackwood, too, was in the Navy; his marriage in 1825
with Helen Selina Sheridan, a daughter of Thomas Sheridan, and
granddaughter of Richard Brinsley Sheridan, the dramatist and
politician, was against his parents' wishes, but his young wife's
talents and beauty soon won them over.
Frederick went to Eton (1839-1843) and Christ Church,
Oxford (1845-1847), where he took a pass school and was
President of the Union. His father died in 1841, and the in-
fluence of his mother one of three unusually accomplished
'One branch of the Blackwood family emigrated to France;
the head of this line being Adam Blackwood (d. 1613), jurist, poet
and divine, and senator of the presidial court of Poitiers.
sisters, the other two being the duchess of Somerset and Mrs
Norton (q.v.) was very marked on his mental development;
she lived till 1867 and is commemorated by the " Helen's Tower "
erected by her son in her honour at Clandeboye (the Irish seat
of the Blackwoods) in 1861, and adorned with epigraphical
verses written by Tennyson, Browning and others. On leaving
Oxford Lord Dufferin busied himself for some little while with
the management of his Irish estates. In 1846-1848 he was
active in relieving the distress in Ireland due to the famine, and
he was always generous and liberal in his relations with his
tenants. In 1855 he already advocated compensation for
disturbance and for improvements; but while supporting
reasonable reform, he demanded justice for the landowners.
In later years (1868-1881) he wrote much, in opposition to
J. S. Mill, on behalf of Irish landlordism, and, when Gladstone
adopted Home Rule, Lord Dufferin, who had been attached
throughout his career to the Liberal party, regarded the new
policy as fatal both to Ireland and to the United Kingdom,
though, being then an ambassador, he took no public part in
opposing it.
Starting with every personal and social advantage, Lord
Dufferin quickly became a favourite both at Court and in London
society; and in 1849 he was made a lord-in-waiting. In political
life he followed Lord John Russell, and in 1850 was further
attached to the party by being created a peer of the United
Kingdom as Baron Clandeboye. In 1855 Lord John Russell
took him as attache on his special mission to the Vienna Con-
ference. Meanwhile Lord Dufferin was enlarging his experience
by foreign travel, and in 1856 he went on a yachting-tour to
Iceland, which he described with much humour and graphic
power in his successful book, Letters from High Latitudes; this
volume made his reputation as a writer, though his only other
purely h'terary publication was his memorial edition (1894) of
his mother's Poems and Verses. In 1860 Lord John Russell sent
him as British representative on a joint commission of the powers
appointed to inquire into the affairs of the Lebanon (Syria),
where the massacres of Christian Maronites by the Mussulman
Druses had resulted in the landing of a French force and the
possibility of a French occupation. Lord Dufferin was associated
with French, Russian, Prussian and Turkish colleagues, and his
difficult diplomatic position was made none the less delicate by
his conscientious endeavour to be just to all parties. Even if he
had not satisfied himself that the Mahommedans were by no
means wholly to blame, the question of punishment was in any
case complicated by the problem of future administration. His
own proposal to put the whole Syrian province under a responsible
governor, appointed by the sultan for a term of years, with
unfettered jurisdiction, was rejected; but at last it was agreed
to place a Christian governor, subordinate to the Porte, over
the Lebanon district, and to set up local administrative councils.
In May 1861 the French forces departed, and Lord Dufferin
was thanked for his services by the government.
In 1862 he married Hariot, daughter of Captain A. Rowan
Hamilton, of Killyleagh Castle, Down. He held successively
the posts of under-secretary for India (1864-1866) and under-
secretary for war (1866) in Lord Palmerston's and Earl Russell's
ministries; and he was chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster,
outside the cabinet, under Mr Gladstone (1868-1872). In 1871
he was created earl of Dufferin.
In 1872 he was appointed governor-general of Canada. There
his tact and personal charm and genial hospitality were invalu-
able. He had already become known as a powerful and graceful
orator, and a man of culture and political distinction; and his
abilities were brilliantly displayed in dealing with the problems
of the newly united provinces of the Canadian Dominion. At a
time when a weak or unattractive governor-general might easily
have damaged theimperial connexion,he admittedly strengthened
and consolidated it. Lord Dufferin left Canada in 1878, and in
1879, rather to the annoyance of his old party leader, he accepted
from the conservative prime minister, Lord Beaconsfield, the
appointment of ambassador to Russia. At St Petersburg he
did useful diplomatic work for a couple of years, and then, in
DUFF-GORDON DUFFTOWN
645
1881, was transferred to Constantinople as ambassador to
Turkey. He was soon involved in the negotiations connected
with the situation in Egypt caused by Arabi's revolt and the
intervention of Great Britain. It was Lord Dufferin's task to
arrange matters at Constantinople, so that no international
friction should be created by any inconvenient assertion by the
sultan of his position as suzerain, while it was also necessary
to avoid offending either the sultan or the other powers by any
appearance of ignoring their rights. He was considerably helped
by Turkish ineptitude, and by the accomplished fact of British
military successes in Egypt, but his own diplomacy was respon-
sible for securing the necessary freedom of action for the British
government.
From October 1882 to May 1883 he was himself in Egypt as
British commissioner to report on a scheme of reorganization;
and his recommendationsdrawn up in a somewhat elaborate
State paper formed the basis of the subsequent reforms. In
1884 he was appointed viceroy of India, succeeding Lord Ripon,
whose zeal on behalf of the natives had created a good deal of
antagonism among the officials and the Anglo-Indian community.
Lord Dufferin, though agreeing in the main with Lord Ri pen's
policy, was excellently fitted for the task of restoring confidence
without producing any undesirable reaction, and in domestic
affairs his viceroyalty was a period of substantial progress, in
the reform of the evils of land tenure and in other directions.
He was responsible also for initiating stable relations with
Afghanistan, and settling the crisis with Russia arising out of
the Panjdeh incident (1885), which led to the delimitation of the
north-west frontier (1887). The most striking event of his
administration was, however, the annexation of Burma, resulting
from the Burmese War of 1885; and this procured him, on his
resignation, the title of marquess of Dufferin and Ava (1888).
His viceroyalty was also memorable for Lady Dufferin's work,
and the starting of a fund called by her name, for providing
better medical treatment for native women. In 1888 he was
made ambassador at Rome, and in 1892 he was promoted to be
ambassador in Paris, a post which he retained till 1896, when he
retired from the public service.
Lord Dufferin was one of the most admired public servants
of his time. A man of great natural gifts, he had a special talent
for diplomacy, though he has no claim to a place in the first
rank of statesmen. He was remarkable for tact and amiability,
and had a florid and rather elaborately literary style of oratory,
which also characterized his despatches and reports. For
purposes of ceremony his courtliness, dignity and charm of
manner were invaluable, and both in public and in private life
he was a conspicuous " great gentleman." His last years, spent
mainly at his Irish home, were clouded by the death of his eldest
son, the earl of Ava, at Ladysmith in the Boer War (1000),
and by bi'siness troubles. He was so ill-advised as to become
chairman in 1897 of the " London and Globe Finance Corpora-
tion," a financial company which most good judges in the city
of London thought to be too much in the hands of its managing
director, Mr Whitaker Wright, whose methods had been a good
deal criticized. At last there came a complete crash, and an
exposure before the liquidator, which ultimately led to Mr
Whitaker Wright's trial for fraud in 1904, and his suicide within
the precincts of the court on being found guilty. Lord Dufferin
did not live to see this final catastrophe. The affairs of the
company were still under investigation in bankruptcy when,
on the 1 2th of February 1902, he died. He had been in failing
health for two or three years, but, having once become chairman
of the " London and Globe," he had insisted upon standing by
his colleagues when difficulties arose. Incautious as he had
been in accepting the position, no reflections were felt to be
possible on Lord Dufferin's personal honour; he was a serious
loser by the failure, and he had followed his predecessor in the
chairmanship, Lord Loch, in confiding too wholly in the masterful
personality of Mr Wright. He was succeeded in the title by his
second son Terence (b. 1866).
The official Life of Lord Dufferin, by Sir Alfred Lyall, appeared
in 1905. There are two Canadian histories of his Canadian adminis-
tration, one by George Stewart (1878;, the other by W. Leggo (1878).
Lady Dufferin brought out Our Viceregal Life in India in 1889, and
My Canadian Journal in 1891. See also the articles on INDIA:
History; CANADA: History; and EGYPT: History. (H. CH.)
DUFF-GORDON, LUCIE (1821-1869), English woman of
letters, daughter of John and Sarah Austin (q.v.), was born on
the 24th of June 1821. Her chief playfellows as a child were
her cousin, Henry Reeve, and John Stuart Mill, who lived next
door in Queen Square, London. In 1834 the Austins went to
Boulogne, and at table d'hdte Lucie found herself next to Heinrich
Heine. The poet and the little girl became fast friends, and years
afterwards she contributed to Lord Houghton's Monographs
Personal and Social a touching account of a renewal of their
friendship when Heine lay dying in Paris. Her parents went to
Malta in 1836, and Lucie Austin was left in England at school,
but her unconventional education made the restrictions of a
girls' school exceedingly irksome. She showed her independence
of character by joining the English Church, though this step
was certain to cause pain to her parents, who were Unitarians,
and to many of her friends. She married in 1840 Sir Alexander
Duff-Gordon (1811-1872). With her mother's beauty she had
inherited her social gifts, and she gathered round her a brilliant
circle of friends. George Meredith has analysed and described
her extraordinary success as a hostess, and the process by which
she reduced too ardent admirers to "happy crust-munching
devotees." " In England, in her day," he says, " while health
was with her, there was one house where men and women con-
versed. When that house perforce was closed, a light had gone
out in our country." After her father's death, she fell into weak
health and was obliged to seek sunnier climes. She went in
1860 to the Cape of Good Hope, and later to Egypt, where she
died on the I4th of July 1869. She had translated among other
works Ancient Grecian Mythology (1839) from the German of
Niebuhr; Mary Schweidler; The Amber Witch (1844) from the
German of Wilhelm Meinhold; and Stella and Vanessa (1850)
from the French of A. F. L. de Wailly. Her Letters from the
Cape (1862-1863) appeared in 1865; and in 1865 her Letters
from Egypt, edited by her mother, attracted much attention.
Last Letters from Egypt (1875) contained a memoir by her
daughter, Mrs Janet Ross. Lady Duff-Gordon won the hearts
of her Arab dependents and neighbours. She doctored their
sick, taught their children, and sympathized with their sorrows.
The Letters from Egypt were not originally published in a complete
form. A fuller edition than had before been possible, with an intro-
duction by George Meredith, was edited in 1902 by Mrs Janet Ross.
See also Mrs Ross's Three Generations of Englishwomen (1886).
DUFFTOWN, a municipal and police burgh of Banffshire,
Scotland, on the Fiddich, 64 m. W.N.W. of Aberdeen by the
Great North of Scotland railway. Pop. (1901) 1823. It dates
from 1817 and bears the name of its founder, James Duff, 4th
earl of Fife. Although planned in the shape of a cross, with a
square and tower in the middle, the arms of the cross are not
straight, the constructor holding the ingenious opinion that,
in order to prevent little towns from being taken in at a glance,
their streets should be crooked. The leading industries are lime-
works and distilleries, the water being specially fitted for the
making of whisky. The town has considerable repute as a health
resort, owing partly to its elevation (737 ft.) and partly to the
natural charms of the district. The parish of Mortlach, in which
Dufftown is situated, is rich in archaeological and historical
associations. What is called the Stone of Mortlach is tradition-
ally believed to have been erected to commemorate the success
of Malcolm II. over the Danes in 1010. The three large stones
known as " The King's Grave," a hill-fort, and cairns are of
interest to the antiquary. The old church of Mortlach, though
restored and almost renewed, still contains some lancet windows
and a round-headed doorway, besides monuments dating from
1417. A portion of old Balvenie Castle, a ruin, is considered
to be of Pictish origin, but most of it is in the Scots Baronial.
It has associations with Alexander Stewart, earl of Buchan and
lord of Badenoch (1343-1405), son of Robert II., whose ruffianly
conduct in Elginshire earned him the designation of the Wolf of
646
DUFFY DUFRESNY
Badenoch, the Comyns, the Douglases (to whom it gave the title
of baron in the isth century), the Stuarts and the Duffs. The
new castle, an uninteresting building, was erected in 1724 by
the earl of Fife, and though untenanted is maintained in repair.
Two miles to the S.E. of Dufftown is the ruined castle of Auchin-
down, finely situated on a limestone crag, 200 ft. high, of which
three sides are washed by the Fiddich and the fourth was pro-
tected by a moat. It dates from the nth century, and once
belonged to the Ogilvies, from whom it passed in 1535 to the
Gordons. The Gothic hall with rows of fluted pillars is in fair
preservation. Ben Rinnes (2755 ft.) and several other hills of
lesser altitude all lie within a few miles of Dufftown. About
4 m. to the N. W. is Craigellachie Gaelic for " the rock of alarm "
(pop. 454) , on the confines of Elginshire. It is situated on the
Spey amidst scenery of surpassing loveliness. The slogan of the
Grants is " Stand fast Craigellachie!" The place has become an
important junction of the Great North of Scotland railway
system.
DUFFY, SIR CHARLES GAVAN (1816-1903), Irish and
colonial politician, was born in Monaghan, Ireland, on the I2th
of April 1816. At an early age he became connected with the
press, and was one of the founders (1842) of the Nation, a Dublin
weekly which was remarkable for its talent, for its seditious
tendencies, and for the fire and spirit of its political poetry.
In 1844 Duffy was included in the same indictment with
O'Connell, and shared his conviction in Dublin and his acquittal
by the House of Lords upon a point of law. His ideas, neverthe-
less, were too revolutionary for O'Connell; a schism took place
in 1846, and Duffy united himself to the " Young Ireland "
party. He was tried for treason-felony in 1848, but the jury
were unable to agree. Duffy continued to agitate in the press
and in parliament, to which he was elected in 1852, but his
failure to bring about an alliance between Catholics and Protest-
ants upon the land question determined him in 1856 to emigrate
to Victoria. There he became in 1857 minister of public works,
and after an active political career, in the course of which he
was prime minister from 1871 to 1873, when he was knighted,
he was elected speaker of the House of Assembly in 1877, being
made K.C.M.G. in the same year. In 1880 he resigned and
returned to Europe, residing mostly in the south of France.
He published The Ballad Poetry of Ireland (1845), several works
on Irish history, Conversations -with Carlyle (1892), Memoirs
(1898), &c. In 1891 he became first president of the Irish
Literary Society. He was married three times, his third wife
dying in 1889. He died on the gth of February 1903.
DUFOUR, WILHELM HEINRICH [GUILLAUME HENRI]
(1787-1875), Swiss general, was born at Constance of Genevese
parents temporarily in exile, on the isth of September 1787.
In 1807 he went to the Ecole Polytechnique at Paris, Switzerland
being then under French rule, taking the i4Oth place only in
his entrance examination. By two years' close study he so
greatly improved his position that he was ranked fifth in the
exit examination. Immediately on leaving the school he
received a commission in the engineers, and was sent to serve
in Corfu, which was blockaded by the English. During the
Hundred Days he attained the rank of captian, and was employed
in raising fortifications at Grenoble. After the peace that
followed Waterloo he resumed his status as a Swiss citizen,
and devoted himself to the military service of his native land.
From 1819 to 1830 he was chief instructor in the military school
of Thun, which had been founded mainly through his instru-
mentality. Among other distinguished foreign pupils he in-
structed Louis Napoleon, afterwards emperor of the French.
In 1827 he was raised to the rank of colonel, and commanded
the Federal army in a series of field manoeuvres. In 1831 he
became chief of the staff, and soon afterwards he was appointed
quartermaster-general. Two years later the diet commissioned
him to superintend the execution of a complete trigonometrical
survey of Switzerland. He had already made a cadastral
survey of the canton of Geneva, and published a map of the
canton on the scale of -gs&oo- The larger work occupied thirty-
two years, and was accomplished with complete success. The
map in 25 sheets on the scale of Tins'tnns was published at intervals
between 1842 and 1863, and is an admirable specimen of carto-
graphy. In recognition of the ability with which Dufour had
carried out his task, the Federal Council in 1868 ordered the
highest peak of Monte Rosa to be named Dufour Spitze. In
1847 Dufour was made general of the Federal Army, which
was employed in reducing the revolted Catholic cantons. The
quickness and thoroughness with which he performed the
painful task, and the wise moderation with which he treated his
vanquished fellow-countrymen, were acknowledged by a gift of
60,000 francs from the diet and various honours from different
cities and cantons of the confederaton. In politics he belonged
to the moderate conservative party, and he consequently lost
a good deal of his popularity in 1848. In 1864 he presided over
the international conference which framed the Geneva Conven-
tion as to the treatment of the wounded in time of war, &c.
He died on the I4th of July 1875. His De la fortification per-
manente (1850) is an important and original contribution to the
science of fortification, and he was also the author of a Memoire
sur I'artillerie des anciens et sur celle du may en age (1840), Manuel
de tactique pour les officiers de toutes armes (1842), and various
other works in military science. His memoir, La Campagne du
Sonderbund (Paris, 1876), is prefaced by a biographical notice.
An equestrian statue of General Dufour was erected after his
death at Geneva by national subscription.
DUFRENOY, OURS PIERRE ARMAND PETIT (1792-1857),
French geologist and mineralogist, was born at Sevran, in the
department of Seine-et-Oise, in France, on the sth of September
1792. After leaving the Imperial Lyceum, in 1811, he studied
till 1813 at the Ecole Polytechnique, and then entered the Corps
des Mines. He subsequently assisted in the management of the
Ecole des Mines, of which he was professor of mineralogy and
afterwards director. He was also professor of geology at the
Ecole des Fonts et Chausses. In conjunction with Elie de
Beaumont he in 1841 published a great geological map of France,
the result of investigations carried on during thirteen years
(1823-1836). Five years (1836-1841) were spent in writing the
text to accompany the map, the publication of the work with two
quarto vols. of text extending from 1841-1848; a third volume
was issued in 1873. The two authors had already together
published Voyage melallurgique en Angleterre (1827, 2nd ed.
1837-1839), Memoires pour senir a une description geologique de
la France, in four vols. (1830-1838), and a. Memoire on Cantal
and Mont-Dore (1833). Other literary productions of Dufrenoy
are an account of the iron mines of the eastern Pyrenees (1834),
and a treatise on mineralogy (3 vols. and atlas, 1844-1845; 2nd
ed., 4 vols. and atlas, 1856-1859), in which the geological relations
as well as the physical and chemical properties of minerals were
dealt with; he likewise contributed numerous papers to the
Annales des mines and other scientific publications, one of the
most interesting of which is entitled Des terrains volcaniques des
environs de Naples. Dufrenoy was a member of the Academy of
Sciences, a commander of the Legion of Honour, and an inspector-
general of mines. He died in Paris on the 2oth of March 1857.
DUFRESNY, CHARLES, SIEUR DE LA RIVIERE (1648-1724),
French dramatist, was born in Paris in 1648. The allegation
that his grandfather was an illegitimate son of Henry IV. pro-
cured him the liberal patronage of Louis XIV., who gave him
the post of valet de chambre, and affixed his name to many
lucrative privileges. Dufresny's expensive habits neutralized all
efforts to enrich him, and as if to furnish a piquant commentary
on the proverb that poverty makes us acquainted with strange
bedfellows, he married, as his second wife, a washerwoman,
in discharge of her bill a whimsicality which supplied Le Sage
with an episode in the Diable boiteux, and was made the subject
of a comedy by J. M. Deschamps (Charles Riviere Dufresny, ou
le manage impromptu). He died in Paris on the 6th of October
1 7 24. His plays, destitute for the most part of all higher qualities,
abound in sprightly wit and pithy sayings. In the six volumes
of his Theatre (Paris, 1731), some of the best are L' Esprit de
contradiction (1700), Le DoubleVeuvage (1701), La Joueuse(iTog),
La Coquette de village (1715), La Reconciliation normande (1719)
DUGAZON DUGONG
647
and Le Manage fait et rompu (1721). A volume of Palsies
diverses, two volumes of Nouvelles historiques (1692), and Les
Amusements sfrieux et comiques d'un Siamois (1705), a work to
which Montesquieu was indebted for the idea of his Lettres
persanes, complete the list of Dufresny's writings. The best
edition of his works is that of 1747 (4 vols.). His Thtdtre was
edited (1882) by Georges d'Heylli.
DUGAZON [JEAN HENRI GOURGAUD] (1746-1809), French
actor, was born in Marseilles on the isth of November 1746,
the son of the director of military hospitals there. He began his
career in the provinces, making his debut in 1770 at the Comdie
Francaise, where he aspired to leading comedy roles. He pleased
the public at once and was made sociftaire in 1772. Dugazon
was an ardent revolutionist, helped the schism which divided the
company, and went with Talma and the others to what became
the Theatre de la Republique. After the closing of this theatre,
and the dissolution of the Com6die Francaise, he took refuge at
the Theatre Feydeau until (1799) he returned to the restored
Com6die. He retired in 1807, and died insane at Sandillon in
1809. Dugazon wrote three mediocre comedies of a political
character, performed at the Theatre de la Republique. He
married, in 1776, Louis Rose Lefevre, but was soon divorced
and then married again. The first Madame Dugazon (1755-
1821), the daughter of a Berlin dancing master, was a charming
actress. Her first appearance on the stage was made at the age
of twelve as a dancer. It was as an actress " with songs " that she
made her debut at the Comedie Italienne in 1774 in G retry 's
Sylvain. She was at once admitted pensionnaire and in 1776
socittaire. Madame Dugazon delighted all Paris, and nightly
crowded the Com6die Italienne for more than twenty years.
The two kinds of parts with which she was especially identified
young mothers and women past their first youth are still
called "dugazons" and "mires dugazons." Examples of the
first are Jenny in La Dame blanche and Berthe de Simiane in
Les Mousquetaires de la reine; of the second, Marguerite in
Le Prt aux clercs and the queen in La Part du diable.
Dugazon's sister, MARIE ROSE GOURGAUD (1743-1804), was
an actress who first played at Stuttgart, where she married
Angelo, brother of Gaetano Vestris, the dancer. Under the pro-
tection of the dukes of Choiseul and Duras, she was commanded
to make her debut at the Com6die Francaise in 1768, where she
created important parts in a number of tragedies.
DUGDALE, SIR WILLIAM (1605-1686), English antiquary,
was born at Shustoke, near Coleshill, in Warwickshire, on
the I2th of September 1605, the son of a country
gentleman of an old Lancashire stock; he was
educated at Coventry. To please his father, who
was old and infirm, he married at seventeen. He
lived with his wife's family until his father's
death in 1624, when he went to live at Fillongley,
near Shustoke, an estate formerly purchased for
him by his father. In 1625 he purchased the
manor of Blythe, Shustoke, and removed thither
in 1626. He had early shown an inclination for
antiquarian studies, and in 1635, meeting Sir
Symon Archer (1581-1662), himself a learned anti-
quary, who was then employed in collecting materials for
a history of Warwickshire, he accompanied him to London.
There he made the acquaintance of Sir Christopher (afterwards
Lord) Hatton, comptroller of the household, and Thomas, earl
of Arundel, then earl marshal of _ England. In 1638 Dugdale
was created a pursuivant of arms extraordinary by the name of
Blanch Lyon, and in 1639 rouge croix pursuivant in ordinary.
He now had a lodging in the Heralds' Office, and spent much of his
time in London examining the records in the Tower and the
Cottonian and other collections of MSS. In 1641 Sir Christopher
Hatton, foreseeing the war and dreading the ruin and spoliation
of the Church, commissioned him to make exact drafts of all the
monuments in Westminster Abbey and the principal churches
in England, including Peterborough, Ely, Norwich, Lincoln,
Newark, Beverley, Southwell, Kingston-upon-Hull, York,
Selby, Chester, Lichfield, Tamworth and Warwick. In June
1642 he was summoned to attend the king at York. When war
broke out Charles deputed him to summon to surrender the
castles of Banbury and Warwick, and other strongholds which
were being rapidly filled with ammunition and rebels. He went
with Charles to Oxford, remaining there till its surrender in 1646.
He witnessed the battle of Edgehill, where he made afterwards
an exact survey of the field, noting how the armies were drawn
up, and where and in what direction the various movements
took place, and marking the graves of the slain. In November
1642 he was admitted M.A. of the university, and in 1644 the king
created him Chester herald. During his leisure at Oxford he
collected material at the Bodleian and college libraries for his
books. In 1646 Dugdale returned to London and compounded
for his estates, which had been sequestrated, by a payment of
168. After a visit to France in 1648 he continued his anti-
quarian researches in London, collaborating with Richard
Dodsworth in his Monasticon Anglicanum, which was published
successively in single volumes in 1655, 1664 and 1673. At the
Restoration he obtained the office of Norroy king-at-arms, and
in 1677 was created garter principal king-at-arms, and was
knighted. He died " in his chair " at Blythe Hall on the icth
of February 1686.
Dugdale's most important works are Antiquities of Warwickshire
(1656); Monasticon Anglicanum (1655-1673); History of St Paul's
Cathedral (1658); and Baronage of England (1675-1676). His Life,
written by himself up to 1678, with his diary and correspondence,
and an index to his manuscript collections, was edited by William
Hamper, and published in 1827.
DUGONG, one of the two existing generic representatives of
the Sirenia, or herbivorous aquatic mammals. Dugongs are
distinguished from their cousins the manatis by the presence
in the upper jaw of the male of a pair of large tusks, which in the
female are arrested in their growth, and remain concealed.
There are never more than five molar teeth on each side of either
jaw, or twenty in all, and these are flat on the grinding surface.
The flippers are unprovided with nails, and the tail is broad, and
differs from that of the manati in being crescent-shaped instead
of rounded. The bones are hard and firm, and take a polish
equal to that of ivory. Dugongs frequent the shallow waters
of the tropical seas, extending from the east coast of Africa north
of the mouth of the Zambezi, along the shores of the Indian,
Malayan and Australian seas, where they may be seen basking
on the surface of the water, or browsing on submarine pastures
of seaweed, for which the thick obtuse lips and truncated snout
pre-eminently fit them. They are gregarious, feeding in large
The Dugong.
numbers in localities where they are not often disturbed. The
female produces a single young one at a birth, and is remarkable
for the great affection it shows for its offspring, so that when the
young dugong is caught there is no difficulty in capturing the
mother. Three species the Indian dugong (Halicore dugong),
the Red Sea dugong (H. tabernaculi) and the Australian dugong
(H. australis) are commonly recognized. The first is abundant
along the shores of the Indian Ocean, and is captured in large
numbers by the Malays, who esteem its flesh a great delicacy;
the lean portions, especially of young specimens, are regarded
by Europeans as excellent eating. It is generally taken by
spearing, the main object of the hunter being to raise the tail
out of the water, when the animal becomes perfectly powerless.
It seldom attains a length of more than 8 or 10 ft. The
Australian dugong is a larger species, attaining sometimes a
length of 15 ft.; it occurs along the Australian coast from
648
DUGUAY-TROUIN DU GUESCLIN, BERTRAND
Moreton Bay to Cape York, and is highly valued by the natives,
who hunt it with spears, and gorge themselves with its flesh,
when they are fortunate enough to secure a carcase. Of late
years the oil obtained from the blubber of this species has been
largely used in Australia as a substitute for cod-liver oil. It
does not contain iodine, but is said to possess all the therapeutic
qualities of cod-liver oil without its nauseous taste. A full-
grown dugong yields from 10 to 12 gallons of oil, and this forms
in cold weather a thick mass, and requires to be melted before a
fire previous to being used. The flesh of the Australian dugong
is easy of digestion, the muscular fibre when fresh resembling
beef, and when salted having the flavour of bacon. In the
earliest Australian dugong-fishery natives were employed to
harpoon these animals, which soon, however, became too wary
to allow themselves to be approached near enough for this
purpose, and the harpoon was abandoned for the net. The latter
is spread at night, and in its meshes dugongs are caught in
considerable numbers. (R. L.*)
DUGUAY-TROUIN, RENE (1673-1736), French sea captain,
belonged to a well-known family of merchants and sea captains
of St Malo. He was born at St Malo on the loth of June 1673.
He was originally intended for the church, and studied with that
view at Rennes and Caen; but on the breaking out of the war
with England and Holland in 1689 he went to sea in a privateer
owned by his family. During the first three months his courage
was tried by a violent tempest, an imminent shipwreck, the
boarding of an English ship, and the threatened destruction of
his own vessel by fire. The following year, as a volunteer in a
vessel of 28 guns, he was present in a bloody combat with an
English fleet of five merchant vessels. The courage he then
showed was so remarkable that in 1691, at the age of eighteen,
his family gave him a corsair of 14 guns; and having been thrown
by a tempest on the coast of Ireland, he burned two English
ships in the river Limerick. In 1694 his vessel of 40 guns was
captured by the English, and, being taken prisoner, he was
confined in the castle of Plymouth. He escaped, according to his
own account, by the help of a pretty shopwoman and her lover,
a French refugee in the English service. He then obtained
command of a vessel of 48 guns, and made a capture of English
vessels on the Irish coast. In 1696 he made a brilliant capture
of Dutch vessels, and the king hearing an account of the affair
gave him a commission as capitaine de frigate (commander) in
the royal navy. In 1 704-1 705 he desolated the coasts of England.
In 1 706 he was raised to the rank of captain of a vessel of the line.
In 1707 he was made chevalier of the order of St Louis, and
captured off the Lizard the greater part of an English convoy
of troops and munitions bound for Portugal. His most glorious
action was the capture in 1711 of Rio Janeiro, on which he
imposed a heavy contribution. In 1715 he was made chef
d'escadre, the rank which in the French navy answered to the
English commodore, and in 1728 commander of the order of
St Louis and lieutenant general des armies navales. In 1731 he
commanded a squadron for the protection of French commerce
in the Levant. He died on the 27th of September 1736.
See his own Memoires (1740); and J. Poulain, Duguay-Trcwin
(1882).
DU QUESCLIN, BERTRAND (c. 1320-1380), constable of
France, the most famous French warrior of his age, was born of
an ancient but undistinguished family at the castle of La Motte-
Broons (Dinan). The date of his birth is doubtful, the authorities
varying between 1311 and 1324. The name is spelt in various
ways in contemporary records, e.g. Claquin, Klesquin, Guesc-
quin, Glayaquin, &c. The familiar form is found on his monu-
ment at St Denis, and in some legal documents of the time.
In his boyhood Bertrand was a dull learner, spending his time
in open-air sports and exercises, and could never read or write.
He was remarkable for ugliness, and was an object of aversion
to his parents. He first made himself a name as a soldier at the
tournament held at Rennes in 1338 to celebrate the marriage
of Charles of Blois with Jeanne de Penthievre, at which he
unseated the most famous competitors. In the war which
followed between Charles of Blois and John de Montfort, for the
possession of the duchy of Brittany, he served his apprenticeship
as a soldier (1341). As he was not a great baron with a body
of vassals at his command, he put himself at the head of a band
of adventurers, and fought on the side of Charles and of France.
He distinguished himself by a brilliant action at the siege of
Vannes in 1342; and after that he disappears from history for
some years.
In 1354, having shortly before been made a knight, he was sent
into England with the lords of Brittany to treat for the ransom
of Charles of Blois, who had been defeated and captured by the
English in 1347. When Rennes and Dinan were attacked by
the duke of Lancaster in 1356, Du Guesclin fought continuously
against the English, and at this time he engaged in a celebrated
duel with Sir Thomas Canterbury. He finally forced his way
with provisions and reinforcements into Rennes, which he
successfully defended till June 1357, when the siege was raised
in pursuance of the truce of Bordeaux. For this service he was
rewarded with the lordship of Pontorson. Shortly afterwards
he passed into the service of France, and greatly distinguished
himself at the siege of Melun (1359), being, however, taken
prisoner a little later by Sir Robert Knollys. In 1360, 1361 and
1362 he was continually in the field, being again made prisoner
in 1360. In 1364 he married, but was soon again in the field,
this time against the king of Navarre. In May 1364 he won an
important victory over the Navarrese at Cocherel, and took the
famous Captal de Buch prisoner. He had previously been made
lord of La Roche-Tesson (1361) and chamberlain (1364); he
was now made count of Longueville and lieutenant of Normandy.
Shortly afterwards, in aiding Charles of Blois, Du Guesclin was
taken prisoner by Sir John Chandos at the battle of Auray, in
which Charles was killed. The close of the general war, however,
had released great numbers of mercenaries (the great com-
panies) from control, and, as they began to play the part of
brigands in France, it was necessary to get rid of them. Du
Guesclin was ransomed for 100,000 crowns, and was charged
to lead them out of France. He marched with them into Spain,
supported Henry of Trastamara against Pedro the Cruel, set the
former upon the throne of Castile (1366), and was made constable
of Castile and count of Trastamara. In the following year he was
defeated and captured by the Black Prince, ally of Pedro, at
Navarette, but was soon released for a heavy ransom. Once
more he fought for Henry, won the battle of Montiel (1369),
reinstated him on the throne, and was created duke of
Molinas.
In May 1370, at the command of Charles V., who named him
constable of France, he returned to France. War had just been
declared against England, and Du Guesclin was called to take
part in it. For nearly ten years he was engaged in fighting against
the English in the south and the west of France, recovering from
them the provinces of Poitou, Guienne and Auvergne, and
thus powerfully contributing to the establishment of a united
France. In 1373, when the duke of Brittany sought English
aid against a threatened invasion by Charles V., Du Guesclin
was sent at the head of a powerful army to seize the duchy,
which he did; and two years later he frustrated the attempt of
the duke with an English army to recover it. Finding in 1379
that the king entertained suspicions of his fidelity to him, he
resolved to give up his constable's sword and retire to Spain.
His resolution was at first proof against remonstrance; but
ultimately he received back the sword, and continued in the
service of France. In 1380 he was sent into Languedoc to
suppress disturbances and brigandage, provoked by the harsh
government of the duke of Anjou. His first act was to lay siege
to the fortress of Chateauneuf-Randon, but on the eve of its
surrender the constable died on the 13th of July 1380. His
remains were interred, by order of the king, in the church of
St Denis. Du Guesclin lost his first wife in 1371, and married a
second in 1373, but he left no legitimate children.
See biography by D. F. Jamison (Charleston, 1863), which was
translated into French (18616) by order of Marshal Count Randon,
minister of war; also S. Luce, Histoire de B. du Guesclin (Paris,
1876).
DUHAMEL DUILIUS
649
DUHAMEL, JEAN BAPTISTE (1624-1706), French physicist,
was born in 1624 at Vire in Normandy. He studied at Caen and
Paris; wrote at eighteen a tract on the Spherics of Theodosius
of Tripolis; then became an Oratorian priest, and fulfilled with
great devotion for ten years (1653-1663) the duties of curt at
Neuilly-sur-Marne. He was appointed in 1656 almoner to the
king, and in 1666 perpetual secretary to the newly founded
Academy of Sciences. He died on the 6th of August 1706. He
published among other works: Astronomic, physica (1660) and
De meieoris et fossilibus (1660), both in dialogue form; De
consensu veteris et novae philosophise (1663); De corporum
affectionibus (1672); De mente humana (1673); Regiae scien-
tiarum Academiae historia, 1666-1696 (1698), new edition
brought down to 1700 (1701); Institutiones biblicae (1698);
followed by annotated editions of the Psalms (1701), of the
Book of Wisdom, &c. (1703), and of the entire Bible in 1705.
DUHAMEL DU MONCEAU, HENRI LOUIS (1700-1782),
French botanist and engineer, son of Alexandre Duhamel, lord
of Denainvilliers, was born at Paris in 1700. Having been
requested by the Academy of Sciences to investigate a disease
which was destroying the saffron plant in Gatinais, he discovered
the cause in a parasitical fungus which attached itself to the roots,
and this achievement gained him admission to the Academy in
1728. From then until bis death he busied himself chiefly
with making experiments in vegetable physiology. Having
learned from Sir Hans Sloane that madder possesses the property
of giving colour to the bones, he fed animals successively on food
mixed and unmixed with madder; and he found that their
bones in general exhibited concentric strata of red and white,
whilst the softer parts showed in the meantime signs of having
been progressively extended. From a number of experiments
he was led to believe himself able to explain the growth of bones,
and to demonstrate a parallel between the manner of their growth
and that of trees. Along with the naturalist Buffon, he made
numerous experiments on the growth and strength of wood,
and experimented also on the growth of the mistletoe, on layer
planting, on smut in corn, &c. He was probably the first, in
1736, to distinguish clearly between the alkalis, potash and
soda. From the year 1740 he made meteorological observa-
tions, and kept records of the influence of the weather on agri-
cultural production. For many years he was inspector-general
of marine, and applied his scientific acquirements to the im-
provement of naval construction. He died at Paris on the I3th
of August 1782.
His works are nearly ninety in number, and include many technical
handbooks. The principal are: Traite des arbres et arbustes qui
ie cultivent en France en pleine terre; Elements de V architecture navale;
Traite general des peches maritimes et fluyiatiles; Elements d' agri-
culture; La Physique des arbres; Des Semis et plantations des arbres
et de leur culture; Del' exploitation des b<ns; Traite des arbres fruitier s.
DflHRING, EUGEN KARL (1833-1001), German philosopher
and political economist, was born on the I2th of January 1833
at Berlin. After a legal education he practised at Berlin as a
lawyer till 1859. A weakness of the eyes, ending in total blind-
ness, occasioned his taking up the studies with which his name
is now connected. In 1864 he became decent of the university of
Berlin, but, in consequence of a quarrel with the professoriate,
was deprived of his licence to teach in 1874. Among his works
are Kapital und Arbeit (1865); Der Wert des Lebens (1865);
Naturlkhe Diakktik (1865); Kritische Geschichte der Philosophic
(1869); Kritische Geschichte der attgemeinen Principien der
Mechanik (1872) one of his most successful works; Kursus der
National- und Sozialokonomie (1873); Kursus der Philosophic
(1875), entitled in a later edition Wirklichkeilsphilosophie; Logik
und Wissenschaftstheorie (1878); Der Ersatz der Religion durch
Votthommeneres (1883). He published his autobiography in 1882
under the title Sache, Leben und Feinde; the mention of
"Feinde" (enemies) is characteristic. Diihring's philosophy
claims to be emphatically the philosophy of reality. He is
passionate in his denunciation of everything which, like mysti-
cism, tries to veil reality. He is almost Lucretian in his anger
against religion which would withdraw the secret of the universe
from our direct gaze. His " substitute for religion " is a doctrine
in many points akin to Comte and Feuerbach, the former of
whom he resembles in his sentimentalism. Diihring's opinions
changed considerably after his first appearance as a writer. His
earlier work, Nalurliche Dialektik, in form and matter not the
worst of his writings, is entirely in the spirit of the Critical
Philosophy. Later, in his movement towards Positivism, he
strongly repudiates Kant's separation of phenomenon from nou-
menon, and affirms that our intellect is capable of grasping the
whole reality. This adequacy of thought to things is due to the
fact that the universe contains but one reality, i.e. matter. It
is to matter that we must look for the explanation both of
conscious and of physical states. B ut matter is not, in his system,
to be understood with the common meaning, but with a deeper
sense as the substratum of all conscious and physical existence;
and thus the laws of being are identified with the laws of thought.
In this materialistic or quasi-materialistic system Duhring finds
room for teleology; the end of Nature, he holds, is the production
of a race of conscious beings. From his belief in teleology he is not
deterred by the enigma of pain; he is a determined optimist.
Pain exists to throw pleasure into conscious relief. In ethics
Duhring follows Comte in making sympathy the foundation of
morality. In political philosophy he teaches an ethical com-
munism, and attacks the Darwinian principle of struggle for
existence. It economics he is best known by his vindication
of the American writer H. C. Carey, who attracts him both by
his theory of value, which suggests an ultimate harmony of the
interests of capitalist and labourer, and also by his doctrine of
" national " political economy, which advocates protection on
the ground that the morals and culture of a people are pro-
moted by having its whole system of industry complete within
its own borders. His patriotism is fervent, but narrow and
exclusive. He idolized Frederick the Great, and denounced
Jews, Greeks, and the cosmopolitan Goethe. Diihring's clear,
incisive writing is disfigured by arrogance and ill-temper, failings
which may be extenuated on the ground of his physical affliction.
He died in 1901.
See H. Druskowitz, Eugen Duhring (Heidelberg, 1888) ; E. Doll,
Eugen Duhring (Leipzig, 1892); F. Engels, Eugen D.'s Umwdlzung
der Wissenschaft (yd ed., Stuttgart, 1894) ; H. Vaihinger, Hartmann,
Duhring und Lange (1876). (H. ST.)
DUIGENAN, PATRICK (1735-1816), Irish lawyer and poli-
tician, was the son of a Leitrim Roman Catholic farmer named
O'Duibhgeannain. Through the tuition of the local Protestant
clergyman, who was interested in the boy, he got a scholarship
in 1756 at Trinity College, Dublin, and subsequently became a
fellow. He was called to the Irish bar in 1767 and obtained
a rich practice. He is remembered, however, mainly as a
politician, on account of his opposition to Grattan, his support
of the Union, and his violent antagonism to Catholic emancipa-
tion. He was elected member for Armagh in the first united
parliament, and was a well-known character at Westminster till
he died on the nth of April 1816.
DUIKER (diver), or DUIKERBOK, the Dutch name of a small
S. African antelope, scientifically known as Cephalophus grimmi;
the popular name alluding to its habit of diving into and threading
its way through thick bush. Scientifically the name is extended
to include all the members of the African genus Cephalophus,
which, together with the Indian chousingha, or four-horned
antelope (Tetraceros), constitutes the subfamily Cephalophinae.
Duikers are animals of small or medium size, usually frequenting
thick forest. The horns, usually present in both sexes, are
small and straight, situated far back on the forehead; and
between them rises the crest-like tuft of hair from which the
genus takes its scientific name. The common or true duiker
(C. grimmi) is found in bush-country from the Cape to the
Zambezi and Nyasaland, and ranges northward on the west
coast to Angola. The banded duiker (C. doriae) from West
Africa is golden brown with black transverse bands on the back
and loins. C. sylvicultor, of West Africa, is the largest species,
and approaches a donkey in size. (See ANTELOPE.) (R. L.*)
DUILIUS (or DUEIXIUS), GAIUS, Roman general during the
first Carthaginian War and commander in the first Roman naval
650
DUISBURG DUKE
victory. In 260 B.C., when consul in command of the land
forces in Sicily, he was appointed to supersede his colleague
Cn. Cornelius Scipio Asina, commander of the fleet, who had
been captured in the harbour of Lipara. Recognizing that the
only chance of victory lay in fighting under conditions as similar
as possible to those of a land engagement, he invented a system
of grappling irons (corn) and boarding bridges, and gained a
brilliant victory over the Carthaginian fleet off Mylae on the
north coast of Sicily. He was accorded a triumph and the
distinction of being accompanied, when walking in the streets
during the evening, by a torchbearer and a flute-player. A
memorial column (columna restrain), adorned with the beaks
of the captured ships, was set up in honour of his victory. The
inscription upon it (see LATIN LANGUAGE, section 3, " The
Language as Recorded ") has been preserved in a restored form
in pseudo-archaic language, ascribed to the reign of Claudius.
See Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, i. No. 195; Polybius i. 22;
Diod. Sic. xvii. 44; Frontinus, Strat. ii. 3; Florus ii. 2; Cicero, De
senectute, 13; Silius Italicus vi. 667; and PUNIC WARS.
DUISBURG, a town of Germany in the kingdom of Prussia,
15 m. by rail N. from Dusseldorf, between the Rhine and the
Ruhr, with which rivers it communicates by a canal. It is an
important railway centre. Po'p. (1885) 47,519; (1900) 92,729;
(1905), including many outlying townships then recently in-
corporated, 191,551. It has six Roman Catholic and six Pro-
testant churches, among the latter the fine Gothic Salvator-
kirche, of the isth century. It is well furnished with schools,
which include a school of machinery. Of modern erections,
the concert hall, the law courts and a memorial fountain to the
cartographer Gerhard Kremer (Mercator) are worthy of mention.
There are important foundries, rolling mills for copper, steel
and brass plates, chemical works, saw-milling, shipbuilding,
tobacco, cotton, sugar, soap and other manufactures.
Duisburg was known to the Romans as Castrum Deutonis,
and mentioned under the Prankish kings as Dispargum. In the
1 2th century it attained the rank of an imperial free town, but
on being mortgaged in 1290 to Cleves it lost its privileges. At
the beginning of the I7th century it was transferred to Branden-
burg, and during the Thirty Years' War was alternately occupied
by the Spaniards and the Dutch. In 1655 the elector Frederick
William of Brandenburg founded here a Protestant university,
which flourished until 1802.
DUK-DUK, a secret society of New Britain or New Pomerania,
Bismarck Archipelago, in the South Pacific. The society has
religious and political as well as social objects. It represents
a rough sort of law and order through its presiding spirit Duk-Duk,
a mysterious figure dressed in leaves to its waist, with a helmet
like a gigantic candle-extinguisher made of network. Upon
this figure women and children are forbidden to look. Women,
who are entitled in New Britain to their own earnings and work
harder than men, are the special victims of Duk-Duk, who
levies blackmail upon them if they are about during its visits.
These are generally timed to coincide with the hours at which
the women are out in the fields and therefore cannot help seeing
the figure. Justice is executed, fines extorted, taboos, feasts,
taxes and all tribal matters are arranged by the Duk-Duk
members, who wear hideous masks or chalk their faces. In
carrying out punishments they are allowed to burn houses and
even kill people. Only males can belong to Duk-Duk, the
entrance fees of which vary from 50 to 100 fathoms of dewarra
(small cowrie shells strung on strips of cane). The society has
its secret signs and ritual, and festivals at which the presence
of a stranger would mean his death. Duk-Duk only appears
with the full moon. The society is now much discredited and
is fast dying out. .
See " Duk-Duk and other Customs or Forms of Expression of the
Melanesian's Intellectual Life," by Graf von Pfeil (Journ. ofAnthrop.
Instil, vol. 27, p. 181).
DUKE (corresponding to Fr. due, Ital. duca, Ger. Herzog), the
title of one of the highest orders of the European nobility, and
of some minor sovereign princes. The word " duke," which is
derived from the Lat. dux, a leader, or general, through the
Fr. due (O. Fr. dusc, dues, dus), originally signified a leader,
and more especially a military chief, and in this latter sense was
the equivalent of the A.S. heretoga (here, an army, and teon, from
togen, to draw; Ger. liehen, nog; Goth, tiuhan; Lat. ducere)
and the old Ger. herizog. In this general sense the word survived
in English literature until the I7th century, but is now obsolete.
The origin of modern dukes is twofold. The dux first appears
in the Roman empire under the emperor Hadrian, and by the time
of the Gordians has already a recognized place in the official
hierarchy. He was the general appointed to the command of
a particular expedition and his functions were purely military.
In the 4th century, after the separation of the civil and military
administrations, there was a duke in command of the troops
quartered in each of the frontier provinces of the empire, e.g.
the dux Britanniarum. The number of dukes continually in-
creased, and in the 6th and 7th centuries there were duces at Rome,
Naples, Rimini, Venice and Perugia. Gradually, too, they be-
came charged with civil as well as military functions, and even
exercised considerable authority in ecclesiastical administration.
Under the Byzantine emperors they were the representatives
in all causes of the central power. The Roman title of duke was
less dignified than that of count (comes, companion) which im-
plied an honourable personal relation to the emperor (see COUNT).
Both titles were borrowed by the Merovingian kings for the
administrative machinery of the Frank empire, and under them
the functions of the duke remained substantially unaltered. He
was a great civil and military official, charged to watch, in the
interests of the crown, over groups of several comitalus, or count-
ships, especially in the border provinces. The sphere of the dukes
was never rigidly fixed, and their commission was sometimes
permanent, sometimes temporary. Under the Carolingians
the functions of the dukes remained substantially the same;
but with the decay of the royal power in the loth century,
both dukes and counts gained in local authority; the num-
ber of dukes became for the time fixed, and finally title and
office were made hereditary, the relation to the crown being
reduced to that of more or less shadowy vassalage. (See
FEUDALISM.)
Side by side with these purely official dukedoms, however,
there had continued to exist, or had sprung up, either inde-
pendently or in more or less of subjection to the Frank rulers,
national dukedoms, such as those of the Alemanni, the Aqui-
tanians, and, later, of the Bavarians and Thuringians. These
were developed from the early Teutonic custom by which the
herizog was elected by the nation as leader for a particular cam-
paign, as in the case of the heretogas who had led the first Saxon
invaders into Britain. Tacitus says of the ancient Germans
reges ex nobilitate, duces ex virlute sumunt; i.e. they elected their
dukes for their warlike prowess only, and as purely military
chiefs, whereas their kings were chosen from a royal family of
divine descent. Sometimes the dukes so chosen succeeded in
making their power permanent without taking the style of king.
To this national category belong, besides the great German
dukedoms, the dukes of Normandy, and the Lombard dukes .of
Spoleto and Benevento, who traced their origin, not to an
administrative office, but to the leadership of Teutonic war
bands. With the development of the feudal system the distinc-
tion between the official and the national dukedoms was more
and more obliterated. By the I3th and i4th centuries the title
had become purely territorial, and implied no necessary over-
lordship over counts and other nobles, who existed side by side
with the dukes as tenants-in-chief of the crown. From this time
the significance of the ducal title varies widely in different
countries. Whenever the crown got the better of the feudal
spirit of independence, as in France or Naples, it sank from being
a sovereign title to a mere social distinction, implying no political
power, and not necessarily any territorial influence. In northern
Italy and in Germany, on the other hand, where the crown had
proved too weak to combat the forces of disruption, it came
ultimately to imply independent sovereignty.
The abolition of the Holy Empire in 1806 removed even the
shadow of vassalage from the German reigning dukes, who retain
DUKE OF EXETER'S DAUGHTER DUKINFIELD
651
their sovereign status under the new empire. Only one, however,
the grand duke of Luxemburg, is now both sovereign and
independent. Besides the sovereign dukes in Germany there are
certain " mediatized " ducal houses, e.g. that of Ratibor, which
share with the dispossessed families of the Italian sovereign
duchies certain royal privileges, notably that of equality of blood
(Ebenbilrtigkeit) . In Italy, where titles of nobility give no pre-
cedence at court, that of duke (duca) has lost nearly all even of
its social significance owing to lavish creations by the popes and
minor sovereigns, and to the fact that the title often passes
by purchase with a particular estate. Political significance it has
none. Some great Italian nobles are dukes, notably the heads of
the great Roman ducal families, but not all Italian dukes are
great nobles.
In France the title duke at one time implied vast territorial
power, as with the dukes of Burgundy, Normandy, Aquitaine
and Brittany, who asserted a practical independence against the
crown, though it was not till the izth century that the title duke
was definitely regarded as superior to others. At first (in the loth
and nth centuries) it had no defined significance, and even
a baron of the higher nobility called himself in charters duke,
count or even marquis, indifferently. In any case the strengthen-
ing of the royal power gradually sapped the significance of the
title, until on the eve of the Revolution it implied no more than
high rank and probably territorial wealth.
There were, under the ancien regime, three classes of dukes in
France: (i) dukes who were peers (see PEERAGE) and had a seat
in the parlement of Paris; (2) hereditary dukes who were not
peers; (3) " brevet " dukes, created for life only. The French
duke ranks in Spain with the " grandee " (q.v.), and vice versa.
In republican France the already existing titles are officially
recognized, but they are now no more than the badges of dis-
tinguished ancestry. Besides the descendants of the feudal
aristocracy there are in France certain ducal families dating
from Napoleon I.'s creation of 1806 (e.g. dues d'Albufera, de
Montebello, de Feltre), from Louis Philippe (due dTsly, and due
d'Audiffret-Pasquier),andfromNapoIeonIII.(MaIakoff,Magenta,
Morny).
In England the title of duke was unknown till the I4th century,
though in Saxon times the title ealdorman, afterwards exchanged
for " earl," was sometimes rendered in Latin as dux, 1 and the
English kings till John's time styled themselves dukes of Nor-
mandy, and dukes of Aquitaine even later. In 1337 King
Edward III. erected the county of Cornwall into a duchy for his
son Edward the Black Prince, who was thus the first English duke.
The second was Henry, earl of Lancaster, Derby, Lincoln and
Leicester, who was created duke of Lancaster in 1351. In Scot-
land the title of duke was first bestowed in 1398 by Robert III.
on his eldest son David, who was made duke of Rothesay, and
on his brother, who became duke of Albany.
British dukes rank next to princes and princesses of the blood
royal, the two archbishops of Canterbury and York, the lord
Chancellor, &c., but beyond this precedence they have no special
privileges which are not shared by peers of lower rank (see
PEERAGE). Though their full style as proclaimed by the herald
is " most high, potent and noble prince," and they are included
in the Almanack de Gotha, they are not recognized as the equals
in blood of the crowned or mediatized dukes of the continent,
and the daughter of an English duke marrying a foreign royal
prince can only take his title by courtesy, or where, under the
" house-laws " of certain families, a family council sanctions
the match. The eldest son of an English duke takes as a rule
by courtesy the second title of his father, and ranks, with or
without the title, as a marquess. The other sons and daughters
bear the titles " Lord " and " Lady " before their Christian
names, also by courtesy. A duke in the British peerage, if not
royal, is addressed as "Your Grace " and is styled " the Most
Noble." (See ARCHDUKE, GRAND DUKE, and, for the ducal
coronet, CROWN AND CORONET.) (W. A. P.)
1 So Ego Haroldus dux, Ego Tostinus dux, in a charter of Edward
the Confessor (1060), Hist. MSS. Comm. lath rep. app. pt. ix. p. 581.
DUKE OF EXETER'S DAUGHTER, a nickname applied to
a 15th-century instrument of torture resembling the rack (q.v.).
Blackstone says (Commentaries, ii. sec. 326): " The trial by rack
is utterly unknown to the law of England, though once when the
dukes of Exeter and Suffolk, and other ministers of Henry VI.,
had laid a design to introduce the civil (i.e. Roman) law into the
kingdom as the rule of government, for a beginning thereof they
erected a rack for torture, which was called in derision the duke
of Exeter's daughter, and still remains in the Tower of London,
where it was used as an engine of state, not of law, more than
once in Queen Elizabeth's reign. But when, upon the assassina-
tion of Villiers, duke of Buckingham, by Felton, it was proposed
in the privy council to put the assassin to the rack, in order to
discover his accomplices, the judges being consulted, declared
unanimously that no such proceeding was allowable by the laws
of England."
DUKER, CARL ANDREAS (1670-1752), German classical
scholar and jurist, was born at Unna in Westphalia. He studied
at the university of Franeker under Jacob Perizonius. In 1 700
he was appointed teacher of history and eloquence at the Herborn
gymnasium, in 1704 vice-principal of the school at the Hague,
and in 1716 he succeeded (with Drakenborch as colleague) to
the professorship formerly held by Peter Burmann at Utrecht.
After eighteen years' tenure he resigned his post, and lived in
retirement at Ysselstein and Vianen. His health finally broke
down under excessive study, and he died, almost blind, at the
house of a relative in Meiderich near Duisburg, on the sth
of November 1752. His chief classical works were editions of
Florus (1722) and Thucydides (1731, considered his best). He
brought out the 2nd edition of Perizonius's Origines Babylonicae
et Aegyptiacae (1736) and his commentary on Pomponius Mela
(1736-1737). Duker was also an authority on ancient law, and
published Opuscula varia de latinitate veterum jurisconsullorum
(1711), and a revision of the Leges Atticae of S. Petit (1741).
See C. Saxe, Onomasticon litterarium, vi. 267; articles in Allge-
meine deutsche Biogmphie and in Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine
Encyklopadie.
DUKERIES, THE, a name given to a district in the N.W.
of Nottinghamshire, England; included within the ancient
Sherwood Forest (q.v.). The name is taken from the existence
of several adjacent demesnes of noblemen, and the character
of the Forest is to some extent preserved here. On the north
is the Sheffield-Retford branch of the Great Central railway,
serving the town of Worksop, connecting at Retford with the
Great Northern railway, while on the south the Great Central
railway serves the small market town of Ollerton, and connects
with the Great Northern at Dukeries Junction. The following
demesnes are comprised in the district. Worksop Manor
formerly belonged to the dukes of Norfolk. Welbeck Abbey
is the seat of the dukes of Portland, to whom it came from the
Cavendish family (dukes of Newcastle) ; the mansion is mainly
classic in style, dating from the early i7th century, but with
many subsequent additions; the fifth duke of Portland (d. 1879)
built the curious series of subterranean corridors and chambers
beneath the grounds. Clumber House, the seat of the dukes
of Newcastle, is beautifully placed above a lake in a fine
park. Thoresby House is the seat of the earls Manvers, to
whom it came on the extinction of the dukedom of Kingston;
part of this demesne is a splendid tract of wild woodland.
DUKES, LEOPOLD (1810-1891), Hungarian critic of Jewish
literature. He spent about twenty years in England, and from
his researches in the Bodleian library and the British Museum
(which contain two of the most valuable Hebrew libraries in
the world) Dukes was able to complete the work of Zunz (q.v.).
The most popular work of Dukes was his Rabbinische Blumenlese
(1844), in which he collected the rabbinic proverbs and illustrated
them from the gnomic literatures of other peoples. Dukes made
many contributions to philology, but his best work was
connected with the medieval Hebrew poetry, especially Ibn
Gabirol. (j A.)
DUKINFIELD, a municipal borough of Cheshire, England,
within the parliamentary borough of Stalybridge, 6 m. E. of
652
DULCIGNO DULONG
Manchester. Pop. (1901) 18,929. It lies in the densely populated
district in the north-east of the county, between Stalybridge
and Ashton-under-Lyne, and is served by the London & North
Western and Great Central railways. There are extensive
collieries, and the other industries include cotton manufactures,
calico-printing, hat-making, iron-founding, engineering and the
manufacture of firebricks and tiles. A portion remains of
the old timbered Dukinfield Hall, in the chapel of which
Samuel Eaton (d. 1665) taught the first congregational church
in the north of England. The chapel, much enlarged, is still
used by this denomination. The borough, incorporated in
1899, is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area,
1405 acres.
DULCIGNO (Servian, Ultsin, Turk. Olgun) , a seaport of Monte-
negro, on the Adriatic Sea, 8 m. W. of the Albanian frontier.
Pop. (1900) about 5000. Shut in by hills and forests, and built
partly on a promontory overlooking its bay, partly along the
shore, Dulcigno is the prettiest of Montenegrin towns. Its
narrow crooked lanes, however, with its bazaars, mosques,
minarets and veiled women, give to its picturesqueness a
decidedly Turkish air. The old quarter, on the promontory, is
walled, and has a medieval castle, once of great strength. Turks
form the bulk of the inhabitants, although their numbers
decreased steadily after 1880, when the population numbered
about 8000. Albanians and Italians are fairly numerous.
Dulcigno has a Roman Catholic cathedral and an ancient Latin
church. The Austrian Lloyd steamers call at intervals, and
some shipbuilding and fishing are carried on; but the harbour
lacks shelter and is liable to deposits of silt.
To the Romans, who captured it in 167 B.C., Dulcigno was
known as Ukinium or Olcinium; in the middle ages it was a
noted haunt of pirates; in the i?th century it was the residence
of Sabbatai Zebi (d. 1676), a Jew who declared himself to be the
Messiah but afterwards embraced Islam. In 1718 Dulcigno
was the scene of a great Venetian defeat. It belonged to the
Turks until 1880, when its cession, according to the terms of the
treaty of Berlin (1878), was enforced by the " Dulcigno demon-
stration," in which the fleets of Great Britain, France, Germany,
Austria and Russia took part.
DULCIMER (Fr. tympanon; Ger. Hackbrett, Cymbal; Ital.
cembalo, iimpanon or salterio tedesco), the prototype of the
pianoforte, an instrument consisting of a horizontal sound-chest
over which are stretched a varying number of wire strings set
in vibration by strokes of little sticks or hammers. The dulcimer
differed from the psalterium or psaltery chiefly in the manner
of playing, the latter having the strings plucked by means of
fingers or plectrum. The shape of the dulcimer is a trapeze
or truncated triangle, having the bass strings stretched parallel
with the base, which measures from 3 to 4 ft.; the strings de-
crease gradually in length, the shortest measuring from about
1 8 to 24 in. at the truncated apex. The sound-board has one
or two rose sound-holes; the strings are attached on one side to
hitch pins and at the other to the larger tuning pins firmly
fixed in the wrest plank. The strings of fine brass or iron wire
are in groups of two to five unisons to each note; the vibrating
lengths of the strings are determined by means of two bridges.
The dulcimer is placed upon a table in front of the performer,
who strikes the strings with a little hammer mounted on a metal
rod and covered on one side with hard and on the other with
soft leather for forte and piano effects. The compass, now
chromatic throughout, varies according to the size of the instru-
ment; the large cymbalom of the Hungarian gipsies has a
range of four chromatic octaves,
The origin of the dulcimer is remote, and must be sought in
the East. In the bas-reliefs from Kuyunjik, now in the British
Museum, are to be seen musicians playing on dulcimers of ten
strings with long sticks curved at the ends, and damping the
strings with their hands. This is the pisantir of the days of
Nebuchadrezzar, translated " psaltery " in Dan. iii. 5, &c., and
rendered " psalterion " in the Septuagint, a confusion which
has given rise to many misconceptions. 1 In the Septuagjnt
no less than four different instruments are rendered psalterion
(from Gr. ^dXXco, pluck, pull), i.e. ugab, nebel, pisantir and toph,
two stringed, one wind and one percussion. The use of the
word in Greek for a musical instrument is not recorded before
the 4th century B.C. The modern santir of the Persians, almost
identical with the German hackbrett, has a compass from
I* \^
1TL fe jE according to Fetis. 2 The Persians place
*j
its origin in the highest antiquity. Carl Engel gives an illus-
tration said to be taken from a very old painting. 4
The dulcimer was extensively used during the middle ages
in England, France, Italy, Germany, Holland and Spain, and
although it had a distinctive name in each country, it was
everywhere regarded as a kind of psalterium. The importance
of the method of setting the strings in vibration by means of
hammers, and its bearing on the acoustics of the instrument,
were recognized only when the invention of the pianoforte had
become a matter of history. It was then perceived that the
psalterium in which the strings were plucked, and the dulcimer
in which they were struck, when provided with keyboards,
gave rise to two distinct families of instruments, differing
essentially in tone quality, in technique and in capabilities:
the evolution of the psalterium stopped at the harpsichord,
that of the dulcimer gave us the pianoforte. The dulcimer is
described and illustrated by Mersenne, 5 who calls it psalterion;
it has thirteen courses of pairs of unisons or octaves; the first
strings were of brass wire, the others of steel. The curved stick
was allowed to fall gently on to the strings and to rebound many
times, which, Mersenne remarks, produces an effect similar to
the trembling or tremolo of other instruments. Praetorius 4
figures a hackbrett having a body in the shape of a truncated
triangle, with a bridge placed between two rose sound-holes,
and played by means of two sticks. Another kind of hackbrett 7
(a psaltery), which was played with the fingers, was known to
Praetorius. The pantaleon, a double dulcimer, named after the
inventor, Pantaleon Hebenstreit of Eisleben, a violinist, had
two sound-boards, 185 strings, one scale of overspun catgut, the
other of wire. Hebenstreit travelled to Paris with his monster
dulcimer in 1705 and played before Louis XIV., who baptized
it Pantaleon. Quantz 8 and Quirin of Blankenburg 9 both gave
descriptions of the instrument. (K. S.)
DULKEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province,
1 1 m. by rail S.W. from Crefeld. Pop. 10,000. It has a (Roman
Catholic) Gothic parish church. There are manufactures of
linen, cotton, silk and velvet, &c., ironworks and foundries.
DULONG, PIERRE LOUIS (1785-1838), French chemist and
physicist, was born at Rouen on the I2th (or i3th) of February
1785. He began as a doctor in one of the poorest districts of
Paris, but soon abandoned medicine for scientific research.
After acting as assistant to Berthollet, he became successively
professor of chemistry at the faculty of sciences and the normal
and veterinary schools at Alfort, and then (1820) professor of
physics at the Ecole Polytechnique, of which he was appointed
director in 1830. He died in Paris on the i8th (or I9th) of July
1838. His earliest work was chemical in character. In 1811
he discovered chloride of nitrogen; during his experiments
serious explosions occurred twice, and he lost one eye, besides
sustaining severe injuries to his hand. He also investigated
the oxygen compounds of phosphorus and nitrogen, and was
1 The names of the musical instruments in those verses of the
Book of Daniel have formed the basis of a controversy as to tt
authenticity of the book.
Histoire de la musique (Paris, 1869), vol. 11. p. 131.
Music of the most Ancient Nations (London, 1864), pp. 42-3-
Hommaire de Hell, Voyage en Perse, p. Ixii.
L'Harmonie universelle (Paris, 1636), livre in. p. 174-
Syntagma musicum (Wolfenbuttel, 1618), pi. 18 (3).
8 " Herrn job. Joachim Quantzens Lebenslauf von ihm *lbst
entworfen," in Fr. W. Marpurg's Histor. kritische Beytrage, ad. i.
p. 207 (I754-I755)-
9 Elemenla musica, chap. xxvi.
DULSE DULWICH
653
one of the first to hold the hydrogen theory of acids. In 1815,
in conjunction with Alexis Therese Petit (1791-1820), the
professor of physics at the Ecole Polytechnique, he made careful
comparisons between the mercury and the air thermometer.
The first published research (1816) dealt with the dilatation of
solids, liquids and gases and with the exact measurement of
temperature, and it was followed by another in 1818 on the
measurement of temperature and the communication of heat,
which was crowned by the French Academy. In a third, " On
some important points in the theory of heat " (1819), they
stated that the specific heats of thirteen solid elements which
they had investigated were nearly proportional to their atomic
weights a fact otherwise expressed in the " law of Dulong and
Petit " that the atoms of simple substances have equal capacities
for heat. Subsequent papers by Dulong were concerned with
" New determinations of the proportions of water and the
density of certain elastic fluids" (1820, with Berzelius); the
property possessed by certain metals of facilitating the com-
bination of gases (1823 with Thenard); the refracting powers
of gases (1826); and the specific heats of gases (1829). In
1830 he published a research, undertaken with Arago for the
academy of sciences, on the elastic force of steam at high tem-
peratures. For the purposes of this determination he set up a
continuous column of mercury, constructed with 13 sections
of glass tube each 2 metres long and 5 mm. in diameter, in the
tower of the old church of St Genevieve in the College Henri IV.
The apparatus was first used to investigate the variation in the
volume of air with pressure, and the conclusion was that up to
twenty-seven atmospheres, the highest pressure attained in the
experiments, Boyle's law holds good. In regard to steam, the
old tower was so shaky that it was considered unwise to risk the
effects of an explosion, and therefore the mercury column was
removed bodily to a court in the observatory. The original
intention was to push the experiments to a pressure equivalent
to thirty atmospheres, but owing to the signs of failure exhibited
by the boiler the limit actually reached was twenty-four atmo-
spheres, at which pressure the thermometers indicated a tempera-
ture of about 224C. In his last paper, published posthumously
in 1838, Dulong gave an account of experiments made to deter-
mine the heat disengaged in the combination of various simple
and compound bodies, together with a description of the calori-
meter he employed.
DULSE (Ir. and Gael, duileasg), in botany, Rhody menia palmata,
one of the red seaweeds, consisting of flat solitary or tufted
purplish-red fronds, fan-shaped in general outline and divided
into numerous segments, which are often again and again divided
in a forked manner. It varies very much in size and degree of
branching, ranging from 5 or 6 to 12 or more inches long. It
grows on rocks, shell-fish or larger seaweeds, and is used by the
poor in Scotland and Ireland as a relish with their food. It is
commonly dried and eaten raw, the flavour being brought out
by long chewing. In the Mediterranean it is used cooked in
ragouts and made dishes.
See W. H. Harvey, Phycologica Britannica, vol. ii. plates 217, 218.
DULUTH, a city and the county-seat of St Louis county,
Minnesota, U.S.A., at the W. end of Lake Superior, at the mouth
of the St Louis river, about 150 m. N.E. of Minneapolis and
St Paul. Pop. (1880) 3483; (1890) 33,115; (1900) 52,969, of
whom 20,983 were foreign-born and 357 were negroes; (1910
census) 78,466. Of the 20,983 foreign-born in 1900, 5099
were English-Canadians, 5047 Swedes, 2655 Norwegians, 1685
Germans, and 1285 French-Canadians. Duluth is served by
the Duluth and Iron Range, the Duluth, Missabe % & Northern,
the Duluth, South Shore & Atlantic, the Chicago & North-
Western (the North- Western line), the Great Northern, and the
Northern Pacific railways. Situated attractively on the side and
along the base of a high bluff rising 600 ft. above the lake level,
Duluth lies at the W. end of Superior Bay (here called Duluth
Harbour), directly opposite the city of Superior, Wisconsin.
A narrow strip of land known as Minnesota Point, 7 m. in length
and extending toward Wisconsin Point, which projects from
the Wisconsin shore, separates the bay from the lake and forms
with St Louis Bay one of the finest natural harbours in the world.
The natural entrance to the harbour is the narrow channel
between the two points, but there is also a ship-canal across
Minnesota Point, spanned by a curious aerial bridge 400 ft. long
and 1 86 ft. above the water.
The unusually favourable position for lake transportation,
and the extensive tributary region in the N.W., with ample rail
connexions, make Duluth-Superior one of the greatest com-
mercial ports in the country. The two cities constitute the largest
coal-distributing centre in the N.W., and have some of the largest
coal-docks in the world. Upwards of twenty grain elevators,
with a net capacity of nearly 35,000,000 bushels, which receive
enormous quantities of grain from the Red River Valley,
Manitoba, and the Dakotas, either for home manufacture or for
transhipment to the East, are among the noteworthy sights of
the place; and extensive ore-docks are required for handling
the enormous and steadily increasing shipments of iron ore from
the rich Vermilion and Mesabi iron ranges first opened about
1890. In 1907 more than 29,000,000 tons of iron ore were
shipped from this port. Duluth is also an important hay
market. There are flour and lumber mills, foundries and machine
shops, wooden ware, cooperage, sash, door and blind, lath and
shingle factories, and shipyards. In 1909 great mills of the
Minnesota Steel Co. were begun here. In 1905 the factory
product of Duluth was valued at $10,139,009, an increase of
29-8% over that of 1900. The St Louis river furnishes one of
the finest water-powers in the United States.
The commanding heights upon which the principal residential
section of the city is built render it at once attractive in appear-
ance and healthful; there is a fine system of parks and boule-
vards, the chief of the former being Lester, Fairmount, Portland,
Cascade, Lincoln and Chester. The popular Boulevard drive at
the back of Duluth commands excellent views of city and lake.
Among the principal buildings are the court house, the Masonic
temple, chamber of commerce, board of trade, Lyceum theatre,
Federal, Providence, Lonsdale, Torrey, Alworth, Sellwood and
Wolvin buildings, St. Mary's hospital, St. Luke's hospital and
Spalding Hotel. There is a public (Carnegie) library with 50,000
volumes in 1908. The building of the central high school (classi-
cal) , one of the finest in the Unit ed S tates, erected at a cost of about
$500,000, has a square clock tower 230 ft. high, and an auditorium
seating 2000. The city also has a technical high school, and in
addition to the regular high school courses there are departments
of business, manual training and domestic science. At Duluth
also is a state normal school, erected in 1902. The federal govern-
ment maintains here a life-saving station on Minnesota Point,
and an extensive fish hatchery.
The first Europeans to visit the site of Duluth were probably
French coureurs-des-bois, possibly the adventurous Radisson and
Groseilliers. The first visitor certainly known to have been here
was Daniel Greysolon, Sieur Du Lhut (d. 1709), a French trader
and explorer, who about 1678 skirted Lake Superior and built a
stockaded trading-post at the mouth of Pigeon river on the N.
shore. From him the place received its name. A trading-post
was established near the present city, at Fond du Lac, about
1752, and this eventually became a dep6t of Astor's American Fur
Company. There was no permanent settlement at Duluth proper,
however, until 1853, and in 1860 there were only 80 inhabitants.
Incorporated in 1870, in which year railway connexion with the
South was established, its growth was slow for some years, the
increase for the decade 1870-1880 being very slight (from 3131
to 3483) ; but the extension of railways into the north-western
wheat region, the opening up of Lake Superior to commerce, and
finally the development of the Vermilion and Mesabi iron ranges,
brought on a period of almost unparalleled growth, marked by the
remarkable increase in population of more than 850% between
1880 and 1890; between 1890 and 1900 the increase was 60%.
See J. R. Carey, History of Duluth and Northern Minnesota (Duluth,
1898); Leggett and Chiptnan, Duluth and its Environs (Duluth,
1895) ; and J. D. Ensign, History of St Louis County (Duluth, 1900).
DULWICH, a district in the metropolitan borough of Camber-
well, London, England. The manor, which had belonged to the
654
DUMAGUETE DUMAS THE ELDER
Cluniac monks of Bermondsey, passed through various hands to
Edward Alleyn (q.v.) in 1606. His foundation of the College
of God's Gift, commonly called Dulwich College, was opened
with great state on the i3th of September 1619, in the presence
of Lord Chancellor Bacon, Lord Arundell, Inigo Jones and other
distinguished men. According to the letters patent the alms-
people and scholars were to be chosen in equal proportions from
the parishes of St Giles (Camberwell), St Botolph without
Bishopsgate, and St Saviour's (Southwark), and " that part of
the parish of St Giles without Cripplegate which is hi the county
of Middlesex." By a series of statutes signed in 1626, a few days
before his death, Alleyn ordained that his school should be for
the instruction of 80 boys consisting of three distinct classes:
(i) the twelve poor scholars; (2) children of inhabitants of Dul-
wich, who were to be taught freely; and (3) " towne or foreign
schollers," who were "to pay such allowance as the master and
wardens shall appoint." The almspeople consisted of six " poor
brethren " and six " poor sisters," and the teaching and governing
staff of a master and a -warden, who were always to be of the
founder's surname, and four fellows, all " graduates and divines,"
among'whom were apportioned the ministerial work of the chapel,
the instruction of the boys, and the supervision of the almspeople.
That it was the founder's intention to establish a great public
school upon the model of Westminster and St Paul's, with
provision for university training, is shown by the statutes;
but for more than two centuries the educational benefits of God's
Gift College were restricted to the twelve poor scholars. Suc-
cessive actions at law resulted in the ruling that it was not within
the competence of the founder to divert any portion of the
revenues of his foundation to the use of others than the members
thereof, as specified in the letters patent. In 1842, however,
some effort was made towards the realization of Alleyn's schemes,
and in 1858 the foundation was entirely reconstituted by act of
parliament. It comprises two schools, the "Upper" and the
" Lower," now called respectively Dulwich College and Alleyn's
school. In the Upper school, now one of the important English
'^'public schools," there are classical, modern, science and engineer-
ing sides. The Lower school is devoted to middle-class education.
The buildings of the Upper school, by Charles Barry, contain
a fine hall. The college possesses a splendid picture gallery,
bequeathed by Sir P. F. Bourgeois, R.A., in 1811, with a separate
endowment. The pictures include some exquisite Murillos and
choice specimens of the Dutch school. The surplus income of
the gallery fund is devoted to instruction in drawing and design
in the two schools.
See W. H. Blanch, Dulwich College and Edward Alleyn (London,
1877); R. Hovenden, The History of Dulwich College, with a short
biography of its founder (London, 1873).
DUMAGUETE, the capital town of the province of Negros
Oriental, island of Negros, Philippine Islands, on Tanon Strait.
Pop. (1903) 14,894. The town of Sibulan (pop. in 1903, 8413)
was annexed to Dumaguete in 1903, after the census had been
taken. Dumaguete lies in the midst of a fertile agricultural
district. The inhabitants are chiefly natives, but the shops are
kept by Chinese merchants. The public buildings, which include
an interesting watch-tower and belfry, are large, substantial and
well cared for.
DUHANJUG, a town of the province 1 of Cebu, island of Cebu,
Philippine Islands, on the W. coast, at the mouth of the Duman-
jug river, about 40 m. S.W. of the town of Cebu. Pop. (1903)
22,203. In 1903, after the census had been taken, the adjacent
town of Ronda (pop. 9662) was annexed to Dumanjug. Duman-
jug is in communication with the town of Sibonga, on the
opposite shore of one of the few passes through the mountains of
the interior. Indian corn and sugar-cane are grown successfully
in the neighbouring country, and the town has an important
coast trade.
DU MARSAIS, CESAR CHESNEAU, SIEUR (1676-1756),
French philologist, was born at Marseilles on the i7th of July
1676. He was educated in his native town by the Fathers of the
Oratory, into whose congregation he entered ; but he left it at
the age of twenty-five and went to Paris, where he married
and was admitted an advocate (1704). He was tutor to the sons
successively of the president de Maisons, of John Law, the
projector, and of the marquis de Bauffremont. He then opened
a boarding school in the faubourg St Victor, which scarcely
afforded him the means of subsistence. He made contributions
of great value on philological and philosophical subjects to the
Encyclopedic, and after vain attempts to secure a competence
from the court he was insured against want by the generosity
of a private patron. He died in Paris on the nth of June 1756.
The researches of Du Marsais are distinguished by considerable
individuality. He held sensible views on education and elabor-
ated a system of teaching Latin, which, although open to grave
criticism,wasauseful protest against current methods of teaching.
His best works are his Principes de grammaire and his Des
tropes, ou des dijferenls sens dans lesquels on peut prendre un mot
An edition of his works (7 vols.) was collected by Duchosal and
Millon, and was'publishedwithanelogeonDu Marsais by D'Alembert
at Paris in 1797.
DUMAS, ALEXANDRE [ALEXANDRE DAVY DE LA PAILLE-
TERIE] (1802-1870), French novelist and dramatist, was born
at Villers-Cotterets (Aisne) on the 24th of July 1802. His father,
the French general, Thomas Alexandre Dumas (1762-1806)
also known as Alexandre Davy de la Pailleterie was born in
Saint Domingo, the natural son of Antoine Alexandre Davy,
marquis de la Pailleterie, by a negress, Marie Cessette Dumas,
who died in 1 7 7 2. In 1 780 he accompanied the marquis to France,
and there the father made a mesalliance which drove the son
into enlisting in a dragoon regiment. Thomas Alexandre Dumas
was still a private at the outbreak of the revolution, but he rose
rapidly and became general of division in 1793. He was general-
in-chief of the army of the western Pyrenees, and was transferred
later to commands in the Alps and in La Vendee. Among his
many exploits was the defeat of the Austrians at the bridge of
Clausen on the 22nd of April 1797, where he commanded Joubert's
cavalry. He lost Napoleon's favour by plain speaking in the
Egyptian campaign, and presently returned to France to spend
the rest of his days in retirement at Villers Cotterets, where he
had married in 1792 Marie Elisabeth Labouret.
The novelist, who was the offspring of this union, was not
four years old when General Dumas died, leaving his family with
no further resource than 30 acres of land. Mme Dumas tried
to obtain help from Napoleon, but in vain, and lived with her
parents in narrow circumstances. Alexandre received the rudi-
ments of education from a priest, and entered the office of a local
solicitor. His chief friend was Adolphe de Leuven, the son of
an exiled Swedish nobleman implicated in the assassination
of Gustavus III. of Sweden, and the two collaborated in various
vaudevilles and other pieces which never saw the footlights.
Leuven returned to Paris, and Dumas was sent to the office of
a solicitor at Crepy. When in 1823 Dumas contrived to visit
his friend in Paris, he was received to his great delight by Talma.
He returned home only to break with his employer, and to arrange
to seek his fortune in Paris, where he sought help without success
from his father's old friends. An introduction to the deputy of
his department, General Foy, procured for him, however, a place
as clerk in the service of the duke of Orleans at a salary of 1 200
francs. He set to work to rectify his lack of education and to
collaborate with Leuven in the production of vaudevilles and
melodramas. Madame Dumas presently joined her son in Paris,
where she died hi 1838.
Soon after, his arrival in Paris Dumas had entered on a liaison
with a dressmaker, Marie Catherine Labay, and their son, the
famous Alexandre Dumas fils (see below), was born in 1824.
Dumas acknowledged his son in 1831, and obtained the custody
of him after a lawsuit with the mother.
The first piece by Dumas and Leuven to see the footlights was
La Chasse et I'amour (Ambigu-Comique, 22nd of Sept. 1825),
and in this they had help from other writers. Dumas had a
share in another vaudeville, La Noce et I'enterrement (Porte Saint-
Martin, 2ist of Nov. 1826). It was under the influence of the
Shakespeare plays produced in Paris by Charles Kemble, Harriet
DUMAS THE ELDER
655
Smithson (afterwards Mme Berlioz) and an English company
that the romantic drama of Christine was written. The subject
was suggested i>y a bas-relief of the murder of Monaldeschi
exhibited at the Salon of 1827. The piece was accepted by
Baron Taylor and the members of the Comedie Francaise with
the stipulation that it should be subject to revision by another
dramatist because of its innovating tendencies. But the pro-
duction of the piece was deferred. Meanwhile Dumas had met
with the story of the ill-fated Saint-Megrin and the duchess of
Guise in Anquetil's history, and had written, in prose, Henri III.
et sa cour, which was immediately accepted by the Com6die
Francaise and produced on the nth of February 1829. It was
the first great triumph of the romantic drama. The brilliant
stagecraft of the piece and its admirable historical setting
delighted an audience accustomed to the decadent classical
tragedy, and brought him the friendship of Hugo 1 and Vigny.
His literary efforts had met with marked disapproval from his
official superiors, and he had been compelled to resign his clerk-
ship before the production of Henri III. The duke of Orleans
had, however, been present at the performance, and appointed
him assistant-librarian at the Palais Royal. Christine was now
recast as a romantic trilogy in verse in five acts with a prologue
and epilogue, with the sub-title of Stockholm, Fontainebleau,
Rome, and was successfully produced by Harel at the Odeon in
March 1830.
The revolution of 1830 temporarily diverted Dumas from
letters. The account of his exploits should be read in his
Memoires, where, though the incidents are true in the main, they
lose nothing in the telling. During the fighting in Paris he
attracted the attention of La Fayette, who sent him to Soissons
to secure powder. With the help of some inhabitants he com-
pelled the governor to hand over the magazine, and on his return
to Paris was sent by La Fayette on a mission to raise a national
guard in La Vendee. The advice he gave to Louis-Philippe on
this subject was ill-received, and after giving offence by further
indiscretions he finally alienated himself from the Orleans govern-
ment by being implicated in the disturbances which attended
the funeral of General Lamarque in June 1832, and he received
a hint that his absence from France was desirable. A tour in
Switzerland undertaken on this account furnished material for
the first of a long series of amusing books of travel. Dumas re-
mained, however, on friendly and even affectionate terms with
the young duke of Orleans until his death in 1842.
Meanwhile he had produced Napoleon Bonaparte (Odeon,
loth of Jan. 1831), his unwillingness to make a hero of the man
who had slighted his father having been overcome by Harel, who
put him under lock and key until the piece was finished. His next
play, Antony, had a real importance in the history of the romantic
theatre. It was put in rehearsal by Mile Mars, but so unsatis-
factorily that Dumas transferred it to Bocage and Mme Dorval,
who played it magnificently at the Porte Saint-Martin theatre
on the 3rd of May 1831. The Byronic hero Antony was a portrait
of himself in his relations with Mme Melanie Waldor, the wife
of an officer, and daughter of the journalist M. G. T. de Villenave,
except of course in the extravagantly melodramatic denouement,
when Antony, to save his mistress's honour, kills her and ex-
claims, " Elle me resistait, je 1'ai assassinee." He produced more
than twenty more plays alone or in collaboration before 1845,
exclusive of dramatizations from his novels. Richard Darlington
(Porte Saint-Martin, loth of Dec. 1831), the first idea of which
was drawn from Sir Walter Scott's Chronicles of the Canongate,
owed part of its great success to the admirable acting of Frederick
Lemaitre. La Tour de Nesle (Porte Saint-Martin, 2gth of May
1832), announced as by MM. XXX and Gaillardet, was the
occasion of a duel and a law-suit with the original author,
Frederic Gaillardet, whose MS. had been revised, first by Jules
Janin and then by Dumas. In rapidity of movement, and in
the terror it inspired, the piece surpassed Henri III. and Antony.
1 His friendship with Victor Hugo was interrupted in 1833-1834
by the articles contributed to the Journal des debats by a friend
and protege of the poet, Granier de Cassagnac, who brought against
Dumas charges of wholesale plagiarism from other dramatists.
A lighter drama, Mademoiselle de Belle-Isle (Th6atre Franfais,
and of April 1839), still remains in the repertory.
In 1840 Dumas married Ida Ferrier, an actress whom he
had imposed on the theatres that took his pieces. The amiable
relations which had subsisted between them for eight years
were disturbed by the marriage, which is said to have been under-
taken in consequence of a strong hint from the duke of Orleans,
and Mme Dumas lived in Italy separated from her husband.
As a novelist Dumas began by writing short stories, but his
happy collaboration with Auguste Maquet, 2 which began in
1839, led to the admirable series of historical novels in which he
proposed to reconstruct the whole course of French history.
In 1844 he produced, with Maquet's help, that most famous of
" cloak and sword " romances, Les Trois M ousquetaires (8 vols.),
the material for which was discovered in the Memoires de
M. d'Artagnan (Cologne, 1701-1702) of Courtils de Sandras. The
adventures of d'Artagnan and the three musketeers, the gigantic
Porthos, the clever Aramis, and the melancholy Athos, who
unite to defend the honour of Anne of Austria against Richelieu
and the machinations of " Milady," are brought down to the
murder of Buckingham in 1629. Their admirers were gratified
by two sequels, Vingt ans apres (10 vols., 1845) and Dix ans plus
tard, ou U vicomle de Bragelonne (26 pts., 1848-1850), which
opens in 1660, showing us a mature d'Artagnan, a respectable
captain of musketeers, and contains the magnificent account of
the heroic death of Porthos. The three musketeers are as
famous in England as in France. Thackeray could read about
Athos from sunrise to sunset with the utmost contentment of
mind, and R. L. Stevenson and Andrew Lang have paid tribute
to the band in Memories and Portraits and Letters to Dead
Authors. Before 1844 was out Dumas had completed a second
great romance in 12 volumes, Le Comte de Monte-Cristo, in which
he had help from Fiorentino as well as from Maquet. The idea
of the intrigue was suggested by Peuchet's Police dtvoilee, and
the stress laid on the earlier incidents, Dantes, Danglars and the
Chateau d'lf, is said to have been an afterthought. Almost
as famous as these two romances is the set of Valois novels of
which Henri IV. is the central figure, beginning with La Reine
Margot (6 vols., 1845), which contains the history of the struggle
between Catherine of Medicis and Henry of Navarre; the history
of the reign of Henry III. is told in La Dame de Monsoreau
(8 vols., 1846), generally known in English as Chicot the Jester,
from its principal character; and in Les Quarante-cinq (10 vols.,
1847-1848), in which Diane de Monsoreau avenges herself on
the duke of Anjou for the death of her former lover, Bussy
d'Amboise.
Much has been written about the exact share which Dumas
had in the novels which bear his name. The Dumas-Maquet
series is undoubtedly the best, but Maquet alone never accom-
plished anything to approach them in value. The MSS. of the
novels still exist in Dumas's handwriting, and the best of them
bear the unmistakable stamp of his unrivalled skill as a narrator.
The chief key to his enormous output is to be found in his un-
tiring industry and amazing fertility of invention, not in the
system of wholesale collaboration which was exposed with much
exaggeration by Querard in his Supercheries litteraires and by
"Eugene de Mirecourt" (C. B. J. Jacquot) in his misleading
Fabrique de ramans, maison Alexandre Dumas et c*' (1845).
His assistants, in fact, supplied him with outlines of romances on
plans drawn up by himself, and he then rewrote the whole thing.
That this method was never abused it would be impossible to say;
Les Deux Diane, for instance, a prelude to the Valois novels, is
said to have been written entirely by Paul Meurice, although
Dumas's name appears on the title-page.
The latter part of Dumas's life is a record of excessive toil to
meet prodigal expenditure and accumulated debts. His disasters
began with the building of a house in the Renaissance style, with
a Gothic pavilion and an " English " park, at Saint Germain-
2 The details of this collaboration were brought to light in a suit
brought against Dumas by Maquet with regard to his share in the
profits. See the Gazette des tribunaux (January 21, 22, 28, and
February 4, 1858).
656
DUMAS THE YOUNGER
en-Laye. This place, called Monte-Cristo, was governed by a
crowd of hangers-on of both sexes, who absorbed Dumas's large
earnings and left him penniless. Dumas also founded the
Th6atre Historique chiefly for the performance of his own works.
The enterprise was under the patronage of the due de Montpensier,
and was under the management of Hippolyte Hostein, who had
been the secretary of the Comedie Francaise. The theatre was
opened in February 1847 with a dramatic version of La Reine
Margot. Meanwhile Dumas had been the guest of the due de
Montpensier at Madrid, and made a quasi-official tour to Algeria
and Tunis in a government vessel, which caused much comment
in the press. Dumas had never changed his republican opinions.
He greeted the revolution of 1848 with delight, and was even
a candidate for electoral honours in the department of the Yonne.
But the change was fatal to his theatrical enterprise, for the failure
of which in 1850 he was made financially responsible. His son,
Alexandre Dumas, was at that time living with his mother
Mile Labay, who was eventually reconciled with the elder Dumas.
Father and son, though always on affectionate terms when they
met, were too different in their ideas to see much of one another.
After the coup d'etat of 1851 Dumas crossed the frontier to
Brussels, and two years of rapid production, and the economy
of his secretary, Noel Parfait, restored something like order
to his affairs. On his return to Paris in the end of 1853 he
established a daily paper, Le Mousquelaire, for the criticism of art
and letters. It was chiefly written by Dumas, whose Memoires
first appeared in it, and survived until 1857, when it was suc-
ceeded by a weekly paper, the Monte-Cristo (1857-1860). In
1858 Dumas travelled through Russia to the Caucasus, and in
1860 he joined Garibaldi in Sicily. After an expedition to
Marseilles in search of arms for the insurgents, be returned to
Naples, where Garibaldi nominated him keeper of the museums.
After four years' residence in Naples he returned to Paris, and
after the war of '66 he visited the battlefields and produced his
story of La Terreur prussienne. But his powers were beginning to
fail, and in spite of the 1200 volumes which he told Napoleon
he had written, he was at the mercy of his creditors, and of the
succession of theatrical ladies who tyrannized over him and
feared nothing except the occasional visits of Dumas fils. He
was finally rescued from these by his daughter, Mme Petel, who
came to live with him in 1868; and two years later, on the
5th of December 1870, he died in his son's house at Puys, near
Dieppe.
Dumas was never an actual candidate for academic honours,
but he had more than once taken steps to investigate his chances
of success. A statue of him was erected on the Place Malesherbes,
Paris, in 1883, and the figure of d'Artagnan finds a place on the
pedestal.
Auguste Maquet was'Dumas's chief collaborator. Others were
Paul Lacroix (the bibliophile " P. L. Jacob"), Paul Bocage, J. P.
Mallefille and P. A. Fiorentino. The novels of Dumas may be
conveniently arranged in a historical sequence. The Valois
novels and the musqueteers series brought French history down
to 1672. Contributions to later history are: La Dame de wlupte
(i vols., 1864), being the memoirs of Mme de Luynes, and its
sequel Les Deux Reines (2 vols., 1864); La Tulipe noire (3 vols.,
1850), giving the history of the brothers de Witt; Le Chevalier
d'Harmental (4 vols., 1853), and Une Fille du regent (4 vols., 1845),
the story of two plots against the regent, the duke of Orleans;
two books on Mme du Deffand, Memoires d'une aveugle (8 vols.,
1856-1857) and Les Confessions de la marquise (8 vols., 1857),
both of doubtful authorship; Olympe de Cleves (9 vols., 1852),
the story of an actress and a young Jesuit novice in the reign of
Louis XV., one of his most popular novels; five books on the
beginning of the Revolution down to the execution of Marie
Antoinette: the Memoires d'un mSdecin, including Joseph
Balsamo (19 pts., 1846-1848), in which J. J. Rousseau, Mme
du Barry and the dauphiness Marie Antoinette figure, with its
sequels; Le Collier de la reine (9 vols., 1849-1850), in which Balsamo
appears under the alias of Cagliostro; Ange Pitou (8 vols., 1852),
known in English as " The Taking of the Bastille "; La Comtesse
de Charny (19 vols., 1853-1855), describing the attempts to save
the monarchy and the flight to Varennes; and Le Chevalier de
maison rouge (6 vols., 1846), which opens in 1793 with the hero's
attempt to save the queen. Among the numerous novels dealing
with the later revolutionary period are: Les Blancs et les bleus
(3 vols., 1868) and Les Compagnons de Jehu (7 vols., 1857). Les
Louves de Machecoul (10 vols., 1859) deals with the rising in 1832
in La Vendee. Other famous stories are: Les Freres corses
(2 vols., 1845); La Femme au collier de velours (2 vols., 1851);
Les Mohicans de Paris (19 vols., 1854-1855), detective stories with
which may be classed the series of Crimes celebres (8 vols., 1839-
1841), which are, however, of doubtful authorship; La San
Felice (9 vols., 1864-1865), in which Lady Hamilton played a
prominent part, with its sequels Emma Lyonna and Souvenirs
d'une favorite. Of his numerous historical works other than
fiction the most important is his Louis XIV et son siecle (4 vols.,
1845). Mes Memoires (20 vols., 1852-1854; Eng. trans, of
selections by A. F. Davidson, 2 vols., 1891) is an account of his
father and of his own life down to 1832. There are collective
editions of his plays (6 vols., 1834-1836, and 15 vols., 1863-1874),
but of the 91 pieces for which he was wholly or partially re-
sponsible, 24 do not appear in these collections.
The complete works of Dumas were issued by Michel Levy freres
in 277 volumes (1860-1884). The more important novels have been
frequently translated into English. There is a long list of writings
on his life and his works both in English and French. The more
important French authorities are: his own memoirs, already cited ;
C. Glinel, Alexandre Dumas el son asuvre (Reims, 1884); H. Parigot,
Dumas pere (Grands ecrivains francais series, 1902), and Le Drame
d' 'Alexandre Dumas (1899); H. Blaze de Bury, Alexandre Dumas
(1885); Philibert Andebrand, Alexandre Dumas a la maison d'or
(1888); G. Ferry, Dernieres Annees d' Alexandre Dumas (1883);
and L. H. Lecomte, Alexandre Dumas (1904). Of the English lives
of Dumas perhaps the best is that by Arthur F. Davidson, Alexandre
Dumas Pere, his^ Life and Works (1902), which contains an extensive
bibliography. See also lives by P. Fitzgerald (2 vols. , 1873) and H. A.
Spurr (1902), and essays by Andrew Lang (Letters to Dead Authors),
Brander Matthews (French Dramatists), R. L. Stevenson (Memories
and Portraits). (M. BR.)
DUMAS, ALEXANDRE [" DUMAS FILS"} (1824-1895), French
dramatist and novelist, was born in Paris on the 27th of July
1824, the natural son of Alexandre Dumas (see above) and the
dressmaker Marie Labay. His father at that date was still a
humble clerk and not much more than a boy. " Happily," writes
the son, " my mother was a good woman, and worked hard to
bring me up "; while of his father he says, " by a most lucky
chance he happened to be well-natured," and " as soon as his first
successes as a dramatist " enabled him to do so, " recognized me
and gave me his name." Nevertheless, the lad's earlier school-life
was made bitter by his illegitimacy. The cruel taunts and
malevolence of his companions rankled through life (see preface
to La Femme de Claude and L' Affaire CUmenceau), and left in-
delible marks on his character and thoughts. Nor was his
paternity, however distinguished, without peril. Alexandre
the younger and elder saw life together very thoroughly, and
Paris can have had few mysteries for them. Suddenly the son,
who had been led to regard his prodigal father's resources as
inexhaustible, was rudely undeceived. Coffers were empty,
and he had accumulated debts to the amount of two thousand
pounds.
Thereupon he pulled himself together. To a son of Dumas
the use of the pen came naturally. Like most clever young
writers and report speaks of him as specially brilliant at that
time he opened with a book of verse, Pechts dejeunesse (1847).
It was succeeded in 1848 by a novel, La Dame aux camelias,
a sort of reflection of the world in which he had been living. The
book had considerable success, and was followed, in fairly quick
succession, by Le Roman d'une femme (1848) and Diane de
Lys (1851). All this, however, did not deliver him from the
load of debt, which, as he tells us, remained odious. In 1849 he
dramatized La Dame aux camelias, but for various reasons,
the rigour of the censorship being the most important, it was not
till the 2nd of February 1852, and then only by the intervention
of Napoleon's all-powerful minister, Morny, that the play could
be produced at the Vaudeville. It succeeded then, and has held
the stage ever since, less perhaps from inherent superiority to
DUMAS, G. M. DUMAS, J. B. A.
657
other plays which have foundered than to the great opportunities
it affords to any actress of genius.
Thenceforward Dumas's career was that of a brilliant and
prosperous dramatist. Diane de Lys (1853), Le Demi-Monde
(1855), LaQuestion d' argent (iSsj),LeFilsnaturel (1858), Le Pere
prodigue (1859) followed rapidly. Debts became a thing of the
past, and Dumas a wealthy man. The didactic habit was always
strong upon him. " Alexandra loves preaching overmuch," wrote
his father; and in most of his plays he assumes the attitude of
a rigid and uncompromising moralist commissioned to impart
to a heedless world lessons of deep import. The lessons them-
selves are mostly concerned with the " eternal feminine," by
which Dumas was haunted, and differ in ethical value. Thus
in Les Idees de Madame Aubray (1867) he inculcates the duty
of the seducer to marry the woman he has seduced; but in
La Femme de Claude (1873) he argues the right of the husband
to take the law into his own hand and kill the wife who is un-
faithful and worthless a thesis again defended in his novel,
L'Ajfaife CUmenceau, and in his pamphlet, L'Homme-femme;
while in Diane de Lys he had taught that the betrayed husband
was entitled to kill not in a duel, but summarily the man who
had taken his honour; and in L'trangere (1876) the bad
husband is the victim. Nor did he preach only in his plays.
He preached in voluminous introductions, and pamphlets not a
few. And when, in 1870 and 1872, France was going through
bitter hours of humiliation, he called her to repentance and
amendment in a Nouvelle Lettre de Junius and two Lettres sur les
chases du jour.
As a moralist Dumas fils took himself very seriously indeed.
As a dramatist, didacticism apart, he had great gifts. He knew
his business thoroughly, possessed the art of situation, interest,
crisis could create characters that were real and alfve. His
dialogue also is admirable, the repartee rapier-like, the wit most
keen. He was_singularly happy, too, in his dramatic interpreters.
The cast of L'Etrangere, for instance, comprised Sarah Bernhardt,
Sophie Croizette, Madeleine Brohan, in the female characters;
and Coquelin, Got, Mounet-Sully and Febvre in the male char-
acters; and Aimee Desclee, whom he discovered, gave her genius
to the creation of the parts of the heroine in Une Visile de noces,
the Princesse Georges and La Femme de Claude. His wit has
been mentioned. He possessed it in abundance, of a singularly
trenchant kind. It shows itself less in his novels, which, however,
do not contain his best work; but in his introductions, whether
to his own books or those of his friends, and what may be called
his " occasional " writings, there is an admirable brightness.
At work of this kind he shov/ed the highest literary skill. His
style is that of the best French traditions. Towards his father
Dumas acted a kind of brother's part, and while keeping strangely
free from his literary influence, both loved and admired him.
The father never belonged to the French Academy. The son
was elected into that august assembly on the 3oth of January
1874. He died on the 27th of November 1895.
See also Jules Claretie, A. Dumas fils (1883); Paul Bourget,
Nouveaux Essais de psychologic contemporaine (1885) ; " La Comfdie
de moeurs," by Rene Doumic, in L. Petit de Julleville's Histoire de
la langue et de la litterature franfaise, viii. pp. 82 et seq. ; R. Doumic,
Portraits d'ecrivains (1892) ; Emile Zola, Documents luteraires, etudes
el portraits (1881).
(F. T. M.)
DUMAS, GUILLAUME MATHIEU, COUNT (1753-1837),
French general, was born at Montpellier, of a noble family,
on the 23rd of November 1753. He joined the army in 1773,
and entered upon active service in 1780, as aide-de-camp to
Rochambeau in the American War. He had a share in all the
principal engagements that occurred during a period of nearly
two years. On the conclusion of peace in 1783 he returned to
France as a major. He was engaged from 1784 to 1786 in
exploring the archipelago and the coasts of Turkey. He was
present at the siege of Amsterdam in 1787, where he co-operated
with the Dutch against the Prussians. At the Revolution he
acted with Lafayette and the constitutional liberal party. He
was entrusted by the Assembly with the command of the escort
which conducted Louis XVI. to Paris from Varennes. In 1791
as a marechal de camp he was appointed to a command at Metz,
where he rendered important service in improving the discipline
of the troops. Chosen a member of the Legislative Assembly
in the same year by the department of Seine-et-Oise, he was in
the following year elected president of the Assembly. When
the extreme republicans gained the ascendancy, however, he
judged it prudent to make his escape to England. Returning
after a brief interval, under the apprehension that his father-in-
law would be held responsible for his absence, he arrived in Paris
in the midst of the Reign of Terror, and had to flee to Switzerland.
Soon after his return to France he was elected a member of the
Council of Ancients. After the i8th Fructidor (1797) Dumas,
being proscribed as a monarchist, made his escape to Holstein,
where he wrote the first part of his Precis des tenements mili-
taires (published anonymously at Hamburg, 1800).
Recalled to his native country when Bonaparte became First
Consul, he was entrusted with the organization of the "Army of
Reserve " at Dijon. In 1801 he was nominated a councillor
of state. He did good service at Austerlitz, and went in 1806 to
Naples, where he became minister of war to Joseph Bonaparte.
On the transfer of Joseph to the throne of Spain, Dumas rejoined
the French army, with which he served in Spain during the
campaign of 1808, and in Germany during that of 1809. After
the battle of Wagram, Dumas was employed in negotiating the
armistice. In 1810 he became grand officer of the Legion of
Honour and a count of the empire. In the Russian campaign
of 1812 he held the post of intendant-general of the army,
which involved the charge of the administrative department.
The privations he suffered in the retreat from Moscow brought
on a dangerous illness. Resuming, on his recovery, his duties
as intendant-general, he took part in the battles of 1813, and was
made prisoner after the capitulation of Dresden. On the acces-
sion of Louis XVIII., Dumas rendered his new sovereign im-
portant services in connexion with the administration of the
army. When Napoleon returned from Elba, Dumas at first
kept himself in retirement, but he was persuaded by Joseph
Bonaparte to present himself to the emperor, who employed
him in organizing the National Guard. Obliged to retire when
Louis XVIII. was restored, he devoted his leisure to the con-
tinuation of his Precis des evenements militaires, of which nineteen
volumes, embracing the history of the war from 1798 to the peace
of 1807, appeared between 1817 and 1826. A growing weakness
of sight, ending in blindness, prevented him from carrying the
work further, but he translated Napier's Peninsular War as a
sort of continuation to it. In 1 8 1 8 Dumas was restored to favour
and admitted a member of the council of state, from which,
however, he was excluded in 1822. After the revolution of 1830,
in which he took an active part, Dumas was created a peer of
France, and re-entered the council of state. He died at Paris on
the 1 6th of October 1837.
Besides the Precis des evenements militaires, which forms a valu-
able source for the history of the period, Dumas wrote Souvenirs
du lieut. -general Comte Mathieu Dumas (published posthumously
by his son, Paris, 1839).
DUMAS, JEAN BAPTISTE ANDR& (1800-1884), French
chemist, was born at Alais (Card) on the isth of July 1800.
Disappointed in his early hope of entering the navy, he became
apprentice to an apothecary in his native town; but seeing little
prospect of advancement in that calling, he soon moved to Geneva
(in 1816). There he attended the lectures of such men as M. A.
Pictet in physics, C. G. de la Rive in chemistry, and A. P. de
Candolle in botany, and before he had reached his majority
he was engaged with Pierre Prevost in original work on problems
of physiological chemistry, and even of embryology. In 1823,
acting on the advice of A. von Humboldt, he left Geneva for
Paris, which he made his home for the rest of his life. There he
gained the acquaintance of many of the foremost scientific men
of the day, and quickly made a name for himself both as a teacher
and an investigator, attaining within ten years the honour
of membership of the Academy of Sciences. When approaching
his fiftieth year he entered political life, and became a member
of the National Legislative Assembly. He acted as minister
658
DU MAURIER
of agriculture and commerce for a few months in 1850-1851,
and subsequently became a senator, president of the municipal
council of Paris, and master of the French mint; but his official
career came to a sudden end with the fall of the Second Empire.
He died at Cannes on the nth of April 1884.. Dumas is one of
the most prominent figures in the chemical history of the middle
part of the ipth century. He was one of the first to criticize
the electro-chemical doctrines of J. J. Berzelius, which at the time
his work began were widely accepted as the true theory of the
constitution of compound bodies, and opposed a unitary view
to the dualistic conception of the Swedish chemist. In a paper
on the atomic theory, published so early as 1826, he anticipated
to a remarkable extent some ideas which are frequently supposed
to belong to a later period; and the continuation of these studies
led him to the ideas about substitution (" metalepsis ") which
were developed about 1839 into the theory (" Older Type
Theory ") that in organic chemistry there are certain types
which remain unchanged even when their hydrogen is replaced
by an equivalent quantity of a haloid element. Many of his
well-known researches were carried out in support of these views,
one of the most important being that on the action of chlorine
on acetic acid to form trichloracetic acid a derivative of essen-
tially the same character as the acetic acid itself. In the 1826 paper
he described his famous method for ascertaining vapour densities,
and the redeterminations which he undertook by its aid of the
atomic weights of carbon and oxygen proved the forerunners
of a long series which included some thirty of the elements,
the results being mostly published in 1858-1860. He also devised
a method of great value in the quantitative analysis of organic
substances for the estimation of nitrogen, while the classification
of organic compounds into homologous series was advanced
as one consequence of his researches into the acids generated
by the oxidation of the alcohols. Dumas was a prolific writer,
and his numerous books, essays, memorial addresses, &c., show
him to have been gifted with a clear and graceful style. His
earliest large work was a treatise on applied chemistry in eight
volumes, the first of which was published in 1828 and the last
twenty years afterwards. In the Essai de slatique chimique des
tires organises (1841), written jointly with J. B. J. D. Boussin-
gault (1802-1887), he treated the chemistry of life, both plant and
animal; this book brought him into conflict with Liebig, who
conceived that some of his prior work had been appropriated
without due acknowledgment. In 1824, hi conjunction with
J. V. Audouin and A. T. Brongniart, he founded the Annales
des sciences naturelles, and from 1840 he was one of the editors of
the Annales de chimk et de physique. As a teacher Dumas was
much sought after for his lectures at the Sorbonne and other
institutions both on pure and applied science; and he was one
of the first men in France to realize the importance of experi-
mental laboratory teaching.
DU MAURIER, GEORGE LOUIS PALMELLA BUSSON
(1834-1896), British artist and writer, was born hi Paris. His
father, a naturalized British subject, was the son of Emigres
who had left France during the Reign of Terror and settled in
London. In Peter Ibbetson, the first of the three books which
won George Du Maurier late in life a reputation as novelist almost
as great as he had enjoyed as artist and humorist for more than
a generation, the author tells in the form of fiction the story of
his singularly happy childhood. He was brought to London, in-
deed, when three or four years old, and spent in Devonshire
Terrace and elsewhere two colourless years; but vague memories
of this period were suddenly exchanged one beautiful day in June
" the first day of his conscious existence " for the charming
realities of a French garden and " an old yellow house with green
shutters and mansard roofs of slate." Here, at Passy, with his
" gay and jovial father " and his young English mother, the boy
spent "seven years of sweet priceless home-life seven times
four changing seasons of simple genial prae-Imperial French-
ness." The second chapter of Du Maurier's life had for scene a
Paris school, very much in the style of that "Institution F.
Brossard " which he describes, at once so vividly and so sym-
pathetically, in The Martian; and like "Barty Josselin's "
schoolfellow and biographer, he left it (in 1851) to study chemistry
at University College, London, actually setting up as an analyti-
cal chemist afterwards in Bucklersbury. But this was clearly
not to be his mttier, and the year 1856 found him once more in
Paris, in the Quartier Latin this time, in the core of that art-
world of which in Trilby, forty years later, he was to produce
with pen and pencil so idealistic and fascinating a picture.
Then, like "Barty Josselin" himself, he spent some years in
Belgium and the Netherlands, experiencing at Antwerp in 1857,
when he was working hi the studio of van Lerius, the one great
misfortune of his life the gradual loss of sight in his left eye,
accompanied by alarming symptoms in his right. It was a period
of tragic anxiety, for it seemed possible that the right eye might
also become affected; but this did not happen, and the dismal
cloud was soon to show its silver lining, for, about Christmas-
time 1858, there came to the forlorn invalid a copy of Punch's
Almanac, and with it the dawn of a new era hi his career.
There can be little doubt that the study of this Almanac,
and especially of Leech's drawings hi it, fired him with the
ambition of making his name as a graphic humorist; and it
was not long after his return to London hi 1860 that he sent
in his first contribution (very much hi Leech's manner) to
Punch. Mark Lemon, then editor, appreciated his talent, and
on Leech's death hi 1865 appointed him his successor, counselling
him with wise discrimination not to try to be "too funny,"
but " to undertake the light and graceful business " and be the
"romantic tenor" in Mr Punch's little company, while Keene, as
Du Maurier puts it, " with his magnificent highly-trained basso,
sang the comic songs." These respective r61es the two artists
continued to play until the end, seldom trespassing on each
other's province; the "comic songs" finding their inspiration
principally hi the life of the homely middle and lower middle
classes, while the " light and graceful business " enacted itself
almost exclusively hi "good Society." To a great extent,
also, Du Maurier had to leave outdoor life to Keene, his weak
sight making it difficult for him to study and sketch in the
open air and sunshine, thus cutting him off, as he records
regretfully, from " so much that is so popular, delightful and
exhilarating hi English country life " hunting and shooting
and fishing and the like. He contrived, however, to give due
attention to milder forms of outdoor recreation, and turned to
good account his familiarity with Hampstead Heath and Rotten
Row, and his holidays with his family at Whitby and Scar-
borough, Boulogne and Dieppe.
Of Du Maurier's life during the thirty-six years of his connexion
with Punch there is not, apart from his work as an artist, much
to record. In the early 'sixties he lived at 85 Newman Street in
lodgings, which he shared with his friend Lionel Henley, after-
wards R.B.A., working hard at his Punch sketches and his more
serious contributions to Once a Week and the Cornhill Magazine.
After his marriage with Miss Emma Wightwick hi 1862 he took
a spacious and pleasant house near Hampstead Heath, in sur-
roundings made familiar in his drawings. Shortly before he died
he moved to a house hi Oxford Square. About 1866 he struck
out a new line in his admirable illustrations to Jerrold's Story of a
Feather. In 1869 he realized a long-cherished aspiration, the
illustrating of Thackeray's Esmond, and in 1879 he drew twelve
additional vignettes for it, in the same year providing several
illustrations for the Ballads. From time to time he sent pretty
and graceful pictures to the exhibitions of the Royal Society of
Painters in Water-Colour, to which he was elected hi 1881. In
1885 the first exhibition of his works at the Fine Art Society
took place. Thus occupied in the practice of his art, spending
his leisure in social intercourse with his many friends and at
home with his growing family, hearing all the new singers and
musicians, seeing all the new plays, he lived the happiest of lives.
He died somewhat suddenly on the 8th of October 1896, and was
buried in the Hampstead parish churchyard. He left a family
of two sons the elder, Major Guy Du Maurier (b. 1865), a
soldier who became more widely known in 1909 as author of
the military play An Englishman's Home, and the younger,
Gerald, a well-known actor and three daughters.
DUMBARTON
659
It is impossible, in considering Du Maurier's work, to avoid
comparing it with that of Leech and Keene, the more so that
in his little book on Social Pictorial Satire he himself has set forth
or suggested the points both of resemblance and of difference.
Like Keene, though Keene's marvellous technique was his
despair, Du Maurier was a much more finished draughtsman than
John Leech, but in other respects he had less in common with the
younger than with the older humorist. He shows himself, in
the best sense, a man of feeling in all his work. He is clearly
himself in love with " his pretty woman," as he calls her every
pen-stroke in his presentment of her is a caress. How affec-
tionate, too, are his renderings of his fond young mothers
and their big, handsome, simple-minded husbands; his comely
children and neat nurserymaids; even his dogs his elongated
dachshunds and magnificent St Bernards! And how he scorns
the snobs and philistines Sir Gorgius Midas and Sir Pompey
Bedell, Grigsby and Cadby, Soapley and Toadson! How
merciless is his ridicule of the aesthetes of the 'eighties Maudle
and Postlethwaite and Mrs Cimabue Brown! Even to Mrs
Ponsonby de Tomkyns, his most conspicuous creation, his
satire is scarcely tempered, despite her prettiness. He shows
up unsparingly all her unscrupulous little ways, all her cynical,
cunning little wiles. Like Leech, he revelled in the lighter
aspects of life the humours of the nursery, the drawing-room,
the club, the gaieties of the country house and the seaside
without being blind to the tragic and dramatic. Just as Leech
could rise to the height of the famous cartoon " General Fevrier
turned Traitor," so it was Du Maurier who inspired Tenniel in
that impressive drawing on the eve of the Franco-German War,
in which the shade of the great Napoleon is seen warning back
the infatuated emperor from his ill-omened enterprise. In his
tender drawings hi Once a Week, also, and in his occasional
excursions into the grotesque in Punch, such as his picture of
" Old Nickotin stealing away the brains of his devotees," he has
given ample proof of his faculty for moving and impressive art.
The technique of Du Maurier's work in the 'eighties and the
'nineties, though to the average man it seems a marvel of finish
and dexterity, is considered by artists a falling off from what
was displayed in some of his earlier Punch drawings, and
especially in his contributions to the Cornhill Magazine and
Once, a Week. His later work is undoubtedly more mannered,
more " finicking," less simple, less broadly effective. But
it is to his fellow-craftsmen only and to experts that this is
noticeable.
A quaint tribute has been paid to the literary talent shown
in Du Maurier's inscriptions to his drawings by Mr F. Anstey
(Guthrie), author of Vice Versa, and Du Maurier's colleague on
the staff of Punch. " In these lines of letterpress," says Mr
Anstey, "he has brought the art of precis-writing to perfection."
They are indeed singularly concise and to the point. It is the
more curious, therefore, to note that in his novels, and even in
his critical essays, Du Maurier reveals very different qualities:
the precis-writer has become an improvisatore, pouring out his
stories and ideas in full flood, his style changing with every mood
by turn humorous, eloquent, tender, gay, sometimes merely
" skittish," sometimes quite solemn, but never for long; some-
times, again, breaking into graceful and haunting verse. He
writes with apparent artlessness; but, in his novels at least, on
closer examination, it is found that he has in fact exerted all
his ingenuity to give them what such flagrantly untrue tales
most require verisimilitude. It is hard to say which of the
three stories is the more impossible: that of Trilby, the tone-deaf
artist's model who becomes a prima donna, that of Barty Josselin
and his guardian angel from Mars, or that of the dream-existence
of Peter Ibbetson and the duchess of Towers. They are all
equally preposterous, and yet plausible. The drawings are
cunningly made to serve the purpose of evidence, circumstantial
and direct. These books cannot be criticized by the ordinary
canons of the art of fiction. They are a genre by themselves,
a blend of unfettered day-dream and rose-coloured reminiscence.
For the dramatic version of Trilby by Mr Paul Potter Du Maurier
would accept no credit. The play was produced in 1895 by
Herbert Beerbohm Tree, at the Haymarket, with immense
popular success.
Some striking examples of Du Maurier's work for Once a Week
and the Cornhill Magazine are included in Gleeson White's English
Illustrators of the Sixties. The following is a list of the chief works
which he illustrated: Foxe's Book of Martyrs (1865) ; Mrs. Gaskell's
Wives and Daughters (1866); Jerrold's Story of a Feather (1867);
Owen Meredith s Luctie (1868) ; The Book of Drawing-room Plays,
by H. Dalton (1868) ; Sooner or Later, by C. A. G. Brooke (1868) ;
Thackeray's Esmond (1869 and 1879), and Ballads (1879) ; Misunder-
stood, by Florence Montgomery (1874) '< Round about the Islands, by
C. W. Scott (1874) ; Hurlock Chase, by G. E. Sargent (1876) ; Songs
of many Seasons, by J. Browne (in collaboration) (1876); Pegasus
Re-saddled, by H. C. Pennell (1877) ' Ingoldsby Legends (in colla-
boration), by R. Barham (1877); Prudence, by L. C. Lillie (1882);
As in a Looking-glass, by F. C. Phillips (1889); Luke Ashleigh, by
A. Elwes (1891) ; and his own three novels, which appeared serially
in Harper's Magazine: Peter Ibbetson (1892); Trilby (1894) ; The
Martian (1897), and published after his death. In 1897 also there
was published, under the title English Society, with an introduction
by W. D. Howells, a collection of full-page drawings which he had
contributed regularly to Harper's Magazine.
Some of his Punch drawings have been reproduced also in The
Collections of Mr Punch (1880) ; Society Pictures from Punch (1890) ;
A Legend of Camelot (1890). To his Social Pictorial Satire (1890)
reference has been made. He contributed two essays upon book
illustration to the Magazine of Art (1890). See also the Magazine
of Art for 1892, for an article upon his work by W. Delaplaine Scull,
with illustrations. Other volumes containing information about his
life and work are: The History of Punch, by M. H. Spielmann; In
Bohemia with Du Maurier, by Felix Moscheles; Henry James's
" Du Maurier and London Society," Century Magazine (1883) ;
and " Du Maurier," Harper's Magazine (September 1897, June
1899). See also Ruskin's Art of England, Lecture 5, Pennell's Pen-
Drawing, and Pen-Draughtsmen, and Muther's Modern Painting,
vol. ii. (F. W. W.)
DUMBARTON, a royal, municipal and police burgh, seaport,
and county town of Dumbartonshire, Scotland, situated on the
river Leven, near its confluence with the Clyde, 155 m. W. by N.
of Glasgow by the North British and Caledonian railways. ' Pop.
(1891) I7,625;(i90i) 19,985. TheAlcluith(" hillof theClyde ")
of the Britons, and Dunbreatan (" fort of the Britons ") of the
Celts, it was the capital of the district of Strathclyde. Here, too,
the Romans had a naval station which they called Theodosia.
Although thus a place of great antiquity, the history of the town
practically centres in that of the successive fortresses on the Rock
of Dumbarton, a twin-peaked mount, 240 ft. high and a mile
in circumference at the base. The fortress was often besieged
and sometimes taken, the Picts seizing it in 736 and the Northmen
in 870, but the most effectual surprise of all was that accom-
plished, in the interests of the young King James VI., by Thomas
Crawford of Jordanhill on March 31, 1571. The castle was
held by Queen Mary's adherents, and as it gave them free com-
munication with France, its capture was deemed essential.
Crawford decided to climb the highest point, concluding that,
owing to its imagined security, it would be carelessly guarded.
Favoured with a dark and foggy night the party of 150 men and
a guide reached the first ledge of rock undiscovered. In scaling
the second precipice one of the men was seized with an epileptic
fit on the ladder. Crawford bound him to the ladder and then
turned it over and was thus enabled to ascend to the summit.
At this moment the alarm was given, but the sentinel and the
sleepy soldiers were slain and the cannon turned on the garrison.
Further resistance being useless, the castle was surrendered.
During the governorship of Sir John Menteith, William Wallace
was in 1305 imprisoned within its walls before he was removed
to London. The higher of the two peaks is known as Wallace's
seat, a tower, perhaps the one in which he was incarcerated,
being named after him. On the portcullis gateway may still be
seen rudely carved heads of Wallace and his betrayer, the latter
with his finger in his mouth. Queen Mary, when a child, resided
in the castle for a short time. It is an ugly barrack-like structure,
defended by a few obsolete guns, although by the Union Treaty
it is one of the four fortresses that must be maintained. The rock
itself is basalt, with a tendency to columnar formation, and some
parts of it have a magnetic quality.
The town arms are the elephant and castle, with the motto
Fortitude et fidelilas. Dumbarton was of old the capital of the
66o
DUMBARTONSHIRE
earldom of Lennox, but was given up by Earl Maldwyn to Alex-
ander II., by whom it was made a royal burgh in 1221 and
declared to be free from all imposts and burgh taxes. Later
sovereigns gave it other privileges, and the whole were finally
confirmed by a charter of James VI. It had the right to levy
customs and dues on all vessels on the Clyde between Loch Long
and the Kelvin. " Offers dues " on foreign ships entering the
Clyde were also exacted. In 170x3 these rights were transferred
to Glasgow by contract, but were afterwards vested in a special
trust created by successive acts of parliament.
Most of the town lies on the left bank of the Leven, which
almost converts the land here into a peninsula, but there is
communication with the suburb of Bridgend on the right bank
by a five-arched stone bridge, 300 ft. long. The public buildings
include the Burgh Hall, the academy (with a graceful steeple),
the county buildings, the Denny Memorial, a Literary and a
Mechanics' institute, Masonic hall, two cottage hospitals, a fever
hospital, a public library and the combination poorhouse. There
are two public parks Broad Meadow (20 acres), part of ground
reclaimed in 1859, and Levengrove (32 acres), presented to the
corporation in 1885 by Peter Denny and John McMillan, two ship-
builders who helped lay the foundation of the town's present
prosperity. The old parish kirkyard was closed in 1856, but a fine
cemetery was constructed in its place outside the town. Dum-
barton is controlled by a provost and a council. With Port-
Glasgow, Renfrew, Rutherglen and Kilmarnock it unites in
returning one member to parliament. The principal industry
is shipbuilding. The old staple trade of the making of crown
glass, begun in 1777, lapsed some 70 years afterwards when the
glass duty was abolished. There are several great engineering
works, besides iron and brass foundries, saw-mills, rope-yards
and sail-making works. There are quays, docks and a harbour
at the mouth of the Leven, and a pier for river steamers runs out
from the Castle rock. The first steam navigation company was
established in Dumbarton in 1815, when the " Duke of Welling-
ton " (built in the town) plied between Dumbarton and Glasgow.
But it was not till 1844, consequent on the use of iron for vessels,
that shipbuilding became the leading industry.
DUMBARTONSHIRE, a western county of Scotland, bounded
N. by Perthshire, E. by Stirh'ngshire, S.E. by Lanarkshire,
S. by the Clyde and its estuary, and W. by Loch Long and
Argyllshire. There is also a detached portion, comprising the
parish of Kirkintilloch and part of that of Cumbernauld enclosed
between the shires of Stirling and Lanark. This formerly formed
part of Stirlingshire, but was annexed in the I4th century when
the earl of Wigtown, to whom it belonged, became heritable
sheriff of Dumbartonshire. Dumbartonshire has an area of
170,762 acres or 267 sq. m. The north-west and west are
mountainous, the chief summits being Ben Vorlich (3092 ft.),
Ben Vane (30x54), Doune Hill (2409), Beinn Chaorach (2338),
Beinn a Mhanaich (2328), Beinn Eich (2302), Cruach ant Suthein
(2244), Ben Reoch (2168), Beinn Tharsuinn (2149), Beinn Dubh
(2018), Balcnock (2092) and Tullich Hill (2075). In the south
are the Kilpatrick Hills, their highest points being Duncomb
and Fynloch (each 1313 ft.). The Clyde, the Kelvin and the
Leven are the only rivers of importance. The Leven flows out
of Loch Lomond at Balloch and joins the Clyde at Dumbarton
after a serpentine course of about 7 m. Most of the other
streams are among the mountains, whence they find their way
to Loch Lomond, the principal being the Inveruglas, Douglas,
Luss, Finlas and Fruin. Nearly all afford good sport to
the angler. Of the inland lakes by far the largest and most
magnificent is Loch Lomond (<?..). The boundary between the
shires of Dumbarton and Stirling follows an imaginary line
through the lake from the mouth of Endrick Water to a point
opposite the isle of Vow, giving about two-thirds of the loch
to the former county. Loch Sloy on the side of Ben Vorlich is a
long, narrow lake, 812 ft. above the sea amid wild scenery.
From its name the Macfarlanes took their slogan or war-cry.
The shores of the Gareloch, a salt-water inlet 6| m. long and i m.
wide, are studded with houses of those whose business lies in
Glasgow. Garelochhead has grown into a favourite summer
resort; Clynder is famed for its honey. The more important
salt-water inlet, Loch Long, is 17 m. in length and varies in width
from 2 m. at its mouth to about % a mile in its upper reach. It
is the dumping-place for the dredgers which are constantly at
work preserving the tide-way of the Clyde from Dumbarton
to the Broomielaw its use for this purpose being a standing
grievance to anglers. . The scenery on both shores is very beauti-
ful. Only a mile separates Garelochhead from Loch Long, and
at Arrochar the distance from Tarbet on Loch Lomond is barely
if m. Nearly all the glens are situated in the Highland part
of the shire, the principal being Glen Sloy, Glen Douglas, Glen
Luss and Glen Fruin. The last is memorable as the scene of
the bloody conflict in 1603 between the Macgregors and the
Colquhouns, in which the latter were almost exterminated. It
was this savage encounter that led to the proscription of the
Macgregors, including the famous Rob Roy.
Geology. Like the other counties along the eastern border of the
Highlands, Dumbartonshire is divided geologically into two areas,
the boundary between the two being defined by a line extending
from Rossdhu on Loch Lomond south-west by Row and Roseneatn
to Kilcreggan. The mountainous region lying to the north of this
line is composed of rocks belonging to the metamorphic series of the
Eastern Highlands and representing several of the groups met with
in the adjoining counties of Perth and Argyll. Immediately to
the north of the Highland border the Aberfoyle slates and grits
appear, repeated by isoclinal folds trending north-east and south-
west and dipping towards the north-west. These are followed by
a great development of the Ben Ledi grits and schists the repre-
sentatives of the Beinn Bheula grits and ablite schists of Argyllshire,
which, by means of rapid plication, spread over the high grounds
northwards to beyond the head of Loch Lomond. Along the line
of section between Luss and Ardlui important evidence is obtained
of the gradual increase of metamorphism as we proceed northwards
from the Highland border. The original clastic characters of the
strata are obscured and the rocks between Arrochar and Inverarnan
in Glen Falloch merge into quartz-biotite gneisses and albite schists.
In the extreme north between Ardlui and the head of Glen Fyne in
Argyllshire there is a large development of plutonic rocks piercing
the Highland schists and producing marked contact metamorphism.
These range from acid to ultrabasic types and include granite,
augite-dionte, picrite and serpentine. On the hill-slopes to the
west of Ardlui and Inverarnan the diorite appears, while farther
west, between the watershed and Glen Fyne, there is a large mass of
granite. Boulders of plutonic rocks from this area have been widely
distributed by the ice during the glacial period. Immediately to
the south of the Highland border line there is a belt of Upper Old
Red Sandstone strata which stretches from the shores of Loch
Lomond westwards by Helensburgh and Roseneatn Castle to Kil-
creggan. These sandstones and conglomerates are succeeded by
the sandstones, shales, clays and cementstones at the base of the
Carboniferous formation which occupy a narrow strip between
Loch Lomond and Gareloch and are cut off by a fault along their
south-east margin. East of this dislocation there is a belt of Lower
Old Red Sandstone strata extending from the mouth of the Endrick
Water south-westwards by Balloch to the shore of the Clyde west
of Cardross, which is bounded on either side by the upper division
of that system. Still farther east beyond Dumbarton the Upper Old
Red Sandstone is again surmounted by the representatives of the
Cementstone group, which are followed by the lavas, tuffs and
agglomerates of the Kirkpatrick Hills, intercalated in the Calciferous
Sandstone series. Here the terraced features of the volcanic plateau,
produced by the denudation of the successive flows is well displayed.
Eastwards by Kilpatrick and Bearsden to the margin of the county
near Maryhill the rocks of Calciferous Sandstone age are followed
in normal order by the Carboniferous Limestone series; the Hurlet
Limestone and Hurlet Coal of the lower limestone group being
prominently developed. In the detached portion of the county
between Kirkintilloch and Cumbernauld there is an important
coalfield embracing the seams in the middle or coal-bearing group
of the Carboniferous Limestone series. In this county there are
several striking examples of the east and west dolerite dykes which
are probably of late Carboniferous age. These traverse the High-
land schists between Loch Long and Loch Lomond, the Old Red
Sandstone area between Alexandria and the Blane Valley, and the
Carboniferous tract near Cumbernauld. The ice which radiated
from the Dumbartonshire Highlands moved south-east and east
towards the central plain of Carboniferous rocks. Hence the
boulder clay of the lowland districts is abundantly charged with
boulders of schistose grit, slate, gneiss and granite derived from
areas lying far to the north-west. Along the shores of the Clyde the
broad terraced features indicate the limits of successive raised
beaches.
Climate and Agriculture. There is excessive rainfall in the
Highlands, averaging 53 in. at Helensburgh up to nearly 70 in.
in the north. The temperature, with an average for the year
DUMB WAITER DUM-DUM
661
of 47^ F., varies from 38 in January to 58 in July, but in the
valleys the heat in midsummer is often oppressive. The pre-
vailing winds are from the west and south-west, but easterly
winds are frequent in the spring. Frosts are seldom severe, and,
except on the mountains, snow never lies long. The arable lands
extend chiefly along the Clyde and the Leven, and are composed
of rich black loam, gravelly soil and clay. From the proximity
to Glasgow and other large towns the farmers have the double
advantage of good manure and a ready market for all kinds of
stock and produce, and under this stimulus high farming and
dairying on a considerable scale prosper. Black-faced sheep and
Highland cattle are pastured on the hilly lands and Cheviots
and Ayrshires on the low grounds. Oats and wheat are the
principal cereals, but barley and potatoes in abundance, and
turnips and beans are also grown.
Other Industries. Turkey-red dyeing has long been the
distinctive industry of the county. The water of the Leven being
not only constant but also singularly soft and pure, dyers and
bleachers have constructed works at many places in the Vale of
Leven. Bleaching has been carried on since the early part of
the 1 8th century, and cotton-printing at Levenfield dates from
1768. The establishments at Alexandria, Bonhill, Jamestown,
Renton and other towns for all the processes connected with
the bleaching, dyeing and printing of cottons, calicoes and other
cloths, besides yarns, are conducted on the largest scale. At
Milton the first power-loom mill was erected. The engineering
works and shipbuilding yards at Clydebank are famous, and at
Dumbarton there are others almost equally busy. The extensive
Singer sewing-machine works are at Kilbowie, and the Clyde
Trust barge-building shops are at Dalmuir. There are distilleries
and breweries at Duntocher, Bowling, Dumbarton, Milngavie
(pronounced Milguy) and other towns. In fact the Vale of Leven
and the riverside towns east of Dumbarton form a veritable
hive of industry. In the detached portion, Kirkintilloch and
Cumbernauld are seats of great activity in the mining of coal
and ironstone, and there are besides chemical works and saw-
mills in the former town. There is some fishing at Helensburgh
and along the Gareloch.
The populous districts of the county are served almost wholly
by the North British railway. From Helensburgh to Inverarnan
the Highland railway runs through scenery of the most diversified
and romantic character. The Caledonian railway has access to
Balloch from Glasgow, and its system also traverses the detached
portion. Portions of the Forth and Clyde Canal, which connects
with the Clyde at Bowling, and was opened for traffic in 1775,
pass through the shire. There is regular steamer communication
between Glasgow and the towns and villages on the coast, and
on Loch Lomond steamers call at several points between Balloch
and Ardlui.
Population and Government. The population of Dumbarton-
shire in 1891 was 98,014 and in 1901 113,865, of whom 3101
spoke both Gaelic and English and 14 Gaelic only. The principal
towns, with populations in 1901, are Alexandria (8007), Bonhill
(3333), Clydebank (21,591), Dumbarton (19,985), Duntocher
(2122), Helensburgh (8554), Jamestown (2080), Kirkintilloch
(11,681), Milngavie (3481), New Kilpatrick or Bearsden (2705)
and Renton (5067). The county returns one member to parlia-
ment. Dumbarton, the county town, is the only royal burgh,
and belongs to the Kilmarnock group of parliamentary burghs.
The municipal and police burghs are Clydebank, Cove and Kil-
creggan, Dumbarton, Helensburgh, Kirkintilloch and Milngavie.
Dumbartonshire forms a sheriffdom with the counties of Stirling
and Clackmannan, and there is a resident sheriff-substitute at
Dumbarton, who sits also at Kirkintilloch. The shire is under
school-board jurisdiction, but there are several voluntary schools,
besides St Peter's Roman Catholic College in New Kilpatrick.
Science, art and technical classes are subsidized out of the whole
of the county " residue " and, if necessary, out of part of the
burgh " residue " also. Agricultural lectures and the travelling
expenses and fees of county students at Glasgow Technical
College are also paid for from the same source.
History. The country is rich in antiquities connected with
the aborigines and also with the Romans. The Caledonians and
Picts have left their traces in rude forts and tumuli, but of greater
interest are remains in several places of the wall of Antoninus,
built from the Forth to the Clyde, and running along the north
of the detached portion of the shire and through the south-eastern
corner of the county to Kilpatrick. Other Roman relics have
been found at Duntocher, Cumbernauld and elsewhere. The
shire forms part of the old Scottish territory of Lennox
(Levenachs, " fields of the Leven "), which embraced the Vale of
the Leven and the basin of Loch Lomond, or all modern Dum-
bartonshire, most of Stirling and parts of the shires of Renfrew
and Perth. It gave the title of the earldom created in 1174 by
William the Lion and of the dukedom conferred by Charles II.
on his natural son, Charles, duke of Richmond and Lennox.
In 1702 the Lennox estates were sold to the marquis of Montrose.
The captive Wallace was conveyed in chains to Dumbarton
Castle, whence he was taken to his death in London. Robert
Bruce is said to have mustered his forces at Dullatur prior to the
battle of Bannockburn, and died at Cardross Castle in 1329.
The Covenanters in their flight from the bloody field of Kilsyth,
where in 1645 Montrose had defeated them with great slaughter,
made their way through the southern districts. When the Forth
and Clyde Canal was being excavated swords, pistols, and other
weapons dropped by the fugitives were found at Dullatur,
together with skeletons of men and horses. In the Highland
country the clans of Macgregor and Macfarlane made their
home in the fastnesses, whence they descended in raids upon
the cattle, the goods and sometimes the persons of their Lowland
neighbours.
See J. Irving, History of Dumbartonshire (Dumbarton, 1860) ;
Book of Dumbartonshire (Edinburgh, 1879) ; Sir W. Fraser, Chiefs
of Colquhoun (Edinburgh, 1869); The Lennox (Edinburgh, 1874);
D. Macleod, Castle and Town of Dumbarton (Dumbarton, 1877);
Dumbarton (Dumbarton, 1884); Dumbarton: Ancient and Modern
(Glasgow, 1893); Ancient Records of Dumbarton (Dumbarton, 1896);
J. Glen, History of Dumbarton (Dumbarton, 1876).
DUMB WAITER, 1 a small oblong or circular table to hold
reserve plates, knives and forks, and other necessaries for a meal.
This piece of furniture originated in England towards the end
of the 1 8th century, and some exceedingly elegant examples
were designed by Sheraton and his school. They were usually
circular, with three diminishing tiers, sometimes surrounded by
a continuous or interrupted pierced gallery in wood or brass.
The smaller varieties are now much used in England for the dis-
play of small silver objects in drawing-rooms.
DUM-DUM, a town and cantonment in British India at the
head of an administrative subdivision in the district of the
Twenty-four Parganas, in the presidency division of Bengal,
with a station on the Eastern Bengal railway, 4^ m. N.E. of
Calcutta. It was the headquarters of the Bengal artillery from
1783 to 1853, when they were transferred to Meerut as a more
central station; and its possession of a cannon foundry and a
percussion-cap factory procured for it the name of the Woolwich
of India. The barracks still occupied by small detachments
are brick-built and commodious; and among the other buildings
are St Stephen's Protestant church, a Roman Catholic chapel,
a European and native hospital, a large bazaar and an English
school. The population in 1901 of North Dum-Dum was 9916,
and of South Dum-Dum 10,904. It was at Dum-Dum that the
treaty of 1757 was signed by which the nawab of Bengal ratified
the privileges of the English, allowed Calcutta to be fortified,
and bestowed freedom of trade. On the 7th of December 1908
a serious explosion occurred by accident at the Dum-Dum
arsenal, resulting in death or serious injury to about 50 native
workmen.
At the Dum-Dum foundry the hollow-nosed " Dum-Dum "
(Mark IV.) bullets were manufactured, the supposed use of which
by the British during the Boer War caused considerable comment
in 1899. Their peculiarity consisted in their expanding on
1 The term " dumb," strictly meaning mute or destitute of
speech (see DEAF AND DUMB), is applied in this and other analogous
cases (e.g. dumb-bell, dumb-barge) as connoting the absence of some
normal capacity in the term with which it is associated.
662
DUMESNIL DUMFRIES
impact and thus creating an ugly wound, and they had been
adopted in Indian frontier fighting owing to the failure of the
usual type of bullets to stop the rushes of fanatical tribesmen.
They were not, in fact, used during the Boer War. Other and
improvised forms of expanding bullet were used in India and
the Sudan, the commonest methods of securing expansion being
to file down the point until the lead core was exposed and to
make longitudinal slits in the nickel envelope. AU these forms
of bullet have come to be described colloquially, and even in
diplomatic correspondence, as " dum-dum bullets," and their
alleged use by Russian troops in the Russo-Japanese War of
1904-1905 formed the subject of a protest on the part of the
Japanese government. The proposals made at the second Hague
Conference to forbid the use of these bullets by international
agreement were agreed to by all the powers except Great Britain
and the United States.
DUMESNIL, MARIE FRAN50ISE (1713-1803), French actress,
whose real name was Marchand, was born in Paris on the and
of January 1713. She began her stage career hi the provinces,
whence she was summoned in 1737 to make her debut at the
Comedie Francaise as Clytemnestre in Iphigenie en Tauride.
She at once came into the front rank, playing Cleopatre, Phedre,
Athalie and Hermione with great effect, and when she created
M6rope (1743) Voltaire says that she kept the audience in tears
for three successive acts. She retired from the stage in 1776,
but lived until the 2oth of February 1803. Her rival, Clairon,
having spoken ill of her, she authorized the publication of a
Memoire de Marie Franqoise Dumesnil, en reponse aux memoires
d'Hippolyte Clairon (1800).
DUMFRIES (Gaelic, " the fort in the copse "), a royal and
parliamentary burgh and capital of the county, Dumfriesshire,
Scotland. It lies on the left bank of the Nith, about 8 m. from
the Solway Firth and 81 m. S.E. of Glasgow by the Glasgow &
South-Western railway. Pop. (1891) 16,675; (1901) 17,079.
Dumfries is beautifully situated and is one of the handsomest
county towns hi Scotland. The churches and chapels of the
Presbyterian and other communions are, many of them, fine
buildings. St Michael's (1746), a stately pile, was the church
which Robert Burns attended, and in its churchyard he was
buried, his remains being transferred in 1815 to the magnificent
mausoleum erected in the south-east comer, where also lie his
wife, Jean Armour, and several members of his family. The
Gothic church of Greyfriars (1866-1867) occupies the site partly
of a Franciscan monastery and partly of the old castle of
the town. On the site of St Mary's (1837-1839), also Gothic,
stood the small chapel raised by Christiana, sister of Robert
Bruce, to the memory of her husband, Sir Christopher Seton,
who had been executed on the spot by Edward I. St Andrew's
(1811-1813), in the Romanesque style, is a Roman Catholic
church, which also serves as the pro-cathedral of the diocese of
Galloway.
Besides numerous schools, there is an admirably equipped
Academy. The old infirmary building is now occupied by St
Joseph's College, a commercial academy of the Marist Brother-
hood, in connexion with which there is a novitiate for the training
of members of the order for missionary service at home or abroad.
In the middle of the market-place stands the old town hall,
with red tower and cupola, known from its situation as the Mid
Steeple, built by Tobias Bachup of Alloa (1708). The new town
hall and post-office are near the uppermost bridge. The county
buildings, in Buccleuch Street, are an imposing example of the
Scots Baronial style. To Mr Andrew Carnegie and Mr and Mrs
M'Kie of Moat House was due the free library. The charitable
institutions include Moorhead's hospital (1753) for reduced
householders; the Dumfriesshire and Galloway royal infirmary,
datingfrom 1778, but now housed in a fine edifice in the northern
Italian style; the Crichton royal institution for the insane,
founded by Dr James Crichton of Friars Carse, and supple-
mented in 1848 by the Southern Counties asylum; the new
infirmary, a handsome building ; the contagious diseases
hospital, the industrial home for orphan and destitute girls and a
nurses' home. The Theatre Royal, reconstructed in 1876, dates
from 1787. Burns composed several prologues and epilogues for
some of its actors and actresses. Among other public buildings
are the assembly rooms, St George's hall, the volunteer drill hall,
and the Crichton Institution chapel, completed at a cost of
30,000. The corporation owns the water supply, public baths
and wash-houses and the gasworks. In front of Greyfriars
church stands a marble statue of Burns, unveiled in 1882, and
there is also a monument to Charles, third duke of Queensberry.
The Nith is crossed by three bridges and the railway viaduct.
The bridge, which is used for vehicular traffic, dates from 1790-
1794. Devorgilla's bridge, below it, built of stone in 1280,
originally consisted of nine arches (now reduced to three), and
is reserved in spite of its massive appearance for foot passengers
only, as is also the suspension bridge opened in 1875.
Dumfries, Annan, Kirkcudbright, Lochmaben and Sanquhar
the " Five Carlins " of Burns's Election Ballads combine to
return one member to Parliament. As a parliamentary burgh
Dumfries includes Maxwelhown, on the opposite side of the river,
which otherwise belongs to Kirkcudbrightshire.
The leading industries comprise manufactures of tweeds,
hosiery, clogs, baskets and leather, besides the timber trade!
nursery gardening and the making of machinery and iron
implements. Dumfries markets for cattle and sheep, held weekly,
and for horses, held five times annually, have always ranked with
the best, and there is also a weekly market for pork during the
five months beginning with November. The sea-borne trade is
small compared with what it was before the railway came.
Although Dumfries was the site of a camp of the Selgovian
Britons, nothing is known of its history until long after the
withdrawal of the Romans. William the Lion (d. 1214) made
it a royal burgh, but the oldest existing charter was granted by
Robert II. in 1395. The town became embroiled in the struggles
that ended in the independence of Scotland. It favoured the
claims to the throne, first of John Baliol whose mother Devor-
gilla, daughter of Alan, lord of Galloway, had done much to
promote its prosperity by building the stone bridge over the Nith
and then of the Red Comyn, as against those of Robert Bruce,
who drew his support from Annandale. When Edward I.
besieged Carlaverock Castle in 1300 he lodged in the Franciscan
monastery, which, six years later (loth of February 1306), was
the scene of the murder of Comyn (see ROBERT THE BRUCE).
From this time to nearly the close of the i6th century the burgh
was exposed to frequent raids, both from freebooters on the
English side and from partisans of the turbulent chiefs
Douglases, Maxwells, Johnstones. The Scottish sovereigns,
however, did not wholly neglect Dumfries. James IV., James V.,
Mary and her son each visited it. James VI. was royally enter-
tained on the 3rd of August 1617, and afterwards presented the
seven incorporated trades with a silver gun to encourage the
craftsmen in the practice of musketry. The competition for this
cannon-shaped tube, now preserved in the old town hall, took
place annually with a great festival every seven years until
1831. John Mayne (1759-1836), a native of Dumfries, com-
memorated the gathering in an excellent humorous poem
called " The Siller Gun." Though in sympathy with the
Covenanters, the town was the scene of few incidents comparable
to those which took place in the northern parts of the shire.
The Union with England was so unpopular that not only did the
provost vote against the measure in the Scottish parh'ament,
but the articles were burned (2oth of November 1706) at the
Market Cross by a body of Cameronians, amidst the approving
cheers of the inhabitants. In both 1715 and 1745 Dumfries
remained apathetic. Prince Charles Edward indeed occupied
the town, holding his court in a building afterwards known as
the Commercial Hotel, levying 2000 tribute money and re-
quisitioning 1000 pairs of shoes for his Highlanders, by way of
punishing its contumacy. But, in a false alarm, the Jacobites
suddenly retreated, and a few years later the town was reimbursed
by the State for the Pretender's extortions. The most interesting
event in the history of Dumfries is its connexion with Burns,
for the poet resided here from December 1791 till his death on
the 2ist of July 1 796. The house in which he died is still standing.
DUMFRIESSHIRE
663
The picturesque ruins of Carlaverock Castle the " Ellan-
gowan " of Guy Mannering are 8 m. to the south. Above the
entrance are the arms of the Maxwells, earls of Nithsdale, to whose
descendant, the duchess of Norfolk, it belongs. The castle, which
is in an excellent state of preservation, is built of red sandstone,
on the site of a fortress supposed to have been erected in the 6th
century, of which nothing now remains. In plan it is a triangle,
protected by a double moat, and has round towers at the angles.
Part of the present structure is believed to date from 1220 and
once sheltered William Wallace. It withstood Edward I.'s
siege in 1300 for two days, although garrisoned by only sixty men.
In the troublous times that followed it often changed hands. In
1370 it fell into disrepair, but was restored, and in 1641 was
besieged for the last time by the Covenanters.
A mile and a half to the north-west of Dumfries lies Lincluden
Abbey, " an old ruin," says Burns, " in a sweet situation at
the confluence of the Cluden and the Nith." Originally the abbey
was a convent, founded in the i2th century, but converted two
centuries later into a collegiate church by Archibald, earl of
Douglas. The remains of the choir and south transept disclose
rich work of the Decorated style.
DUMFRIESSHIRE, a border county of Scotland, bounded
S. by the Solway Firth, S.E. by Cumberland, E. by Roxburgh-
shire, N. by the shires of Lanark, Peebles and Selkirk, and W.
by Ayrshire and Kirkcudbrightshire. Its area is 686,302 acres
or 1072 sq. m. The coast line measures 21 m. The county
slopes very gradually from the mountainous districts in the
north down to the sea, lofty hills alternating in parts with
stretches of tableland or rich fertile holms. At various points
within a few miles of the Solway are tracts of moss land, like
Craigs Moss, Lochar Moss and Longbridge Moor in the west, and
Nutberry Moss in the east, all once under water, but now largely
reclaimed. The principal mountains occur near the northern
boundaries, the highest being White Coomb (2695 ft.), Hart
Fell (2651), Saddle Yoke (2412), Swatte Fell (2389), Lowther
Hills (2377), Queensberry (2285), which gives his secondary title
to the duke of Buccleuch and the title of marquess to a branch
of the house of Douglas, and Ettrick Pen (2269). The three
longest rivers are the Nith, the Annan and the Esk, the basins
of which form the great dales by which the county is cleft from
north to south Nithsdale, Annandale and Eskdale. From the
point where it enters Dumfriesshire, 16 m. from its source near
Enoch Hill in Ayrshire, the course of the Nith is mainly south-
easterly till it enters the Solway, a few miles below Dumfries.
Its total length is 65 m., and its chief affluents are, on the right,
the Kello, Euchan, Scar, Cluden and Cargen, and, on the left,
the Crawick, Carron and Campie. The Annan rises near the
Devil's Beef Tub, a remarkable chasm in the far north, and
after flowing about 40 m., mainly in a southerly course, it enters
the Solway at Barnkirk headland. It receives, on the right,
the Kinnel (reinforced by the Ae), and, on the left, the Moffat,
the Dryfe and the Milk. From the confluence of the White Esk
(rising near Ettrick Pen) and the Black Esk (rising near Jock's
Shoulder, 1754 ft.) the Esk flows in a gradually south-easterly
direction till it crosses the Border, whence it sweeps to the S.W.
through the extreme north-western territory of Cumberland
and falls into the Solway. Of its total course of 42 m., 12 belong
to the Wnite Esk, 20 are of the Esk proper on Scottish soil and
10 are of the stream in its English course. On the right the
Wauchope is the chief affluent, and on the left it receives the
Megget, Ewes, Tarras and Line the last being an English
tributary. Other rivers are the Lochar (18 m.), the Kirtle
(17) and the Sark (12), all flowing into the Solway. For one
mile of its course the Esk, and for 7 m. of its course the Sark, form
the boundaries between Dumfriesshire and Cumberland. Loch
Skene in the north (1750 ft. above the sea), the group of lochs
around Lochmaben, and Loch Urr in the west, only part of
which belongs to Dumfriesshire, are the principal lakes. There
are few glens so named in the shire, but the passes of Dalveen,
Enterkin and Menock, leading up from Nithsdale to the Lowther
and other hills, yield to few glens in Scotland in the wild grandeur
of their scenery. For part of the way Enterkin Pass runs
between mountains rising sheer from the burn to a height of
nearly 2000 ft. Loch Skene finds an outlet in Tail Burn, the
water of which at a short distance from the lake leaps from a
height of 200 ft. in a fine waterfall, known as the Grey Mare's
Tail. A much smaller but picturesque fall of the same name,
also known as Crichope Linn, occurs on the Crichope near
Thornhill. Mineral waters are found at Moffat, Hartfell Spa,
some three miles farther north, Closeburn and Brow on the
Solway.
Geology. The greater portion of the county of Dumfries belongs
to the Silurian tableland of the south of Scotland which contains
representatives of all the divisions of that system from the Arenig
to the Ludlow rocks. By far the largest area is occupied by strata
of Tarannon and Llandovery age which cover a belt of country
from 20 to 25 m. across from Drumlanrig Castle in the north to
Torthorwald in the south. Consisting of massive grits, sometimes
conglomeratic, greywackes, flags and shales, these beds are repeated
by innumerable folds frequently inverted, striking N.E. and S.W.
and usually dipping towards the N.W. In the midst of this belt
there are lenticular bands of older strata of Arenig, Llandeilo,
Caradoc and Llandovery age composed of fine sediments such as
cherts, black and grey shales, white clays and flags, which come
to the surface along anticlinal folds and yield abundant graptolites
characteristic of these divisions. These black shale bands are
typically developed in Moffatdale; indeed the three typical sections
chosen by Professor Lapworth to illustrate his three great groups
(l) the Glenkill shales (Upper Llandeilo), (2) the Hartfell shales
(Caradoc) ,(3) Birkhill shales (Lower Llandovery) occur respectively
in the Glenkill Burn north of Kirkmichael, on Hartfell and in Dobbs
Linn near St Mary's Loch in the basin of the river Annan. In the
extreme N.W. of the county between Drumlanrig Castle and
Dalveen Pass in the S. and the Spango and Kello Waters on the
N., there is a broad development of Arenig, Llandeilo and Caradoc
strata, represented by Radiolarian cherts, black shales, grits, con-
glomerates, greywackes and shales which rise from underneath the
central Tarannon belt and are repeated by innumerable folds. In
the cores of the arches of Arenig cherts there are diabase lavas,
tuffs and agglomerates which are typically represented on Bail Hill
E. of Kirkconnel. Along the southern margin of the Tarannon belt,
the Wenlock and Ludlow rocks follow in normal order, the boundary
between the two being defined by a line extending from the head of
the Ewes Water in Eskdale, S.W. by Lockerbie to Mouswald. These
consist of greywackes, flags and shales with bands of dark graptolite
shales, the finer sediments being often well cleaved. They are like-
wise repeated by inverted folds, the axial planes being usually
inclined to the S.E._ The Silurian tableland in the N.W. of the
county is pierced by intrusive igneous rocks in the form of dikes and
bosses, which are regarded as of Lower Old Red Sandstone age.
Of these, the granite mass of Spango Water, N.E. of Kirkconnel, is
an excellent example. Along the N.W. margin of the county, on the
N. side of the fault bounding the Silurian tableland, the Lower
Old Red Sandstone occurs, where it consists of sandstones and con-
glomerates associated with contemporaneous volcanic rocks. The
Upper Old Red Sandstone forms a narrow strip on the south side
of the Silurian tableland, resting unconformably on the Silurian
rocks and passing upwards into the Carboniferous formation. It
stretches from the county boundary E. of the Ewes Water, S.W.
by Langholm to Birrenswark. Along this line these Upper Red
sandstones and shales are overlaid by a thin zone of volcanic rocks
which point to contemporaneous volcanic action in this region at
the beginning of the Carboniferous period. Some of the vents from
which these igneous materials may have been discharged are found
along the watershed between Liddesdale and Teviotdale in Rox-
burghshire. The strata of Carboniferous age are found in three
areas: (i) between Sanquhar and Kirkconnel, (2) at Closeburn near
Thornhill, (3) in the district between Liddesdale and Ruthwell.
In the first two instances (Sanquhar and Thornhill) the Carboniferous
sediments lie in hollows worn out of the old Silurian tableland. In the
Sanquhar basin the strata belong to the Coal Measures, and include
several valuable coal-seams which are probably the southern pro-
longations of the members of this division in Ayrshire. At the
S.E. limit of the Sanquhar Coalfield there are patches of the Car-
boniferous Limestone series, but towards the N. these are overlapped
by the Coal Measures which thus rest directly on the Silurian plat-
form. At Closeburn and Barjarg there are beds of marine limestone,
associated with sandstones and shales which probably represent
marine bands in the Carboniferous Limestone series. The most
important development of Carboniferous strata occurs between
Liddesdale and Ruthwell. In the valleys of the Liddel and the Esk
the following zones are represented, which are given in ascending
order: (i) The Whita Sandstone, (2) the Cementstone group, (3)
the Fell Sandstones, (4) the Glencartholm volcanic group, (5) Marine
limestone group with Coal-seams, (6) Millstone Grit, (7) Rowanburn
coal group, (8) Byreburn coal group, (9) Red Sandstones of Canonbie
yielding plants characteristic erf the Upper Coal Measures. The coal-
seams of the Rowanburn field have been chiefly wrought, and in
view of their exhaustion bores have been sunk to prove the coals
66 4
DUMICHEN
beneath the red sandstone of upper Carboniferous age. From a
palaeontological point of view the Glencartholm volcanic zone is of
special interest, as the calcareous shale associated with the tuffs has
yielded a large number of new species of fishes, decapod crustaceans,
phyllopods and scorpions. The Triassic rocks rest unconformably
on all older formations within the county. In the tract along the
Solway Firth they repose on the folded and eroded edges of the
Carboniferous strata, and when traced westwards to the Dumfries
basin they rest directly on the Silurian platform. They occur in
five areas, (i) between Annan and the mouth of the Esk, (2) the
Dumfries basin, (3) the Thornhill basin, (4) at Lochmaben and Corn-
cockle Moor, (5) at Moffat. The strata consist of breccias, false-
bedded sandstones and marls, the sandstones being extensively
quarried for building purposes. In the sandstones of Corncockle
Moor reptilian footprints have been obtained. In the Thornhill
basin there is a thin zone of volcanic rocks at the base of this series
which are evidently on the horizon of the lavas beneath the Mauch-
line sandstones in Ayrshire. In the Sanquhar basin there are small
outliers of lavas probably of this age and several vents filled with
agglomerate from which these igneous materials in the Thornhill
basin may have been derived. There are several striking examples
of basalt dikes of Tertiary age, one having been traced from the
Lead Hills south-east by Moffat, across Eskdalemuir to the English
border.
Climate and Industries. The climate is mild, with a mean
yearly temperature of 48 F. (January, 38-5; July, 59-5),
and the average annual rainfall is 53 ins. Towards the middle
of the i8th century farmers began to raise stock for the south,
and a hundred years later 20,000 head of heavy cattle were
sent annually to the English markets. The Galloways, which
were the breed in vogue at first, have been to a large extent
replaced by shorthorns and Ayrshire dairy cattle. Sheep
breeding, of later origin, has attained to remarkable dimensions,
the walks in the higher hilly country being given over to Cheviots,
and the richer pasture of the low-lying farms being reserved
for half-bred lambs, a cross of Cheviots and Leicesters or other
long-woofled rams. Pig-feeding, once important, has declined
before the imports of bacon from foreign countries. Horse-
breeding is pursued on a considerable scale. Grain crops, of
which oats are the principal, show a downward tendency. Arable
farms range from 100 acres to 300 acres, and pastoral from
300 to 3000 acres.
In general the manufactures are only of local importance and
mostly confined to Dumfries and a few of the larger towns.
Langholm is famous for its tweeds; breweries and distilleries
are found at Annan, Sanquhar and elsewhere; some shipping
is carried on at Annan and Dumfries; and the salmon fisheries
of the Nith and Annan and the Solway Firth are of value.
Communications. The Glasgow & South-Western railway
from Glasgow to Carlisle runs through Nithsdale, practically
following the course of the river, and lower Annandale to the
Border. The Caledonian railway runs through Annandale,
throwing off at Beattock a small branch to Moffat, at Lockerbie
a cross-country line to Dumfries, and at Kirtlebridge a line
that ultimately crosses the Solway to Bowness. From Dumfries
westwards there is communication with Castle Douglas, Kirkcud-
bright, Newton Stewart, Stranraer and Portpatrick. The
North British railway sends a short line to Langholm from
Riddings Junction in Cumberland, giving access to Carlisle
and, by the Waverley route, to Edinburgh. There is also coach
service between various points, as from Dumfries to New Abbey
and Dalbeattie, and from Langholm to Eskdalemuir.
Population and Government. The population in 1891 was
74,245, and in 1901, 72,371, when there were 176 persons who
spoke Gaelic and English. The chief towns are Annan (pop.
in 1901, 4309), Dumfries (14,444), Langholm (3142), Lockerbie
(2358) and Moffat (2153). The county returns one member to
parliament. Dumfries, the county town, Annan, Lochmaben
and Sanquhar are royal burghs; Dumfries forms a sheriff dom
with the shires of Kirkcudbright and Wigtown, and there is a
resident sheriff-substitute at Dumfries, who sits also at Annan,
Langholm and Lockerbie. The shire is under school-board
jurisdiction, and some of the public schools earn grants for
higher education. The county council and most of the borough
councils give the bulk of the " residue " grant to the county
committee on secondary education, which is thus enabled,
besides assisting building schemes, to subsidize high schools, to
provide bursaries and apparatus, and to carry on science and
technical classes, embracing agriculture, dairying (at Kilmarnock
Dairy school) and practical chemistry. There are academies
at Dumfries, Annan, Moffat and other centres.
History. The British tribe which inhabited this part of
Scotland was called by the Romans Selgovae. They have left
many signs of their presence, such as hill forts in the north,
stone circles (as in Dunscore and Eskdalemuir), camps (Dryfes-
dale), tumuli and cairns (Closeburn), and sculptured stones
(Dornock). The country around Moffat especially is rich in
remains. At Holywood, near Dumfries, there stand the relic
of the grove of sacred oaks from which the place derived its
name, and a stone circle known locally as the Twelve Apostles.
In the parish church of Ruth well (pron. Riwel: the " rood, or
cross, well ") is preserved an ancient cross which tells in Runic
characters the story of the Crucifixion. There are traces of the
Roman roads which ran by Dalveen Pass into Clydesdale and
up the Annan to Tweeddale, and at Birrens is one of the best-
preserved examples of a Roman camp. Roman altars, urns
and coins are found in many places. Upon the withdrawal of
the Romans, the Selgovae were conquered by Scots from Ireland,
who, however, fused with the natives. The Saxon conquest of
Dumfriesshire does not seem to have been thorough, the people
of Nithsdale and elsewhere maintaining their Celtic institutions
up to the time of David I.
As a Border county Dumfriesshire was the scene of stirring
deeds at various epochs, especially in the days of Robert Bruce.
Edward I. besieged Carlaverock Castle, and the factions of Bruce
(who was lord of Annandale), John Comyn and John Baliol were
at constant feud. The Border clans, as haughty and hot-headed
as the Gaels farther north, were always at strife. There is record
of a bloody fight in Dryfesdale in 1593, when the Johnstones slew
700 Maxwells, and, overtaking the fugitives at Lockerbie, there
massacred most of the remnant. These factions embroiled the
dalesmen until the i8th century. The highlands of the shire
afforded retreat to the persecuted Covenanters, who, at Sanquhar,
published in 1680 their declaration against the king, anticipating
the principles of the " glorious Revolution " by several years.
Prince Charles Edward's ambition left the shire comparatively
untouched, for the Jacobite sentiment made little appeal to the
people.
Dumfriesshire is inseparably connected with the name of
Robert Burns, who farmed at Ellisland on the Nith for three
years, and spent the last five years of his life at Dumfries.
Thomas Carlyle was born at Ecclefechan, in a house still standing,
and was buried beside his parents hi the kirkyard of the old
Secession church (now the United Free). His farm of Craigen-
puttock was left to Edinburgh University in order to found the
John Welsh bursaries in classics and mathematics.
See W. M'Dowall, History of the Burgh of Dumfries (Edinburgh,
1887); Sir Herbert Maxwell, Dumfries and Galloway (Edinburgh
and London, 1897) ; J. Macdonald and J. Barbour, Birrens and its
Antiquities (Dumfries, 1897); Sir William Fraser, The Book of
Carlaverock (Edinburgh, 1873); The Douglas Book (Edinburgh,
1885); The Annandale Book (Edinburgh, 1894); G. Neilson,
Annandale under the Bruces (Annan, 1887); C. T. Ramage, Drum-
lanrig Castle and the Douglases (Dumfries, 1876).
DflMICHEN, JOHANNES (1833-1894), German Egyptologist,
was born near Grossglogau. He studied philology and theology
in Berh'n and Breslau. Subsequently he became a pupil of
Lepsius and Brugsch, and devoted himself to the study of
Egyptian inscriptions. He travelled widely in Egypt, and
published his results in a number of important books. In 1872
he was chosen professor of Egyptology at Strassburg. The value
of his work consists not only in the stores of material which he
collected, but also in the success with which he dealt with many of
the problems raised by the inscriptions.
Among his works are Bauurkunde des Tempels von Dendera (1865) ;
Geographische Inschriften altagyptischer Denkmaler (4 vols., 1865-
1885); Altdgyptische Kalenderinschriften (1866); Altdgypt. Tem-
pelinschriften (2 vols., 1867); Historische Inschriften altagypl.
Denkmaler (2 vols., 1867-1869); Baugeschichte und Beschreibung
des Denderatempels (Strassburg, 1877); Die Oasen der hbyschen
DUMMLER DUMONT, P. E. L.
665
Wiiste (1878) ; Die kalendarischen Opferfestlisten von Medinet-Habu
(1881); Gesch. des alien Aegypten (1878-1883); Der Grabpalast des
Patuamenap in der thebanischen Nekropolis 11884-1894).
DUMMLER, ERNST LUDWIG (1830-1902), German historian,
the son of Ferdinand Dummler (1777-1846), a Berlin bookseller,
was born in Berlin, on the 2nd of January 1830. He studied at
Bonn under J. W. Lobell (1786-1863), under L. von Ranke and
W. Wattenbach, and his doctor's dissertation, De Arnulfo
Francorum rege (Berlin, 1852), was a notable essay. He entered
the faculty at Halle in 1855, and started an historical Seminar.
In 1858 he became professor extraordinary, in 1866 full professor.
In 1875 he became a member of the revised committee directing
the Monumenta Germaniae historica, himself undertaking the
direction of the section Anliquitates, and in 1888 became president
of the central board in Berlin. This was an official recognition of
Diimmler's leading position among German historians. In
addition to numerous critical works and editions of texts, he
published Piligrim von Passau und das Erzbistum Lorch (1854),
t)ber die dlleren Slawen in Dalmatien (1856), Das Formelbuch des
Bischofs Salomo III. von Konstanz (1857) and Anselm der
Peripateliker (1872). But his great work was the Geschichte des
ostfriinkischen Reiches (Berlin, 1862-1865, in 2 vols.; 2nd ed.
1887-1888, in 3 vols.). In conjunction with Wattenbach he
completed the Monumenta Alcuiniana (Berlin, 1873), which had
been begun by Philipp Jaffe, and with R. Kopke he wrote Kaiser
Otto der Grosse (Leipzig, 1876). He edited the first and second
volumes of the Poetae latini aevi Carolini for the Monumenta
Germaniae historica (Berlin, 1881-1884). Dummler died in
Berlin on the nth of September 1902.
His son, Ferdinand (1859-1896), who won some reputation as
an archaeologist and philologist, was professor at the university of
Basel from 1890 until his death on the isth of November 1896.
DUMONT, the name of a family of prominent French artists.
Francois Dumont (1688-1726), a sculptor, best known for his
figures in the church of Saint Sulpice, Paris, was the brother of the
painter Jacques Dumont, 1 known as " le Remain" (1701-1781),
whose chief success was gained with a great allegorical composi-
tion for the Paris holel-de-ville in 1761. Francois's son Edme
(1720-1775), the latter's son Jacques Edme (1761-1844), and the
last-named's son Augustin Alexander (1801-1884) were also
famous sculptors.
See G. Vattier, Une- Famille d'artisles (1890).
DUMONT, ANDRE HUBERT (1800-1857), Belgian geologist,
was born at Liege on the isth of February 1809. His first work
was a masterly Memoire on the geology of the province of Liege
published in 1832. A few years later he became professor of
mineralogy and geology and afterwards rector in the university of
Liege. His attention was now given to the mineralogical and
stratigraphical characters of the geological formations in Belgium
and the names given by him to many subdivisions of Cretaceous
and Tertiary ages have been adopted. His Memoire sur les
terrains ardennais et rhenan de I'Ardenne, du Brabant el du
Condroz (1847-1848) is notable for the care with which the
mineral characters of the strata were described, but the palaeonto-
logical characters were insufficiently considered, and neither the
terms " Silurian " nor " Devonian " were adopted. During
twenty years he laboured at the preparation of a geological map
of Belgium (1849). He spared no pains to make his work as
complete as possible, examining on foot almost every area of
importance in the country. Journeying to the more southern
parts of Europe, he investigated the shores of the Bosphorus, the
mountains of Spain and other tracts, and gradually gathered
materials for a geological map of Europe: a work of high merit
which was " one of the first serious attempts to establish on a
larger scale the geological correlation of the various countries of
Europe." The Geological Society of London awarded him in
1840 the Wollaston medal. He died at Liege on the 28th of
February 1857.
See Memoir by Major-General J. E. Portlock in Address to Geol.
Soc. (London, 1858).
1 Not to be confounded with his contemporary Jean Joseph
Dumons (1687-1779), sometimes called Dumont, best known for nis
designs for the Aubusson tapestries.
DUMONT, FRANCOIS (1751-1831), French miniature painter,
was born at Luneville (Meurthe), and was left an orphan when
quite young, with five brothers and sisters to support. He was
For a while a student under Jean Girardet, and then, on the advice
of a Luneville Academician, Madame Coster, set up a studio
for himself. In 1784 he journeyed to Rome, returning after
four years' careful study, and in 1788 was accepted as an Acade-
mician and granted an apartment in the Louvre. He married the
daughter of Antoine Vestier, the miniature painter, and had two
sons, Aristide and Bias, both of whom became painters. He
was one of the three greatest miniature painters of France,
painting portraits of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette, Louis
XVIII. and Charles X., and of almost all the important persons
of his day. His own portrait was engraved both by Audouin
and by Tardieu. He resided the greater part of his life in Paris,
and there he died. A younger brother, known as Tony Dumont,
was also a miniature painter, a pupil of his brother, a frequent
exhibitor and the recipient of a medal from the Academy in 1810.
Each artist signed with the surname only, and there is some
controversy concerning the attribution to each artist of his own
work. Tony was an expert violinist and delighted in painting
portraits of persons who were playing upon the violin. Many of
Dumont's finest paintings came into the collection of Mr J.
Pierpont Morgan, but others are in the Louvre, presented by the
heir of Bias Dumont. The work of both painters is distinguished
by breadth, precision and a charming scheme of colouring, and
the unfinished works of the elder brother are amongst some of
the most beautiful miniatures ever produced.
See The History of Portrait Miniatures, by G. C. Williamson
(London, 1904) ; also the privately printed Catalogue of the Collection
of Miniatures of Mr J. Pierpont Morgan, vol. iv. (G. C. W.)
DUMONT, JEAN (d. 1726), French publicist, was born in
France in the I7th century, the precise date being unknown.
He followed the profession of arms; but, not obtaining promo-
tion so rapidly as he expected, he quitted the service and travelled
through different parts of Europe. He stopped in Holland with
the intention of publishing an account of his travels. But in the
interval, at the request of his bookseller, he wrote and published
several pamphlets, which were eagerly sought after, owing to the
unceremonious manner in which he treated the ministry of
France. This freedom having deprived him of all hope of employ-
ment in his own country, he thought of forming a permanent
establishment in that where he resided, and accordingly com-
menced a course of lectures on public law. The project succeeded
far beyond his expectations; and some useful compilations which
he published about the same period made him favourably known
in other countries. The emperor appointed him his historio-
grapher, and some time afterwards conferred on him the title
of baron de Carlscroon. He died at Vienna in 1726, at an
advanced age.
The following is a list of his publications: (i) Voyages en France,
en Italie, en AUemagne, a Malte, et en Turquie (Hague, 1699, 4 vols.
1 2 mo); (2) M 'I moires politiques pour semr d la parfaite intelligence
de I'histoire de la Paix de Kyswick (Hague, 1699, 4 vols. lamo) ;
(3) Recherches modestes des causes de la presente guerre, en ce qui
concerne les Provinces Unies (1713, I2mo); (4) Recueil de traites
d'alliance, de pai, et de commerce entre les rois, princes, et etats,
depuis la Paix de Munster (Amsterdam, 1710, 2 vols. lamo); (5)
Soupirs de I' Europe a la vue du projet de paix contenu dans la harangue
de la reine de la Grande- Bretagne (1712, I2mo); (6) Corps universel
diplomatiqiie du droit des gens, contenant un recueil des traites de
paix, d' alliance, &c., fails en Europe, depuis Charlemagne jusqu'd,
present (Amsterdam, 1626, and following years, 8 vols. fol., continued
after Dumont's death by J. Rousset) ; and (7) Batailles gagnees par
le Prince Eugene de Savoie (Hague, 1723). Dumont was also the
author of Lettres historiques contenant ce qui se passe de plus important
en Europe (i2mo). This periodical, which was commenced in 1692,
two volumes appearing annually, Dumont conducted till 1710, from
which time it was continued by Basnage and others until 1728
The earlier volumes are much prized.
DUMONT, PIERRE ETIENNE LOUIS (1759-1829), French
political writer, was born on the i8th of July 1759 at Geneva,
of which his family had been citizens of good repute from the
days of Calvin. He was educated for the ministry at the college
of Geneva, and in 1781 was chosen one of the pastors of the city.
The political troubles which disturbed Geneva in 1782, however,
666
DUMONT D'URVILLE
suddenly turned the course of his life. He belonged to the
liberals or democrats, and the triumph of the aristocratic party,
through the interference of the courts of France and Sardinia,
made residence in his native town impossible, though he was not
among the number of the proscribed. He therefore went to
join his mother and sisters at St Petersburg. In this he was
probably influenced in part by the example of his townsman
Pierre Lefort, the first tutor, minister, and general of the tsar.
At St Petersburg he was for eighteen months pastor of the French
church. In 1785 he removed to London, Lord Shelburne, then
a minister of state, having invited him to undertake the education
of his sons. It was at the house of Lord Shelburne, now ist
marquess of Lansdowne, where he was treated as a friend or
rather member of the family, that he became acquainted with
many illustrious men, amongst others Fox, Sheridan, Lord
Holland and Sir Samuel Romilly. With the last of these he
formed a close and enduring friendship, which had an important
influence on his life and pursuits.
In 1788 Dumont visited Paris with Romilly. During a stay
of two months in that city he had almost daily intercourse with
Mirabeau, and a certain affinity of talents and pursuits led to an
intimacy between two persons diametrically opposed to each
other in habits and in character. On his return from Paris
Dumont made the acquaintance of Jeremy Bentham. Filled
with admiration for the genius of Bentham, Dumont made it
one of the chief objects of his life to recast and edit the writings
of the great English jurist in a form suitable for the ordinary
reading public. This literary relationship was, according to
Dumont's own account, one of a somewhat peculiar character.
All the fundamental ideas and most of the illustrative material
were supplied in the manuscripts of Bentham; Dumont's task
was chiefly to abridge by striking out repeated matter, to supply
lacunae, to secure uniformity of style, and to improve the French.
The following works of Bentham were published under his
editorship: Traite de legislation civile et penale (1802), Theorie
des peines et des recompenses (1811), Tactique des assemblies
legislatives (1815), TrailS des preuves judiciaires (1823) and
De I' organization judiciaire et de la codification (1828).
In the summer of 1789 Dumont went to Paris. The object of
the journey was to obtain through Necker, who had just returned
to office, an unrestricted restoration of Genevese liberty, by
cancelling the treaty of guarantee between France and Switzer-
land, which prevented the republic from enacting new laws
without the consent of the parties to this treaty. The proceedings
and negotiations to which this mission gave rise necessarily
brought Dumont into connexion with most of the leading men
in the Constituent Assembly, and made him an interested
spectator, sometimes even a participator, indirectly, in the
events of the French Revolution. The same cause also led him
to renew his acquaintance with Mirabeau, whom he found
occupied with his duties as a deputy, and with the composition
of his journal, the Courier de Provence. For a time Dumont
took an active and very efficient part in the conduct of this
journal, supplying it with reports as well as original articles,
and also furnishing Mirabeau with speeches to be delivered or
rather read in the assembly, as related in his highly instructive
and interesting posthumous work entitled Souvenirs sur Mirabeau
(1832). In fact his friend George Wilson used to relate that one
day, when they were dining together at a table d'hdte at Versailles,
he saw Dumont engaged in writing the most celebrated para-
graph of Mirabeau's address to the king for the removal of the
troops. He also reported such of Mirabeau's speeches as he did
not write, embellishing them from his own stores, which were
inexhaustible. But this co-operation soon came to an end; for,
being attacked in pamphlets as one of Mirabeau's writers, he
felt hurt at the notoriety thus given to his name in connexion
with a man occupying Mirabeau's peculiar position, and returned
to England in 1791.
In 1801 he travelled over various parts of Europe with Lord
Henry Petty, afterwards 3rd marquess of Lansdowne, and on
his return settled down to the editorship of the works of Bentham
already mentioned. In 1814 the restoration of Geneva to in-
dependence induced Dumont to return to his native place, and
he soon became the leader of the supreme council. He devoted
particular attention to the judicial and penal systems of his
native state, and many improvements on both are due to him.
He died at Milan when on an autumn tour on the 2Qth of Sep-
tember 1829.
DUMONT D'URVILLE, JULES SEBASTIEN CESAR (1700-
1842), French navigator, was born at Conde-sur-Noireau, in
Normandy, on the 23rd of May 1790. The death of his father,
who before the revolution had held a judicial post in Conde,
devolved the care of his education on his mother and his maternal
uncle, the Abbe de Croizilles. Failing to pass the entrance
examination for the Ecole Polytechnique, he went to sea in 1807
as a novice on board the "Aquilon." During the next twelve
years he gradually rose in the service, and added a knowledge
of botany, entomology, English, German, Spanish, Italian and
even Hebrew and Greek to the professional branches of his
studies. In 1820, while engaged in a hydrographic survey of the
Mediterranean, he was fortunate enough to recognize the Venus
of Milo (Melos) in a Greek statue recently unearthed, and to
secure its preservation by the report he presented to the French
ambassador at Constantinople. A wider field for his energies
was furnished in 1822 by the circumnavigating expedition of the
"Coquille" under the command of his friend Duperrey; and
on its return in 1825 his services were rewarded by promotion
to the rank of capitaine de fregate, and he was entrusted with the
control of a similar enterprise, with the especial purpose of dis-
covering traces of the lost explorer La Perouse, in which he was
successful. The "Astrolabe," as he renamed the "Coquille,"
left Toulon on the 25th of April 1826, and returned to Marseilles
on the 25th of March 1829, having traversed the South Atlantic,
coasted the Australian continent from King George's Sound to
Port Jackson, charted various parts of New Zealand, and visited
the Fiji Islands, the Loyalty Islands, New Caledonia, New
Guinea, Amboyna, Van Diemen's Land, the Caroline Islands,
Celebes and Mauritius. Promotion to the rank of capitaine
de vaisseau was bestowed on the commander in August 1829;
and in August of the following year, he was charged with the
delicate task of conveying the exiled king Charles X. to England.
His proposal to undertake a voyage of discovery to the south
polar regions was discouraged by Arago and others, who criticized
the work of the previous expedition in no measured terms; but
at last, in 1837, all difficulties were surmounted, and on the 7th of
September he set sail from Toulon with the "Astrolabe" and
its convoy "LaZelee." On the isth of January 1838 they
sighted the Antarctic ice, and soon after their progress southward
was blocked by a continuous bank, which they vainly coasted
for 300 m. to the east. Returning westward they visited
the South Orkney Islands and part of the New Shetlands,
and discovered Joinville Island and Louis Philippe Land, but
were compelled by scurvy to seek succour at Talcahuano in
Chile. Thence they proceeded across the Pacific and through
the Asiatic archipelago, visiting among others the Fiji and the
Pelew Islands, coasting New Guinea, and circumnavigating
Borneo. In 1840, leaving their sick at Hobart Town, Tasmania,
they returned to the Antarctic region, and on the 2ist of the
month were rewarded by the discovery of Adelie Land, which
D'Urville named after his wife, in 140 E. The 6th of
November, found them at Toulon. D'Urville was at once
appointed contre-amiral, and in 1841 he received the gold
medal of the Societe de Geographic. On the 8th of May
1842 he was killed, with his wife and son, in a railway accident
near Meudon.
His principal works are Enumeratio plantarum quas in insulis
Archipelagi aut littoribus Ponti Euxini, &c. (1822); Voyage de la
corvette "? Astrolabe," 1826-1829 (Paris, 1830-1835), and
Voyage au pole sud et dans I'Oceanie, 1837-1840 (Paris, 1842-
1854), in each of which his scientific colleagues had a share;
Voyages autour du monde; resume general des veyages de Magellan,
&c. (Paris, 1833 and 1844). An island (also called Kairu) off
the north coast of New Guinea, and a cape on the same coast,
bear the name of D'Urville.
DUMORTIERITE DUMP
667
DUMORTIERITE, a mineral described in 1881 by M. F.
Gonnard, who named it after Eugene Dumortier, a palaeonto-
logist of Lyons, France. It is essentially a basic aluminium boro-
silicate, belonging to the orthorhombic system; it occurs usually
in fibrous forms, of smalt-blue, greenish-blue, lavender or almost
black colour, and exhibits strong pleochroism. According to
W. T. Schaller (Amer. Journ. Sci., 1905 (iv.), 19, p. 211) a purple
colour may be due to the presence of titanium. Analyses of
some specimens point to the formula (SiO 4 ) 3 Al(AlO)7(BO)H,
which, written in this form, explains the analogy with andalusite
and the alteration into muscovite. Dumortierite occurs in gneiss
at Chaponost, near Lyons, and at a few other European localities;
it is found also in the United States, being known from near
New York City, from Riverside and San Diego counties,
California, and from Yuma county, Arizona. The last-named
locality yields the mineral in some quantity in the form of dense
fibres embedded in quartz, to which it imparts a blue colour.
The mineral aggregate is polished as an ornamental stone,
rather resembling lapis-lazuli.
DOMOULIN, CHARLES [MOLINAEUS] (1500-1566), French
jurist, was born in Paris in 1500. He began practice as an
advocate before the parlement of Paris. Dumoulin turned
Calvinist, and when the persecution of the Protestants began
he went to Germany, where for a long time he taught law at
Strassburg, Besancon and elsewhere. He returned to France
in 1557. Dumoulin had, in 1552, written Commentaire sur
I' edit du roi Henri II sur les petites dates, which was condemned
by the Sorbonne, but his Conseil sur le fait du concile de Trente
created a still greater stir, and aroused against him both the
Catholics and the Calvinists. He was imprisoned by order of
the parlement until 1564. It was as a jurist that Dumoulin
gained his great reputation, being regarded by his contemporaries
as the " prince of jurisconsults." His remarkable erudition and
breadth of view had a considerable effect on the subsequent
development of French law. He was a bitter enemy of feudalism,
which he attacked in his Defeudis (Paris, 1539). Other import-
ant works were his commentaries on the customs of Paris (Paris,
1539) J SS4; Frankfort, 1575; Lausanne, 1576), valuable as the
only commentary on those in force in 1510, and the Extricatio
labyrinthi dividui el individui, a treatise on the law of surety.
A collected edition of Dumoulin's works was published in Paris in
1681 (5 vols.).
DUMOURIEZ, CHARLES FRANC.OIS (1739-1823), French
general, was born at Cambray in 1739. His father was a com-
missary of the royal army, and educated his son most carefully
in various branches of learning. The boy continued his studies
at the college of Louis-le-Grand, and in 1757 began his military
career as a volunteer in the campaign of Rossbach. He received
a commission for good conduct in action, and served in the later
German campaigns of the Seven Years' War with distinction;
but at the peace he was retired as a captain, with a small pension
and the cross of St Louis.' Dumouriez then visited Italy and
Corsica, Spain and Portugal, and his memorials to the due de
Choiseul on Corsican affairs led to his re-employment on the
staff of the French expeditionary corps sent to the island,
for which he gained the rank of lieutenant-colonel. After this
he became a member of the Secret du roi, the secret service
under Louis XV., where his fertility of diplomatic resource
had full scope. In 1770 he was sent on a mission into Poland,
where in addition to his political business he organized a Polish
militia. The fall of Choiseul brought about his recall, and
somewhat later he was imprisoned in the Bastille, where he
spent six months, occupying himself with literary pursuits.
He was then removed to Caen, where he was detained until
the accession of Louis XVI.
Upon his release in 1774 he married his cousin Mile de Broissy,
but he was neglectful and unfaithful, and in 1789 the pair
separated, the wife taking refuge in a convent. Meanwhile
Dumouriez had devoted his attention to the internal state of
his own country, and amongst the very numerous memorials
which he sent in to the government was one on the defence of
Normandy and its ports, which procured him in 1778 the post
of commandant of Cherbourg, which he administered with much
success for ten years. He became marechal de camp in 1 788 ; but
his ambition was not satisfied, and at the outbreak of the Revolu-
tion, seeing the opportunity for carving out a career, he went to
Paris, where he joined the Jacobin Club. The death of Mirabeau,
to whose fortunes he had attached himself, was a great blow
to him; but, promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general and
commandant of Nantes, his opportunity came after the flight
to Varennes, when he attracted attention by offering to march
to the assistance of the Assembly. He now attached himself
to the Girondist party, and on the isth of March 1792 was
appointed minister of foreign affairs. He was mainly responsible
for the declaration of war against Austria (April 20), and the
invasion of the Low Countries was planned by him. On the
dismissal of Roland, Claviere and Servan (June 13), he took the
latter's post of minister of war, but resigned it two days later on
account of the king's refusal to come to terms with the Assembly,
and went to join the army of Marshal Luckner. After the
emeute of August 10 and Lafayette's flight he was appointed
to the command of the " Army of the Centre," and at the same
moment the Coalition assumed the offensive. Dumouriez acted
promptly. His subordinate Kellermann repulsed the Prussians
at Valmy (September 20, 1792), and he himself severely defeated
the Austrians at Jemappes (November 6). Returning to Paris,
he was received with a popular ovation; but he was out of
sympathy with the extremists in power, his old-fashioned
methodical method of conducting war exposed him to the
criticism of the ardent Jacobins, and a defeat would mean the
end of his career. Defeat coming to him at Neerwinden in
January 1793, he ventured all on a desperate stroke. Arresting
the commissaries of the Convention sent to inquire into his
conduct, he handed them over to the enemy, and then attempted
to persuade his troops to march on Paris and overthrow the
revolutionary government. The attempt failed, and Dumouriez,
with the due de Chartres (afterwards King Louis Philippe) and
his brother the due de Montpensier, fled into the Austrian camp.
He now wandered from country to country, occupied in
ceaseless intrigues with Louis XVIII., or for setting up an
Orleanist monarchy, until in 1804 he settled in England, where
the government conferred on him a pension of 1200 a year.
He became a valuable adviser to the War Office in connexion
with the struggle with Napoleon, though the extent to which
this went was only known in public many years later. In 1814
and 1815 he endeavoured to procure from Louis XVIII. the
baton of a marshal of France, but was refused. He died at
Turville Park, near Henley-on-Thames, on the i4th of March
1823. His memoirs were published at Hamburg in 1794. An
enlarged edition, La Vie et les memoires du General Dumouriez,
appeared at Paris in 1823. Dumouriez was also the author of a
large number of political pamphlets.
See A. von Boguslawski, Das Leben des Generals Dumouriez
(Berlin, 1878-1879); Revue des deux mondes (isth July, 1st and
1 5th August 1884); H. Welschinger, Le Roman de Dumouriez
(1890) ; A. Chuquet, La Premiere Invasion, Valmy, La Retraite
de Brunswick, Jemappes, La Trahison de Dumouriez (Paris,
1886-1891); A. Sorel, L'Europe et la Revolution fran$aise (1885-
1892) ; J. Holland Rose and A. M. Broadley, Dumouriez and the
Defence of England (1908) ; E. Daudet, La Conjuration de Pichegru
et les complots royalistes du midi et du Vest, 1795-1797 (Paris, 1901).
DUMP, (i) (Of obscure origin; corresponding in form and
possibly connected with the word, are the Mid. Dutch damp,
mist or haze, and the Ger. dumpf, dull or dazed), a state of
wonder, perplexity or melancholy. The word thus occurs
particularly in the plural, in such phrases as " doleful dumps."
It was also formerly used for a tune, especially one of a mournful
kind, a dirge. (2) (Connected with " dumpy," but appearing
later than that word, and also of obscure origin), something
short and thick, and hence used of many objects such as a lead
counter or medal, of a coin formerly used in Australia, formed
by punching a circular piece out of a Spanish dollar, and of a
short thick bolt used in shipbuilding. (3) (Probably of Norse
origin, cf. Nor. dumpa, and Dan. dumpe, meaning " to fall "
suddenly, with a bump), to throw down in a heap, and hence
668
DUNASH DUNBAR, WILLIAM
particularly applied to the depositing of any large quantity of
material, to the shooting of rubbish, or tilting a load from a
cart. It is thus used of the method of disposal of the masses of
gravel, &c., disintegrated by water in the hydraulic method of
gold mining. A " dump " or " dumping-ground " is thus the
place where such waste material is deposited. The use of the
term " dumping" in the economics of international trade has
come into prominence in the tariff reform controversy in the
United Kingdom. It is sometimes used loosely of the importing
of foreign goods at prices below those ruling in the importing
country; but strictly the term is applied to the importing, at a
price below the cost of production, of the surplus of manufactures
of a foreign country over and above what has been disposed of
in its home market. The ability to sell such a surplus in a
foreign market below the cost of production depends on the
prices of the home market being artificially sustained at a
sufficiently high level by a monopoly or by a tariff or by bounties.
An essential factor in the operation of " dumping " is the
lessening of the whole cost of production by manufacture on
a large scale.
DUNASH, the name of two Jewish scholars of the zoth century.
1. DUNASH BEN LABRAT, grammarian and poet, belonged
to the brilliant circle attracted to Cordova by Hasdai, and took
a large share in promoting the Jewish " Golden Age " under
the Moors in Andalusia. Dunash not only helped in the founda-
tion of a school of scientific philology, but adapted Arabian
metres to Hebrew verse, and thereby gave an impulse to the
neo-Hebraic poetry, which reached its highest level in Spain.
2. DUNASH*IBN TAMIM was, like the preceding, a leader in
the critical study of language among Arabic-speaking Jews.
Professor Bacher says of him: " In the history of Hebrew
philology, Ibn Tamim ranks as one of the first representatives of
the systematic comparison of Hebrew and Arabic." The philo-
logical researches of the loth century were closely associated
with the Spanish-Moorish culture of the period. (I. A.)
DUNBAR, GEORGE (1774-1851), English classical scholar
and lexicographer, was born at Coldingham in Berwickshire.
In early life he followed the humble profession of gardening,
but, having been permanently injured by an accident, devoted
himself to the study of the classics. When about thirty years
of age, he settled in Edinburgh, where he obtained a tutorship
in the family of Lord Provost Fettes. In 1807 he succeeded
Andrew Dalzel as professor of Greek in the university. Dunbar
held his appointment till his death on the 6th of December
1851. Although a man of great energy and industry, Dunbar
did not produce anything of permanent value. He deserves
mention, however, for his Greek-English and English-Greek
lexicon (1840), on the compilation of which he spent eight years.
Although now superseded, it was the best work of its kind that
had appeared in England.
The little that is known of Dunbar's life will be found in the
Caledonian Mercury (8th of December 1851).
DUNBAR, PAUL LAURENCE (1872-1906), American author,
of negro descent, was born in Dayton, Ohio, on the 27th of June
1872. He graduated (1891) from the Dayton high school, had a
varied experience as elevator boy, mechanic and journalist,
and in 1897-1898 held a position on the staff of the Library of
Congress, resigning in December 1898 to devote himself to
literary work. He died of consumption at his home in Dayton
on the 8th of February 1906. His poetry was brought to the
attention of American readers by William Dean Howells, who
wrote an appreciative introduction to his Lyrics of Lowly Life
(1896). Subsequently Dunbar published eleven other volumes
of verse, three novels and five collections of short stories. Some
of his short stories and sketches, especially those dealing with
the American negro, are charming; they are far superior to
his novels, which deal with scenes in which the author is not so
much at home. His most enduring work, however, is his poetry.
Some of this is in literary English, but the best is in the dialect
of his people. In it he has preserved much of their very tempera-
ment and outlook on life, usually with truth and freshness of
feeling, united with a happy choice of language and much
lyrical grace and sweetness, and often with rare humour and
pathos. These poems of the soil are a distinct contribution to
American literature, and entitle the author to be called pre-
eminently the poet of his race in America.
See Life and Works of Paul Laurence Dunbar (Naperville, 111.,
1907)1 with a biography by L. K. Wiggins.
DUNBAR, WILLIAM (c. I46o-c. 1520), Scottish poet, was
probably a native of East Lothian. This is assumed from a
satirical reference in the Flyting of Dunbar and Kennedie, where,
too, it is hinted that he was a member of the noble house of
Dunbar. His name appears in 1477 in the Register of the
Faculty of Arts at St Andrews, among the Determinants or
Bachelors of Arts, and in 1479 among the masters of the
university. Thereafter he joined the order of Observantine
Franciscans, at St Andrews or Edinburgh, and proceeded to
France as a wandering friar. He spent a few years in Picardy,
and was still abroad when, in 1491, Bothwell's mission to secure
a bride for the young James IV. reached the French court.
There is no direct evidence that he accompanied Blackadder,
archbishop of Glasgow, on a similar embassy to Spain in 1495.
On the other hand, we know that he proceeded with that prelate
to England on his more successful mission in 1501. Dunbar
had meanwhile (about 1500) returned to Scotland, and had
become a priest at court, and a royal pensioner. His literary
life begins with his attachment to James's household. All that
is known of him from this date to his death about 1520 is derived
from the poems or from entries in the royal registers of payments
of pension and grants of livery. He is spoken of as the Rhymer
of Scotland in the accounts of the English privy council dealing
with the visit of the mission for the hand of Margaret Tudor,
rather because he wrote a poem in praise of London, than because,
as has been stated, he held the post of laureate at the Scottish
court. In 1511 he accompanied the queen to Aberdeen and
commemorated her visit in verse. Other pieces such as the
Orisoun (" Quhen the Gouernour past in France "), apropos
of the setting out of the regent Albany, are of historical interest,
but they tell us little more than that Dunbar was alive. The
date of his death is uncertain. He is named in Lyndsay's
Testament and Complaynt of the Papyngo (1530) with poets then
dead, and the reference precedes that to Douglas who had
died in 1522. He certainly survived his royal patron. We may
not be far out in saying that he died about 1520.
Dunbar's reputation among his immediate successors was
considerable. By later criticism, stimulated in some measure by
Scott's eulogy that he is " unrivalled by any which Scotland has
produced," he has held the highest place among the northern
makars. The praise, though it has been at times exaggerated,
is on the whole just, certainly in respect of variety of work and
mastery of form. He belongs, with James I., Henryson and
Douglas, to the Scots Chaucerian school. In his allegorical poems
reminiscences of the master's style and literary habit are most
frequent. Yet, even there, his discipleship shows certain
limitations. His wilder humour and greater heat of blood give
him opportunities in which the Chaucerian tradition is not
helpful, or even possible. His restlessness leads us at times to a
comparison with Skelton, not in respect of any parallelism of
idea or literary craftsmanship, but in his experimental zeal in
turning the diction and tuning the rhythms of the chaotic
English which only Chaucer's genius had reduced to order. The
comparison must not, however, be pushed too far. Skelton's
work carries with it the interest of attempt and failure. Dunbar's
command of the medium was more certain. So that while we
admire the variety of his work, we also admire the competence of
his effort.
One hundred and one poems have been ascribed to Dunbar.
Of these at least ninety are generally accepted as his: of the
eleven attributed to him it would be hard to say that they should
not be considered authentic. Most doubt has clung to his verse
tale The Freiris of Berwik.
Dunbar's chief allegorical poems are The Goldyn Targe and The
Thrissil and the Rois. The motif of the former is the poet's
futile endeavour, in a dream, to ward off the arrows of Dame
DUNBAR
669
Beautee by Reason's " scheld of gold." When wounded and
made prisoner, he discovers the true beauty of the lady: when
she leaves him, he is handed over to Heaviness. The noise of the
ship's guns, as the company sails off, wakes the poet to the real
pleasures of a May morning. Dunbar works on the same theme
in a shorter poem, known as Beauty and the Prisoner. The
Thrissil and the Rois is a prothalamium in honour of James IV.
and Margaret Tudor, in which the heraldic allegory is based on
the familiar beast-parliament.
The greater part of Dunbar's work is occasional personal and
social satire, complaints (in the style familiar in the minor verse of
Chaucer's English successors), orisons and pieces of a humorous
character. The last type shows Dunbar at his best, and points
the difference between him and Chaucer. The best specimen of
this work, of which the outstanding characteristics are sheer
whimsicality and topsy-turvy humour, is The Ballad of Kynd
Kittok. This strain runs throughout many of the occasional
poems, and is not wanting in odd passages in Dunbar's con-
temporaries; and it has the additional interest of showing a
direct historical relationship with the work of later Scottish poets,
and chiefly with that of Robert Burns. Dunbar's satire is never
the gentle funning of Chaucer: more often it becomes invective.
Examples of this type are The Satire on Edinburgh, The General
Satire, the Epitaph on Donald Owre, and the powerful vision of
The Dance of the Sevin Deidlie Synnis. In the Flyting of Dunbar
and Kennedie, an outstanding specimen of a favourite northern
form, analogous to the continental estrif, or tenzone, he and his
rival reach a height of scurrility which is certainly without
parallel in English literature. This poem has the additional
interest of showing the racial antipathy between the " Inglis "-
speaking inhabitants of the Lothians and the " Scots " or
Gaelic-speaking folk of the west country.
There is little in Dunbar which may be called lyrical, and
little of the dramatic. His Interlud of the Droichis [Dwarf's] part
of the Play, one of the pieces attributed to him, is supposed to be a
fragment of a dramatic composition. It is more interesting as
evidence of his turn for whimsicality, already referred to, and may
for that reason be safely ascribed to his pen. If further selection
be made from the large body of miscellaneous poems, the comic
poem on the physician Andro Kennedy may stand out as one of
the best contributions to medieval Goliardic literature; The
Two Mariit Wemen and the Wedo, as one of the richest and most
effective pastiches in the older alliterative style, then used by the
Scottish Chaucerians for burlesque purposes; Done is a battell on
the Dragon Blak, for religious feeling expressed in melodious
verse ; and the well-known Lament for the Makaris. The main
value of the last is historical, but it too shows Dunbar's mastery
of form, even when dealing with lists of poetic predecessors.
The chief authorities for the text of Dunbar's poems are:
fa) the Asloan MS. (c. 1515) ; (6) the Chepman and Myllar Prints
(1508) preserved in the Advocates' library, Edinburgh; (c) Banna-
tyne MS. (1568) in the same; (d) the Maitland Folio MS. (c. 1570-
1590) in the Pepysian library, Magdalene College, Cambridge. Some
of the poems appear in the Makculloch MS. (before 1500) in the
library of the university of Edinburgh; in MS. Cotton Vitellius
A. xvi., appendix to Royal MSS. No. 58, and Arundel 285, in the
British Museum; in the Reidpath MS. in the university library
of Cambridge; and in the Aberdeen Register of Sasines. The first
complete edition was published by David Laing (2 vols., Edinburgh,
1834) with a supplement (Edinburgh, 1865). This has been super-
seded by the Scottish Text Society's edition (ed. John Small, Aeneas
I. G. Mackay and Walter Gregor, 3 vols., Edinburgh, 1893), and
by Dr Schipper's I vol. edition (Vienna; Kais. Akad. der Wissen-
schaften, 1894). The editions by James Paterson (Edinburgh, 1860)
and H. B. Baildon( Cambridge, 1907) are of minor value. Selections
have been frequently reprinted since Ramsay's Ever-Green (1724)
and Hailes's Ancient Scottish Poems (1817). For critical accounts
see Irving's History of Scottish Poetry, Henderson's Vernacular
Poetry of Scotland, Gregory Smith's Transition Period, J. H. Millar's
Literary History of Scotland, and the Cambridge History of English
Literature, vol. ii. (1908). Professor Schipper's William Dunbar,
sein Leben und seine Gedichte (with German translations of several
of the poems), appeared at Berlin in 1884. (G. G. S.)
DUNBAR (Gaelic, " the fort on the point "), a royal, municipal
and police burgh, and seaport of Haddingtonshire, Scotland.
Pop. (1901) 3581. It is situated on the southern shore of the
entrance to the Firth of Forth, 29$ m. E. by N. of Edinburgh by
the North British railway. Dunbar is said to have the smallest
rainfall in Scotland and is a favourite summer resort. The ruins
of the castle, and the remains of the Grey Friars' monastery,
founded in 1218, at the west end of the town, and Dunbar House
in High Street, formerly a mansion of the Lauderdales, but now
used as barracks, are of historic interest. The parish church, a
fine structure in red sandstone, the massive tower of which, 107 ft.
high, is a landmark for sailors, dates only from 1819, but occupies
the site of what was probably the first collegiate church in
Scotland, and contains the large marble monument to Sir George
Home, created earl of Dunbar and March by James VI. in 1605.
Among other public buildings are the town hall, assembly rooms,
St Catherine's hall, the Mechanics' institute and library.
There are two harbours,difficult of access owing to the'numberof
reefs and sunken rocks. Towards the cost of building the eastern
or older harbour Cromwell contributed 300. The western or
Victoria harbour is a refuge for vessels between Leith Roads and
the Tyne. On the advent of steam the shipping declined, and
even the herring fishery, which fostered a large curing trade, has
lost much of its prosperity. The industries are chiefly those
of agricultural-implement making, rope-making, brewing and
distilling, but a considerable business is done in the export of
potatoes. Dunbar used to form one of the Haddington district
group of parliamentary burghs, but its constituency was merged
in that of the county in 1885.
About 4 m. S.W. is the village of Biel, where, according to some
authorities, William Dunbar the poet was born. One mile to the
S.E. of the town is Broxmouth Park (or Brocksmouth House), the
first position of the English left wing in the battle of 1650, now
belonging to the duke of Roxburghe.
The site of Dunbar is so commanding that a castle was built on
the cliffs at least as early as 856. In 1070 Malcolm Canmore gave
it to Cospatric, earl of Northumberland, ancestor of the earls of
Dunbar and March. The fortress was an important bulwark
against English invasion, and the town which was created a
royal burgh by David II. grew up under its protection. The
castle was taken by Edward I., who defeated Baliol in the
neighbourhood in 1296, and it afforded shelter to Edward II.
after Bannockburn. In 1336 it was besieged by the English
under William, Lord Montacute, afterwards ist earl of Salisbury,
b"t was successfully defended by Black Agnes of Dunbar,
countess of March, a member of the Murray family. Joanna
Beaufort, widow of James I., chose it for her residence, and in
1479, after his daring escape from Edinburgh Castle, the duke of
Albany concealed himself within its walls, until he contrived to
sail for France. In 1567 Mary made Both well keeper of the
castle, and sought its shelter herself after the murder of Rizzio
and again after her flight from Borthwick Castle. When she
surrendered at Carberry Hill the stronghold fell into the hands of
the regent Moray, by whom it was dismantled in 1568, but its
ruins are still a picturesque object on the hill above the harbour.
The BATTLE OF DUNBAR was fought on the 3rd (i3th) of
September 1650 between the English army under Oliver Crom-
well and the Scots under David Leslie, afterwards Lord Newark.
It took place about 3 m. S.E. of the centre of the town, where
between the hills and the sea coast there is a plain about i m.
wide, through the middle of which the main road from Dunbar
to Berwick runs. The plain and the road are crossed at right
angles by the course of the Brocksburn, or Spott Burn, which
at first separated the hostile armies. Rising from the right bank
of the Brock is Doon Hill (650 ft.), which overlooks the lower
course of the stream and indeed the whole field. For the events
preceding the battle, see GREAT REBELLION.
Cromwell, after a war of manoeuvre near Edinburgh, had been
compelled by want of supplies to withdraw to Dunbar; Leslie
pursued and took up a position on Doon Hill, commanding the
English line of retreat on Berwick. The situation was more than
difficult for Cromwell. Some officers were for withdrawing by
sea, but the general chose to hold his ground, though his army
was enfeebled by sickness and would have to fight on unfavour-
able terrain against odds of two to one. Leslie, however, who
670
DUNBLANE DUNCAN, A. D.
was himself in difficulties on his post among the bare hills,
and was perhaps subjected to pressure from civil authorities,
descended from the heights on the 2nd of September and began
to edge towards his right, in order first to confront, and after-
wards to surround, his opponent. The cavalry of his left wing
stood fast, west of Boon Hill, as a pivot of manoeuvre, the northern
face of Boon (where the ground rises from the burn at an average
slope of fifteen degrees and is even steeper near the summit) he
left unoccupied. The centre of infantry stood on the forward
slope of the long spur which runs east from Boon, and beyond
them, practically on the plain, was the bulk of the Scottish
cavalry. In the evening Cromwell drew up his army, under
11,000 effective men, along the ravine, and issued orders
to attack the Scots at dawn of the 3rd (i3th). The left
of the Scots was ineffective, as was a part of their centre
of foot on the upper part of the hillside, and the English com-
mander proposed to deal with the remainder. Before dawn
the English advanced troops crossed the ravine, attacked
Boon, and pinned Leslie's left; under cover of this the
whole army began its manoeuvre. The artillery was posted
on the B unbar side of the burn, directly opposite and north of
Boon, the infantry and cavalry crossed where they could, and
formed up gradually in a line south of and roughly parallel to the
Berwick road, the extreme left of horse and foot, acting as a
reserve, crossed at Brocksmouth House on the outer flank. The
Scots were surprised in their bivouacs, but quickly formed up,
and at first repulsed both the horse and the foot. But ere long
Cromwell himself arrived with his reserve, and the whole English
line advanced again. The fresh impulse enabled it to break the
Scottish cavalry and repulse the foot, and Leslie's line of battle
was gradually rolled up from right to left. In the words of an
English officer, " The sun appearing upon the sea, I heard Nol
say, ' Now let God arise, and let His enemies be scattered,' and
following us as we slowly marched I heard him say, 'I profess they
run.' " Briven into the broken ground, and penned between
Boon Hill and the ravine, the Scots were indeed helpless. " They
routed one another after we had done their work on their right
wing," says the same officer. Ten thousand men, including
almost the whole of the Scottish foot, surrendered, and their
killed numbered three thousand. Few of the English were
killed. " I do not believe," wrote Cromwell, " that we have lost
twenty men."
The account of the battle of Bunbar here followed is that of C. H.
Firth, for which see his Cromwell, pp. 281 ff. and references there
given. For other accounts see Carlyle, Cromwell's Letters and Speeches,
letter cxl. ; Hoenig, Cromwell; Baldock, Cromwell as a Soldier; and
Gardiner, Hist, of the Common-wealth and Protectorate, vol. i.
DUNBLANE, a police burgh of Perthshire, Scotland, on the
left bank of Allan Water, a tributary of the Forth, 5 m. N. by W.
of Stirling by the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901) 2516. It is
a place of great antiquity, with narrow streets and old-fashioned
houses. The leading industry is the manufacture of woollens.
The cathedral is situated by the side of the river, and was one
of the few ecclesiastical edifices that escaped injury at the hands
of the Reformers. The first church is alleged to have been
erected by Blane, a saint of the 7th century, but the cathedral
as founded by David I. in 1141, and almost entirely rebuilt
about 1 240 by Bishop Clemens. Excepting the tower, which is
Early Norman and was probably incorporated from the earlier
structure, the building is of the Early Pointed style. It consists
of a nave (130 ft. long, 58 ft. wide, 50 ft. high), aisles, choir (80 ft.
long by 30 ft. wide), chapter-house and tower. Ruskin con-
sidered that there was " nothing so perfect in its simplicity "
as the west window, the design of which resembles a leaf. After
the decline of episcopacy the building was neglected for a long
period, but the choir, which contains some carved oak stalls of
the i6th century, was restored in 1873, and the nave roofed and
restored in 1892-1895, under the direction of Sir Rowand
Anderson, the architect. From the time of the Reformation the
choir had been used as the parish church, but since its restoration
the whole cathedral has been devoted to this purpose. The new
oak roof is emblazoned with the arms of the Scottish and later
British monarchs, and of the old earls of Strathearn. Several
members of the families of Strathearn and Strathallan were buried
in the cathedral, and three stones of blue marble in the floor of
the choir are supposed to mark the graves of Lady Margaret
Brummond (b. 1472), mistress of James IV., and her two sisters,
daughters of Lord Brummond, who were mysteriously poisoned
in 1501. An ancient Celtic cross, 65 ft. high, stands in the north-
western corner of the nave. Robert Leighton was the greatest of
the bishops of Bunblane, and held the see from 1661 to 1670.
The library of 1 500 volumes which he bequeathed to the clergy
of the diocese is housed in a building with an outside stair,
standing near the cathedral, and the Bishop's Walk by the
river also perpetuates his memory. Of the bishop's palace only
a few ruins remain. The battlefield of Sheriffmuir is about 2j m.
E. of the town. A mile and a half S. of Bunblane is the estate
of Keir which belonged to Sir William Stirling-Maxwell, the
historian and art critic. The duke of Leeds derives the title of
one of his viscounties from Bunblane.
DUNCAN, the name of two Scottish kings.
BUNCAN I. (d. 1040) was a son of Crinan or Cronan, lay abbot
of Bunkeld, and became king of the Scots in succession to his
maternal grandfather, Malcolm II., in 1034, having previously
as rex Cumbrorum ruled in Strathclyde. His accession was
" the first example of inheritance of the Scottish throne in the
direct line." Buncan is chiefly known through his connexion
with Macbeth, which has been immortalized by Shakespeare.
The feud between these two princes originated probably in a
dispute over the succession to the throne; its details, however,
are obscure, and the only fact which can be ascertained with any
certainty is that Buncan was slain by Macbeth in 1040. Two
of Buncan's sons, Malcolm III. Canmore and Bonald V. Bane,
were afterwards kings of the Scot.
DT T N^AN H- (! i- j>\) KM* n*\n( Malcolm III. and therefore
a grandson of Buncan I. For a time he lived as a hostage in
England and became king of the Scots after driving out his uncle,
Bonald Bane, in 1093, an enterprise in which he was helped by
some English and Normans. He was killed in the following year.
See W. F. Skene, Celtic Scotland (1876-1880), and A. Lang, History
of Scotland, vol. i. (1900).
DUNCAN, ADAM DUNCAN, isx VISCOUNT (1731-1804),
British naval commander, was born on the ist of July i73 J >
at Lundie, in Forfarshire, Scotland. After receiving the rudi-
ments of his education at Bundee, he was in 1746 placed under
Captain Haldane, of the " Shoreham " frigate, and in 1749 he
became a midshipman in the " Centurion." In 1755 he was
appointed second lieutenant of the " Norwich," but on the
arrival of that ship in America, whither, with the rest of Keppel's
DUNCAN, P. M.-DUNCKER
671
squadron, it had convoyed General Braddock's forces, he was
transferred to the " Centurion." Once again in England, he
was promoted to be second lieutenant of the " Torbay," and
after three years on the home station he assisted in the attack
on the French settlement of Goree, on the African coast, in which
he was slightly wounded. He returned to England as first
lieutenant of the " Torbay "; and in 1759 was made a commander,
and in 1761 a post-captain. His vessel, the " Valiant " (74),
was Commodore Keppel's flag-ship in the expedition against
Belle-He en Mer in that year, and also in 1762, when it took an
important part in the capture of Havana. In 1778, on the
recommencement of war with France, Captain Duncan was
appointed to the " Suffolk " (74), whence before the close of the
year he removed to the "Monarch" (74), one of the Channel
Fleet. On the i6th of January 1780, in an action off Cape
St Vincent, between a Spanish squadron under Don Juan de
Langara and the British fleet under Sir George Rodney, Captain
Duncan hi the " Monarch " was the first to engage the enemy;
and in 1782, as captain of the " Blenheim " (90), he took part
in Lord Howe's relief of Gibraltar. From the rank of rear-
admiral of the blue, received in 1789, he was gradually promoted
until, in 1799, he became admiral of the white. In February
1795 he hoisted his flag as commander-in-chief of the North Sea
fleet, appointed to harass the Batavian navy. Towards the
end of May 1797, though, in consequence of the widespread
mutiny in the British fleet, he had been left with only the
" Adamant " (50), besides his own ship the " Venerable " (74),
Admiral Duncan proceeded to his usual station off the Texel,
where lay at anchor the Dutch squadron of fifteen sail of the
line, under the command of Vice-Admiral de Winter. From
time to time he caused signals to be made, as if to the main
body of a fleet in the offing, a stratagem which probably was the
cause of his freedom from molestation until, in the middle of
June, reinforcements arrived from England. On the 3rd of
October the admiral put into Yarmouth Roads to refit and
victual his ships, but, receiving information early on the gth
that the enemy was at sea, he immediately hoisted the signal
for giving him chase. On the morning of the nth de
Winter's fleet, consisting of 4 seventy-fours, 7 sixty-fours, 4
fifty-gun ships, 2 forty-four-gun frigates, and 2 of thirty-two
guns, besides smaller vessels, was sighted lying about 9 m.
from shore, between the villages of Egmont and Camperdown.
The British fleet numbered 7 seventy-fours, 7 sixty-fours, 2
fifties, 2 frigates, with a sloop and several cutters, and was
slightly superior in force to that of the Dutch. Shortly after
mid-day the British ships, without waiting to form in order,
broke through the Dutch line, and an engagement commenced
which, after heavy loss on both sides, resulted in the taking by
the British of eleven of the enemy's vessels. When the action
ceased the ships were in nine fathoms water, within 5 m. of
a lee shore, and there was every sign of an approaching gale.
So battered were the prizes that it was found impossible to fit
them for future service, and one of them, the " Delft," sank
on her way to England. In recognition of this victory, Admiral
Duncan was, on the 2ist of October, created Viscount Duncan
of Camperdown and baron of Lundie, with an annual pension
of 3000 to himself and the two next heirs to his title. The
earldom of Camperdown was created for his son Robert (1785-
1859) in 1831, and is still in the possession of his descendants.
In 1800 Lord Duncan withdrew from naval service. He died
on the 4th of August 1804.
See Charnock, Biog. Nav. (1794-1796) ; Collins, Peerage of England,
p. 378 (1812); W. James, Naval History of Great Britain (1822);
Vonge, History of the British Navy, vol. i. (1863); Earl of Camper-
down, Admiral Duncan (1898), vol. xvi. of the Navy Record Soc.
Publications, contains the logs of the ships engaged in the battle of
Camperdown.
DUNCAN, PETER MARTIN (1824-1891), English palaeonto-
logist, was born on the zoth of April 1824 at Twickenham, and
was educated partly at the local grammar school and partly in
Switzerland. Having entered the medical department of King's
College, London, in 1842, he obtained the degree of M.B.(Lond.)
in 1846, and then acted for a short time as assistant to a doctor
at Rochester. Subsequently he practised at Colchester (1848-
1860), and during this period he served for a year as mayor of
the city. Returning to London in 1860 he practised for a few
years at Blackheath, and then gave his time entirely to scientific
research, first in botany, and later in geology and palaeontology.
His attention was directed especially to fossil corals, and in
1863 he contributed to the Geological Society of London the
first of a series of papers on the fossil corals of the West Indian
Islands in which he not only described the species, but discussed
their bearings on the physical geography of the Tertiary period.
Corals from various parts of the world and from different
geological formations were subsequently dealt with by Duncan,
and he came to be regarded as a leading authority on these
fossils. He prepared also for the Palaeontographical Society
(1866-1872) an important work on British fossil corals, as a
supplement to the monograph by Henri Milne-Edwards and
Jules Haime. He was elected F.R.S. in 1868. In 1870 he was
chosen professor of geology at King's College. He was president
of the Geological Society (1876-1877), and in 1881 was awarded
the Wollaston medal. In addition to papers on fossil corals,
he dealt with some of the living forms, also with the Echinoidea
and other groups, recent and fossil. He edited the six volumes
of Cassell's Natural History (1877, &c.). He died at Gunnersbury
on the 28th of May 1891.
DUNCAN, THOMAS (1807-1845), Scottish portrait and
historical painter, was born at Kinclaven, in Perthshire. He
was educated at the Perth Academy, and began the study of
the law, but abandoned it for art. Beginning under the instruc-
tion of Sir William Allan, he early attained distinction as a
delineator of the human figure; and his first pictures established
his fame so completely, that at a very early age he was appointed
professor of colouring, and afterwards of drawing, in the Trustees'
Academy of Edinburgh. In 1840 he painted one of his finest
pictures, " Prince Charles Edward and the Highlanders entering
Edinburgh after the Battle of Prestonpans," which secured his
election as an associate of the Royal Academy in 1843. I Q tne
same year he produced his picture of " Charles Edward asleep
after Culloden, protected by Flora MacDonald," which, like
many other of his works, has been often engraved. In 1844
appeared his " Cupid " and his " Martyrdom of John Brown
of Priesthill." His last work was a portrait of himself, now in
the National Gallery in Edinburgh. He particularly excelled
in his portraits of ladies and children. He died in Edinburgh
on the 25th of May 1845.
DUNCE, a slow or stupid person, one incapable of learning.
The word is derived from the name of the great schoolman, John
Duns Scotus, whose works on logic, theology and philosophy
were accepted text-books in the universities from the I4th
century. " Duns " or " Dunsman " was a name early applied
by their opponents to the followers of Duns Scotus, the Scotists,
and hence was equivalent to one devoted to sophistical distinc-
tions and subtleties. When, in the i6th century, the Scotists
obstinately opposed the " new learning," the term " duns " or
" dunce " became, in the mouths of the humanists and reformers,
a term of abuse, a synonym for one incapable of scholarship,
a dull blockhead.
DUNCKER, MAXIMILIAN WOLFGANG (1811-1886), German
historian and politician, eldest son of the publisher Karl Duncker,
was born at Berlin on the isth of October 1811. He studied
at the universities of Bonn and Berlin till 1834, was then accused
of participation in the students' societies, which the government
was endeavouring to suppress, and was condemned to six years'
imprisonment, afterwards reduced to six months. He had
already begun his labours as a historian, but after serving his
sentence in 1837, found himself debarred till 1839 fr m complet-
ing his course at Halle, where in 1842 he obtained a professorship.
Elected to the National Assembly at Frankfort in 1848, he joined
the Right Centre party, and was chosen reporter of the projected
constitution. He sat in the Erfurt assembly in 1850, and in the
second Prussian chamber from 1849 to 1852. During the crisis in
Schleswig and Holstein in 1850 he endeavoured in person to aid
the duchies in their struggles. An outspoken opponent of the
672
DUNCKLEY DUNDEE, VISCOUNT
policy of Manteuffel, he was refused promotion by the Prussian
government, and in 1857 accepted the professorship of history
at Tubingen. In 1859, however, he was recalled to Berlin as
assistant in the ministry of state in the Auerswald cabinet, and
in 1861 was appointed councillor to the crown prince. In 1867
he became director of the Prussian archives, with which it was
his task to incorporate those of Hanover, Hesse and Nassau.
He retired on the ist of January 1875, and died at Ansbach on
the zist of July 1886. Duncker's eminent position among
German historians rests mainly on his Geschichte des Alterthums
(ist ed., 1852-1857); 5th ed. in 9 vols., 1878-1886; English
translation by Evelyn Abbott, 1877-1882). He edited, with
J. G. Droysen, Preussische Staatsschriften, Politische Corre-
spondenz Friedrichs des Grossen, and Urkunden und Actenstiicke
zur Geschichte des Kurfilrsten Friedrich Wilhelm von Brandenburg.
To the period of his political activity belong Zur Geschichte der
deutschen Reichsversammlung in Frankfurt (1849); Heinrich
von Gogerw(i8so), in the series of Manner der Gegemvart; and
the anonymous Vier Monate auswiirtiger Politik (1851). His
other works include Origines Germanicae (1840); the lectures
Die Krisis der Reformation (1845) and Feudalitat und Aristokratie
(1858); Aus der Zeit Friedrichs des Grossen und Friedrich
Wilhelms III. Abhandlungen zur preussischen Geschichte (1876);
followed after his death by Abhandlungen aus der griechischen
Geschichte and Abhandlungen aus der neueren Geschichte (1887).
DUNCKLEY, HENRY (1823-1896), English journalist, was
born at Warwick on the 24th of December 1823. Educated
at the Baptist college at Accrington, Lancashire, and at Glasgow
University, he became in 1848 minister of the Baptist church
at Salford, Lancashire. Here he closely investigated the educa-
tional needs of the working-classes, embodying the results of his
inquiries in an essay, The Glory and the Shame of Britain (1851),
which gained a prize offered by the Religious Tract Society.
In 1852 he won the Anti-Corn-law League's prize with an essay
on the results of the free-trade policy, published in 1854 under
the title The Charter of the Nations. In 1855 he abandoned
the ministry to edit the Manchester Examiner and Times, a
prominent Liberal newspaper, in charge of which he remained
till 1889. For twenty years he wrote, over the signature
" Verax," weekly letters to the Manchester papers; those on
The Crown and the Cabinet (1877) and The Crown and the Con-
stitution (1878) evoked so much enthusiasm that a public sub-
scription was set on foot to present the writer with a handsome
testimonial for his public services. In 1878 Dunckley, who had
often declined to stand for parliament, was elected a member of
the Reform Club in recognition of his services to the Liberal
party, and in 1883 he was made an LL.D. by Glasgow University.
He died at Manchester on the 29th of June 1896.
DUNCOMBE, SIR CHARLES (c. 1648-1711), English politician,
was a London apprentice, who became a goldsmith and a banker;
he amassed great wealth in his calling and was chosen an alderman
of the city of London in 1 683 . D uncombe's parliamentary career
began in 1685, when he was elected member of parliament for
Hedon, and he was afterwards one of the representatives of
Yarmouth in the Isle of Wight and of Downton in Wiltshire.
He was made receiver of the customs, and upon the flight of
James II. from Englandin 1688 refused to forward to him the sum
of 1500 as requested; accordingly his name alone was excepted
from the pardon issued by the exiled king in 1692. A strong
Tory, Buncombe held for a short time the office of receiver of the
excise, and in this capacity he profited slightly by a transaction
over some exchequer bills which had been falsely endorsed.
Consequently he was imprisoned by the House of Commons, and
expelled from parliament; and having been released by order
of the House of Lords, where his friends were more powerful,
he was again imprisoned by the Commons. Tried before the
court of king's bench he was found "not guilty" on two occasions
and the matter was allowed to drop. Buncombe made three
unsuccessful attempts to enter parliament as member for the city
of London, and then represented Bownton a second time from
1702 until his death. In 1699 he was knighted, and in 1709 he
served as lord mayor of London. Upon retiring from business
in 1695 Buncombe caused some stir by giving the representatives
of the duke of Buckingham a high price for an estate at Helmsley
in Yorkshire, where he built a magnificent house.
He died at his residence at Teddington on the 9th of April
1711, and much of his great wealth passed to his sister, Ursula,
wife of Thomas Browne, who took the name of Buncombe.
Ursula's great-grandson, Charles Buncombe (1764-1841), was
created Baron Feversham in 1826, and in 1868 his grandson,
William Ernest, the 3rd baron (b. 1829), was made earl of
Feversham. Sir Charles Buncombe's nephew, Anthony Bun-
combe (c. 1695-1763), who was made a baron in 1747, left an
only daughter, Anne (1757-1829), who married Jacob Pleydell-
Bouverie, 2nd earl of Radnor, by whom she was the ancestress
of the succeeding earls of Radnor.
A celebrated member of the Buncombe family was THOMAS
SLINGSBY BUNCOMBE (1796-1861), a Radical politician, who was
member of parliament for Hertford from 1826 to 1832 and for
Finsbury from 1834 until his death. Buncombe defended Lord
Burham's administration of Canada; he sought to obtain the
release of John Frost and other Chartists, whose immense
petition he presented to parliament in 1842; and he interested
himself in the affairs of Charles II., the deposed duke of Bruns-
wick. He showed a practical sympathy with Mazzini, whose
letters had been opened by order of the English government, by
urging for an inquiry into this occurrence; and also with Kossuth.
He died at Lancing on the i3th of November 1861.
See Life and Correspondence of T. S. Duncombe, edited by T. H.
Duncombe (1868).
DUNDALK, a seaport of Co. Louth, Ireland, in the north
parliamentary division, on the Castletown river near its mouth in
Bundalk Bay. Pop. of urban district (1901), 13,076. It is an
important junction on the Great Northern railway, by the main
line of which it is 54 m. N. from Bublin. The company has its
works here, and a line diverges to the north-west of Ireland.
Bundalk is connected with the port of Greenore (for Holyhead) by
a line owned by the London & North- Western railway company of
England. The parish church is an old and spacious edifice with a
curious wooden steeple covered with copper; and the Roman
Catholic chapel is a handsome building in the style of King's
College chapel, Cambridge. There are ruins of a Franciscan
priory, with a lofty tower. Adjacent to the town are several
fine parks and demesnes. Until 1885 a member was returned
to parliament. A brisk trade, chiefly in agricultural and dairy
producers carried on, and the town contains some manufactories.
Bistilling and brewing are the principal industrial works, and
there are besides a flax and jute-spinning mill, salt works, &c.
The port is the seat of a considerable trade, mainly in agricul-
tural produce and live stock. It is also the centre of a sea-
fishery district and of salmon fisheries. Bundalk was a borough
by prescription, and received charters from Edward III. and
successive monarchs. Edward Bruce, having invaded Ireland
from Scotland in 1315, proceeded south from his landing-place in
Antrim, ravaging as he came, to Bundalk, which he stormed, and
proclaimed himself king here. In this neighbourhood, too, he was
defeated and killed by the English under Sir John de Bermingham
in 1318, and at Faughart near Bundalk, near the ruined church of
St Bridget, he is buried.
DUNDEE, JOHN GRAHAM OF CLAVERHOUSE, VISCOUNT
(c. 1649-1689), Scottish soldier, was the elder son of Sir William
Graham and Lady Madeline Carnegie. Of his youth little record
has been kept; but in the year 1665 he became a student at the
university of St Andrews. His education was upon the whole
good, as appears from the varied and valuable correspondence of
his later years. Young Graham was destined for a military
career; and after about four years he proceeded abroad as a
volunteer in the service of France. In 1673 or 1674 he went to
Holland, and obtained a cornetcy, and he was soon raised to the
rank of captain, as a reward for having saved the life of the
prince of Orange at the battle of Seneff. A few years later,
being disappointed in his hopes of obtaining a regiment, Graham
resigned his commission. In the beginning of 1677 he returned to
England, bearing, it is said, letters of strong recommendation
DUNDEE, VISCOUNT
673
from the prince to Charles II. and the duke of York. In 1678 he
became a lieutenant, and soon afterwards captain of a troop, in
the regiment commanded by his relative the marquis of Montrose.
The task before him was the suppression of the Covenanters'
rebellion. To this he brought, over and above the feelings of
romantic loyalty and the cavalier spirit, which in his case was
free from its usual defects, a hatred of the Covenanters which was
based largely on his hero-worship of the great Montrose. Further,
his uncompromising disposition and unmistakable capacity at
once marked him out as a leader upon whom the government
could rely. But the difficulties of his task, the open or secret
hostility of the whole people, and the nature and extent of the
country he was required to watch, were too great for the leader of
a small body of cavalry, and in spite of his vigorous and energetic
action, Graham accomplished but little. He entered, however,
upon his occupation with zest, and interpreted consistently the
orders he received. There is evidence, also, that his efforts were
appreciated at headquarters in his appointment, jointly with the
laird of Earlshall, his subaltern, to the office of sheriff-depute of
Dumfries and Annandale in March 1679, with powers specially
narrated in his commission anent " separation," conventicles,
" disorderly baptisms and marriages," and the like.
For some years thereafter the position of Graham was in the
highest degree difficult and delicate. In the midst of enemies,
and in virtue of the most erroneous but direct orders of his
government, he combined the functions of soldier, spy, pro-
secutor and judge. Shortly after the murder of Archbishop
Sharp (1679), he was summoned to increased activity. There
were reports of rebels gathering near Glasgow, and Graham went
in pursuit. On the ist of June, the Covenanters being in a well-
protected position upon the marshy ground of Drumclog,
Graham advanced to the attack. Hindered by the ground, he had
to wait till the impatience of his adversaries induced them to
commence an impetuous attack. The charge of the Covenanters
routed the royal cavalry, who turned and fled, Graham himself
having a narrow escape. This was the only regular engagement
he had with the Covenanters. The enthusiasm raised by this
victory was the beginning of a serious and open rebellion.
On the 22nd of June Graham was present at the battle of
Bothwell Bridge, at the head of his own troop. Immediately
thereafter he was commissioned to search the south-western
shires for those who had taken part in the insurrection. In this
duty he seems to have been engaged till the early part of 1680,
when he disappears for a time from the record of these stringent
measures. The wide powers given to him by his commission
were most sparingly used, and the gravest accusation made
against him in reference to this period is that he was a
robber.
He was, in any case, an advocate of rigorous measures, and his
own systematic and calculated terrorism, directed principally
against the ringleaders, proved far more efficacious than the
irregular and haphazard brutalities of other commanders.
During these months he was despatched to London, along with
Lord Linlithgow, to influence the mind of Charles II. against
the indulgent method adopted by Monmouth with the extreme
Covenanting party. The king seems to have been fascinated by
his loyal supporter, and from that moment Graham was destined
to rise in rank and honours. Early in 1680 he obtained a royal
grant of the barony of the outlawed Macdougal of Freuch, and
the grant was after some delay confirmed by subsequent orders
upon the exchequer in Scotland. In April 1680 it appears that
his roving commission had been withdrawn by the privy council.
He is thus free from all concern with the severe measures which
followed the Sanquhar Declaration of the 22nd of June 1680.
The turbulence occasioned by the passing of the Test Act of
1681 required to be quelled by a strong hand; and in the begin-
ning of the following year Graham was again commissioned to
act in the disaffected districts. In the end of January he was
appointed to the sheriffships of Wigtown, Dumfries, Kirk-
cudbright and Annandale. He retained his commission in the
army the pernicious combination of his offices being thus
repeated. He appears further to have had powers of life and
VHI. 22
death in virtue of a commission of justiciary granted to him
about the same time. These powers he exercised strictly and in
conformity with the tenor of his orders, which were not more
severe than he himself desired. He quartered on the rebels,
rifled their houses, and, to use his own words, " endeavoured to
destroy them by eating up their provisions." The effect of his
policy, if we believe his own writ, is not overstated as
" Death, desolation, ruin and decay."
The result of a bitter quarrel between Graham and Sir John
Dalrymple, who, with many others of the gentry, was far from
active in the execution of the government's orders, confirmed
his prestige. Graham was acquitted by the privy council of
the charges of exaction and oppression preferred against him,
and Sir John condemned to fine and imprisonment for interference
with his proceedings. In December 1682 Graham was appointed
colonel of a new regiment raised in Scotland. He had still
greater honours in view. In January 1683 the case of the earl
of Lauderdale, late Maitland of Hatton, was debated in the
House of Lords. Maitland was proprietor of the lands and
lordship of Dundee and Dudhope, and the decree of the Lords
against him was in March 1683 issued for the sum of 72,000.
Graham succeeded in having part of the property of the defaulter
transferred to him by royal grant, and in May he was nominated
to the privy council of Scotland.
Shortly afterwards Claverhouse was appointed to be present
at the sittings of the Circuit Court of Justiciary hi Stirling,
Glasgow, Dumfries and Jedburgh, recently instituted for the
imposition of the test and the punishment of rebels. Several
were sentenced to death. During the rest of the year he attended
the meetings of council, in which he displayed the spirit of an
obedient soldier rather than that of a statesman capable of
independent views. There is, however, one record of his direct
and efficacious interference. He declared decisively against
the proposal to let loose the Highland marauders upon the
south of Scotland.
In June 1684 he was again at his old employment the
inspection of the southern shires; and in August he was com-
missioned as second in command of the forces in Ayr and Clydes-
dale to search out the rebels. By this time he was in possession
of Dudhope, and on the loth of June he married Lady Jean,
daughter of William, Lord Cochrane. As constable of Dundee
he recommended the remission of extreme punishment in the
case of many petty offences. He issued from his retirement to
take part in a commission of lieutenancy which perambulated
the southern districts as a criminal court; and in the end of
the year he was again in the same region on the occasion of
disturbances in the town of Kirkcudbright.
Shortly after the death of Charles II. (February 1685) Graham
incurred a temporary disgrace by his deposition from the office
of privy councillor; but in May he was reinstated, although
his commission of justiciary, which had expired, was not renewed.
In May 1685 he was ordered with his cavalry to guard the
borders, and to scour the south-west in search of rebels. By
act of privy council, a certificate was required by all persons
over sixteen years of age to free them from the hazard of attack
from government officials. Without that they were at once liable
to be called upon oath to abjure the declaration of Renwick,
which was alleged to be treasonable. While on this mission he
pursued and overtook two men, one of whom, John Brown,
called the " Christian carrier," having refused the abjuration
oath, was shot dead. The order was within the authorized
powers of Graham.
In 1686 he was promoted to the rank of major-general, and
had added to his position of constable the dignity of provost of
Dundee. In 1688 he was second in command to General Douglas
in the army which had been ordered to England to aid the falling
dynasty of the Stuarts.
His influence with James II. was great and of long standing,
and amid the hurry of events in this critical time he was created
Viscount Dundee on the 1 2th of November 1688. Throughout the
vexed journeyings of the king, Dundee is found accompanying
or following him, endeavouring in vain to prompt him to make
6 74
DUNDEE
his stand in England, and fight rather than flee from the
invader. At last James announced his resolve to go to France,
promising that he would send Dundee a commission to command
the troops in Scotland.
Dundee returned to Scotland in anticipation of the meeting
of the convention, and at once exerted himself to confirm the
waning resolution of the duke of Gordon with regard to holding
Edinburgh Castle for the king. The convention proving hostile
(March i6th, 1688), he conceived the idea of forming another
convention at Stirling to sit in the name of James II., but the
hesitancy of his associates rendered the design futile, and it
was given up. Previous to this, on the i8th of March, he had
left Edinburgh at the head of a company of fifty dragoons, who
were strongly attached to his person. He was not long gone
ere the news was brought to the alarmed convention that he
had been seen clambering up the castle rock and holding con-
ference with the duke of Gordon. In excitement and confusion
order after order was despatched in reference to the fugitive.
Dundee retired to Dudhope. On the 3oth of March he was
publicly denounced as a traitor, and in the latter half of April
attempts were made to secure him at Dudhope, and at his
residence in Glen Ogilvy. But the secrecy and speed of his
movements outwitted his pursuers, and he retreated to the
north.
In the few years which had elapsed since 1678 he had risen,
despite the opposition of his superiors in rank, from the post of
captain and the social status of a small Scottish laird to positions
as a soldier and statesman and the favourite of his sovereigns,
of the greatest dignity, influence and wealth. In this period
he had, justly or unjustly, earned the reputation of being a
cruel and ruthless oppressor. When the ruling dynasty changed,
and he had himself become an outlaw and a rebel, he supported
the cause of his exiled monarch with such skill and valour
that his name and death are recorded as heroic.
In the Highlands his diplomatic skill was used with effect
amongst the chieftains. General Hugh Mackay was now in the
field against him, and a Highland chase began. The campaign
resembled those of Montrose forty years earlier. The regular
troops were at a great disadvantage in the wild Highland country,
and Dundee, like Montrose, invariably anticipated his enemy.
But, as usual, the army of the clans required the most careful
management. After the first few weeks of operations, Dundee's
army melted away, and Mackay, unable to follow his opponent,
retired also.
Throughout the whole of the campaign Dundee was inde-
fatigable in his exertions with the Highland chiefs and his
communications with his exiled king. To the day of his death
he believed that formidable succour for his cause was about to
arrive from Ireland and France. He justly considered himself
at the head of the Stewart interest in Scotland, and his despatches
form a record of the little incidents of the campaign, strangely
combined with a revelation of the designs of the statesman.
It mattered little to him that on the 24th of July a price of
20,000 had been placed upon his head. The clans had begun
to reassemble; he was now in command of a considerable force,
and in July both sides took the field again. A contest for the
castle of Blair forced on the decision. Mackay, in his march
towards that place, entered the pass of Killiecrankie, the battle-
ground selected by Dundee and his officers. Here, on the i7th-
27th of July 1689, was fought the battle of Killiecrankie (q.v.).
The Highlanders were completely victorious, but their leader,
in the act of encouraging his men, was pierced beneath the
breastplate by a bullet of the enemy, and fell dying from his
horse. Dundee asked "How goes the day ? " of a soldier, who
replied, " Well for King James, but I am sorry for your lordship."
The dying general replied, " If it goes well for him, it matters
the less for me." Dundee was conveyed to the castle of Blair,
where he died on the night of the battle. Within an hour or
two of his death he wrote a short account of the engagement to
King James. The battle, disastrous as it was to the government
forces, was in reality the end of the insurrection, for the control-
ling and commanding genius of the rebellion was no more. The
death of Dundee, in the mist and the confusion of a cavalry
charge, formed the subject of numerous legends, the best known
of which is the long prevalent tradition that he was invulnerable
to all bullets and was killed by a silver button from his own
coat.
See Mark Napier, Memorials and Letters of Graham of Claverhouse
(1859-1862) ; Bannatyne Club, Letters of the Viscount Dundee (1826) ;
C. S. Terry, John Graham of Claverhouse, Viscount Dundee; and
authorities quoted in Diet. Nat.Biogr., s.v. "Graham of Claverhouse."
DUNDEE, a royal, municipal and police burgh, county of a
city, and seaport of Forfarshire, Scotland. Pop. (1891) 153,587;
(1901) 161,173. It lies on the north shore of the Firth of Tay,
591 m. N. by E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway via
the Forth and Tay bridges. The Caledonian railway finds access
to the city by way of Perth, which is distant about 22 m. W. by
S. The general disposition of the town is from east to west,
with a frontage on the water of 4 m. The area northwards that
has already been built over varies in depth from half a mile
to nearly 25 m. (from Esplanade Station to King's Cross). The
city rises gradually from the river to Dundee Law and Balgay
Hill. Since the estuary to the E. of Tay bridge is i^ m. wide,
and the commodious docks in immediate contact with the river
at all stages of the tide are within 12 m. of the sea, the position
of the city eminently adapts it to be the emporium of a vast
trade by land and sea. But its prosperity is due in a far greater
measure to its manufactures of jute and linen of which it is the
chief seat in the United Kingdom than to its shipping.
Public Buildings. The town-hall, built in 1734 from the
designs of Robert Adam, stands in High Street. It is surmounted
by a steeple 140 ft. high, carrying a good peal of bells, and beneath
it is a piazza. The old Town Cross, a shaft 15 ft. high, bearing
a unicorn with the date of 1586, once stood in High Street also,
but was re-erected within the enclosure on the S.W. of Town
Churches (see below). Albert Square, with statues of Robert
Burns, George Kinloch, the first member for Dundee in the
Reform Parliament (both by Sir John Steell), and James Car-
michael (1776-1853), inventor of the fan-blast (by John Hutchi-
son, R.S.A.), contains several good buildings, among them the
Royal Exchange in Flemish Pointed (erected in 1853-1856),
the Eastern Club-house, and the Albert Institute, founded in
memory of the prince consort. The last, built mainly from
designs by Sir Gilbert Scott, is one of the most important edifices
in the city, since it embraces the art gallery, free library, reference
library, museum and several halls. On the north side of the
building is the seated figure, in bronze, of Queen Victoria; on a
polished red granite pedestal containing bas-reliefs of episodes in
Her Majesty's lif e, the work of Harry Bates, A.R. A. The custom
house, near the docks, is in Classical style and dates from 1843.
The Sheriff Court buildings and Police Chambers, a structure
of Grecian design, with a bold portico, was erected in 1864-1865.
The halls used for great public meetings are the Volunteer Drill
Hall in Parker Square, and Kinnaird Hall in Bank Street. Of
the newer streets, Commercial, Reform, Whitehall, Bank and
Lindsay contain many buildings of good design and the principal
shops. In Bank Street are the offices of the Dundee Advertiser,
the leading newspaper in the north-east of Scotland; and in
Lindsay Street the headquarters of the Dundee Courier. In
Dock Street stands the Royal Arch, an effective structure,
erected to commemorate the visit of Queen Victoria in 1844.
Among places of amusement are the Theatre Royal, the People's
Palace theatre, the Music Hall, the Circus and the Gymnasium.
The cattle market and slaughter-houses, both on an extensive
scale, are in the east end of the city, not far from Camperdown
Dock. Dudhope Castle, once the seat of the Scrymgeours,
hereditary constables of the burgh one of whom (Sir Alexander)
was a companion-in-arms of Wallace, was granted by James II.
to John Graham of Claverhouse. On his death it reverted to the
crown, and at a later date was converted into barracks. When
the new barracks at Dudhope Park were occupied, the Castle
was transformed into an industrial museum. Though Dundee
was once a walled town, the only relic of its walls is the East Port,
the preservation of which was due to the tradition that George
DUNDEE
Wishart preached from the top of it during the plague of
1544-
Churches. Of the many churches and chapels the most in-
teresting is Town Churches St Mary's, St Paul's and St
Clement's, the three under one roof surmounted by the noble
square tower, 156 ft. high, called the Old Steeple, once the belfry
of the church which was erected on this spot by David, earl of
Huntingdon, as a thank-offering for his escape from shipwreck
on the shoals at the mouth of the Tay (1193). The church
perished, but the bell-tower remained and was restored in 1871-
1873 by Sir Gilbert Scott. The fine Roman Catholic pro-
cathedral of St Andrew's is in Early English style, and St Paul's
Episcopal church, in Decorated Gothic style, with a spire 211 ft.
high, from designs by Sir Gilbert Scott, was due to the zeal of
Bishop Forbes (1817-1875), who transferred the headquarters
of the see of Brechin to Dundee. It occupies the site of the old
castle. Memorial churches commemorate the work of Robert
Murray McCheyne (1813-1843) and of George Gilfillan (1813-
1878), long ministers in Dundee. John Glas (1695-1773), founder
of the Glasites (q.v.), ministered here from 1730 to 1733.
Cemeteries. The ancient burying-ground in the centre of the
city is called the Howff . It has long been closed, but contains
several interesting monuments and epitaphs. Not far from it
the New Cemetery was laid out in West Bell Street; to the east
of Baxter Park lies the Eastern Cemetery; and the Western
Cemetery was constructed in Perth Road. The most beautifully
situated of all the burying-grounds, however, is the Western
Necropolis, which occupies the western portion of the hill of
Balgay. A bridge over the ravine connects it with Balgay Park.
Public Parks and Open Spaces. On the N. of the city rises
Dundee Law (571 ft.), the property of the Corporation, a
prominent landmark, on the summit of which are traces of an old
vitrified fort. The surrounding park covers 18 acres. Near the
eastern boundary of the city lies Baxter Park, of 37 acres, pre-
sented to the town by Sir David Baxter (1793-1872), a leading
manufacturer, and his sisters. It was laid out by Sir Joseph
Paxton, and contains a statue of Sir David by Sir John Steell,
erected by public subscription. In the west the finely wooded
hill of Balgay was acquired in 1869 and 36 acres of the area were
converted into a park. Immediately adjoining it on the north
is Lochee Park, of 25 acres, given to the city in 1891 by Messrs
Cox Brothers of Camperdown Works. In the extreme north
lies the park of Fair Muir, of 1 2 acres, which was secured in 1890,
and nearer to the heart of the town is Dudhope or Barrack Park,
purchased in 1893. Near the north end of the Tay bridge is
Magdalen Green, an old common of 17 acres, and along the shore
of the estuary there runs for a distance of 2\ m. from Magdalen
Point to beyond Craig Pier a promenade called the Esplanade.
Education. University College in Nethergate, founded in
1880 by Miss Baxter of Balgavies (d. 1884) and Dr John Boyd
Baxter, was opened in 1883, and united to the university of St
Andrews in 1890. The affiliation was cancelled in 1895 owing
to divergence of view in the governing body, but this was over-
come and the college finally incorporated in 1897. The staff
consists of a principal, professors and lecturers, and the curri-
culum, which may be taken by students of both sexes, is especi-
ally concerned with medicine and natural and applied science.
The endowments exceed 250,000. Adjoining the buildings
is the Technical Institute, built and endowed by Sir David
Baxter and opened in 1888. In connexion with the high school,
a building in the Doric style, dating from 1833, there is a museum
which was endowed in 1880 by Mr William Harris. Morgan
hospital, a structure in the Scots Baronial style, situated immedi-
ately to the north of Baxter Park, was founded in 1868 by John
Morgan, a native of Dundee, for the board and education of
a hundred boys, sons of indigent tradesmen, but was acquired
by the school board and transformed into a secondary school.
Besides a high school for girls and Roman Catholic and Epis-
copalian schools, there are numerous efficient and thoroughly
equipped board schools.
Charitable Institutions. One of the most conspicuous buildings
in the city, occupying a prominent position in the centre, is the
675
Royal Infirmary, a fine structure in the Tudor style. On the
southern face of Balgay Hill stands the Royal Victoria hospital
for incurables, opened in 1889. In addition to the maternity
hospital and nurses' home, there are several institutions devoted
to special afflictions and diseases among them the Blind and
the Deaf and Dumb institutions, the Royal asylum, the fever
hospital at King's Cross, and, in the parish of Mains beyond
the municipal boundary the Baldovan asylum for imbeciles,
founded in 1854 by Sir John Ogilvy and said to be the earliest
of its kind in Scotland, besides the smallpox and cholera hospital.
The large Dundee hospital adjoins the poorhouse, andanepidemic
hospital has been built in the Fair Muir district. One of the
convalescent homes is situated at B roughly Ferry. Among other
institutions are the Royal Orphan and the Wellburn Charitable
institutions, the rescue home for females, the sailors' home and
Lady Jane Ogilvy's orphanage in Mains.
Trade. Hector Boece, in his History and Croniklis of Scotland,
thus quaintly writes of the manufactures of Dundee in the
opening of the i6th century " Dunde, the toun quhair we wer
born; quhair mony virtewus and lauborius pepill ar in, making
of claith." Jute is, par excellence, the industry of the city.
Enormous quantities of the raw material estimated at 300,000
tons a year are imported directly from India in a fleet solely
devoted to this trade, and many of the factories in Bengal are
owned by Dundee merchants. Fabrics in jute range from the
roughest sacking to carpets of almost Oriental beauty. Another
staple industry is the linen manufacture, which is also one of the
oldest, although it was not till the introduction of steam power
that headway was made. Bell Mill, erected in 1806, was the
first work of any importance, and the first power-loom factory
dates from 1836. Now factories and mills are to be counted by
the score, and the jute, hemp and flax manufactures alone
employ about 50,000 hands, while the value of the combined
annual output exceeds 6,000,000. Some of the works are
planned on a colossal scale, and many of the buildings in respect
of design and equipment are among the finest and most complete
in the world. In the thriving quarter of Lochee are situated
the Camperdown Linen Works, covering an immense area and
employing more than 5000 hands. The chimney-stalk (282 ft.
high), in the style of an Italian campanile, built of parti-coloured
bricks with stone cornices, is a conspicuous feature. The chief
textile products are drills, ducks, canvas (for which the British
navy is the largest customer), ropes, sheetings, sackings and
carpets. Dundee is also celebrated for its confectionery and
preserves, especially marmalade. Among other prominent
industries are bleaching and dyeing, engineering, shipbuilding,
tanning, the making of boots and shoes and other goods in
leather, foundries, breweries, corn and flour mills, and the
construction of motor-cars.
Shipping. By reason of its excellent docking facilities
Dundee can cope with a shipping trade of the largest proportions.
On the front wharves and harbour works extend for 2 m., and the
docks cover an area of 35! acres, made up thus Earl Grey Dock,
5| acres; King William IV. Dock, 6J acres; Tidal Harbour, 4$
acres; Victoria Dock, loj acres; Camperdown Dock, 85 acres.
There are, besides, graving docks, the Ferry Harbour and timber
ponds. The warehouses are capacious and the ample quays
equipped with steam cranes and other modern appliances. In
1898 there entered and cleared 2914 vessels of 1,390,331 tons; in
1904 the numbers were 2428 vessels of 1,227,429 tons. At the
close of 1904 the registered shipping of the port was 131 vessels of
109,885 tons. Dundee is the seat of the Arctic fishery, once an
important and lucrative business, but now shrunk to the most
meagre dimensions in consequence of the increasing scarcity of
whales and seals. There is regular communication by steamer
with London, Hull, Newcastle, Liverpool and Leith, besides
Rotterdam, Hamburg and other continental ports. Of the local
excursions the two hours' run to Perth is the favourite summer
trip.
Local Government. Dundee returns two members to parlia-
ment. The city council consists of the lord provost, bailies and
councillors. The corporation owns the gas and water supplies
6 7 6
DUNDERLANDSDAL DUNDONALD, EARL OF
(the latter drawn from the loch of Lintrathen, 18 m. to the N. W.)
and the electric tramcars.
History. There appears to be some doubt as to the origin of
the name of Dundee. It is extravagant to trace it to the Latin
Donum Dei, " the gift of God," as some have done, or the Celtic
Dun Dhia, " the hill of God." More probably it is the Gaelic
Dun Taw, " the fort of the Tay," of which the Latin Taodunum
is a transliteration the derivation pointing to the fact of a
Pictish settlement on the site. The earliest authentic mention of
the city is in a deed of gift by David, earl of Huntingdon, younger
brother of William the Lion, dated about 1200, in which it is
designated as " Dunde." Shortly afterwards it was erected into
a royal burgh by William the Lion. When Edward I. visited it,
however, as he did twice (in 1296 and 1303) with hostile intent,
he is said to have removed its charter. Consequently Robert
Bruce and successive kings confirmed its privileges and rights,
and Charles I. finally granted it its great charter. Dundee played
a prominent part in the War of Scottish Independence. Here
Wallace finished his education, and here he slew young Selby, son
of the English constable, in 1 291, for which deed he was outlawed.
In that year the town fell into the hands of the English, and it
was whilst engaged in besieging the castle in 1297 that Wallace
withdrew to fight the battle of Stirling Bridge. In their incursion
into Scotland under John of Gaunt the English captured and
partially destroyed the town in 1385, but retreated to meet a
counter-invasion of their own country. The English seized it
again for a brief space during one of the ist earl of Hertford's
devastating raids in the reign of Edward VI. Dundee bore such a
prominent part in propagating the Reformed doctrines that it was
styled " the Scottish Geneva." It saw more trouble at the time
of the Civil War, for the marquess of Montrose sacked it in 1645,
and then gave a considerable portion of it to the flames. Charles
II. spent a few days in the castle after his crowning at Scone
(January ist, 1651). In the same year General Monk demanded
the submission of the town to Cromwell, and on its refusal
captured it after an obstinate resistance and visited it with
condign punishment. More than one-sixth of the inhabitants and
garrison, including its governor Lumsden, were put to the sword,
and no fewer than 60 vessels were seized and filled with plunder;
but the ships, says Gumble in his Life of Monk, " were cast away
within sight of the town and that great wealth perished." In
1684 John Graham of Claverhouse whose family derived its
name from the lands of Claverhouse in the parish of Mains
immediately to the north of the town became constable, and in
1688 provost. In the same year James II. created him Viscount
Dundee. Thenceforward the annals of the town cease to touch
national history, save at very rare intervals. The greatest local
disaster of modern times Was the destruction of the first Tay
bridge (see TAY).
Many interesting old documents have been preserved in the
Town House, such as certain characteristic despatches from
Edward I. and Edward II., the original charter of Robert Bruce,
dated 1327, a papal order from Leo X., and a letter from Queen
Mary, dated 1 564, providing for extra-mural interments. It may
be mentioned that to describe Claverhouse himself as " bonnie
Dundee " is a modern invention, the old song from which Sir
Walter Scott borrowed a hint for his refrain referring solely to
the town.
Since the middle and particularly during the last quarter of the
igth century many of the more unsightly districts have been
demolished. In the process several picturesque but insanitary
buildings, narrow winding streets and unsavoury closes dis-
appeared, along with a few structures of more or less historic
interest, like the castle, the mint and numerous convents. The
wholesale clearances, however, improved both the public health
and the appearance of the city, some of the new thoroughfares
vicing with the finest business streets of the largest commercial
centres in the United Kingdom. Queen Victoria granted a
charter to Dundee, dated the 2Sth of January 1889, erecting it to
the status of a city, and since 1892 its chief magistrate has been
styled lord provost.
Among men more or less eminent who were born in Dundee may
be named Hector Boece (1465-1536), the historian; George
Dempster of Dunnichen (1732-1818), the agriculturist, a former
owner of Skibo; Thomas Dick (1774-1857), the author of The
Christian Philosopher; Admiral Lord Duncan (1731-1804);
Viscount Dundee (1643-1689); James Halyburton (1518-
1589), the Scottish Reformer, who was provost of the town for
thirty-three years; Sir James Ivory (1765-1842), the mathe-
matician, who bequeathed his science Library to the town, and
his nephew Lord Ivory (1792-1866), the judge; Sir George
Mackenzie (1636-1691), the celebrated lawyer; Sir Alexander
Scrymgeour (d. 1310), Wallace's standard-bearer, and many of
the Scrymgeours, his successors, who were constables of the town;
James (i495-i553), John (1500-1556) and Robert Wedderburn
(1510-1557), the poets, who were all concerned in the authorship
or collection of the book of Gude and Goalie Ballatis published in
1578; Sir John Wedderburn (1599-1679), the physician; and
Sir Peter Wedderburn(i6i6-i679), the judge. Many well- known
persons lived for longer or shorter periods in the town. James
Chalmers (1782-1853), the inventor of the adhesive postage
stamp (1834), was a bookseller in Castle Street. George Constable
of Wallace Craigie, the prototype of Jonathan Oldbuck in Sir
Walter Scott's Antiquary, had a residence in the east end of
Seagate, the house standing until about 1820. Thomas Hood's
father was a native and the poet spent part of his youth in the
town, his first literary effort appearing in the Dundee Advertiser
about 1816. James Bowman Lindsay (1799-1862), electrician
and philologist, carried on his experiments for many years in
Dundee, where he died. Robert Nicoll (1814-1837), the poet,
kept a circulating library in Castle Street; and William Thorn
(1798-1848), the writer of The Rhymes of a Handlocm Weaver,
was buried in the Western Cemetery.
Suburbs. Close to the municipal boundaries on the N.W.
lies Benvie, where John Playf air ( 1 748-1 8 1 9) , the mathematician,
was born, and which has a mineral well that once enjoyed con-
siderable repute. Camperdown House, the seat of the earl of
Camperdown, a fine building of Greek design, standing in
beautiful grounds, is situated in the parish. Fowlis, 5 m. N.W.,
is remarkable for its church, which dates from the i5th century,
but has even been assigned to the I2th. It contains a carved
ambry and rood-screen (with a curious representation of the
Crucifixion), decorated font, crocketed door canopy and several
pictures. The ruined castle adjoining the church ultimately
became a dwelling for labourers. The Dell of Balruddery is
rich in geological and botanical specimens. Lundie, 3 m.
farther out in the same direction, contains several lakelets, and
its kirkyard is the burial-place of the earls of Camperdown.
Tealing, 4 m. N. of Dundee, was the scene of the ministry of
John Glas before he was deposed for heresy.
AUTHORITIES. David Barrie, The City of Dundee Illustrated
(Dundee, 1890); Alexander Maxwell, Old Dundee (Dundee, 1891);
A. C. Lamb, Dundee: its Quaint and Historic Buildings (Dundee,
1895); A. H. Millar, Roll of Eminent Burgesses of Dundee (Dundee,
1887).
DUNDERLANDSOAL, a valley of northern Norway, in Nord-
land ami (county), draining south-westward from the neigh-
bouring glaciers to the Ranenfjord (lat. 66 20' N.). There are
deposits of iron ore, the working of which was undertaken in
1902 by the Dunderland Iron Ore Company, water-power being
provided by the strong Dunderland river. There are also
pyrites mines. At the mouth of the river is Mo, a considerable
trading village. The valley is remarkable for several stalactite
caverns in the limestone, some of the tributary streams flowing
for considerable distances underground. From Mo a fine road
crosses the mountains to the head-lake of the great Ume river,
draining to the Baltic, and from the head of Dunderlandsdal a
sequestered bridle-path runs to Saltdal on the Skjerstadfjord,
with a branch through the magnificent Junkersdal.
DUNDONALD, THOMAS COCHRANE, IOTH EARL OF (1775-
1860), British admiral, was born at Annsfield in Lanarkshire on
the i4th of December 1775. He came of an old Scottish family,
the first earl having been Sir William Cochrane (d. 1686), a
soldier who was created Baron Cochrane in 1647 and earl of
DUNEDIN
677
Dundonald in 1669. He was the son of Archibald Cochrane,
gth Earl (1749-1831), who is remembered as a most ingenious,
but also most unfortunate, scientific speculator and inventor,
who was before his time in suggesting and attempting new
processes of alkali manufacture, and various other uses of
applied science. The family was greatly impoverished owing
to his losses over these schemes, but still possessed a good deal
of interest. By the help of friends Thomas was provided with
a commission in an infantry regiment, and at the same time put
on the books of a man-of-war by his uncle, Captain A. F. I.
Cochrane (1758-1832), while still a boy. He finally chose the
navy, and went to sea in his uncle's ship, the " Hind," in 1793.
He could already count nearly five years' nominal service, an
example of those naval abuses which he was to denounce (and
to profit by) during a large part of his career. His promotion
was rapid. He became a lieutenant in 1796. While in that
rank he was led by his self-assertive temper into a quarrel
with his superior, Lieutenant Philip Beaver (1766-1813), for
which he was sent before a court-martial. A warning to avoid
flippancy in future was, however, the worst that happened
to him.
In 1800 he was appointed to the command of the " Speedy "
brig, a small vessel in which he gained a great and deserved
reputation as a daring and skilful officer. His capture of the
Spanish frigate " El Gamo " (32) on the 6th of May 1801 was
indeed a feat of unparalleled audacity. His promotion to post
rank followed on the 8th of August. Though he was apt to
represent himself as disliked and neglected by the admiralty,
and was frequently insolent towards his superiors, he was, as a
matter of fact, pretty constantly employed, and he more than
justified his appointments by his activity and success as captain
of the " Pallas " (32) and " Imperieuse " (38) on the ocean and
in the Mediterranean. Unfortunately for himself he secured
his return to parliament as member for Ho niton in 1806 and for
Westminster in 1807. In the House of Commons he soon made
his mark as a radical, and as a denouncer of naval abuses. But
his views did not prevent him from profiting to the utmost by
one very bad abuse, for he did his utmost to secure the retention
of his frigate in port, in order that he might be able to attend
parliament. In spite of his radical opinions he made a furious
attack on the admiralty for the new prize money regulations
which diminished the shares of the captains to the advantage of
the men. In April 1809 he was engaged in the attack on the
French squadron in the Basque Roads, which was very ill con-
ducted by Lord Gambler. The conduct of Lord Cochrane, as he
was called till the death of his father, was brilliant and was
rewarded by the order of the Bath, but his aggressive temper
led him into making attacks on the admiral which necessitated
a court-martial on Gambier. The admiral was acquitted, and
Cochrane naturally fell into disfavour with the admiralty. He
was not employed again till 1813, when he was named to the
command of the " Tonnant, " which was ordered for service as
flagship on the coast of America. In the interval he was rest-
lessly active in parliament in denouncing naval abuses, and was
also, most disastrously for himself, led into speculations on the
Stock Exchange, by which he was brought at the beginning of
1814 into pressing danger of total ruin.
At this moment a notorious fraud was perpetrated on the
Stock Exchange by an uncle of his and by other persons with
whom he habitually acted in his speculations. Lord Cochrane
was brought to trial with the others before Lord EUenborough
on the 8th of June 1814 and all were condemned. He was sen-
tenced to an hour in the pillory, which was remitted, and to
fine and imprisonment, which were enforced. He continued to
assert his innocence, and to protest that he had been unjustly
condemned, but he was expelled from parliament and the order
of the Bath. He was, however, almost immediately re-elected
member for Westminster, but he had to serve his term (one year)
of imprisonment, and, after escaping and being recaptured, he
regained his liberty in 1815 on payment of the fine of 1000 to
which he had been sentenced.
In 1817 he accepted the invitation of the Chileans, who were
then in revolt against Spain, to take command of their naval
forces, and remaining in their service until 1822 contributed
largely to their success. His capture of the Spanish frigate
" Esmeralda " (40) in the harbour of Callao, on the sth of
November 1820, was an achievement of signal daring. In 1823
he transferred his services to Brazil, where he helped the emperor
Dom Pedro I. to shake off the yoke of Portugal; but by the end
of 1825 he had fallen out with the Brazilians, and he returned
to Europe. His activity was next devoted to the aid of the
Greeks, then at the end of their struggle with the Turks, but he
found no opportunity for distinguishing himself, and in 1828
he returned home. His efforts were now steadily directed to
securing his restoration to the navy, and in this he succeeded
in 1832; but though he was granted a " free pardon " he failed
to obtain the new trial for which he was anxious, or to secure
the arrears of pay he claimed. 1 He was restored to his place in
the order of the Bath in 1847. In 1848 he was appointed to the
command of the North American and West India station, which
he retained till 1851. At various periods of his life he occupied
himself with scientific invention. He took out patents for lamps
to burn oil of tar, for the propulsion of ships at sea, for facilitating
excavation, mining and sinking, for rotary steam-engines and
for other purposes; and so early as 1843 he was an advocate of
the employment of steam and the screw propeller in warships.
During the Crimean War he revived his " secret war plan " for
the total destruction of an enemy's fleet, and offered to conduct
in person an attack on Sevastopol and destroy it in a few hours
without loss to the attacking force. This plan, the details of
which have never been divulged, he had proposed so far back
as 1811, and the committee which was then appointed to con-
sider it reported on it as effective but inhuman. Lord Dundonald
died in London on the 3oth of October 1860, and was buried in
Westminster Abbey. No one ever excelled him in daring and
resource as a naval officer, but he suffered from serious defects
of character, and even those who think him guiltless of the
charge on which he was convicted in 1814 must feel that he had
his own imprudence and want of self-command to thank for
many of his misfortunes.
He was succeeded in the title by his son Thomas as nth earl
(d. 1885), and the latter by his son Douglas (b. 1852) as i2th earl,
a distinguished cavalry officer who became a lieutenant-general
in 1907.
The roth earl's Autobiography of a Seaman (2 vols., 1860-1861), the
main source for his Life (1869, by his son and heir), is written with
spirit, but it was composed at the end of his career when his memory
was failing, and was chiefly executed by others. He also wrote
Notes on the Mineralogy, Government and Condition of the British
West India Islands (1851), and a Narrative of Services in the Liberation
of Chili, Peru and Brazil (1858). The whole story of his trial and of
the Stock Exchange fraud for which he was condemned has been
examined by Mr J. B. Atlay in The Trial of Lord Cochrane before
Lord EUenborough (1897).
DUNEDIN, a city of New Zealand, capital of the provincial
district of Otago, and the seat of a bishop, in Taieri county.
Pop. (1906) 36,070; including suburbs, 56,020. It lies 15 m.
from the open sea, at the head of Otago harbour, a narrow inlet
(averaging 2 m. in width) on the south-eastern coast of South
Island. The situation was chosen on the consideration of this
harbour alone, for the actual site offered many difficulties, steep
forest-clad hills rising close to the sea, and rendering reclamation
necessary. The hills give the town a beautiful appearance, as
the forest was allowed to remain closely embracing it, being
preserved in the public ground named the Town Belt. The
principal thoroughfare is comprised in Prince's Street and
George Street, running straight from S.W. to N.E., and passing
through the Octagon, which is surrounded by several of the
principal buildings. From these streets others strike at right
angles down to the harbour, while others again lead obliquely
up towards the Belt, beyond which are extensive suburbs.
There are several handsome commercial and banking houses.
1 In 1878, as the result of the report of a select committee of the
House of Commons appointed in 1877, a grant of 5000 was made
to the then Lord Cochrane " in respect of the distinguished services
of his grandfather, the late earl of Dundonald."
678
DUNES DUNFERMLINE
The town hall, Athenaeum and museum are noteworthy buildings,
the last having a fine biological collection. The university,
founded in 1869, built mainly of basalt, has schools of arts,
medicine, chemistry and mineralogy. It is in reality a university
college, for though it was originally intended to have the power
of conferring degrees, it was subsequently affiliated to the New
Zealand University. The churches are numerous and some are
particularly handsome; such as the First church, which over-
looks the harbour, and is so named from its standing on the site
of the church of the original settlers; St Paul's, Knox church
and the Roman Catholic cathedral of St Joseph. Finally, one
of the most striking buildings in the city is the high school (1885)
with its commanding tower. The white Oamaru stone is com-
monly used in these buildings. The primary and secondary
schools of the town are excellent, and there is a small training
college for state teachers. Besides the Belt there are several
parks and reserves, including botanical and acclimatization
gardens, the so-called Ocean Beach, and two race-courses.
Dunedin is connected by rail with Christchurch northward
and Invercargill southward, with numerous branches. Electric
tramways serve the principal thoroughfares and suburbs. The
most important internal industries are in wool and frozen meat.
The harbour is accessible, owing to extensive dredging, to vessels
drawing 19 ft., at high tide; and Dunedin is the headquarters
of the coasting services of the Union Steamship Co. Port
Chalmers, however (9 m. N.E. by rail) though incapacitated by
its site from growing into a large town, is more readily accessible
for shipping, and has extensive piers and a graving dock.
Dunedin is governed by a mayor and corporation, and most of
its numerous suburbs are separate municipalities.
The colony of Otago (from a native word meaning ochre,
which was found here and highly prized by the Maoris as a
pigment for the body when preparing for battle) was founded
as the chief town of the Otago settlement by settlers sent out
under the auspices of the lay association of the Free Church
of Scotland in 1848. The discovery of large quantities of gold
in Otago in 1861 and the following years brought prosperity,
a great " rush " of diggers setting in from Australia. Gold-
dredging, in the hands of rich companies, remains a primary
source of wealth in the district.
DUNES, 1 or DUNKIRK DUNES, BATTLE OF, was fought near
Dunkirk on the 24th of May (srd of June) 1658, between the
French and English army under the command of Marshal
Turenne and the Spanish army under Don Juan of Austria and
the prince of Conde. The severest part of the fighting was borne
by the English contingents on either side. Six thousand English
infantry under General Lockhart were sent by Cromwell to join
the army of Turenne, and several Royalist corps under the
command of the duke of York (afterwards James II.) served
in the Spanish forces. The object of the Spaniards was to re-
lieve Dunkirk, which Turenne was besieging, and the complete
victory of the French and English caused the speedy surrender
of the fortress.
DUNFERMLINE, ALEXANDER SETON, IST EARL or (c. 1555-
1622), was the fourth son of George, 5th Lord Seton, and younger
brother of Robert, ist earl of Winton. He was sent as a boy to
Rome, where he studied at the Jesuits' College with a view to
becoming a priest. He turned, however, to the study of law,
and after some years' residence in France was called to the bar
about 1577. He was suspected of Romanist leanings by the
officials of the Scottish kirk, and was temporarily deprived of
the priory of Pluscardine, which had been granted to him by
his god-mother, Queen Mary. In 1583 he accompanied his
father, Lord Seton, on an embassy to Henry III. of France.
His promotion was now rapid: he was made extraordinary
lord of session in 1586 as prior of Pluscardine, ordinary lord of
session in 1588 as lord Urquhart, judge in 1593, lord president
of the court session in 1598, Baron Fyvie in 1597 and chancellor
in 1604. In 1595 he was one of the commission formed by
James VI. to control the royal finance. The eight commissioners
were known from their number as the Octavians, and were
1 For the word " dune " see DOWN.
relieved of their functions about two years later. Urquhart 's
continued influence was, however, assured, in spite of the
animosity of the kirk, by his appointment as lord provost of
Edinburgh of nine successive years. He showed considerable
independence in his relations with James VI., and dissuaded him
from his intention of forming a standing army in readiness to
enforce his claims to the English crown. He was entrusted
with the care of Prince Charles, afterwards Charles I., after
the king's departure for England, and arranged the details of
the union between Scotland and England. He became chancellor
of Scotland in 1604, and on the 4th of March 1605 he was created
earl of Dunfermline. He died at Pinkie House, near Musselburgh,
on the i6th of June 1622.
His son CHARLES, 2nd ear! of Dunfermline (c. 1608-1672),
was the offspring of his third marriage with Margaret Hay,
sister of John, ist earl of Tweeddale. He signed the National
Covenant and was one of the leaders of the Presbyterian party,
but as one of the " Engagers " of 1648 he was prevented from
holding any public office, and after the execution of Charles I.
he joined Charles II. on the continent. He was made privy
councillor at the Restoration, extraordinary lord of session and
lord of the articles in 1667, and in 1671 lord privy seal. He died
in May 1672. The earldom was then held successively by his
sons Alexander (d. 1675) and James; but at the latter's death,
at St Germains on the ?6th of December 1694, the title became
extinct.
See G. Seton, Memoir of Alex. Seton, first Earl of Dunfermline
(1882) ; and Sir Robert Douglas, Scots Peerage, vol. ii. (1906, edited
by Sir J. B. Paul).
DUNFERMLINE, JAMES ABERCROMBY, XST BARON (1776-
1858), third son of General Sir Ralph Abercromby, was born
on the 7th of November 1776. He was called to the bar at
Lincoln's Inn in 1801, and became a commissioner in bankruptcy,
and subsequently steward for the estates of the 5th duke of
Devonshire. In 1807 he was chosen member of parliament for
the borough of Midhurst, and in 1812 was returned for Calne
by the influence of the 3rd marquess of Lansdowne. He attached
himself to the Whigs, but his chief interest was reserved for
Scottish questions, and on two occasions he sought to change
the method of electing representatives to parliament for the
city of Edinburgh. When the Whigs under George Canning
came into power in 1827, Abercromby was made judge-advocate-
general, and became chief baron of the exchequer of Scotland
in 1830, when he resigned his seat in parliament. This office
was abolished in 1832, and Abercromby received a pension of
2000 a year, and was sent as member for Edinburgh to the
reformed parliament. After being an unsuccessful candidate
for the office of speaker he joined the cabinet of Earl Grey in
1834 as master of the mint. Again a candidate for the speaker-
ship in the new parliament of 1835, Abercromby was elected to
this office after an exceptionally keen contest by a majority of
ten votes. As speaker he was not very successful in quelling
disorder, but he introduced several important reforms in the
management of private bills. Resigning his office in May 1839
he was created Baron Dunfermline of Dunfermline, and granted
a pension of 4000 a year. He continued his interest in the affairs
of Edinburgh, and was one of the founders of the United
Industrial school. He died at Colinton House, Midlothian, on
the 1 7th of April 1858, and was succeeded in the title by his
only son, Ralph. His wife was Marianne, daughter of Egerton
Leigh of West Hall, High Leigh, Cheshire. He wrote a life of
his father, Sir Ralph Abercromby, which was published after his
death (Edinburgh, 1861).
See Spencer Walpole, History of England (London, 1890); Greville
Memoirs, edited by H. Reeve (London, 1896) ; Lord Cockburn's
Journal (Edinburgh, 1874).
DUNFERMLINE (Gaelic, " the fort on the crooked linn "), a
royal, municipal and police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland. Pop.
(1891) 22,157; (1901) 25,250. It is situated on high ground 3 m.
from the shore of the Firth of Forth, with two stations on the
North British railway Lower Dunfermline i6f m., and Upper
Dunfermline 19^ m. N.W. of Edinburgh, via the Forth Bridge.
The town is intersected from north to south by Pittencrieff Glen,
DUNGANNON DUNGARPUR
679
a deep, picturesque and tortuous ravine, from which the town
derives its name and at the bottom of which flows Lyne Burn.
The history of Dunfermline goes back to a remote period, for
the early Celtic monks known as Culdees had an establishment
here; but its fame and prosperity date from the marriage of
Malcolm Canmore and his queen Margaret, which was solemnized
in the town in 1070. The king then lived in a tower on a mound
surrounded on three sides by the glen. A fragment of this castle
still exists in Pittencrieff Park, a little west of the later palace.
Under the influence of Queen Margaret in 1075 the foundations
were laid of the Benedictine priory, which was raised to the rank
of an abbey by David I. Robert Bruce gave the town its charter
in 1322, though in his Fife: Pictorial and Historical (ii. 223),
A. H. Millar contends that till the confirming charter of James VI.
(1588) all burghal privileges were granted by the abbots.
In the 1 8th century Dunfermline impressed Daniel Defoe as
showing the " full perfection of decay," but it is now one of the
most prosperous towns in Scotland. Its staple industry is the
manufacture of table linen. The weaving of damask was intro-
duced in 1 7 1 8 by James Blake, who had learned the secret of the
process in the workshops at Drumsheugh near Edinburgh, to
which he gained admittance by feigning idiocy; and since that
date the linen trade has advanced by leaps and bounds, much
of the success being due to the beautiful designs produced by
the manufacturers. Among other industries that have largely
contributed to the welfare of the town are dyeing and bleaching,
brass and iron founding, tanning, machine-making, brewing and
distilling, milling, rope-making and the making of soap and
candles,while the collieries in the immediate vicinity are numerous
and flourishing.
The town is well supplied with public buildings. Besides the
New Abbey church, the United Free church in Queen Anne
Street founded by Ralph Erskine, and the Gillespie church,
named after Thomas Gillespie (1708-1774), another leader of
the Secession movement, possess some historical importance.
Erskine is commemorated by a statue in front of his church and a
sarcophagus over his grave in the abbey churchyard; Gillespie
by a marble tablet on the wall above his resting-place within the
abbey. The Corporation buildings, a blend of the Scots Baronial
and French Gothic styles, contain busts of several Scottish
sovereigns a statue of Robert Burns, and Sir Noel Paton's
painting of the " Spirit of Religion." Other structures are the
County buildings, the Public, St Margaret's, Music and Carnegie
halls, the last in the Tudor style, Carnegie public baths, high
school (founded in 1560), school of science and art, and two
hospitals. Several distinguished men have been associated with
Dunfermline. Robert Henryson (1430-1 506) , the poet, was long
one of its schoolmasters. John Row (1568-1646), the Church
historian, held the living of Carnock, 3 m. to the E., and David
Ferguson (d. 1598) who made the first collection of Scottish
proverbs (not published till 1641), was parish minister; Robert
Gilfillan (1798-1850), the poet, and Sir Joseph Noel Paton (1821-
1901), painter and poet whose father was a designer of patterns
for the damask trade were all born here. Andrew Carnegie
(b. 1837), however, is in a sense the most celebrated of all her sons,
as he is certainly her greatest benefactor. He gave to his birth-
place the free library and public baths, and, in 1903, the estate of
Pittencrieff Park and Glen, rich in historical associations as well
as natural charm, together with bonds yielding 25,000 a year,
in trust for the maintenance of the park, the support of a theatre
for the production of plays of the highest merit, the periodical
exhibitions of works of art and science, the promotion of horti-
culture among the working classes and the encouragement of
technical education in the district. The town is governed by a
provost, bailies and council, and, with Stirling, Culross, Inver-
keithing and Queensferry (the Stirling group), combines in
returning a member to parliament.
Dunfermline Abbey is one of the most important remains in
Scotland. Excepting lona it has received more of Caledonia's
royal dead than any other place in the kingdom. Within its
precincts were buried Queen Margaret and Malcolm Canmore;
their sons Edgar and Alexander I., with his queen; David I. and
his two queens; Malcolm IV.; Alexander III., with his first
wife and their sons David and Alexander; Robert Bruce, with
his queen Elizabeth and their daughter Matilda; and Annabella
Drummond, wife of Robert III. and mother of James I. Bruce's
heart rests in Melrose, but his bones lie in Dunfermline Abbey,
where (after the discovery of the skeleton in 1818) they wer
reinterred with fitting pomp below the pulpit of the New church.
In 1891 the pulpit was moved back and a monumental brass
inserted in the floor to indicate the royal vault. The tomb of St
Margaret and Malcolm, within the ruined walls of the Lady
chapel, was restored and enclosed by command of Queen Victoria.
During the winter of 1303 the court of Edward I. was held in the
abbey, and on his departure next year most of the buildings were
burned. When the Reformers attacked the abbey church in
March 1560, they spared the nave, which served as the parish
church till the igth century, and now forms the vestibule of the
New church. This edifice, in the Perpendicular style, opened for
public worship in 1821, occupies the site of the ancient chancel
and transepts, though differing in style and proportions from the
original structure. The old building was a fine example of simple
and massive Norman, as the nave testifies, and has a beautiful
doorway in its west front. Another rich Norman doorway was
exposed in the south wall in 1903, when masons were cutting a
site for the memorial to the soldiers who had fallen in the South
African War. A new site was found for this monument in order
that the ancient and beautiful entrance might be preserved.
The venerable structure is maintained by the commissioners of
woods and forests, and private munificence has provided several
stained-glass windows. Of the monastery there still remains the
south wall of the refectory, with a fine window. The palace, a
favourite residence of many of the kings, occupying a picturesque
position near the ravine, was of considerable size, judging from
the south-west wall, which is all that is left of it. Here James IV.,
James V. and James VI. spent much of their time, and within its
walls were born three of James VI. 's children Charles I., Robert
and Elizabeth. After Charles I. was crowned he paid a short
visit to his birthplace, but the last royal tenant of the palace was
Charles II., who occupied it just before the battle of Pitreavie
(2oth of July 1650), which took place 3 m. to the south-west, and
here also he signed the National League and Covenant.
See A. H. Millar's Fife: Pictorial and Historical (2 vols., 1895) ;
and Sheriff /Eneas Mackay's History of Fife and Kinross (1896).
DUNGANNON, a market town of Co. Tyrone, Ireland, in the
east parliamentary division, on an acclivity 8 m. W. of the south-
western shore of Lough Neagh. Pop. of urban district (1901)
3694. It is 103 m. N.N.W. from Dublin by the Great Northern
railway, and a branch line runs thence to Cookstown. The only
public buildings of note are the parish church, with an octagonal
spire, and a royal school founded in 1614 and settled in new
buildings at the end of the i8th century; it is now managed by
the county Protestant Board of Education. Linens, muslin and
coarse earthenware are manufactured, tanning is prosecuted, and
there is trade in corn and timber. The early history of the place
is identified with the once powerful family of the O'Neills, whose
chief residence was here, and a large rath or earthwork north of
the town was the scene of the inauguration of their chiefs, but
of the castle and abbey founded by this family there are no
remains. In Dungannon the independence of the Irish parlia-
ment (to which the town returned two members) was proclaimed
in 1782. The town was formerly corporate, and was a parlia-
mentary borough returning one member to the Imperial parlia-
ment until 1885.
DUNGARPUR, a native state of India, in the Rajputana
agency, in the extreme south of Rajputana. A large portion is
hilly, and inhabited by Bhils. Its area is 1447 sq. m. In 1901
the total population was 100,103, showing an increase of 2%
in the decade. The revenue is 15,100, and the tribute 2276.
An annual fair is held at Baneswar. Kherwara is the head-
quarters of the Mewar Bhil corps.
The chiefs of Dungarpur, who bear the title of maharawal,
are descended from Mahup, eldest son of Karan Singh, chief of
Mewar in the 1 2th century, and claim the honours of the elder line
68o
DUNGARVAN DUNKIRK
of Mewar. Mahup, disinherited by his father, took refuge with his
mother's family, the Chauhans of Bagar, and made himself
master of that country at the expense of the Bhil chiefs. The
town of Dungarpur (pop. 6094 in 1901), the capital of the state,
was founded towards the end of the i4th century by his
descendant Rawal Bir Singh, who named it after Dungaria, an
independent Bhil chieftain whom he had caused to be assassin-
ated. After the death of Rawal Udai Singh of Bagar at the battle
of Khanua in 1527, his territories were divided into the states
of Dungarpur and Banswara, the name of Bagar being still often
applied to the tract covered by these states. Dungarpur fell
under the sway of the Moguls and Mahrattas in turn, and was
taken under British protection by treaty in 1818.
DUNGARVAN, a market town and seaport of Co. Waterford,
Ireland, in the west parliamentary division, 285 m. W.S.W.
from Waterford by the Waterford and Mallow branch of the
Great Southern & Western railway. Pop. of urban district
(1901) 4850. It is situated on the south coast, on the Bay of
Dungarvan, at the mouth of the Colligan, which divides the town
into two parts, connected by a bridge of a single arch. The
eastern suburb is called Abbeyside, where the remains of an
ancient keep, erected by the M'Graths, still exist, together
with portions of an Augustinian friary, founded by the same
family in the I4th century and incorporated with a Roman
Catholic chapel. In the main portion of the town a part of the
keep of a castle of King John remains. Brewing is carried on,
and there are woollen mills. The exports consist chiefly of
agricultural produce. Dungarvan was incorporated in the isth
century, was represented by two members in the Irish parliament
until the Union, and returned a member to the Imperial parlia-
ment until 1885. It was fortified with walls by John when the
castle was built. A story is told that Cromwell spared the town
from bombardment owing to the wit of a woman who drank
his health at the town-gate.
DUNGENESS, a promontory of the south coast of England,
in the south of Kent, near the town of Lydd. It is a low-lying
broad bank of shingle, forming the seaward apex of the great
level of the Romney Marshes. Its seaward accretion is estimated
at 6 ft. annually. Its formation is characteristic, consisting of
a series of ridges forming a succession of curves from a common
centre. It is unique, however, among the great promontories of
the south coast of England, the accretion of gravel banks falling
into deep water contrasting with the cliff-bound headlands of
the North Foreland, Beachy Head and the Lizard, and with the
low eroded Selsey Bill, off which the sea is shallow. A light-
house (50 55' N., o 58' E.) stands on the ness, which has been
the scene of many shipwrecks, and has been lighted since the
time of James I. There are also here Lloyds' signalling station,
coast-guard stations, and the terminus of a branch of the South-
Eastern & Chatham railway.
The name Dungeness has also been applied elsewhere; thus the
point on the north side of the eastern entrance to Magellan Strait
is so called, and there is a town of Dungeness near a promontory
on the coast of Washington, U.S.A. (Strait of Juan de Fuca).
DUNGEON, the prison in a castle keep, so called because the
Norman name for the latter is donjon (q.v.) , and the dungeons or
prisons (g.v.) are generally in its lowest storey. (See KEEP.)
DUNKELD, a town of Perthshire, Scotland, on the left bank
of the Tay, 15! m. N.W. of Perth by the Highland railway.
Pop. (1901) 586. The river is crossed by a bridge of seven arches
which was designed by Thomas Telford in 1805 and opened in
1808. The town lies in the midst of luxuriant trees, and the noble
sweep of the Tay, the effectively situated bridge, the magnificent
grounds of Dunkeld House, and the protecting mountains com-
bine to give it a very romantic appearance. The town hall is the
principal modern building, and the fountain erected in Market
Square to the memory of the 6th duke of Atholl (d.i864) occupies
the site of the old cross.
As early as 729 some authorities fix the date a hundred
and fifty years before the Culdees possessed a monastery at
Dunkeld, which was converted into a cathedral by David I. in
1127. This structure stood until the Reformation, when it
was unroofed and suffered to fall into ruin. The building
consists of the nave (120 ft. long, 60 ft. wide, 40 ft. high), aisles
(12 ft. wide), choir, chapter-house and tower. The nave is the
most beautiful portion. The Pointed arches rest upon pillars,
possibly Norman, and above them, below the Decorated clere-
story windows, is a series of semicircular arches with flamboyant
tracery, a remarkable feature. The choir, founded by Bishop
William Sinclair (d. 1337), has been repaired, and serves as the
parish church, a blue marble slab in the floor marking the bishop's
grave. The chapter-house, adjoining the choir, was built by
Bishop Thomas Lauder (1395-1481) in 1469, and the vault
beneath is the burial-place of the Atholl Murrays. Lauder also
began the tower, completed in 1501. In the porch of the church
is the most interesting of the extant old tombs, namely, the
recumbent effigy of Alexander Stewart, the Wolf of Badenoch
(1343-1405; the inscription refers his death to 1394, but this
is said to be an error). The most famous of the Bishops was
Gavin Douglas (1474-1522), translator of the Aeneid. One of the
most heroic exploits in the annals of warfare is associated with
the cathedral. Shortly after the battle of Killiecrankie (1689),
the Cameronian regiment, enrolled in the same year (afterwards
the 26th Foot), was despatched to hold Dunkeld prior to another
invasion of the Highlands. It was under the command of Colonel
William Cleland (b. 1661), a poet of some merit. On the 26th of
August a force of 5000 Highlanders suddenly appearing, Cleland
posted his men in the church and behind the wall of the earl of
AtholPs mansion. Still flushed with their victory under Dundee,
and animated by bitterest hatred of their Whiggamore foes, the
Highlanders assaulted the position of the Covenanters, who were
1200 strong, with the most desperate valour. Sustained by
their enthusiasm, however, the recruits displayed equal courage,
and, at the end of four hours' stubborn fighting, their defence
was still intact. Fearing lest victory, even if won, might be
purchased too dearly, the Highlanders gradually withdrew.
While leading a sortie Cleland was shot dead, and was buried in
the churchyard.
Adjoining the cathedral is Dunkeld House, a seat of the duke
of Atholl, the grounds of which are estimated to contain 50 m.
of walks and 30 m. of drives. .On the lawn near the cathedral
stand two of the earliest larches grown in Great Britain, having
been introduced from Tirol by the 2nd duke in 1738. The 4th
duke planted several square miles of the estate with this tree,
of which he had made a special study.
A mile south of Dunkeld, on the left bank of the Tay, is the
village of Birnam (pop. 389), where Sir John Everett Millais,
the painter, made his summer residence. It lies at the foot of
Birnam Hill (1324 ft.), once covered with a royal forest that
has been partly replaced by plantations. The oak and sycamore
in front of Birnam House, the famed twin trees of Birnam, are
believed to be more than 1000 years old, and to be the remnant
of the wood of Birnam which Shakespeare immortalized in
Macbeth. The Pass of Birnam, where the river narrows, was the
path usually taken by the Highlanders in their forays. In the
vicinity are the castles of Murthly, one a modern mansion in the
Elizabethan style, erected about 1838 from designs by James
Gillespie Graham (1777-1855), and the other the old castle, still
occupied, which was occasionally used as a hunting-lodge by the
Scottish kings.
At Little Dunkeld, almost opposite to Dunkeld, the Bran
joins the Tay, after a run of 1 1 m. from its source in Loch
Freuchie. It is celebrated for its falls about 2 m. from the mouth.
The upper fall is known as the Rumbling Bridge from the fact
that the stream pours with a rumbling noise through a deep
narrow gorge in which a huge fallen rock has become wedged,
forming a rude bridge or arch. Inver, near the mouth of the
Bran, was the birthplace of the two famous fiddlers, Niel Gow
(1727-1807) and his son Nathaniel (1766-1831).
DUNKIRK (Fr. Dunkerque), a seaport of northern France,
capital of an arrondissement in. the department of Nord, on the
Straits of Dover, 53 m. N.W. of Lille on the Northern railway.
Pop. (1906) 35,767. Dunkirk is situated in the low but fertile
district of the Wateringues. It lies, amidst a network of canals,
DUNKIRK DUNMOW
681
immediately to the west and south of its port, which disputes
with Bordeaux the rank of third in importance in France. The
populous suburbs of Rosendael and St Pol-sur-Mer lie respectively
to the east and west of the town; to the north-east is the
bathing resort of Malo-les-Bains. The streets of Dunkirk are
wide and well paved, the chief of them converging to the square
named after Jean Bart (born at Dunkirk in 1651), whose statue
by David d'Angers stands at its centre. Close to the Place Jean
Bart rises the belfry (290 ft. high) which contains a fine peal of
bells and also serves as a signalling tower. It was once the
western tower of the church of St Eloi, from which it is now
separated by a street. St Eloi, erected about 1560 in the
Gothic style, was deprived of its first two bays in the i8th
century; the present facade dates from 1889. The chapel of
Notre-Dame des Dunes possesses a small image, which is the
object of a well-known pilgrimage. The chief civil buildings are
a large Chamber of Commerce, including the customs and port
services, and a fine modern town hall. Dunkirk is the seat
of a sub-prefect; its public institutions include tribunals of
first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators,
an exchange, a branch of the Bank of France and a communal
college; and it has a school of drawing, architecture and music,
a library and a rich museum of paintings. Dunkirk forms with
Bergues, Bourbourg and Gravelines a group of fortresses enclosed
'by inundations and canals. A chain of forts to the eastward is
designed to facilitate the deployment of an army, concentrated
within the fortified region, towards the Belgian frontier.
The harbour of Dunkirk (see DOCK) is approached by a fine
natural roadstead entered on the east and west, and protected
on the north by sand-banks. From the roadstead, entrance is
by a channel into the outer harbour, which communicates with
seven floating basins about 115 acres in area and is accessible to
the largest vessels. The port is provided with four dry docks and
a gridiron, and its quays exceed 5 m. in length. Its commerce
is much facilitated by the system of canals which bring it into
communication with Belgium, the coal-basins of Nord and Pas-
de-Calais, the rich agricultural regions of Flanders and Artois,
and the industrial towns of Lille, Armentieres, Roubaix, Tour-
coing, Valenciennes, &c. The roadstead is indicated by light-
ships and the entrance channel to the port by a lighthouse
which, at an altitude of 193 ft., is visible at a distance of 19 m.
Dunkirk annually despatches a fleet to the Icelandic cod-
fisheries, and takes part in the herring and other fisheries. It
imports great quantities of wool from the Argentine and Australia,
and is in regular communication with New York, London and
the chief ports of the United Kingdom, Brazil and the far East.
Besides wool, leading imports are jute, cotton, flax, timber,
petroleum, coal, pitch, wine, cereals, oil-seeds and oil-cake,
nitrate of soda and other chemical products, and metals. The
principal exports are sugar, coal, cereals, wool, forage, cement,
chalk, phosphates, iron and steel, tools and metal-goods, thread
and vegetables. The average annual value of the imports for
the years 1 90 1- 1 905 was 23,926,000 (22, 287,000 for 1896-1900),
of exports 6,369,000 (4,481,000 for 1896-1900). The industries
include the spinning of jute, flax, hemp and cotton, iron-founding,
brewing, and the manufacture of machinery, fishing-nets, sail-
cloth, sacks, casks, and soap. There are also saw-and flour-mills,
petroleum refineries and oil-works. Ship-building is carried on,
and the preparation of fish and cod-liver oil occupies many hands.
Dunkirk is said to have originated in a chapel founded by
St Eloi in the 7th century, round which a small village speedily
sprang up. In the loth century it was fortified by Baldwin III.,
count of Flanders; together with that province it passed
successively to Burgundy, Austria and Spain. In the isth, i6th
and 1 7th centuries its possession was disputed by French and
Spaniards. In 1658 Turenne's victory of the Dunes (q.v.) gave
it into the hands of the French and it was ceded to England.
After the Restoration, Charles II., being in money difficulties,
sold it to the French king Louis XIV., who fortified it. By the
terms of the peace of Utrecht (1713) the fortifications were
demolished and its harbour filled up, a sacrifice demanded by
England owing to the damage inflicted on her shipping by Jean
Bart and other corsairs of the port. In 1793 it was besieged by
the Engh'sh under Frederick Augustus, duke of York, who was
compelled to retire after the defeat of Hondschoote.
See A. de St Leger, La Flandre maritime et Dunkerque (Paris, 1900).
DUNKIRK, a city and a port of entry of Chautauqua county,
New York, U.S.A., on the S. shore of Lake Erie, 40 m. S.W.
of Buffalo. Pop. (1890) 9416; (1900) 11,616, of whom 3338
were foreign-born; (1910 census) 17,221. The city is served
by the Pennsylvania, the Erie, the Lake Shore & Michigan
Southern, the New York, Chicago & St Louis, and the Dunkirk,
Allegheny Valley & Pittsburg railways, by the electric line of
the Buffalo & Lake Erie Traction Co., and by several lines of
freight and passenger steamships. Dunkirk is attractively
situated high above the lake, and has several parks, including
Point Gratiot and Washington; in the city are the Dunkirk
free library, the Brooks Memorial hospital (1891), and St Mary's
academy. The city lies in an agricultural and grape-growing
region, and has a fine harbour and an extensive lake trade; the
manufactures include locomotives, radiators, lumber, springs,
shirts, axes, wagons, steel, silk gloves and concrete blocks. The
value of factory products increased from $5,225,996 in 1900 to
$9,909,260 in 1905, or 89-6%. Large numbers of food-fish
are caught in the lake. The municipality owns and operates
the water works and the electric lighting plant. Dunkirk was
first settled about 1 805 . It was incorporated as a village in 1 83 7 ,
and was chartered as a city in 1880.
DUNLOP, JOHN COLIN (1785-1842), Scottish man of letters,
was born on the 30th of December 1785. In 1816 he became
sheriff of Renfrewshire, and retained this office until his death
at Edinburgh, on the 26th of January (according to others, in
February) 1842. The work by which he is best known, and which
will always hold an honourable place in English literature, is his
History of Fiction (1814; new edition, 1888, with notes by H.
Wilson, in Bohn's " Standard Library"). In spite of the somewhat
contemptuous notices in Blackwood's Magazine (September 1824)
and the Quarterly Review (July 1815), it may be pronounced
the best book on the subject in English. F. Liebrecht, by whom
it was translated into German (1851) with valuable notes,
describes it as the only work of its kind. Dunlop was also the
author of A History of Roman Literature (1823-1828), and of
Memoirs of Spain during the Reigns of Philip IV. and Charles II.
(1834).
DUNHORE, a borough of Lackawanna county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., adjoining Scranton on the N.E. and about 20 m. N.E.
of Wilkesbarre. Pop. (1890) 8315; (1900) 12,583, of whom
3103 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 17,615. It is served
by the Erie, the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western, and the
Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley (electric) railways. Its chief
industry is the mining of anthracite coal; the principal estab-
lishments are railway repair shops, which in 1905 gave employ-
ment to 48-9% of all wage-earners engaged in manufacturing.
Among the borough's manufactures are stoves and furnaces,
malt liquors and silk. Dunmore is the seat of the state oral
school for the deaf. The town was first settled in 1783 and was
incorporated in 1862. Its growth was accelerated by the
establishment here, in 1863, of the shops of the railway from
Pittston to Hawley built in 1849-1850 by the Pennsylvania Coal
Company. Dunmore became a station of the Scranton post
office in 1902.
DUNMOW (properly GREAT DUNMOW), a market town in the
Epping (W.) parliamentary division of Essex, England, on the
river Chelmer, 40 m. N.E. by N. from London on a branch of the
Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 2704. The church of St
Mary is Decorated and Perpendicular. The town was corporate
from the i6th century until 1886. Roman remains have been
discovered. Two miles E. is the village of LITTLE DUNMOW,
formerly the seat of a -priory, remarkable for the custom of
presenting a flitch of bacon to any couple who could give proof
that they had spent the first year of married life in perfect
harmony, and had never at any moment wished they had
tarried. In place of the monastic judicature a jury of six
bachelors and six maidens appear in the i6th century. A
682
DUNNE DUNROBIN CASTLE
rhyming oath, quoted by Fuller, was taken. The institution of this
strange matrimonial prize which had its parallel at Whicha-
noure (or Wichnor) in Staffordshire, at St Moleine in Brittany,
and apparently also at Vienna appears to date from the reign
of John. The first instance of its award recorded is in 1445,
and there are a few others. But there are references which
suggest its previous award in Piers Plowman and Chaucer. The
Chaucerian couplet conveys the idea of an award to a patient
husband, without reference to the wife. A revival of the custom
was effected in 1855 by Harrison Ainsworth, author of the
novel The Flitch of Bacon, but the scene of the ceremony was
transferred to the town hall of Great Dunmow. It has since
been maintained in altered form. (For details see Chambers's
Book of Days, ii. 748-751; and W. Andrews, History of the
Dunmow Flitch of Bacon Customs, 1877.) Close to Little Dunmow
is Felsted (q.v.) or Felstead; and Easton Lodge (with a railway
station), a seat of the earl of Warwick, is in the vicinity.
DUNNE, FINLEY PETER (1867- ), American journalist
and humorist, was born, of Irish descent, in Chicago, Illinois,
on the loth of July 1867. After a public school education he
became a newspaper reporter (1885); he was city editor of the
Chicago Times (1891-1892), a member of the editorial staff
of the Chicago Evening Post and of the Chicago Times-Herald
(1892-1897), and editor of the Chicago Journal (1897-1900).
In 1900 he removed to New York city. Although for several
years he had been contributing humorous sketches in Irish
brogue to the daily papers, he did not come into prominence
until he wrote for the Chicago Journal a series of satirical observa-
tions and reflections attributed to an honest Irish-American,
Martin Dooley, the shrewd philosopher of Archey Road, on
social and political topics of the day. These were widely copied
by the press of America and England. The first published
collection, Mr Dooley in Peace and in War (1898), was followed
by several others, similar in subject-matter and method, including
Mr Dooley in the Hearts of his Countrymen (1899), Mr Dooley's
Philosophy (1900), Mr Dooley's Opinions (1901), Observations
by Mr Dooley (1902), and Dissertations by Mr Dooley (1906).
These books made their author widely known as the creator of a
delightfully original character, and as a humorist of shrewd insight.
In 1906 he became associate editor of the American Magazine.
DUNNOTTAR CASTLE, a ruined stronghold, on the east coast
of Kincardineshire, Scotland, about 2 m. S. of Stonehaven. It
stands on a rock 160 ft. high, with a summit area of 4 acres,
and surrounded on three sides by the sea. It is accessible from
the land by a winding path leading across a deep chasm, to the
outer gate in a wall of enormous thickness. It is supposed that
a fortress stood here since perhaps the 7th century, but the
existing castle dates from 1392, when it was begun by Sir William
Keith (d. 1407), great marischal of Scotland. The keep and
chapel are believed to be the oldest structures, most of the other
buildings being two centuries later. It was the residence of the
earls marischal and was regarded as impregnable. Here the
seventh earl entertained Charles II. before the battle of Wor-
cester. When Cromwell became Protector, the Scottish regalia
were lodged in the castle for greater security, and, in 1651,
when the Commonwealth soldiers laid successful siege to it,
they were saved by a woman's wit. Mrs Granger, wife of the
minister of Kinneff, a parish about 6 m. to the S., was allowed
to visit the wife of the governor, Ogilvy of Barras, and when she
rode out she was spinning lint on a distaff. The crown was
concealed in her lap, and the distaff consisted of the sword and
sceptre. The regalia were hidden beneath the flagstones in the
parish church, whence they were recovered at the Restoration.
In 1685 the castle was converted into a Covenanters' prison, no
fewer than 167 being confined in a dungeon, called therefrom
the Whigs' Vault. On the attainder of George, tenth and last
marischal, for his share in the earl of Mar's rising in 1715 the
castle was dismantled (1720).
^ DUNOIS, JEAN, COUNT OF (1403-1468), commonly called the
" Bastard of Orleans," a celebrated French commander, was
the natural son of the duke of Orleans (brother of Charles VI.)
and Mariette d'Enghien, Madame de Canny. He was brought
up in the house of the duke, and in the company of his legitimate
sons, and it appears that he was present at the battle of Beaug6
in 1421 and Verneuil in 1424. His earliest feat of arms was the
surprise and rout in 1427 of the English, who were besieging
Montargis the first successful blow against the English power
in France following a long series of French defeats. In 1428
he defended Orleans with the greatest spirit, and enabled the
place to hold out until the arrival of Joan of Arc, when he
shared with her the honour of defeating the enemy there in
1429. He then accompanied Joan to Reims and shared in the
victory of Patay. After her death he raised the siege of Chartres
and of Lagny (1432) and engaged in a series of successful cam-
paigns which ended in his triumphal entry into Paris on the
i3th of April 1436. He continued to carry on the war against
the English, and gradually drove them to the northward, though
his work was to some extent interrupted by the civil disorders
of the time, in which he played a conspicuous part. Finally in
1450 he completed the reconquest of northern France, and in
1451 he attacked them in Guienne, taking among other towns
Bordeaux, which the English had held for three hundred years,
and Bayonne. After the expulsion of the English he was con-
stantly engaged in the highest diplomatic and military missions.
In 1465 he joined the league of revolted princes, but, assuming
the function of negotiator, he was after a time reinstated in his
offices. Dunois was thenceforward in the greatest favour with
the court. He died on the 24th of November 1468.
DUNOON, a police and municipal burgh of Argyllshire, Scot-
land, on the western shore of the Firth of Clyde, opposite to
Gourock. Pop. (1901) 6779. Including Kirn and Hunter's
Quay, it presents a practically continuous front of seaside villas.
The mildness of its climate and the beauty of its situation have
made it one of the most prosperous watering-places on the west
coast. The principal buildings are the parish church, well-placed
on a hill overlooking the pier, convalescent homes, Cottage and
Victoria fever hospitals, and the town house. On a conical
hill above the pier stand the remains of Dunoon Castle, the
hereditary keepership of which was conferred by Robert Bruce
on the family of Sir Colin Campbell of Loch Awe, an ancestor
of the duke of Argyll. It was visited by Queen Mary in 1563,
and in 1643 was the scene of the massacre of the Laments by
the Campbells. The grounds have been laid out as a recreation
garden. Near the hill stands the modem castle. Facing the
pier a statue was erected in 1898 of Mary Campbell, Burns's
" Highland Mary," who was a native of Dunoon. The town
itself is of modern growth, having been a mere fishing village
at the beginning of the igth century. There is frequent com-
munication daily by steamer with the railway piers at Craigen-
dorau and Gourock, and Glasgow merchants are thus enabled
to reside here all the year round. Hunter's Quay is the yachting
headquarters, the Royal Clyde Yacht Club's house adjoining
the pier. Kilmun, on the northern shore of Holy Loch, a portion
of the parish of Dunoon and Kilmun, contains the ruins of a
Collegiate chapel founded in 1442 by Sir Duncan Campbell of
Loch Awe and used as the burial-ground of the Argyll family.
DUNROBIN CASTLE, a seat of the duke of Sutherland,
picturesquely situated on the north-eastern shore of Dornoch
Firth, Sutherlandshire, Scotland, about 2 m. N.E. of Golspie,
with a private station on the Highland railway. The name is
said to have originally meant the fort of Raffu, the " law-man,"
or crown agent for the district in 1222, but it was renamed out of
compliment to Robert (or Robin) , 6th earl of Sutherland, who died
in 1389. The ancient portion, dating from the end of the i3th
century, was a square structure with towers at the corners, but in
1856 there was added a wing, a main north-eastern tower, and
front, with numerous bartizan turrets, and dormer windows in the
roof. The stately entrance porch recalls that of Windsor Castle,
and the interior is designed and decorated on a sumptuous scale.
In April 1746 George Mackenzie, the 3rd earl of Cromarty,
thinking that Prince Charles Edward had prevailed at Culloden,
seized the castle in his interests, but the Sutherland militia
surrounded the building and captured the earl in an apartment
which was afterwards called the Cromartie room. The beautiful
DUNS DUNSTABLE
683
gardens contain a wealth of trees, which grow with remarkable
luxuriance for the latitude of 58 N. The 3rd duke of Sutherland
erected a museum in the grounds in which are many specimens of
the antiquities of the shire, such as querns, stone tools and
weapons, silver brooches and the like, found in brochs and
elsewhere. There is a graceful waterfall in Dunrobin glen,
through which flows Golspie Burn, near the left bank of which are
remains of Pictish towers. About i m. N.W. of Golspie rises Ben
Bhragie (1256 ft.), crowned by a colossal statue of the ist duke of
Sutherland, by Chantrey.
DUNS, a police burgh and county town of Berwickshire,
Scotland. Pop. (1901) 2206. It is situated 44 m. E.S.E. of
Edinburgh by road, with a station on the branch line of the
North British railway from Reston to St Boswells. The principal
buildings are the town-hall, county buildings, corn exchange,
mechanics' institute and the public library. There is a woollen
mill, and stock sales are held at frequent intervals. The
alternative spelling of Dunse seems to have been in vogue from
1 740 till 1882. It was on Duns Law (700 ft. ) that the Covenanters,
under Alexander Leslie, were encamped in 1639, and the
Covenanters' Stone on the top of the hill has been enclosed to
preserve it from relic-hunters. Duns castle, adjoining the town
on the W., includes the Tower erected by Thomas Randolph,
earl of Moray (d. 1332), and about 3 m. S.W. is the village of
Polwarth.
DUNSINANE, a peak of the Sidlaw Hills, in the parish of
Collace, Perthshire, Scotland, 8 m. N.E. of Perth. It is 1012 ft.
high, and commands a fine view of the Carse of Cowrie and the
valley of the Tay. Its chief claim to mention, however, is due to
its association with Birnam Wood (about 12 m. N.W.) in two
well-known passages in Shakespeare's Macbeth. An old fort on
the summit, of which faint traces are still discernible, is tradition-
ally called Macbeth's Castle.
DUNS SCOTUS, JOHN (1265 or 1275-1308), one of the foremost
of the schoolmen. His birthplace has been variously given as
Duns in Berwickshire, Dunum (Down) in Ulster, and Dunstane
in Northumberland, but there is not sufficient evidence to settle
the question. He joined the Franciscan order in early life, and
studied at Merton College, Oxford, of which he is said to have
been a fellow. He became remarkably proficient in all branches
of learning, but especially in mathematics. When his master,
William Varron, removed to Paris in 1301, Duns Scotus was
appointed to succeed him as professor of philosophy, and his
lectures attracted an immense number of students. Probably in
1304 he went to Paris, in 1307 he received his doctor's degree
from the university, and in the same year was appointed regent of
the theological school. His connexion with the university was
made memorable by his defence of the doctrine of the Immaculate
Conception, in which he displayed such dialectical ingenuity as
to win for himself the title Doctor Subtilis. The doctrine long
continued to be one of the main subjects in dispute between the
Scotists and the Thomists, or, what is almost the same thing,
between the Franciscans and the Dominicans. The university of
Paris was so impressed by his arguments, that in 1387 it formally
condemned the Thomist doctrine, and a century afterwards
required all who received the doctor's degree to bind themselves
by an oath to defend the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception.
In 1308 Duns Scotus was sent by the general of his order to
Cologne, with the twofold object of engaging in a controversy
with the Beghards and of assisting in the foundation of a uni-
versity; according to some, his removal was due to jealousy.
He was received with enthusiasm by the inhabitants but died
suddenly (it was said, of apoplexy) on the 8th of November in the
same year. There was also a tradition that he had been buried
alive.
His philosophical position was determined, or at least very
greatly influenced, by the antagonism between the Dominicans
and the Franciscans. Further, while the genius of Aquinas was
constructive, that of Duns Scotus was destructive; Aquinas was
a philosopher, Duns a critic. The latter has been said to stand to
the former in the relation of Kant to Leibnitz. In the matter of
Universals, Duns was more of a realist and less of an eclectic than
Aquinas. Theologically, the Thomistic system approximates to
pantheism, while that of Scotus inclines distinctly to Pelagianism.
The doctrine of the Immaculate Conception was the great subject
in dispute between the two parties; it was strenuously opposed
by Aquinas, and supported by Duns Scotus, although not without
reserve. There were, however, differences of a wider and deeper
kind. In opposition to Aquinas, who maintained that reason and
revelation were two independent sources of knowledge, Duns
Scotus held that there was no true knowledge of anything
knowable apart from theology as based upon revelation. In
conformity with this principle he denied that the existence of
God was capable of being proved, or that the nature of God
was capable of being comprehended. He therefore rejected as
worthless the ontological proof offered by Aquinas. Another
chief point of difference with Aquinas was in regard to the
freedom of the will, which Duns Scotus maintained absolutely.
He reconciled free-will and necessity by representing the divine
decree not as temporarily antecedent, but as immediately related
to the action of the created will. He maiHtained, in opposition to
Aquinas, that the will was independent of the understanding, that
only will could affect will. From this difference as to the nature
of free-will followed by necessary consequence a difference with
the Thomists as to the operation of divine grace. In ethics the
distinction he drew between natural and theological virtues is
common to him with the rest of the schoolmen. (Cf. AQUINAS.)
Duns Scotus strongly upheld the authority of the church, making
it the ultimate authority on which that of Scripture depends.
(See also SCHOLASTICISM.)
The most important of his works consisted of questions and
commentaries on the writings of Aristotle, and on the Sentences of
Lombard, the so-called Opus Oxoniense or Anglicanum. Complete
works, edited by Luke Wadding (13 vols., Lyons, 1639) and at
Paris (26 vols., 1891-1895). There is an edition of his De modis
significandi or Grammatica speculative!, the first attempt to in-
vestigate the general laws of language, by F. M. Fernandez Garcia
(Quaracchi, Florence, 1902).
On Duns Scotus generally, see life by Wadding in vol. i. of the works
(full, however, of legendary absurdities) ; J. Miiller, Biographisches
iiber Duns Scotus (progr., Cologne, 1881); W. J. Townsend, The
Great Schoolmen (1881); K. Werner, Die Scholastik des spdteren
Mittelalters, i. (1881); J. M. Rigg, in Dictionary of National Bio-
graphy. On his theology: C. Frassen, Scotus Academicus (1744,
new edition, 1900) ; Hieronymus de Montefortino (Jerome de
Fortius), Scoti summa theologica (1728-1738, new edition, 1900);
L. F. O. Baumgarten-Crusius, De theologia Scoti (1826); R. Seeberg,
Die Theologie des J. Duns Scotus (1900), and in Herzog-Hauck,
Realencyklopadie fur protestantische Theologie (1898), with bibliog.
refs; F. Morin, Dictionnaire de philosophic et de theologie scolas-
tiques [=J. P. Migne, Troisi&me encyclopedic theologique, xxi., xxii.,
1857]; C. R. Hagenbach, History of Doctrines (Eng. tr., ii., 1880).
On his philosophy : E. Pluzanski, Essai sur la philosophic de Duns
Scot (1887) ; A. Schmid, Die Thomistische und Scotistische Gewissheit-
lehre (1859) ; M. Schneid, Die Korperlehre des J. Duns Scotus its
relation to Thomism and Atomism (1879) ; P. Minges, " 1st Duns
Scotus Indeterminist?" in Beitrage zur Geschichte der Philosophic
des Mittelalters, Bd. v. Heft 4 (1905) ; W. Kahl, Die Lehre vom Primal
des Willens bei Augustinus, Duns Scotus, und Descartes (1886).
DUNSTABLE, a municipal borough and market town in the
southern parliamentary division of Bedfordshire, England, 37
m. N.W. of London, on branches of the Great Northern and
London & North- Western railways. Pop. (1901) 5157. It lies
at an elevation of about 500 ft. on the bleak northward slope
of the Chiltern Hills. The church of St Peter and St Paul is a
fine fragment of the church of the Augustinian priory founded
by Henry I. in 1131. The building was cruciform, but only the
west front and part of the nave remain. The front has a large
late Norman portal of four orders, with rich Early English
arcading above ; the nave arcade is ornate Norman. The original
triforium is transformed into a clerestory, the original clerestory
being lost. The north-west tower has a Perpendicular upper
portion, but the south-west tower is destroyed. The church
contains various monuments of the i8th century. Foundations
of a palace of Henry I. are traceable near the church. The main
part of the town extends for a mile along the broad straight
Roman road, Watling Street; the high road from Luton to
Tring, which crosses it in the centre of the town, representing
the ancient Icknield Way. The chief industry is straw hat
DUNSTAFFNAGE DUNSTER
manufacture; there are also printing, stationery and engineering
works. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen, and 12
councillors. Area, 453 acres.
There may have been a Romano-British village on this site
on the Watling Street. Dunstable (Dunestaple, Donestaple)
first appears as a royal borough in the reign of Henry I., who,
according to tradition, on account of the depredations of
robbers, cleared the forest where Watling Street and the Icknield
Way met, and encouraged his subjects to settle there by various
grants of privileges. He endowed the priory by charter with the
lordship of the manor and borough, which it retained till its
dissolution in 1536-1537. The Dunstable Annals deal exhaus-
tively with the history of the monastery and town in the i3th
century. In 1219 the prior secured the right of holding a court
there for all crown pleas and of sitting beside the justices itinerant,
and this led to serious collision between the monks and burgesses.
The body of Queen Eleanor rested here for a night on its journey
to Westminster, and a cross, of which there is now no trace,
was subsequently erected in the market-place. At Dunstable
Cranmer held the court which, in 1533, declared Catherine of
Aragon's marriage invalid. At the dissolution a plan was set
on foot for the creation of a new bishopric from the spoils of
the religious houses, which was to include Bedfordshire and
Buckinghamshire with Dunstable as cathedral city. The
scheme was never realized, though plans for the cathedral were
actually drawn up.
From the earliest time Dunstable has been an agricultural
town. The Annals abound with references to the prices and
comparative abundance or scarcity of the two staple products,
wool and corn. The straw hat manufacture has flourished since
the i8th century. Henry I. granted a market held twice a week,
and a three days' fair on the feast of St Peter ad Vincula. John
made a further grant of a three days' fair from the loth of May.
A market is still held weekly, also fairs in May and August
correspond to these grants. Dunstable had also a gild merchant
and was affiliated to London. In 1864 the town was made a
municipal borough by royal charter.
DUNSTAFFNAGE, a ruined castle of Argyllshire, Scotland, 3 m.
N.N.E. of Oban. It is situated on a platform of conglomerate
rock forming a promontory at the south-west of the entrance
to Loch Etive and is surrounded on three sides by the sea.
It dates from the i3th century, occupying the site of the earlier
stronghold in which was kept the Stone of Destiny prior to its
removal to Scone (q.ti.) in 843. The castle is a quadrangular
structure of great strength, with rounded towers at three of the
angles, and has a circumference of about 400 ft. The walls are
60 ft. high and 10 ft. thick, affording a safe promenade, which
commands a splendid view. Brass cannon recovered from
wrecked vessels of the Spanish Armada are mounted on the walls.
In] 1308 Robert Bruce captured the fortress from the original
owners, the MacDougalls, and gave it to the Campbells. It was
garrisoned at the period of the Jacobite rebellions of 1715 and
1745, fell into decay early in the ipth century, and is now the
property of the crown, the duke of Argyll being hereditary keeper.
The adjoining chapel, in a very ruinous state, was the burial-place
of the Campbells of Dunstaffnage.
There are other interesting places on Loch Etive, an arm of
the sea, measuring 195 m. in length and from J m. to fully i m.
in width. Near the mouth, where the lake narrows to a strait,
are the rapids which Ossian called the Falls of Lora, the ebbing
and flowing tides, as they rush over the rocky bar, creating a
roaring noise audible at a considerable distance. In the parish
of Ardchattan, on the north shore, stands the beautiful ruin of
St Modan's Priory, founded in the I3th century for Cistercian
monks of the order of Valh's Caulium. It is said that Robert
Bruce held within its walls the last parliament in which the
Gaelic language was used. On the coast of Loch Nell, or Ardmuck-
nish Bay, is the vitrified fortof Beregonium, not to be confounded
with Rerigonium (sometimes miscalled Berigonium) on Loch
Ryan in Wigtownshire a town of the Novantae Picts, identified
with Innennessan. The confusion has arisen through a textual
error in an early edition of Ptolemy's Geography.
DUNSTAN, SAINT (924 or 925-988),! English archbishop,
entered the household of King ^Ethelstan when still quite a boy.
Here he soon excited the dislike of his young companions, who
procured his banishment from the court. He now took refuge
with his kinsman Alphege, bishop of Winchester, whose per-
suasion, seconded by a serious illness, induced him to become
a monk. /Ethelstan's successor, Edmund, recalled him to the
court and made him one of his counsellors. Through the machina-
tions of enemies he was again expelled from the royal presence;
but shortly afterwards Edmund revoked the sentence and made
him abbot of Glastonbury. His successor Edred showed him
greater favour still. On the accession of Edwig, however, in
955, Dunstan's fortunes underwent a temporary eclipse. Having
offended the influential jElfgifu, he was outlawed and compelled
to flee to Flanders. But in 957 the Mercians and Northumbrians
revolted and chose Edgar as their king. The new king at once
recalled Dunstan, who was made a bishop. At first apparently
he was without a see; but that of Worcester falling vacant, he
was appointed to fill it. In 959 he received the bishopric of
London as well. In the same year Edwig died and Edgar became
sole king, Dunstan shared his triumph, and was appointed
archbishop of Canterbury. On Edgar's death in 975 the arch-
bishop's influence secured the crown for his elder son Edward.
But with the accession of ^Ethelred in 979 Dunstan's public
career came to an end. He retired to Canterbury, and died on
the iQth of May 988.
Dunstan is of more importance as a lay than as an ecclesiastical
statesman. The great church movement of his time the
reformation of English monasticism on Benedictine lines found
in him a sympathizer, but in no sense an active participant.
But as a secular statesman he occupies a high place. He guided
the state successfully during the nine years' reign of the invalid
Edred. Through that of Edgar, he was the king's chief minister
and most trusted adviser; and to him a great share in its glories
must be assigned.
See Memorials of St Dunstan, edited by W. Stubbs (London, 1874) I
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, edited by C. Plummer (Oxford, 1892-1899).
DUNSTER, a market town in the Western parliamentary
division of Somersetshire, England, ij m. from the shore of
the Bristol Channel, on the Minehead branch of the Great
Western railway. Pop. (1901) 1182. Its streets, sloping sharply,
contain many old houses. On an eminence stands the ancient
castle, entered by a gateway of the I3th century. There are
portions of later date, but still ancient, in the main building,
but it has been considerably modernized as a residence. The
church of St George has Norman portions, but the building
is in the main Perpendicular. The fine tower in this style is
characteristic of this part of England. There are traces of
monastic buildings near the church, for it belonged to a Bene-
dictine house of early Norman foundation. The church is cruci-
form and the altar stands beneath the eastern lantern arch, a
fine rood screen separating off the choir, which was devoted to
monastic use, while the nave was kept for the parishioners, in
consequence of a dispute between the vicar and the monastery
in 1499. The Yarn Market, a picturesque octagonal building
with deep sloping roof, in the main street, dates from c. 1600,
and is a memorial of Dunster's former important manufacture of
cloth.
There were British, Roman and Saxon settlements at Dunster
(Torre Dunestorre, Dunes ter), fortified against the piracies of the
Irish Northmen. The Saxon fort of Alaric was replaced by a
Norman castle built by William de Mohun, first lord of Dunster,
who founded the priory of St George. Before 1 183, Dunster had
become a mesne borough, owned by the de Mohuns until the
I4th century when it passed to the Luttrells, the present owners.
Reginald de Mohun granted the first charter between 1245 and
1247, which diminished fines and tolls, limited the lord's " mercy,"
and provided that the burgesses should not against their will
1 The date of Dunstan's birth here given is that given in the
Anglo-Saxon chronicle and hitherto accepted. In an appendix to
the Bosworth Psalter, edited by Mr Edmund Bishop and Abbot
Gasquet (1908), Mr Leslie A. St L. Toke gives reason to believe that
the date must be set back at least as early as 910.
DUNTOCHER DUOVIRI
685
be made bailiffs or farmers of the seaport. John de Mohun
granted other charters in 1301 and 1307. Dunster was only
represented in parliament in conjunction with Minehead, one
of its tithings being part of that borough. Representation began
in 1562, and was lost in 1832. Feudal in origin, Dunster's later
importance was commercial, and the port had a considerable
wool, corn and cattle trade with Ireland. During the middle
ages the Friday market and fair in Whit week, granted by the
first charter, were centres for the sale of yarn and cloth called
" Dunsters," made in the town. The market day is still Friday.
The manufacture of cloth had disappeared, the harbour is silted
up, and there is no special local industry.
See Sir H. C. Maxwell Lyte, Dunster and its Lords (1882) ; Victoria
County History, Somerset, vol. ii.
DUNTOCHER (Gaelic, "The Fort of ill hap "), a town on
Dalmuir Burn, Dumbartonshire, Scotland, 9 m. from Glasgow.
Pop. (1901) 2122. The district contains coal, limestone and
ironstone, but there is not much mining. Many of the inhabit-
ants are employed at the Singer factory in Kilbowie and at
the Clyde Trust yards in Dalmuir. There are considerable
Roman remains in the neighbourhood. Antoninus' Wall passed
immediately to the south; the burn is crossed by a bridge
alleged to be of Roman origin (which at least is doubtful);
subterranean remains indicate a Roman structure; a Roman
camp has been traced, and the vicinity has yielded a number
of altars, urns, vases, coins and tablets, which are now in the
custody of Glasgow University.
DUNTON, JOHN (1650-1733), English bookseller and author,
was born at Graffham, in Huntingdonshire, on the 4th of May
1659. His father, grandfather and great-grandfather had all
been clergymen. At the age of fifteen he was apprenticed to
Thomas Parkhurst, bookseller, at the sign of the Bible and Three
Crowns, Cheapside, London. Dunton ran away at once, but
was soon brought back, and began to " love books." During the
struggle which led to the Revolution, Dunton was the treasurer
of the Whig apprentices. He became a bookseller at the sign of
the Raven, near the Royal Exchange, and married Elizabeth
Annesley, whose sister married Samuel Wesley. His wife
managed his business, so that he was left free in a great measure
to follow his own eccentric devices. In 1686, probably because
he was concerned in the Monmouth rising, he visited New
England, where he stayed eight months selling books and observ-
ing with interest the new country and its inhabitants. Dunton
had become security for his brother's debts, and to escape the
creditors he made a short excursion to Holland. On his return
to England, he opened a new shop in the Poultry in the hope of
better times. Here he published weekly the Athenian Mercury
which professed to answer all questions on history, philosophy,
love, marriage and things in general. His wife died in 1697, and
he married a second time; but a quarrel about property led to
a separation; and being incapable of managing his own affairs,
he spent the last years of his life in great poverty. He died in
1733. He wrote a great many books and a number of political
squibs on the Whig side, but only his Life and Errors of John
Dunton (1705), on account of its naiivet6, its pictures of bygone
times, and of the literary history of the period, is remembered.
His letters from New England were published in America in 1867.
DUNTZER, JOHANN HEINRICH JOSEPH (1813-1901),
German philologist and historian of literature, was born at
Cologne on the 1 2th of July 1813. After studying philology and
especially ancient classics and Sanskrit at Bonn and Berlin
(1830-1835), he took the degree of doctor of philosophy and
established himself in 1837 at Bonn as Privat decent for classical
literature. He had already, in his Goethes Faust in seiner
Einheit und Ganzheit (1836) and Goethe als Dramatiker (1837),
advocated a new critical method in interpreting the German
classics, which he wished to see treated like the ancient classics.
He subsequently turned his attention almost exclusively to
the poets of the German classical period, notably Goethe and
Schiller. Duntzer's method met with much opposition and he
consequently failed to obtain the professorship he coveted. In
1846 he accepted the post of librarian at the Roman Catholic
gymnasium in Cologne, where he died on the i6th of December
1901. Diintzer was a painstaking and accurate critic, but
lacking in inspiration and finer literary taste; consequently
his work as a biographer and commentator has, to a great extent,
been superseded and discredited.
Among his philological writings may be mentioned Die Lehre von
der lateinischen Wortbildung (1836); Die Destination der indo-
germanischen Sprachen (1839) ; Homer und der epische Kyklos (1839) ;
Die homerischen Beiworter des Cotter- und Menschengeschlechts
(1859). Of his works on the German classical poets, especially
Goethe, Schiller and Herder, the following are particularly worthy
of note, Erlauterungen zu den deutschen Klassikern (18531892);
Goethes Prometheus und Pandora (1850); Goethes Faust (2 vols.,
1850-1851; 2nd ed. 1857); Goethes Gotz und Egmont (1854); Aus
Goethes Freundeskreise (1868) ; Abhandlungen zu Goethes Leben
und Werken (2 vols., 1885) ; Goethes Tagebucher der seeks ersten
weimarischen Jahre (1889); Goethes Leben (1880; 2nd ed. 1883;
Engl. transl. by T. Lyster, London, 1884); SchUlers Leben (1881);
Schiller und Goethe; flbersicht und Erlauterung zum Briefwechsel
zwischen Schiller und Goethe (1859) ; Herders Reise nach Italien
(1859); Aus Herders NacUass (3 vols., 1856-1857), and further,
Charlotte von Stein (1874).
DUNWICH, a village in the Eye parliamentary division of
Suffolk, England, on the coast between Southwold and Aide-
burgh, 5 m. S.S.W. of Southwold. Pop. (1901) 157. This was
in Anglo-Saxon days the most important commercial centre and
port of East Anglia. It was probably a Romano-British site.
The period of its highest dignity was the Saxon era, when it was
called Dommocceaster and Dunwyk. Early in the 7th century,
when Sigebert became king of East Anglia, Dunwich was chosen
his capital and became the nursery of Christianity in Eastern
Britain. A bishopric was founded (according to Bede in 630,
while the Anglo-Saxon chronicle gives 635), the name of the first
bishop being Felix. Sigebert's reign was notable for his founda-
tion of a school modelled on those he had seen in France; it
was probably at' Dunwich, but formed the nucleus of what
afterwards became the university of Cambridge. By the middle
of the nth century (temp. Edward the Confessor) Dunwich was
declining, as it had already suffered from an evil which later
caused its total ruin, namely the inroads of the sea on the unstable
coast. At the Norman Conquest the manor was granted to
Robert Malet; but the history of the place remains blank until
the reign of Henry II., when it re-emerged into prosperity. In
1173 the sight of its strength caused Robert earl of Leicester to
despair of besieging it. The town received a charter from King
John. In the reign of Edward I. it is recorded to have possessed
36 ships and " barks," trading to the North Seas, Iceland and
elsewhere, with 24 fishing boats, besides maintaining n ships
of war. But early in the reign of Edward III. the attacks of the
sea began to make headway again. In 1347 over 400 houses
were destroyed. In 1570, after a terrible storm, appeal was
made to Elizabeth, who parsimoniously granted money obtained
by the sale of lead and other materials from certain neighbouring
churches. But the doomed town was gradually engulfed, and
now the only outward evidence of the old wealthy port is the
ruined fragment of the church of All Saints, overhanging a low
cliff, which, as it crumbles, exposes the coffins and bones in the
former churchyard, the greater part of which has disappeared.
A small white flower growing wild among the ruins is called the
Dunwich Rose, and is traditionally said to have been planted
and cultivated by monks. Many relics have been discovered by
excavation, and even from beneath the waves. Until 1832
Dunwich returned 2 members to parliament.
DUOVIRI, less correctly DUUMVIRI (from Lat. duo two, and
vir, man), in ancient Rome, the official style of two joint magis-
trates. Such pairs of magistrates were appointed at various
periods of Roman history both in Rome itself and in the colonies
and municipia. (i) Duumviri iuri (iure) dicundo, municipal
magistrates, whose chief duties were concerned with the ad-
ministration of justice. Sometimes there were four of these
magistrates (Quattuoniirt) . (2) Duumviri quinquennales, also
municipal officers, not to be confused with the above, who were
elected every fifth year for one year to exercise the function of
the censorship which was in abeyance for the intervening four
years. (3) Duumviri sacrorum, officers who originally had
686
DUPANLOUP DUPIN
charge of the Sibylline books; they were afterwards increased
to ten (decemviri sacris faciundis), and in Sulla's time to fifteen
(quindecimviri) . (4) Duumviri aedi locandae, originally officers
specially appointed to supervise the erection of a temple. There
were also duumviri aedi dedicandae. (5) Duumviri naiiales,
extraordinary officers appointed ad hoc for the equipping of a
fleet. Originally chosen by consuls or dictator, they were
elected by the people after 311 B.C. (Livy ix. 30; xl. 18; xli. i).
(6) Duumviri perduellionis, the earliest criminal court for trying
offences against the state (see TREASON: Roman Law). (7)
Duumviri viis extra urbem purgandis, subordinate officers under
the aediles, whose duty it was to look after those streets of
Rome which were outside the city walls. Apparently in 20 B.C.,
certainly by 12 B.C., their duties were transferred to the Curalores
viarum. From at least as early as 45 B.C. (cf. the Lex lulia
Municipalis) the streets of the city were superintended by
Quattuorviri viis in urbe purgandis, [later called Quattuorviri
viarum purgandarum.
See Fiebiger and Liebenam in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyc. v. pt. 2.
DUPANLOUP, FfiLIX ANTOINE PHILIBERT (1802-1878),
French ecclesiastic, was born at St Felix hi Savoy on the 3rd of
January 1802. In his earliest years he was confided to the care
of his brother, a priest in the diocese of Chambery. In 1810
he was sent to a pensionnat ecclesiaslique at Paris. Thence he
went to the seminary of St Nicolas de Chardonnel in 1813, and
was transferred to the seminary of St Sulpice at Paris in 1820.
In 1825 he was ordained priest, and was appointed vicar of the
Madeleine at Paris. For a time he was tutor to the Orleans
princes. He became the founder of the celebrated academy
at St Hyacinthe, and received a letter from Gregory XVI.
eulogizing his work there, and calling him Aposlolus juventutis.
His imposing height, his noble features, his brilliant eloquence,
as well as his renown for zeal and charity, made him a prominent
feature in French life for many years. Crowds of persons
attended his addresses, on whom his energy, command of
language, powerful voice and impassioned gestures made a
profound impression. When made bishop of Orleans in 1849, he
pronounced a fervid panegyric on Joan of Arc, which attracted
attention in England as well as France. Before this he had
been sent by Archbishop Affre to Rome, and had been appointed
Roman prelate and protonotary apostolic. For thirty years
he remained a notable figure in France, doing his utmost to
arouse his countrymen from religious indifference. In ecclesi-
astical policy his views were moderate; thus he opposed the
definition of the dogma of papal infallibility both before and
during the Vatican council, but was among the first to accept the
dogma when decreed. He was a distinguished educationist who
fought for the retention of the Latin classics in the schools and
instituted the celebrated catechetical method of St Sulpice.
Among his publications are De I' education (1850), De la haute
education intellectuelle (3 vols., 1866), (Euvres choisies (1861, 4
vols.); Hisloire de Jesus (1872), a counterblast to Renan's Vie
de JSsus. He died on the nth of October 1878.
See Life by F. Lagrange (Eng. tr. by Lady Herbert, London, 1885).
DUPERRON, JACQUES DAVY (1556-1618), French cardinal,
was born at St L6, in Normandy, on the isth of November 1556.
His father was a physician, who on embracing the doctrines of
the Reformation became a Protestant minister, and to escape
persecution settled at Bern, in Switzerland. Here Jacques Davy
received his education, being taught Lathi and mathematics
by his father, and learning Greek and Hebrew and the philosophy
then in vogue. Returning to Normandy he was presented to the
king by Jacques of Matignon; after he had abjured Protestant-
ism, being again presented by Philip Desportes, abbot of Tiron,
as a young man without equal for knowledge and talent, he
was appointed reader to the king. He was commanded to preach
before the king at the convent of Vincennes, when the success
of his sermon on the love of God, and of a funeral oration on the
poet Ronsard, induced him to take orders. On the death of
Mary queen of Scots he was chosen to pronounce her eulogy.
On the death of Henry III., after having supported for some
time the cardinal de Bourbon, the head of the league against the
king, Duperron became a faithful servant of Henry IV., and
in 1591 was created by him bishop of Evreux. He instructed
Henry in the Catholic religion; and in 1594 was sent to Rome,
where with Cardinal d'Ossat (1536-1604) he obtained Henry's
absolution. On his return to his diocese.his zeal and eloquence
were largely instrumental in withstanding the progress of
Calvinism, and among others he converted Henry Sponde, who
became bishop of Pamiers, and the Swiss general Sancy. At
the conference at Fontainebleau in 1600 he argued with much
eloquence and ingenuity against Du Plessis Mornay (i 549-1623).
In 1604 he was sent to Rome as charge d'affaires de France;
when Clement VIII. died, he largely contributed by his eloquence
to the election of Leo XI. to the papal throne, and, on the death
of Leo twenty-four days after, to the election of Paul V. While
still at Rome he was made a cardinal, and in 1606 became
archbishop of Sens. After the death of Henry IV. he took an
active part in the states-general of 1614, when he vigorously
upheld the ultramontane doctrines against the Third Estate.
He died in Paris on the 6th of September 1618.
See Les Diverses (Euvres de Fillustrissime cardinal Duperron (Paris,
1622) ; Pierre Feret, Le Cardinal Duperron (Paris, 1877).
DUPIN, ANDRfi MARIE JEAN JACQUES (1783-1865),
commonly called Dupin the Elder, French advocate, president
of the chamber of deputies and of the Legislative Assembly,
was born at Varzy, in Nievre, on the ist of February 1783.
He was educated by his father, who was a lawyer of eminence,
and at an early age he became principal clerk of an attorney at
Paris. On the establishment of the Academic de Legislation
he entered it as pupil from Nievre. In 1800 he was made advo-
cate, and in 1802, when the schools of law were opened, he
received successively the degrees of licentiate and doctor from
the new faculty. He was in iSioan unsuccessful candidate for
the chair of law at Paris, and in 1811 he also failed to obtain the
office of advocate-general at the court of cassation. About this
time he was added to the commission charged with the classifica-
tion of the laws of the empire, and, after the interruption caused
by the events of 1814 and 1815, was charged with the sole care
of that great work. When he entered the chamber of deputies
in 1815 he at once took an active part in the debates as a member
of the Liberal Opposition, and strenuously opposed the election
of the son of Napoleon as emperor after his father's abdication.
At the election after the second restoration Dupin was not re-
elected. He defended with great intrepidity the principal
political victims of the reaction, among others, in conjunction
with Nicolas Berryer, Marshal Ney; and hi October 1815
boldly published a tractate entitled Libre Defense des accuses.
In 1827 he was again elected a member of the chamber of deputies
and in 1830 he voted the address of the 221, and on the 28th of
February he was in the streets exhorting the citizens to resist-
ance. At the end of 1832 he became president of the chamber,
which office he held successively for eight years. On Louis
Philippe's abdication in 1848 Dupin ittrodued the young count
of Paris into the chamber, and proposed him as king with the
duchess of Orleans as regent. This attempt failed, but Dupin
submitted to circumstances, and, retaining the office of procureur-
general, his first act was to decide that justice should henceforth
be rendered to the " name of the French people." In 1849 he
was elected a member of the Assembly, and became president
of the principal committee that on legislation. After the
coup d'etat of the 2nd of December 1851 he still retained his
office of procureur-general, and did not resign it until effect was
given to the decrees confiscating the property of the house of
Orleans. In 1857 he was offered his old office by the emperor,
and accepted it, explaining his acceptance in a discourse, a
sentence of which may be employed to describe his whole political
career. " I have always," he said, " belonged to France and
never to parties." He died on the 8th of November 1865.
Among Dupin's works, which are numerous, may be mentioned
Principia Juris Civilis, 5 vols. (1806); MSmoires et plaidayers
de 1806 au i" Janvier 1830, in 20 vols.; and Memoires ou
souvenirs du barreau, in 4 vols. (1855-1857).
His brother, FRANCOIS PIERRE CHARLES DUPIN (1784-1873),
DU PIN DUPONT DE L'ETANG
687
wrote several geometrical works, treating of descriptive geometry
after the manner of Monge, and of the theory of curves.
DU PIN, LOUIS ELLIES (1657-1719), French ecclesiastical
historian, came of a noble family of Normandy, and was born at
Paris on the i7th of June 1657. When ten years old he entered
the college of Harcourt, where he graduated M.A. in 1672. He
afterwards became a pupil of the Sorbonne, and received the
degree of B.D. in 1680 and that of D.D. in 1684. About this
time he conceived the idea of his Bibliotheque universelle de lous
les auleurs eccltsiastiques, the first volume of which appeared in
1686. The liberty with which he there treated the doctrines of
the Fathers aroused ecclesiastical prejudice, and the archbishop
of Paris condemned the work. Although Du Pin consented to a
retractation, the book was suppressed in 1693; he was, however,
allowed again to continue it on changing its title by substituting
nouveUe for universelle. He was subsequently exiled to Chatel-
lerault as a Jansenist, but the sentence of banishment was
repealed on a new retractation. In 1718 he entered into a
correspondence with William Wake, archbishop of Canterbury,
with a view to a union of the English and Gallican churches;
being suspected of projecting a change in the dogmas of the
church, his papers were seized in February 1719, but nothing
incriminating was found. The same zeal for union induced him,
during the residence of Peter the Great in France, and at that
monarch's request, to draw up a plan for uniting the Greek and
Roman churches. He died at Paris on the 6th of June 1719.
Du Pin was a voluminous author. Besides his great work
(Paris, 1686-1704, 58 vols. 8vo; Amsterdam, 19 vols. 4to; in
the last of which he gives much autobiographical information),
mention may be made of Bibliotheque universelle des historiens
(2 vols., 1707); L'Hisloire de I'&glise en abrege (1712); and
L'Hisloire profane depuis le commencement du monde jusqu'a
present (4 vols., 1712).
DUPLEIX, JOSEPH FRANCOIS (1697-1763), governor-
general of the French establishment in India, the great rival of
Clive (<?..), was born at Landrecies, France, on the ist of January
1697. His father, Francois Dupleix, a wealthy farmer-general,
wished to bring him up as a merchant, and, in order to distract
him from his taste for science, sent him on a voyage to India in
1715 on one of the French East India Company's vessels. He
made several voyages to America and India, and in 1720 was
named a member of the superior council at Pondicherry. He
displayed great business aptitude, and, in addition to his
official duties, made large ventures on his own account, and
acquired a fortune. In 1730 he was made superintendent of
French affairs in Chandernagore, the town prospering under his
energetic administration and growing into great importance.
His reputation procured him in 1 742 the appointment of governor-
general of all French establishments in India. His ambition now
was to acquire for France vast territories in India; and for this
purpose he entered into relations with the native princes, and
adopted a style of oriental splendour in his dress and surround-
ings. The British took the alarm. But the danger to their
settlements and power was partly averted by the bitter mutual
jealousy which existed between Dupleix and La Bourdonnais,
French governor of the isle of Bourbon. When Madras
capitulated to the French in 1764, Dupleix opposed the re-
storation of the town to the British, thus violating the treaty
signed by La Bourdonnais. He then sent an expedition against
Fort St David (1747), which was defeated on its march by the
nawab of Arcot, the ally of the British. Dupleix succeeded in
gaining over the nawab, and again attempted the capture of Fort
St David, but unsuccessfully. A midnight attack on Cuddalore
was repulsed with great loss. In 1748 Pondicherry was besieged
by the British; but in the course of the operations news arrived
of the peace concluded between the French and the British at
Aix-la-Chapelle. Dupleix next entered into negotiations which
had for their object the subjugation of southern India, and he
sent a large body of troops to the aid of two claimants of the
sovereignty of the Carnatic and the Deccan. The British were
engaged on the side of their rivals. After temporary successes
the scheme failed. Dupleix was a great organizer, but did not
possess the genius for command in the field that was shown by
Clive. The conflicts between the French and the British in India
continued till 1754, when the French government, anxious to
make peace, sent out to India a special commissioner with orders
to supersede Dupleix and, if necessary, to arrest him. These
orders were carried out with needless harshness, what survived of
Dupleix's work was ruined at a blow, and he himself was com-
pelled to embark for France on the i2th of October 1754. He
had spent his private fortune in the prosecution of his public
policy; the company refused to acknowledge the obligation;
and the government would do nothing for a man whom they
persisted in regarding as an ambitious and greedy adventurer.
The greatest of French colonial governors died in obscurity and
want on the loth of November 1763. In 1741 he had married
Jeanne Albert, widow of one of the councillors of the company, a
woman of strong character and intellect, known to the Hindus as
Joanna Begum, who proved of great' use to her husband in his
negotiations with the native princes. She died in 1756, and two
years later he married again.
See TibuIIe Hamont, Dupleix, d'apres sa correspondance inedite
(Paris, 1881); H. Castonnet, Dupleix, ses expeditions et ses projets
(Paris, 1888) and La Chute de Dupleix (Angers, 1888); G. B. Malle-
son, Dupleix (Rulers of India series, 1890); and E. Guerin, Dupleix
(1908).
DUPONT, PIERRE (1821-1870), French song-writer, the son
of a blacksmith, was born at Lyons on the 23rd of April 1821.
His parents both died before he was five years^old, and he was
brought up in the country by his godfather, a village priest.
He was educated at the seminary of L'Argentiere, and was
afterwards apprenticed to a notary at Lyons. In 1839 he found
his way to Paris, and some of his poems were inserted in the
Gazette de France and the Quotidienne. Two years later he was
saved from the conscription and enabled to publish his first
volume Les]Deux Anges through the exertions of a kinfcmanand
of Pierre Lebrun. In 1842 he received a prize from the Academy,
and worked for some time on the official dictionary? 1 Gounod's
appreciation of his peasant song, J'ai deux grands bteufs dans mon
Stable (1846), settled his vocation as a song- writer. He had no
theoretical knowledge of music, but he composed both the words
and the melodies of his songs, the two processes being generally
simultaneous. He himself remained so innocent of musfbal know-
ledge that he had to engage Ernest Reyer to write down his
airs. He sang his own songs, as they were composed, at the
workmen's concerts in the Salle de la Fraternite du Faubourg
Saint-Denis; the public performance of his famous Le Pain was
forbidden; Le Chant des ouvriers was even more popular; and in
1851 he paid the penalty of having become the poet laureate of
the socialistic aspirations of the time by being comdemned to
seven years of exile from France. The sentence was cancelled,
and the poet withdrew for a time from participation in politics.
He died at Lyons, where his later years were spent, on the 24th of
July 1870. His songs have appeared in various forms Chants et
chansons (3 vols., with music, 1852-1854), Chants et poesies (7th
edition, 1862), &c. Among the best-known are Le Braconnier,
Le Tisserand, La Vache blanche, La Chanson du ble, but many
others might be mentioned of equal spontaneity and charm. His
later works have not the same merit.
See also Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, iv. ; Ch. Baudelaire,
Notice sur P. Dupont (1849) ; Dechaut, Biographic de Pierre Dupont
(1871); and Ch. Lenient, Poesie patriotique en France (1889), ii.
352 et seq.
DUPONT DE L'ETANG, PIERRE ANTOINE, COUNT (1765-
1840), French general, first saw active service as a member of
Maillebois' legion in Holland, and in 1791 was on the staff of the
Army of the North under Dillon. He distinguished himself at
Valmy, and in the fighting around Menin in 1793 he forced an
Austrian regiment to surrender. Promoted general of brigade for
this feat, he soon received further advancement from Carnot, who
recognized his abilities. In 1797 he became general of division.
The rise of Napoleon, whom he warmly supported in the coup
d'etat of 1 8th Brumaire, brought him further opportunities.
In the campaign of 1800 he was chief of the staff to Berthier,
the nominal commander of the " Army of Reserve of the Alps "
688
DUPONT DE L'EURE DU PONT DE NEMOURS
which won the battle of Marengo. After the battle he sustained
a brilliant combat, against greatly superior forces, at Pozzolo.
In the campaign on the Danube in 1805, as the leader of one of
Ney's divisions, he earned further distinction, especially at the
action of Albeck-Haslach, in which he prevented the escape of
the Austrians from Ulm, and so contributed most effectively
to the isolation and subsequent capture of Mack and his
whole army (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). At Friedland he
won further fame. With a record such as but few of Napoleon's
divisional commanders possessed, he entered Spain in 1808 at
the head of a corps. After the occupation of Madrid, Dupont,
newly created count by Napoleon, was sent to subdue Anda-
lusia. After a few initial successes he had to retire on the passes
of the Sierra Morena. Pursued and cut off by the Spanish army
under Castanos, his corps was defeated and he felt himself con-
strained to capitulate (Baylen, iQth-23rd July; see PENINSULAR
WAR) . The disgrace which fell upon the general was not entirely
merited. His troops were for the most part raw levies, and
ill-luck contributed materially to the catastrophe, but, after his
return to France, Dupont was sent before a court-martial,
deprived of his rank and title, and imprisoned from 1812 to 1814.
Released only by the fall of Napoleon, he was employed by Louis
XVIII. in a military command, which he lost on the return of
Napoleon. But the Second Restoration saw him restored to
the army, and appointed a member of the conseil prive of Louis
XVIII. From 1815 to 1830 he was deputy for the Charente.
He lived in retirement from 1 83 2 till his death in 1 840. Amongst
the writings Dupont left are some poems, including L'Art de la
guerre (1838), and verse translations from Horace (1836), and
the following military works: Opinion sur le nouveau mode de
recrutement (1818), Lettres sur I'Espagne en 1808 (1823),
Lettre sur la campagne d'Autriche (1826). At the time of his
death he was on the point of publishing his memoirs.
See Lieut.-Col. Titeux, Le General Dupont: une erreur historique
(Paris, 1903).
DUPONT DE L'EURE, JACQUES CHARLES (1767-1855),
French lawyer and statesman, was born at Neubourg (Eure) , in
Normandy, on the 27th of February 1767. In 1789 he was an
advocate at the parlement of Normandy. During the republic
and the empire he filled successively judicial offices at Louviers,
Rouen and Evreux. He had adopted the principles of the
Revolution, and in 1798 he commenced his political life as a
member of the Council of Five Hundred. In 1813 he became
a member of the Corps Legislatif. During the Hundred Days
he was vice-president of the chamber of deputies; and when
the allied armies entered Paris he drew up the declaration in
which the chamber asserted the necessity of maintaining the
principles of government that had been established at the
Revolution. He was chosen one of the commissioners to nego-
tiate with the allied sovereigns. From 1817 till 1849 he was
uninterruptedly a member of the chamber of deputies, and he
acted consistently with the liberal opposition, of which at more
than one crisis he was the virtual leader. For a few months in
1830 he held office as minister of justice, but, finding himself out
of harmony with his colleagues, he resigned before the close of
the year and resumed his place in the opposition. At the revolu-
tion of 1848 Dupont de 1'Eure was made president of the provi-
sional assembly as being its oldest member. In the following
year, having failed to secure his re-election to the chamber, he
retired into private life. He died in 1855. The consistent
firmness with which he adhered to the cause of constitutional
liberalism during the many changes of his times gained him the
highest respect of his countrymen, by whom he was styled the
Aristides of the French tribune.
DU PONT DE NEMOURS, PIERRE SAMUEL (1739-1817),
French political economist and statesman, was born at Paris
on the i4th of September 1739. He studied for the medical
profession, but did not enter upon practice, his attention having
been early directed to economic questions through his friendship
with Frangois Quesnay, Turgot and other leaders of the school
known as the Economists. To this school he rendered valuable
service by several pamphlets on financial questions, and numerous
articles representing and advocating its views in a popular style
in the Journal de I' agriculture, du commerce, et des finances,
and the Ephemerides du citoyen, of which he was successively
editor. In 1772 he accepted the office of secretary of the council
of public instruction from Stanislas Poniatowski, king of Poland.
Two years later he was recalled to France by the advent of his
friend Turgot to power. After assisting the minister in his wisely-
conceived but unavailing schemes of reform during the brief
period of his tenure of office, Du Pont shared his dismissal and
retired to Gatinais, in the neighbourhood of Nemours, where
he employed himself in agricultural improvements. During his
leisure he wrote a translation of Ariosto (1781), and Memoires sur
la vie de Turgot (1782). He was drawn from his retirement by
C. G. de Vergennes, minister of foreign affairs, who employed
him in 1782 in negotiating, with the English commissioner Dr
James Hutton, for recognition of the independence of the
United States (1782), and in preparing a treaty of commerce with
Great Britain (1786). Under Calonne he became councillor of
state, and was appointed commissary-general of commerce.
During the Revolution period he advocated constitutional
monarchy, and was returned as deputy by the Third Estate of
the bailliage of Nemours to the states-general, and then to the
Constituent Assembly, of which he was elected president on the
i6th of October 1790. But his conservative opinions rendered
him more and more unpopular, and after the loth of August
1792, when he took the side of the king, he was forced to lie con-
cealed for some weeks in the observatory of the Mazarin College,
from which he contrived to escape to the country. During the
time that elapsed before he was discovered and arrested he
wrote his Philosophic de I'univers. Imprisoned in La Force (i 794),
he was one of those who had the good fortune to escape the
guillotine till the death of Robespierre set them free. As a
member of the Council of Five Hundred, Du Pont carried out his
policy of resistance to the Jacobins, and made himself prominent
as a member of the reactionary party. After the republican
triumph on the i8th Fructidor (4th of September) 1797 his house
was sacked by the mob, and he himself only escaped transporta-
tion to Cayenne through the influence of M. J. Chenier. In 1 799
he found it advisable for his comfort, if not for his safety, to
emigrate with his family to the United States. Jefferson's high
opinion of Du Pont was shown in using him in 1802 to convey to
Bonaparte unofficially a threat against the French occupation of
Louisiana; and also, earlier, in requesting him to prepare a
scheme of national education, which was published in 1800 under
the title Sur I' education nationale dans les Etats- Unis d'Amiriqtte.
Though the scheme was not carried out in the United States,
several of its features have been adopted in the existing French
code. On his return to France in 1802 he declined to accept any
office under Napoleon, devoted himself almost exclusively to
literary pursuits, and was elected to the Institut. On the down-
fall of Napoleon in 1814 Du Pont became secretary to the
provisional government, and on the restoration he was made
a councillor of state. The return of the emperor in 1815 deter-
mined him to quit France, and he spent the close of his life
with his younger son, Eleuthere Irenee (1771-1834), who had
established a powder manufactory in Delaware. He died
at Eleutherian Mills near Wilmington, Delaware, on the 6th of
August 1817.
His family continued to conduct the powder-mills, which
brought them considerable wealth. The business was subse-
quently converted into the E. I. Du Pont de Nemours Powder
Company. His grandson, Admiral Samuel Francis Du Pont
(1803-1865), played a conspicuous part as a U.S. naval officer
in the American Civil War. His great-grandson, Henry Algernon
Du Pont (b. 1838), president of the Wilmington & Northern
railway, was a soldier in the Civil War, and afterwards a United
States senator.
Du Pont's most important works, besides those mentioned above,
were his De I'origine et des progres d'une science nouvelle (London
and Paris, 1767); Physiocratie, ou constitution naturelle du goumrne-
ment le plus avantageux au genre humain (Paris, 1768); and his
Observations sur les effets de la liberte du commerce des grains (1760).
They are gathered together in vol. ii. of the Collection des economises
DUPORT DUPRE
689
(1846). See notices of his life (1818) by Silvestre and Baron d
Gerando ; also Schelle, Du Pont de Nemours et I'ecole physiocratiqu
(1888).
DUPORT, ADRIEN (1759-1798), French politician, was born
in Paris. He became an influential advocate in the parlement
becoming prominent in opposition to the ministers Calonne anc
Lomenie de Brienne. Elected in 1789 to the states-general by
the noblesse of Paris, he soon revealed a remarkable eloquence
A learned jurist, he contributed during the Constituent Assembly
to the organization of the judiciary of France. His report 01
the 29th of March 1 790 is especially notable. In it he advocated
trial by jury; but he was unable to obtain the jury system in
civil cases. Duport had formed with Barnave and Alexandre
de Lameth a group known as the " triumvirate," which was
popular at first. But after the flight of the king to Varennes
Duport sought to defend him; as member of the commission
charged to question the king, he tried to excuse him, and on the
I4th of July 1791 he opposed the formal accusation. He was
thus led to separate himself from the Jacobins and to join the
Feuillant party. After the Constituent Assembly he became
president of the criminal tribunal of Paris, but was arrested
during the insurrection of the loth of August 1792. He escaped,
thanks probably to the complicity of Danton, returned to France
after the 9th of Thermidor of the year II., left it in exile again
after the republican coup d'etat of the i8th of Fructidor of the
year V., and died at Appenzell in Switzerland in 1798.
See F. A. Aulard, Les Orateurs de la Constituante (2nd ed., Paris.
1905, 8vo).
DUPORT, JAMES (1606-1679), English classical scholar,
was born at Cambridge. His father, John Duport, who was
descended from an old Norman family (the Du Ports of Caen,
who settled in Leicestershire during the reign of Henry IV.),
was master of Jesus College. The son was educated at West-
minster and at Trinity College, where he became fellow and
subsequently vicemaster. In 1639 he was appointed regius
professor of Greek, in 1664 dean of Peterborough, and in 1668
master of Magdalene College. He died at Peterborough on the
1 7th of July 1679. Throughout the troublous times of the
Civil War, in spite of the loss of his clerical offices and eventually
of his professorship, Duport quietly continued his lectures.
He is best known by his Homeri gnomologia (1660), a collection
of all the aphorisms, maxims arid remarkable opinions in the
Iliad and Odyssey, illustrated by quotations from the Bible and
classical literature. His other published works chiefly consist
of translations (from the Bible and Prayer Book into Greek)
and short original poems, collected under the title of Horae
subsecivae or Stromata. They include congratulatory odes
(inscribed to the king); funeral odes; carmina comitialia
(tripos verses on different theses maintained in the schools,
remarkable for their philosophical and metaphysical knowledge) ;
sacred epigrams; and three books of miscellaneous poems
(Syhae). The character of Duport's work is not such as to appeal
to modern scholars, but he deserves the credit of having done
much to keep alive the study of classical literature in his day.
The chief authority for the life of Duport is J. H. Monk's " Memoir"
(1825); see also Sandys, Hist. Class. Schol. (1908), ii. 349.
DUPPEL, a village of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Schleswig-Holstein, opposite the town of Sonderburg (on the
island of Alsen). (Pop. 600.) The position of Diippel, forming
as it does a bridge-head for the defenders of the island of Alsen,
played a conspicuous part in the wars between Denmark and
the Germans. On the 28th of May 1848 the German federal
troops were there defeated by the Danes under General Hede-
mann, and a second battle was fought on the 6th of June 1848.
On the I3th of April 1849 an indecisive battle was fought between
the federal troops under von Prittwitz and the Danes under von
Billow. The most important event in the military history of
Duppel was, however, the siege by the Prussians of the Danish
position in 1864. The flanks of the defenders' line rested upon
the Alsen Sund and the sea, and it was strengthened by ten
redoubts. A second line of trenches with lunettes at intervals
was constructed behind the front attacked, and a small reduit
opposite Sonderburg to cover the bridges between Alsen and the
mainland. The Prussian siege corps was commanded by Prince
Frederick Charles (headquarters, Duppel village), and after three
weeks' skirmishing a regular siege was begun, the batteries being
opened on the isth of March. The first parallel was completed
fifteen days later, the front of attack being redoubts II. to VI.,
forming the centre of the Danish entrenchments on the road
Diippel-Sonderburg. The siege was pushed rapidly from the
first parallel and the assault delivered on the i8th of April,
against the redoubts I. to VI., each redoubt being attacked by
a separate column. The whole line was carried after a brief
but severe conflict, and the Prussians had penetrated to and
captured the reduit opposite Sonderburg by 2 P.M. The loss of
the Danes, half of whose forces were not engaged, included 1800
killed and wounded and 3400 prisoners. This operation was
followed by the daring passage of the Alsen Sund, effected by
the Prussians in boats almost under the guns of the Danish
warships, and resulting in the capture of the whole island of
Alsen (June 2oth, 1864). After being still further strengthened
and linked with similar defences at Sonderburg, the Duppel
entrenchments were abandoned in 1881 in favour of landward
fortifications around Kiel.
See R. Neumann, Uber den Angriff der Diippeler Schanzen in der
Zeit vom 15. Mtirz bis 18. April 1864 (Berlin, 1865) ; and Der deutsch-
ddmsche Krieg 1864, published by the Prussian General Staff
(Berlin, 1887).
DU PRAT, ANTOINE (1463-1535), chancellor of France and
cardinal, was born at Issoire on the I7th of January 1463. He
began life as a lawyer, and rose rapidly in the legal hierarchy
owing to the influence of his cousin Antoine Bohier, cardinal
archbishop of Bourges. The first office which he held was that of
lieutenant-general in the bailliage of Montf errand; in 1507 he
became first president of the parlement of Paris. Louise of
Savoy had employed him as her adviser in her affairs, and had
made him tutor to her son. When Francis I. ascended the throne
he made Du Prat chancellor of France, in which capacity he
played an important part in the government. It was he who
negotiated with Leo X. concerning the abolition of the Pragmatic
Sanction and the establishment of a concordat. After the
meeting of the Field of the Cloth of Gold (1520) he was engaged
in unsuccessful negotiations with Wolsey. During the regency
of Louise of Savoy he, together with Florimond Robertet, was
at the head of affairs. He took an active part in the suit brought
by Louise of Savoy against the Constable de Bourbon, and in
1532 completed the work of uniting Brittany to France. After
the death of his wife in 1507 Du Prat had taken orders; he
received the bishoprics of Valence, Die, Meaux and Albi, and
the archbishopric of Sens (1525); in 1527 he became cardinal,
and in 1530 papal legate. He was a determined adversary of
the Reformation. He died on the 9th of July 1535.
See the marquis Du Prat, Vie d' Antoine Du Prat (Paris, 1857).
DUPR6, JULES (1812-1889), French painter, was one of the
chief members of the Barbizon group of romantic landscape
painters. If Corot stands for the lyric and Rousseau for the
epic aspect of the poetry of nature, Dupre is the exponent of her
tragic and dramatic aspects. He was the son of a porcelain
manufacturer, and started his career in his father's works,
whence he went to his uncle's china factory at Sevres. After
studying for some time under Diebold, a painter of clock faces, he
lad to pass through a short period of privation, until he attracted
he attention of a wealthy patron, who came to his studio and
>ought all the studies on the walls at the price demanded by the
artist 20 francs apiece. Dupre exhibited first at the Salon in
31, and three years later was awarded a second-class medal,
n the same year he came to England, where he was deeply
mpressed by the genius of Constable. From him he learnt how
o express movement in nature; and the district of Southampton
and Plymouth, with its wide, unbroken expanses of water, sky
and ground, gave him good opportunities for studying the
empestuous motion of storm-clouds and the movement of foliage
driven by the wind. He received the cross of the Legion of
Honour in 1848. Dupre's colour is sonorous and resonant; the
ubjects for which he showed marked preference are dramatic
690
DUPUIS DUPUY, PIERRE
sunset effects and stormy skies and seas. Late in life he changed
his style and gained appreciably in largeness of handling and
arrived at greater simplicity in his colour harmonies. Among his
chief works are the " Morning " and " Evening " at the Louvre,
and the early " Crossing the Bridge " in the Wallace Collection.
DUPUIS, CHARLES FRANCOIS (1742-1809), French scientific
writer and politician, was born of poor parents at Trye-Chateau,
between Gisors and Chaumont, on the 26th of October 1742.
His father, who was a teacher, instructed him in mathematics and
land-surveying. While he was engaged in measuring a tower by a
geometrical method, the due de la Rochefoucauld met him and was
so taken by the lad's intelligence that he gave him a bursary in the
college of Harcourt. Dupuis made such rapid progress that, at the
age of twenty-four, he was appointed professor of rhetoric at
the college of Lisieux, where he had previously passed as a
licentiate of theology. In his hours of leisure he studied law, and
in 1770 he abandoned the clerical career and became an advocate.
Two university discourses which he delivered in Latin were
printed, and laid the foundation of his h'terary fame. His chief
attention, however, was devoted to mathematics, the object of
his early studies; and for some years he attended the
astronomical lectures of Lalande, with whom he formed an
intimate friendship. In 1778 he constructed a telegraph on the
principle suggested by Guillaume Amontons (q.v.), and employed
it in keeping up a correspondence with his friend Jean Fortin in
the neighbouring village of Bagneux, until the Revolution made
it necessary to destroy his machine to avoid suspicion. About
the same time Dupuis formed his theory as to the origin of the
Greek months. He endeavoured to account for the want of any
resemblance between the groups of stars and the names by which
they are known, by supposing that the zodiac was, for the people
who invented it, a sort of calendar at once astronomical and
rural, and that the figures chosen for the constellations were such
as would naturally suggest the agricultural operations of the
season. It seemed only necessary, therefore, to discover the
clime and the period in which the constellation of Capricorn must
have arisen with the sun on the day of the summer solstice, and
the vernal equinox must have occurred under Libra. It appeared
to Dupuis that this clime was Upper Egypt, and that the perfect
correspondence between the signs and their significations had
existed in that country at a period of between fifteen and sixteen
thousand years before the present time; that it had existed only
there; and that this harmony had been disturbed by the effect of
the precession of the equinoxes. He therefore ascribed the
invention of the signs of the zodiac to the people who then
inhabited Upper Egypt or Ethiopia. This was the basis on which
Dupuis established his mythological system, and endeavoured to
explain fabulous history and the whole system of the theogony
and theology of the ancients. Dupuis published several detached
parts of his system in the Journal des savants for 1777 and 1781.
These he afterwards collected and published, first in Lalande's
Astronomy, and then in a separate volume in 410, 1781, under the
title of Memoire sur I'origine des constellations et sur I 'explication
de la fable par I'astronomie. The theory propounded in this
memoir was refuted by J. S. Bailly in his Hisloire de I'astronomie,
but, at the same time, with a just acknowledgment of the
erudition and ingenuity exhibited by the author.
Condorcet proposed Dupuis to Frederick the Great of Prussia
as a fit person to succeed Thiebault in the professorship of
literature at Berlin; and Dupuis had accepted the invitation,
when the death of the king cancelled the engagement. The chair
of humanity in the College of France having at the same time
become vacant, it was conferred on Dupuis; and in 1788 he
became a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. He now
resigned his professorship at Lisieux, and was appointed by the
administrators of the department of Paris one of the four com-
missioners of public instruction. At the outbreak of the Revolu-
tionary troubles Dupuis sought safety at Evreux; and, having
been chosen a member of the National Convention by the
department of Seine-et-Oise, he distinguished himself by his
moderation. In the third year of the republic he was elected
secretary to the Assembly, and in the fourth he was chosen a
member of the Council of Five Hundred. After Bonaparte's
coup d'etat of the i8th Brumaire he was elected by the depart-
ment of Seine-et-Oise a member of the Legislative Body, of which
he became the president. He was proposed as a candidate for
the senate, but resolved to abandon politics, devoting himself
during the rest of his life to his favourite studies.
In 1795 he published the work by which he is best known, en-
titled Origine de tous les cultes, ou la religion universelle (3 vols.
4to, with an atlas, or 12 vols. i2mo). This work, of which an
edition revised by P. R. Auguis was published in 1822 (loth ed.,
1835-1836), became the subject of much bitter controversy, and
the theory it propounded as to the origin of mythology in Upper
Egypt led to the expedition organized by Napoleon for the ex-
ploration of that country. In 1798 Dupuis published an abridg-
ment of his work in one volume 8vo, which met with no better
success than the original. Another abridgment of the same work,
executed upon a much more methodical plan, was published by
M. de Tracy. The other works of Dupuis consist of two memoirs
on the Pelasgi, inserted in the Memoirs of the Institute; a
memoir " On the Zodiac of Tentyra," published in the Revue
philosophique for May 1806; and a Memoire explicatif du
zodiaque chronologique et mythologique, published the same year,
in one volume 410. He died on the 29th of 'September 1809.
DUPUY, CHARLES ALEXANDRE (1851- ), French
statesman, was born at Le Puy on the 5th of November 1851,
his father being a local official. After being a professor of
philosophy in the provinces, he was appointed a school inspector,
and thus obtained a practical acquaintance with the needs of
French education. In 1885 he was elected to the chamber as an
Opportunist Republican. After acting as " reporter " of the
budget for public instruction, he became minister for the depart-
ment, in M. Ribot's cabinet, in 1892. In April 1893 he formed a
ministry himself, taking as his office that of minister of the
interior, but resigned at the end of November, and on $th
December was elected president of the chamber. . During his first
week of office an anarchist, Vaillant, who had managed to gain
admission to the chamber, threw a bomb at the president, and
M. Dupuy's collected bearing, and his historic words: " Messieurs,
la seance continue," gained him much credit. In May 1894 he
again became premier and minister of the interior; and he was by
President Carnot's side when the latter was stabbed to death at
Lyons in June. He then became a candidate for the presidency,
but was defeated, and his cabinet remained in office till January
1895; it was under it that Captain Dreyfus was arrested and
condemned (23rd of December 1894). The progress of I'affaire
then cast its shadow upon M. Dupuy, along with other French
" ministrables," but in November 1898, after M. Brisson had at
last remitted the case to the judgment of the court of cassation, he
formed a cabinet of Republican concentration. In view of the
apparent likelihood that the judges of the criminal division of the
court of cassation who formed the ordinary tribunal for such an
appeal would decide in favour of Dreyfus, it was thought that
M. Dupuy's new cabinet would be strong enough to reconcile
public opinion to such a result; but, to the surprise of outside
observers, it was no sooner discovered how the judges were
likely to decide than M. Dupuy proposed a law in the chamber
transferring the decision to a full court of all the divisions of the
court of cassation. This arbitrary act, though adopted by the
chamber, was at once construed as a fresh attempt to maintain
the judgment of the first court-martial; but in the interval
President Faure (an anti-Dreyfusard) died, and the accession of
M. Loubet doubtless had some effect in quieting public feeling.
At all 'events, the whole court of cassation decided that there
must be a new court-martial, and M. Dupuy at once resigned
(June 1899). In June 1900 he was elected senator for the
Haute Saone.
DUPUY, PIERRE (1582-1651), French scholar, otherwise
known as PUTEANUS, was born at Agen (Lot-et- Garonne) on the
27th of November 1582. In 1615 he was commissioned by
Mathieu Mole, first president of the parlement of Paris, to draw
up an inventory of the documents which constituted what at
that time was known as the Tresor des chartes. This work
DUPUY DE LOME DUQUESNE
691
occupied eleven years. His MS. inventory is preserved in the
original and in copy in the Bibliotheque Nationale, and transcrip-
tions are in the national archives in Paris, at the record office in
London, and elsewhere. Dupuy's classification is still regarded
with respect, but the inventory has been partially replaced by
the publication of the Layettes du tresor (four volumes, coming
down to 1270; 1863-1902). Dupuy also published, with his
brother Jacques, and their friend Nicolas Rigault, the History
of Aug. de Thou (1620, 1626). The two brothers then bought
from Rigault the post of keeper of the king's library, and drew
up a catalogue of the library (Nos. 9352-9354 and 10366-10367 of
the Latin collection in the Bibliotheque Nationale). In the
course of this work, Dupuy became acquainted with and copied
an enormous mass of unpublished documents, which furnished
him with the material for some excellent works: Traite des
droits et des libertis de I'eglise gallicane, avec les premies (1639),
Histoire de I'ordre militaire des Templiers (1654), Hisloire generale
du sckisme qui a etc dans I'eglise depuis ijySjusqu'd 1428 (1654),
and Histoire du different entre le pape Boniface VIII et le roi
Philippe le Bel (1655). These works, especially the last, are
important contributions to the history of the relations of church
and state in the middle ages. They were written from .the
Gallican standpoint, i.e. in favour of the rights of the crown in
temporal and political matters, and this explains the delay in
their publication until after Dupuy's death. He wrote also
Traite des regences et des majoritts des rois de France (1655) and
Recueil des droits du roi (1658). Dupuy's papers, preserved in
the Bibliotheque Nationale, were inventoried by Leon Dorez
(Catalogue de la collection Dupuy, 1899). See also L. Delisle's
Le Cabinet des manuscrits de la bibliotheque imperiale. Dupuy
died in Paris on the I4th of December 1651.
DUPDY DE LOME, STANISLAS CHARLES HENRI LAURENT
(1816-1885), French naval architect, the son of a retired naval
officer, was bom at Ploemeur, near Lorient, on the isth of
October 1816. He entered the Ecole Polytechnique in 1835,
and in 1842 was sent to England to study and report on iron ship-
building. Acting on his report, which was published in 1844,
the government built their first iron vessels under his supervision.
He planned and built the steam line-of-battle ship " Napoleon "
(1848-1852), and devised the method of altering sailing ships
of the line into steamers, which was afterwards extensively
practised in both France and England. He also showed the
practicability of armouring the sides of a ship, and the frigate
" Gloire " gave a very clear demonstration of his views. It was
the beginning of the great change in the construction of ships of
war which has been going on ever since. In 1857 Dupuy de
L&me was appointed " chef de la direction du materiel," at
Paris; and in 1861, " inspecteur general du materiel de la
marine." In 1866 he was elected a member of the Academy of
Sciences. At the beginning of the Franco-German War he was
appointed a member of the committee of defence, and during
the siege of Paris occupied himself with planning a steer-
able balloon, for carrying out which he was given a credit of
40,000 fr.; but the balloon was not ready till a few days before
the capitulation. The experiments that wereafterwardsmadewith
it did not prove entirely satisfactory. In 1875 he was busy over
a scheme for embarking a railway train at Calais, and exhibited
plans of the improved harbour and models of the " bateaux
porte-trains " to the Academy of Sciences in July. In 1877 he
was elected a senator for life. He received the cross of the
Legion of Honour in 1845, was made a commander in 1858,
and grand officer in December 1863. He died at Paris on the
ist of February 1885.
DUPUYTREN, GUILLAUME, BARON (1777-1835), French
anatomist and surgeon, was born on the 6th of October 1777 at
Pierre Buffiere (Haute Vienne). He studied medicine in Paris
at the newly established Ecole de Medecine, and was appointed
by competition prosector when only eighteen years of age. His
early studies were directed chiefly to morbid anatomy. In 1803
he was appointed assistant-surgeon at the Hotel-Dieu, and in
181 1 professor of operative surgery in succession to R. B. Sabatier
(1732-1811). In 1815 he was appointed to the chair of clinical
surgery, and became head surgeon at the H6tel-Dieu.
Dupuytren's energy and industry were alike remarkable. He
visited the H6tel-Dieu morning and evening, performing at each
time several operations, lectured to vast throngs of students,
gave advice to his outdoor patients, and fulfilled the duties
consequent upon one of the largest practices of modern times.
By his indefatigable activity he amassed a fortune of 300,000,
the bulk of which he bequeathed to his daughter, with the deduc-
tion of considerable sums for the endowment of the anatomical
chair in the Ecole de Medecine, and the establishment of a
benevolent institution for distressed medical men. The most
important of Dupuytren's writings is his Treatise on Artificial
Anus, in which he applied the principles laid down by John
Hunter. In his operations he was remarkable for his skill and
dexterity, and for his great readiness of resource. He died in
Paris on the 8th of February 1835.
DUQUE DE ESTRADA, DIEGO (1589- ?), Spanish memoir
writer, soldier and adventurer, son of Juan Duque de Estrada,
also a soldier of rank, was born at Toledo on the i sth of August
1589. Having been left an orphan when very young, he was
educated by a cousin. While still young he was betrothed to
his cousin's daughter. One night he found an intruder in the
house, a gentleman with whom he was acquainted, and in a fit
of jealousy killed both him and the young lady. The prevailing
code of honour was considered a sufficient justification for Duque
de Estrada's violence, but the law looked upon the act as a vulgar
assassination, and he had to flee. After leading a vagabond life
in the south of Spain, he was arrested at Ecija, was brought to
Toledo, and was there put to the torture with extreme ferocity,
in order to extort a general confession as to his life during the
past months. He had the strength not to yield to pain, and was
finally able to escape from prison, partly by the help of a nun in
a religious house which faced the prison, and partly by the
intervention of friends. He made his way to Naples, where he
entered the service of the duke of Osuna (q.ii.), at that time
viceroy. Duque de Estrada saw a good deal of fighting both
with the Turks and the Venetians; but he is mainly interesting
because he was employed by the viceroy in the conspiracy against
Venice. He was one of the disguised Spanish soldiers who were
sent into the town to destroy the arsenal, and who were warned
in time that the conspiracy had been betrayed, and therefore
escaped. After the fall of his patron, Duque de Estrada resumed
his vagabond life, served under Bethlen Gabor in Transylvania,
and in the Thirty Years' War. In 1633 he entered the order of
San Juan de Dios, and died at some time after 1637 in Sardinia,
where he is known to have taken part in the defence of the island
against an attack by the French. He left a book of memoirs,
entitled Comentarios de el desengenado de si Mismo prueba de
todos estados, y eleccion del Mejor de ellos " The Commentaries
of one who knew his own little worth, the touchtstone of all the
state of man, and the choice of the best." They were written
at different times, and part has been lost. The style is incorrect,
and it would be unsafe to trust them in every detail, but they are
amazingly vivid, and contain a wonderful picture of the moral
and intellectual state of a large part of Spanish society at the
time.
The memoirs have been reprinted by Don Pascual de Gayangos
in the Memorial historico espanol, vol. xii. (Madrid, 1860).
DUQUESNE, ABRAHAM, MARQUIS (1610-1688), French
"haval officer, was born at Dieppe in 1610. Born in a stirring
seaport, the son of a distinguished naval officer, he naturally
adopted the profession of a sailor. He spent his youth in the
merchant service, and obtained his first distinction in naval
warfare by the capture of the island of Lerins from the Spaniards
in May 1637. About the same time his father was killed in an
engagement with the Spaniards, and the news raised his hatred
of the national enemy to the pitch of a personal and bitter
animosity. For the next five years he sought every opportunity
of inflicting defeat and humiliation on the Spanish navy, and
he distinguished himself by his bravery in the engagement at
Guetaria (1638), the expedition to Corunna (1639), and in battles
at Tarragona (1641), Barcelona (1643), and the Cabo de Gata.
692
DUQUESNE DURANCE
The French navy being left unemployed during the minority of
Louis XIV., Duquesne obtained leave to offer his services to the
king of Sweden, who gave him a commission as vice-admiral
in 1643. In this capacity he defeated the Danish fleet near
Gothenburg and thus raised the siege of the city. The Danes
returned to the struggle with increased forces under the command
of King Christian in person, but they were again defeated
their admiral being killed and his ship taken. Peace having
been concluded between Sweden and Denmark in 1645, Duquesne
returned to France. The revolt at Bordeaux, supported as it
was by material aid from Spain, gave him the opportunity of
at once serving his country and gratifying his long-cherished
hatred of the Spaniards. In 1650 he fitted out at his own
expense a squadron with which he blockaded the mouth of the
Gironde, and compelled the city to surrender. For this service
he was promoted in rank, and received a gift of the castle and
isle of Indre, near Nantes. Peace with Spain was concluded
in 1659, and for some years afterwards Duquesne was occupied
in endeavours to suppress piracy in the Mediterranean. On
the revolt of Messina from Spain, he was sent to support the
insurgents, and had to encounter the united fleets of Spain and
Holland under the command of the celebrated Admiral de
Ruyter. After several battles, in which the advantage was
generally on the side of the French, a decisive engagement
took place near Catania, on the 2oth of April 1676, when the
Dutch fleet was totally routed and de Ruyter mortally wounded.
The greater part of the defeated fleet was afterwards burned in
the harbour of Palermo, where it had taken refuge, and the
French thus secured the undisputed command of the Mediter-
ranean. For this important service Duquesne received a letter
of thanks from Louis XIV., together with the title of marquis
and the estate of Bouchet. His last achievements were the bom-
bardment of Algiers (1682-1683), in order to effect the deliver-
ance of the Christian captives, and the bombardment of Genoa
in 1684. He retired from service in 1684, on the ground of age
and ill-health. It is probable also that he foresaw the revocation
of the edict of Nantes, which took place in the following year.
He died in Paris on the 2nd of February 1688.
See Jal, Abraham Duquesne, et la marine de son temps (1873).
DUQUESNE, a borough of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., on the Monongahela river, about 12 m. S.E. of Pittsburg.
Pop. (1900) 9036, of whom 3451 were foreign-born; (1910
census) 15,727. It is served by the Pennsylvania railway.
Its most prominent buildings are the Carnegie free library and
club (opened in 1904 and containing 17,500 volumes in 1908), and
the city hall. A short distance N. of the borough limits Kenny-
wood Park, with a large auditorium and pavilion, is an attractive
resort. By far the most important industry of the borough is
the manufacture of steel. The value of the borough's factory
products increased from $20,333,476 in 1900 to $28,494,303 in
1905, or 40-1%. The municipality owns and operates its
water-works. Duquesne was settled in 1885 and was incor-
porated in 1891.
DURAMEN (a rare Latin word, meaning hardness, from durus,
hard), a botanical term for the inner, harder wood of a tree, the
heart-wood.
DURAN, a Jewish Provencal family of rabbis and scholars,
of whom the following are the most important.
1. PROFIAT DURAN, called also EPHODI. He was in 1391
compelled to profess Christianity, but remained devoted to
Judaism. His chief works were grammatical and philosophical.
In the former realm his most important contribution was the
Ma'aseh 'Ephod (completed in 1403); in the latter, his com-
mentary to the Guide of the Perplexed by Maimonides (q.v.) .
2. SIMON BEN ZEMAII DURAN (1361-1441), rabbi of Algiers.
He was one of the first of the medieval rabbis to be a salaried
official of the synagogue. Before the i4th century the rabbinical
post had been almost invariably honorary, and filled by men
who derived their income from a profession, epecially medicine.
Duran wrote a systematic work on theology, Magen 'Aboth,
but is chiefly famous for his numerous Responsa (known as
Tashbaz) published in three vols. in 1738-1739. These Responsa,
" Answers to questions sent from many lands," give valuable
information as to social and religious conditions in the earlier
part of the isth century. (I. A.)
DURAN, AGUSTfN (1780-1862), Spanish scholar, was born
in 1789 at Madrid, where his father was court physician. He
was sent to the seminary at Vergara, whence he returned learned
in the traditions of Spanish romance. In 1817 he began the study
of philosophy and law at the university of Seville, and in due
course was admitted to the bar at Valladolid. From 1821 to
1823 he held a post in the education department at Madrid,
but in the latter year he was suspended on account of his political
opinions. In 1834 he became secretary of the board for the
censorship of the press, and shortly afterwards obtained a post in
the national library at Madrid. The revolution of 1840 led to
his dismissal; but he was reinstated in 1843, and in 1854 was
appointed chief librarian. Next year, however, he retired to
devote himself to his literary work. In 1828, shortly after his
first discharge from office, he published anonymously his Discurso
sobre el influjo que ha tenido la critica moderna en la decadencia
del teatro antiguo; this treatise greatly influenced the younger
dramatists of the day. He next endeavoured to interest his
fellow-countrymen in their ancient, neglected ballads, and in
the forgotten dramas of the i7th century. Five volumes of a
Romancero general appeared from 1828 to 1832 (republished,
with considerable additions, in 2 vols. 1849-1851), and Talia
espanola (1834), a reprint of old Spanish comedies. Duran's
Romancero general is the fullest collection of the kind and is
therefore unlikely to be superseded, though the texts are inferior
to those edited by Menendez y Pelayo.
DURANCE (anc. Druentia), one of the principal rivers
descending from the French slope of the Alps towards the
Mediterranean. Its total length from its source to its junction
with the Rhone (of which it is one of the principal affluents), a
little below Avignon, is 2175 m. For the greater part of its
course it flows in a south-westerly direction, but near Pertuis
gradually bends N.W. and thenceforth preserves this direction.
It passes through the departments of Hautes-Alpes, of Basses-
Alpes, and between those of Vaucluse and Bouches-du-Rh6ne.
It is commonly said to take its origin in some small lakes a little
south of the summit plateau of the Mont Genevre Pass. But really
this stream is surpassed both in volume and length of course
by two others which it joins beneath Brianfon: the Clairee,
flowing in from the north, through the smiling Nevache glen,
at the head of which, not far from the foot of the Mont Thabor
(10,440 ft.), it rises in some small lakes, on the east side of the
Col des Rochilles; and the Guisane (flowing in from the north-
west and rising near the Col du Lautaret, 6808 ft.). The united
stream soon receives its first affluent, the Cerveyrette (left), and,
after having passed through some fine deep-cut gorges, the
Gyronde (right). It then runs through a stony plain, where it
frequently overflows and causes great damage, this being indeed
the main characteristic of the Durance throughout its course.
At the foot of the fortress of Mont Dauphin it receives (left)
the Guil, which flows through the Queyras valley from near the
foot of Monte Viso. Some way beyond it passes beneath Embrun,
the first important town on its banks. It soon becomes the
boundary for a while between the departments of the Hautes-
Alpes and of the Basses-Alpes, and receives successively the
considerable Ubaye river, flowing from near the foot of Monte
Viso past Barcelonnette (left), and then the small stream of the
Luye (right) , on which, a few miles above, is Gap. It enters the
Basses-Alpes shortly before reaching Sisteron, where it is joined
(right) by the wild torrent of the Buech, flowing from the desolate
region of the Devoluy, and receives the Bleone (left) (on which
Digne, the capital of the department, is situated) and the Asse
(left), before quitting the department of the Basses-Alpes just
as it is reinforced (left) by the Verdon, flowing from the lower
summits of the Maritime Alps past Castellane. After passing
through some narrow gorges near Sisteron the bed of the river
becomes wide, and spreads desolation around, the frequent
overflows being kept within bounds by numerous dykes and
enbankments. These features are especially marked when the
DURAND, A. B. DURANDO
693
river, after leaving the Basses-AIpes, soon bends N.W. and,
always serving as the boundary between the departments of
Vaucluse (N.) and of the Bouches-du- Rhone (S.), passes Cavaillon
before it effects its junction with the Rh&ne. The drainage area
of the Durance is about 5166 sq. m., while the height it descends
is 6550 ft., if reckoned from the lakes on the Mont Genevre, or
7850 ft. if we take those at. the head of the Nevache valley as the
true source of the river. (W. A. B. C.)
DURAND, ASHER BROWN (1796-1886), American painter
and engraver, was born at South Orange, New Jersey, on the
aist of August 1796. He worked with his father, a watch-
maker; was apprenticed in 1812 to an engraver named Peter
Maverick; and his first work, the head of an old beggar after
Waldo, attracted the attention of the artist Trumbull. Durand
established his reputation by his engraving of Trumbull's
" Declaration of Independence." After 1835, however, he de-
voted himself chiefly to portrait painting. He painted several
of the presidents of the United States and many other men of
political and social prominence. In 1840 he visited Europe,
where he studied the work of the old masters; after his return
he devoted himself almost entirely to landscape. He died at South
Orange on the I7th of September 1886. He had been one of
the founders of the National Academy of Design in 1826, and
was its president in 1845-1861. Durand may be called the
father of the Hudson River School. Although there was some-
thing hard and unsympathetic about his landscapes, and un-
necessary details and trivialities were over-prominent, he was
a well-trained craftsman, and his work is marked by sincerity.
DURAND, GUILLAUME (GUILLELMUS DURANDUS), also
known as DURANTI or DURANTIS, from the Italian form of Durandi
filius, as he sometimes signed himself (c. 1230-1296), French
canonist and liturgical writer, and bishop of Mende, was born at
Puimisson, near Beziers, of a noble family of Languedoc. He
studied law at Bologna, especially with Bjernardus of Parma,
and about 1264 was teaching canon law with success at Modena.
Clement IV., his fellow-countryman, called him to the pontifical
court as a chaplain and auditor of the palace, and in 1274 he
accompanied Clement's successor Gregory X. to the council of
Lyons, the constitutions of which he drew up, along with some
other prelates. As spiritual and temporal legate of the patrimony
of St Peter, he received in 1278, in the name of the pope, the
homage of Bologna and of the other cities of Romagna. Martin
IV. made him vicar spiritual in 1281, then governor of Romagna
and of the March of Ancona ( 1 283) . In the midst of the struggles
between Guelfs and Ghibellines, Durandus successfully defended
the papal territories, both by diplomacy and by arms. Honorius
IV. retained him in his offices, and although elected bishop of
Mendein I286,heremainedinltalyuntili29i. In 1295 he refused
the archbishopric of Ravenna, offered him by Boniface VIII.,
but accepted the task of pacifying again his former provinces
of Romagna and the March of Ancona. In 1296 he withdrew
to Rome, where he died on the ist of November.
Durandus' principal work is the Speculum judiciale, which
was drawn up in 1271, and revised in 1286 and 1291. It is a
general explanation of civil, criminal and canonical procedure,
and also includes a survey of the subject of contracts. It is a
remarkable synthesis of Roman and ecclesiastical law, distin-
guished by its clarity, its method, and especially its practical
sense, in a field in which it was pioneer, and its repute was as
great and lasting in the courts as in the schools. It won for
Durandus the name of " The Speculator." It was commented
upon by Giovanni Andrea (in 1346), and by Baldus, and in 1306
Cardinal Beranger drew up an alphabetical table of its contents
(Inventorium). There are many manuscripts of the Speculum,
and several editions, of which the most usual is that of Turin in
1578 in 2 volumes, containing all additions and tables. This
edition was reproduced at Frankfort in 1612 and 1668. The
next important work of Durandus is the Rationale divinorum
officiorum, a liturgical treatise written in Italy before 1286, on
the origin and symbolic sense of the Christian ritual. It presents
a picture of the liturgy of the I3th century in the West, studied
in its various forms, its traditional sources, and its relation to
the church buildings and furniture. With Martene's De antiquis
Ecclesiae rilibus it is the main authority on Western liturgies.
It has run through various editions, from its first publication in
1459 to the last edition at Naples, 1866. The other important
works of Durandus comprise a Repertorium juris canonici
(Breviarium aureum), a collection of citations from canonists on
questions of controversy often published along with the
Speculum; a Commentarius in sacrosanctum Lugdunense con-
cilium (ed. Fano, 1569), of especial value owing to the share of
Durandus in the elaboration of the constitutions of this council
(1274), and inserted by Boniface VIII. in the Sexlus.
A nephew of " The Speculator," also named GUILLAUME
DURAND (d. 1330), and also a canonist, was rector of the uni-
versity of Toulouse and succeeded his uncle as bishop of Mende.
He wrote in 1311, in connexion with the council of Vienne, De
modo celebrandi concilii el corruptelis in Ecclesia reformandis.
It attacks the abuses of the Church with extreme sincerity and
vigour.
On the elder Durand see V. Leclerc in Histoire litteraire de la
France, vol. xx. pp. 411-497 (1842); Schulte, Geschichte der Quellen
des canonischen Rechts (1877); E. Male, LArt religieux au XIII'
siecle en France (1898). On the nephew see B. Haureau, in Journal
des savants (1892), 64.
DURAND, GUILLAUME (d. 1334), French scholastic theo-
logian, known also by the Latin form of his name as DURANDUS
of St Pourcain (de Sancto Porciano), and as Doctor Resolutissimus,
was born at St Pourcain-sur-Sioule in the Bourbonnois. He
entered the Dominican order at Clermont, and in 1313 was
made a doctor in Paris, where he taught till Pope John XXII.
called him to Avignon as master of the sacred palace, i.e. theo-
logical adviser and preacher to the pope. He subsequently
became bishop of Limoux (1317), of Le Puy (1318) and of Meaux
(1326). He composed a commentary on the Sentences of Peter
Lombard, in which, breaking with the realism of St Thomas
Aquinas, he anticipated the terminism of William of Occam,
and gave up the attempt to show that dogmas can be demon-
strated by reason. In the question of the beatific vision, arising
out of opinions promulgated by John XXII. (q.v.), he sided with
Thomas Walleis, Armand de Bellovisu and the doctors of the
faculty of theology in Paris against the pope, and composed his
De statu animarum post separationem a corpore. Mention should
also be made of his De origine jurisdictionum quibus populus
regitur, sine de jurisdictione ecclesiastica et de legibus.
See B. Haureau, Histoire de la philosophic scolastique (2nd ed.,
Paris, 1872); C. Werner, Die Scholastik des spdteren Mittelalters,
vol. ii. (Vienna, 1883) ;-H. S. Denifle, in Archiv f. Litteratur und
Kirchengeschichte, ii. (1886) ; U. Chevalier, Rep. des sources hist,
du moyen dge, s.v. Durand de St Pourcain.
DURANDO, GIACOMO (1807-1894), Italian general and
statesman, was born at Mondovi in Piedmont. He was impli-
cated in the revolutionary movements of 1831 and 1832, after
which he was obliged to take refuge abroad. He served in
the Belgian army, taking part in the war of 183?, and fought in
Portugal in 1833. The following year he entered the service of
Spain, when he fought in various campaigns, and was promoted
colonel in 1838. After a short stay in France he returned to
Italy and identified himself with the Liberal movement; he
became an active journalist, and founded a newspaper called
L' Opinione in 1847. In 1848 he was one of those who asked
King Charles Albert for the constitution. On the outbreak of
the war with Austria he took command of the Lombard volunteers
as major-general, and in the campaign of 1849 he was aide-de-
camp to the king. He was elected member of the first Pied-
montese parliament and was a strenuous supporter of Cavour;
during the Crimean campaign he took General La Marmora's
place as war minister. In 1855 he was nominated senator,
lieutenant-general in 1856, ambassador at Constantinople in
1859, and minister for foreign affairs in the Rattazzi cabinet two
years later. He was president of the senate from 1884 to 1887,
after which year he retired from the army. He died in 1894.
His brother, GIOVANNI DURANDO (1804-1869), was in early life
driven into exile on account of his Liberal opinions. He served
in the armies of Belgium, Portugal and Spain, distinguishing
6 9 4
DURANGO DURANTE
himself in many engagements. Returning to Italy on the out-
break of the revolution of 1848, he was appointed commander
of a division of the pontifical forces, and fought against the
Austrians in Venetia until the fall of Vicenza, when he returned
to Piedmont as major-general. In the campaign of 1849 he com-
manded the first Piedmontese division; he subsequently served
in the Crimea, in the war of 1859, and in that of 1866 as com-
mander of the I. Army Corps. In 1867 he was appointed
president of the supreme military and naval tribunal.
DURANGO, a state of northern Mexico, bounded N. by
Chihuahua, E. and S.E. by Coahuila, S. by Zacatecas and the
territory of Tepic, and W. by Sinaloa. Pop. (1895) 292,549;
(1900)370,294. Area 38,009 sq. m. Durango is a continuation
southward of the high, semi-arid plateau of Chihuahua, with
the Sierra Madre extending along its western side. The Bolson
de Mapimi covers its N.E. angle, and in the S. there are peculiar
volcanic hills, covering about 1000 sq. m. and known as La Brena.
The Bolson de Mapimi, previous to the building of the Mexican
Central railway across it, had been considered an uninhabitable
desert, but irrigation experiments have demonstrated that its
soil is highly fertile and well adapted to the production of cotton
and fruit. The rainfall is very light in the eastern part of the
state, a succession of years sometimes passing without any
precipitation whatever, but in the W. it is sufficient to produce
good pasturage and considerable areas of forest. There are no
rivers of any magnitude in the state. The largest is the Rio
Nazas, which flows eastward into the lakes of the Mapimi depres-
sion, and the Mezquital, which flows S.W. through the sierras
to the Pacific coast. The climate is generally dry and healthful.
Cotton is produced to a limited extent, especially where irriga-
tion is employed, and wheat, Indian corn, tobacco, sugar-cane
and grapes are also grown. In the elevated valleys of the sierras
stock-raising is successful. The principal industry of Durango,
however, is mining, and some of the richest and best known
mines of Mexico are found in the state. Besides silver, which has
been extensively mined since the first arrival of the Spanish
under Francisco de Ibarra (1554-1562), gold, copper, iron,
cinnabar, tin, coal and rubies are found. The famous Cerro del
Mercado, 2 m. from the city of Durango, is a hill composed in
great part of remarkably pure iron ore, and is estimated to contain
300,000,000 tons of that metal. Near it are iron and steel works.
The principal mining districts of Durango include San Dimas
(on the western slope of the main sierra), Guarisamey, Buenavista,
Gavilanes, Guanacevi, Mapimi, El Oro and Inde. In the first-
named is the celebrated Candelaria mine, where the ores (largely
argentite) assay between $70 and $140 a ton, the aggregate
output being estimated as over $100,000,000 before the close
of the i gth century. With the exception of silver, the mineral
resources of the state have been but slightly developed because
of difficult and expensive transportation. The Mexican Central
railway crosses the eastern side of the state, and the Mexican
International crosses N.E. to S.W. through the state capital on
its way to the port of Mazatlan. The history of Durango is
similar to that of Chihuahua, the state originally forming part
of the province of Nueva Viscaya. The capital is Durango, and
among the principal towns are Guanacevi (pop. 6859), El Oro,
Nombre de Dios (the first Spanish settlement in the state),
San Juan de Guadalupe, San Dimas and Villa Lerdo. These
are comparatively small mining towns. Mapimi lies 130 m.
N.N.E. of Durango and gives its name to the great arid depression
situated still farther north.
DURANGO, sometimes called CIUDAD DE VICTORIA, a city of
Mexico, capital of the state of Durango, 574 m. N.W. of the federal
capital, in lat. 24 25' N., long. 105 55' W. Pop. (1900) 31,092.
Durango is served by the Mexican International railway. The
city stands in the picturesque Guadiana valley formed by
easterly spurs of the Sierra Madre, about 6850 ft. above the sea.
It has a mild, healthy climate, and is surrounded by a district
of considerable fertility. Durango is an important mining and
commercial centre, and was for a time one of the most influential
towns of northern Mexico. It is the seat of a bishop, and has
a handsome cathedral, ten parish churches, a national institute
or college, an episcopal seminary, government buildings, a public
library, hospital, penitentiary and bull-ring. The city is provided
with urban and suburban tramways, electric light, telephone
service and an abundant water-supply, and there are thermal
springs in its vicinity. Its manufacturing establishments include
reduction works, cotton and woollen mills, glass works, iron
foundries, tanneries, flour mills, sugar refineries and tobacco
factories. Durango was founded in 1563 by Alonso Pacheco
under the direction of Governor Francisco de Ibarra, who named
it after a city of his native province in Spain. It was known,
however, as Guadiana for a century thereafter, and its first
bishops were given that title. It was the capital of Ibarra's
new province of Nueva Viscaya, which included Durango and
Chihuahua, and continued as such down to their separation in
1823.
DURANI, or DURRANI, the dominant race of Afghans, to
which the ruling family at Kabul belongs. The Duranis number
100,000 fighting men, and have two branches, the Zirak and the
Panjpai. To the former section belong the Popalzai, Alikozai,
Barakzai and Achakzai; and to the latter the Nurzai, Alizai,
Isakzai, Khokani and Maku tribes. The Saddozai clan of the
Popalzai Duranis furnished the first independent shahs of the
Durani dynasty (A.D. 1747), the Barakzais furnishing the amirs.
The line of the shahs was overthrown in the third generation
(A.D. 1834), after a protracted period of anarchy and dissension,
which broke out on the death in A.D. 1773 of Ahmad Shah
Durani, the founder of Afghan national independence.
Bar Durani is a name sometimes applied to the independent
Pathan tribes who inhabit the hill districts south of the Hindu
Kush, parts of the Indus valley, the Salt Range, and the range
of Suliman, which were first conceded to them by Ahmad Shah.
Bar Durani includes the Yusafzai, Utman Khel, Tarkanis,
Mohmands, Afridis, Orakzais and Shinwaris, as well as the
Pathan tribes of the plains of Peshawar and those of Bangash
and Khattak, although the derivation of some of these tribes
from the true Durani stock is doubtful.
DURANTE, FRANCESCO (1684-1755), Italian composer, was
born at Frattamaggiore, in the kingdom of Naples, on the i5th of
March 1684. At an early age he entered the Conservatorio dei
poveri di Gesu Cristo, at Naples, where he received lessons from
Gaetano Greco; later he became a pupil of Alessandro Scarlatti
at the Conservatorio di Sant' Onofrio. He is also supposed to
have studied under Pasquini and Pitoni in Rome, but no docu-
mentary proof of this statement can be given. He is said to have
succeeded Scarlatti in 1725 at Sant' Onofrio, and to have re-
mained there until 1742, when he succeeded Porpora as head of
the Conservatorio di Santa Maria di Loreto, also at Naples. This
post he held for thirteen years, till his death on the i3th of
August 1755 at Naples. He was married three times. His
fame as a teacher was all but unrivalled, and Jommelli, Paesiello,
Pergolesi, Piccini and Vinci were amongst his pupils. A com-
plete collection of Durante's works, consisting all but exclusively
of sacred compositions, was presented by Selvaggi, a Neapolitan
lover of art, to the Paris library. A catalogue of it may be found
in Fetis's Biographic universelle. The imperial library of Vienna
also preserves a valuable collection of Durante's manuscripts.
Two requiems, several masses (one of which, a most original
work, is the Pastoral Mass for four voices) and the Lamentations
of the prophet Jeremiah are amongst his most important settings.
The fact that Durante never composed for the stage brought him
a somewhat exaggerated reputation as a composer of sacred
music. Although certainly one of the best church composers of
his style and period, he is far inferior to Leo, and seems to have
been the founder of the sentimental school of Italian church
music. Leo and Scarlatti at their best have a solidity and
dignity entirely wanting in Durante, and Alessandro Scarlatti at
his worst is frivolous rather than sentimental. This type of
music is characteristic of Durante as a man; intellectually
uncultured, but sincerely devout. As a teacher he insisted on the
strict observance of rules for which he either would not or could
not give a reason, differing thus from Alessandro Scarlatti,
whose first care was to develop his pupils' talents according to
DURAO D'URBAN
695
their own individualities, regarding all rules as subservient to
his exquisite sense of musical beauty. Hasse rightly protested
against Durante's being described as the greatest harmonist
of Italy, a title which could be claimed only by Alessandro
Scarlatti. (E. J. D.)
DURAO, JOSfi DE SANTA RITA (1720-1784), Brazilian poet,
was born near Marianna, in the province of Minas Geraes, in 1 7 20,
and died in Lisbon in 1784. He studied at Coimbra, in Portugal,
graduated as a doctor of divinity, became a member of the
Augustinian order of friars, and obtained a great reputation as a
preacher. Having irritated the minister Pombal by his defence of
the Jesuits, he retired from Portugal in 1759; and, after being
imprisoned in Spain as a spy, found his way to Italy in 1763,
where he became acquainted with Alfieri, Pindemonte, Casti
and other literary men of the time. On his return to Portugal he
delivered the opening address at the university of Coimbra for the
year 1777; but soon after retired to the cloisters of a Gratian
convent. At the time of his death he taught in the little college
belonging to that order in Lisbon. His epic in ten cantos, entitled
Caramuru, poema epico do descubrimento da Bahia, appeared in
Lisbon in 1781, but proved at first a total failure. Its value has
gradually been recognized, and it now ranks as one of the best
poems in Brazilian literature remarkable especially for its fine
descriptions of scenery and native life in South America. The
historic institute of Rio de Janeiro offered a prize to the author of
the best essay on the legend of Caramuru; and the successful
competitor published a new edition of Durao's poem. There is a
French translation which appeared in Paris in 1829.
See Adolfo de Varnhagen, Epicos Brazileiros (1845) ; Pereira da
Silva, Os Varoes illustres do Brazil (1858) ; Wolf, Le Bresil litteraire
(Berlin, 1863); Sotero dos Reis, Curso de lilteratura Portugueza e
Brazileira, vol. iy. (Maranhao, 1868); Jose Verissimo, Estudos de
literatura Brazileira, segunda, serie (Rio, 1901).
DURAZZO (anc. Epidamnus and Dyrrachium; Albanian,
Durresi; Turkish and Slavonic, Drach), a seaport and capital of
the sanjak of Durazzo, in the vilayet of lannina, Albania, Turkey.
Pop. (1900) about 5000. Durazzo is about 50 m. S. of Scutari, on
the Bay of Durazzo, an inlet of the Adriatic Sea. It is the seat of
a Roman Catholic archbishop and a Greek metropolitan, but in
every respect has greatly declined from its former prosperity.
The walls are dilapidated; plane-trees grow on the gigantic
ruins of its old Byzantine citadel; and its harbour, once equally
commodious and safe, is gradually becoming silted up. The
only features worthy of notice are the quay, with its rows of
cannon, and the bridge, 750 ft. long, which leads across the
marshes stretching along the coast. The chief exports are olive
oil largely manufactured in the district wheat, oats, barley,
pottery and skins.
Epidamnus was founded by a joint colony of Corcyreans
and Corinthians towards the close of the 7th century B.C., and
from its admirable position and the fertility of the surrounding
country soon rose into very considerable importance. The
dissolution of its original oligarchical government by the demo-
cratic opposition, the consequent quarrel between Corcyra and
the oligarchical city of Corinth, and the intervention of Athens
on behalf of Corcyra, are usually included among the contribu-
tory causes of the Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.). In 312
B.C., Epidamnus was seized by the Illyrian king Glaucias, and
shortly afterwards it passed into the power of the Romans.
As the name Epidamnus sounded to Roman ears like an evil
omen, as though it were derived from the La tin damnum, " loss "
or " harm," the alternative name of Dyrrachium, which the
city possibly received from the rugged nature of the adjoining
sea-coast, came into general use. Thenceforward Epidamnus
rose rapidly in importance. It was a favourite point of debarca-
tion for the Roman armies; the great military road known as
the Via Egnalia led from Dyrrachium to Thessalonica (Salonica) ;
and another highway passed southwards to Buthrotum and
Ambracia. Broad swamps rendered the city almost impregnable,
and in 48 B.C. it became famous as the place where Pompey
made his last successful resistance to Caesar. After the battle
of Actium in 31 B.C., Augustus made over Dyrrachium to a
colony of his veterans; it became a civilas libera and a great
commercial emporium (for coins see Maier, Numis. Zeitschr.,igo8).
The summit of its prosperity was reached about the end of the
4th century, when it was made the capital of Epirus Nova. Its
bishopric, created about A.D. 58, was raised to an archbishopric
in 449. In 481 the city was besieged by Theodoric, the king
of the East Goths; and in the loth and nth centuries it fre-
quently had to defend itself against the Bulgarians. In 1082
it was stormed by the Norman Robert Guiscard, who in the
previous year had defeated the Greeks under their emperor
Alexius; and in 1185 it fell into the hands of King William
of Sicily. Surrendered to Venice in 1202, it afterwards broke
loose from the republic and in 1268 passed into the possession
of Charles of Anjou. In 1273 it was laid in ruins by an earth-
quake, but it soon recovered from the disaster, and became an
independent duchy under John, the grandson of Charles (1294-
1304), and afterwards under Philip of Otranto. In 1333 it was
annexed to Achaea, in 1336 to Servia, and in 1394 to Venice.
The Turks obtained possession in 1501.
D'URBAN, SIR BENJAMIN (1777-1849), British general
and colonial administrator, was born in 1777, and entered
the British army in 1793. Promoted h'eutenant and captain in
1794 he took part in that year in operations in Holland and
Westphalia. In 1795 he served under Sir Ralph Abercromby
in San Domingo. He went on half -pay in 1800, joining the Royal
Military College, where he remained until 1805, when he w.ent
to Hanover with the force under Lord Cathcart. Returning
to England he filled various staff offices, and in November
1807 went to Dublin as assistant-quartermaster-general, being
transferred successively to Limerick and the Curragh. He joined
the army in the Peninsula in 1808, and his marked abilities
as a staff officer led to his selection by General (afterwards
Viscount) Beresford as quartermaster-general in the reorganiza-
tion of the Portuguese army. He served throughout the Penin-
sular War without once going on leave and took part in nine
pitched battles and sieges, Busaco, Albuera, Badajoz, Salamanca,
Vittoria, the Pyrenees, the Nivelle, the Nive and Toulouse.
He was promoted major-general in the Portuguese army and
colonel in the British army in 1813, and made a K.C.B. in
1815. He remained in Portugal until 1816, when he was sum-
moned home to take up the posts of colonel of the royal staff
corps and deputy quartermaster-general at the Horse Guards.
In 1819 he became major-general and in 1837 lieutenant-general.
From 1829 he was colonel of the sist Foot.
Sir Benjamin began his career as colonial administrator in
1820 when he was made governor of Antigua. In 1824 he was
transferred to Demerara and Essequibo, then in a disturbed
condition owing to a rising among the slaves consequent on
the emancipation movement in Great Britain. D'Urban's rule
proved successful, and in 1831 he carried out the amalgamation
of Berbice with the other counties, the whole forming the colony
of British Guiana, of which D'Urban was first governor. The
ability with which he had for nine years governed a community
of which the white element was largely of Dutch origin led to his
appointment as governor of Cape Colony. He assumed office
in January 1834, and the four years during which he held that
post were of great importance in the history of South Africa.
They witnessed the abolition of slavery, the establishment of a
legislative council and municipal councils in Cape Colony, the
first great Kaffir war and the beginning of the Great Trek.
The firmness and justice of his administration won the cordial
support of the British and Dutch colonists. The greater part of
1835 was occupied in repelling an unprovoked invasion of the
eastern borders of the colony by Xosa Kaffirs. To protect the
inhabitants of the eastern province Sir Benjamin extended the
boundary of the colony to the Kei river and erected military
posts in the district, allowing the Xosa to remain under British
supervision. Since his appointment to the Cape there had been
a change of ministry in England, and Lord Glenelg had become
secretary for the Colonies in the second Melbourne administration.
Prejudiced against any extension of British authority and
lending a ready ear to a small but influential party in South
6 9 6
DURBAN
Africa, Glenelg adopted the view that the Kaffirs had been the
victims of systematic injustice. In a momentous despatch
dated the 26th of December 1835 he set forth his views and
instructed Sir Benjamin D'Urban to give up the newly annexed
territory. At the same time Sir Andries Stockenstrom, Bart.
(1792-1864), was appointed lieutenant-governor for the eastern
provinces of the colony to carry out the policy of the home
government, in which the Kaffir chiefs were treated as being
on terms of full equality with Europeans. D'Urban in vain
warned Glenelg of the disastrous consequences of his decision,
the beginning of the long course of vacillation which wrought
great harm to South Africa. One result of the new policy was
to recreate a state of insecurity, bordering on anarchy, in the
eastern province, and this condition was one of the causes of the
Great Trek of the Dutch farmers which began in 1836. In
various despatches D'Urban justified his position, characterizing
the Trek as due to " insecurity of life and property occasioned
by the recent measures, inadequate compensation for the loss
of the slaves, and despair of obtaining recompense for the
ruinous losses by the Kaffir invasion." (See further SOUTH
AFRICA: History, and CAPE COLONY: History.) But Glenelg
was not to be convinced by any argument, however cogent,
and in a despatch dated the ist of May 1837 he informed Sir
Benjamin that he had been relieved of office. D'Urban, however,
remained governor until the arrival of his successor, Sir George
Napier, in January 1838.
During his governorship Sir Benjamin endeavoured to help
the British settlers at Port Natal, who in 1835 named their
town D'Urban (now written Durban) in his honour, but his
suggestion that the district should be occupied as a British
possession was vetoed by Lord Glenelg. Though no longer
in office D'Urban remained in South Africa until April 1846.
In 1840 he was made a G.C.B., and in 1842 declined a high
military appointment in India offered him by Sir Robert Peel.
In January 1847 he took up the command of the troops in
Canada, and was still in command at the time of his death at
Montreal on the 25th of May 1849.
DURBAN, the principal seaport and largest city of Natal,
South Africa, the harbour being known as Port Natal, in 29 52'
48" S. 31 42' 49" E. It is 6810 m. from London via Madeira
and 7785 via Suez, 823 m. by water E.N.E. from Cape Town and
483 m. by rail S.S.E. of Johannesburg. Pop. (1904) 67,842,
of whom 31,302 were whites, 15,631 Asiatics (chiefly British
Indians), 18,929 natives and 1980 of mixed race. From its
situation and the character of its buildings Durban is one of the
finest cities in South Africa. The climate is generally hot and
humid, but not unhealthy. Although nearly half the citizens
are British, the large number of Indians engaged in every kind
of work gives to Durban an oriental aspect possessed by no other
town in South Africa. The town is built on the E. side of a bay
(Durban Bay or Bay of Natal), the entrance to which is marked
.on the west by a bold cliff, the Bluff, whose summit is 195 ft.
above the sea, and on the east by a low sandy spit called the
Point. The city extends from the Point along the side of the
bay and also for some distance along the coast of the Indian
Ocean, and stretches inland to a range of low hills called the
Berea.
The chief streets, Smith, West and Pine, are in the lower
town, parallel to one another and to the bay. They contain the
principal public buildings, warehouses and shops, the Berea
being a residential quarter. Of the three streets mentioned, West
Street, the central thoroughfare, is the busiest. In its centre
are the public gardens, in which is a handsome block of buildings
in the Renaissance style, built in 1906-1908 at a cost of over
300,000, containing the town hall, municipal offices, public
library, museum and art gallery. The art gallery holds many
pictures of the modern British school. Opposite the municipal
buildings are the post and telegraph offices, a fine edifice (built
1881-1885) with a clock tower 164 ft. high. The post office
formerly served as town hall. In Pine Street is the Central
railway station and the spacious Market House. Among the
churches St Cyprian's (Anglican), in Smith Street, has a hand-
some chancel. The Roman Catholic cathedral is a fine building
in the Gothic style. The town possesses several parks, one, the
Victoria Park, facing the Indian Ocean. This part of the town
is laid out with pleasure grounds and esplanades. The botanic
gardens, in the upper town, contain a very fine collection of
flowering shrubs and semi-tropical trees. Above the gardens is
the observatory. There is a fine statue of Queen Victoria by
Hamo Thornycroft, R.A., in the public gardens, and a memorial
to Vasco da Gama at the Point. There is an extensive system
of electric trams. Another favourite means of conveyance is
by rickshaw, the runners being Zulus. The town is governed
by a municipality which owns the water and electric lighting
supplies and the tramway system. The sanitary services are
excellent. The main water-supply is the Umlaas river, which
enters the ocean 10 m. S. of the port. The municipal valuation,
which is based on capital value, was 9,494,400 in 1909, the
rate, including water, being 2jd. in the .
The entrance to the harbour was obstructed by a formidable
sand bar, but as the result of dredging operations there is now
a minimum depth of water at the opening of the channel into
the bay of over 30 ft., with a maximum depth of over 33 ft.
The width of the passage between the Bluff and the Point is
450 ft. From the foot of the Bluff a breakwater extends over
2000 ft. into the sea, and parallel to it, starting from the Point,
is a pier. The harbour is landlocked, and covers 75 sq. m.
Much of this area is shoal water, but the accommodation avail-
able was largely increased by the removal during 1904-1908 of
24,000,000 tons of sand. The port has over 3 m. of wharfage.
It possesses a floating dock capable of lifting a vessel of 8500
tons, a floating workshop, a patent slip for small craft, hydraulic
cranes, &c. The minimum depth alongside the quays at low
water is 23 ft., increased at places to over 30 ft. The principal
wharves, where passengers, mails and general merchandise are
landed, are along the Point. On the opposite side at the foot of
the Bluff land has been reclaimed and extensive accommodation
provided for ships coaling. At Congella at the N.E. end of the
harbour some 65 acres of land were reclaimed during 1905-1906,
and wharves built for the handling of heavy and bulky goods
such as timber and corrugated iron. Here also are situated
warehouses and railway works. The port is defended by batteries
armed with modern heavy guns. The trade of the port is almost
coextensive with the foreign trade of Natal.
History. The early history of Durban is closely identified
with that of the colony of Natal. The first permanent settlement
by white men in the bay was made by Englishmen in 1824, when
Lieutenant F. G. Farewell, R. N., and about ten companions
went thither from Cape Town in the brig " Salisbury," from which
circumstance the island in the bay gets its name. In 1835 a town-
ship was laid out and the colonists gave it the name of D'Urban,
in honour of Sir Benjamin D'Urban, then governor of Cape
Colony. At this time a mission church was built on the heights
overlooking the bay by Captain Allen Gardner, R.N., who named
the hill Berea in gratitude for support received from the settlers,
whom he found "jmore noble than those of " Zululand Dingaan
having refused to allow the captain to start a mission among his
people. From December 1838 to December 1839 a small British
military force was stationed at the port. On its recall the little
settlement was taken possession of by Dutch emigrants from the
Cape, who had defeated the Zulu king Dingaan, and who the year
before at the upper end of the bay had formed an encampment,
Kangela (look-out), the present Congella. The Dutch claimed
independence, and on the block-house at Durban hoisted the
flag of the " Republic of Natalia." In 1842, however, a British
military force reoccupied Durban, and on the isth of July of
that year a treaty was signed in which the Dutch recognized
British sovereignty (see further NATAL: History). From that
date Durban, though not the seat of government, became the
principal town in Natal. In 1850 there were 500 white in-
habitants, and in 1853 the town was granted municipal govern-
ment. The first mayor was Mr George Cato (c. 1810-1893), one
of the earliest settlers in Natal. In 1 860 a railway from the Point
to the town, the first railway in South Africa, was opened. The
DURBAR DURER
697
discovery of the gold-mines on the Rand greatly increased the
importance of the port, and renewed efforts were made to remove
the bar which obstructed the entrance to the bay. The Harbour
Board, which was formed in 1881 and ceased to exist in 1893,
effected, under the guidance of Mr Harry Escombe, enormous
improvements in the port on which the prosperity of Durban
is dependent. But it was not until 1904 that the fairway was
deepened sufficiently to allow mail steamers of the largest class
to enter the harbour. The growth of the port as illustrated by
customs receipts is shown in the increase from 250,000 in 1880
to 981,000 in 1904. In 1846 the customs revenue was returned
at 351-
See Durban: Fifty Years' Municipal History, compiled for the
corporation by W. P. M. Henderson, Asst. Town Clerk (Durban,
1904) ; G. Russell, History of Old Durban [to 1860] (Durban, 1899).
DURBAR, a term in India for a court or levee, from the Persian
darbar. A durbar may be either a council for administering
affairs of state, or a purely ceremonial gathering. In the former
sense the native rulers of India in the past, like the amir of
Afghanistan to-day, received visitors and conducted business in
durbar. A durbar is the executive council of a native state. In the
latter sense the word has come to be applied to great cere-
monial gatherings like Lord Lytton's durbar for the proclamation
of the queen empress in India in 187^, or the Delhi durbar of 1903.
DUREN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province,
on the right bank of the Roer, 19 m. E. from Aix-la-Chapelle on
the main line of railway to Cologne. Pop. (1905) 29,270. It has
two Protestant and six Roman Catholic churches, among the
latter the Gothic St Annakirche, said to contain a portion of the
head of the saint, to the shrine of which frequent pilgrimages are
made. There are several high-grade schools, monuments to the
emperor William I., Bismarck and Moltke, and, in the town-hall,
a collection of antiquities. It is the seat of considerable manu-
factures, notably cloth, paper, flax-spinning, carpet, artificial
wool, sugar, iron wares and needles.
Duren derives its name, not, as was at one time believed, from
the Marcodurumoi theUbii, mentioned in Tacitus, but from the
Dura or Duria, assemblies held by the Carolingians in the 8th
century. It received civic rights early in the i3th century.
Hypothecated by the emperor Frederick II. to Count William of
Jiilich, it became incorporated with the duchy of that name, and
with it passed to Prussia in 1816.
DURENE (I-2-4-S tetramethyl benzene) C 6 H 2 (CH3) 4 , a hydro-
carbon which has been recognized as a constituent of coal-tar.
It may be prepared by the action of methyl iodide on brom-
pseudocumene or 4-6 dibrom metaxylene, in the presence of
sodium; or by the action of methyl chloride on toluene, in the
presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride. It crystallizes in
plates, having a camphor-like smell, melting at 79-80 C. and
boiling at 189-191 C. It is easily soluble in alcohol, ether and
benzene, and sublimes slowly at ordinary temperature. On
oxidation with chromic acid mixture, it is completely decomposed
into carbon dioxide and acetic acid; nitric acid oxidizes it to
durylic and cumidic acids [C 6 H2-(CH 3 )2-(COOH) 2 ].
DURER, ALBRECHT (1471-1528), German painter, draughts-
man and engraver, was born at Nuremberg on the 2ist of May
1471. His family was not of Nuremberg descent, but came from
the village of Eytas in Hungary. The name, however, is German,
and the family device an open door points to an original
form Thiirer, meaning a maker of doors or carpenter. Albrecht
Diirer the elder was a goldsmith by trade, and settled soon
after the middle of the i sth century in Nuremberg. He served
as assistant under a master-goldsmith of the city, Hieronymus
Helper, and in 1468 married his master's daughter Barbara, the
bridegroom being forty and the bride fifteen years of age. They
had eighteen children, of whom Albrecht was the second. The
elder Diirer was an esteemed craftsman and pious citizen,
sometimes, as was natural, straitened in means by the pressure of
his numerous progeny. His famous son writes with reverence and
affection of both parents, and has left a touching narrative of
their death-bed hours. He painted the portrait of his father
twice, first in 1490, next in 1497. The former of these is in the
Uffizi at Florence; of the latter, four versions exist, that in the
National Gallery (formerly in the Ashburton-Northampton
collections) having the best claim to originality.
The young Albrecht was his father's favourite son. " My
father," he writes, " took special delight in me. Seeing that I
was industrious in working and learning, he put me to school;
and when I had learned to read and write, he took me home from
school and taught me the goldsmith's trade." By and by the boy
found himself drawn by. preference from goldsmith's work to
painting; his father, after some hesitation on the score of the
time already spent in learning the former trade, gave way and
apprenticed him for three years, at the age of fifteen and a half, to
the principal painter of the town, Michael Wolgemut. Wolgemut
furnishes a complete type of the German painter of that age.
At the head of a large shop with many assistants, his business was
to turn out, generally for a small price, devotional pieces com-
missioned by mercantile corporations or private persons to
decorate their chapels in the churches the preference being
usually for scenes of the Passion, or for tortures and martyrdoms
of the saints. In such work the painters of Upper Germany at
this time, working in the spirit of the late Gothic style just
before the dawn of the Renaissance, show considerable technical
attainments, with a love of quaint costumes and rich draperies
crumpled in complicated angular folds, some feeling for romance
in landscape backgrounds, none at all for clearness or balance in
composition, and in the attitudes and expressions of their over-
crowded figures a degree of grotesqueness and exaggeration
amounting often to undesigned caricature. There were also
produced in the workshop of Wolgemut, as in that of other artist-
craftsmen of his town, a great number of woodcuts for book
illustration. We cannot with certainty identify any of these as
being by the 'prentice hand of the young Diirer. Authentic
drawings done by him in boyhood, however, exist, including one
in silver-point of his own likeness at the age of thirteen in the
Albertina at Vienna, and others of two or three years later in the
print room at Berlin, at the British Museum and at Bremen.
In the school of Wolgemut Diirer learned much, by his own
account, but suffered not a little from the roughness of his
companions. At the end of his apprenticeship in 1490 he entered
upon the usual course of travels the Wanderjahre of a German
youth . Their direction we cannot retrace with certainty. There
had been no one at Nuremberg skilled enough in the art of
metal-engraving to teach it him to much purpose, and it had at
one time been his father's intention to apprentice him to Martin
Schongauer of Colmar, the most refined and accomplished
German painter-engraver of his time. But after travelling two
years in various parts of Germany, where we are unable to follow
him, the young Diirer arrived at Colmar in 1492, only to find
that Schongauer had died the previous year. He was received
kindly by three brothers of the deceased master established there,
and afterwards, still in 1492, by a fourth brother at Basel.
Under them he evidently had some practice both in metal-
engraving and in furnishing designs for the woodcutter. There
is in the museum at Basel a wood-block of St Jerome executed by
him and elaborately signed on the back with his name. This was
used in an edition of Jerome's letters printed in the same city in
the same year, 1492. Some critics also maintain that his hand is
to be recognized in several series of small blocks done about the
same date or somewhat later for Bergmann and other printers of
Basel, some of them being illustrations to Terence (which were
never printed) , some to the romance of the Ritter vom Turm, and
some to the Narrenschiffot Sebastian Brandt. But the prevailing
opinion is against this conjecture, and sees in these designs the
work not of a strenuous student and searcher such as Diirer was,
but of a riper and more facile hand working in a spirit of settled
routine. Whether the young Diirer's stay at Basel was long or
short, or whether, as has been supposed, he travelled from there
into the Low Countries, it is certain that in the early part of 1494
he was working at Strassburg, and returned to his home at
Nuremberg immediately after Whitsuntide in that year. Of
works certainly executed by him during his years of travel there
are extant, besides the Basel wood-block, only a much-injured
6 9 8
DURER
portrait of himself, very finely dressed and in the first bloom of his
admirable manly beauty, dated 1493 and originally painted on
vellum but since transferred to canvas (this is the portrait of the
Felix Goldschmid collection); a miniature painting on vellum
at Vienna (a small figure of the Child-Christ); and some half a
dozen drawings, of which the most important are the character-
istic pen portrait of himself at Erlangen, with a Holy Family on
the reverse much in the manner of Schongauer; another Holy
Family in nearly the same style at Berlin; a study from the
female nude in the Bonnat collection; a man and woman on
horseback in Berlin; a man on horseback, and an executioner
about to behead a young man, at the British Museum, &c.
These drawings all show Dtirer intent above all things on the
sternly accurate delineation of ungeneralized individual forms by
means of strongly accented outline and shadings curved, some-
what like the shadings of Martin Schongauer's engravings, so as
to follow their modellings and roundness.
Within a few weeks of his return (July 7th, 1494) Durer was
married, according to an arrangement apparently made between
the parents during his absence, to Agnes Frey, the daughter of
a well-to-do merchant of the city. By the autumn of the same
year, probably feeling the incompleteness of the artistic training
that could be obtained north of the Alps, he must have taken
advantage of some opportunity, we know not what, to make
an excursion of some months to Italy, leaving his lately married
wife at Nuremberg. The evidences of this travel (which are
really incontestable, though a small minority of critics still
decline to admit them) consist of (i) some fine drawings, three
of them dated 1494 and others undated, but plainly of the same
time, in which Durer has copied, or rather boldly translated
into his own Gothic and German style, two famous engravings by
Mantegna, a number of the "Tarocchi " prints of single figures
which pass erroneously under that master's name, and one by
yet another minor master of the North-Italian school; with
another drawing dated 1495 and plainly copied from a lost
original by Antonio Pollaiuolo, and yet another of an infant
Christ copied in 1495 from Lorenzo di Credi, from whom also
Durer took a motive for the composition of one of his earliest
Madonnas; (2) several landscape drawings done in the passes
of Tirol and the Trentino, which technically will not fit in with
any other period of his work, and furnish a clear record of his
having crossed the Alps about this date; (3) two or three
drawings of the costumes of Venetian courtesans, which he
could not have made anywhere but in Venice itself, and one of
which is used in his great woodcut Apocalypse series of 1498;
(4) a general preoccupation which he shows for some years
from this date with the problems of the female nude, treated
in a manner for which Italy only could have set him the
example; and (5) the clear implication contained in a letter
written from Venice in 1506 that he had been there already
eleven years before; when things, he says, pleased him much
which at the time of writing please him no more. Some time
in 1495 Diirer must have returned from this first Italian journey
to his home in Nuremberg, where he seems to have lived, without
further change or removal, in the active practice of his art for
the next ten years.
The hour when Diirer, the typical artist of the German nation,
attained maturity was one of the most pregnant in the history
of his race. It was the crisis, in northern Europe, of the transi-
tion between the middle ages and our own. The awakening
of Germany at the Renaissance was not, like the awakening of
Italy a generation or two earlier, a movement almost exclusively
intellectual. It was indeed from Italy that the races of the north
caught the impulse of intellectual freedom, the spirit of science
and curiosity, the eager retrospect towards the classic past;
but joined with these in Germany was a moral impulse which
was her own, a craving after truth and right, a rebellion against
spiritual tyranny and corruption the Renaissance was big in
the north, as it was not in the south, with a Reformation to come.
The art of printing had been invented in good time to help
and hasten the new movement of men's minds. Nor was it by
the diffusion of written ideas only that the new art supplied
the means of popular enlightenment. Along with word-printing,
or indeed in advance of it, there had sprung into use another
kind of printing, picture-printing, or what is commonly called
engraving. Just as books were the means of multiplying,
cheapening and disseminating ideas, so engravings on copper
or wood were the means of multiplying, cheapening and dis-
seminating images which gave vividness to the ideas, or served,
for those ignorant of letters, in their stead. Technically one
of these arts, that of line-engraving on copper, sprang from the
craft of the goldsmith and metal-chaser; while that of wood-
engraving sprang from the craft of the printers of pattern-blocks
and playing cards. The engraver on metal habitually cut his
own designs, and between the arts of the goldsmith and the
painter there had always been a close alliance, both being
habitually exercised by persons of the same family and some-
times by one and the same person; so that there was no lack
of hands ready-trained for the new craft which required of the
man who practised it that he should design like a painter and
cut metal like a goldsmith. Designs intended to be cut on
wood, on the other hand, were usually drawn by the artist on
the block and handed over for cutting to a class of workmen
Formschneideroi Brief maler especially devoted to that industry.
Both kinds of engraving soon came to be in great demand.
Independently of the illustration of written or printed books,
for which purpose woodcuts were almost exclusively used,
separate engravings or sets of engravings in both kinds were
produced, the more finely wrought and more expensive, appealing
especially to the more educated classes, on copper, the bolder,
simpler and cheaper on wood; and both kinds found a ready
sale at all the markets, fairs and church festivals of the land.
Subjects of popular devotion predominated. Figures of the
Virgin and Child, of the apostles and evangelists, the fathers
of the Church, the saints and martyrs, with illustrations of sacred
histoiy and the Apocalypse, were supplied in endless repetition
to satisfy the cravings of a pious and simple-minded people.
But to these were quickly added subjects of allegory, of classical
learning, of witchcraft and superstition and of daily life;
scenes of the parlour and the cloister, of the shop, the field, the
market and the camp; and lastly portraits of famous men,
with scenes of court life and princely pageant and ceremony.
Thus the new art became a mirror of almost all the life and
thoughts of the age. The genius of Albrecht Diirer cannot be
rightly estimated without taking into account the position
which the arts of engraving on metal and on wood thus held in
the culture of this time. He was indeed professionally and in
the first place a painter; but throughout his career a great, and
on the whole the most successful, part of his industry was devoted
to drawing on the block for the woodcutter or engraving with
his own hand on copper. The town of Nuremberg in Franconia,
in the age of Diirer's early manhood, was a favourable home
for the growth and exercise of his powers. Of the free imperial
cities of central Germany, none had a greater historic fame or a
more settled and patriotic government. None was more the
favourite of the emperors, nor the seat of a more active and
flourishing commerce. Nuremberg was the chief mart for the
merchandise that came to central Europe from the east through
Venice and over the passes of Tirol. She held not only a close
commercial intercourse, but also a close intellectual intercourse,
with Italy. Without being so forward as the rival city of Augs-
burg to embrace the architectural fashions of the Italian renais-
sance continuing, indeed, to be profoundly imbued with the
old and homely German burgher spirit, and to wear, in a degree
which time has not very much impaired even yet, the quaintness
of the old German civic aspect she had imported before the
close of the isth century a fair share of the new learning of Italy,
and numbered among her citizens distinguished humanists like
Hartmann Schedel, Sebald Schreier, Willibald Pirkheimer and
Conrad Celtes. From associates like these Diirer could imbibe
the spirit of Renaissance culture and research; but the external
aspects and artistic traditions which surrounded him were purely
Gothic, and he had to work out for himself the style and form-
language fit to express what was in him. During the first seven
DURER
699
or eight years of his settled life in his native city from 1495,
he betrays a conflict of artistic tendencies as well as no small
sense of spiritual strain and strife. His finest work in this
period was that which he provided for the woodcutter. After
some half-dozen miscellaneous single prints "Samson and
the Lion," the "Annunciation," the "Ten Thousand Martyrs,"
the "Knight and Men-at-arms," the "Men's Bath," &c. he
undertook and by 1498 completed his famous series of sixteen
great designs for the Apocalypse. The northern mind had long
dwelt with eagerness on these phantasmagoric mysteries of things
to come, and among the earliest block-books printed in Germany
is an edition of the Apocalypse with rude figures. Founding
himself to some extent on the traditional motives, Diirer con-
ceived and carried out a set of designs in which the qualities
of the German late Gothic style, its rugged strength and restless
vehemence, its love of gnarled forms, writhing actions and
agitated lines, are fused by the fire of the young master's spirit
into vital combination with something of the majestic power
and classic severity which he had seen and admired in the works
of Mantegna. Of a little later date, and of almost as fine a
quality, are the first seven of a large series of woodcuts known
as the Great Passion; and a little later again (probably after
1500), a series of eleven subjects of the Holy Family and of
saints singly or in groups: then, towards 1504-1505, come the
first seventeen of a set illustrating the life of the Virgin: neither
these nor the Great Passion were published till several years
later.
In copper-engraving Diirer was at the same time diligently
training himself to develop the methods practised by Martin
Schongauer and earlier masters into one suitable for his own
self-expression. He attempted no subjects at all commensurate
with those of his great woodcuts, but contented himself for the
most part with Madonnas, single figures of scripture or of the
saints, some nude mythologies of a kind wholly new in northern
art and founded upon the impressions received in Italy, and
groups, sometimes bordering on the satirical, of humble folk and
peasants. In the earliest of the Madonnas, the " Virgin with the
Dragon-fly" (1495-1496), Diirer has thrown something of his
own rugged energy into a design of the traditional Schongauer
type. In examples of a few years later, like the " Virgin with
the Monkey," the design of Mother and Child clearly betrays
the influence of Italy and specifically of Lorenzo di Credi.
The subjects of the "Prodigal Son" and "St Jerome in the
Wilderness " he on the other hand treats in an almost purely
northern spirit. In the nudes of the next four or five years,
which included a "St Sebastian," the so-called "Four Witches"
(1497), the "Dream" or "Temptation," the "Rape of Amy-
mome," and the "Jealousy" or "Great Hercules," Venetian,
Paduan and Florentine memories are found, in the treatment
of the human form, competing somewhat uncomfortably with
his own inherited Gothic and northern instincts. In these early
engravings the highly-wrought landscape backgrounds, when-
ever they occur, are generally the most satisfying feature. This
feature reaches a climax of beauty and elaboration in the large
print of " St Eustace and the Stag," while the figures and animals
remain still somewhat cramped and immature. In the first three
or four years of the i6th century, we find Diirer in his graver-
work still contending with the problems of the nude, but now
with added power, though by methods which in different subjects
contrast curiously with one another. Thus the " Nemesis,"
belonging probably to 1503, is a marvellously wrought piece
of quite unflinching realism in the rendering of a common type
of mature, muscular, unshapely German womanhood. The
conception and attributes of the figure are taken, as has lately
been recognized, from a description in the " Manto " of Politian:
the goddess, to whose shoulders are appended a pair of huge
wings, stands like Fortune on a revolving ball, holding the
emblems of the cup and bridle, and below her feet is spread
a rich landscape of hill and valley. In the " Adam and Eve "
of the next year, we find Diirer treating the human form in an
entirely opposite manner; constructing it, that is, on principles
of abstract geometrical proportion. The Venetian painter-
etcher, Jacopo de Barbari, whom Diirer had already, it would
seem, met in Venice in 1494-1495, and by the example of whose
engravings he had already been much influenced, came to settle
for a while in Nuremberg in 1500. He was conversant to some
extent with the new sciences of perspective, anatomy and
proportion, which had been making their way for years past in
Italy, and from him it is likely that Dtirer received the impulse
to similar studies and speculations. At any rate a whole series
of extant drawings enables us to trace the German gradually
working out his own ideas of a canon of human proportion in
the composition of his famous engraving of "Adam and Eve"
(1504); which at first, as a drawing in the British Museum
proves, had been intended to be an Apollo and Diana conceived
on lines somewhat similar to one of Barbari's. The drama of
the subject has in this instance not interested him at all, but only
the forms and designs of the figures, the realization of the quality
of flesh surfaces by the subtlest use of the graving-tool known
to him, and the rendering, by methods of-which he had become
the greatest of all masters, of the richness and intricacy of the
forest background. Two or three other technical masterpieces
of the engraver's art, the " Coat-of-Arms with the Skull," the
"Nativity," with its exquisite background of ruined buildings,
the " Little Horse " and the "Great Horse," both of 1505,
complete the list of the master's chief productions in this kind
before he started in the last-named year for a second visit to Italy.
The pictures of this earlier Nuremberg period are not many
in number and not very admirable. Diirer's powers of hand
and eye are already extraordinary and in their way almost
unparalleled, but they are often applied to the too insistent,
too glittering, too emphatic rendering of particular details and
individual forms, without due regard to subordination or the
harmony of the whole. Among the earliest seem to be two
examples of a method practised in Italy especially by the school
of Mantegna, but almost without precedent in Germany, that
of tempera-painting on linen. One of these is the portrait of
Frederick the Wise of Saxony, formerly in the Hamilton collec-
tion and now at Berlin; the second, much disfigured by restora-
tion, is the Dresden altarpiece with a Madonna and Child in
the middle and St Anthony and Sebastian in the wings. A
mythology reminiscent of Italy is the " Hercules and the Stym-
phalian Birds" in the Germanic Museum at Nuremberg, founded
directly upon the " Hercules and Centaur Nessus " of Pollaiuolo,
now at New Haven, Connecticut, U.S.A. Of portraits, besides
that of his father already mentioned as done in 1497, there is
his own of 1498 at Madrid. Two totally dissimilar portraits of
young women, both existing in duplicate examples (one pair at
Augsburg and Frankfort, the other pair in the collections of
M. Hengel in Paris and Baron Speck von Stemburg at Lu'tz-
schema, for each of which has been claimed the name Furlegerin,
that is, a member of the Furleger family at Nuremberg), belong
to nearly the same time. Other panel portraits of the period
are three small ones of members of the Tucher family at Weimar
and Cassel, and the striking, restlessly elaborated half-length of
Oswald Krell at Munich. In some devotional pictures of the
time Diirer seems to have been much helped by pupils, as in
the two different compositions of the Maries weeping over the
body of Christ preserved respectively at Munich and Nuremberg.
In an altarpiece at Ober St Veil and in the scattered wings of
the Jabach altarpiece severally preserved at Munich, Frankfort
and Cologne, the workmanship seems to be exclusively that of
journeymen working from his drawings. The period is closed,
so far as paintings are concerned, by two examples of far higher
value than those above named, that is to say the Paumgartner
altarpiece at Munich, with its romantically attractive com-
position of the Nativity with angels and donors in the central
panel, and the fine armed figures of St George and St Eustace
(lately freed from the over-paintings which disfigured them)
on the wings; and the happily conceived and harmoniously
finished " Adoration of the Magi " in the Uffizi at Florence.
In the autumn of 1505 Diirer journeyed for a second time to
Venice, and stayed there until the spring of 1507. The occasion
of this journey has been erroneously stated by Vasari. Diirer's
yoo
DURER
engravings, both on copper and wood, had by this time attained
great popularity both north and south of the Alps, and had
begun to be copied by various hands, among others by the cele-
brated Marcantonio of Bologna, then in his youth. According
to Vasari, Marcantonio, in copying Diirer's series of the Little
Passion on wood, had imitated the original monogram, and Diirer,
indignant at this fraud, set out for Italy in order to protect his
rights, and having lodged a complaint against Marcantonio
before the signory of Venice, carried his point so far that Marc-
antonio was forbidden in future to add the monogram of Diirer
to copies taken after his works. This account will not bear
examination. Chronological and other proofs show that if such
a suit was fought at all, it must have been in connexion with
another set of Diirer's woodcuts, the first seventeen of the Life of
the Virgin. Diirer himself, a number of whose familiar letters
written from Venice to his friend Pirkheimer at Nuremberg are
preserved, makes no mention of anything of the kind. Neverthe-
less some such grievance may possibly have been among the
causes which determined his journey. Other causes, of which
we have explicit record, were an outbreak of sickness at Nurem-
berg; Durer's desire, which in fact was realized, of finding a
good market for the proceeds of his art; and the prospect, also
realized, of a commission for an important picture from the
German community settled at Venice, who had lately caused an
exchange and warehouse the Fondaco de' Tedeschi to be built
on the Grand Canal, and who were now desirous to dedicate a
picture in the church of St Bartholomew. The picture painted
by Diirer on this commission was the "Adoration of the Virgin,"
better known as the "Feast of Rose Garlands"; it was sub-
sequently acquired by the emperor Rudolf II., and carried as
a thing beyond price upon men's shoulders to Vienna; it now
exists in a greatly injured state in the monastery of Strahow at
Prague. It shows the pope and emperor, with a lute-playing
angel between them, kneeling to right and left of the enthroned
Virgin and Child, who crown them with rose garlands, with a
multitude of other kneeling saints disposed with free symmetry
in the background, and farther in the background portraits of the
donor and the painter, and a flutter of wreath-carrying cherubs
in the air. Of all Durer's works, it is the one in which he most
deliberately rivalled the combined splendour and playfulness
of certain phases of Italian art. The Venetian painters assured
him, he says, that they had never seen finer colours. They were
doubtless too courteous to add that fine colours do not make
fine colouring. Even in its present ruined state, it is apparent
that in spite of the masterly treatment of particular passages,
such as the robe of the pope, Diirer still lacked a true sense of
harmony and tone-relations, and that the effect of his work must
have been restless and garish beside that of a master like the aged
Bellini. That veteran showed the German visitor the most
generous courtesy, and Diirer still speaks of him as the best in
painting (" der pest im gemell") in spite of his advanced years.
A similar festal intention in design and colouring, with similar
mastery in passages and even less sense of harmonious relations
in the whole, is apparent in a second important picture painted
by Diirer at Venice, " The Virgin and Child with the Goldfinch, "
formerly in the collection of Lord Lothian and now at Berlin.
A " Christ disputing with the Doctors " of the same period, in
the Barberini Gallery at Rome, is recorded to have cost the
painter only five days' labour, and is an unsatisfying and ill-
composed congeries of heads and hands, both of such strenuous
character and individuality as here and there to pass into cari-
cature. The most satisfying of Durer's paintings done in Venice
are the admirable portrait of a young man at Hampton Court
(the same sitter reappears in the " Feast of Rose Garlands"),
and two small pieces, one the head of a brown Italian girl
modelled and painted with real breadth and simplicity, formerly
in the collection of Mr Reginald Cholmondeley and now at
Berlin, and the small and very striking little " Christ Crucified "
with the figure relieved against the night sky, which is preserved
in the Dresden Gallery and has served as model and inspiration
to numberless later treatments of the theme. An interesting,
rather fantastic, portrait of a blonde girl wearing a wide cap,
now in the Berlin museum, is dated 1507 and may have been done
in the early months of that year at Venice. It is possible, though
not certain, that to this date also belongs the famous portrait of
himself at Munich bearing a false signature and date, 1500; in
this it has been lately shown that the artist modified his own
lineaments according to a preconceived scheme of facial pro-
portion, so that it must be taken as an ideal rather than a literal
presentment of himself to posterity as he appeared in the flower
of his early middle age. From Venice Diirer kept up a con-
tinuous correspondence, which has been published, with his
bosom friend Pirkheimer at Nuremberg. He tells of the high
position he holds among the Venetians; of the jealousy shown
him by some of the meaner sort of native artist; of the honour
and wealth in which he might live if he would consent to abandon
home for Italy; of the northern winter, and how he knows that
after his return it will set him shivering for the south. Yet he
resisted all seductions and was in Nuremberg again before the
summer of 1507. First, it seems, he had made an excursion
to Bologna, having intended to take Mantua on the way, in
order to do homage to the old age of that Italian master,
Andrea Mantegna, from whose work he had himself in youth
learned the most. But the death of Mantegna prevented his
purpose.
From the spring of 1507 until the summer of 1520, Diirer was
again a settled resident in his native town. Except the brilliant
existences of Raphael at Rome and of Rubens at Antwerp and
Madrid, the annals of art present the spectacle of few more
honoured or more fortunate careers. His reputation had spread
all over Europe. From Flanders to Rome his distinction was
acknowledged, and artists of less invention, among them some of
the foremost on both sides of the Alps, were not ashamed to
borrow from his work this or that striking combination or
expressive type. He was on terms of friendship or friendly
communication with all the first masters of the age, and Raphael
held himself honoured in exchanging drawings with Diirer. In
his own country, all orders of men, from the emperor Maximilian
down, delighted to honour him; and he was the familiar com-
panion of chosen spirits among the statesmen, humanists and
reformers of the new age. The burgher life of even Nuremberg,
the noblest German city, seems narrow, quaint and harsh
beside the grace and opulence and poetical surroundings of
Italian life in the same and the preceding generation. The great
cities of Flanders also, with their world-wide commerce and long-
established eminence in the arts, presented aspects of more
splendid civic pomp and luxury. But among its native surround-
ings the career of Diirer stands out with an aspect of ideal
elevation and decorum which is its own. His temper and life
seem to have been remarkably free from all that was jarring,
jealous and fretful; unless, indeed, we are to accept as true the
account of his wife's character which represents her as having
been no fit mate for him, but an incorrigible shrew and skinflint.
The name of Agnes Diirer was for centuries used to point a moral,
and among the unworthy wives of great men the wife of Diirer
became almost as notorious as the wife of Socrates. The source
of the traditions to her discredit is to be found in a letter written a
few years after Durer's death by his life-long intimate, Willibald
Pirkheimer, who accuses her of having plagued her husband to
death by her meanness, made him overwork himself for money's
sake, and given his latter days no peace. No doubt there must
have been some kind of foundation for Pirkheimer's charges; and
it is to be noted that neither in Durer's early correspondence with
this intimate friend, nor anywhere in his journals, does he use any
expressions of tenderness or affection for his wife, only speaking of
her as his housemate and of her helping in the sale of his prints, &c.
That he took her with him on his journey to the Netherlands
shows at any rate that there can have been no acute estrangement.
And it is fair to remember in her defence that Pirkheimer when
he denounced her was old, gouty and peevish, and that the
immediate occasion of his outbreak against his friend's widow
was a fit of anger because she had not let him have a pair of
antlers a household ornament much prized in those days to
which he fancied himself entitled out of the property left by
DURER
701
Dtirer. We have evidence that after her husband's death Agnes
Diirer behaved with generosity to his brothers.
The thirteen or fourteen years of Diirer's life between his return
from Venice and his journey to the Netherlands (spring 1 507-
midsummer 1520) can best be divided according to the classes of
work with which, during successive divisions of the period, he was
principally occupied. The first five years, 1507-1511, are pre-
eminently the painting years of his life. In them, working with
infinite preliminary pains, as a vast number of extant drawings
and studies testify, he produced what have been accounted his
four capital works in painting, besides several others of minor
importance. The first is the "Adam and Eve" dated 1507, in
which both attitudes and proportions are as carefully calculated,
though on a somewhat different scheme, as in the engraving of
1504. Two versions of the picture exist, one in Florence at the
Pitti palace, the other, which is generally allowed to be the
original, at Madrid. To 1508 belongs the life-sized " Virgin with
the Iris," a piece remarkable for the fine romantic invention of
its background, but plainly showing the hand of an assistant,
perhaps Hans Baldung, in its execution: the best version is in
the Cook collection at Richmond, an inferior one in the Rudolph-
inum at Prague. In 1508 Diirer returned to a subject which
he had already treated in an early woodcut, the " Massacre of the
Ten Thousand Martyrs of Nicomedia." The picture, painted for
the elector Frederick of Saxony, is now in the Imperial Gallery at
Vienna; the overcrowded canvas (into which Diirer has again
introduced his own portrait as a spectator alongside of the elector)
is full of striking and animated detail, but fails to make any
great impression on the whole, and does not do justice to the
improved sense of breadth and balance in design, of clearness
and dignity in composition, which the master had undoubtedly
brought back with him from his second visit to Italy. In 1509
followed the "Assumption of the Virgin" with the Apostles
gathered about her tomb, a rich altarpiece with figures of saints
and portraits of the donor and his wife in the folding wings,
executed for Jacob Heller, a merchant of Frankfort, in 1509.
This altarpiece was afterwards replaced at Frankfort (all except
the protraits of the donors, which remained behind) by a copy,
while the original was transported to Munich, where it perished
by fire in 1674. The copy, together with the many careful and
highly finished preparatory studies for the heads, limbs and
draperies which have been preserved, shows that this must have
been the one of Diirer's pictures in which he best combined the
broader vision and simpler habits of design which had impressed
him in the works of Italian art with his own inherited and
ingrained love of unflinchingly grasped fact and rugged, accentu-
ated character. In 1 5 1 1 was completed another famous painting,
multitudinous in the number of its figures though of very
moderate dimensions, the "Adoration of the Trinity by all the
Saints," a subject commissioned for a chapel dedicated to All
Saints in an almshouse for decayed tradesmen at Nuremberg,
and now at the Imperial Gallery at Vienna. Nothing can exceed
the fulness and variety of invention, or the searching force and
precision of detail in this picture; nor does it leave so much to
desire as several of the master's other paintings in point of
colour-harmony and pleasurable general effect.
In the meantime Durer had added a few to the number of his
line-engravings and had completed the two woodcut series of the
Great Passion, begun about 1498-1499, and the Life of the Virgin.
The new subjects compared with the old show some falling off in
dramatic stress and intensity of expression, but on the other hand
a marked gain in largeness of design and clearness of composition.
In 1511 these two works were brought out for the first time, and
the Apocalypse series in a second edition; and for the next three
years, 1511-1514, engraving both on wood and copper, but
especially the latter, took the first place among Diirer's activities.
Besides such fine single woodcuts as the " Mass of St Gregory,"
the " St Christopher," the " St Jerome," and two Holy Families
of 1 5 1 1 , Durer published in the same year the most numerous and
popularly conceived of all his woodcut series, that known from
the dimensions of its thirty-seven subjects as the " Little Passion "
on wood; and in the next year, 1512, a set of fifteen small
copper-engravings on the same theme, the " Little Passion " on
copper. Both of these must represent the labour of several
preceding years: one or two of the "Little Passion" plates,
dating back as far as 1507, prove that this series at least had been
as long as five years in his mind. In thus repeating over and over
on wood and copper nearly the same incidents of the Passion, or
again in rehandling them in yet another medium, as in the highly
finished series of drawings known as the "Green Passion " in the
Albertina at Vienna, Diirer shows an inexhaustible variety of
dramatic and graphic invention, and is never betrayed into
repeating an identical action or motive.
In 1513 and 1514 appeared the three most famous of Diirer's
works in copper-engraving, "The Knight and Death" (or
simply "The Knight," as he himself calls it, 1513), the " Melan-
colia" and the "St Jerome in his Study" (both 1514). These
are the masterpieces of the greatest mind which ever expressed
itself in this form of art. Like other masterpieces, they suggest
much more than they clearly express, and endless meanings
have been, rightly or wrongly, read into them by posterity.
Taken together as a group, they have been supposed to be three
out of an uncompleted series designed to illustrate the four
" temperaments " and complexions of men. Again, more reason-
ably, they have been taken as types severally of the moral, the
intellectual and the theological virtues. The idea at the bottom
of the " Knight and Death " seems to be a combination of the
Christian knight of Erasmus's Enchiridion militis Christiani
with the type, traditional in medieval imagery, of the pilgrim
on his way through the world. The imaginative force of the
presentation, coming from a man of Diirer's powers, is intense;
but what consciously occupied him most may well have been
the problem how to draw accurately the proportions and action
of a horse in motion. This problem he here solves for the first
time, with the help of an Italian example: at least his design
so closely repeats that of Leonardo da Vinci's famous and early
destroyed equestrian statue of Francesco Sforza that we must
certainly suppose him to have seen either the model itself or
such a drawing of it as is still preserved by Leonardo's own hand.
The face of the rider seems to recall that of the statue of Barto-
lommeo Colleoni at Venice; for the armour Durer had recourse
to an old drawing of his own, signed and dated in 1498. The
" Melancolia," numbered "i" as though intended to be the
first of a series, with its brooding winged genius sitting dejectedly
amidst a litter of scientific instruments and symbols, is hard
to interpret in detail, but impossible not to recognize in general
terms as an embodiment of the spirit of intellectual research
(the student's " temperament " was supposed to be one with the
melancholic), resting sadly from its labours in a mood of lassitude
and defeat. Comparatively cheerful beside these two is the
remaining subject of the student saint reading in his chamber,
with his dog and domestic lion resting near him, and a marvellous
play of varied surface and chequered light on the floor and
ceiling of his apartment and on all the objects which it contains.
Besides these three masterpieces of line-engraving, the same
years, 1512-1515, found Diirer occupied with his most important
experiments in etching, both in dry-point (" The Holy Family
and Saints " and the " St Jerome in the Wilderness ") and with
the acid bath. At the same time he was more taken up than
ever, as is proved by the contents of a sketch-book at Dresden,
with mathematical and anatomical studies on the proportions
and structure of the human frame. A quite different kind of
study, that of the postures of wrestlers in action, is illustrated
by a little-known series of drawings, still of the same period, at
Vienna. Almost the only well-authenticated painting of the
time is a "Virgin and Child" in the Imperial Museum at Vienna.
The portraits of the emperors Charles the Great and Sigismund
(1512), in their present state at any rate, can hardly be recog-
nized as being by the master's hand. An interval of five years
separates the Vienna "Madonna" from the two fine heads of
the apostles Philip and James in the Uffizi at Florence, the pair
of boys' heads painted in tempera on linen in the Bibliotheque
Nationale at Paris, the " Madonna with the Pink " at Augsburg,
and the portrait of Wolgemut at Munich, all of 1516. Among
702
DURER
engravings of the same time are three Madonnas, the apostles
Thomas and Paul, a bagpiper and two peasants dancing, and
three or four experiments in etching on plates of iron and zinc.
In wood-engraving his energies were almost entirely given to
bearing a part which modern research has proved to have
been not nearly so large as was traditionally supposed in the
great decorative schemes commanded by the Emperor Max in
his own honour, and devised and carried out by a whole corps
of men of letters and artists: namely, the Triumphal Gate
and the Triumphal March or Procession. A third and smaller
commemorative design, the Triumphal Car, originally designed
to form part of the second but in the end issued separately, was
entirely Durer's own work. A far more successful and attractive
effort of his genius in the same service is to be found in the
marginal decorations done by him in pen for the emperor's
prayer-book. This unequalled treasure of German art and
invention has in later times been broken up, the part executed
by Dttrer being preserved at Munich, the later sheets, which were
decorated by other hands, having been transported to Besancon.
Durer's designs, drawn with the pen in pale lilac, pink and
green, show an inexhaustible richness of invention and an airy
freedom and playfulness of hand beyond what could be surmised
from the sternness of those studies which he made direct from
life and nature. They range from subjects of the homeliest and
most mirthful realism to others serious and devout, and from
literal or almost literal transcripts of natural form to the most
whimsically abstract combinations of linear pattern and tendril
and flourish.
All these undertakings for his imperial friend and patron were
stopped by the emperor's death in 1519. A portrait-drawing
by the master done at Augsburg a few months previously, one
of his finest works, served him as the basis both of a commemora-
tive picture and a woodcut. Other paintings of this and the
succeeding year we may seek for in vain; but in line engravings
we have four more Madonnas, two St Christophers, one or two
more peasant subjects, the well-known St Anthony with the
view of Nuremberg in the background, and the smaller of the
two portraits of the Cardinal-Elector of Mainz; and in wood-
engraving several fine heraldic pieces, including the arms of
Nuremberg.
In the summer of 1520 the desire of Diirer to secure from
Maximilian's successors a continuance of the patronage and
privileges granted during his lifetime, together with an outbreak
of sickness in Nuremberg, gave occasion to the master's fourth
and last journey from home. Together with his wife and her
maid he set out in July for the Netherlands in order to be present
at the coronation of the young emperor Charles V., and if possible
to conciliate the good graces of the all-powerful regent Margaret.
In the latter part of his aim Diirer was but partially successful.
His diary of his travels enables us to follow his movements
almost day by day. He journeyed by the Rhine, Cologne, and
thence by road to Antwerp, where he was handsomely received,
and lived in whatever society was most distinguished, including
that of Erasmus of Rotterdam. Besides his written notes,
interesting traces of his travels exist in the shape of the scattered
leaves of a sketch-book filled with delicate drawings in silver-
point, chiefly views of places and studies of portrait and costume.
Several of his finest portrait-drawings in chalk or charcoal,
including those of his brother artists Lucas Van Leyden and
Bernard Van Orley, as well as one of two fine portrait paintings
of men, belong to the period of this journey. So does a magnifi-
cent drawing of a head of a nonagenarian with a flowing beard
who sat to him at Antwerp, together with a picture from the
same head in the character of St Jerome; the drawing is now
at Vienna, the picture at Lisbon. Durer's interest and curiosity,
both artistic and personal, were evidently stimulated by his
travels in the highest degree. Besides going to Aachen for the
coronation, he made excursions down the Rhine from Cologne
to Nijmwegen, and back overland by 's Hertogenbosch; to Brus-
sels; to Bruges and Ghent; and to Zealand with the object
of seeing a natural curiosity, a whale reported ashore. The
vivid account of this last expedition given in his diary contrasts
with the usual dry entries of interviews and disbursements.
A still more striking contrast is the passionate outburst of
sympathy and indignation with which, in the same diary, he
comments on the supposed kidnapping of Luther by foul play
on his return from the diet of Worms. Without being one of
those who in his city took an avowed part against the old eccle-
siastical system, and probably without seeing clearly whither
the religious ferment of the time was tending without, that
is, being properly speaking a Reformer Diirer in his art
and his thoughts was the incarnation of those qualities of
the German character and conscience which resulted in the
Reformation; and, personally, with the fathers of the Reforma-
tion he lived in the warmest sympathy.
On the 1 2th of July 1521 Diirer reached home again. Drawings
of this and the immediately following years prove that on his
return his mind was full of schemes for religious pictures. For a
great group of the Madonna surrounded with saints there are
extant two varying sketches of the whole composition and a
number of finished studies for individual heads and figures.
Less abundant, but still sufficient to prove the artist's intention,
are the preliminary studies to a picture of the Crucifixion. There
exist also fine drawings for a " Lamentation over the body of
Christ," an "Adoration of the Kings," and a "March to Calvary ";
of the last-named composition, besides the beautiful and elaborate
pen-and-ink drawing at Florence, three still more highly-wrought
versions in green monochrome exist; whether any of them are
certainly by the artist's own hand is matter of debate. But no
religious paintings on the grand scale, corresponding to these
drawings of 1521-1524, were ever carried out; perhaps partly
because of the declining state of the artist's health, but more
because of the degree to which he allowed his time and thoughts
to be absorbed in the preparation of his theoretical works on
geometry and perspective, proportion and fortification. Like
Leonardo, but with much less than Leonardo's genius for scientific
speculation and divination, Diirer was a confirmed reasoner and
theorist on the laws of nature and natural appearances. He
himself attached great importance to his studies in this kind;
his learned friends expected him to give their results to the
world; which accordingly, though having little natural gift or
felicity in verbal expression, he laboured strenuously to do.
The consequence was that in the last and ripest years of his life he
produced as an artist comparatively little. In painting there is
the famous portrait of Hieronymus Holtzschuher at Berlin, in
which the personality and general aspect of the sitter assert
themselves with surprising power. This and the Antwerp head of
Jerome are perhaps the most striking examples of Durer's power
of forcing into subordination to a general impression such a
multiplicity of insistent detail as would have smothered any
weaker conception than his. No other hand could have ventured
to render the hair and beard of a sitter, as it was the habit
of this inveterate linearist to do, not by indication of masses,
but by means of an infinity of single lines swept, with a miraculous
certainty and fineness of touch, in the richest amd most intricate
of decorative curves. To the same period belong a pleasing
but somewhat weak " Madonna and Child " at Florence; and
finally, still in the same year 1526, the two famous panels at
Munich embodying the only one of the great religious con-
ceptions of the master's later years which he lived to finish.
These are the two pairs of saints, St John with St Peter in front
and St Paul with St Mark in the background. The John and
Paul are conceived and executed really in the great style, with
a commanding nobility and force alike in the character of the
heads, the attitudes, and the sweep of draperies; they represent
the highest achievement of early German art in painting. In
copper-engraving Durer's work during the same years was con-
fined entirely to portraits, those of the cardinal-elector of Mainz
("The Great Cardinal"), Frederick the Wise, elector of Saxony,
Willibald Pirkheimer, Melanchthon and Erasmus. To the tale of
his woodcuts, besides a few illustrations to his book on measure-
ments (that is, geometry and perspective), and on fortification,
he only added one Holy Family and one portrait, that of his
friend Eoban Hesse. Of his theoretical books, he only succeeded
DURESS D'URFEY
703
in getting two finished and produced during his lifetime, that on
geometry and perspective or measurement, to use his own title
which was published at Nuremberg in 1525, and that on fortifi-
cation, published in 1527; the work on human proportions
was brought out shortly after his death in 1528. His labours,
whether artistic or theoretic, had for some time been carried
on in the face of failing health. In the canals of the Low
Countries he had caught a fever, of which he never shook off
the effects. We have the evidence of this in his -own written
words, as well as in a sketch which he drew to indicate the seat
of his suffering to some physician with whom he was in corre-
spondence, and again in the record of his physical aspect which is
preserved by a portrait engraved on wood just after his death,
from a drawing made no doubt not long before: in this portrait
we see his shoulders already bent, the features somewhat gaunt,
the old pride of the abundant locks shorn away. The end came
on the night of the 6th of April 1528, so suddenly that there was
no time to call his dearest friends to his bedside. He was buried
in a vault which belonged to his wife's family, but was afterwards
disturbed, in the cemetery of St John at Nuremberg. An appro-
priate Requiescal is contained in the words of Luther, in a letter
written to their common friend Eoban Hesse: " As for Diirer,
assuredly affection bids us mourn for one who was the best of
men, yet you may well hold him happy that he has made so good
an end, and that Christ has taken him from the midst of this
time of trouble and from greater troubles in store, lest he, that
deserved to behold nothing but the best, should be compelled
to behold the worst. Therefore may he rest in peace with his
fathers: Amen."
The principal extant paintings of Diirer, with the places where
they are to be found, have been mentioned above. Of his
drawings, which for students are the most vitally interesting
part of his works, the richest collections are in the Albertina
at Vienna, the Berlin Museum and the British Museum. The
Louvre also possesses some good examples, and many others
are dispersed in various public collections, as in the Musee Bonnat
at Bayonne, at Munich, Hamburg, Bremen, Frankfort, Dresden,
Basel, Milan, Florence and Oxford, as well as in private hands
all over Europe.
The principal editions of Durer's theoretical writings are
these :
Geometry and Perspective. Underweysung der Messung mil dent
Zirckel und Richtscheyt, in Linien, Ebnen und ganzen Corporen
(Nuremberg, 1525, 1533, 1538). A Latin translation of the same,
with a long title (Paris, Weichel, 1532) and another ed. in 1535.
Again in Latin, with the title Institutionum geometricarum l-ibri
quatuor (Arnheim, 1605).
Fortification. Etliche Underricht zu Befestigung der Stett, Schloss
und Flecken (Nuremberg, 1527), and other editions in 1530, 1538
and 1603 (Arnheim). A Latin translation, with the title De urbibtts,
arcibus, castellisque muniendis ac condendis (Paris, Weichel, 1535).
See the article FORTIFICATION.
Human Proportion. Hierinnen sind begriffen vier Biicher von men-
schlicher Proportion (Nuremberg, 1582, and Arnheim, 1603). Latin
translation : De symetria partium in rectis formis humanorum cor-
porum libri in latinum conversi, de varietate figurarum, &c. libri ii.
(Nuremberg, 1528, 1532 and 1534); (Paris, 1535, 1537, 1557).
French translation (Paris, 1557, Arnheim, 1613, 1614). Italian
translation (Venice, 1591, 1594); Portuguese translation (1599);
Dutch translation (Arnheim, 1622, 1662).
The private literary remains of Diirer, his diary, letters, &c., were
first published, partially in Von Murr's Journal zur Kunstgeschichte
(Nuremberg, 1785-1787); afterwards in Campe's Reliquien von
A. Diirer (Nuremberg, 1827); again, edited by Thausing, in the
Quellenschriften fur Kunstgeschichte und Kunsttechnik (Vienna, 1872),
but most completely in Lange and Fuhse's Durers schriftlicher
Nachlass (Halle, 1893); W. M. Conway's Literary Remains of A.
Durer (London, 1889) contains extensive transcripts from the MSS.
in the British Museum.
The principal remaining literature of the subject will be found
in the following books and treatises Johann Neudorfer, Schreib-und
Rechenmeister zu Niirnberg, Nachrichten iiber Kiinstlern und Werk-
leuten daselbst (Nuremberg, 1547); republished in the Vienna
Quellenschrift (1875); C. Scheurl, Vita Antonii Kressen (1515, re-
printed in the collection of Pirkheimer's works, Frankfort, 1610);
Wimpheling, Epitome rerum Germanicarum, ch. 68 (Strassburg,
'565) ; Joachim von Sandrart, Deutsche A cademie (Nuremberg, 1675) ;
Doppelmayr, Historische Nachricht von den nurnbergischen Mathe-
malicis und Kiinstlern (Nuremberg, 1730) ; C. G. von Murr, Journal
zur Kunstgeschichte, as above ; Adam Bartsch, Le Peintre-Graveur,
vol. vii. (Vienna, 1808) ; J. P. Passavant, Le Peintre-Graveur, vol. iii.
(Leipzig, 1842); J. F. Roth, Leben Albrecht Durers (Leipzig, 1791);
Heller, Das Leben und die Werke Albrecht Durers, vol. ii. (Bamberg,
1827-1831); B. Hausmann, Durers Kupferstiche, Radirungen,
Holzschnitte und Zeichnungen (Hanover, 1861); R. von Rettberg,
Durers Kupferstiche und Holzschnitte (Munich, 1876); M. Thausing,
Diirer, Geschichte seines Lebens und seiner Kunst (Leipzig, 1876,
2nd ed., 1884), English translation (from the 1st ed. by F. A. Eaton,
London, 1882); W. Schmidt in Dohme's Kunst und Kiinstler des
Mittelalters und der Neuzeit (Leipzig, 1877); CEuvre de Albert Diirer
reproduit et public par Amand-Durand, texte par Georges Duplessis
(Paris, 1877); C. Ephrussi, A. Diirer et ses dessins (Paris, 1882);
F. Lippmann, Zeichnungen von A. Diirer in Nachbildungen (5 vols.
Berlin, 1883-1905); A. Springer, Albrecht Durer (Berlin, 1892);
D. Burckhardt, Durers Aufenthalt in Basel, 1492-1494 (Munich,
1892); G. von Terey, A Durers venezianischer Aufenthalt, 1494-
1495 (Strassburg, 1892); S. R. Koehler, A Chronological Catalogue
of the Engravings, Dry Points and Etchings of A. Diirer (New York,
1894); L. Cust, A. Diirer, a Study of his Life and Works (London,
1897); Diirer Society's Publications (10 vols., 1898-1907), edited
by C. Dodgson and S. M. Peartree; H. Knackfuss, Diirer (Bielefeld
and Leipzig, 6th ed., 1899), English translation, 1900; B. Haendcke,
Die Chronologic der Landschaften A. Durers (Strassburg, 1899);
M. Zucker, Albrecht Diirer (Halle, 1899-1900) ; L. Justi, Konstrmerte
Figuren und Kopfe unter den Werken Albrecht Durers (Leipzig, 1902);
A. Pelzer, A. Diirer und Friedrich II. von der Pfalz (Strassburg, 1905) ;
H. Wolfflin, Die Kunst A. Durers (Munich, 1905); W. Weisbach,
Der junge Diirer (Leipzig, 1906) ; V. Scherer, A. Diirer (Klassiker der
Kunst, iv.), (and ed., Stuttgart, 1906).
Apart from books, a large and important amount of the literature
on Diirer is contained in articles scattered through the leading art
periodicals of Germany, such as the Jahrbucher of the Berlin and
Vienna museums, Repertorium fur Kunstwissenschaft, Zeitschrift fur
bildende Kunst, &c. A comprehensive survey of this literature is
afforded by Prof. H. W. Singer's Versuch einer Durer-Bibliographie
(Strassburg, 1903) ; articles published more recently will be found
completely enumerated in A. Jellinek's Internationale Bibliographic
der Kunstwissenschaft (Berlin). (S. C.)
DURESS (through Fr. from Lat. duritia, harshness, severity,
durus, hard), in law, constraint or compulsion. Duress may be
of two kinds. It may consist in personal restraint or actual
violence or imprisonment; or it may be by threats (per minas),
as where a person is compelled to an act by threats of immediate
death or grievous bodily harm. Duress, in certain cases, may be
pleaded as a defence of an act which would otherwise te a crime,
but the extent to which the plea of duress can be urged is un-
ascertained. At common law a contract entered into under
duress is voidable at the option of one of the parties. See
COERCION; CONTRACT.
D'URFEY, THOMAS (1653-1723), better known as Tom
d'Urfey, English song-writer and dramatist, belonged to a
Huguenot family settled at Exeter, where he was born in 1653.
Honore d'Urfe, the author of Astree, was his uncle. His first
play, The Siege of Memphis, or the Ambitious Queen, a bombastic
rhymed tragedy, was produced at the Theatre Royal in 1676.
He was much more successful with his comedies, which had
brisk, complicated plots carried out in lively dialogue. He had
a light touch for fitting words on current topics to popular airs;
moreover, many of his songs were set to music by his friends
Dr John Blow, Henry Purcell and Thomas Farmer. Many of
these songs were introduced into his plays. Addison in the
Guardian (No. 67) relates that he remembered to have seen
Charles II. leaning on Tom d'Urfey's shoulder and humming
a song with him. Even William III. liked to hear him sing his
songs, and as a strong Tory he was sure of the favour of Princess
Anne, who is said to have given Tom fifty guineas for a song on
the Electress Sophia, the next heir in succession to the crown.
" The crown's far too weighty, for shoulders of eighty," said
d'Urfey, with an indirect compliment to the princess, " So
Providence kept her away, poor old Dowager Sophy." Pope,
in an amusing letter to t Henry Cromwell (Works, ed. Elwin and
Courthope, vi. 91) describes him as " the only poet of tolerable
reputation in this country." In spite of the success of his
numerous comedies he was poor in his old age. But his gaiety
and invincible good humour had made him friends in the craft,
and by the influence of Addison his Fond Husband, or The Plotting
Sisters was revived for d'Urfey's benefit at Drury Lane on the
I5th of June 1713. This performance, for which Pope wrote a
prologue full of rather faint praise, seems to have eased the
74
DURFORT DURHAM, EARL OF
poet's difficulties. He died on the 26th of February 1723, and
was buried in St James's Church, Piccadilly.
Collections of his songs with the music appeared during his life-
time, the most complete being the 1719-1720 edition (6 vols.) of
Wit and Mirth; or Pills to Purge Melancholy. The best known of
the twenty-nine pieces of his which actually found their way to the
stage were Love for Money; or The Boarding School (Theatre Royal,
1691), The Marriage-Hater Match'd (1692), and The Comical History
of Don Quixote, in three parts (l6g4, 1694 an d 1696), which earned
the especial censure of Jeremy Collier. In his burlesque opera,
Wonders in the Sun; or the Kingdom of the Birds (1706, music by
G. B. Draghi), the actors were dressed as parrots, crows, &c.
DURFORT, a village of south-western France, formerly in the
province of Guienne, now in the department of Tarn-et-Garonne,
1 8 m. N.W. of Montauban by road. It was at one time the seat
of a feudal lordship which gave its name to a family distinguished
in French and English history. Though earlier lords are known,
the pedigree of the family is only clearly traceable to Arnaud
de Durfort (fl. 1305), who acquired the fief of Duras by his
marriage with a niece of Pope Clement V. His descendant,
Gaillard de Durfort, having embraced the side of the king of
England, went to London in 1453, and was made governor of
Calais and a knight of the Garter.
The greatness of the family dates, however, from the I7th
century. Guy Aldonce (1605-1665), marquis de Duras and
comte de Rozan, had, by his wife Elizabeth de la Tour
d'Auvergne, sister of Marshal Turenne, six sons, three of whom
played a distinguished part. The eldest, Jacques Henri (1625-
1704), was governor of Tranche Comte in 1674 and was created
a marshal of France for his share in the conquest of that pro-
vince (1675). The second, Guy Aldonce (1630-1702), comte de
Lorges and due de Quintin (known as the due de Lorges), became
a marshal of France in 1676, commanded the army in Germany
from 1690 to 1695, and captured Heidelberg in 1693. The sixth
son, Louis (1640 7-1709), marquis de Blanquefort, came to
England in the suite of James, duke of York, in 1663, and was
naturalized in the same year. On the igth of January 1672-1673
he was raised to the English peerage as Baron Duras of Holdenby,
his title being derived from an estate in Northamptonshire
bought from the duke of York, and in 1676 he married Mary,
daughter and elder co-heiress of Sir George Sondes, created in
that year Baron Throwley, Viscount Sondes and earl of Fever-
sham. On the death of his father-in-law (i6th of April 1677),
Duras succeeded to his titles under a special remainder. He was
appointed by Charles II. successively to the command of the
third and second troops of Horse Guards, was sent abroad on
several important diplomatic missions, and became master of
the horse (1679) an <i l r d chamberlain to the queen (1680).
In 1682 he was appointed a lord of the bed-chamber, and was
present at the king's deathbed reconciliation with the Roman
Church. Under James II. Feversham became a member of the
privy council, and in 1685 was given the chief command against
the rebels under Monmouth (q.v.), in which he mainly dis-
tinguished himself by his cruelty to the vanquished. He was
rewarded with a knighthood of the Garter and the colonelcy
of the first troop of Life Guards, and in 1686 he was appointed
to the command of the army assembled by King James on Black-
heath to overawe the people. On James's flight, Feversham
succeeded in making his peace with William, on the intercession
of the queen dowager, at whose instance he received the master-
ship of the Royal Hospital of St Catherine near the Tower
(1698). He died without issue on the 8th of April 1709.
[See G. E. C(ockayne), Complete Peerage, and art. in Diet.
Nat. Biog.]
Jean Baptiste (1684-1770), due de Duras, son of Jacques Henri,
was also a marshal of France. In 1733 h resigned the dukedom
of Duras to his son, Emmanuel Felicite, himself receiving the
brevet title of due de Durfort. Emmanuel Felicite (1715-1789),
due de Duras, took part in all the wars of Louis XV. and was
made a marshal of France in 1775. His grandson, Ame'dee
Bretagne Malo (1771-1838), due de Duras, is mainly known
as the husband of Claire Louise Rose Bonne de Coetnempren
de Kersaint (1778-1828), daughter of Armand Guy Simon de
Coetnempren Kersaint (?..), who, as duchesse de Duras, presided
over a once celebrated salon and wrote several novels once
widely read.
The family of Durfort is represented in France now by the
branch of Durfort-Civrac, dating from the i6th century. Jean
Laurent (1746-1826), marquis de Civrac, married his cousin, the
daughter of the due de Lorges; his son, Guy Emeric Anne
(1767-1837), due de Civrac, became afterwards due de Lorges.
Henri, marquis de Durfort-Civrac (1812-1884), was a well-known
politician, and was several times elected vice-president of the
chamber of deputies.
DUR6A, or DEVI (Sanskrit for inaccessible), in Hindu myth-
ology, the wife of Siva (q.v.) and daughter of Himavat (the
Himalayas). She has many names and many characters. As
Durga (so named from having slain the demon Durga) she is
warlike and ferocious, and to her in this form are offered bloody
sacrifices, and such ceremonies as the Durgapuja and Churruk-
puga are held in her honour (see KALI). The chief festival in
Bengal sometimes termed the Christmas of Bengal celebrates
the goddess's birth in the sixth Hindu month (parts of September
and October). Durga is pictured, in spite of her fierce nature,
with a gentle face. She has ten arms, holding each a weapon,
while her attendant lions and giants are grouped on each side.
DURHAM, JOHN GEORGE LAMBTON, IST EARL OF (1792-
1840), English statesman, son of William Henry Lambton of
Lamb ton Castle, Durham, was born in London on the i2th of
April 1792. His mother was Anne Barbara Villiers, daughter of
the 4th earl of Jersey. Lambton was only five years old when by
his father's death at Pisa (1797) he succeeded to large estates
in the north of England which had been in the uninterrupted
possession of his family since the i2th century. In 1805 he went
to Eton, and in 1809 obtained a commission in the loth Hussars.
In 1812, while still a minor, he made a runaway match with
Henrietta, natural daughter of Lord Cholmondeley, whom he
married at Gretna Green, and who died in 1815. In 1813 he
was elected to the House of Commons as member for the county
of Durham. Whig principles of a pronounced type were tradi-
tional in Lambton's family. His grandfather, General John
Lambton, had refused a peerage in 1793 out of loyalty to Fox,
and his father was not only one of Pitt's keenest opponents,
but was chairman of " The Friends of the People " and author
of that society's address, to the nation in 1792. Lambton
adhered to this tradition, and soon developed opinions of an
extremely Radical type, which he fearlessly put forward in parlia-
ment and in the country with marked ability. His maiden
speech in the House of Commons was directed against the foreign
policy of Lord Liverpool's government, who had sanctioned,
and helped to enforce, the annexation of Norway by Sweden.
In 1815 he vehemently opposed the corn tax, and in general began
to take a prominent part in opposition to the Tories. In 1816
he made the acquaintance of Lafayette in Paris, and narrowly
escaped arrest for alleged complicity in his escape. In 1817 he
began to speak on every opportunity in favour of parliamentary
reform.
His political position was strengthened by his marriage in
December 1816 to Louisa Elizabeth, eldest daughter of Lord
Grey, and as early as 1818 he was taken into the political con-
fidence of his father-in-law and other leaders of the Whigs in
matters touching the leadership and policy of the party. But
from the first Lambton belonged to the avowedly Radical wing
of the party, with whose aims Grey had little sympathy; and
when he gave notice of a resolution in 1819 in favour of shortening
the duration of parliaments, and of a wide extension of the
franchise, he found himself discountenanced by old Whigs like
Grey, Holland and Fitzwilliam. Having warmly espoused the
cause of Queen Caroline, Lambton ably seconded Lord Tavi-
stock's resolution in February 1821 censuring the government
for their conduct towards the queen; and in April he made his
first great speech in the House of Commons on parliamentary
reform, when he proposed a scheme for the extension of the
suffrage to all holders of property, the division of the country
into electoral districts and the disfranchisement of rotten
boroughs. He was now one of the recognized leaders of
DURHAM, EARL OF
70S
the advanced Liberals, forming a connecting link between
the aristocratic Whig leaders and the irresponsible and often
violent politicians of the great towns. His opposition to
those members of his party who in 1825 were prepared for
compromise on the question of Catholic emancipation led to his
first conflict with Brougham, with whom he had been on terms
of close friendship. While supporting the candidature of his
brother-in-law, Lord Howick, for Northumberland in the
elections of 1826, Lambton fought a duel with T. W. 'Beaumont,
the Tory candidate, but without bloodshed on either side. Unlike
his father-in-law, Lambton supported the ministry of Canning,
though he had some grounds for personal grievance against the
new prime minister, and after Canning's death that of Lord
Goderich. On the advice of the latter Lambton was raised to
the peerage in 1828 with the title of Baron Durham. Owing to
his Liberal principles Lord Durham was on terms of friendship
with the duke of Sussex, and also with Prince Leopold of Saxe-
Coburg, who sought his advice in the difficult crisis in 1829
when he was offered the throne of Greece, and who, after he
became king of the Belgians as Leopold I., continued to corre-
spond with Durham as a trusted confidant; the same confidential
relations also existed between Durham and Leopold's sister, the
duchess of Kent, and her daughter, afterwards Queen Victoria.
In November 1830 when Grey became prime minister in suc-
cession to the duke of Wellington, Lord Durham entered the
cabinet as lord privy seal. Parliamentary reform was in the
forefront of the new government's policy, and with this question
no statesman except Lord Grey himself was more closely indenti-
fied than Durham. To ardent reformers in the country the
presence in the cabinet of " Radical Jack," the name by which
Lambton had been popularly known in the north of England,
was a pledge that thorough-going reform would not be shirked
by the Whigs, now in office for the first time for twenty years.
And it was to his son-in-law that Lord Grey confided the task
of preparing a scheme to serve as the basis of the proposed
legislation. Full justice has not generally been done to the
leading part played by Lord Durham in preparing the great
Reform Act. He was the chief author of the proposals which,
after being defeated in 1831, became law with little alteration
in 1832. He was chairman of the famous committee of four,
which met at his house in Cleveland Row and drew up the
scheme submitted by the government to parliament. His
colleagues, who were appointed rather as his assistants than
as his equals, were Lord John Russell, Sir James Graham and
Lord Duncannon; and it was Durham who selected Lord John
Russell, not then in the cabinet, to introduce the bill in the
House of Commons; a selection that was hotly opposed by
Brougham, whose later vindictive animosity against Durham
is to be traced to his having been passed over in the selection
of the committee of four. Durham was present with Grey at an
audience of the king which led to the sudden dissolution of
parliament in March 1831; and when the deadlock between
the two Houses occurred over the second Reform Bill, he was the
most eager in pressing on the prime minister the necessity for a
creation of peers to overcome the resistance of the house of
Lords.
After the passing of the Reform Act, Durham, whose health
was bad and who had suffered the loss of two of his children,
accepted a special and difficult diplomatic mission to Russia,
which he carried out with much tact and ability, though without
accomplishing its main purpose. On his return he resigned
office in March 1833, ostensibly for reasons of health, but in
reality owing to his disagreement with the government's Irish
policy as conducted by Lord Stanley; in the same month he was
created earl of Durham and Viscount Lambton. His advanced
opinions, in the assertion of which he was too little disposed to
consider the convictions of others, gradually alienated the more
moderate of his late colleagues, such as Melbourne and Pal-
merston, and even Lord Grey often found his son-in-law in-
tractable and self-assertive; but the growing hostility of the
treacherous Brougham was mainly due to Durham's undoubted
popularity in the country, where he was regarded by many,
viu. 23
including J. S. Mill, as Grey's probable successor in the leadership
of the Liberal party. Durham was at this time courted by the
youthful Disraeli, who, when Melbourne became prime minister
in succession to Grey in 1834, declared that the Whigs could not
exist as a party without Lord Durham. Brougham's animosity
became undisguised at the great banquet given to Lord Grey
at Edinburgh in September 1834, where he made a venomous
attack on Durham, repeated shortly afterwards at Salisbury,
and anonymously in the Edinburgh Review. On the other hand
the strength of Durham's position in the country was shown
on the occasion of his visit to Glasgow in October to receive the
freedom of the city, when a concourse of more than a hundred
thousand persons assembled to hear him speak at Glasgow
Green, and where he replied to Brougham's attacks at a great
banquet held in his honour. Brougham had over-reached
himself; and although Durham was no favourite with William
IV. the king's disgust with the lord chancellor was one of the
principal reasons for his summary dismissal of the Whig ministry
in 1834. When Melbourne returned to power after Peel's short
administration, Durham's radicalism and impatient temper
excluded him from the cabinet; and again in 1837, on his return
from an appointment as ambassador extraordinary in St Peters-
burg (1835-1837), when there was some idea of his joining the
ministry, Lord John Russell wrote: " Everybody, after the
experience we have had, must doubt whether there can be peace
or harmony in a cabinet of which Lord Durham is a member."
In July 1837 he resisted the entreaty of Lord Melbourne that
he should undertake the government of Canada, where the
condition of affairs had become alarming; but a few months
later, giving way to the urgent insistence of the prime minister
who promised him " the firmest and most unflinching support "
of the government, he accepted the post of governor-general
and lord high commissioner, with the almost dictatorial powers
conferred on him by an act passed in February 1838, by which
the constitution of Lower Canada was suspended for two years.
Having secured the services of Charles Buller (q.v.) as first
secretary, and having with more doubtful wisdom appointed
Thomas Turton and Edward Gibbon Wakefield (q.v.) to be his
unofficial assistants, Durham arrived at Quebec on the 28th
of May 1838. Papineau's rebellion had been quelled, but the
French Canadians were sullen, the attitude of the United" States
equivocal, and the general situation dangerous, especially in
the Lower Province where government was practically in
abeyance. Durham at once issued a conciliatory proclamation.
His next step was to dismiss the executive council of his pre-
decessor and to appoint a new one consisting of men uncommitted
to any existing faction, a step much criticized at home but
generally commended on the spot. On the 28th of June, the day
of Queen Victoria's coronation, he issued a proclamation of
amnesty, from the benefit of which eight persons only of those
who had taken part in the rebellion were excepted; while an
accompanying ordinance provided for the transference of these
eight excepted persons from Montreal to Bermuda, where they
were to be imprisoned without trial. Papineau and fifteen
other fugitives were forbidden on pain of death to return to
Canada. In a letter of congratulation to the queen, Durham
took credit for the clemency of his policy towards the rebels,
and it was defended on the same ground by Charles Buller and
by public opinion in the colony.
In England, however, as soon as these proceedings became
known, Brougham seized the opportunity for venting his malice
against both Durham and the ministry. He had already raised
objections to the appointment of Turton and Wakefield; he now
attacked the ordinance in the House of Lords, challenging the
legality of the clause transporting prisoners to Bermuda, where
Durham had no jurisdiction. Melbourne and his colleagues,
with the honourable exception of Lord John Russell, made little
effort to defend the public servant to whom they had promised
" the mos-t unflinching support "; and, although both the prime
minister and the colonial secretary when first fully informed of the
governor-general's proceedings had hastened to assure him of
their "entire approval," three weeks later, cowed by Brougham's
706
DURHAM
malignant invective, they disallowed the ordinance, and carried
an Act of Indemnity the terms of which were insulting to Durham.
The latter immediately resigned; but before returning to
England he put himself in the wrong by issuing a proclamation in
which he not only justified his own conduct in detail, but made
public complaint of his grievances against the ministers of the
Crown, a step that alienated much sympathy which his unjust
treatment by the government would otherwise have called forth,
though it was defended by men like Charles Buller and J. S. Mill.
The usual official honours given to a returning plenipotentiary
were not accorded to Durham on his arrival at Plymouth on the
30th of November 1838, but the populace received him with
acclamation. He immediately set about preparinghismemorable
" Report on the Affairs of British North America," which was
laid before parliament on the 31 st of January 1839. This report,
one of the greatest state papers in the English language, laid down
the principles, then unrecognized, which have guided British
colonial policy ever since. It was not written or composed by
Charles Buller, as Brougham was the first to suggest, and the
credit for the statesmanship it exhibits is Lord Durham's alone,
though he warmly acknowledged the assistance he had derived
from Buller, Wakefield and others in preparing the materials on
which it was based. With regard to the future government of
British North America, Durham had at first inclined towards a
federation of all the colonies on that continent, and this aim,
afterwards achieved, remained in his eyes an ideal to be striven
for; but as a more immediately practical policy he advised the
legislative union of Upper and Lower Canada, his avowed aim
being to organize a single state in which the British inhabitants
would be in a majority. He further urged the creation of an
executive council responsible to the colonial legislature; he
advised state-aided emigration on the broadest possible scale,
and the formation of an intercolonial railway for the development
of the whole country. Meantime Durham, who almost alone
among the statesmen of his time saw the importance of imperial
expansion, interested himself in the emigration schemes of
Gibbon Wakefield (q.v.); he became chairman of the New
Zealand Company, and was thus concerned in the enterprise
which forestalled France in asserting sovereignty over the islands
of New Zealand in September 1 839. His health, however, hadlong
been failing, and he died at Cowes on the 28th of July 1840, just
five days after the royal assent had been given to the bill giving
effect to his project for uniting Upper and Lower Canada.
Lord Durham filled a larger place in the eyes of his contem-
poraries than many statesmen who have been better remembered.
He was in his lifetime regarded as a great popular leader; and his
accession to supreme political power was for some years considered
probable by many; his opinions were, however, too extreme to
command the confidence of any considerable party in parliament
before 1840. That Brougham hated him and Melbourne feared
him, is a tribute to his abilities; and in the first Reform Act, of
which he was the chief author, and in the famous Report on the
principles of colonial policy, he left an indelible mark on English
history. His personal defects of character did much to mar the
success of a career, which, it must be remembered, terminated
at the age of forty-eight. He was impatient, hot-tempered,
hypersensitive to criticism, vain and prone to take offence at
fancied slights; but he was also generous and unvindictive, and
while personally ambitious his care for the public interest was
genuine and untiring.
By his first wife Durham had three daughters; by his second,
who was a lady of the bedchamber to Queen Victoria but resigned
on her husband's return from Canada, he had two sons and three
daughters. The eldest son, Charles William, the " Master
Lambton " of Sir Thomas Lawrence's celebrated picture, died
in 1831; the second, George Frederick d'Arcy (1828-1879),
succeeded his father as 2nd earl of Durham. The latter's son,
John George Lambton (b. 1855), became 3rd earl in 1879.
See Stuart J. Reid, Life and Letters of the First Earl of Durham
(2 vols., London, 1906) ; The Greville Memoirs, parts i. and ii.
(London, 1874-1887); Richard, duke of Buckingham and Chandos,
Memoirs of the Courts and Cabinets of William IV. and Victoria
(2 vols., London, 1861); William Harris, History of the Radical
Party in Parliament (London, 1885); Harriet Martineau, History
of the Thirty Years' Peace (4 vols., London, 1877); William Kings-
ford, History of Canada, vol. x. (10 vols., Toronto, 1887-1898}-
H. E. Egerton, Short History of British Colonial Policy (London'
1897). (R. J. M.) '
DURHAM, a northern county of England, bounded N. by
Northumberland, E. by the North Sea, S. by Yorkshire, and W.
by Westmorland and Cumberland. Its area is 1014-6 sq. m.
It is wholly on the eastern slope, the western angle being occupied
by spurs of the Pennine chain, exceeding 2300 ft. in height at some
points on the Cumberland border. West of a line from Barnard
Castle by Wolsingham to the neighbourhood of Consett the whole
of the land, excepting narrow valleys, lies at elevations exceeding
1000 ft. This area represents roughly one quarter of the total.
The principal rivers rising in these hills are the Derwent, tributary
to the Tyne, forming part of the county boundary with
Northumberland, the Wear and the Tees, which forms almost
the whole of the boundary with Westmorland and Yorkshire.
The dales traversed by these rivers in their upper parts, though
sufficiently strongly contrasted with the dark, barren moors
surrounding them, yet partake of somewhat the same wild
character. Lower down, however, are beautiful and fertile
valleys, the main rivers flowing between steep, well-wooded
banks; while the lesser streams of the coastal district have
carved out denes or ravines on the steep flanks of which vegeta-
tion is luxuriant. Castle Eden Dene, 7 m. N.W. of Hartlepool, is
famous for its beautiful trees and wild flowers. The coastward
slope is fairly steep in the northern half of the county, but it is
steady, and the coast itself has no striking scenic features, save
where the action of the waves upon the magnesian limestone has
separated great masses, leaving towering fragments standing,
and fretting the face of the rock with caverns and arches. The
cluster of rocks named the Black Halls, 6 m. N.W. of Hartle-
pool, best exhibits these features. Other natural phenomena
include the Linnkirk caves near Stanhope in Weardale in which
numerous fossils and bones, with evidence of habitation by man,
have been discovered; and the Hell Kettles, S. of Darlington,
near the junction of the Tees and the Skerne, four cavities filled
with water, reputed to be unfathomable, and measuring from 80
to 1 20 ft. in diameter. The water is sulphurous.
Except in the moorlands of the west only a few scraps of the
county have been left in their natural state; but these portions
are of great interest to the student of natural history. The
ballast-hills at Shields, Jarrow and Hartlepool, formed by the
discharge of material from ships arriving in ballast from foreign
countries, are overgrown with aliens, many of which are elsewhere
unknown in this country. Nearly fifty different species have been
found. Stockton was almost the last retreat in England of the
native black rat. Of the former abundance of deer, wild ox and
boar every peat bog testifies by its remains ; the boar appears to
have existed in the reign of Henry VIII., and records of red deer
in the county may be traced down to the middle of the i8th
century.
Geology. The uplift of the Pennine hills causes nearly all the
stratified rocks of Durham to dip towards the east or south-east.
Thus the oldest rocks are to be found in the west, while in passing
eastward younger rocks are continually met. In the hilly district
of Weardale and Teesdale the Carboniferous Limestone series pre-
vails; this is a succession of thick beds of limestone with intervening
sandstones and shales. Some of the calcareous beds are highly
fossiliferous; those at Frosterley near Stanhope are full of the
remains of corals and the stone is polished as a marble. Much
of the higher ground in the west is capped by Millstone Grit, as
at Muggleswick and Walsingham commons. The outcrop of this
formation broadens eastward until it is covered by the Durham
coalfield which occupies the centre of the county from Newcastle
and South Shields to Barnard Castle. The Coal Measures are about
2000 ft. thick and contain upwards of 100 seams of coal, including
many of great importance the Brockwell coal, Low Main coal and
High Mam coal are some of the well-known seams. Fireclays of
great value are obtained from beneath many of the coal seams.
Apart from the coals, the Coal Measures are made up of beds of
sandstone and shale, the former called " post " and the latter " plate"
by the local miners. Permian magnesian limestone succeeds the
Coal Measures on the east, it reaches from the Tees to South Shields
in a broad tract and occupies the coast between that town and
Hartlepool. Remarkable concretionary forms are found in the
Fulwell quarries simulating honeycomb and coral structures. The
DURHAM
707
stone is quarried at Marsden for the manufacture of Epsom salts;
it is also used for lime-making and building. Fish remains are not
uncommon in it. The sandstones and marls seen between the
magnesian limestone and the Coal Measures at South Shields,
Newbottle and several miles farther south are usually classed as
Permian, but they may possibly prove to belong to the lower series.
In the south-east corner of the county, by Darlington, Stockton
and Scaton Carew, the low ground is made of Triassic rocks, red
marls and sandstones with beds of gypsum and rock salt. Coal
Measures undoubtedly underlie the Permian and Triassic strata.
Normal faults traverse the district, mostly from east to west. Great
dykes and sills of basalt lie in the Tees valley above Middleton and
one, the Great Whin Sill, may be followed in an easterly direction
for over 120 m. The Cockfield dyke and Little Whin Sill are similar
intrusions of basalt. Lead mines have been extensively worked
in the limestone districts of Weardale and Teesdale; the limestone
itself is quarried on a large scale for fluxing in the ironworks.
Glacial deposits obscure the older rocks over much of the county,
they contain travelled stones from the Pennines and Cheviots.
Submerged forests appear off the coast at West Hartlepool and other
points. A small patch of Silurian occurs near Cronkley on the Tees ;
here slate pencils were formerly made.
Agriculture. Near the river Tees, and in some places bordering
on the other rivers, the soil is loam or a rich clay. At a farther
distance from these rivers it is of inferior quality, with patches
of gravel interspersed. The hills east of the line from Barnard
Castle to Consett are covered with a dry loam, the fertility of
which varies with its depth. West of the line the summits and
flanks of the hills are in great part waste moorland. Only some
two-thirds of the total area of the county are under cultivation,
and nearly two-thirds of this are in permanent pasture. There
are also nearly 60,000 acres of hill-pasture. Of the diminished
area under corn crops oats occupy more than one-half, and barley
much exceeds wheat. Nearly two-thirds of the average under
green crops are occupied by turnips, as many cattle are raised
and have a long-standing reputation. The cows are especially
good yielders of milk. The sheep are also highly esteemed,
particularly the Teesdale breed. Those of Weardale are small,
but their mutton is finely flavoured.
Mining. The mountain limestone contains veins of lead
ore and zinc ore. The beds of coal in the Coal Measures have long
been a source of enormous wealth. The mines are among the
most extensive and productive in the kingdom. At Sunderland
the coal trade furnishes employment for hundreds of vessels,
independently of the " keels " or lighters which convey the coal
from the termini of the railways and tramways to the ships.
The seams worked extend horizontally for many miles, and are
from 20 to TOO fathoms beneath the surface. The Frosterley
marble has been quarried for many centuries near Stanhope for
decorative purposes, in Durham cathedral and elsewhere taking
the place of Purbeck marble, while in modern houses it is used
chiefly for chimney-pieces. Ironstone is worked in the neighbour-
hood of Whickham and elsewhere. Excellent slate is quarried
at several places. The neighbourhood of Wolsingham abounds
in fine millstones. The Newcastle grindstones are procured at
Gateshead Fell; and firestone for building ovens, furnaces and
the like is obtained in various parts of Durham, and exported
in considerable quantity.
Other Industries. The manufacturing industries are extensive,
and all are founded upon the presence of coal, of which, more-
over, large quantities are exported. The industrial and mining
districts may be taken to lie almost wholly east of a line from
Darlington through Bishop Auckland to Consett. Textile indus-
tries are not carried on to any great extent, but a large number of
hands are employed in the manufacture of machines, appliances,
conveyances, tools, &c. Of this manufacture the branch of ship-
building stands first; the yards on the Tyne are second only to
those on the Clyde, and the industry is prosecuted also at Sunder-
land, the Hartlepools and Stockton-on-Tees. The founding
and conversion of metal stands next in importance; and other
industries include the manufacture of paper, chemicals (chiefly
on the Tyne), glass and bottles and earthenware (at Gateshead
and Sunderland). The output of limestone is greater than that
of any other county in the United Kingdom. As regards iron, the
presence of the coal and the proximity of the Cleveland iron
district of North Yorkshire enable the county to produce over
one million tons of pig-iron annually, though the output of iron
from within the county itself is inconsiderable. There is a large
production of salt from brine. The sea fisheries of Sunderland
and Hartlepool are valuable.
Communications. Railway communication is provided en-
tirely by the North Eastern company. The main line runs
northward through Darlington, Durham and Gateshead, and
there are a large number of branches through the mining and
industrial districts, while the company also owns some of the
docks. From Stockton to Darlington ran the railway engineered
by George Stephenson and opened in 1825. The chief ports of
Durham are Jarrow and South Shields on the Tyne, Sunderland
at the mouth of the Wear, Seaham Harbour, Hartlepool East
and West and Stockton-on-Tees.
Administration and Population. Durham is one of the
Counties Palatine, the others being Lancashire and Cheshire.
The area of the ancient county is 649,352 acres, and that of
the administrative county 649,244 acres. There were formerly
three outlying portions of the county, known as North Durham
(including Norhamshire and Islandshire) , Bedlingtonshire and
Crayke. These were attached to the county as having formed
parcels of the ancient " patrimony of St Cuthbert," of which the
land between Tyne and Tees was the chief portion. The popula-
tion in 1891 was 1,016,454 and in 1901 1,187,361. The birth-
rate is much above, the death-rate also above, but the percentage
of illegitimacy considerably below, the average. The county is
divided into 4 wards. The following are municipal boroughs:
Darlington (pop. 44,511), Durham, city (14,679), Gateshead,
county borough (109,888), Hartlepool (22,723), Jarrow (34,295),
South Shields, county borough (97,263), Stockton-on-Tees
(51,478), Sunderland, county borough (146,077), West Hartlepool
(62,627). The other urban districts may be distributed so as to
indicate roughly the most populous and industrial districts:
1. In the Tyne district (where Gateshead, Jarrow and South
Shields are the chief centres) Blaydon (19,623), Felling (22,467),
Hebburn (20,901), Ryton (8452), Whickham (12,852).
2. North-western district Annfield Plain (12,481), Benfield-
side (7457), Consett (9694), Leadgate (4657), Tanfield (8276),
Stanley ( 1 3,554)
3. Durham and Bishop Auckland district (continuation south
of the preceding) Bishop Auckland (11,969), Brandon and
Byshottles (15,573), Crook (11,471), Shildon and East Thickley
(11,759), Spennymoor (16,665), Tow Law (4371), Willington
(7887).
4. Durham and Sunderland district (N.E. of preceding)
Hetton (13,673), Houghton-le-Spring (7858), Seaham Harbour
(10,163), Southwick-on-Wear (i 2,643). The township of Chester-
le-Street (11,753) is a l so m this district.
The only other urban districts are Barnard Castle (4421) in
Teesdale and Stanhope (1964) in Weardale. Durham is in the
north-eastern circuit, and assizes are held at Durham. It has one
court of quarter sessions and is divided into 16 petty sessional
divisions. All the boroughs have separate commissions of the
peace. The ancient county, which is in the diocese of Durham,
excepting part of one parish in that of York, contains 243 ecclesi-
astical parishes wholly or in part. There are 288 civil parishes.
The county is divided into eight parliamentary divisions, each
returning one member Jarrow, Chester-le-Street, Houghton-le-
Spring, Mid, North-west, Barnard Castle, Bishop Auckland,
South-east. It also includes the parliamentary borough of
Sunderland, returning two members, and the boroughs of
Darlington, Durham, Gateshead, Hartlepool, South Shields
and Stockton-on-Tees, returning one member each. Among
educational establishments there may be mentioned the uni-
versity and the grammar school in the city of Durham, and the
Roman Catholic college of Ushaw near Durham.
History. After the death of Ida in the 6th century the
kingdom of Northumbria was divided into the two states of
Bernicia and Deira, separated from each other by the Tees, the
latter including the district afterwards known as Durham.
The post-conquest palatinate arose by a process of slow growth
from the grant of land made by Egfrith to St Cuthbert on his
708
DURHAM
election to the see of Lindisfarne in 684. On the transference of
the see to Chester-le-Street in the gth century, Guthred the Dane
endowed it with the whole district between the Tyne and the
Wear, stretching west as far as Watling Street, a grant confirmed
by Alfred; and when in 995 the see was finally established
at Durham, the endowment was again largely enriched by
various donations. Durham continued, however, to form part of
the earldom of Northumbria, and not until after the purchase
of the earldom by Bishop Walcher in 1075 did the bishops begin
to exercise regal rights in their territory. The term palatinus
is applied to the bishop in 1293, and from the i$th century on-
wards the bishops frequently claim such rights in their lands
as the king enjoys in his kingdom. At the time of the Conquest
the bishop's possessions included nearly all the district between
the Tees and the Tyne, except Sadberge, and also the outlying
districts of Bedlingtonshire,Norhamshire,IslandshireandCrayke,
together with Hexhamshire, the city of Carlisle,and partof Teviot-
dale. Henry I. deprived the bishopric of the last three, but in
compensation made over to it the vills of Burdon, Aycliffe and
Carlton, hitherto included in the earldom of Northumberland.
The wapentake of Sadberge also formed part of the earldom of
Northumberland; it was purchased for the see by Bishop
Pudsey in 1189, but continued an independent franchise, with
a separate sheriff, coroner and court of pleas. In the I4th
century Sadberge was included in Stockton ward and was itself
divided into two wards. The division into the four wards of
Chester-le-Street, Darlington, Easington and Stockton existed
in the i3th century, each ward having its own coroner and a
three-weekly court corresponding to the hundred court. The
diocese was divided into the archdeaconries of Durham and
Northumberland. The former is mentioned in 1072, and in 1291
included the deaneries of Chester-le-Street, Auckland, Lanchester
and Darlington.
Until the isth century the most important administrative
officer in the palatinate was the steward. Other officers were the
sheriff, the coroners, the chamberlain and the chancellor. The
palatine exchequer was organized in the I2th century. The
palatine assembly represented the whole county, and dealt
chiefly with fiscal questions. The bishop's council, consisting of
the clergy, the sheriff and the barons, regulated the judicial
affairs, and later produced the Chancery and the courts of
Admiralty and Marshalsea. The prior of Durham ranked first
among the bishop's barons. He had his own court, and almost
exclusive jurisdiction over his men. The quo warranto proceed-
ings of 1293 exhibit twelve lords enjoying more or less extensive
franchises under the bishop. The repeated efforts of the crown to
check the powers of the palatinate bishops culminated in 1536 in
the Act of Resumption, which deprived the bishop of the power to
pardon offences against the law or to appoint judicial officers;
indictments and legal processes were in future to run in the name
of the king, and offences to be described as against the peace of
the king, not against that of the bishop. In 1596 restrictions
were imposed on the powers of the chancery, and in 1646 the
palatinate was formally abolished. It was revived, however,
after the Restoration, and continued with much the same power
until the act of 1836, which provided that the palatine jurisdic-
tion should in future be vested in the crown. There were ten
palatinate barons in the i2th century, the most important being
the Hiltons of Hilton Castle, the Bulmers of Brancepeth, the
Conyers of Sockburne, the Hansards of Evenwood, and the
Lumleys of Lumley Castle. The Nevilles owned large estates in
the county; Raby Castle, their principal seat, was built by John
de Neville in 1377. Owing to its isolated position the palatinate
took little part or interest in any of the great rebellions of the
Norman and Plantagenet period. During the Wars of the Roses
Henry VI. passed through Durham, and the novelty of a royal
visit procured him an enthusiastic reception. On the outbreak of
the Great Rebellion Durham inclined to support the cause of the
parliament, and in 1640 the high sheriff of the palatinate
guaranteed to supply the Scottish army with provisions during
their stay in the county. In 1642 the earl of Newcastle formed
the western counties into an association for the king's service, but
in 1644 the palatinate was again overrun by the Scottish army,
and after the battle of Marston Moor fell entirely into the hands
of the parliament.
Durham has never possessed any manufactures of importance,
and the economic history of the county centres round the growth
of the mining industry, which employed almost the whole of
the non-agricultural population. Stephen possessed a mine in
Durham which he granted to Bishop Pudsey, and in the same
century colliers are mentioned at Coundon, Bishop wearmouth
and Sedgefield. Cockfield Fell was one of the earliest Landsale
collieries in Durham. Edward III. issued an order allowing coal
dug at Newcastle to be taken across the Tyne, and Richard II.
granted to the inhabitants of Durham licence to export the
produce of the mines, without paying dues to the corporation of
Newcastle. Among other early industries lead-mining was
carried on in the western part of the county, and mustard was
extensively cultivated. Gateshead had a considerable tanning
trade and shipbuilding was carried on at Jarrow.
In 1614 a bill was introduced in parliament for securing
representation to the county and city of Durham and the borough
of Barnard Castle. The movement was strongly opposed by the
bishop, as an infringement of his palatinate rights, and the
county was first summoned to return members to parliament in
1654. After the Restoration the county and city returned two
members each. By the Reform Act of 1832 the county returned
two members for two divisions, and the boroughs of Gateshead,
South Shields and Sunderland acquired representation. The
boroughs of Darlington, Stockton and Hartlepool returned one
member each from 1868 until the Redistribution Act of 1885.
Antiquities. To the Anglo-Saxon period are to be referred
portions of the churches of Monk Wearmouth (Sunderland),
Jarrow, Escomb near Bishop Auckland, and numerous sculptured
crosses, two of which are in situ at Aycliffe. The best remains of
the Norman period are to be found in Durham cathedral and in
the castle, also in some few parish churches, as at Pittington and
Norton near Stockton. Of the Early English period are the
eastern portion of the cathedral, the fine churches of Darlington,
Hartlepool, and St Andrew, Auckland, Sedgefield, and portions of
a few other churches. The Decorated and Perpendicular periods
are very scantily represented, on account, as is supposed, of the
incessant wars between England and Scotland in the i4th and
1 5th centuries. The principal monastic remains, besides those
surrounding Durham cathedral, are those of its subordinate
house or " cell," Finchale Priory, beautifully situated by the
Wear. The most interesting castles are those of Durham, Raby,
Brancepeth and Barnard. There are ruins of castelets or
peel- towers at Dalden, Lud worth and Langley Dale. The
hospitals of Sherburn, Greatham and Kepyer, founded by early
bishops of Durham, retain but few ancient features.
See W. Hutchinson, History and Antiquities of the County Palatine
of Durham (3 vols., Newcastle, 1785-1794) ; R. Surtees, History and
Antiquities of the County Palatine of Durham (4 vols., London, 1816-
1840); B. Bartlet, The Bishoprick Garland, Collection of Legends,
Songs, Ballads . . . of Durham (London, 1834) ; J. Raine, History
and Antiquities of North Durham (London, 1852); Perry and
Herman, Illustrations of the Medieval Antiquities of the County of
Durham (Oxford, 1867); G. T. Lapsley, The County Palatine of
Durham (New York, &c., 1900) ; Victoria County History, Durham.
See also the Sfrtecs Society's Publications, and Transactions of the
Architectural Society of Durham and Northumberland.
DURHAM, a city and muncipal and parliamentary borough,
and the county town of Durham, England, 256 m. N. by W. from
London, on the North Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 14,679.
The nucleus of the site is a narrow, bold peninsula formed by a
bend of the river Wear, on which stand the cathedral and the
castle. The city, however, extends both E. and W. of this.
The position of the cathedral of St Cuthbert, its west end
rising immediately from the steep wooded bank of the river, is
surpassed in beauty by no other English cathedral. ^
Its foundation arose from the fact that here, after
wandering far over the north of England, the monks of Lindis-
farne rested with the body of St Cuthbert, which they had
removed from its tomb in fear of Danish invaders. This was in
995. Soon afterwards a church was built by Bishop Ealdhune,
DURHAM
709
and the see was removed hither from Lindisfarne. The peninsula
was called Dunholme (Hill Island), which in Norman times was
softened to Duresme, whence Durham. It is said that the
monks of Lindisfarne, knowing the name of the place where they
should find retreat, but ignorant of its situation, were guided
hither by a woman searching for her cow, and the bas-relief of a
cow on the north wall of the church commemorates this incident.
In 1093 Ealdhune's church was rebuilt by Bishop Carilef, who
changed the early establishment of married priests into a Bene-
dictine abbey. The grand Norman building in which his designs
were carried out remains with numerous additions. The stone-
vaulting is particularly noteworthy. The choir contains the
earliest work, but Carilef's eastern apses made way for the
exquisite chapel of the Nine Altars, with its rose windows and
beautiful carving, of late Early English workmanship. The
nave is massive Norman, with round pillars ornamented with
surface-carving of various patterns. The western towers are
Norman with an Early English superstructure. The famous
Galilee chapel, of the finest late Norman work, projects from the
west end. The central tower is a lofty and graceful Perpendicular
structure. Other details especially worthy of notice are the
altar screen of c. 1380, and the curious semi-classical font-cover
of the 1 7th century. There is a fine sanctuary-knocker on the
north door. The cloisters are of the early part of the I5th
century. The chapter-house is a modern restoration of the
original Norman structure, a very fine example, which was
destroyed by James Wyatt c. 1796, in the course of restoration of
which much was ill-judged. The cathedral library, formerly the
dormitory and refectories of the abbey, contains a number of
curious and interesting printed books and MSS., and the portable
altar, vestments and other relics found in St Cuthbert's grave.
The Galilee contains the supposed remains of the Venerable
Bede. The total length of the cathedral within is 496^ ft., the
greatest height within (except the lantern) 74! ft., and the height
of the central tower 218 ft. The diocese of Durham covers the
whole county excepting a small fragment, and also very small
parts of Northumberland and Yorkshire.
The naturally strong position selected for the resting-place
of St Cuthbert's remains was possibly artificially fortified also,
but it was not until 1072 that William the Conqueror
caused the erection of a castle to the north of the
cathedral across the neck of the peninsula. Of this there remain
a beautiful crypt-chapel, and a few details incorporated in later
work. Other interesting portions are the Norman gallery,
with its fine arcade, Bishop Hatfield's hall of c. 1350, a recon-
struction of the previous Norman one by Bishop Pudsey, and
the Black Staircase of fine woodwork of the I7th century. The
keep is a modern reconstruction. The castle, with the exception
of some apartments used by the judges of assize, is appropriated
to the uses of Durham University. On the peninsula are also
the churches of St Mary le Bow in the North Bailey and St Mary
the Less, the one a 17th-century building on a very ancient site,
possibly that on which the first church rose over St Cuthbert's
remains; the other possessing slight traces of Norman work,
but almost completely modernized. Of other churches in
Durham, the site of St Oswald is apparently pre-Norman, and
the building contains Norman work of Bishop Pudsey, also
some fine early ijth-century woodwork. St Margaret's and
St Giles' churches show work of the same period, and the second
of these has earlier portions.
Several of the streets of Durham preserve an appearance of
antiquity. Three of the bridges crossing the Wear are old, that
of Framwellgate having been built in the I3th century and
rebuilt in the isth. In the neighbourhood of the city certain
sites are of interest as adding detail to its history. To the south
on Maiden Hill there is an encampment, occupied, if not con-
structed, by the Romans. Immediately W. of Durham is
Neville's Cross, of which little remains. The battle of Neville's
Cross was fought in 1346, resulting in the defeat of the invading
Scots by the English under Lord Neville and Henry Percy.
The Scots had encamped at Beaurepaire or Bearpark, where a
few ruins mark the site of the county residence of the priors of
Castle.
Durham, which had suffered from previous invaders. On the
Wear below Durham is the priory of Finchale (1196), of which
there are considerable remains of Early English date and later,
but in the main Decorated. The valley of the Wear in the
neighbourhood of Durham is well wooded and picturesque, but
there are numerous collieries on the uplands above it, and the
beauty of the county is marred.
Among educational establishments in Durham the university
stands first. The earliest connexion of the ecclesiastical founda-
tion at Durham with an actual educational foundation
was made by Prior Richard de Hoton (1290-1308),
who erected a hall in Oxford for students from Durham,
who had previously enjoyed no such provision. In 1380 Bishop
Hatfield refounded this hall as Durham College, which became
Trinity College (see OXFORD) on a new foundation (1555) when
the possessions of the abbey of Durham had been surrendered
in 1540, after which Durham College survived as a secular
foundation only for a few years. Henry VIII. had the unful-
filled intention of founding a college in Durham, and a similar
attempt failed in the time of the Commonwealth. In 1831 the
scheme for a college was projected by the chapter; an act of
1 83 2 specified the foundation as a university, and in Michaelmas
1833 its doors were opened. The first warden, and a prime
mover in the scheme of foundation, was Archdeacon Charles
Thorp (d. 1862). In 1837 the university received its charter
from William IV. The dean and chapter of the cathedral are
governors, and the bishop of Durham is visitor, but the active
management is in the hands of the warden, senate and convoca-
tion. The system and life of the university are broadly similar
to those of the greater universities of Oxford and Cambridge.
Proctorial administration is carried on by two proctors annually
nominated by the warden. Among the various residential
divisions of the university may be mentioned Bishop Hatfield's
Hall (1846), which, through its endowment, by means of such
methods of economy as provision for all meals in common,
permits men of limited means to become students. The degree
for bachelor of arts is awarded after two public examinations,
and may be taken in two years, with a total of six months'
residence in each year. Special examinations are provided for
candidates who seek honours, and those who obtain honours
are admissible, after a certain period, to the mastership of arts
without further examination, but in other cases further
examination must have been taken, or an essay presented as a
qualification for this degree. A theological course is provided
for bachelors of the university, those who have passed a similar
course elsewhere, or non-graduates aged nineteen who have
passed a certain standard of examination. Instruction in civil
engineering and mining was established as early as 1837, but
was subsequently given up; and in 1871 the university and the
North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers
co-operated to found the college of physical science at Newcastle-
upon-Tyne, which provides such instruction and was incor-
porated with the university in 1874. The college of medicine
at Newcastle has been in connexion with Durham University
since 1852, and the professors there are professors of the univer-
sity. In 1895 degrees for women were established, and in 1889
a hostel was opened for the accomodation of women, who may
take any course of instruction except the theological. In 1889
musical degrees were instituted, and a professorship was founded
in 1897. Among other subjects may be mentioned the granting
of degress in hygiene, and of diplomas in public health and
education (see J. T. Fowler, Durham University, uniform with
series of College Histories; London, 1904).
The grammar school was refounded by Henry VIII. out of the
monastic school. It is a flourishing institution on the lines of
the public schools, and has " king's scholarships " tenable in
the school, and scholarships and exhibitions tenable at the
universities. There are also a diocesan training college for school-
masters and mistresses, and a high school for girls; and 4 m.
W. of the city is the great Roman Catholic College of St Cuthbert,
Ushaw, the representative of the old college at Douai. Here are
preserved the magnificent natural history collections of Charles
710
DURHAM DURIAN
Waterton. Other buildings worthy of notice in Durham are
the town-hall, a 16th-century building reconstructed in 1851,
the police station, and the guildhall, the shire hall and county
buildings, and the county hospital. There are ironworks and
manufactures of hosiery, carpets and mustard in the city. The
parliamentary borough returnsone member. The corporation con-
sists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 1070 acres.
History of the City. The foundation of the city followed on
that of the church by the monks of Lindisfarne at the close of
the roth century. The history of the city is closely associated
with that of the palatinate of Durham. The bishop of Durham
among other privileges Claimed a mint in the city, which, accord-
ing to Boldon Book, rendered ten marks yearly until its value
was reduced by that established by Henry II. at Newcastle,
and it was temporarily abolished by the same king. The earliest
charter, dated 1179 or 1180, is a grant of exemption from toll
merchet and heriot made by Bishop Hugh Pudsey and confirmed
by Pope Alexander. Before that time, however, the monks had a
little borough at Elvet, which is divided from Durham by the
Wear and afterwards became part of the city. In 1183 the city
was at farm and rendered sixty marks. It was at first governed
by a bailiff appointed by the bishop, but in 1565 Bishop Pilking-
ton ordained that the government should consist, in addition to
the bailiff, of one alderman and twelve assistants, the latter to
continue in office for life, and the former to be chosen every year
from among their number. This form of government was re-
placed in 1602, under the charter of Bishop Matthew, by that of
a mayor, 12 aldermen and 24 burgesses, the aldermen and bur-
gesses forming a common council and electing a mayor every
year from among the aldermen. This was confirmed by James I.,
but in 1684 the corporation were obliged to resign their charters
to Bishop Crew, who granted them a new one, probably reserving
to himself a right of veto on the election of the mayor and alder-
men. At the time of the Revolution, however, Bishop Matthew's
charter was revived, and continued to be the governing charter of
the city until 1770, when, owing to dissensions as to the election
of the common council, the number of aldermen was reduced to
four and the charter became void. No mayor or aldermen were
elected for ten years, but in 1780 Bishop Egerton, on the petition
of the bui^esses, granted them a newcharter, which was practically
a confirmation of that of 1602, and remained in force until the
Municipal Reform Act of 1835. Being within the county
palatine, the city of Durham sent no members to parliament,
until, after several attempts beginning in 1614, it was enabled
by an act of 1673 to return two members, which it continued to
do until 1885, when by the Redistribution of Seats Act the
number was reduced to one.
The corporation of Durham claim their fair and market rights
under Bishop Pudsey's charter of 1179, confirmed in 1565, as
a weekly market on Saturday and three yearly fairs on the feasts
of St Cuthbert in September and March and on Whit Monday,
each continuing for two days. In 1610 the bishop of Durham
brought a suit in chancery against the burgesses and recovered
from them the markets and fairs, which he afterwards leased to
the corporation for a rent of 20 yearly until they were pur-
chased from the Ecclesiastical Commissioners in 1860. Durham
has never been noted for any particular trade; and the attempts
to introduce the manufacture of cloth and wool in the 1 7th and
i8th centuries were failures. The manufacture of carpets was
begun in 1814.
DURHAM, a city and the county-seat of Durham county,
North Carolina, U.S.A., in a township of the same name, 25 m.
N.W. of Raleigh. Pop. (1900) 6679, of whom 2241 were ne-
groes; (1910) 18,241; of the township (1900) 19,055; (1910) 27,606.
Adjacent to the city and also in the township are East Durham
and West Durham (both unincorporated), which industrially
are virtually part of the city. Durham is served by the Southern,
the Seaboard Air Line, the Norfolk & Western, and the Durham
& Southern railways, the last a short line connecting at Apex
and Dunn, N.C., respectively with the main line of the Seaboard
and the Atlantic Coast Line railways. Durham is nearly
surrounded by hills. Its streets are shaded by elms. The city
is the seat of Trinity College (Methodist Episcopal, South),
opened in 1851 as a normal college, growing out of an academy
called Union Institute, which was established in the north-
western part of Randolph county in 1838 and was incorporated
in 1841. In 1852 the college was empowered to grant degrees;
in 1856 it became the property of the North Carolina Conference
of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South; in 1859 it received
its present name; and in 1892 it was removed to a park near
Durham, included in 1901 in the corporate limits of the city.
A new charter was adopted in 1903, and a law school was organ-
ized in 1904. The college has received many gifts from the Duke
family of Durham. In 1908 its endowment and property were
valued at about $1,198,400, and the number of its students was
288. Although not officially connected with the college, the
South Atlantic Quarterly, founded by a patriotic society of the
college and published at Durham since 1902, is controlled and
edited by members of the college faculty. The North Carolina
Journal of Education and the Papers of the Trinity College
Historical Society also are edited by members of the college
faculty. The Trinity Park school is preparatory for the college.
Near the city are Watts hospital (for whites) and Lincoln hospital
(for negroes). Durham's chief economic interest is in the manu-
facture of granulated smoking tobacco, for which it became
noted after the Civil War. In the city are two large factories
and store houses of the American Tobacco Company. The
tobacco industry was founded by W. T. Blackwell (1830-1904)
and Washington Duke (1820-1905). The city also manufactures
cigars, cigarettes, snuff, a fertilizer having tobacco dust as the
base, cotton goods, lumber, window sashes, blinds, drugs and
hosiery. Durham has a large trade with the surrounding region.
The town of Durham was incorporated in 1869, and became
the county-seat of the newly-erected county in 1881, and in 1899
was chartered as a city. Its growth is due to the tobacco and
cotton industries. In the Bennett house, at Durham Station,
near the city, General J. E. Johnston surrendered on the 26th
of April 1865 the Confederate army under his command to
General W. T. Sherman.
DURIAN (Malay, duri, a thorn), the fruit of Durio zibethinus,
a tree of the natural order Bombaceae, which attains a height
of 70 or 80 ft., has oblong, tapering leaves, rounded at the base,
and yellowish-green flowers, and bears a general resemblance to
the elm. The durio is cultivated in Sumatra, Java, Celebes
and the Moluccas, and northwards as far as Mindanao in the
Philippines; also in the Malay Peninsula, in Tenasserim, on the
Bay of Bengal, to 14 N. lat., and in Siam to the'i3th and i4th
parallels. The fruit is spherical, and 6 to 8 in. in diameter,
approaching the size of a large coco-nut; it has a hard external
husk or shell, and is completely armed with strong pyramidal
tubercles, meeting one another at the base, and terminating
in sharp thorny points; these sometimes inflict severe injuries
on persons upon whom the fruit may chance to fall when ripe.
On dividing the fruit at the joins of the carpels, where the spines
arch a little, it is found to contain five oval cells, each filled with
a cream-coloured, glutinous, smooth pulp, in which are em-
bedded from one to five seeds about the size of chestnuts. The
pulp and the seeds, which latter are eaten roasted, are the edible
parts of the fruit. With regard to the taste of the pulp, A. R.
Wallace remarks, " A rich butter-like custard, highly flavoured
with almonds, gives the best idea of it, but intermingled with it
come wafts of flavour that call to mind cream-cheese, onion-sauce,
brown sherry and other incongruities; ... if is neither acid,
nor sweet, nor juicy, yet one feels the want of none of these
qualities, for it is perfect as it is." The fruit, especially when not
fresh from the tree, has, notwithstanding, a most offensive smell,
which has been compared to that of rotten onions or of putrid
animal matter. The Dyaks of the Sarawak river in Borneo
esteem the durian above all other fruit, eat it unripe both
cooked and raw, and salt the pulp for use as a relish with rice.
See Linschoten, Discours of Voyages, bk. i. chap. 57, p. 102,
fol. (London, 1598); Bickmore, Travels in the East Indian Archi-
pelago, p. 91 (1868); Wallace, The Malay Archipelago (3rd ed.,
1872).
DURIS DURUY
711
DURIS, of Samos, Greek historian, according to his own
account a descendant of Alcibiades, was born about 340 B.C.
He must have been born and passed his early years in exile,
since from 352 to 324 Samos was occupied by Athenian cleruchs,
who had expelled the original inhabitants. He was a pupil of
Theophrastus of Eresus, whom he met at Athens. When quite
young, he obtained a prize for boxing at the Olympic games;
a statue by Hippias was set up in commemoration of his victory
(Pausanias vi. 13. 5). He was for some time despot of his native
island. Duris was the author of a comprehensive historical
work ('loTopiGu.) on Hellenico-Macedonian history, from the
battle of Leuctra (371) down to the death of Lysimachus
(281), which was largely used by Diodorus Siculus. Other works
by him included a life of Agathocles of Syracuse, the annals
(wpot) of Samos chronologically arranged according to the lists
of the priests of Hera, and a number of treatises on literary and
artistic subjects. Ancient authorities do not appear to have
held a very high opinion of his merits as a historian. Plutarch
(Pericles, 28) expresses doubt as to his trustworthiness, Dionysius
of Halicarnassus (De compos, verborum, 4) speaks disparagingly
of his style, and Photius (cod. 176) regards the arrangement of
his work as altogether faulty. Cicero (ad Alt. vi. i) accords
him qualified praise as an industrious writer.
Fragments in C. W. Miiller, Frag. Hist. Grace, ii. 446, where
the passage of Pausanias referred to above and the date of Duris's
victory at Olympia are discussed.
DURKHEIM, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian Palatinate,
near the foot of the Hardt Mountains, and at the entrance of
the valley of the Isenach, ism. N.W. of Spires on the railway
Monsheim-Neustadt. Pop. 6300. It possesses two Evangelical
churches and one Roman Catholic, a town hall occupying the
site of the castle of the princes of Leiningen-Hartenburg, an
antiquarian and a scientific society, a public library and a high
school. It is well known as a health resort, for the grape cure
and for the baths of the brine springs of Philippshalle, in the
neighbourhood, which not only supply the bathing establishment,
but produce considerable quantities of marketable salt. There
is a brisk trade in wine and oil; tobacco, glass and paper are
manufactured.
As a dependency of the Benedictine abbey of Limburg, which
was built and endowed by Conrad II., Diirkheim or Thurnigheim
came into the possession of the counts of Leiningen, who in the
I4th century made it the seat of a fortress, and enclosed it with
wall and ditch. In the three following centuries it had its full
share of the military vicissitudes of the Palatinate; but it was
rebuilt after the French invasion of 1689, and greatly fostered
by its counts in the beginning of next century. In 1794 its new
castle was sacked by the French, and in 1849 it was the scene of
a contest between the Prussians and the insurrectionists. The
ruins of the Benedictine abbey of Limburg lie about i m. S.W.
of the town; and in the neighbourhood rises the Kastanienberg,
with the ancient rude stone fortification of the Heidenmauer or
Heathen's Wall.
DURLACH, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Baden,
2\ m. by rail from Carlsruhe, with which it is connected by a
canal and an avenue of poplars, on the left bank of the Pfinz, at
the foot of the vineyard-covered Thurmberg, which is crowned
by a watch-tower and to the summit of which a funicukr railway
ascends. Pop. (1905) 6207. It possesses a castle erected in
1565 and now used as barracks, an ancient town hall, a church
with an excellent organ, a high-grade school, an orphan asylum,
and in the market-place a statue of the margrave Charles II.
It has manufactures of sewing-machines, brushes, chemicals,
tobacco, beer, vinegar and chicory; and considerable trade in
market produce.
Durlach was bestowed by the emperor Frederick II. on the
margrave Hermann V. of Zahringen as an allodial possession,
but afterwards came into the hands of Rudolph of Habsburg.
It was chosen as his residence by the margrave Charles II. hi 1565,
and retained this distinction till the foundation of Carlsruhe
in 1715, though it was almost totally destroyed by the French
in 1688. In 1846 it was the seat of a congress of the Liberal
party of the Baden parliament; and in 1849 it was the scene
of an encounter between the Prussians and the insurgents.
Reichenbach the mechanician, and E. L. Posselt (1763-1804)
the historian, were natives of the town.
See Fecht, Geschichte der Stoat Durlach (Heidelberg, 1869).
DUROC, GERAUD CHRISTOPHE MICHEL, due de Frioul
(1772-1813), French general, was born at Pont a Mousson
(Meurthe et Moselle) on the 25th of October 1772. The son of
an officer, he was educated at the military schools of his native
town and of Chalons. He was gazetted second lieutenant
(artillery) in the 4th regiment in 1793, and advanced steadily
in the service. Captain Duroc became aide-de-camp to Napoleon
in 1 796, and distinguished himself at Isonzo, Brenta and Gradisca
in the Italian campaigns of 1796-97. He served in Egypt, and
was seriously wounded at Aboukir. His devotion to Napoleon
was rewarded by complete confidence. He became first aide-de-
camp (1798), general of brigade (1800), and governor of the
Tuileries. After the battle of Marengo he was sent on missions
to Vienna, St Petersburg, Stockholm and Copenhagen. As grand
marshal of the Tuileries he was responsible for the measures
taken to secure Napoleon's personal safety whether in France
or on his campaigns, and he directed the minutest details of the
imperial household. After Austerlitz, where he commanded
the grenadiers in the absence of General Oudinot, he was em-
ployed in a series of important negotiations with Frederick
William of Prussia, with the elector of Saxony (December 1806),
in the incorporation of certain states in the Confederation of
the Rhine, and in the conclusion of the armistice of Znaim
(July 1808). In 1808 he was created duke of Friuli, and after
the Russian campaign he became senator (1813). He was in
attendance on Napoleon at the battle of Bautzen (2oth-2ist May
1813) in Saxony, when he was mortally wounded, and died in a
farmhouse near the battlefield on the 23rd of May. Napoleon
bought the farm and erected a monument to his memory. Duroc
was buried in the Invalides.
The chief source for Duroc's biography is the Moniteur (3ist of
May 1797, 24th of October 1798, 3Oth of May 1813, &c.).
DUROCHER, JOSEPH MARIE ELISABETH (1817-1858),
French geologist, was born at Rennes on the 3ist of May 1817.
Educated at the Ecole Polytechnique and Ecole des Mines in
Paris, he qualified as a mining engineer. Early in his career he
travelled in the northern parts of Europe to study the metalli-
ferous deposits, and he contributed the articles on geology,
mineralogy, metallurgy and chemistry to Paul Gaimard's
Voyages de la Commission scientifique du nord, en Scandinavie,
en Laponie, au Spitzberg et aux Feroe, pendant les annees 1838-
1840. In 1844 he became professor of geology and mineralogy
at Rennes. His attention was now largely directed to the study
of the artificial production of minerals, to the metamorphism of
rocks, and to the genesis of igneous rocks. In 1857 he published
his famous Essai de pitrologie comparfe, in which he expressed
the view that the igneous rocks have been derived from two
magmas which coexist beneath the solid crust, and are respect-
ively acid and basic. He died at Rennes on the 3rd of December
1858.
DURRA (also written dourah, dhura, &c.; Arabic for a pearl,
hence a grain of corn), a cereal grass, Sorghum vulgar -e, extensively
cultivated in tropical and semi-tropical countries, where the grain,
made into bread, forms an important article of diet. In non-
Arabic-speaking countries it is known by other names, such as
Indian or African millet, pearl millet, Guinea corn and Kaffir corn.
In India it is called jowari, jowaree, jawari, &c. (Hindi, jawari).
DURUY, JEAN VICTOR (1811-1894), French historian and
statesman, was born in Paris on the nth of September 1811.
The son of a workman at the factory of the Gobelins, he was at
first intended for his father's trade, but succeeded in passing
brilliantly through the Ecole Normale SupSrieure, where he
studied under Michelet, whom he accompanied as secretary in his
travels through France, supplying for him at the Ecole Normale
in 1836, when only twenty-four. Ill-health forced him to resign,
and poverty drove him to undertake that extensive series of
school textbooks which first brought him into public notice.
712
DU RYER DUSSEK
He devoted himself with ardour to secondary school education,
holding his chair in the College Henri IV. at Paris for over a
quarter of a century. Already known as a historian by his
Histoire des Remains et des peuples soumis A leur domination (2
vols., 1843-1844), he was chosen by Napoleon HI. to assist him in
his life of Julius Caesar, and his abilities being thus brought under
the emperor's notice, he was in 1863 appointed minister of
education. In this position he displayed incessant activity, and
a desire for broad and liberal reform which aroused the bitter
hostility of the clerical party. Among- his measures may be
cited his organization of higher education (" enseignement
special "), his foundation of the " conferences publiques," which
have now become universal throughout France, and of a course of
secondary education for girls by lay teachers, and his introduc-
tion of modern history and modern languages into the curriculum
both of the lycees and of the colleges. He greatly improved the
state of primary education in France, and proposed to make it
compulsory and gratuitous, but was not supported in this project
by the emperor. In the new cabinet that followed the elections
of 1869, Duruy was replaced by Louis Olivier Bourbeau, and was
made a senator. After the fall of the Empire he took no part in
politics, except for an unsuccessful candidature for the senate in
1876. From 1881 to 1886 he served as a member of the Conseil
Superieur de 1'Instruction Publique. In 1884 he was elected to
the Academy in succession to Mignet. He died in Paris on the
25th of November 1894.
As a historian Duruy aimed in his earlier works at a graphic
and picturesque narrative which should make his subject popular.
His fame, however, rests mainly on the revised edition of his
Roman history, which appeared in a greatly enlarged form in
7 vols. under the title of Histoire des Romains depuis les temps les
plus recules jusqu'a la mart de Theodose (1870-1885), a really
great work; a magnificent illustrated edition was published
from 1879 to 1885 (English translation by W. J. Clarke, in 6
vols., 1883-1886). His Hisloire des Grecs, similarly illustrated,
appeared in 3 vols. from 1886 to 1891 (English translation in
4 vols., 1892). He was the editor, from its commencement in 1846,
of the Histoire universelle, publiee par une societt de professeurs
et de savants, for which he himself wrote a " Histoire sainte
d'apres la Bible," " Histoire grecque," " Histoire romaine,"
" Histoire du moyen age," " Histoire des temps modernes," and
" Abrege de 1'histoire de France." His other works include
Atlas historique de la France accompagne d'un volume de texte
(1849); Histoire de France de 1453 a 1815 (1856), of which an
expanded and illustrated edition appeared as Histoire de France
depuis I'invasion des barbares dans la Gaule romaine jusqu'a nos
jours (1892); Histoire populaire de la France (1862-1863);
Histoire populaire contemporaine de la France (1864-1866);
Causeries de voyage (1864); and Introduction generale a 1'histoire
de France (1865).
A memoir by Ernest Lavisse appeared in 1895 under the title of
Un Ministre: Victor Duruy. See also the notice by Jules Simon
(1895), and Portraits et souvenirs by S. Monod (1897).
DU RYER, PIERRE (1606-1658), French dramatist, was born
in Paris in 1606. His earlier comedies are in the loose style of
Alexandre Hardy, but after the production of the Cid (1636) he
copied the manner of Corneille, and produced his masterpiece
Scevole, probably in 1644 (the date generally given is 1646).
Alcionee (1638) was so popular that the abbe d' Aubignac knew it
by heart, and Queen Christina is said to have had it read to her
three times in one day. Du Ryer was a prolific dramatist.
Among his other works may be mentioned Saul (printed 1642),
and a comedy, Les Vendanges de Suresnes (1635 or 1636). He
died in Paris on the 6th of November 1658.
DUSE, ELEANORA (1850- ), Italian actress, was born at
Vigevano of a family of actors, and made her first stage appear-
ance at a very early age. The hardships incident to touring with
travelling companies unfavourably affected her health, but by
1885 she was recognized at home as Italy's greatest actress, and
this verdict was confirmed by that of all the leading cities of
Europe and America. In 1893 she made her first appearances
in New York and in London. For some years she was closely
associated with the romanticist Gabriele d' Annunzio, and
several of his plays, notably La Citta morta (1898) and Francesco
da Rimini (1901), provided her with important parts. But some
of her great successes during the 'eighties and early 'nineties
the days of her chief triumphs were in Italian versions of such
plays as La Dame aux camelias,fa. which Sarah Bernhardt was
already famous; and Madame Duse's reputation as an actress
was founded less on her " creations " than on her magnificent
individuality. In contrast to the great French actress she
avoided all " make-up "; her art depended on intense natural-
ness rather than stage effect, sympathetic force and poignant
intellectuality rather than the theatrical emotionalism of the
French tradition. Her dramatic genius gave a new reading to
the parts, and during these years the admirers of the two leading
actresses of Europe practically constituted two rival schools of
appreciation. Ill-health kept Madame Duse off the stage for
some time; but though, after 1000, it was no longer possible for
her to avoid " make-up," her rank among the great actresses of
history remained indisputable.
See also a biography by L. Rasi (1901); A. Symons, Studies in
Seven Arts (1906).
DUSSEK, JOHANN LUDWIG (1761-1812), Bohemian pianist
and composer, was born at Czaslau, in Bohemia, on the 9th of
February 1761. His father, Johann Joseph Dussek, a musician
of high reputation, was organist and choir-master in the collegiate
church of Czaslau, and several other members of the family were
distinguished as organists. Under the careful instruction of his
father he made such rapid progress that he appeared in public as
a pianist at the age of six. A year or two later he was placed
as a choir boy at the convent of Iglau, and he obtained his first
instruction in counterpoint from Spenar, the choir-master.
When his voice broke he entered on a course of general study,
first at the Jesuits' college, and then at the university of Prague,
where he took his bachelor's degree in philosophy. During his
curriculum of two and a half years he had paid unremitting
attention to the practice and study of his art, and had received
further instruction in composition from a Benedictine monk.
In 1779 he was for a short time organist in the church of St
Rombaut at Mechlin. At the close of his engagement he pro-
ceeded to Holland, where he attained great distinction as a
pianist, and was employed by the stadtholder as musical in-
structor to his family. While at the Hague he published his first
works, several sonatas and concertos for the piano. He had
already composed at the age of thirteen a solemn mass and
several small oratorios. In 1783 he visited Hamburg, and placed
himself under the instruction of Philip Emmanuel Bach. After
spending two years in Lithuania in the service of Prince Radziwill,
he went in 1786 to Paris, where he remained, with the exception
of a short period spent at Milan, until the outbreak of the
Revolution, enjoying the special patronage of Marie Antoinette
and great popularity with the public. In Milan he appeared
not only as a pianist but also as a player of the harmonica, an
instrument which was much sought after on account of its
novelty in those days. Towards the close of 1789 he removed
to London, where on the 2nd of March 1790 he appeared at
Salomon's concerts, and he married a daughter of Dominico Corri,
herself a clever harpist and pianist. Unfortunately he was
tempted by the large sale of his numerous compositions to open a
music-publishing warehouse in partnership with Montague Corri,
a relative of his wife. The result was injurious to his fame and
disastrous to his fortune. Writing solely for the sake of sale,
he composed many pieces that were quite unworthy of his genius;
and, as he was entirely destitute of business capacity, bankruptcy
was inevitable. In 1800 he was obliged to flee to Hamburg to
escape the claims of his creditors. Some years later he was
attached in the capacity of musician to the household of Prince
Louis Ferdinand of Prussia, with whom he formed an intimate
friendship. On the death of his patron in 1806 he passed into the
service of the prince of Isenburg as court musician. In 1809 he
went to Paris to fill a similar situation in the household of Princa
Talleyrand, which he held until his death on the zoth of March
1812.
DUSSELDORF DUST
Dussek had an important influence on the development of
pianoforte music. As a performer he was distinguished by the
purity of his tone, the combined power and delicacy of his touch,
and the facility of his execution. His sonatas, known as The
Invocation, The Farewell and The Harmonic Elegy, though not
equally sustained throughout, contain movements that have
scarcely been surpassed for solemnity and beauty of idea.
See also Alexander W. Thayer's articles in Dwight's Journal of
Music (Boston, 1861).
DUSSELDORF, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine
province, on the right bank of the Rhine, 24 m. by rail N. by W.
from Cologne. Pop. (1885) 115,190; (1895) 175,985; (i<>5)
252,630. Dusseldorf is one of the handsomest cities of western
Germany. Its situation on the great mid-European waterway
and as the junction of several main lines of railway has
largely favoured its rapid growth and industrial development.
It is the principal banking centre of the Westphalian coal and
iron trade, and the favourite residence of the leading merchants
of the lower Rhine.
The city consists of five main portions the Altstadt.the original
town with narrow, irregular streets; the Karlstadt, dating from
1787 and so called after the electoral prince Charles Theodore;
the Neustadt, laid out between 1690 and 1716; and the Fried-
richstadt and the Konigstadt, of recent formation. In addition,
the former villages of Pempelfort, Oberbilk, Unterbilk, Flingern
and Derendorf have been incorporated and form the outer suburbs
of the town proper. On the south side the town has been
completely metamorphosed by the removal of the Koln-Mindner
and Bergisch-Maerkisch stations to a central station lying to
the east. The site thus gained was converted into new
boulevards, while the railway to Neuss and Aix-la-Chapelle
was diverted through the suburb of Bilk and thence across
the Rhine by an iron bridge. A road bridge (completed 1898,
2087 ft. long), replacing the old bridge of boats, carries the
electric tram-line to Crefeld. The town, with the exception of
the Altstadt, is regularly built, but within its area are numerous
open grounds and public squares, which prevent the regularity
of its plan degenerating into monotony: the market-place, with
the colossal bronze statue of the elector John William, the parade,
the Allee Strasse, the Konigs Allee, and the Konigs Platz may
be specially mentioned. Of the thirty-seven churches, of which
twenty-six are Roman Catholic, the most noticeable are:
St Andrew's, formerly the Jesuit and court church, wjjh frescoes
by J. Hubner (1806-1882), E. Deger (1800-1885), and H. Miicke
(1806-1891), and the embalmed bodiesof several Rhenish electors;
St Lambert's, with a tower 180 ft. high and containing a monu-
ment to Duke William (d. 1592); Maximilians, with frescoes by
J. A. N. Settegast (1813-1890); the Romanesque St Martin's,
and the new Gothic church of St Mary. Besides the old ducal
palace, laid in ruins by the French in 1794, but restored in 1846,
the secular buildings comprise the government offices, the post-
office in Italian style, the town hall on the market square, the
law courts, the municipal music hall, the municipal theatre,
the assembly hall of the Rhenish provincial diet, an Italian
Renaissance edifice erected in 1879, the academy of art (1881;
in pure Renaissance), the industrial art museum (1896), the his-
torical museum, and the industrial art school. The town also
possesses a library of 50,000 volumes, several high-grade schools,
and is the seat of a great number of commercial and intellectual
associations; but to nothing is it more indebted for its celebrity
than to the Academy of Painting. This famous institution,
originally founded by the elector Charles Theodore in 1767, was re-
organized by King Frederick William III. in 1822, and has since
attained a high degree of prosperity as a centre of artistic culture.
From 1822 till 1826 it was under the direction of Cornelius,
a native of the town, from 1826 to 1859 under Schadow, and
from 1859 to 1864 under E. Bendemann (1811-1889). From
Bendemann's resignation it continued in the hands of a body
of curators till 1873, when Hermann Wislicenus (1825-1899) of
Weimar was chosen director. The noble collection of paintings
which formerly adorned the Dusseldorf gallery was removed
to Munich in 1805, and has not since been restored; but there
is no lack of artistic treasures in the town. The academy
possesses 14,000 original drawings and sketches by the great
masters, 24,000 engravings, and 248 water-colour copies of Italian
originals; the municipal gallery contains valuable specimens
of the local school; and the same is the case with the Schulte
collection. The principal names are Cornelius, Lessing, the
brothers Andreas and Oswald Achenbach, A. Baur (b. 1835),
A. Tidemand (1814-1876), and L. Knaus (b. 1829). An annual
exhibition is held under the auspices of the Art Union; and the
members of the Artists' Society, or Malkasten, as they are called,
have annual festivals and masquerades.
The town is embellished with many handsome monuments
notably a bronze statue of Cornelius, by A. Donndorf (b. 1835),
an equestrian statue of the emperor William I. (1896), and a
large bronze group in front of the assembly hall of the diet,
representing the river Rhine and its chief tributaries. In the
suburb of Bilk there are the Floragarten and Volksgarten, the
astronomical observatory and the harbour. Extensive quays
afford accommodation for vessels of deep draught, and the trade
with the Dutch cities and with London has been thereby greatly
enhanced. Within recent years Dusseldorf has made remarkable
progress as an industrial centre. The first place is occupied by
the iron industries, embracing foundries, furnaces, engineering
and machine shops, &c. Next come cotton spinning and weaving,
calico printing, yarn-spinning, dyeing and similar textile branches,
besides a variety of other industries.
A little to the north of the town lies the village of Dusselthal,
with Count von der Recke-Volmerstein's establishment for
homeless children in the former Trappist monastery, and in the
suburb of Pempelfort is the Jdgerhof, the residence at one time
of Prince Frederick of Prussia, and afterwards of the prince of
Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen.
Dusseldorf, as the form of the name the village on the Dussel
clearly indicates, was long a place of small consideration. In
1288 it was raised to the rank of a town by Count Adolf of Berg;
from his successors it obtained various privileges, and in 1385 was
chosen as their residence. After it had suffered greatly in the
Thirty Years' War and the War of the Spanish Succession, it
recovered its prosperity under the patronage of the electoral
prince John William of the Palatinate, whc dwelt in the castle
for many years before his death in 1716. In 1795 the town, after
a violent bombardment, was surrendered to the French; and
after the peace of Luneville it was deprived of its fortifications.
In 1805 it became the capital of the Napoleonic duchy of Berg;
and in 1815 it passed with the duchy into Prussian possession.
Among its celebrities are Johann Georg and Friedrich Heinrich
Jacob! , Heinrich Heine, Varnhagen von Ense, Peter von Cor-
nelius, Wilhelm Camphausen and Heinrich von Sybel.
See H. Ferber, Historische Wanderung durch die alte Stadt Dusseldorf
(Dusseldorf, 1880-1890); Brandt, Studien zur Wirtschafts- und Ver-
waltungsgeschichte der Stadt Dusseldorf (Dusseldorf, 1902) ; and local
Guide by Bone.
DUSSERAH, or DASARA, a Hindu new-moon festival (some-
times called Maha-navami) , held in October, and specially
connected with ancestral worship. In the native states, such
as Mysore, the rajas give public entertainments lasting for ten
days, and especially invite European officials to the festivities,
which include horse-racing, .athletic contests, and banquets.
See J. A. Dubois, Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies, p. 577.
DUST, earth or other matter reduced to fine dry and powdery
particles; the word is Teutonic and appears in such various
forms as the Dutch duist, Danish dyst, for the dust of flour or
meal, and in the older forms donst; the modern German Dunst,
vapour, probably preserves the original form and meaning,
that of something which can be blown about by the wind.
Atmospheric Dust. The presence of dust in the atmosphere
has probably been known from the earliest ages, as prehistoric
man must have had plenty of opportunities of noticing it lighting
up the paths of sunbeams that penetrated his dark caves, yet it
is only of recent years that it has become the subject of scientific
observation. Formerly it was considered as simply matter in
the wrong place, the presence of which had to be tolerated, but
DUST
was supposed to serve no useful purpose in nature. It was not
till the year 1880 that atmospheric dust came under scientific
investigation, when it soon became evident that it played a
most important part in nature, and that instead of being a
nuisance to be got rid of, it added much to the comforts and
pleasures of life.
The atmosphere is composed of a number of gases which have
a nearly constant proportion to each other, and of varying
proportions of water vapour. This vapour, constantly rising
from land and sea, mixes with the gases in the atmosphere and
so long as it remains vapour is invisible, but when it becomes
cooled by the actual processes in nature the vapour tends to
condense to the liquid condition and form cloud particles.
Before 1880 it had always been assumed that when this condensa-
tion took place, the vapour molecules simply combined with
each other to form the little globules of water, but J. Aitken
showed that vapour molecules in the atmosphere do not combine
with each Other, that before condensation can take place there
must be some solid or liquid nucleus on which the vapour mole-
cules can combine, and that the dust in the atmosphere forms
the nuclei on which the water-vapour molecules condense.
Every cloud particle being grown round a dust nucleus thus
has a dust particle in it. The presence of dust in the atmosphere
allows the condensation of the vapour to take place whenever
the air is cooled to the saturation point, and if there were no
dust present the condensation would not take place till the air
was cooled far below that point, and become highly super-
saturated; and when it did take place the condensation would
be violent and result in heavy rain-drops without the formation
of what we know as cloud. This might be in some ways an
advantage, but living in such supersaturated air would have
many disadvantages. The supersaturated air having no dust
to condense on would condense on our clothes, the inside and
outside walls of our dwellings, and on every solid and liquid
surface with which it came in contact.
Many of the dust particles in the atmosphere which form the
nuclei of condensation are extremely minute, so small as to be
beyond the powers of the microscope, and at first sight it might
appear to be impossible to get any reliable information as to
their numbers. But Aitken, having shown that water vapour
must have a nucleus to condense on, saw that this placed in our
hands jthe means of counting the dust particles in our atmosphere,
and in 1888 showed how it could be done. As water vapour
in the air condenses on the dust particles present and forms
cloud particles, he showed that all that would be necessary
would be to cause the dust particles to become centres of con-
densation, when they would be so increased in size as to come
within the range of an ordinary magnifying lens, and that by
counting the cloud particles it would be possible to determine
the number of dust particles. To carry out this idea the air
under examination was placed in an air-tight receiver and
saturated with water vapour. It was then expanded by an air-
pump, and in this way cooled and condensation produced. The
cloud particles so formed were allowed to fall on a micrometer
and their number counted by the aid of an ordinary short-
focussed lens. Certain precautions are necessary in carrying
out this process. There must not be more than 500 particles
per cubic centimetre of air, or all the particles will not form
nuclei, and will not therefore be thrown down as cloud particles.
When the number in the air tested exceeds that figure, the dusty
air must be mixed with such a quantity of dustless air as will
reduce the number below 500 per c.c., and the correct number
in the air tested is obtained by allowing for the proportion of
dustless air to dusty air, and for the expansion necessary for
cooling.
Thousands of tests of the atmospheric dust have been made
with this instrument at many places over the world, and in no
part of it has dustless air been found; indeed it is very rare to
find air with less than too particles per c.c., whilst in most
country places the numbers rise to thousands, and in cities such
as London and Paris the number may be as high as 100,000 to
1 50,000 per c.c.
The sources of dust particles in the atmosphere are numerous.
In nature volcanoes supply a large quantity, and the meteoric
matter constantly falling towards the earth and becoming
dissipated by the intense heat produced by the friction of the
atmosphere keep up a constant supply. Large quantities of dust
are also raised from the surface of the earth by strong winds, from
dusty roads and dry soil, and there is good reason for supposing
that large quantities of sand are carried from the deserts by the
wind and transported great distances, the sand, for instance,
from the desert of Africa being carried to Europe. It is, however^
to artificial causes that most of the dust is due. The burning of
coal is the principal source of these, not only when the coal is
burned with the production of smoke, but also when smokeless,
and even when the coal is first converted into gas and burned iii
the most perfect forms of combustion. It results from this that
while in the air over the uninhabited parts of the earth and over
the ocean the number of particles is small, being principally
produced by natural causes or carried from distant lands, they are
much more numerous in inhabited areas, especially in those
where much coal is burned. It is evident that if there were not
some purifying process in nature there would be a tendency for
the dust particles to increase in numbers, because though some
dust particles may fall out of the air, many of them are so small
they have but little tendency to settle, but by becoming centres
of cloud particles they are carried downwards to the earth, and,
further,these when showering down as rain tend to wash the others
out of the atmosphere. We may therefore look on all unin-
habited areas of the earth as purifying areas, and their purify-
ing power seems to depend partly on their extent, but principally
on their rainfall. The following table illustrates the purifying
effect of some of these areas obtained from the results of hundreds
of observations. The areas referred to are: (i) Mediterranean
Sea, the observations being made on the south coast of France
on the air blowing inshore; (2) the Alps, the observations being
made on the Rigi Kulm; (3) the Highlands of Scotland, the
observations being made at various places; and (4) the Atlantic
Ocean, the observations being made on the west coast of
Scotland, when the wind blew from the ocean.
Mediterranean.
Alps.
Highlands.
Atlantic.
Mean of lowest
Mean of number
891
1611
38l
892
141
552
72
338
These numbers are all low for atmospheric dust, much lower than
in air from inhabited areas. On the Rigi Kulm, for instance, the
number was sometimes over 10,000 per c.c. when the wind was
from inhabited areas and the sun causing ascending currents;
and at the same place as the Atlantic air was tested the numbers
went up to over 5000 per c.c. when the wind blew from the
inhabited areas of Scotland, though the distance to the nearest
was over 60 m.
E. D. Fridlander ' made many observations on the dust of the
atmosphere with the same instrument as employed by Aitken.
In crossing the Atlantic he got no low numbers, always over
2000 per c.c., but in the Gulf of St Lawrence he got a reading as
low as 280 per c.c. In crossing the Pacific the lowest obtained
was 245, in the Indian Ocean 243, in the Arabian Sea 280, in
the Red Sea 383, and in the Mediterranean 875 per c.c. He
has also made observations in Switzerland. The lowest number
obtained by him was in the air at the top of the Bieshorn, 13,600 ft.
above sea-level, where the number was as low as 157 per c.c.
Professor G. Melander 2 of Helsingfors studied the dust in
the atmosphere. His observations were made in Switzerland,
Biskra in the Sahara, Finland, the borders of Russia, and in
Norway; but in none of these places were low numbers observed.
The minimum numbers were over 300 per c.c., while maximum
numbers in some cases went high.
Aitken when observing on the Rigi Kulm noticed during some
1 " Atmospheric Dust Observations from various parts of the
World," Quart. Jpurn. Roy. Met. Soc. (July 1896).
* La Condensation de la vapeur d'eau dans I' atmosphere (Helsingfors,
1897).
DUST
conditions of weather that there was a daily variation in the
number of particles, a maximum near the hottest part of the day
and a minimum in the morning, and attributed the rise in the
numbers to the impure air of the valleys rising on the sun-heated
slopes of the mountain or driven up by the
wind. A. Rankin, at the Ben Nevis observa-
tory, also observed this daily variation, and his
observations also indicate a yearly variation
at that 'station, the numbers being highest in
March, April and May. This may possibly
be due to small rainfall in these months,
but more probably to the fact that south-
easterly winds blow more frequently during these months
on Ben Nevis than at any other season, and these winds bring
the impure air from the more densely inhabited parts of the
country.
Without atmospheric dust not only would we not have the
glorious cloud scenery we at present enjoy, but we should have no
haze in the atmosphere, none of the atmospheric effects that
delight the artist. The white haze, the blue haze, the tender
sunset glows of red, orange and yellow, would all be absent, and
the moment the sun dipped below the horizon the earth would be
in darkness; no twilight, no after-glows, such as those given some
years ago by the volcanic dust from Krakatoa; none of the
poetry of eventide. Why, it may be asked, is this so? Simply
because all these are due to matter suspended in the air, to dust.
Water has no such effects as long as it is a vapour, and if it
condensed without the presence of dust, the particles would be far
too few to give any appreciable effect and too heavy to remain in
suspension.
Turning now to the investigations on this point, Aitken has
shown that there is no evidence to indicate that water vapour has
any hazing effect, and shows that the haze is entirely due to dust,
the density of the haze increasing with the increase in the number
of dust particles in the air, and also with the relative humidity;
but the humidity does not act as vapour, but by condensing on
the dust and increasing the size of the particles, as it is not the
amount of vapour present but the degree of saturation that
affects the result; the more saturated the air, the more vapour
is condensed on the particles, they so become larger and their
hazing effect increased.
The relation of haze or transparency of the air to the number of
dust particles was observed on five visits to the Rigi Kulm. The
visibility of Hochgerrach, a mountain 70 m. distant from the
Rigi, was used for estimating the amount of haze when the air was
clear. During the visits this mountain was visible thirteen times,
and it was never seen except when the number of particles was
low. On eight occasions the mountain was only one-half to one-
fifth hazed, and on these days the number of particles was as low
as from 326 to 850 per c.c. It was seen five times when the
number was from 950 to 2000 per c.c., but the mountain on these
occasions was only just visible, and it was never seen when the
number was a little over 2000 per c.c.
It has been pointed out that the relative humidity has an
effect on the dust by increasing the size of the particles and so
increasing the haze. It was therefore necessary in working out
the dust and haze observations made at the different places to
arrange all the observations in tables according to the wet-bulb
depressions at the time. All the observations taken when the
wet-bulb depression was between 2 and 4 were put in one table,
all those when it was between 4 and 7 in another, and all
those when it was over 7 in a third. It should be here noted
that when the dust particles were counted and the wet and dry
bulb observations taken, an estimate of the amount of haze was
also made. This was done by estimating the amount of haze on
a mountain at a known distance. Suppose the mountain to be
25 m. distant, and at the time to be one-half hazed, then the limit
of visibility of the mountain under the conditions would be
50 m., and that was taken as the number representing the trans-
parency of the atmosphere at the time. In the tables above
referred to along with the number of particles was entered the
limit of visibility at the time; when this was done it was at once
seen that as the number of particles increased the limit of visi-
bility decreased, as will be seen from the following short table
of the Rigi Kulm observations when the wet-bulb depression
was between 2 and 4
Date.
Lowest
Number.
Highest
Number.
Mean
Number.
Limit of
Visibility in
Miles.
C.
igth May 1891
22nd May 1889
1 6th May 1893
428
434
1225
690
850
2600
559
642
1912
ISO
IOO
40
83.850 ) Mean
2 !'*
Wet-bulb depression .
Mean values of C.
2 to 4
76,058
4 to 7
105,545
7 and over
141,148
When the number of particles is multiplied by the limit of visi-
bility in the tables a fairly constant number C. is obtained; see
preceding table. All the observations taken at the different
places were treated in a similar manner and the means of all the
observations at the different humidities were obtained, and the
following table gives the mean values of C. at the different wet-
bulb depressions of all the observations made at the different
places.
From the above table it will be seen that as the dryness of the
air increased it required a larger number of particles to produce
a complete haze, nearly double the number being required when
the wet-bulb depression was over 7 than when it was only from
2 to 4. To find the number of particles required to produce a
complete haze, that is, to render a mountain just invisible, all that
is necessary is to multiply the above constant C. by 160,930, the
number of centimetres in a mile, when this is done with the
observations made in the West Highlands we get the numbers
given in the following table:
Wet-bulb depression.
Number of Particles to
produce a complete haze.
2 to 4
4 to 7
7 to 10
12,500,000,000
17,100,000,000
22,600,000,000
The above table gives the number of particles of atmospheric
dust in a column of air having a section of one centimetre square,
at the different humidities, required to produce a complete haze,
that is, to make a distant object invisible, and is of course quite
independent of the length of the column.
In making these dust and transparency observations three
things were noted: ist, the number of particles; 2nd, the
humidity; and 3rd, the limit of visibility. From the results above
given, it is evident that if we now know any two of these we can
calculate the third. Suppose we know the limit of visibility and
the humidity, then the number of particles can be calculated by
the aid of the above tables.
To show the hazing effects of dust it is not, however, necessary
to use a dust counter. Aitken for some years made observations
on the haze in the air at Falkirk by simply noting the direction
of the wind, the wet-bulb depression at the time, and the trans-
parency of the air. Falkirk is favourably situated for such
observations owing to the peculiar distribution of the population
surrounding it. The whole area from west, north-west to north,
is very thinly populated, while in all other directions it is densely
populated. It was found that the air from the thinly inhabited
parts, that is, the north-west quadrant, was nine times clearer
than the air from other directions with the same wet-bulb
depression, and that the density of the haze was directly pro-
portional to the density of the population of the area from which
the wind blew. These observations also showed that the trans-
parency of the air increases with the dryness, being 3-7 times
clearer when the wet-bulb depression is 8 than when it is only
2, and that the air coming from the densely inhabited parts
is about 10 times more hazed than if there were no inhabitants in
the country. (J. A.*)
yi6
DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY
DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY, THE (Oostindische Vereenigde
Maatschappij), a body founded by a charter from the Nether-
lands states-general on the 2oth of March 1602. It had a double
purpose: first to regulate and protect the already considerable
trade carried on by the Dutch in the Indian Ocean, and then to
help in prosecuting the long war of independence against Spain
and Portugal. Before the union between Portugal and Spain in
1580-81, the Dutch had been the chief carriers of eastern produce
from Lisbon to northern Europe. When they were shut out from
the Portuguese trade by the Spanish king they were driven to
sail to the East in order to make good their loss. Unsuccessful
attempts were made to find a route to the East by the north
of Europe and Asia, which would have been free from interference
from the Spaniards and Portuguese. It was only when these
failed that the Dutch decided to intrude on the already well-
known route by the Cape of Good Hope, and to fight their way
to the Spice Islands of the Malay Archipelago. A first expedition,
commanded by Cornelius Houtman, a merchant long resident at
Lisbon, sailed on the and of April 1595. It was provided with
an itinerary or book of sailing instructions drawn up by Jan
Huyghen van Linschoten, 1 a Dutchman who had visited Goa.
The voyage was marked by many disasters and losses, but the
survivors who reached the Texel on their return on the 2oth of
August 1597 brought back some valuable cargo, and a treaty
made with the sultan of Bantam in Java.
These results were sufficient to encourage a great outburst of
commercial adventure. Companies described as "Van Feme "
that is, of the distant seas were formed, and by 1602 from sixty
to seventy Dutch vessels had sailed to Hindustan and the Indian
Archipelago. On those distant seas the traders could neither
be controlled nor protected by their native government. They
fought among themselves as well as with the natives and the
Portuguese, and their competition sent up prices in the eastern
markets and brought them down at home. Largely at the
suggestion of Jan van Oldenbarneveldt, and in full accordance
with the economic principles of the time, the states-general
decided to combine the existing separate companies into one
united Dutch East India Company, which could discharge
the functions of a government in those remote seas, prosecute
the war with Spain and Portugal, and regulate the trade. A
capital estimated variously at a little above and a little under
6,500,000 florins, was raised by national subscription in shares of
3000 florins. The independence of the states which constituted
the United Netherlands was recognized by the creation of local
boards at Amsterdam, in Zealand, at Delft and Rotterdam,
Hoorn and Enkhuizen. The boards directed the trade of their
own districts, and were responsible to one another, but not for
one another as towards the public. A general directorate of 60
members was chosen by the local boards. Amsterdam was
represented by 20 directors, Zealand by 12, Delft and Rotterdam
by 14, and Hoorn and Enkhuizen also by 14. The real governing
authority was the " Collegium," or board of control of 17
members, of whom 16 were chosen from the general directorate
in proportion to the share which each local branch had contri-
buted to the capital or joint stock. Amsterdam, which sub-
scribed a half, had eight representatives; Zealand, which found
a quarter, had four; Delft and Rotterdam, Hoorn and Enkhuizen
had two respectively, since each of the pairs had subscribed an
eighth. The seventeenth member was nominated in succession
by the other members of the United Netherlands. A committee
1 Linschoten was born at Haarlem in or about 1563. He started
his travels at the age of sixteen and, after some years in Spain, went
with the Portuguese East India fleet to Goa, where he arrived in
September 1583, returning in 1589. In 1594 and 1595 he took part
in the Dutch Arctic voyages, and in 1598 settled at Enkhuizen,
where he died on the 8th of February 1611. His Navigatio ac
itinerarium (1595-1596) is a compilation based partly on his own
experiences, partly on those of other travellers with whom he came
in contact. It was translated into English and German in 1598;
two Latin versions appeared in 1599 and a French translation in
1610. The famous English version was reprinted for the Hakluyt
Society in 1885. Large selections, with an Introduction, are pub-
lished in C. Raymond Beazley's Voyages and Travels, vol. ii. (English
Garner, London, 1903).
of ten was established at the Hague to transact the business of the
company with the states-general. The " collegium " of seven-
teen nominated the governors-general who were appointed after
1608. The charter, which was granted for twenty-one years, con-
ferred great powers on the company. It was endowed with a
monopoly of the trade with the East Indies, was allowed to
import free from all custom dues, though required to pay 3%
on exports, and charged with a rent to the states. It was author-
ized to maintain armed forces by sea and land, to erect forts and
plant colonies, to make war or peace, to arrange treaties in the
name of the stadtholder, since eastern potentates could not be
expected to understand what was meant by the states-general,
and to coin money. It had full administrative, judicial and
legislative authority over the whole of the sphere of operations,
which extended from the west of the Straits of Magellan westward
to the Cape of Good Hope.
The history of the Dutch East India Company from its
formation in 1602 until its dissolution in 1798 is filled, until the
close of the i7th century, with wars and diplomatic relations.
Its headquarters were early fixed at Batavia in Java. But it
extended its operations far and wide. It had to deal diplomatic-
ally with China and Japan; to conquer its footing in the Malay
Archipelago and in Ceylon; to engage in rivalry with Portuguese
and English; to establish posts and factories at the Cape, in
the Persian Gulf, on the coasts of Malabar and Coromandel and
in Bengal. Only the main dates of its progress can be mentioned
here. By 1619 it had founded its capital in Batavia in Java on
the ruins of the native town of Jacatra. It expelled the Portu-
guese from Ceylon between 1638 and 1658, and from Malacca
in 1641. Its establishment at the Cape of Good Hope, which
was its only colony in the strict sense, began in 1652. A treaty
with the native princes established its power in Sumatra in 1667.
The flourishing age of the company dates from 1605 and lasted
till the closing years of the century. When at the summit of
its prosperity in 1669 it possessed 150 trading ships, 40 ships
of war, 10,000 soldiers, and paid a dividend of 40%. In the
last years of the 1 7th century its fortunes began to decline. Its
decadence was due to a variety of causes. The rigid monopoly
it enforced wherever it had the power provoked the anger of
rivals. When Pieter Both, the first governor-general, was sent
out in 1608, his instructions from the Board of Control were to
see that Holland had the entire monopoly of the trade with the
East Indies, and that no other nation had any share whatever.
The pursuit of this policy led the company into violent hostility
with the English, who were also opening a trade with the East.
Between 1613 and 1632 the Dutch drove the English from the
Spice Islands and the Malay Archipelago almost entirely. The
English were reduced to a precarious footing at Bantam in Java.
One incident of this conflict, the torture and judicial murder of
the English factors at Amboyna in 1623, caused bitter hostility
in England. The success of the company in the Malay Archi-
pelago was counterbalanced by losses elsewhere. It had in
all eight governments: Amboyna, Banda, Ternate, Macassar,
Malacca, Ceylon, Cape of Good Hope and Java. Commissioners
were placed in charge of its factories or trading posts in Bengal,
on the Coromandel coast, at Surat, and at Gambroon (or Bunder
Abbas) in the Persian Gulf, and in Siam. Its trade was divided
into the " grand trade " between Europe and the East, which was
conducted in convoys sailing from and returning to Amsterdam;
and the " Indies to Indies " or coasting trade between its posses-
sions and native ports.
The rivalry and the hostilities of French and English gradually
drove the Dutch from the mainland of Asia and from Ceylon.
The company suffered severely in the War of American Inde-
pendence. But it extended and strengthened its hold on the
great islands of the Malay Archipelago. The increase of its
political and military burdens destroyed its profits. In the
early i8th century it was already embarrassed, and was bankrupt
when it was dissolved in 1798, though its credit remained un-
shaken, largely, if its enemies are to be believed, because it
concealed the truth and published false accounts. In the later
stages of its history its revenue was no longer derived from trade,
DUTCH LANGUAGE
717
but from forced contributions levied on its subjects. At home,
the directors, who were accused of nepotism and corruption,
became unpopular at an early date. The company was subject
to increasing demands and ever more severe regulation on the
successive renewals of its charters at intervals of twenty-one
years. The immediate causes of its destruction were the conquest
of Holland by the French revolutionary armies, the fall of the
government of the stadtholder, and the establishment of the
Batavian Republic in 1798.
AUTHORITIES. The great original work on the history of the
Dutch East India Company is the monumental Beschryving van
oud en niew cost Indien (Dordrecht and Amsterdam, 1724), by
Francois Valentyn, in 8 vois., folio, profusely illustrated. Two
modern works of the highest value are: J. K. J. de Jonge, De
Opkomst van het Nederlandsch Gezag in oost Indien (The Hague and
Amsterdam, 1862-1888), in 13 vols. ; J. J. Meinsma, Geschiedenis
van de Nederlandsche oost-Indische Bezittingen (3 vols., Delft and the
Hague, 18721875). See also John Crawford, History of the Indian
Archipelago (Edinburgh, 1820); Clive Day, The Dutch in Java
(New York, 1904) ; Sir W. W. Hunter, A History of British India
(London, 1899) ; and Pierre Bonnassieux, Les Grandes Compagnies
de commerce (Paris, 1892).
DUTCH LANGUAGE. When the Romans reached the
territory now forming the kingdom of Holland, they found a
number of tribes south of the Rhine, who though here and
there mixed with Germans belonged to a non-Germanic race,
and who, closely related to the Belgian tribes, spoke a language
belonging to the Celtic group. Possibly they were also situated
on the more elevated grounds north of the Rhine, at least
vestiges of them may still be traced. We do not know anything
about their being mixed with or subdued by the intruding
German tribes. We can only guess it.
At that time the fertile delta of the Rhine was already occupied
by German tribes who in language and national customs must
have stood in some relation to the tribes living along the Rhine
in Germany, later called Franks. The consonantal system of
their language was in accordance with the other Ixjw-German
dialects, which is proved by the remains we have in the glosses
of the Lex Salica, for the greater part handed down in a bad
condition. These tribes, whom we shall take together under
the name of Low-Franks the Romans called them Batavi,
Caninefates,Chamavi,&c. werespreadoverGelderland,Overysel,
part of Utrecht and South Holland, and the south-western
part of North Holland. When in the sixth century allied tribes
from the present north Germany, who named themselves
Saxons after one of those tribes living alongside the Elbe,
conquered the territory occupied by the Franks a great many
retreated from the eastern parts, and then the Franks, who
already in the time of the Romans had begun to invade into the
territory of the Belgian tribes, continued their wars of conquest
in a southward direction and subdued all the land south of the
branch of the Rhine that is called the " Waal." Since that time
the Prankish dialect came there, and the Celtic-speaking popula-
tion of the south suffered its language to be entirely supplanted
by that of the conquerors. Hence in the formerly Celtic-speaking
parts of Brabant and Limburg we find but Prankish dialects,
somewhat corresponding with those of part of Gelderland, Utrecht
and Holland. The deviation that is perceptible concerns less
the use of words than the way of laying the stress.
In part of Gelderland, east of the Ysel, and in Overysel, the
older Prankish dialect (of the Salian Franks) was given up and
the language of the victorious Saxons was assumed, perhaps
here and there strongly mixed with the older language. The
language which is spoken there, and farther to the north through
Drente as far as in some parts of Groningen, is called Saxon.
Indeed, these dialects correspond in a great many respects
with the language of the Old-Saxon poem Heliand (q.v.) and
with the North-German dialects from the latter they deviate
considerably in some respects. The chief point of conformity
is the formation of the plural of the verb: wi loopt, wi gat,
Heliand: wi hlopad, wi gangad, which are wei loopen, wei gaan
in the Prankish dialects. In the vocal system, too, there are
peculiar differences.
In the north of Holland there lived, and still lives alongside the
coast, a tribe with which Caesar did not come in contact. The
Frisians were spread over a large distance along the shore as
far as the mouth of the Elbe, and in the west at least as far as
the country north of Haarlem. In the time of the Romans they
cannot have extended their power farther southward. Later,
however, this seems to have been the case. Maerlant and Melis
Stoke (i3th century) tell us that tune was when their power
extended even over part of Flanders. About the year 339 they
were repelled as far as the mouth of the Meuse, and ever after-
wards the Franks, led by their counts, pushed their dominion
back farther and farther to the north, as far as the country
north of Alkmaar. After all, a great many Frisian peculiarities
may be perceived in the language of the country people of the
parts which were once in their power.
To begin with the south : in Zeeland the population has quite
given up the former probably non-Germanic language. Frisian
influence is still perceptible in many words and expressions, but
for all that the language has lost the Frisian character and
assumed the nature of the neighbouring Prankish dialects in the
present Belgium and Brabant. If it was then influenced by the
south, later it was influenced rather by the language of Holland.
Farther to the north Frisian elements may be perceived in Holland
at the seashore and also in many respects still in North Holland.
The real Frisian tongue has only been preserved in the province of
Friesland, where intrusion of the dialect spoken in Holland is
already perceptible since the I3th century. With the Frisian
tongue this formed a new dialect in the towns, the " Stadfriesch,"
whereas the country people in the villages and the peasants have
preserved the old Frisian tongue as " Boerenfriesch."
The more eastward dialects of Frisian in Groningen, the eastern
part of Friesland (Stellingawerf) and West-Drente were first
strongly mixed with Saxon; at the same time we find a strong
mixture of Frisian and Saxo-Frankish east of the Zuider Zee.
Later the Saxon dialect of the town of Groningen, once thecapital
of East-Drente, became prominent over the whole province.
In all parts, however, the language of Holland, mixed with and
changed by the living speech, is getting more and more influence,
issuing from the towns and large villages.
This influence over the whole country began at the opening of
the 1 7th century, and, in connexion with the prevalent written
language, gradually produced a colloquial language, deviating
from the written language as well as from the native idioms of the
country, though assuming elements from both. In this colloquial
speech the idiom of Holland forms the basis, whereas the written
language formed itself on quite different principles.
If we compare the colloquial speech and the native idiom with
the written language, we find remarkable differences, which are
caused by the origin of the Dutch written language.
The first to write in any of the idioms of the Dutch language, if
we leave apart the old version of the psalms in East Low Prankish,
was an inhabitant of the neighbourhood of Maastricht, Henrik
van Veldeke, who wrote a Servatius legend and an Aeneid; the
latter we only know by a Mid High German copy. This dialect
deviates from the western dialects and has likeness to the Middle-
Prankish. His work had no influence whatever on the written
language.
In the west of Belgium, in the districts of Antwerp, East and
West Flanders and Brabant, great prosperity and strong develop-
ment of commerce caused a vivid intellectual life. No wonder we
find there the first writings in the West-Low-Frankish native
idiom. This language spread over the neighbouring districts.
At least in 1254 we find the same language used in the statute
(i.e. privilege) of Middelburg.
In those parts a great deal was written in poetry and prose, and
the writings in this language are known under the name of
Middle-Dutch literature.
If originally the south took the lead in all departments, later
the north gradually surpasses the south, and elements from the
northern native idiom begin to intrude into the written language.
North of the Meuse and the Rhine little was written as yet in
the I3th century. Not until about 1300 does literary life begin
to develop here (Melis Stoke's Rijmcronijk), and these writings
7i8
DUTCH LANGUAGE
were written in the language of the south with slight deviations
here and there. Chancery and clergy had taken a written
language to the north, deviating considerably from the native
idiom in vogue there, which belonged to the Frisio-Frankish
idioms. So this written language gradually spread over the
west of the Netherlands and Belgium. The east of the Nether-
lands agreed in its chancery style more with the districts of Low
Germany.
There was a great difference between the written language and
the dialect spoken on the banks of the Y. This becomes quite
conspicuous if we compare what Roemer Visscher, Coster,
Bredero borrow from their native idiom with the language of
Huygens or Cats, in the latter of which the southern elements
predominate, mixed with the dialects of Zeeland and Holland.
Vondel, too, in his first period was influenced by the idiom of
Brabant. Only after 1625 does he get on more familiar terms
with the Amsterdam dialect. In the various editions of his poems
it may be seen how not only loan-words, but also words belonging
to the southern idiom, are gradually replaced by other words,
belonging to the vocabulary of North Holland, and still to be
heard.
The written language passed from the south to the north, and,
considerably changed at Amsterdam, was also assumed in the
other provinces in the lyth century, after the Union of Utrecht.
In the north, in Groningen and Friesland, the official writings and
laws were still noted down in a Frisian or Saxo-Frisian idiom as
late as the isth and i6th centuries. When the contact with
Holland grew stronger, and the government officials ever and
again came in contact with Holland, chancery, too, gradually
assumed the Holland idiom. The same took place in the eastern
provinces.
This, however, did not yet make the written language popular,
which did not happen before the population of the Dutch
provinces got its Slatenbybel, the well-known authorized version
of the Bible, made at Dordrecht between 1626 and 1637.
By the frequent use of this so-called Statenvertaling the language
of Holland obtained its vogue in all provinces on the point of
religion, and many expressions, borrowed from that Bible, were
preserved in the native idiom.
By the remarkable vicissitudes of these parts from the earliest
time up to the moment when Holland became an independent
kingdom, during which alternately German elements under the
Bavarian counts and French influences under the Burgundian
princes were predominant, and also later in the i6th and i7th
centuries, elements from these languages were mixed with the
language in common use. Moreover, various words passed from
the eastern languages into Dutch by the colonial and commercial
connexions, while at the same time many words were borrowed
from Latin, the language of the learned people, especially in the
1 6th century, and from French, under the influence of the poetic
clubs of the iyth and i8th centuries. In the time of the
rhetoricians, in the i6th century, and of Coornhert, as well as
in the days of Bredero, Hooft and Vondel, we repeatedly find
opposition against these foreign words, often successful, so that
in 1650 Vondel could say: " Onze spraak is sedert weinige jaren
herwaart van bastaard-woorden en onduitsch allengs geschuimt." 1
Some people, e.g. Hooft, went even so far as to make very clumsy
versions of Latin and French bastard words, handed down of old.
Under the influence of the club " Nil Volentibus Arduum " and
the predominant literary clubs of the i8th century, people
became inclined towards expressing their thoughts as much as
possible in pure Dutch. Therefore a large number of rules were
given, with respect to prose as well as to poetry, in consequence of
which the written language grew very stiff in choice of words and
forms, and remains so till the latter half of the igth century.
The obtrusion of the French language during the reign of
Napoleon had no effect. But the subsequent union of Holland
and Belgium strengthened the French element, especially in the
higher ranks of society. King William I. had tried to make
Dutch more popular in Belgium by a general teaching of the
1 i.e. " Within a few years our language has been gradually
skimmed of bastard words and non-Dutch elements."
Dutch language. When north and south were separated, the
French became predominant in the south. Only in the Flemish
provinces of Belgium the people tried to preserve the native
idiom and to do away with French words. These endeavours,
called " De Vlaamsche beweging," begun by F. v. Willems',
Heremans and others in the south, were supported in the north
by Professor de Vries at Leiden. In order to get a pure Dutch
language, the idea of composing a general Dutch dictionary was
introduced. M. de Vries and his partner L. te Winkel, however,
did not begin this task before having given a new formulation of
the rules for spelling. These rules, deviating in many respects
from the spelling then in vogue, introduced by Siegenbeek in
1806, have been predominant up to the present moment. Since
1891 Dr R. A. Kollewyn and Dr F. Buitenrust Hettema have
been engaged in trying to bring about a simplification in the
spelling. As this simplification is not generally considered
efficient, their principles are not yet generally adopted; see for
instance C. H. den Hertog, Waarom onaannemelyk? (Groningen,
1803).
Excepting Belgium (Flanders, Antwerp, Brabant) the Dutch
language is heard outside Holland in Dutch East India and in
the West Indies. In East India pure Dutch has been preserved,
though some Javanese and Malay bastard words may have
slipped in by the habit of speaking to the population in the Malay
tongue or in the native idiom. Hence no Indo-Dutch was formed
there. This is different in the West Indies, where a great number
of negro words and English words as well as English syntactical
constructions have slipped in.
In the iyth century a number of Dutchmen, for the greater
part from Holland and Zeeland, under Jan van Riebeek, had
settled in South Africa, in Cape Town, where the Dutch naviga-
tion called into being a Dutch port. In course of time they
were joined there by French emigrants (most of them Huguenots
who left their country about 1688 and joined with other Hugue-
nots from Holland in assuming the Dutch language), perhaps
also by Portuguese and by Malay people, who, together with
the English who settled there and after 1820 became numerous
in Cape Colony, mixed some peculiarities of their language with
the Dutch idioms. Thus in the first half of the i8th century the
language arose which is now called the South African Dutch.
Since 1880 the present Dutch language has became more fre-
quently used in official writings, though with certain adaptations
agreeably to the native idiom.
In order to offer an example of the Middle-Dutch language beside
the present language, we give here a single strophe from Maerlant's
Wapene Martyn, with a metrical translation in modern Dutch from
the pen of Nikolaas Beets (1880).
God, diet al bi redene doet,
Gaf dat wandel ertsche goet
Der menschelt gemene,
Dattere mede ware gevoet,
Ende gecleet, ende gescoet,
Ende leven soude rene.
Nu es giericheit so verwoet,
Dat elc settet sinen moet
Om al te hebbene allene.
Hieromme stortmen menschcnbloct,
Hieromme stichtmen metier spoet
Borge ende hoge stcne
Menegen te wene.
God, die het al met wijsheid doet,
Gaf dit verganklijk aardsche goed
Den menschen in't gemeen,
Op dat zij zouden zijn gevoed,
Het lijf gekleed, geschoeid de voet
En leven rein van zeen.
Maar zie nu hoe de hebzucht woedt
Dat iedereen in arren moed
't Al hebben wil alleen'
Hierom vergiet men menschenbloed
En bouwt met roekeloozen spoed
Burchtsloten, zwaar van steen,
Tot smart van menigeen.
A Survey of the Sounds used in Dutch. The Consonants. As
regards the consonants, Dutch in the main does not differ from the
other Low German languages. The explosive g and the th are
wanting. Instead of the former there is a g with " fricative "
pronunciation, and as in High German the th has passed over into d.
The final consonants in Middle Dutch are sharpened, and the sharp
sounds are graphically represented; in Modern Dutch, on the other
hand, the historical development of the language being more dis-
tinctly kept in view, and the agreement observed with the inflexional
forms, the soft consonant is written more frequently than it is
sounded; thus we have Middle Dutch dach, Modern Dutch dag, in
analogy with the plural dagen.
The gutturals are g, k, ch and h.
G is the soft spirant, not used in English. In Middle Dutch this
letter was also indicated by gh. K was pronounced like English k.
In Middle Dutch c was sometimes used instead of k; now this is no
longer done.
Ch (pronounced as German ch without the i-sound, not as English
ch) loses its sound when combined with J to sch at the end of a
syllable, for instance, vleesch, but the s-sound is not purely dental
as in dans. As an initial consonant sch is nearly pronounced as sg
DUTCH LITERATURE
719
(schip, English ship) ; only in Frisian and Saxon dialects the old
consonant sk in skip, skoal is retained.
H has the same pronunciation as in English.
The dentals are d and t. The d is formed by placing the point of
the tongue against the upper teeth. At the end of a word d is
sharpened into t, but written d, for instance, goed, pronounced gut.
In the idiom of the east of the Netherlands final d is preserved.
When between two vowels after oe (Engl. o in do), 5, or ui, disnot
pronounced, though it is written. After it has been left put, a j-
sound has developed between the two vowels, so, for instance,
goede became first goe:e and then goeje. Thus it is' pronounced,
though it is still spelled goede. After ou d disappeared and ou became
ouw, for instance koude>kouw.
T has the same pronunciation as in English. In some dialects
final t is dropped, for instance, heef for heejt, nie for niet.
S has the pronunciation of English s in sound, z that of English z
in hazel ; only in zestig and zeventig z has the pronunciation of s.
The labials are b, f, v, p.
At the beginning and in the body of a word b has the same sound
as in English. At the end of a word, when shortened from bb,
followed by a vowel, it became p in the pronunciation, so older
krabbe became krabb, krab (the present spelling), which is now
pronounced krap.
F has the same pronunciation as English/. In many cases older
initial / passed into v, hence most words which have / in English
have initial v in Dutch, for instance voder, vol, vechten.
This v, initial and between vowels, has the pronunciation of
English v in lover. Dutch p is the same as English p, also the liquids
and nasals.
The w in Dutch is mostly labiodental ; in the eastern parts before
vowels bilabial pronunciation is heard.
Vowels. A has in open syllables the sound of English a in father,
in closed syllables that of English a in ass, but more open; when
there is a clear sound in closed syllables the spelling is aa (jaar), in
open syllables a (maken), pronounced as a in ask; in bad, nat, a = a.
An original short a and a long a in open syllables are even in Middle
Dutch pronounced alike, and may be rhymed with each other (dagen,
lagen, a rhyme which was not permitted in Middle High German).
In the Saxon dialects d was expressed by ao, a or d in the Frisio-Saxon
districts passes into e before r, asjer (jaar). Middle Dutch preserved
a in several words where in Modern Dutch it passes into e before r
(arg, erg; sarc, zerk; warf, werf); in others, as aarde, staart, zwaard,
the Middle Dutch had e and a (erde, stert, swerl, swart, start; Modern
Dutch zwaard, staart). In foreign words, likewise, e before r has
become a; paars, perse; lantaarn, lanterne (in the dialects e is still
frequently retained).
E. The sound of the e derived from a does not differ from that of
an original e, or of an e derived from i, as they appear in open syllables
(steden, vele, pronounced as a in English name). If the e derived from
a or i or the original e occurs in closed syllables, it has a short sound,
as in English men, end, Modern Dutch stem. The e in closed syllables
with a full sound (as English a; Sweet, ei) is spelled ee: veel, week
(e from i), beek. The sharp, clear ee is indicated by the same letters
in both open and closed syllables: eer, sneeuw, zee.
In some dialects this ee is pronounced like English ee, not only in
the present dialects, but also in the iyth century.
The pronunciation of ei (from ai, or eg: ag, French ai, ei, ee) is
that of English i, for instance, Dutch ei, English egg, is pronounced
like English /.
I is pronounced short (somewhat like i of English pit) , for instance
in pit, binden, sikkel; it has a clear sound infabrikant, though it has
no stress.
le is pronounced like English ee in see, but somewhat shorter;
so, fabriek, fabrieken, Fitter; also in bieden, stierf, &c. For original
long i. Middle Dutch ii and ij, afterwards y, was used. This vowel,
though still written y, is pronounced like English i in I, like; so in
sysje (English siskin), lyken, &c.
The letter o represents three sounds: (i) the short sharp o and
(2) the short soft o, the former like the o in English not and French
soldat (Dutch bod, belofle, tocht, kolf), the latter like the English o in
don, the French o in ballon (Dutch dof, ploffen, ochtend, vol), and (3)
the full, clear o as in English note, French noter (Dutch kolen, sloten,
verloren). The sharp clear oo, in stroom, dood, has almost the same
sound as the full o, in some dialects (among others the Saxon) it is
pronounced as o with a glide o, in others (Flemish and Hollandsch)
somewhat like au. In Middle Dutch, the lengthening of the vowels
was frequently indicated by e (before r sometimes by *', as in oir);
hence ae for &, oe for o. Where oe occurs in the modern language, it
has the sound of u (pronounced like the u in High German, and
answering to the Gothic 6), which in Middle Dutch was frequently
represented by ou. oe is pronounced ou (au; Sweet, p. 6) in West
Flemish and the Groningen dialects. Before labials and gutturals
oe in Middle Dutch was expressed by ue and oe (bouc, souken, and also
guet^ but usually goet, soeken, boec). The Saxon dialects still preserve
an o sound which agrees with the Dutch oe (bok, moder) ; in two
words romer (roemer, however, is also used) and spook o has
passed from these dialects into Dutch. As the u (Old German u),
which in the Dutch tongue has passed into ui except before r and
w, retains the iJ-sound in the Saxon districts, some words have come
into Dutch from these dialects, being written with oe from the
similar sound of oe (from o) in Dutch and u in Saxon (snoet, boer,
soezen), by the side of which are Frankish words snuit, suizen, &c.).
In the language of the people oe before m is often pronounced as
o, for instance bloem and Mom.
Eu is not a diphthong, but the modification ( Umlaut) of the clear 5 ;
it has the same sound as German o in schon; so in vleugel, leugen,
keuken.
U before a double consonant or before a consonant in monosyllables
has about the same pronunciation as in English stuff, rug; so in
kunnen, snurken, put. When used in open syllables it has the same
sound as in French nature.
In the i6th and I7th centuries, Middle Dutch &. passed over
through oi into ui by the influence of the Holland dialect. In the
Saxon districts u kept the old pronunciation, but only in the lan-
guage of the peasants. The common language has everywhere ui,
pronounced nearly as German eu, English oy; so in dvizend, vuil,
buigen, &c.
Ou and au in vrouw and bluuw are nearly pronounced in the same
way, very much like English ow in crowd.
AUTHORITIES. For a full survey of a history of the Dutch lan-
guage the reader is referred to Jan te Winkel, " Geschichte der
niederlandischen Sprache," Grundriss der germ. Philologie, 2, p. 704
(Strassburg, K. Griibner). Here an elaborate account may be found
on p. 704 of the different works on the grammar and phonology of
the various periods of the Dutch language. For explanation and
history of words of the current language see the Woordenboek der
Nederlandsche Taal, by De Vries and Te Winkel, continued by A.
Kluyver, A. Beets, for a time by J. W. Muller and De Vreese, who
left at their nomination as professors at Utrecht and Ghent. The
Middle Dutch language may be known from the Middelnederlandsch
Woordenboek, first by E. Verwys and J. Verdam, after the death of
Verwys by Verdam alone. For the dialects the different grammars
and glossaries issued at Martinus Nyhoff (The Hague) and Kemink
& Son (Utrecht) are of great importance. The Flemish dialect may
be found in De Bo, Westvlaamsch Idioticon; other Belgian dialects
are recorded in the publications of the Vlaamsche Academie (Ghent).
Phonetic explanations are given in Roorda's or in ten Bruggencate's
Phonetic Works, and a survey of the pronunciation in Branco van
Dantzig's Dutch Pronunciation and Dykstra's Dutch Grammar.
(J.H.G.)
DUTCH LITERATURE. The languages now known as Dutch
and Flemish did not begin to take distinct shape till about the
end of the nth century. From a few existing fragments two
incantations from the 8th century, a version of the Psalms from
the Qth century, and several charters a supposed Old Dutch
language has been recognized; but Dutch literature actually
commences in the i3th century, as Middle Dutch, the creation
of the first national movement in Brabant, Flanders, Holland and
Zealand.
From the wreck of Frankish anarchy no genuine folk-tales
of Dutch antiquity have come down to us, and scarcely any
echoes of German myth. On the other hand, the sagas
of Charlemagne and Arthur appear immediately in W' Uem
Middle Dutch forms. These were evidently introduced minstrel
by wandering minstrels and jongleurs, and translated
to gratify the curiosity of the noble women. It is rarely that the
name of such a translator has reached us, but we happen to know
that the fragments we possess of the French romance of William
of Orange were written in Dutch by a certain Klaas van Haarlem,
between 1191 and 1217. The Chanson de Roland was translated
about the same time, and considerably later Parthenopeus de
Blois. The Flemish minstrel Diederic van Assenede completed
his version of Floris et Blanchefleur about 1250. The Arthurian
legends appear to have been brought to Flanders by some Flemish
colonists in Wales, on their return to their mother-country.
About 1250 a Brabantine minstrel translated Walter Map's
Lancelot du lac at the command of his liege, Lodewijk van
Velthem. The Gauvain was translated by Pennine and Vostaert
before 1260, while the first original Dutch writer, the famous
Jakob van Maerlant, occupied himself about 1260 with several
romances dealing with Merlin and the Holy Grail. The earliest
existing fragments of the epic of Reynard the Fox were written
in Latin by Flemish priests, and about 1250 the first part of
a very important version in Dutch was made by Willem the
Minstrel, of whom it is unfortunate that we know no more save
that he was the translator of a lost romance, Madoc. In his
existing work the author follows Pierre de Saint-Cloud, but not
slavishly; and he is the first really admirable writer that we
meet with in Dutch literature. The second part was added by
another hand at the end of the I4th century.
720
DUTCH LITERATURE
It is not necessary to dwell at any length on the monkish
legends and the hymns to the Virgin Mary which were abundantly
produced during the i3th century, and which, though
"date of destitute of all literary merit, were of use as exercises
Brabant, in the infancy of the language. The first lyrical writer
of Holland was John I., duke of Brabant, who practised
the minnelied with success, but whose songs are only known to
us through a Swabian version of a few of them. In 1544 the
earliest collection of Dutch folk-songs saw the light, and in this
volume one or two romances of the I4th century are preserved,
of which Het Daghet in den Oosten is the best known. Almost the
earliest fragment of Dutch popular poetry, but of later time, is
an historical ballad describing the murder of Count Floris V.
in 1296. A very curious collection of mystical medieval hymns
by Sister Hadewych, a nun of Brabant, was first printed in 1875
by Heremans and Ledeganck.
Hitherto, as we have seen, the Middle Dutch language had
placed itself at the service of the aristocratic and monastic
orders, flattering the traditions of chivalry and of religion, but
scarcely finding anything to say to the bulk of the population.
With the close of the i3th century a change came over the face
of Dutch literature. The Flemish towns began to prosper and
to assert their commercial supremacy over the North Sea.
Under such mild rulers as William II. and Floris V., Dort,
Amsterdam, and other cities contrived to win such privileges as
amounted almost to political independence, and with this liberty
there arose a new sort of literary expression. The founder and
creator of this original Dutch literature was Jacob van Maerlant
MaeHant. (?") His Naturen Bloeme, written about 1263,
forms an epoch in Dutch literature; it is a collection
of moral and satirical addresses to all classes of society. With
his Rijmbijbel (Rhyming Bible) he foreshadowed the courage
and free-thought of the Reformation. It was not until 1284
that he began his masterpiece, De Spieghel Historiael (The Mirror
of History), at the command of Count Floris V. Of his disciples,
Boendale. tne most considerable in South Holland was Jan van
Boendale (1280-1365), known as Jan de Klerk. He
was born in Brabant, and became clerk to the justices at Antwerp
in 1310. He was entrusted with various important missions.
His works are historical and moral in character. In him the last
trace of the old chivalric and romantic element has disappeared.
He completed his famous rhyme chronicle, the Brabanlsche
Yeesten, in 1350; it contains the history of Brabant down to
that date, and was brought down to 1440 by an anonymous
later writer. For English readers it is disappointing that
Boendale's other great historical work (Van den derden Ede-
waert, coninc van Ingelant . . ., ed. J. F. Willems, Ghent, 1840),
an account of Edward III. and his expedition to Planders in
1338, has survived only in some fragments. The remainder of
Boendale's works are didactic poems, pursuing still further the
moral thread first taken up by Maerlant, and founded on medieval
scholastic literature. In Ypres the school of Maerlant was
represented by Jan de Weert, a surgeon, who died in 1362, and
who was the author of two remarkable works of moral
satire and exhortation, the Nieuwe Doctrinael of
Spieghel der Sonden, and a Disputacie van Rogier end van Janne.
In the beginning of the i3th century Gielijs van Molhem wrote a
Dutch version of part of the Miserere of the Picard poet who
concealed his identity under the name of the recluse of Moiliens.
The poem consisted of meditations on the origin and destiny
of man, and on the sins of pride, envy, &c. The translation,
completed later by an author calling himself Heinrec,was critically
edited (Groningen, 1893) by P. Leendertz. In North Holland
a greater talent than that of Weert or of Boendale was exhibited
stoke. by Melis Stoke, a monk of Egmond, who wrote the
history of the state of Holland to the year 1305; this
work, the Rijmkronik, was printed in 1591, and edited in 1885
for the Utrecht Historical Society; and for its exactitude and
minute detail it has proved of inestimable service to later
historians. *
With the middle of the I4th century the chivalric spirit came
once more into fashion. A certain revival of the forms of feudal
Weert.
life made its appearance under William III. and his successors.
Knightly romances came once more into vogue, but the new-
born didactic poetry contended vigorously against the supremacy
of what was lyrical and epical. It will be seen that from the
very first the literary spirit in Holland began to assert itself
in a homely and utilitarian spirit. Jan van Heelu, a Brabanter,
was the author of an epic poem 1 on the battle of
Woeronc (1288), dedicated to Princess Margaret of
England, and to him has been attributed the still finer romance
of the War of Grimbergen.- Still more thoroughly aristocratic
in feeling was Hein van Aken, a priest of Louvain, who
lived about 1255-1330, and who combined to a very
curious extent the romantic and didactic elements. As early as
1280 he had completed his translation 3 of the Roman de la rose,
which he must have commenced in the lifetime of Jean de Meung.
More remarkable than any of his translated works, however, is
his original romance, completed in 1318, Heinric en Margriete
van Limborch* upon which he was at work for twenty-seven
years. During the Bavarian period (1349-1433) very little
original writing of much value was produced in Holland. Buo-
dewijn van der Loren wrote one excellent piece on the Maid of
Ghent, in 1389. Augustijnken van Dordt was a peripatetic
minstrel of North Holland, who composed for the sheriff Ael-
brecht and for the count of Blois from 1350 to 1370. Such of his
verses as have been handed down to us are allegorical and moral.
Willem van Hildegaersberch (1350-1408) was another northern
poet, of a more strictly political cast. Many of his writings exist
still unpublished, and are very rough in style and wanting in
form. Towards the end of the i4th century an erotic poet of
considerable power arose in the person of the lord
of Waddinxsveen and Hubrechtsambacht, Dirk Potter patter
van der Loo (c. 1365-1428), who was secretary at the
court of the counts of Holland. During an embassy in Rome
(1411-1412) this eminent diplomatist made himself acquainted
with the writings of Boccaccio, and commenced a vast poem on
the course of love, Der Minnen Loep, 6 which is a wonderful mix-
ture of classical and Biblical instances of amorous adventures
set in a framework of didactic philosophy. In Dirk Potter the
last traces of the chivalric element died out of Dutch literature,
and left poetry entirely in the hands of the school of Maerlant.
Many early songs, with some of later date, are preserved in a
Liedekens-Boeck printed by Jan Roulans (Antwerp, 1544).
The unique copy in the Wolfenbiittel library was edited by
Hoffmann von Fallersleben in Horae Belgicac (vol. xi., 1855).
It is now time to consider the growth of prose literature in the
Low Countries. The oldest pieces of Dutch prose now in existence
are charters of the towns of Flanders and Zealand, dated 1249,
1251 and 1254. A prose translation of the Old Testament was
made about 1300, and there exists a Life of Jesus about the
same date. Of the mystical preachers whose religious writings
have reached us, the Brussels friar, Jan van Ruysbroec (1294-
1381), is the most important. But the most interesting relics of
medieval Dutch prose, as far as the formation of the language is
concerned, are the popular romances in which the romantic
stories of the trouveres and minstrels were translated for the benefit
of the unlettered public into simple language. As in most Euro-
pean nations, the religious drama takes a prominent
I r i- i I-. TT 11 i Religious
place in every survey of medieval literature in Holland, drama.
Unfortunately the text of all the earliest mysteries,
the language of which would have an extraordinary interest for
us, has been lost. We possess records of dramas having been
played at various places Our Lord's Resurrection, at the Hague,
in 1400; Our Lady the Virgin, at Arnheim, in 1452; and The
Three Kings, at Delft, in 1498. The earliest existing fragment,
however, is part of a Limburg-Maastricht Passover Play 6 of about
1360. The latest Dutch miracle play was the Mystery of the
1 Edited by J. F. Willems (Brussels, 1836).
2 Edited by C. P. Serrure and Ph. Blommaert (Ghent, 1852-1854).
s Edited by Dr E. Verwijs (Leiden, 1868).
4 Edited by L. P. C. v. den Bergh (Leiden, 1846-1847).
5 Edited by P. Leendertz (Leiden, 1845-1847).
8 Edited by Dr Jul. Zacher in Haupt's Zeitschrift fur deutsches
Altertum, vol. ii. (Leipzig, 1842).
DUTCH LITERATURE
721
Holy Sacrament, composed by a certain Smeken, at Breda, and
perf ormed on St John's day, 1500. This play was printed in 1867.
With these purely theological dramas there were acted mundane
farces, performed outside the churches by semi-religious
companies; these curious moralities were known as " Abele-
spelen " and " Sotterniee'n." In these pieces we discover the first
traces of that genius for low comedy which was afterwards to
take perfect form in the dramas of Brederoo and the paintings
of Teniers.
The theatrical companies just alluded to, " Gesellen van den
Spele," formed the germ out of which developed the famous
" Chambers of Rhetoric " ' which united within
Chambers themselves all the literary movements that occupied the
Rhetoric. Low Countries during the isth and i6th centuries.
The poets of Holland had already discovered in late
medieval times the value of gilds in promoting the arts and
industrial handicrafts. The term " colleges de rhetorique " is
supposed to have been introduced about 1440 to the courtiers of
the Burgundian dynasty, but the institutions themselves existed
long before. These literary gilds lasted till the end of the i6th
century, and during the greater part of that time preserved a
completely medieval character, even when the influences of the
Renaissance and the Reformation obliged them to modify in
some degree their outward forms. They were in almost all cases
absolutely middle-class in tone, and opposed to aristocratic ideas
and tendencies in thought. Of these remarkable bodies the
earliest were almost entirely engaged in preparing mysteries and
miracle-plays for the populace. Each chamber, and in process
of time every town in the Low Countries, possessed one, and took
as its title some fanciful or heraldic sign. At Diest " The Eyes of
Christ," dated from 1302, and an earlier one, the " Lily," is
mentioned. " The Alpha and Omega," at Ypres, was founded
about 1398; that of the " Violet," at Antwerp, followed in 1400;
the" Book, "at Brussels, in 1401; the "Berberry," at Courtrai,
in 1427; the " Holy Ghost," at Bruges, in 1428; the " Floweret
Jesse," at Middelburg, in 1430; the " Oak Tree," at Vlaardingen,
in 1433; and the " Marigold," at Gouda, in 1437. The most
celebrated of all the chambers, that of the " Eglantine " at
Amsterdam, with its motto In Liefde Bloeyende (Blossoming in
Love) , was not instituted until 1496. Among the most influential
chambers not above mentioned should be included the " Foun-
tain " at Dort, the " Corn Flower " at the Hague, the " White
Columbine " at Leiden, the " Blue Columbine " at Rotterdam,
the " Red Rose " at Schiedam, the " Thistle " at Zierikzee,
" Jesus with the Balsam " at Ghent, and the " Garland of Mary "
at Brussels. And not in these important places only, but in
almost every little town, the rhetoricians exerted their influence,
mainly in what we may call a social direction. Their wealth was
in most cases considerable, and it very soon became evident that
no festival or procession could take place in a town unless the
" Kamer " patronized it. Towards the end of the isth century
the Ghent chamber of " Jesus with the Balsam " began to
exercise a sovereign power over the other Flemish chambers,
which was emulated later on in Holland by the " Eglantine " at
Amsterdam. But this official recognition proved of no conse-
quence in literature, and it was not in Ghent, but in Antwerp,
that intellectual life first began to stir. In Holland the burghers
only formed the chambers, while in Flanders the representatives
of the noble families were honorary members, and assisted with
their money at the arrangement of ecclesiastical or political
pageants. Their pompous landjuweelen, or tournaments of
rhetoric, at which rich prizes were contended for, were the great
occasions upon which the members of the chambers distinguished
themselves. Between 1426 and 1620 at least 66 of these festivals
were held. There was a specially splendid landjuweel at Antwerp
in 1496, in which 28 chambers took part, but the gayest of all was
that celebrated at Antwerp on the 3rd of August 1561. To this
the " Book " at Brussels sent 340 members, all on horseback, and
clad in crimson mantles. The town of Antwerp gave a ton of
gold to be given in prizes, which were shared among 1893
1 See Schotel, Geschiedenis der Rederijkers in Nederland (1862-
1864, Amsterdam.
rhetoricians. This was the zenith of the splendour of the
" Kamers van Rhetorica," and after this time they soon fell into
disfavour. We can trace the progress of literary composition
under the chambers, although none of their official productions
has descended to us. Their dramatic pieces were certainly of
a didactic cast, with a strong farcical flavour, and continued the
tradition of Maerlant and his school. They very rarely dealt
with historical or even Biblical personages, but entirely with
allegorical and moral abstractions, until the age of humanism
introduced upon the stage the names without much of the spirit
of mythology. Of the pure farces of the rhetorical chambers we
can speak with still more confidence, for some of them have come
down to us, and among the authors famed for their skill in this
sort of writing are named Cornelis Everaert of Bruges and
Laurens Janssen of Haarlem. The material of these farces is
extremely raw, consisting of rough jests at the expense of priests
and foolish husbands, silly old men and their light wives.
Laurens Janssen is also deserving of remembrance for a satire
against the clergy, written in 1583. The chambers also en-
couraged the composition of songs, but with very little success;
they produced no lyrical genius more considerable than Matthijs
de Casteleyn (1488-1550), the founder of the Flemish chamber of
" Pax Vobiscum " at Oudenarde, and author of De Conste van
Rhelorijcken (Ghent, 1573), a personage whose influence as a
fashioner of language would have been more healthy if his
astounding metrical feats and harlequin lours de force had not
been performed in a dialect debased with all the worst bastard
phrases of the Burgundian period.
In the middle of the i6th century a group of rhetoricians in
Brabant and Flanders attempted to put a little new life into the
stereotyped forms of the preceding age by introducing
in original composition the new-found branches of
Latin and Greek poetry. The leader of these men was Jean
Baptista Houwaert 2 (1533-1599), a personage of considerable
political influence in his generation. Houwaert held the title of
" Counsellor and Master in Ordinary of the Exchequer to the
Dukedom of Brabant "; he played a prominent part in the
revolution of the Low Countries against Spain; and when the
prince of Orange entered Brussels victoriously (Sept 23rd, 1577),
Houwaert met him in pomp at the head of the two chambers of
rhetoric the " Book " and the " Garland of Mary." He did not
remain faithful to his convictions, for he composed in 1 593 a poem
in honour of the cardinal-archduke Ernestof Austria, the governor
of the Spanish Netherlands. He considered himself a devout
disciple of Matthijs de Casteleyn, but his great characteristic was
his unbounded love of classical and mythological fancy. His
didactic poems are composed in a wonderfully rococo style, and
swarm with misplaced Latinities. In his bastard Burgundian
tongue he boasted of having " poetelijck geinventeert ende
rhetorijckelijck ghecomponeert " for the Brussels chamber such
dramas as Aeneas and Dido, Mars and Venus, Narcissus and
Echo, or Leander and Hero named together the Commerce of
Amorosity (1583). But of all his writings, Pcgasides Pleyn
(Antwerp, 1582-1583), or the Palace of 'Maidens, is the most
remarkable; this is a didactic poem in sixteen books, dedicated
to a discussion of the variety of earthly love. Houwaert's
contemporaries nicknamed him " the Homer of Brabant ";
later criticism has preferred to see in him an important link in
that chain of homely didactic Dutch which ends in Cats. His
writings are composed in a Burgundian so base that they hardly
belong to Flemish literature at all. Into the same miserable
dialect Cornelis van Ghistele of Antwerp translated, between
1555 and 1583, parts of Terence, Virgil, Horace, and Ovid, while
the painter Karel van Mander (1547-1609) put a French version
of the Iliad and of the Eclogues of Virgil into an equally ill-fitting
Flemish dress. In no country of Europe did the humanism of the
i6th century at first affect the national literature so slightly or to
so little purpose.
The stir and revival of intellectual life that arrived with the
Reformation found its first expression in the composition of
J For Houwaert, see a study by K. F. Stallaert in the Nederlandsch
Museum (1885).
722
DUTCH LITERATURE
and
hymns.
Psalms. The earliest printed collection appeared at Antwerp in
1540, under the title of Souler-Liedekens, and was dedicated to
a Dutch nobleman, Willem van Zuylen van Nieuvelt,
Psalms ^ w jj Ose name it is usually known. This collection,
however, was made before the Reformation in Hol-
land really set in. For the Protestant congregations
Jan Utenhove printed a volume of Psalms in London in 1566;
Lucas de Heere (1534-1585), and immediately after him, with
much greater success, Petrus Datheen (1531-1590), translated
the hymns of Clement Marot. For printing this last volume,
in 1567, Herman Schinkel of Delft was burned to death in 1568.
Datheen was not a rhetorician, but a person of humble origin,
who wrote in the vulgar tongue, and his hymns spread far and
wide among the people. Until 1773 they were in constant use
in the state church of Holland. But the great events of the
period of reformation are not marked by psalms only in Dutch
literature. Two collections of hymns and lyrical pieces, printed
in 1562 and 1569, perpetuate the fervour and despair of the
martyrs of the Mennonite Church. Similar utterances of the
persecuted Protestants were published at Haarlem and Leeu-
warden, at Ghent and at Bruges. Very different in tone were
the battle-songs of liberty and triumph sung a genera-
tion later by the victorious Reformers, the " Geuzen "
or " Gueux " (q.v.). The famous song-book of 1588, the
Geusen Lieden Boecxken, was full of ardent and heroic sentiment,
expressed often in marvellously brilliant phrases. In this
collection appeared for the first time su'ch classical snatches of
Dutch song as the Ballad of Heiligerlee, the Ballad of Egmond
and Horn, and the song of the Storm of Leiden. The
political ballads, with their ridicule of the Spanish leaders,
form a section of the Boecxken -which has proved of inestim-
able value to historians. All these lyrics, however, whether
of victory or of martyrdom, are still very rough in form and
language.
The first writer who used the Dutch tongue with grace and
precision of style was a woman and a professed opponent of
Lutheranism and reformed thought. Modern Dutch
literature practically begins with Anna Bijns (c. 1494-
!575)- Against the crowd of rhetoricians and psalm-
makers of the early part of the i6th century she stands out in
relief as the one poet of real genius. The language, oscillating
before her time between French and German, formless, corrupt
and invertebrate, took shape and comeliness, which none of the
male pedants could give it, from the impassioned hands of a
woman. Anna Bijns, who is believed to have been born at
Antwerp in 1494, was a schoolmistress at that city in her middle
life, and in old age she still " instructed youth in the Catholic
religion." She died on the loth of April 1575. Hendrik
Peppinck, a Franciscan, who edited her third volume of poems
when she was an old woman in 1567, speaks of her as " a maiden
small of descent, but great of understanding, and godly of life."
Her first known volume bears the date 1528, and displays her
as already deeply versed in the mysteries of religion. We gather
from all this that she Vvas a lay nun, and she certainly occupied
a position of great honour and influence at Antwerp. She was
named " the Sappho of Brabant " and the " Princess of all
Rhetoricians." She bent the powerful weapon of her verse
against the faith and character of Luther. In her volume of
1528 the Lutherans are scarcely mentioned; in that of 1538
every page is occupied with invectives against them; while
the third volume of 1567 is the voice of one from whom her age
has passed. All the poems of Anna Bijns which we possess are
called refereinen or refrains. 1 Her mastery over verse-form
was extremely remarkable, and these refrains are really modified
chants-royal. The writings of Anna Bijns offer many points of
interest to the philologist. In her the period of Middle Dutch
closes, and the modern Dutch begins. In a few grammatical
peculiarities such as the formation of the genitive by some
verbs which now govern the accusative, and the use of ghe
before the infinitive her language still belongs to Middle
Dutch; but these exceptions are rare, and she really initiated
1 Ed. Dr W. L. van Helten (1875).
that modern speech which Filips van Marnix adopted and made
classical in the next generation.
In Filips van Marnix, lord of St Aldegonde (1538-1598), a
much greater personage came forward in the ranks of liberty and
reform. He was born at Brussels in 1 538, and began life M
as a disciple of Calvin and Beza in the schools of Geneva.
It was as a defender of the Dutch iconoclasts that he first appeared
in print, with his tract on The Images thrown down in Holland
in August 1566. He soon became one of the leading spirits in
the war of Dutch independence, the intimate friend of the prince
of Orange, and the author of the glorious Wilhelmuslied. It was
in the autumn of 1568 that Marnix composed this, the national
hymn of Dutch liberty and Protestantism. In 1569 he com-
pleted a no less important and celebrated prose work, the
Biencorfor Beehive of the Romish Church. In this satire he was
inspired in a great measure by Rabelais, of whom he was an
intelligent disciple. It is written in prose that may be said to
mark an epoch in the language and literature of Holland. Over-
whelmed with the press of public business, Marnix wrote little
more until in 1580 he published his Psalms of David newly
translated out of the Hebrew Tongue. He occupied the last years
of his life in preparing a Dutch version of the Bible, translated
direct from the original. At his death only Genesis was found
completely revised; but in 1619 the synod of Dort placed the
unfinished work in the hands of four divines, who completed it.
In -Dirck Volckertsen Coornhert 2 (1522-1590) Holland
for the first time produced a writer at once eager to compose
in his native tongue and to employ the weapons of _
o iu L rxr u Coorahert.
humanism. Loornhert was a typical burgher of North
Holland, equally interested in the progress of national emancipa-
tion and in the development of national literature. He was a
native of Amsterdam, but he did not take part in the labours of
the old chamber of the Eglantine, but quite early in life proceeded
to Haarlem, and was notary, secretary and finally pensionary
of the town. In 1 566 he was imprisoned for his support of the
Reformers, and in 1572 he became secretary to the states of
Holland. He practised the art of etching, and spent all his
spare time in the pursuit of classical learning. He was nearly
forty years of age before he made any practical use of his attain-
ments. In 1561 he printed his translation of the De officiis of
Cicero, and in 1562 of the De beneficiis of Seneca. In these
volumes he opposed with no less zeal than Marnix had done
the bastard forms still employed in prose by the rhetoricians of
Flanders and Brabant. During the next decade he occupied
himself chiefly with plays and poems, conceived and expressed
with far less freedom than his prose, and more in the approved
conventional fashion of the rhetoricians; he collected his poems
in 1575. The next ten years he occupied in polemical writing,
from the evangelical point of view, against the Calvinists. In
1585 he translated Boethius, and then gave his full attention
to his original masterpiece, the Zedekunst (1586), or Art of
Ethics, a philosophical treatise in prose, in which he studied to
adapt the Dutch tongue tothegrace and simplicity of Montaigne's
French. His humanism unites the Bible, Plutarch and Marcus
Aurelius in one grand system of ethics, and is expressed in a
style remarkable for brightness and purity. He died at Gouda
on the 2gth of October 1590; his works, in three enormous
folio volumes, were first collected in 1630.
Towards the end of the period of transition, Amsterdam
became the centre of all literary enterprise in Holland. In 1585
two of the most important chambers of rhetoric in Amster-
Flanders, the " White Lavender " and the " Fig dam the
Tree," took flight from the south, and settled them- centre of
selves in Amsterdam by the side of the " Eglantine."
The last-named institution had already observed the new
tendency of the age, and was prepared to encourage intellectual
reform of every kind, and its influence spread through Holland
and Zealand. In Flanders, meanwhile, crushed under the yoke
of Parma, literature and native thought absolutely expired.
From this time forward, and until the emancipation of the
2 For Coornhert see also J. ten Brink, D. V. Coornhert en zijne
wellevenkunst (Amsterdam, 1860).
DUTCH LITERATURE
723
Spleghel.
southern provinces, the domain of our inquiry is confined to the
district north of the Scheldt.
In the chamber of the Eglantine at Amsterdam two men
took a very prominent place, more by their intelligence and
modern spirit than by their original genius. Hendrick
Laurenssen Spieghel (1540-1612) was a humanist
of a type more advanced and less polemical than Coornhert.
He wrote a charming poem in praise of dancing; but his chief
contributions to literature were his Tweespraeck van de neder-
duylsche letterkunst, a philological exhortation, in the manner of
Joachim du Bellay's famous tract, urging the Dutch nation to
purify and enrich its tongue at the fountains of antiquity, and a
didactic epic, entitled Hertspieghel (1614), 'which has been greatly
praised, but which is now much more antiquated in style and
more difficult to enjoy than Coornhert's prose of a similar
tendency. That Spieghel was a Catholic prevented him perhaps
from exercising as much public influence as he exercised privately
among his younger friends. The same may be said of the man
who, in 1614, first collected Spieghel's writings, and published
them in a volume with his own verses. Roemer Pieterssen
Visscher 2 (1547-1620) proceeded a step further than
Spieghel in the cultivation of polite letters. He was
deeply tinged with a spirit of classical learning that
was much more genuine and nearer to the true antique than
any that had previously been known in Holland. His own dis-
ciples called him the Dutch Martial, but he was at best little
more than an amateur in poetry, although an amateur whose
function it was to perceive and encourage the genius of pro-
fessional writers. Roemer Visscher stands at the threshold of the
new Renaissance literature, himself practising the faded arts of
the rhetoricians, but pointing by his counsel and his conversation
to the naturalism of the great period.
It was in the salon at Amsterdam which the beautiful daughters
of Roemer Visscher formed around their father and themselves
that the new school began to take form. The republic
c ^ ^e United Provinces, with Amsterdam at its head,
had suddenly risen to the first rank among the nations
of Europe, and it was under the influence of so much new emotion
and brilliant ambition that the country no less suddenly asserted
itself in a great school of painting and poetry. The intellect of
the whole Low Countries was concentrated in Holland and
Zealand, while the six great universities, Leiden, Groningen,
Utrecht, Amsterdam, Harderwijk and Franeker, were enriched
iby a flock of learned exiles from Flanders and Brabant. It had
occurred, however, to Roemer Visscher only that the path of
literary honour lay, not along the utilitarian road cut out by
Maerlant and Boendale, but in the study of beauty and antiquity.
In this he was curiously aided by the school of ripe and enthusi-
astic scholars who began to flourish at Leiden, such as Drusius,
Vossius and Hugo Grotius, who themselves wrote little in Dutch,
but who chastened the style of the rising generation by insisting
on a pure and liberal Latinity. Out of that generation arose
the greatest names in the literature of Holland Vondel, Hooft,
Cats, Huygens in whose hands the language, so long left
barbarous and neglected, took at once its highest finish and
melody. By the side of this serious and aesthetic growth there
is to be noticed a quickening of the broad and farcical humour
which had been characteristic of the Dutch nation from its
commencement. For fifty years, and these the most glorious
in the annals of Holland, these two streams of influence, one
towards beauty and melody, the other towards lively comedy,
ran side by side, often in the same channel, and producing a rich
harvest of great works. It was in the house of the daughters of
Roemer Visscher that the tragedies of Vondel and the comedies of
Bredero, the farces of Coster and the odes of Huygens, alike
found their first admirers and their best critics.
Of the famous daughters of Roemer, two cultivated literature
with marked success. Anna (1584-1651) was the author of
1 The best edition is by P. Vlaming (Amsterdam, 1723).
* On Visscher and his daughters see N. Beets, Al de gedichten van
Anna Raemers Visscher (1881), and E. Gosse, Studies in the Literature
of Northern Europe (1879).
Hooft
a descriptive and didactic poem, De Roemster van den Aemstel
(The Glory of the Aemstel), and of various miscellaneous writ-
ings; Tesselschade (1594-1649) wrote some lyrics which
still place her at the head of the female poets of
Holland, and she translated the great poem of Tasso. daughters.
They were women of universal accomplishment,
graceful manners and singular beauty; and their company
attracted to the house of Roemer Visscher all the most gifted
youths of the time, several of whom were suitors, but in vain, for
the hand of Anna or of Tesselschade.
Of this Amsterdam school, the first to emerge into public notice
was Pieter Cornelissen Hooft (1581-1647). His Achilles and
Polyxena (1598) displayed a precocious ease in the use
of rhetorical artifices of style. In his pastoral drama
of Granida (1605) he proved himself a pupil of Guarini. In
tragedy he produced Baeto and Geraad van Velsen; in history
he published in 1626 his Life of Henry the Great, while from 1628
to 1642 he was engaged upon his master-work, the History of
Holland. Hooft desired to be a severe purist in style, and to a
great extent he succeeded, but, like most of the writers of his
age, he permitted himself too many Latinisms. In his poetry,
especially in the lyrical and pastoral verse of his youth, he is full
of Italian reminiscences both of style and matter; in his noble
prose work he has set himself to be a disciple of Tacitus. Motley
has spoken of Hooft as one of the greatest historians, not merely
of Holland, but of Europe. His influence in purifying the
language of his country, and in enlarging its sphere of experience,
can hardly be overrated.
Very different from the long and prosperous career of Hooft
was the brief, painful life of the greatest comic dramatist
that Holland has produced. Gerbrand Adriaanssen Bredero
Bredero 3 (1585-1618), the son of an Amsterdam
shoemaker, was born on the i6th of March 1585. He knew no
Latin; he had no taste for humanism; he was a simple growth
of the rich humour of the people. He entered the workshop of
the painter Francisco Badens, but accomplished little in art.
His life was embittered by a hopeless love for Tesselschade, to
whom he dedicated his dramas, and whose beauty he celebrated
in a whole cycle of love songs. His ideas on the subject of drama
were at first a mere development of the medieval " Abelespelen."
The " Oude Kammer," one of the chambers of rhetoric, furnished
an opening for his dramatic powers. He commenced by dramatiz-
ing the romance of Roderick and Alphonsus, in 1611, and Griane
in 1612, but in the latter year he struck out a new and more
characteristic path in his Farce of the Cow. From this time
until his death he continued to pour out comedies, farces and
romantic dramas, in all of which he displayed a coarse, rough
genius not unlike that of Ben Jonson, whose immediate contem-
porary he was. His last and best piece was Jerolimo, the Spanish
Brabanter, a satire upon the exiles from the south who filled the
halls of the Amsterdam chambers of rhetoric with their pompous
speeches and preposterous Burgundian phraseology. The piece
was based on a Dutch version (Delft, 1609) of an early Spanish
picaresque romance, La Vida de Lazarillo de Tormes (Burgos,
1554). Bredero was closely allied in genius to the dramatists of
the Shakespearian age, but he founded no school, and stands
almost as a solitary figure in the literature of Holland. He
died on the 2^rd of August 1618. Theodore Rodenburg (d. 1644),
ridiculed by Bredero for his pretentiousness, had a wider know-
ledge of contemporary foreign literature than the other drama-
tists. He adapted some of the dramas of Lope de Vega, which
he had witnessed at Madrid, into Dutch, and in 1618 he adapted
Cyril Tourneur's Revenger's Tragedy.
The only individual at all clearly connected with Bredero in
talent was Dr Samuel Coster, 4 who was born at Amsterdam
on the i6th of September 1579. He studied medicine at Leiden,
and practised at Amsterdam. He is chiefly remembered for
"See J. ten Brink, G. A. Brederoo (Utrecht, 1859; 3rd ed. 1887-
1888); also J. H. W. Unger, Brederoo, eine Bibliographic (1884).
His works were edited (3 vols., 1885-1890) by J. ten Brink and
others.
4 See R. A. Kollewijn's edition of Samuel Coster's Werken
(1883).
724
DUTCH LITERATURE
having been the first to take advantage of the growing dissen-
sion in the body of the old chamber of the Eglantine to form a
c new institution. In 1617 Coster founded what he
called the " First Dutch Academy." This was in fact
a theatre, where, for the first time, dramas could be publicly
acted under the patronage of no chamber of rhetoric. Coster
himself had come before the world in 1612 with his farce of
Teuivis the Boor, based on a folk-song in Jan Roulans's Liedekens
Boeckh, and he continued this order of composition in direct
emulation of Bredero, but with less talent. In 1615 he began
a series of " blood-and-thunder " tragedies with his horrible Itys,
and he continued this coarse style of tragic writing for several
years. He survived at least until after 1648 as a supreme
authority in Amsterdam upon all dramatic matters.
The first work of the greatest of all Dutch writers, Joost van
den Vondel (1587-1679), was Het Pascha (1612), a tragedy or
tragi-comedy on the exodus of the children of Israel,
written, like all his succeeding dramas, on the
recognized Dutch plan, in alexandrines, in five acts, and with
choral interludes between the acts. There is comparatively little
promise in Het Pascha. It was much inferior dramatically to the
plays just being produced by Bredero, and metrically to the
clear and eloquent tragedies and pastorals of Hooft; but it
secured the young poet a position inferior only to theirs. Yet
for a number of years he made no attempt to emphasize the
impression he had produced on the public, but contented himself
during the years that are the most fertile in a poet's life with
translating and imitating portions of du Bartas's popular epic.
The short and brilliant life of Bredero, his immediate contem-
porary and greatest rival, burned itself out in a succession of
dramatic victories, and it was not until two years after the death
of that great poet that Vondel appeared before the public with
a second tragedy, the Jerusalem laid Desolate. Five years later,
in 1625, he published what seemed an innocent study from the
antique, his tragedy of Palamedes, or Murdered Innocence. All
Amsterdam discovered, with smothered delight, that under the
name of the hero was thinly concealed the figure of Barneveldt,
whose execution in 1618 had been a triumph of the hated
Calvinists. Thus, at the age of forty-one, the obscure Vondel
became in a week the most famous writer in Holland. For the
next twelve years, and till the accession of Prince Frederick
Henry, Vondel had to maintain a hand-to-hand combat
with the " Saints of Dort." This was the period of his most
resolute and stinging satires; Cats took up the cudgels on
behalf of the counter-Remonstrants, and there raged a war of
pamphlets in verse. A purely fortuitous circumstance led to the
next great triumph in Vondel's slowly developing career. The
Dutch Academy, founded in 1617 almost wholly as a dramatic
gild, had become so inadequately provided with stage accom-
modation that in 1638, having coalesced with the two chambers
of the " Eglantine " and the " White Lavender," it ventured on
the erection of a large public theatre, the first in Amsterdam.
Vondel, as the greatest poet of the day, was invited to write
a piece for the first night; on the 3rd of January 1638 the
theatre was opened with the performance of a new tragedy out
of early Dutch history, the famous Gysbreght van Aemstel. The
next ten years were rich in dramatic work from Vondel's hand;
he supplied the theatre with heroic Scriptural pieces, of which
the general reader will obtain the best idea if we point to the
Athalie of Racine. In 1654, having already attained an age
at which poetical production is usually discontinued by the
most energetic of poets, he brought out the most exalted and
sublime of all his works, the tragedy of Lucifer. Very late in
life, through no fault of his own, financial ruin fell on the aged
poet, and from 1658 to 1668 that is, from his seventieth to
his eightieth year this venerable and illustrious person, the
main literary glory of Holland through her whole history, was
forced to earn his bread as a common clerk in a bank, miserably
paid, and accused of wasting his masters' time by the writing
of verses. The city released him at last from this wretched
bondage by a pension, and the wonderful old man went on
writing odes and tragedies almost to his ninetieth year. He died
at last in 1679, of no disease, having outlived all his contem-
poraries and almost all his friends, but calm, sane and good-
humoured to the last, serenely conscious of the legacy he left
to a not too grateful country. Vondel is the typical example
of Dutch intelligence and imagination at their highest develop-
ment. Not merely is he to Holland all that Camoens is to
Portugal and Mickiewicz to Poland, but he stands on a 'level
with these men in the positive value of his writings.
Lyrical art was represented on its more spontaneous side
by the songs and ballads of Jan Janssen Starter (b. 1594), an
Englishman by birth, who was brought to Amsterdam starts
in his thirteenth year. Very early in life he was made
a member of the " Eglantine," and he worked beside Bredero
for two years; but in 1614 he wandered away to Leeuwarden,
in Friesland, where he founded a literary gild, and brought out,
in 1618, his plays Timbre de Car done, Fenicie van Messine, the
subject of which is identical with that of Shakespeare's Much
Ado about Nothing, and Daratda. But his great contribution
to literature was his exquisite collection of lyrics, entitled the
Friesche Lusthof, or Frisian Pleasance (1621). He returned to
Amsterdam, but after 1625 we hear no more of him, and he is
believed to have died as a soldier in Germany. The songs of
Starter are in close relation to the lyrics of the English Eliza-
bethans, and have the same exquisite simplicity and audacity
of style.
While the genius of Holland clustered around the circle of
Amsterdam, a school of scarcely less brilliance arose in Middel-
burg, the capital of Zealand. The ruling spirit of
this school was the famous Jakob Cats (1577-1660).
In this voluminous writer, to whom modern criticism almost
denies the name of poet, the genuine Dutch habit of thought,
the utilitarian and didactic spirit which we have already observed
in Houwaert and in Boendale, reached its zenith of fluency and
popularity. During early middle life he produced the most
important of his writings, his pastoral of Galathea, and his
didactic poems, the Maechdenplicht and the Sinne- en Minne-
Beelden. In 1624 he removed from Middelburg to Dort, where
he soon after published his tedious ethical work called Houivelick,
or Marriage; and this was followed from time to time by one
after another of his monotonous moral pieces. Cats is an
exceedingly dull and prosaic writer, whose alexandrines roll
smoothly on without any power of riveting the attention or
delighting the fancy. Yet his popularity with the middle
classes in Holland has always been immense, and his influence
extremely hurtful to the growth of all branches of literary art.
Among the disciples of Cats, Jakob Westerbaen (1599-1670)
was the most successful. His works included translations from
Virgil, Ovid, Seneca, Terence and Juvenal, besides original
poems. The Jesuit Adriaen Poirters (1606-1675) closely followed
Cats in his remarkable Masquer of the World. A poet of Amster-
dam, Jan Hermansz Krul (1602-1644), preferred to follow the
southern fashion, and wrote didactic pieces in the Catsian
manner.
A poet of dignified imagination and versatile form was Sir
Constantijn Huygens (1596-1687), the diplomatist. He threw
in his lot with the great school of Amsterdam, and Haygeas.
became the intimate friend and companion of Vondel,
Hooft and the daughters of Roemer Visscher. His famous poem
in praise of the Hague, Batava Tempe, appeared in 1622, and
was, from a technical point of view, the most accomplished and
elegant poem till that time produced in Holland. His collected
poems, Otiorum libri sex, were printed in 1625. Oogenlroost, or
Eye Consolation, was the fantastic title of a remarkable poem
dedicated in 1647 to his blind friend, Lucretia van Trello. He
printed in 1654 a topographical piece describing his own mansion,
Hofwijck. Huygens represents the direction in which it would
have been desirable that Dutch literature, now completely
founded by Hooft and Vondel, should forthwith proceed, while
Cats represents the tame and mundane spirit which was actually
adopted by the nation. Huygens had little of the sweetness
of Hooft or of the sublimity of Vondel, but his genius was
eminently bright and vivacious, and he was a consummate
DUTCH LITERATURE
725
artist in metrical form. The Dutch language has never proved
so light and supple in any hands as in his, and he attempted no
class of writing, whether in prose or verse, that he did not adorn
by his delicate taste and sound judgment. A blind admiration
for John Donne, whose poems he translated, was the greatest
fault of Huygens, who, in spite of his conceits, remains
one of the most pleasing of Dutch writers. In addition to
all this he comes down to us with the personal recommenda-
tion of having been " one of the most lovable men that ever
lived."
Three Dutchmen of the i 7th century distinguished themselves
very prominently in the movement of learning and philosophic
_ .t thought, but the illustrious names of Hugo Grotius
(1583-1645) and of Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677) can
scarcely be said to belong to Dutch literature. Balthasar
Bekker (1634-1698), on the contrary, a Reformed preacher
of Amsterdam, was a disciple of Descartes, who deserves to be
remembered as the greatest philosophical writer who has used
the Dutch language. His masterpiece, Betoverde Wereld, or
the World Bewitched, appeared in 1691-1693. Bekker is
popularly remembered most honourably by his determined
attacks upon the system of a penal code for witchcraft.
From 1600 to 1650 was the blossoming time in Dutch litera-
ture. During this period the names of greatest genius were
first made known to the public, and the vigour and grace of
literary expression reached their highest development. It
happened, however, that three men of particularly commanding
talent survived to an extreme old age, and under the shadow
of Vondel, Cats and Huygens there sprang up a new generation
which sustained the great tradition until about 1680, when the
final decline set in. Jan Vos (d. 1667) gained one illustrious
success with his tragedy of Aaron and Titus in 1641,
and lost still more in 1642 by his obscene farce of Oene.
His second tragedy of Medea, in 1665, and his collected poems in
1662, supported his position as the foremost pupil of Vondel.
Geeraerdt Brandt (1626-1685), theauthorof zHislory
Brandt ^ ^ g p j orma i{ on ( 4 V ols., 1671-1704), deserves
remembrance less as a tragic dramatist than as a consummate
biographer, whose lives of Vondel and of De Ruyter are among
the masterpieces of Dutch prose. Johan Antonides van der Goes
_ (1647-1684) followed Vos as a skilful imitator of
Venders tragical manner. His Chinese tragedies,
Trazil (1665) and Zungchin (1666), scarcely gave promise of the
brilliant force and fancy of his Yslroom, a poem in praise of
Amsterdam, 1671. He died suddenly, in early life, leaving
. . unfinished an epic poem on the life of St. Paul. Reyer
Anslo (1626-1669) marks the decline of taste and
vigour; his once famous descriptive epic, The Plague at Naples,
is singularly tame and rococo in style. Joachim Oudaen (1628-
1692) wrote in his youth two promising tragedies,
Johanna Gray (1648) and Konradyn (1649). The
Amsterdam section of the school of Cats produced Jeremias de
Decker (1609-1666), author of The Praise of Avarice, a satirical
poem in imitation of Erasmus, and Joannes Vollenhove (1631-
1708), voluminous writers of didactic verse. The engraver Jan
Luikea Luiken (1640-1708) published in 1671 a very remark-
able volume of poems. In lyrical poetry Starter had
a single disciple, Daniel Jonctijs (1600-1652), who published a
volume of love songs in 1639 under the affected and untrans-
latable title of Rooselijns oochjens ontleed. None of these poets,
except in some slight degree Luiken, set before himself any
more ambitious task than to repeat with skill the effects of his
predecessors.
Meanwhile the romantic and voluminous romances of the
French school of Scudery and Honore d'Urfe had invaded
Holland and become fashionable. Johan van Heems-
tert . kerk (1597-1656), acouncilloroftheHague, set himself
to reproduce this product in native form, and published
in 1637 his Batavian Arcadia, the first original Dutch romance, in
which a party of romantic youths journey from the Hague to
Katwijk, and undergo all sorts of romantic adventures. This
book was extremely popular, and was imitated by Hendrik
Zoeteboom in his Zaanlandsche Arcadia (1658) , and by Lambertus
Bos in his Dordtsche Arcadia (1662). A far more
spirited and original romance is the Mirandor (1675) of
Nikolaes Heinsius the younger (b. 1655), a book which resembles
Gil Bias, and precedes it.
The drama fell into Gallicized hands at the death of Vondel and
his immediate disciples. Lodewijck Meijer translated Corneille,
and brought out his plays on the stage at Amsterdam,
where he was manager of the national theatre or
Schouwburg after Jan Vos. In connexion with
Andries Pels (d. 1681), author of the tragedy of Dido's
Death, Meijer constructed a dramatic club, entitled " Nil Volenti-
bus Arduum," the great object of which was to inflict the French
taste upon the public. Pels furthermore came forward as the
censor of letters arid satirist of barbarism in Horace's Art of
Poetry expounded, in 1677, and in his Use and Misuse of the Stage,
in 1681. Willem van Focquenbroch (1640-1679) was the most
voluminous comic writer of this period. The close of the century
saw the rise of two thoroughly Gallican dramatists, Jan van
Paffenrode (d. 1673) and Pieter Bernagie (1656-1699), who may
not unfairly be compared respectively to the Englishmen
Farquhar and Shadwell. Thomas Asselijn (1630-1695) was a
writer of more considerable talent and more homely instincts.
He attempted to resist the dictatorship of Pels, and to follow the
national tradition of Bredero. He is the creator of the character-
istic Dutch type, the comic lover, Jan Klaaszen, whom he
presented on the stage in a series of ridiculous situations.
Abraham Alewijn (b. 1664), author of Jan Los (1721), possessed
a coarse vein of dramatic humour ; he lived in Java, and his
plays were produced in Batavia. Finally Pieter Langendijk, the
author of a farce borrowed from Don Quixote, claims notice
among the dramatists of this period, although he lived from 1683
to 1 7 56, and properly belongs to the next century. With him the
tradition of native comedy expired.
The Augustan period of poetry in Holland was even more
blank and dull than in the other countries of northern Europe.
Of the name preserved in the history of literature
there are but very few that call for repetition here,
Arnold Hoogvliet (1687-1763) wrote a passable poem
in honour of the town of Vlaardingen, and a terrible Biblical
epic, in the manner of Blackmore, on the history of Abraham.
Hubert Cornelissen Foot (1689-1733) showed an unusual love of
nature and freshness of observation in his descriptive pieces.
Sybrand Feitama(i694-i758),who translated Voltaire's Henriade
(1743), and wrote much dreary verse of the same class himself,
is less worthy of notice than Dirk Smits (1702-1752), the mild
and elegiac singer of Rotterdam. Tragic drama was more or less
capably represented by Lucretia Wilhelmina van Merken (1722-
1789), wife of the very dreary dramatist Nicholaas Simon van
Winter (1718-1795).
In the midst of this complete dissolution of poetical style, a
writer arose who revived an interest in literature, and gave to
Dutch prose the classical grace of the i8th century.
Justus van Effen * (1684-1735) was born at Utrecht,
fell into poverty early in life, and was thrown very
much among the company of French emigres, in connexion with
whom he began literary life in 1713 by editing a French journal.
Coming to London just when the Taller and Spectator were in
their first vogue, Van Effen studied Addison deeply, translated
Swift and Defoe into French, and finally determined to transfer
the beauties of English prose into his native language. It was
not, however, until 1731, after having wasted the greater part of
his life in writing French, that he began to publish his Hollandsche
Spectator, which his death in 1735 soon brought to a close. Still,
what he composed during the last four years of his life, in all
its freshness, manliness and versatility, constitutes the most
valuable legacy to Dutch literature that the middle of the i8th
century left behind it.
The supremacy of the poetical clubs in every town produced a
very weakening and Della-Cruscan effect upon literature, from
which the first revolt was made by the famous brothers Van
'See Dr W. Bisschop, Justus van Effen . . . (Utrecht, 1859).
Van
Effen.
726
DUTCH LITERATURE
Bellamy.
Haren, 1 so honourably known as diplomatists in the history of the
Netherlands. Willem van Haren (1710-1768) wrote verses from
The his earliest youth, while Onno Zwier van Haren (1713-
brothers 1779), strangely enough, did not begin to do so until he
van had passed middle life. They were friends of Voltaire,
Haren. anc [ they were both ambitious of success in epic
writing, as understood in France at that period. Willem pub-
lished in 1741 his Gevollen van Friso, a historical epos, and a long
series of odes and solemn lyrical pieces. Onno, in a somewhat
lighter strain, wrote Piet and Agnietje, or Pandora's Box, and a
long series of tragedies in the manner of Voltaire. The baroness
Juliana Cornelia deLannoy (1738-1782) wasawriterof
Baroness cons iderable talent, also of the school of Voltaire; her
< Lanaoy. poems were highly esteemed by Bilderdijk, and shehasa
neatness of touch and clearness of penetration that give
vivacity to her studies of social life. Jakobus Bellamy (1757-
1786) was the son of a Swiss baker at Flushing; his pompous
odes (Gezangen myner Jeugd, 1782; Vaderlandsche
Gezangen, 1782) struck the final note of the false taste
and Gallic pedantry that had deformed Dutch literature now for
a century, and were for a short time excessively admired.
The year 1777 has been mentioned as the turning-point in the
history of letters in the Netherlands. It was in that year that
Elizabeth (Betjen) Wolff 2 (1738-1804), a widow lady
' n Amsterdam, persuaded her friend Agatha (Aagjen)
Deken. Deken (1741-1804), a poor but extremely intelligent
governess, to throw up her situation and live with her.
For nearly thirty years these women continued together, writing
in combination, and when the elder friend died on the 5th of
November 1804, her companion survived her only nine days.
Madam Wolff had appeared as a poetess so early as 1762, and
again in 1769 and 1772, but her talent in verse was by no means
very remarkable. But when the friends, in the third year of
their association, published their Letters on Divers Subjects, it
was plainly seen that in prose their talent was very remarkable
indeed. Since the appearance of Heinsius's Mirandor more than
a century had passed without any fresh start in novel-writing
being made in Holland. In 1782 the ladies Wolff and Deken,
inspired partly by contemporary English writers, and partly
by Goethe, published their first novel, Sara Burgerhar. In
spite of the close and obvious following of Richardson, this was
a masterly production, and it was enthusiastically received.
Another novel, Willem Leevend, followed in 1785, and Cornelia
Wildschul in 1792. The ladies were residing in France at the
breaking out of the Revolution, and they escaped the guillotine
with difficulty. After this they wrote no more, having secured
for themselves by their three unrivalled romances a place among
the foremost writers of their country.
The last years of the i8th century were marked in Holland
by a general revival of intellectual force. The romantic move-
ment in Germany made itself deeply felt in all branches
of Dutch literature, and German lyricism took the
place hitherto held by French classicism. Pieter
Nieuwland (1764-1794) was a feeble forerunner of the revival,
but his short life and indifferent powers gave him no chance of
directing the transition that he saw to be inevitable. One volume
of poems appeared in 1788, and a second, posthumously, in 1797.
The real precursor and creator of a new epoch in letters was the
famous Willem Bilderdijk (1756-1831) (q.v.). This remarkable
man, whose force of character was even greater than his
. _ii_ i i
genius, impressed his personality on his generation so
indelibly that to think of a Dutchman of the beginning of the
loth century is to think of Bilderdijk. In poetry his taste was
strictly national and didactic; he began as a disciple of Cats, nor
could he to the end of his life tolerate what he called " the puer-
ilities of Shakespeare." His early love-songs, collected in 1781
and 1785, gave little promise of talent, but in his epic of Elias
in 1786, he showed himself superior to all the Dutch poets since
Huygens in mastery of form. For twenty years he lived a busy,
1 See Dr J. van Vloten, Leven enwerken van Willem en Onno van
Haren (1874), and Busken-Huet, De van Harens (1875).
1 See Dr J. van Vloten, Elisabeth Wolff . . . (1880).
eventful life, writing great quantities of verse, and then com-
menced his most productive period with his didactic poem of
The Disease of the Learned, in 1807; in 1808 he imitated Pope's
Essay on Man, and published the tragedy of Floris V., and in
1809 commenced the work which he designed to be his master-
piece, the epic of De Ondergang der eerste Wereld (The Destruction
of the First World) , which he never finished, and which appeared
as a fragment in 1820. To the foreign student Bilderdijk is a
singularly uninviting and unpleasing figure. He unites in himself
all the unlovely and provincial features which deform the worst
of his countrymen. He was violent, ignorant and dull; his view
of art was confined to its declamatory and least beautiful side,
and perhaps no writer of equal talent has shown so complete
an absence of taste and tact. Ten Brink has summed up the
character of Bilderdijk's writings in an excellent passage:
" As an artist," he says, " he can perhaps be best described
in short as the cleverest versemaker of the i8th century. His
admirable erudition, his power over language, more extended
and more colossal than that of any of his predecessors, enabled
him to write pithy and thoroughly original verses, although
the general tone of his thought and expression never rose above
the ceremonious, stagy and theatrical character of the iSth
century." But in spite of his outrageous faults, and partly
because these faults were the exaggeration of a marked national
failing, Bilderdijk long enjoyed an unbroken and unbounded
popularity in Holland. Fortunately, however, a sounder spirit
has arisen in criticism, and the prestige of Bilderdijk is no longer
preserved so religiously.
Bilderdijk's scorn for the dramas of Shakespeare was almost
rivalled by that he felt for the new German poetry. Notwith-
standing his opposition, however, the romantic fervour found its
way into Holland, and first of all in the persons of Hieronymus
van Alphen (1746-1803) and Pieter Leonard van de Kastiele
(1748-1810), who amused themselves by composing funeral
poems of the school of Gessner and Blair. Van Alphen at one
time was extolled as a writer of verses for children, but neither
in this nor in the elegiac line did he possess nearly so much talent
as Rhijnvis Feith (1753-1824), burgomaster of Zwolle, the very
type of a prosperous and sentimental Dutchman. In his Julia
(1783), a prose romance, Feith proved himself as completely
the disciple of Goethe in Werther as Wolff and Deken had been
of Richardson in Sara Burger hart. In Johannes Kinker (1764-
1845) a comic poet arose who, at the instigation of Bilderdijk,
dedicated himself to the ridicule of Feith's sentimentalities.
The same office was performed with more dignity and less
vivacity by Baron W. E. van Perponcher (1741-1819), but Feith
continued to hold the popular ear, and achieved an immense
success with his poem The Grave in 1792. He then produced
tragedies for a while, and in 1803 published Antiquity, a didactic
epic. But his popularity waned before his death, and he was
troubled by the mirth of such witty scoffers as Arend Fokke
Simons (1755-1812), the disciple of Klopstock, and as P. de
Wacker van Zon (1758-1818), who, in a series of very readable
novels issued under the pseudonym of Bruno Daalberg, sharply
ridiculed the sentimental and funereal school.
Under the Batavian republic a historian of great genius arose
in the person of Johannes Henricus van der Palm (1763-1840),
whose brilliant and patriotic Gedenkschrift van Neder-
lands Herstelling (1816) has somewhat obscured pa/m*'
his great fame as a politician and an Orientalist.
The work commenced by Van der Palm in prose was continued
in verse by Cornelis Loots (1765-1834) and Jan Frederik Helmers
(1767-1813). Loots, in his Batavians of the Time of
Caesar (1805), read his countrymen a lesson in patriot-
ism, which Helmers far exceeded in originality and force by
his Dutch Nation in 1812. Neither of these poets, however, had
sufficient art to render their pieces classical, or, indeed, He i mers
enough to protect them during their lifetime from
the sneers of Bilderdijk. Other political writers, whose lyrical
energies were stimulated by the struggle with France, were
Maurits Cornelis van Hall (1768-1858), Samuel Iperuszoon
Wiselius (1769-1845) and Jan ten Brink (1771-1839), the
DUTCH LITERATURE
727
To/tens.
Messchert.
Bogaers.
second of whom immortalized himself and won the favour
of Bilderdijk by ridiculing the pretensions of such frivolous
tragedians as Shakespeare and Schiller.
The healthy and national spirit in which the ladies Wolff and
Deken had written was adopted with great spirit by a novelist
in the next generation, Adriaan Loosjes (1761-1818),
a bookseller at Haarlem. His romantic stories of
medieval life, especially his Charlotte van Bourbon, are curiously
like shadows cast forward by the Waverley Novels, but he has
little of Sir Walter Scott's historical truth of vision. His pro-
duction was incessant and his popularity great for many years,
but he was conscious all through that he was at best but a
disciple of the authoresses of Sara Burgerhart. Another disciple
whose name should not be passed over is Maria Jacoba de
Neufville (1775-1856), author of Little Duties, an excellent story
somewhat in the manner of Mrs Opie.
A remarkable poet whose romantic genius strove to combine
the power of Bilderdijk with the sweetness of Feith was Hendrik
Tollens (1780-1856), whose verses have shown more
vitality than those of most of his contemporaries. He
struck out the admirable notion of celebrating the great deeds of
Dutch history in a series of lyrical romances, many of which
possess a lasting charm. Besides his folk-songs and* popular
ballads, he succeeded in a long descriptive poem, A Winter in
Nova Zembla, 1819. He lacks the full accomplishment of a
literary artist, but his inspiration was natural and abundant, and
he thoroughly deserved the popularity with which his patriotic
ballads were rewarded. Willem Messchert (1790-
1844), a friend and follower of Tollens, pushed the
domestic and familiar tone of the latter to a still further
point, especially in his genre poem of the Golden Wedding,
1825. Both these writers were natives and residents of Rotter-
dam, which also claims the honour of being the birthplace of
Adrianus Bogaers (1795-1870), the most considerable
poetical figure of the time. Without the force and
profusion of Bilderdijk, Bogaers has more truth to nature, more
sweetness of imagination, and a more genuine gift of poetry than
that clamorous writer, and is slowly taking a higher position in
Dutch literature as Bilderdijk comes to take a lower one. L Bogaers
printed his famous poem Jochebed in 1835, but it had then been in
existence more than thirteen years, so that it belongs to the
second period of imaginative revival in Europe, and connects the
name of its author with those of Byron and Heine. Still more
beautiful was his Voyage of Heemskerk to Gibraltar (1836), in
which he rose to the highest level of his genius. In 1846 he
privately printed his Romances and Ballads. Bogaers had a great
objection to publicity, and his reputation was long delayed by the
secrecy with which he circulated his writings among a few
intimate friends. A poet of considerable talent, whose powers
were awakened by personal intercourse with Bogaers and
Tollens, was Antoni Christiaan Winand Staring (i 767-
1840), who first at the age of fifty-three came before the
world with a volume of Poems, but who continued to write till
past his seventieth year. His amorous and humorous lyrics
recall the best period of Dutch song, and are worthy to be named
beside those of Starter and Vondel.
After 1830 Holland tooka more prominent position in European
thought than she could claim since the end of the I7th century.
In scientific and religious literature her men of letters
cenlu showed themselves cognizant of the newest shades
influences, of opinion, and freely ventilated their ideas. The
language resisted the pressure of German from the
outside, and from within broke through its long stagnation
and enriched itself, as a medium for literary expression, with
a multitude of fresh and colloquial forms. At the same time,
no very great genius arose in Holland in any branch of literature.
The vast labours of Jakobus van Lennep (1802-1868) consist
of innumerable translations, historical novels and national
romances, which have gained for him the title of the leader of
the Dutch romantic school.
The novels of Sir Walter Scott had a great influence on Dutch
literature, and the period was rich in historical novels. J. van
Staring.
der Hage (1806-1854), wno wrote under the pseudonym of Jan
Frederick Oltmans, was the author of the famous novels, Castle
Loevenstein in 1570 (1834), and The Shepherd (1838), both
dealing with the national history. Other popular works were the
antique romance Charikles and Euphorion (1831) of Petrus van
Limburg-Brouwer (1795-1847), author of a history of Greek
mythology; the Mejuffrouw Leclerc (1849), and the Portretten van
Joost van den Vondel (1876) of the literary historian and critic
J. A. A. Alberdingk Thijm (1820-1899); the Jan Faesscn (1856)
of Lodewijk Mulder (b. 1822); and the Lucretia d'Este of
W. P. Walters (1827-1891). Johannes Kneppelhout (1814-1885)
sketched university life at Leiden in two amusing volumes
of Studententypen (1841) and Studentenleoen (1844). Reinier
Cornells Bakhuizen van den Brink (1810-1865) was the chief
critic of the romantic movement, and Everhard Johannes
Potgieter (1808-1875) its mystical philosopher and esoteric
lyrical poet. The genius and influence of Potgieter were very
considerable, but they were exceeded by the gifts of Nicolaes
Beets (q.v.), author of the famous Camera Obscura (1836), a
masterpiece of humour and character. Johannes Pieter Hase-
broek (1812-1896), who has been called the Dutch Charles Lamb,
wrote in 1840 an admirable collection of essays entitled Truth
and Dreams. Willem Hofdijk (1816-1888) wrote a collection
of ballads, Kennemerland (1849-1852), and a series of epic" and
dramatic poems in the romantic style. Bernard ter Haar (1806-
1881), an Amsterdam pastor and, in the last year of his life, a
professor at Utrecht, made a reputation as a poet by his Johannes
and Theagenes, a legend of apostolic times ( 1 83 8) . His poems were
collected in 1 866 and 1879. A poet of unusual power and promise
was lost in the early death of Pieter Augustus de Genestet (1803-
1861). His Eve of Saint Nicholas appeared in 1849, and was
followed by two volumes of verse in 1851 and 1861, the second of
which contains some poems that have attained great popularity.
Among the poets should not be forgotten two writers of verse for
children, Jan Pieter Heije (1800-1876) and J. J. A. Gouverneur
(1809-1889). Criticism was represented by W. J. A. Jonckbloet
(1817-1885), author of an excellent History of Dutch Literature
(1868-1870), C. Busken Huet, and Jan ten Brink (1834-1901),
author of a great number of valuable works on literary history,
notably of a history of Dutch literature (1897), and a series of
biographies of igth century Dutch writers (new edition, 1902).
His novels were collected in 13 volumes in 1885. With Isaak
da Costa (q.v.), W. J. van Zeggelen (1811-1879), and J. J. L.
Ten Kate (q.v.), the domestic tendency of Cats and Bilderdijk
overpowered the influence of romanticism. The romantic drama
found its best exponent in H. J. Schimmel (q.v.), who found a
disciple in D. F. van Heyst (b. 1831), whose George van Lalaing
was produced in 1873. Hugo Beijerman (ps. Glanor) produced
a good play in his Uitgaan (1873), which was followed by other
successes. Rosier Faessen (b. 1833) published his dramatic works
in 1883.
The recent literature of Holland presents the interesting
phenomenon of an aesthetic revolution, carefully and cleverly
planned, crowned with unanticipated success, and
dying away in a languor encouraged by the complete
absence of organized resistance. It would perhaps be
difficult to point to another European example so well
defined of the vicissitudes which keep the history of literature
varied and fresh. For the thirty or forty years preceding 1880
the course of belles-lettres in Holland was smooth and even
sluggish. The Dutch writers had slipped into a conventionality
of treatment and a strict limitation of form from which even the
most striking talents among them could . scarcely escape. In
1880 the most eminent authors of this early period were ready to
pass away, and they appeared to be preparing no successors to
take their place. The greatest humorist of Holland, Nicolaas
Beets, had drawn his works together. The most interesting
novelist, Mrs Gertrude Bosboom-Toussaint, had in her last
psychological stories shown an unexpected sympathy with new
ideas. M. G. L. van Loghem (b. 1849), known under the
pseudonym of " Fiore delle Neve," made a great success by his
Een liefde in het Zuiden (1881), followed in 1882 by Liana, and in
728
DUTCH LITERATURE
1884 by Van eene Sultane. Among the novelists were Gerard
Keller (b. 1829), author of From Home (1867); Johan Gram (b.
1833)1 of whose novels De Familie Schaffels (1870) is the best
known; Hendrik de Veer (1829-1890), author of Frans Holster
(1871); Justus van Maurik (b. 1846), who wrote plays and short
sketches of Amsterdam life (Uit het Volk, 1879), and Arnold
Buning (b. 1846), whose Marine Sketches (1880) won great
popularity. The colonial novels of N. Marie C. Sloot, born in
Java in 1853, are widely read in Holland and Belgium, and many
of them have been translated into German. A number of them
were collected (Schiedam, 1900-1902) as Romantische Werken.
Adele Opzoomer (b. 1856; pseud. A. C. S. Wallis) made her first
success in 1877 with In Days of Strife, The two leading Dutch
men of letters, however, besides Beets and Douwes Dekker, were
critics, Conrad Busken-Huet (q.v.) and Carel Vosmaer (q.v.). In
Huet the principles of the 1840-1880 period were summed up; he
had been during all those years the fearless and trusty watch-dog
of Dutch letters, as he understood them. He lived just long
enough to become aware that a revolution was approaching,
not to comprehend its character; but his accomplished fidelity
to literary principle and his wide knowledge have been honoured
even by the most bitter of the younger school. Vosmaer,
although in certain directions more sympathetic than Huet,
and himself an innovator, has not escaped so easily, because he
has been charged with want of courage in accepting what he knew
to be inevitable.
In November 1881 there died a youth named Jacques Perk
(1860-1881), who had done no more than publish a few sonnets
in the Spectator, a journal published by Vosmaer. He was no
sooner dead, however, than his posthumous poems, and in
particular a cycle of sonnets called Mathilde, were published
(1882), and awakened extraordinary emotion. Perk had rejected
all the formulas of rhetorical poetry, and had broken up the
conventional rhythms. There had been heard no music like his
in Holland for two hundred years. A group of young men,
united in a sort of esoteric adoration of the memory of Perk,
collected around his name. They joined to their band a man
somewhat older than themselves, Marcellus Emants (born 1848),
poet, novelist and dramatist, who had come forward in 1879
with a symbolical poem called Lilith, which had been stigmatized
as audacious and meaningless; encouraged by the admiration
of his juniors, Emants published in 1881 a treatise on Young
Holland, in the form of a novel in which the first open attack
was made on the old school. The next appearance was that of
Willem Kloos (born 1857), who had been the editor and intimate
friend of Perk, and who now undertook to lead the army of
rebellion. His violent attacks on recognized authority in
aesthetics began in 1882, and created a considerable scandal.
For some time, however, the new poets and critics found a great
difficulty in being heard, since all the channels of periodical
literature were closed to them. But in 1883 Emants expressed
his intellectual aspirations in his poem The Twilight of the Gods,
and in 1884 the young school founded a review, De Nieuwe Gids,
which was able to offer a direct challenge to De Gids, the ultra-
respectable Dutch quarterly. In this year a new element was
introduced: hitherto the influences of the young Dutch poetry
had chiefly come from England; they were those of Shelley,
Mrs Browning, the Rossettis. In 1884 Frans Netscher began to
imitate with avidity the French naturalists. For some time,
then, the new Dutch literature became a sort of mixture of
Shelley and Zola, very violent, heady and bewildering. In 1885
the Persephone and other Poems of Albert Verwey (b. 1865) intro-
duced a lyrical poet of real merit to Holland; Emants published
his novel Goudakker's Illusions. This was the great flowering
moment of the new school. It was at this juncture that the
principal recent writer of Holland, Louis Couperus (b. 1863),
made his first definite appearance. Born in the Hague, the
opening years of his boyhood were spent in Java, and he had
preserved in all his nature a certain tropical magnificence. In
1884 a little volume of lyrics, and in 1886 the more important
Orchids, showed in Couperus a poet whose sympathies were at
first entirely with the new school. But he was destined to be
a novelist, and his earliest story, Eline Vere (1889), already took
him out of the ranks of his contemporaries. In 1 890 he published
Destiny (known as Footsteps of Fate in the English version),
and in 1892 Ecstasy. This was followed in 1894 by Majesty, in
1896 by World-wide Peace, in 1898 by Metamorphosis, a delicate
study of character, in 1899 by Fidessa, in 1901 by Quiet Force,
and in 1902 by the first volume of a tetralogy called The Books
of Small Souls. Of all these later books, some of which have
been translated into English, by Couperus, it is perhaps Ecstasy
in which the peculiar quality of his work is seen at present to
the greatest advantage. This is an extreme sensitiveness to
psychological phenomena, expressed in terms of singular delicacy
and beauty. The talent of Couperus is like a rich but simple
tropical flower laden with colour and odour. He separated
himself, as he developed, from the more fanatical members of the
group, and addressed himself to the wider public. Another
writer, of a totally different class, resembling Couperus only in his
defiance of the ruling system of aesthetics, is the prominent
Ultramontane politician and bishop, E. J. A. M. Schaepmann
(born 1844), whose poem of Aja Sofia originally appeared in 1886.
Recent novelists of some polemical vigour are H. Borel and van
Hulzen. A very delightful talent was revealed by Frederick
van Eeden in Little Johnny (1887), a prose fairy-tale; in Ellen
(1891), a cycle of mysterious and musical elegies; and in From
the Cold Pools of Death (1901), a very melancholy novel. Another
poet of less refinement of spirit, but even greater sumptuousness
of form, appeared in Helene Swarth-Lapidoth (born 1859), whose
Pictures and Voices belongs to 1887. In that year also, in which
Dutch literature reached its height of fecundity, was published
the powerful and scandalous naturalistic novel, A Love, by
L. van Deyssel (K. J. L. Alberdingk Thijm) who had hitherto
been known chiefly as a most uncompromising critic. After
1887 the condition of modern Dutch literature remained com-
paratively stationary, and within the last decade of the igth
century was definitely declining. In 1889, it is true, a new poet
Herman Gorter, made his appearance with a volume of strange
verses called May, eccentric both in prosody and in treatment.
He held his own without any marked advance towards lucidity
or variety. Since the recognition of Gorter, however, no really
remarkable talent has made itself prominent in Dutch poetry,
unless we except P. C. Boutens, whose Verses in 1808 were
received with great respect. Willem Kloos, still the acute and
somewhat turbulent leader of the school, collected his poems in
1894 and his critical essays in 1896. L. van Deyssel, though an
effective reviewer, continued to lack the erudition which years
should have brought to him. Gorter remained tenebrous,
Helene Swarth-Lapidoth still gorgeous; the others, with the
exception of Couperus, showed symptoms of sinking into silence.
The entire school, now that the struggle for recognition is over,
and its members are accepted as little classics and the tyrants
of taste, rests on its triumphs and seems to limit itself to a
repetition of its old experiments. The leading dramatist of
the close of the century was Hermann Heijermans (b. 1864),
a Jew of strong realistic and socialistic tendencies, and the
author of innumerable gloomy plays. His Ghetto (1898) and
Ora et Labora (1901) particularly display his peculiar talent.
Other notable products of drama are those of de Koo, whose
Tobias Bolderman (1900) and Vier Ton (1901) are effective
comedies. Dutch literature presented features of remarkable
interest between 1882 and 1888, but since that time the general
heightening of the average of merit, the abandonment of the old
dry conventions, and a recognition of the artistic value of words
and forms, are more evident to a foreign observer than any very
important single expression of the national genius in literary
art. An exception should be made in favour of the powerful
peasant-stories of Steijn Streuvels (Frank Lateur), a young baker
by trade, whose Summer Land (1901) was a most promising
production.
AUTHORITIES. Dr W. J. A. Jonckbloet, Geschiedenis der Neder-
landsche Letterkunde (4th ed., 1889-1892); Dr J. ten Brink, Kleine
Geschiedenis der Nederlandschen Letleren (Haarlem, 1877); and the
same author's Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Letterkunde (1897),
with elaborate illustrations, facsimiles of MSS. and title pages, &c. ;
DUTCH WARS
729
Dr J. van Vloten, Schets van de Geschiedenis der Nederlandschen
Lelteren (1879) ; L. Schneider, Geschichte der niederl&ndischen
Literatur (Leipzig, 1887) ;G. Kalff , Literatuur en tooneel te Amsterdam
in de zeventiende Eeuw (Haarlem, 1895).
Interesting observations on the development of the new school
in Dutch literature will be found in Willem Kloos, Veertien Jaar
Lileratuur-Geschiedenis (2 vols., 1880-1896), and in L. van Deyssel,
Verzamelde Opstelen (4 vols., 1890-1897), and in the series of mono-
graphs and bibliographies by Prof. J. ten Brink, Geschiedenis der
Noord-Nedcrlandsche Letteren in de XIX' Eeuw (Rotterdam, new ed.
1902, &c.). (E. G.)
DUTCH WARS, a convenient general title for a series of
European wars between 1652 and 1678, which centred chiefly
upon the political and commercial relations of the Netherlands
with England and France. By Englishmen the term " Dutch
Wars " is usually applied to the two purely naval wars of 1652-53
and 1663-67 and to the Anglo-Dutch or naval part of the war
that began in 1672. But the last of these was part of a much
wider struggle by land, known to Continental historians as the
Dutch War of 1672-78, and the second part of this article
deals with their struggle on the various frontiers of France, which
was illustrated by the genius of Turenne and Conde.
I. NAVAL OPERATIONS
First Dutch War (1652-53). Though political causes were at
work, the main incentive to hostility between the peoples was
commercial rivalry. It was therefore natural that their first
encounters should have taken place between fleets engaged in
convoying trade, or in endeavouring to intercept the trade of
their enemy. Blows were exchanged before war was formally
declared. On the i2th of May 1652 an English officer, Captain
Young, stopped a Dutch convoy near the Start in order to
enforce the salute to the English flag, which England then
demanded from all who used the seas round her coast. The
demand was resisted, and was only yielded to after a sharp
conflict. Though the Dutch were still endeavouring to negotiate
a peace with the Council of State which governed in the British
Isles after the execution of King Charles I., they made ready for
war. In May forty sail of their war-ships appeared off Dover
under command of Martin Harpertzoon Tromp then the best
known of their admirals. There were then 8 British ships in
Dover under Rear- Admiral Nicholas Bourne, and 15 near Rye
under Robert Blake, a member of parliament, and soldier who
had gained a great reputation in the Civil War. Blake came into
the Straits of Dover with his ships, and on the igth of May a sharp
collision took place between him and Tromp. Bourne joined his
countryman after the action began. The encounter, which the
Dutch attributed to the English, and the English to the Dutch,
made war inevitable, even if the relations of the two powers had
allowed of the maintenance of peace. The first operations on
both sides took the form of attacks on trade. Sir George Ayscue,
who had lately returned from the West Indies, whither he had
been sent to subdue the Royalist party in Barbados, had a sharp
encounter with a Dutch convoy while on his way up Channel to
the Downs, and had captured several prizes. The Council of
State, being mainly anxious to destroy the Dutch trade and
fisheries, began by reinforcing Blake, and sending him north
to scatter the Dutch herring fleet. He had with him 60 vessels.
Ayscue remained in the Downs with 16. Soon after Blake had
gone, Tromp appeared in the Downs with a stronger force and
threatened an attack on Ayscue. Want of wind prevented the
operation. Tromp was also most intent on collecting the home-
coming Dutch convoys, and seeing them safe into port. He
therefore also sailed north to meet the Baltic trade. No meeting,
however, took place between him and Blake, while bad weather
scattered the Dutch. Their herring fishery was ruined for the
year, and the outcry against Tromp was loud. He was notori-
ously no friend to the Loevenstein party then prevalent in
Holland, and was displaced, his place being taken by Cornelius
de Witt and Michiel Adriaanzoon de Ruyter. De Ruyter was
sent into the Channel to convoy the outward-bound convoys,
and meet the home-coming trade. On the i6th of August he
had an encounter off Plymouth with Ayscue, whom he worsted,
and then cruised at the Land's End. The failure of Ayscue, who
was not employed again in this war, induced the Council of State
to send Blake, who had now returned from the north, into the
Channel. He was not, however, more successful. His fleet was
allowed to become scattered, and the Dutchman brought his
convoy back safe after a partial action with Penn, Blake's
subordinate, on the i6th of August.
So far the operations had been confined to commerce destroy-
ing, or to the protection of trade by convoy. The next moves
were more purely warlike. In the 27th of September the Dutch
appeared in force off the mouth of the Thames, and Blake, whose
fleet was collected in the Downs, stood to sea. On the 28th of
September the first real battle of the war was fought off the
Kentish Knock, a shoal opposite the coast of Essex. The English
fleet standing to the north passed to west of the Dutch, and then
turned. In the close engagement which followed, the Dutch
were defeated. They did not fight well, and their failure was
attributed in part to the discontent of their seamen with the
removal of Tromp, and the unpopularity of de Witt. The
states-general found it necessary to replace Tromp, who was at
once sent to sea, again with the charge of seeing the outward-
bound trade down Channel, and waiting for the homeward-
bound. Blake had not remained on the coast of Holland, for the
Council of State was still almost as intent as the Dutch on
convoying trade or molesting the enemy's. It brought its fleet
back, and then divided the ships, sending some to the north
with Penn, and keeping the others, 40 in all, with Blake in the
Downs. Thus when Tromp appeared " at the back of the
Goodwins " with a fleet of 80 war-ships and a crowd of merchant
vessels on the 2gih of November, Blake was not in a position
to engage him with any assured prospect of success. But he
made the attempt, and a hot engagement took place off Dunge-
ness on the 3oth. Two English vessels were taken, and the loss
would have been greater if some of the English captains had not
shown themselves backward. Many of the ships were merchant
vessels pressed or hired, and commanded by their own skippers,
who displayed little military spirit. Blake, who offered to
resign, complained of the conduct of ihany of them, and
some were punished. The Council of State saw the necessity for
making a strong effort against Tromp, who ranged the Channel
unopposed. Penn was recalled from the north, Richard Deane
and George Monk were united with Blake as " admirals and
generals at sea," and a competent force was collected by the
middle of February. The legend (for it is nothing more) that
Tromp hoisted a broom at his mainmast-head to announce his
intention to sweep the English off the sea, refers to this period.
On the i8th of February 1653 the Dutch admiral, who had
now collected the homeward-bound convoys, was off Plymouth
on his way back to Holland, and was attacked by the English
fleet. The encounter, which lasted from the i8th to the 2oth of
February and ranged from Plymouth to Calais, is commonly
named the " Three Days' Battle " and was described by Clarendon
as " stupendous." The Dutch admiral brought his charge of
merchant ships up Channel between him and the French shore.
His war-ships were arranged in what was called a half -moon,
and was in fact an obtuse angle with his flagship, the
" Brederode," at the apex. During the i8th and igth, the
attacks of the English though fierce were partial, and met with
no great success. Tromp had to complain of the conduct of
several of his captains. On the 2oth his line was broken and
some 60 of his merchant ships were captured. He anchored in
some confusion in Calais roads. Yet by taking advantage of the
dark, and the turn of the tide, he succeeded in carrying the great
majority of his merchant ships home. The English fleet had
suffered severely, Blake himself was seriously wounded, and his
colleague Deane was also hurt. Blake's wound disabled him
greatly through the remainder of the war.
The Three Days' Battle was followed by a pause in the war.
On the English side much damage had to be repaired. The
administration of the navy, called upon as it was to deal with
a war of unprecedented magnitude, was overtaxed by the
obligation to refit ships, raise crews, and provide for the numerous
sick or wounded. The close approach of the great political
730
DUTCH WARS
crisis in which Cromwell expelled the Long Parliament and
established the Protectorate (i7th of April 1653), may have had
some influence. The fleet adhered to the new government on
the 22nd of April. On the Dutch side much damage had to be
repaired, and their complicated administration, by five inde-
pendent admiralty boards, rendered rapid work impossible.
They had also begun to realize that the quality of their ships was
inferior. Reflection had further shown them that to hamper
their fleets by imposing the direct protection of a great flock of
merchant ships on them was not even an effectual way to protect
commerce. When, therefore, Tromp was next sent to sea, it was
with an unhampered fleet of war-ships, and for the purpose of
bringing the English fleet to battle.
In spite of their heavy losses and their awkward administra-
tion, the Dutch were at sea before the end of May, and were close
to the mouth of the Thames. The English fleet was not all ready.
Part was in the river fitting out under Blake, who had not fully
recovered from his wound. The bulk of it was, however, ready
for service, and Blake's colleagues, Monk and Deane, attacked
Tromp on the 2nd of June. Changes of wind made the battle
somewhat confused. At first the English were to windward and
they bore down with Rear-Admiral John Lawson in command of
the van. Tromp, conscious that his ships were weaker in build,
at first drew away, firing at the spars of the English ships in order
to cripple them. A shift of the wind having given him the
weather-gage, he concentrated a vigorous attack on Lawson.
But the wind changed again and transferred the weather-gage to
the English. Monk and Deane brought on a general action, in
which the Dutch were outmatched, and forced to retreat to their
own coast. Deane was slain by a cannon-shot by the side of his
colleague Monk, who threw his cloak over the mangled body.
Blake, informed by the sound of the cannon, which was audible
on the Thames, that an action was in progress, hurried to sea and
joined Monk in the pursuit of the Dutch on the 3rd of June.
Tromp was driven into port and told the states-general that they
must build better ships if they wished to beat the English at sea.
Blake was forced by his still unhealed wound to go ashore, and
the sole command was left to Monk, who remained cruising on the
coast of Holland. The states-general now sought for peace, but
Cromwell's demands were excessive, and could not be accepted
without a surrender of the independence of Holland. A last effort
was therefore made to regain the command of the sea. A great
fleet was fitted out, partly at Flushing, partly in the Texel.
Between the 26th and the 3oth of July Tromp, by a series of
skilful manoeuvres, united the divided Dutch squadrons in the
face of Monk's fleet, and on the 3oth he stood out to sea with the
wind in his favour, and gave battle. More than a hundred vessels
were engaged on either side. The Dutch admiral manoeuvred to
keep, and Monk to gain, the weather-gage. The fleets passed on
opposite tacks, and the Dutch tried to destroy their enemy with
fire-ships without success. At last the weatherly qualities of the
ships enabled Monk to break through the Dutch line, cutting
some of their ships off from the others. The vessels thus cut off
fled to the Maas, and Tromp with the others retired to the
Texel. He was shot dead by a musket bullet in the retreat.
The loss of life had been heavy on both sides. Six captains of
Monk's fleet were slain. The Dutch now sought peace, and
Cromwell offered better terms. During the fighting in the North
Sea the Mediterranean trade of England had suffered severely.
A squadron of trading ships and a few war vessels were blocked in
Italian ports till some of them were taken and others forced to
flee in March 1653 off Leghorn. The battle of the 3ist of July
was the last serious operation of the war, though peace was not
formally made till some months later.
Second Dutch War (1663-67). Although the formal declara-
tion of war was not made by the government of King Charles II.
till March 1665, the operations of the second Dutch War began in
October 1663. The king and his brother the duke of York
(James II.), who were largely interested in the slave-trading
Guinea Company, were eager to remove the Dutch ports from the
slave coast. They knew that war with the Republic, which had
recovered very rapidly from the disasters of the war of 1652-53,
would be popular with the trading classes in England. They relied
also on the known reluctance of the Dutch government to go to
war. In October 1663, therefore, a squadron was sent out under
command of Sir Robert Holmes to attack the Dutch in Gambia
and America. Their posts on the African coast were captured
and New Amsterdam (now New York) taken. The states-
general under the ski'ful management of the Grand Pensionary.
John de Witt, retaliated by sending de Ruyter from the Mediter-
ranean, where he was cruising against the Barbary pirates, to
follow Holmes. De Ruyter re-established the Dutch posts in
Gambia, and, though he failed to retake New Amsterdam, did
much injury to English trade before he returned to Holland. It
may be pointed out that all colonial settlements belonged at that
time exclusively to England, and the war was made entirely by
her, and in her interest, Scotland and Ireland having no share.
Numbers of Scotch sailors and of English deserters served in the
Dutch fleet in this war the bad administration of the navy and
the constant ill-treatment of the crews having caused bitter
discontent. Other attacks were made on Dutch trade during
1664, but the great operations of war did not begin till May 1665.
In that month the duke of York was on the east coast of England
with a fleet of 80 to 90 sail, composed, according to the custom of
the time, of vessels of all sizes. A Dutch fleet of corresponding
strength was sent to sea, under command of Baron Opdam van
Wassenaer. In this war we do not find that the movements of
fleets were subordinated to the work of providing convoy. They
were sent to sea for the much more intelligent purpose of seeking
out the enemy and driving him off. It was understood that the
trade of the victor would be secure.
The first battle took place from 30 to 40 m. S.E. of Lowestoft,
on the 3rd of June 1665. By the bad conduct of some of the
captains in the centre of the Dutch line, the English, who fought
with much spirit, were able to win a considerable victory.
Opdam's flagship was blown up and he perished. But the
pursuit of the English fleet was feeble, and the retreat of the
Dutch was ably covered by Cornelius van Tromp, son of Martin
Tromp. Much scandal was caused by the mysterious circum-
stances in which an order to shorten sail was given in the English
flagship, and doubts were expressed of the courage of the duke of
York. He withdrew, or was withdrawn, from the active com-
mand at sea, and was replaced by the earl of Sandwich. On the
Dutch side vigorous measures were taken to enforce good
discipline. Four of the captains who had misbehaved on the 3rd
of June were shot for cowardice, and others were dismissed.
De Ruyter was named commander-in-chief, and John de Witt,
or later his brother Cornelius, accompanied the admiral as
delegate of the states-general to support his authority. The
earl of Sandwich did nothing becoming a capable commander.
Under his command the fleet made no attempt to blockade the
Dutch coast, but was turned from its proper work to engage in a
prize-hunting plot with the king of Denmark. The object was to
plunder a Dutch convoy which had taken refuge at Bergen in
Norway, then united to Denmark. The mutual interest of the
associates led to the failure of the plot. Sir Thomas Teddeman,
who was sent by Sandwich to attack the Dutch at Bergen, was
suspected by the Danish governor of intending to play false, was
fired on by the batteries, and was beaten off. De Ruyter
covered the return of the trade to Holland. Sandwich, who had
taken some prizes, unlawfully seized part of their cargoes for the
benefit of himself and the other flag officers. A loud outcry \vas
raised in the fleet and the country. Sandwich was displaced,
and his command was transferred to Monk, with whom was
associated the king's cousin, Prince Rupert. The war had so far
been unsuccessful for England. The victory of the 3rd of June
was barren. Great injury was inflicted on English trade by
Dutch cruisers, while the wasteful administration of his officers
reduced the king's treasury to much embarrassment. Winter
suspended the movements of the fleets.
The year 1666 (called the annus mirabilis, for it included the
plague and the fire of London) was marked by fierce fighting
and changes of fortune. The French, who had signed a treaty
with Holland in 1662, were reluctantly induced to intervenr in
DUTCH WARS
73 1
the war as the enemies of England. By May a Dutch fleet of
some eighty sail was at sea, preparing to watch the English,
and unite with the French. Monk and Rupert were fitting out
a fleet of nearly the same strength in the Thames. Under the
influence of their fear of a French naval force King Charles's
ministers committed a great blunder. They detached Prince
Rupert into the Channel with 20 ships, leaving Monk with
only 57 to face the Dutch. The English commander put to sea,
and found the enemy anchored on the coast of Flanders, in
three divisions. He boldly attacked the van, hoping to cripple it
before it could be helped by the centre and rear. This daring
and well-judged move brought on the Four Days' Battle of the
ist, 2nd, 3rd and 4th of June (O.S.). On the ist the Dutch van,
under Cornelius van Tromp, bore the brunt of the English attack.
The fighting was very fierce. One English admiral, Sir William
Berkeley, was slain, and another, Sir John Harman, was in
great danger. Monk drew off at night without doing all the harm
he had wished to the Dutch. During the 2nd of June the fleets
engaged again, and on this day the self-will of Van Tromp,
who commanded the rear in the battle, and the misconduct of
some of the ships in the van, prevented De Ruyter from making
full use of his numbers. Yet Monk was clearly overtaxed, and
on the 3rd he prepared to retreat to the Thames. During this
movement the " Prince " (100) carrying the flag of Admiral Sir
Robert Ayscue, ran on the Galloper Sand, and was lost. In
the evening Prince Rupert returned, and by hugging the coast of
Kent to the south of the fleets, was able to rejoin his colleague.
Monk and Rupert renewed the battle on the 4th. It was fought
with extreme fury, and terminated in the retreat of the English
to the Thames with a loss of 20 ships and 6000 men.
The Dutch remained masters of the approach to the Thames
till the 2 ist of July. They menaced the coast of Essex, and
could easily have covered an invasion of England by a French
army if Louis XIV. had been disposed to send one. Danger
stimulated the English government to active exertions, and by
the 2 ist of July Monk and Rupert were enabled by a happy
combination of wind and tide to set to sea through the passage
called the Swin. A storm which scattered both fleets delayed
their meeting till the 25th of July. On that and the two succeed-
ipg days the Dutch were again defeated and driven into port.
The English fleet then burnt the Dutch East India Company's
dockyard at Terschelting, inflicting great loss. But the fruits
of the victory were less than they would have been if it had
been properly followed up. The British fleet withdrew to its
own coast and within a month De Ruyter was at sea again,
. hoping to effect a junction with a French squadron. The
French failed to keep tryst, and De Ruyter was watched by
Rupert, who was now in sole command, Monk having been
recalled to London to take command amid the confusion caused
by the fire and the plague. Nor did the failure of King Charles's
government to press the war with vigour end here. Embar-
rassed by want of money, on bad terms with his parliament,
and secretly intent on schemes incompatible with a policy which
could earn the approval of his subjects, the king preferred to
spend what money he could command on raising troops, and
neglected his fleet. Peace negotiations were begun with the
Dutch, and the line-of-battle ships were put out of commission.
A light squadron was, however, kept at sea to injure the Dutch
trade, and as no armistice was arranged the Republic was free
to continue warlike operations. The Dutch, being well aware of
the disarmed condition of the English coast, sent out a power-
ful fleet again under the ccmmand of De Ruyter in June. It
entered the Thames, forced the entrance of the Medway, and
burnt both the dockyard at Chatham and a number of the
finest ships in the navy which were lying in the river. A terrible
panic prevailed in London, where an attack was expected.
The Dutch were content with the injury they had done at
Chatham, and dropped down the river. De Ruyter remained
cruising in the Channel till the peace of Breda was signed in
July. During the last months of the war Sir John Harman
had fought a successful campaign in the West Indies against
the French on whom he inflicted a severe defeat at Martinique
on the 24th of June. By the terms of the peace England retained
possession of New York, but the war, though it contained
some passages glorious to her arms, was very disastrous to her
commerce.
Third Dutch War (1672-74). This war differed very
materially in its inception and conduct from the first and second.
They had been popular in England, and even the second gave
Englishmen not a little to be proud of. The third was under-
taken by the king in pursuit of a policy arranged between him
and his cousin Louis XIV. Their avowed object was a partition
of Holland, but there was a secret understanding that King
Charles II. was to establish Roman Catholicism, and to make
himself despotic in England, with the help of the French king.
This hidden purpose was suspected, and the war became intensely
unpopular with the English parliament and nation. Parliament
would grant the king no supplies, and he could find the means
of fitting out a fleet only by defrauding his creditors. The
English fleets were, therefore, comparatively small, were ill-
provided and had to co-operate with French squadrons which in
the then raw state of King Louis' young navy, proved inefficient
allies.
In this as in former wars, attacks on Dutch commerce preceded
a formal declaration of hostilities. On the I3th of March 1672
Sir Robert Holmes fell upon a Dutch convoy under the command
of Van Ness in the Channel. In the penury of the dockyards
Holmes could not be provided with the force he was promised,
and the enterprise was but partially successful. It was char-
acteristic of the morality of his time and the spirit of the English
navy as it had been shaped by the corrupt government of
Charles II., that the officers concerned quarrelled violently and
accused one another of fraud. A fleet of 60 sail was with difficulty
got together under the duke of York, who now went to sea for
the second time. The duke was joined in May, and at Ports-
mouth, by 40 French ships under the comte d'Estrees, a soldier
and noble who had been made an admiral late in life. The allies
entered the North Sea but did not take the offensive against
the Dutch. The English were ill supplied, and were compelled
to anchor at Southwold Bay on the coast of Suffolk in order to
obtain water and provisions. The Dutch, who had to contend
with an overwhelming French invasion on shore, nevertheless
fitted out a fleet of 70 to 80 sail of the line and the command was
given to De Ruyter. On the 28th of May 1672 he fell upon the
allies in a N.W. wind. D'Estrees, who was stationed with his
squadron at the south end of the line, went to sea on the port
tack, heading to the S.E. The English, who constituted the
centre and rear, stood out on the starboard tack. Thus the allies
were at once divided into two widely separated bodies, and the
Dutch admiral was able to concentrate nearly his whole force
on the centre division, which suffered severely. The flagship of
the duke of York, the " Prince " (100), was so shattered that
he was compelled to leave her, and go to the " St Michael."
The " Royal James " (100), the flagship of his second in com-
mand, the earl of Sandwich, after being much shattered by the
Dutch artillery, was set alight by a fire-ship, and destroyed with
enormous loss of h'fe. The earl himself perished. His body
was picked up three days afterwards, so disfigured that it was
only recognized by the star on his coat. The ships at the head
of the English line at last tacked to the support of the centre,
and at evening De Ruyter drew off. A foolish attempt was
made to claim his retreat as a victory, but the allies were too
severely damaged to attempt an attack on the Dutch during the
rest of the year. The Republic was so hard pressed by the
French invasion that it had to'land the gunpowder from its ships
for the service of its army.
In 1673 the allies made an effort to invade Holland from the
sea coast. Prince Rupert replaced the duke of York, who as a
Roman Catholic was driven from office by the newly passed
Test Act. He was supplied with 54 ships and was joined early in
the year by d'Estrees with 27. Soldiers were embarked, and in
May the allied fleet stood over to the Dutch coast. The distress
of the Republic prevented it from equipping more than 55 ships,
but the patriotism of the race was roused to white heat, and in
732
DUTCH WARS
De Ruyter they possessed an admiral of consummate skill and
heroic character. He took up an anchorage at Schooneveld and
stood on his guard. On the 28th of May Rupert and d'Estrees,
believing that De Ruyter was too much afraid of their superior
numbers to venture to sea, sent in a squadron of light vessels and
fire-ships to attack him, but he took the offensive at once,
scattering the light squadron, and falling with energy on the rest
of the fleet, which, not being in expectation of a vigorous assault,
was taken at a disadvantage. On this occasion the English
placed the French in the centre, in order to avoid such a separa-
tion as had taken place in the battle at Southwold Bay. But the
disposition made no difference in the result. De Ruyter concen-
trated on the van and centre of the allies, and in spite of his great
inferiority of numbers was able to be superior at the point of
attack. The allies were compelled to retreat, and De Ruyter,
satisfied with having averted the invasion of his country,
anchored at West-Kappel.
Seven days later, on the 4th of June, a second encounter took
place. The French were now placed in the rear of the line as it
engaged. The Dutch admiral, who had the advantage of the
wind, fell on the English in the van and centre. His inferiority in
numbers did not allow him to push his attack quite home, but he
inflicted so much injury that the allies were forced to return to
the Thames to refit. At the end of July the allies again appeared
off the coast of Holland, bringing four thousand soldiers in the
war-ships and two thousand in transports. De Ruyter's fleet had
been raised to 70 vessels, but the allies had also been reinforced
and were 90 strong. On the nth of August the Dutch
admiral kept in the shallow waters of the coast looking for a
favourable opportunity to attack. On the nth of August the
wind, which had been westerly, turned to the S.E., giving him the
weather gage. The French division was leading, and De Ruyter
fell furiously upon the English in the centre and rear. The French
were kept in play by a small squadron under Bankert, while De
Ruyter drove Prince Rupert in the centre out of the line, and in
the rear Cornelius van Tromp fought a desperate duel with the
English rear division commanded by Sir E. Spragge. The two
admirals engaged in a species of personal conflict, and each was
compelled to shift his flag to another vessel. While Sir E.
Spragge, whose second flagship was shattered by the Dutch fire,
was on his way to a third, his boat was sunk by a cannon shot
and he was drowned.
The defeat of the allies was undeniable, and a violent quarrel
broke out between them. Want of money, and the increasing
violence of popular opposition to the French alliance, compelled
the king to withdraw from the war. Peace was made in the
following spring.
In this war, which presented no features of a creditable kind,
the loss to English commerce from Dutch cruisers was so great
that it was found necessary to suspend the clause of the naviga-
tion act which forbade the purchase of foreign-built vessels.
As England withdrew. from her alliance with Louis XIV., the
other powers of Europe, frightened by the growth of the aggres-
sive French power, began to come forward to the support of
Holland. The coalition then formed continued the struggle till
1678. But the war was conducted mainly on the land. The
French king, who knew that his fleet was not as yet capable of
meeting the Dutch single-handed, was content to withdraw his
ships from the North Sea and the ocean. The Dutch, who had to
pay subventions to their German allies, and to support a large
army, could spare little for their fleet. For some time they
willingly confined themselves to efforts to protect their commerce
from French privateers. In 1674 a revolt of the people of Sicily
against their Spanish rulers gave the French kinganopportunityof
seizing the island. Spain, unable to defend its possessionssingle-
handed, appealed to the Dutch for naval help. In September
1675 De Ruyter was sent into the Mediterranean with 18 sail of
the line and four fire-ships. The force was inadequate, but it
was all that Holland could spare. The Dutch admiral, who was
hampered rather than helped by his Spanish allies, did his best to
make good his weakness by skilful management. He cruised off
Messina to intercept the supplies which were being brought to the
French garrison by a fleet of 20 sail under the command of
Abraham Duquesne. Conscious that he must spare his small
force as much as possible, he abstained from such vigorous
attacks as he had made in 1672 and 1673. When Duquesne
appeared on the 7th of January 1676 near the Lipari Islands, De
Ruyter allowed them to get the weather-gage, and on the
8th of January waited passively for their attack. The French,
with more recklessness than was usual with them in later times,
bore down on their enemy courageously but in some disorder.
Their leading ships were severely mauled, and their whole force
so crippled that they could make no pursuit of the Dutch when
they drew off, their injured ships being towed by the Spanish
galleys, in the la.te afternoon. Duquesne was able to reach
Messina and join the French ships at anchor there. De Ruyter
made his way to Palermo, which was in the hands of the
Spaniards. One of his vessels sank on the way and he was
reduced to 17. It is true that his allies provided him with 10
ships of their own, but the Spanish navy had sunk to abject
inefficiency. Their commander, the marquis of Bayona,
arrogantly insisted on occupying the centre of the line with his
worthless squadron instead of allowing his ships to be scattered
among the Dutch for support. When on the 22nd of April the
allies, 27 strong, met the fleet of Duquesne, 29 ships, off Agosta,
they attacked from windward. De Ruyter, who led the van, was
mortally wounded. The Spaniards in the centre behaved very
ill, and no victory was gained. The serious fighting was, in fact,
confined to the vans of the two fleets. After the battle the allies
retired to Syracuse, where De Ruyter died, and where their ships
were mostly destroyed by the French a month later. Reinforce-
ments sent out from Holland were stopped in the Straits of
Gibraltar and blockaded in Cadiz. The French remained masters
of the Mediterranean. In the meantime, however, angry disputes
had arisen between France and England. King Louis XIV.
enforced his belligerent rights at sea with as much disregard of
neutral interests as was shown by England in later times. His
naval officers insisted on making prize of all Dutch-built vessels
found under the English flag. In 1678 war seemed imminent
between France and England. King Louis then withdrew his
soldiers from Sicily, and made the peace of Nijmwegen.
AUTHORITIES. For the English side, see Naval History of England,
by Thomas Lediard (London, 1735); Memorials of Sir W. Penn,
by Grenville Penn (London, 1833) ; The First Dutch War, 1652-
1654, edited by S. R. Gardiner for the Navy Record Society (1899).
For the Dutch side : Het Leven un Bedryf van den Heere Michiel de
Ruiter, by Gerard Brandt (Amsterdam, 1687); Geschiedenis van
den Nederlandsche Zeewegen, by J. C. de Jongke (Haarlem, 1858);
Annales des Provinces-Unies, by J. Basnages de Beauval (The Hague,
1726). For the French side: Abraham du Quesne et la marine de son
temps, by A. Jal (Paris, 1873). For the small Spanish share:
Armada Espanola, by Captain Cesareo Fernandez Duro (Madrid,
1895-1901). For critical studies of these wars the reader may be
referred to Naval Warfare, by Rear-admiral P. H. Colomb (London,
1899), and The Influence of Sea Power upon History, by Captain
A. T. Mahan. (D. H.)
II. OPERATIONS ON LAND
The contemporary military history of Europe included, first,
the war between France and Spain, 1654-59, usually called the
Spanish Fronde, of which the most notable incident was the great
battle of the Dunes fought on the i4th of June 1658 between
the French and English under Turenne and the Spaniards under
Conde, in which a contingent of Cromwell's soldiers bore a
conspicuous part. About the same time a war was fought in
northern Europe (1655-60), celebrated chiefly for the three
days' battle of Warsaw (28th, 29th, 3oth July 1656), and the
successful invasion of Denmark by the Swedes, carried out from
island to island over the frozen sea (February 1658) , and culminat-
ing in a long siege of Copenhagen (1658-59). Between the
second and third wars of England and the United Provinces came
the short War of Devolution (1667-68) a war of sieges in the
Low Countries in which the French were commanded chiefly by
Turenne. In 1668 the French under Conde made a rapid con-
quest of Franche-Comte. This was, however, given up at the
peace. The war of 1672-78, the first of the three great wars of
Louis XIV., was fought on a grander scale.
DUTCH WARS
733
Invasion of Holland, 1672. The diplomacy of Louis had,
before the outbreak of war, deprived Holland of her allies
England (treaty of Dover, 1670), Sweden (treaty of Stockholm,
1672) and the emperor, and when he declared war on the United
Provinces in March 1672, it seemed that the Dutch could offer
little resistance. The French army under Louis in person
started from Charleroi and marched down the Meuse unopposed.
The powerful Dutch fortress of Maastricht was masked, and the
French then moved towards Diisseldorf. In the electorate of
Cologne they were in friendly country, and the main army soon
moved down the Rhine from Diisseldorf, the corps of Turenne on
the left bank, that of Conde on the right. At the same time a
corps under Marshal Luxemburg, composed of Louis' German
allies (Cologne and Miinster) moved from Westphalia towards
Over-Yssel and Groningen. The Rhine fortresses offered but
little resistance to the advance of Turenne and Conde. William
of Orange with a weak field army tried to defend the Yssel-Rhine
line, but the French rapidly forced the passage of the Rhine at
Tollhuis (June iath) and passed into the Betuwe (between the
Leek and the Waal). Conde now advised a cavalry raid on
Amsterdam, but Louis, acting on the suggestion of the war
minister Louvois, preferred to reduce Nijmwegen, Gorinchem
and other places, before entering Utrecht province. Conde's
plan was, however, partially carried out by Count Rochefort,
who with 1800 troopers captured successively Amersfoort and
Naarden. His further progress was checked at Muyden, which
the Dutch garrisoned in the nick of time, and he returned to
the main army, taking Utrecht en route. Louis now moved on
Amsterdam, brushing aside the feeble opposition which was
offered, and it seemed that the French must achieve their object
in one short campaign. But the Dutch people were roused.
The month before, the citizens of Utrecht had refused to raze
their suburban villas, and defence of the fortifications had con-
sequently been impossible. Now, the dykes were cut and the
sluices opened, and Amsterdam was covered by a wide inundation,
against which the invader was powerless. At the same time the
men of Zealand repulsed a French raid from Ath on Ardenburg,
and this infraction of the neutrality of the Spanish Netherlands
served but to raise up another enemy for Louis. Luxemburg too,
at first successful, was repulsed before Groningen. A revolution
placed William of Orange at the head of the government. The
alliance of Brandenburg and the Mainz electorate had already
been secured, and Spain, justly fearing for the safety of her
Flemish possessions, soon joined them. The emperor followed,
and Louis was now opposed, not by one state, but by a formidable
coalition.
War against the Coalition. In the autumn the war spread to
the Rhine. No attempt could be made on Amsterdam until the
ice should cover the floods. Turenne was therefore despatched
to Westphalia and Conde to Alsace, while a corps of observation
was formed on the Meuse to watch the Spanish Netherlands.
But the coalition had not yet developed its full strength, and
Turenne's skill checked the advance of the Imperialists under
Montecucculi and of the Brandenburgers under the Great
Elector. A war of manoeuvre on the middle Rhine ended in
favour of the French, and the allies then turned against the
territories of Cologne and Miinster, while William, disappointed
in his hopes of joining forces with his friends, made a bold, but in
the end unsuccessful, raid on Charleroi (September-December
1672). The allies in Germany were now not merely checked but
driven from point to point by Turenne, who on this occasion
displayed a degree of energy rare in the military history of the
period. The troops of Cologne and Miinster formed part of his
army, other friends of Louis were preparing to take the field, and
after a severe winter campaign, the elector, defeated in combat
and manoeuvre, was forced back to the Weser, and being but
weakly supported by the Imperialists, found himself compelled
to make a separate peace (June 6th, 1673). Turenne then turned
his attention to the Imperialists who were assembling in Bohemia,
and made ready to meet them at Wetzlar. Meanwhile the other
French armies were fully employed. Corps of observation were
formed in Roussillon and Lorraine. Conde in Holland was to
renew his efforts against the Amsterdam defences; during the
winter the demands of the war on the Rhine had reduced the
French forces in the provinces to the size of a mere army of
occupation. 1 Louis' own army, originally collected for the
relief of Charleroi in December,advanced on Maastricht, and after
a brief siege, in which Vauban directed the besiegers, captured
this most important fortress (June 2gth, 1673). But this was
the last success of the French armies in the campaign. Conde
made no headway against Amsterdam, and William retook
Naarden (September I4th). Louis, after the capture of Maas-
tricht led his army southwards into Lorraine and overran the
electorate of Trier. But nothing of importance was gained, and
Turenne's summer campaign, was wholly unsuccessful.
Capture of Bonn. From Wetzlar he moved to Aschaffenburg,
Louis at the same time keeping back, for the intended conquest
of Franche-Comte, many soldiers who would have been more
usefully employed in Germany. Soon the Imperialists advanced
in earnest, greatly superior in numbers. Marching via Egei and
Nuremberg (September 3rd) on the Main, Montecucculi drew
Turenne to the valley of the Tauber; then, having persuaded the
bishop of Wtirzburg to surrender the bridge of that place, he
passed to the right bank of the Main before Turenne could
intervene. The Imperialists soon arrived at Frankfort, and the
French position was turned. Montecucculi thus achieved one of
the greatest objects of the I7th century strategist, the wearing
down of the enemy in repeated and useless marches. The French
retreat to the Rhine was painful and costly, and Montecucculi
then passed that river at Mainz and made for Trier. Turenne
followed, unable to do more than conform to his opponent's
movements, and took post to defend Trier and Alsace. There-
upon Montecucculi turned northward to meet William of Orange,
who evaded Conde's weak army and marched rapidly via Venlo
(22nd October) on Coblenz. The elector of Trier, who had not
forgotten the depredations of Louis' army in the spring, followed
the example of the bishop of Wiirzburg and gave a free passage at
Coblenz. William and Montecucculi joined forces in the electorate
and promptly besieged Bonn. This fortress fell on the i2th of
November, and the troops of the coalition gained possession of an
unbroken line from Amsterdam to the Breisgau, while Louis'
German allies (Cologne and MUnster), now isolated, had to make
peace at once. William wintered in Holland, Montecucculi in
Cologne and Julich, and the Spaniards, who had served with
William, in their own provinces of the Meuse. A century after
the outbreak of the War of Independence the Dutch and the
Spaniards are thus found making war as allies, a striking proof of
the fact that all questions but those of dynastic interests had been
effectually settled by the peace of Westphalia. Louis' allies were
leaving him one by one. The German princes and the empire
itself rallied to the emperor, Denmark joined the coalition
(January 1674), the Great Elector re-entered the war, and soon
afterwards England made peace.
1674. In 1674 therefore Louis reluctantly evacuated those
of the United Provinces occupied by his army. He had derived
a considerable revenue from the enemy's country, and he had
moreover quartered his troops without expense. The resources
of the French government were almost intact for the coming
campaign; the corps of observation in Roussillon was continued,
and its commander, Marshal Schomberg, made a successful
campaign against the Spaniards, and the war was carried even
into Sicily. Conde, in the Spanish Low Countries, opposed
with inferior forces the united army of Spaniards, Dutch and
Austrians under William, and held the Meuse from Grave to
Charleroi on the Sambre. The war in this quarter was memorable
for Conde's last, and William's first, battle, the desperate and
indecisive engagement of Seneffe (August nth), in which the two
armies lost one-seventh of their strength in killed alone. The
1 Marshal Luxemburg, who was left in command of the army in
Holland during the winter of 1672-73, had indeed made a bold
attempt to capture Leiden and the Hague by marching a corps
from Utrecht across the frozen inundations. But a sudden thaw
imperilled his force and he had to make a painful retreat along the
dykes to Utrecht. Holland was again inundated in 1673.
734
DUTCH WARS
French, however, in the course of the year lost a few fortresses
on the Meuse, including Grave and Huy. The king's part in
the campaign was, as usual, a war of sieges; an army under his
personal command overran Franche-Comte in six weeks, and
Louis, aided by the genius of Vauban, reduced Besanfon in nine
days. Turenne's Rhine campaign began with an invasion of
Germany, undertaken to prevent interference with Louis in
Franche-Comte. Bournonville, the imperial commander who
now replaced Montecucculi, lay in the Cologne and Trier
electorates. An army of South Germans in the Breisgau, after
an unsuccessful attempt to invade Alsace, moved northward
to the Neckar valley with the intention of uniting with Bournon-
ville, who was moving up the Rhine to meet them. Turenne
determined to attack the southern army under the duke of
Lorraine and Count Caprara before the junction could be effected.
He crossed the Rhine at Philipsburg early in June, and on the
1 6th fell upon the inferior forces of Caprara in their entrenched
position of Sinsheim. The result of the battle was a complete
victory for the French, who followed up their success by driving
a portion of Bournonville's army (on which the duke of Lorraine
had rallied his forces) from the Neckar (action of Ladenburg
near Heidelberg, July 7th). Turenne then laid waste the
Palatinate, in order that it should no longer support an army,
and fell back over the Rhine, ignoring the reproaches of the
elector palatine, who vainly challenged him to a duel. This
devastation has usually been considered as a grave stain on the
character of the commander who ordered it, but Turenne's
conception of duty did not differ in this respect from that of
Cromwell, Marlborough, Wellington and the generals of the
American Civil War. It was held to be necessary and expedient,
and it was accordingly carried out. Bournonville's army near
Frankfort was still to be dealt with, and the Great Elector and
his Brandenburgers were rapidly approaching the Main valley.
After a slight attempt to invade Lorraine, which Turenne easily
stopped, the Imperialists suddenly recrossed the Rhine and
marched rapidly into the neighbourhood of the Strassburg
bridge.
Turenne's Winter Campaign in Alsace. The magistrates of
this city were not less amenable than had been the bishop of
Wurzburg in 1673. Bournonville obtained a free passage, and
Turenne was too late to oppose him. The French general,
however, determined to fight, as he had done at Sinsheim, to
prevent the junction of the two hostile armies. The Great
Elector was still in the Neckar valley when the battle of Enzheim
(8 m. from Strassburg) was fought on the 4th of October. This
time it was indecisive, and Bournonville's superior forces, soon
augmented by the arrival of the elector, spread into Alsace.
Turenne steadily retired to his camp of Dettweiler, unable for
the moment to do more, and the Germans took up winter
quarters in all the towns from Belfort to Strassburg (October-
November 1674). But Turenne was preparing for another
winter campaign, the most brilliant in the great commander's
career.
First he placed the fortresses of middle Alsace in a state of
defence, to deceive the enemy. Then he withdrew the whole of
the field army quietly into Lorraine. Picking up on his way
such reinforcements as were available, he marched southward
with all speed behind the Vosges, and in the last stages of the
movement he even split up his forces into many small bodies,
that the enemy's spies might be misled. After a severe march
through hilly country and in the midst of snowstorms, the
French reunited near Belfort, and without a moment's delay
poured into Alsace from the south. The scattered Imperialists
were driven towards Strassburg, every corps which tried to
resist being cut off. Bournonville stood to fight at Mulhausen
with such forces as he could collect (zQth December 1674) but
Turenne's men carried all before them. The advance continued
to Colmar, where the elector, who was now in command of the
Germans, stood on the defensive with forces equal to Turenne's
own. The battle of Turkheim (sth of January 1675) nevertheless
resulted in another and this time a decisive victory for the
French; a few days after the battle Turenne could report that
there was not a soldier of the enemy left in Alsace. His army
now went into winter quarters about Strassburg, and drew
supplies from the German bank of the Rhine and even from the
Neckar valley (January 1675).
1675. This opening of the campaign promised well, and
Louis as usual took the field as early as possible. In the course
of the spring (May-June) the king's army recaptured some of
the lost fortresses of the Meuse and took in addition Liege and
Limburg. The expeditionary corps in Sicily also gained some
successes in this campaign, and Schomberg invaded Catalonia.
On the Rhine was fought the last campaign of Turenne and
Montecucculi. The elector having withdrawn his forces to
Brandenburg (see SWEDEN: History), Montecucculi resumed
command, and between Philipsburg and Strassburg the two
great commanders manoeuvred for an advantage, each seeking
to cover his own country and to live upon that of the enemy.
At last Turenne prevailed and had the Imperialists at a dis-
advantage on the Sasbach, where, in opening the action, he was
killed by a cannon-shot (July 27th). The sequel showed how
dependent was even the best organized army of the time upon
the personality of its commander.
All the advantages won were hastily surrendered, and Monte-
cucculi, sharply following up the retreat of the French, drove
them over the Rhine and almost to the Vosges. At the same time
the duke of Lorraine defeated Marshal Crequi (August nth) at
Conzer Brucke on the Moselle, and recaptured Trier (September
6th), which, as a set-off against Bonn, Turenne had taken in the
autumn of 1673. The situation was more than alarming for the
French, but Conde was destined to achieve a last success for
once a success of careful strategy and prudent manoeuvre.
Luxemburg was left in charge in Flanders, and the prince took
command of the remnant of Turenne's old army and of the
fugitives of Crequi's. Montecucculi's skill failed completely
to shake his position, and in the end the prince compelled him
to retire over the Rhine. Conde and Montecucculi retired from
their commands at the close of the year, Turenne was dead, and
a younger generation of commanders henceforward carried on
the war.
1676. In 1676 the naval successes of France in the Medi-
terranean enabled the corps under Marshal Vivonne in Sicily to
make considerable progress, and he won an important victory
at Messina on the 25th of March. Vivonne was made viceroy of
Sicily. Louis himself, with his marshals and Vauban, conducted
the campaign in the north. The town of Conde fell on the
z6th of April, and the king then manoeuvred against the prince
of Orange in the neighbourhood of Valenciennes. An attempt
made by the latter in the summer to besiege Maastricht was
frustrated by Marshal Schomberg with a detachment of the
king's army (August). Rochefort meanwhile covered the
Meuse country and Luxemburg. Crequi, who had now returned
from captivity (he had been taken after the battle of Conzer
Brucke) opposed the Imperialists in Lorraine, but he was unable
to prevent the fall of Philipsburg, which occurred on the i7th
of September. -The French now laid waste the land between
the Meuse and Moselle for the same reason which brought about
the devastation of the Palatinate in 1674, and the year closed
with a war of manoeuvre on the upper Rhine between the Im-
perialists under the duke of Lorraine and the French under
Luxemburg.
1677. The chief event of the campaign of 1677 i n the Nether-
lands was the siege of Valenciennes, which fortress was invested
by Louis in the first weeks of the campaigning season. Five
marshals of France served under the king in this enterprise,
but their advice was of less value than that of Vauban,
whose plans the king followed implicitly, even so far as to order
an assault de imie force against the unanimous opinion of the
marshals. This succeeded beyond Vauban's own expectation;
the picked troops entrusted with the attack of an outwork forced
their way into the town itself (March I7th). The success was
followed by the siege of St Omer and the defeat of William's
relieving army by the duke of Orleans (battle of Mont Cassel,
April nth, 1677). The summer campaign was a contest of skill
DUTCH WEST INDIA COMPANY
735
between Luxemburg and William, which resulted in favour of
the French. The prince of Orange failed in an attempt to take
Charleroi, and Marshal D'Humieres captured St Ghislain.
In Germany the credit of the French successes was due to
Crequi, who was no longer the defeated general of Conzer Briicke,
but the most successful of Turenne's pupils. He began by driving
back the duke of Lorraine to the Rhine. Another attempt by
the Lorraine family to reconquer their duchy was thus foiled,
and at the same time a second imperial army under the duke of
Saxe-Eisenach, which had crossed the Rhine by Philipsburg,
was shut up in an island of the Rhine and forced to make terms
with the French. A large reinforcement sent by the duke of
Lorraine to the assistance of Saxe-Eisenach was completely
defeated by Crequi in the battle of Kochersberg near Strassburg
(October 7th) and the marshal followed up his successes by the
capture of Freiburg on the i4th of November. During the year
there was a brisk war in the West Indies, and also in Catalonia,
where the French maintained the ground won by Schomberg
in the previous campaign.
i6j8. In 1678 Louis took the field in February. The skilful
manoeuvres of the French, whether due to Louis' own generalship
or that of his advisers, resulted in the speedy capture of Ghent
and Ypres (March) , and the retention of the prizes in the usual
war of posts which followed. The last battle of the war was
fought at St Denis (outside Mons) between William and Luxem-
burg on the i4th of August, three days after the peace of Nijm-
wegen had been concluded. William sustained another defeat,
but the battle was one of the most fiercely contested of the whole
war. On the Rhine, Crequi began by winning the battle of
Rheinfelden (July 6th), after which he inflicted upon the Im-
perialists another defeat at Gengenbach (July 23rd) and took
Kehl. In the short campaign of 1679, before France and the
empire had concluded peace, he was equally successful.
In Spain the French army under Marshal de Navailles had
also made steady progress, and thus the last campaign was
wholly in favour of the French. The peace of Nijmwegen gave
Louis many of the Netherlands frontier fortresses, and little
else. He was threatened by the intervention of England on the
side of the coalition, and would have made peace earlier but
for his reluctance to abandon his ally Sweden. The French army
had, however, well established its reputation. Vauban was
unique amongst the officers of his time, and Crequi and Luxem-
burg were not unworthy successors of Turenne and Conde.
The two marshals added to their reputation in the " Reunion
War " of 1680-84. Crequi died in 1684 at the age of sixty-one,
Luxemburg's greatest triumph was won ten years later (see
GRAND ALLIANCE, WAR or THE). Vauban retired from active
service as a marshal twenty-five years after the peace of Nijm-
wegen. But the interest of the war does not reside wholly in
the personalities of the leaders. There were great commanders
before Turenne and Conde. It is as the debut of a new method
of military organization and training the first real test of the
standing army as created by Louvois that the Dutch War of
1672-79 is above all instructive. (C. F. A.)
DUTCH WEST INDIA COMPANY, THE (De Westindische
Compagnie), a company founded by letters-patent from the
Netherlands states-general dated the 3rd of June 1621. The
purpose for which the company was formed was to regulate and
protect the contraband trade already carried on by the Dutch
in the American and African possessions of Spain and Portugal,
and to establish colonies on both continents and their islands.
By the terms of the charter the company was to be composed of
five boards or branches, established in Amsterdam, Zealand,
the Meuse (Rotterdam), the North Department (Friesland and
Hoorn), and Groningen. Each was to be represented on the
general governing board according to the importance of the
capital contributed by it. Thus Amsterdam, which contributed
four-ninths of the capital, had eight directors on the board.
Zealand, which subscribed two-ninths, had four. Rotterdam
was represented by two directors, though it only contributed
one-ninth. The northern district and Groningen, which each
contributed one-ninth, appointed one director each. Another
director was appointed by the states-general. In 1629 a ninth
representative was given to Amsterdam, and the strength of
the whole board was fixed at nineteen.
The company was granted the monopoly of the trade with
America and Africa and between them, from the Arctic regions
to the Straits of Magellan, and from the Tropic of Cancer to
the Cape of Good Hope. The policy the company proposed to
follow was to use its monopoly on the coast of Africa in order to
secure the cheap and regular supply of negro slaves for the
possessions it hoped to acquire in America. The trade was
thrown open by the voluntary action of the company in 1638.
The general board was endowed with ample power to^negotiate
treaties, and make war and peace with native princes; to appoint
its officials, generals and governors; and to legislate in its
possessions subject to the laws of the Netherlands. The states-
general undertook to secure the trading rights of the company,
and to support it by a subvention of one million guilders (about
100,000). In case of war the states-general undertook to con-
tribute sixteen vessels of 300 tons and upwards for the defence
of the company, which, however, was to bear the expense of
maintaining them. In return for these aids the states-general
claimed a share in the profits, stipulated that the company
must maintain sixteen large vessels (300 tons and upwards) and
fourteen " yachts " (small craft of 50 to 100 tons or so) ; required
that all the company's officials should take an oath of allegiance
to themselves as well as to the board of directors; and that all
despatches should be sent in duplicate to themselves and to the
board.
The history of the Dutch West India Company is one of less
prosperity than that of the Dutch East India Company. In early
days the trade was not sufficient to meet the heavy expense
of the armaments raised against Spain and Portugal. A com-
pensation was found in the plunder of Spanish and Portuguese
galleons and carracks. In 1628 the company's admiral Piet
Heijn captured a vast booty in the Spanish treasure-ships. But
this source of profit was dried up by the success of the company's
cruisers, which destroyed their enemy's trade. Profit had to be
sought in the development of the colonies established on the
continent of America. In this field the successes of the company
were counterbalanced by not a few failures. The company was
never able to secure the control of the supply of slaves from
Africa. Its settlement of New Netherland was lost to England.
In the West Indies it gained a valuable footing among the islands.
It occupied St Eustatius in 1634, Curacao with Bonaire and
Aruba in 1634 and 1635, Saba in 1640 and St Martin in 1648.
But its greatest conquests and its greatest losses were alike met
on the continent of South America. After a first unsuccessful
occupation in 1623 of Bahia, which was immediately retaken
by a combined Spanish and Portuguese armament, the company
obtained a firm footing in Pernambuco. The story of the wars
which arose out of this invasion belongs to the history of Brazil.
The company had been largely guided in its policy of assailing
the Portuguese possessions by the advice of the Jews, who were
numerous in Brazil, and who found means to communicate with
their fellows in religion, the refugees in Amsterdam. The most
prosperous period of the company was during the tolerant and
liberal administration of Count John Maurice of Nassau-Siegen
(1636-1644).
The monopolist tendency of all Dutch colonization, the
religious hostility of the Roman Catholic Portuguese, and the
support given by France and England to Portugal after her
revolt from Spain, combined at last to make the position of
the company in Brazil untenable. It resigned all claim on the
country by the treaty of 1661. But though deprived of its
establishment in Brazil, the company found a compensation in
Surinam and Essequibo (Dutch Guiana), where there was no
Spanish or Portuguese population to resist it, and where the
resources of the country offered great profits. The advantages of
the settlement in Guiana were not, however, reaped 'by the
company founded in 1621. In 1674 it had become so embarrassed
that it was dissolved, and reconstructed in 1675. The newly
formed company continued to exploit the Dutch possessions in
DUTENS DU VAIR
America till 1794, when they were all swept into the general
reorganization consequent on the French invasion of Holland.
The West India Company founded after the Napoleonic epoch in
1828 was only meant to develop trade, and was not successful.
AUTHORITIES. P. M. Nitscher, Les Hollandais au Bresil (the
Hague, 1853), the work of a Dutch author writing in French. See
also Southey, History of Brazil (London, 1810), and E.B.O'Callaghan,
History of New Netherland (New York, 1846-1848).
DUTENS, LOUIS (1730-1812), French writer, was born at
Tours, of Protestant parents, on the isth of January 1730. He
went to London, where his uncle was a jeweller, and there
obtained a situation as tutor in a private family. In this position
he learnt Greek and mathematics, and studied oriental languages,
also Italian and Spanish. He took orders, and was appointed
chaplain and secretary to the English minister at the court of
Turin in October 1758. In 1760-1762 he was charge d'affaires at
Turin. Lord Bute, before retiring from office in 1763, procured
him a pension. He again went to Turin as charge d'affaires ; and
during this second mission he collected and published a complete
edition of the works of Leibnitz (Geneva, 6 vols., 1768) and wrote
his Recherches sur I'origine des decowiertes attributes aux modernes
(1766). On his return to England the duke of Northumberland
procured him the living of Elsdon, in Northumberland, and made
him tutor to his son. In 1 7 7 5 he became a member of the French
Academy of Inscriptions and a fellow of the Royal Society.
Dutens was for a third time charge d'affaires at Turin. He was
in Paris in 1783, and returned to London the following year.
He died in London on the 23rd of May 1812.
The principal works of Dutens were his Recherches sur I'origine
des decouvertes attributes aux modernes (1766, 2 vols.); Appel au
ban sens (London, 1777, 8vo), directed in defence of Christianity
against the French philosophers, and published anonymously;
Explication de quelques medailles de peuples, de rois et de villes
grecques et phzniciennes (London, 1773); Explication de quelques
medailles du cabinet de Duane (1774); Troisieme dissertation sur
quelques medailles grecques el pheniciennes (1776); Logique, ou I'art
de raisonner (1773); Des pierres precieuses et des pierres fines, avec
les moyens de les connaitre et de les evaluer (Paris, 1776) ; Itineraire
des routes les plus frequentees, ou journal d'un voyage aux principales
villes d'Europe (Paris, 1775), frequently republished; Considerations
theoloeiques sur les moyens dz reunir toules les eglises chretiennes
(1798); (Euvres melees, containing his most important works pub-
lished up to the date (London, 1797, 4 vols.); L'Ami des etrangers^
qui voyagent en Angleterre (1789, 8vo) ; Histoire de ce qui s'est passe
pour le retablissement d'une regence en Angleterre (1789); Recherches
sur le terns le plus recule de Vusage des iioutes chez les anciens (1795) ;
Memoires d'un voyageur qui se repose (Paris, 1786, 3 vols.). The
first two volumes of the last-named work contain the life of the
author, written in a romantic style: the third bears the title of
Dutensiana, and is filled with remarks, anecdotes and bons mots.
(See memoir of Dutens in the Gentleman's Magazine for 1812.)
DUTROCHET, RENfi JOACHIM HENRI (1776-1847), French
physiologist, was born at Chateau de Neon (Indre) on the i4th of
November 1776, and died at Paris on the 4th of February 1847.
In 1799 he entered the military marine at Rochefort, but soon
left it to join the Vendean army. In 1802 he began the study of
medicine at Paris; and he was subsequently appointed chief
physician to the hospital at Burgos. After an attack of typhus
he returned in 1809 to France, where he devoted himself to the
study of the natural sciences. His scientific publications were
numerous, and covered a wide field, but his most noteworthy
work was embryological. His" Recherches sur 1'accroissement et
la reproduction des vegetaux," published in the Memoires du
museum d' hisloire naturelle for 1821, procured him in that year
the French Academy's prize for experimental physiology. In
1837 appeared his Memoires pour servir a I'histoire anatomique
et physiologique des vegelaux et des animaux, a collection of all his
more important biological papers.
DUTT, MICHAEL MADHU SUDAN (1824-1873), the greatest
native poet of India in the igth century, was born at Sagandari,
in the district of Jessore in Bengal, on the 2$th pi January 1824.
His father was a pleader in Calcutta, and young Madhu Sudan
received his education in the Hindu college of Calcutta, and was
the foremost among the distinguished young students of his day,
many of whom lived to make their mark in the literature and
social progress of their country. Madhu Sudan left the college in
1842, and in the following year ran away to avoid a marriage into
which his father wished to force him, and embraced the Christian
religion. Continuing his studies now in the Bishop's college,
Madhu Sudan learnt Greek and Latin and some modern European
languages, and in 1848 went to Madras. There he wrote English
verses, and married the daughter of a European indigo-planter,
but was soon separated from her. He then united himself with an
English lady, the daughter of an educational officer; and she
remained true to him through life amidst all his misfortunes, and
was the mother of the children he left. With her Madhu Sudan
returned to Calcutta in 1856, and soon discovered that the
true way for winning literary distinction was by writing in his
own language, not by composing verses in English. His three
classical dramas Sarmishlha, Padmavati, and Krishna Kumari
appeared between 1858 and 1861, and were recognized as works of
merit. But his great ambition was to introduce blank verse into
Bengali. His knowledge of Sanskrit poetry, his appreciation of
the Greek and Latin epics, and his admiration of Dante and of
Milton, impelled him to break through the fetters of the Bengali
rhyme, and to attempt a spirited and elevated style in blank
verse. His first poem in blank verse, the Tiloltama, was only a
partial success; but his great epic which followed in 1861, the
Meghanad-Badha, took the Indian world by surprise, and at once
established his reputation as the greatest poet of his age and
country. He took his story from the old Sanskrit epic, the
Ramayana, but the beauty of the poem is all his own, and he
imparted to it the pathos and sweetness of Eastern ideas com-
bined with the vigour and loftiness of Western thought. In 1862
Madhu Sudan left for Europe. He lived in England for some
years, and was called to the bar; and in 1867 returned to his
country to practise as a barrister in Calcutta. But the poet was
unfitted for a lawyer's vocation ; his liabilities increased, his health
failed, his powers declined. He still wrote much, but nothing
of enduring merit. His brilliant but erratic life ended in a
Calcutta hospital on the 2gth of June 1873.
DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, du, past
participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt "), a term
loosely applied to any action or course of action which is regarded
as morally incumbent, apart from personal likes and dislikes or
any external compulsion. Such action must be viewed in relation
to a principle, which may be abstract in the highest sense (e.g.
obedience to the dictates of conscience) or based on local and
personal relations. That a father and his children have mutual
duties implies that there are moral laws regulating their relation-
ship; that it is the duty of a servant to obey his master within
certain limits is part of a definite contract, whereby he becomes a
servant engaging to do certain things for a specified wage. Thus
it is held that it is not the duty of a servant to infringe a moral
law even though his master should command it. For the nature
of duty in the abstract, and the various criteria on which it has
been based, see ETHICS.
From the root idea of obligation to serve or give something in
return, involved in the conception of duty, have sprung various
derivative uses of the word; thus it is used of the services
performed by a minister of a church, by a soldier, or by any
employee or servant. A special application is to a tax, a payment
due to the revenue of a state, levied by force of law. Properly a
" duty " differs from a " tax " in being levied on specific com-
modities, transactions, estates, &c., and not on individuals; thus
it is right to talk of import-duties, excise-duties, death- or succes-
sion-duties, &c., but of income-tax as being levied on a person in
proportion to his income.
DU VAIR, GUILLAUME (1556-1621), French author and
lawyer, was born in Paris on the 7th of March 1 556. Du Vair was
in orders, and, though during the greater- part of his life he
exercised only legal functions, he was from 1617 till his death
bishop of Lisieux. His reputation, however, is that of a lawyer, a
statesman and a man of letters. He became in 1584 counsellor
of the parlement of Paris, and as deputy for Paris to the Estates of
theLeague he pronounced his most famous politico-legal discourse,
an argument nominally for the Salic law, but in reality directed
against the alienation of the crown of France to the Spanish in-
fanta, which was advocated by the extreme Leaguers. Henry IV.
DUVAL DU VERGIER DE HAURANNE
737
acknowledged his services by entrusting him with a special com-
mission as magistrate at Marseilles, and made him master of
requests. In 1595 appeared his treatise De I' eloquence frangaise
el dcs raisons pour quoi elle est demeuree si basse, in which he
criticizes the orators of his day, adding by way of example some
translations of the speeches of ancient orators, which reproduce the
spirit rather than the actual words of the originals. He was sent
to England in 1596 with the marshal de Bouillon to negotiate a
league against Spain; in 1599 he became first president of the
parlement of Province (Aix); and in 1603 was appointed to the
see of Marseilles, which he soon resigned in order to resume the
presidency. In 1616 he received the highest promotion open to a
French lawyer and became keeper of the seals. He died at
Tonneins (Lot-et-Garonne) on the 3rd of August 1621. Both as
speaker and writer he holds a very high rank, and his character
was equal to his abilities. Like other political lawyers of the
time, Du Vair busied himself not a little in the study of philo-
sophy. The most celebrated of his treatises are La Philosophic
morale des Stmques, translated into English (1664) by Charles
Cotton; De la Constance et consolation es calamites publiques, 1
which was composed during the siege of Paris in 1589, and
applied the Stoic doctrine to present misfortunes; and La Sainte
Philosophie, in which religion and philosophy are intimately
connected. Pierre Charron drew freely on these and other works
of Du Vair. F. deBrunetiere points out the analogy of Du Vair's
position with that afterwards developed by Pascal, and sees in him
the ancestor of the Jansenists. Du Vair had a great indirect
influence on the development of style in French, for in the south
of France he made the acquaintance of Malherbe, who conceived
a great admiration for Du Vair's writings. The reformer of
French poetry learned much from the treatise De I'eloquence
fran$aise, to which the counsels of his friend were no doubt added.
Du Vair's works were published in folio at Paris in 1641. See
Niceron, Memoires, vol. 43; and monographs by C. A. Sapey (1847
and 1858).
DUVAL, ALEXANDRE VINCENT PINEUX (1767-1842),
French dramatist, was born at Rennes on the 6th of April 1767.
He was in turn sailor, architect, actor, theatrical manager and
dramatist. He is the characteristic dramatist of the Empire, but
the least ambitious of his dramas have best stood the test of
time. Les Projets de menage (1790), Les Tuteurs venges (1794)
and Les Heriliers (1796) have been revived on the modern French
stage. Others among his plays, which number more than sixty,
are Le Menuisier de Liwnie ( 1 805) , La Manie des grandeurs (1817)
and Le Faux Bonhomme (1821). In 1812 he was elected to the
Academy. He died on the ist of September 1842.
DUVAL, CLAUDE (1643-1670), a famous highwayman,
was born at Domfront, Normandy, in 1643. Having entered
domestic service in Paris, he came to England at the time of the
Restoration in attendance on the duke of Richmond, and soon
became a highwayman notorious for the daring of his robberies
no less than for his gallantry to ladies. Large rewards were
offered for his capture, and he was at one time compelled to seek
refuge in France. In the end he was captured in London, and
hanged at Tyburn on the 2ist of January 1670. His body was
buried in the centre aisle of Covent Garden church, under a
stone with the following epitaph:
" Here lies Du Vail: Reader if male thou art,
Look to thy purse: if female to thy heart."
A full account of his adventures, ascribed to William Pope,
was reprinted in the Harleian Miscellany, and Samuel Butler
published a satirical ode To the Happy Memory of the Most
Renowned Du Val.
DUVENECK, FRANK (1848- ), American figure and
portrait painter, was born at Covington, Kentucky, on the 9th
of October 1848. He was a pupil of Diez in the Royal Academy
of Munich, and a prominent member of the group of Americans
who in the 'seventies overturned the traditions of the Hudson
River School and started a new art movement. His work shown
in Boston and elsewhere about 1875 attracted great attention,
1 Translated into English by Andrew Comt in 1622 as A Buckler
against Adversitie.
Vill. 24
and many pupils flocked to him in Germany and Italy, where he
made long visits. After returning from Italy to America, he
gave some attention to sculpture, and modelled a fine monument
to his wife, now in the English cemetery in Florence.
DU VERGIER DE HAURANNE, JEAN (1581-1643), abbot of
St Cyran, father of the Jansenist revival in France, was born
of wealthy parents at Bayonne in 1581, and studied theology at
the Flemish university of Louvain. After taking holy orders
he settled in Paris, where he became known as a mine of miscel-
laneous erudition. In 1609 he distinguished himself by his
Question royale, an elaborate answer to a problem casually
thrown out by King Henry IV. as to the exact circumstances
under which a subject ought to give his life for his sovereign.
His learning was presently diverted into a more profitable
channel. The Louvain of his time was the scene of many
conflicts between the Jesuit party, which stood for scholasticism
and Church-authority, and the followers of Michael Baius (q.v.),
who upheld the mysticism of St Augustine. Into this con-
troversy Du Vergier was presently dragged by his friendship
with Cornelius Jansen, a young champion of the Augustinian
party, who had come to Paris to study Greek. The two divines
went off together to Du Vergier's home at Bayonne, where he
became a canon of the cathedral, and Jansen a tutor in the
bishop's seminary. Here they remained some years, intently
studying the fathers. Eventually, however, Jansen went back
to Louvain, while Du Vergier became confidential secretary to
the bishop of Poitiers, and was presently made sinecure abbot
of St Cyran. Thereafter he was generally called M. de St
Cyran. At Poitiers he was brought into contact with Richelieu
as yet unknown to political fame, and simply the zealous
young bishop of the neighbouring diocese of Lucon. Western
Touraine being the headquarters of French Protestantism, the
two prelates turned St Cyran's learning against the Huguenots.
He began to dream of reforming Catholicism on Augustinian
lines, and thus defeating the Protestants by their own weapons.
They appealed to primitive antiquity; he answered that his
Church understood antiquity better than theirs. They appealed to
the spirit of St Paul; he answered that Augustine had saved that
spirit from etherealizing away, by coupling it with a high sacra-
mental theory of the Church. They flung practical abuses in
the teeth of Rome; he entered on a bold campaign to bring
those abuses to an end. Before long, his reforming zeal involved
him in many quarrels so much so that he left Poitiers and
settled down in Paris. Here he became widely known as a
director of consciences, forming a particular friendship with the
influential Arnauld family. But his general projects of reform
were by no means allowed to sleep, though here he worked hand
in hand with his old friend Jansen. Both traced the evils of
their time to the Jesuits and Schoolmen. Their dialectic had
corrupted theology; their hand-to-mouth utilitarianism had
played havoc with traditional church-institutions. Accordingly,
Jansen set to work to remedy one evil by writing a big book on
St Augustine, the great master of theological method. St
Cyran dealt with the other evil in an equally bulky treatise,
the Petrus Aurelius (1633). This indicts the Jesuits for every
sort and kind of misdemeanour. It deals much with what
Pascal will presently call their devotion aisee; but still more
with crimes of a technical sort, especially their defiance of
episcopal authority. Thereby the book gained for its author's
projects of reform a great deal of Gallican support. On the other
hand, it gave much annoyance to Richelieu, now the all-powerful
and extremely Erastian prime minister. After failing more than
once to stop St Cyran's mouth with a bishopric, he had him
arrested as a disturber of ecclesiastical peace (i4th of March
1638). He remained shut up in the castle of Vincennes until
Richelieu's death (December 1642). Then he was at once set
free; but the long imprisonment had told heavily on his health,
and he died of a stroke of apoplexy in October 1643.
St Cyran's character has been always something of a puzzle.
Many excellent contemporary judges were profoundly impressed;
others, as one of them said, went away bewildered by this
strange abbe, who never argued a question out, but leapt from
738
DUVEYRIER DVINSK
one point to another in broken, incoherent phrases. Grace of
expression he had none; perhaps no man of equal spiritual
insight ever found it so hard to make his meaning clear, whether
on paper or by word of mouth. On the other hand, Jansenism,
considered as a practical religious revival, is altogether his work.
He dragged the Augustinian mysticism out of the Louvain class-
rooms, and made it a vital spiritual force in France. Without
him there would have been no Pascal no Provincial Letters,
and no Pensees.
There is an excellent life of St Cyran by his secretary, Claude
Lancelot, published at Cologne in two volumes, 1738. A selection
of his Lettres chrestiennes was edited by his disciple, Robert Arnauld
d'Andilly (Paris, 1645). An entirely different collection of Lettres
spirituelles was printed at Cologne in 1744. (Si C.)
DUVEYRIER, HENRI (1840-1892), French explorer of the
Sahara, was born in Paris on the 28th of February 1840. His
youth was spent partly in London, where he met Heinrich Barth,
then preparing the narrative of his travels in the western Sudan.
At the age of nineteen Duveyrier, who had already learnt Arabic,
began a journey in the northern parts of the Sahara which lasted
nearly three years. On returning to France he received, in 1863,
the gold medal of the Paris Geographical Society, and in 1864
published Exploration du Sahara: les Touareg du nord. In the
war of 1870 he was taken prisoner by the Germans. Subse-
quently he made several other journeys in the Sahara, adding
considerably to the knowledge of the regions immediately south
of the Atlas, from the eastern confines of Morocco to Tunisia.
He also examined the Algerian and Tunisian shats and explored
the interior of western Tripoli. Duveyrier devoted special
attention to the customs and speech of the Tuareg, with whom
he lived for months at a time, and to the organization of the
Senussi. In 1881 he published La Tunisie, and in 1884 La
Confrerie musselmane de Sidi Mohammed Ben Ali-Es-Sendusi et
son domaine geographique. He died at Sevres on the 2$th of
April 1892.
DUX (Czech Duchcoii), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 86 m.
N.N.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 11,921, three-fourths
German. It is situated in the centre of an extensive and well-
worked lignite deposit and manufactures glass, porcelain and
earthenware. In Dux is a castle belonging to Count Waldstein,
a kinsman of Wallenstein, which contains a picture gallery with
two portraits of Wallenstein by Van Dyck, and a museum with a
collection of arms and armour and several relics of the great
general.
DUXBURY, a township of Plymouth county, Massachusetts,
on Massachusetts Bay, 36 m. S.S.E. of Boston. Pop. (1890)
1908; (1905, state census) 2028. Area, 25-5 sq. m. Duxbury is
served by the Old Colony system of the New York, New Haven &
Hartford railway. In the township are the villages of Duxbury,
South Duxbury, West Duxbury, North Duxbury, Island Creek
and Millbrook. The soil is sandy, the surface of the country
well wooded and broken by a number of ponds and creeks.
Duxbury is a summer resort, with a large hotel at Standish
Shore. Duxbury has a public library, and is the seat of the
Powder Point school for boys, and Partridge Academy, founded
in 1828 by a bequest of $10,000 from George Partridge of
Duxbury, and incorporated in 1830. On Captain's Hill is the
Standish Monument (begun in 1872), a circular tower, on an
octagonal base, of rough Hallowell granite, surmounted by a
statue of Miles Standish, 124 ft. from the ground. The Standish
house, built in 1666 by Miles's son, Alexander, is still in exislence.
In South Duxbury is an old burying ground, in which the oldest
marked grave is that of Jonathan Alden (d. 1697), son of John
Alden. For many years there were important cod and mackerel
fisheries here and Duxbury clams were famous ; there were large
shipyards in Duxbury in the i8th century and in the first half of
the igth. At present cranberries are the only product of import-
ance. The first settlement was made here in 1631 by Miles
Standish (to whom Captain's Hill was granted) ,William Brewster,
John Alden, and a few others. In 1632 a church was organized
and the present name was adopted from Duxbury Hall, Lanca-
shire, the old seat of the Standish family; the Indian name had
been Mattakeeset. The township was incorporated in 1637; it
originally included Bridgewater and parts of Pembroke and
Kingston.
See Justin Winsor, History of Duxbury (Boston, 1849); and
Laurence Bradford, Historic Duxbury in Plymouth County (Boston
1900).
DVINA, the name of two rivers of European Russia.
1. The NORTHERN DVINA, or Dvina Syevernaya, belongs to
the basin of the White Sea, and is formed by the junction of the
Sukhona and the Yug, which, rising, the former in the south-west
and the latter in the south-east of the government of Vologda,
meet in the neighbourhood of Velikiy-Ustyug, at a height of
300 ft. above the sea, in 61 20' N. and 46 20' E. The conjoint
stream then flows N.W. to the Gulf of Archangel, which it reaches
50 m. below the city of Archangel. From its mouth to the con-
fluence of the co-tributary streams the distance is about 470 m.,
and to the source of the Sukhona 780 m. The drainage area
is estimated at 141,000 sq. m. Except at the rapids the current
of the Dvina is comparatively slow, as the average fall per mile is
only 9 in. Till its union with the Vychegda, a river which exceeds
it in volume, it flows for the most part in a single, well-defined
and permanent channel; but below that point it often splits into
several branches, and not infrequently alters its course. In the
neighbourhood of Archangel it divides into three distinct arms,
which form a regular delta; but of these that of Berezov alone is
navigable for sea-going vessels, and even it is impeded by a bar at
the mouth, with not more than 14! or i s| f t. of water at full tide.
Just above the point where the delta begins the river is joined by
a large tributary, the Pinega, from the right. Above the con-
fluence of the Vychegda the breadth is about 1750 ft.; below
that point it widens out to 3500 ft.; and near Archangel it
attains more than three times that measure. The channel is free
from ice for about 1 74 days in the year. By means of the Duke
Alexander of WUrttemberg Canal, the river is connected with the
Neva and the Volga.
2. The SOUTHERN DVINA, or Dvina Zapadnaya, in German
Dilna and in Lettish Daugava, belongs to the Baltic basin, and
takes its rise in a small lake about 800 ft. above the level of the
sea, in the government of Tver, not far from the sources of the
Volga and the Dnieper. After dividing Tver in part from Pskov
in part, it skirts the east and south of the government of Vitebsk,
separates part of the latter from Vilna, and then divides Vitebsk
and Livonia from Courland, and disembogues in the southern end
of the Gulf of Riga. Its length is 640 m. and it drains an area of
32,960 sq. m. From Dvinsk (Dunaburg) to Riga, a distance of
135 m., there is altogether a fall of 295 ft., of which 105 ft. are in
the 40 m. from Jakobstadt to Friedrichstadt. In the lower part
of its course the river attains an ordinary depth of 30 ft. and
an average breadth of 1400 ft.; but during the spring flood
it sometimes rises 14 ft. above its usual level, and its waters
spread out to a mile in width. Near the mouth the river is
usually free from ice for 245 days in the year, and in the govern-
ment of Vitebsk for 229. It is navigable from the confluence of
the Mezha (i.e. from Vitebsk) downwards, but the number of
rapids and shallows greatly diminishes its value. Navigation
can also be carried on by the following tributaries: the Usvyat,
Mezha, Kasplya, Ulla, Disna and Bolder-aa. This river was
formerly called the Khezin or Turunt, and at the present day it
has the name of Polot among the White Russians. Salmon and
lampreys abound in its waters. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
DVINSK, the official name since 1893 of DUNABURG, a town and
fortress of western Russia, in the government of Vitebsk, 162 m.
by rail N.W. of the city of Vitebsk, on the right bank of the
Dvina (Diina), in 55 53' N. and 26 23' E., and at the intersection
of two main railway lines Riga-Smolensk and Vilna-St Peters-
burg. It is the chief strategic position for the defence of the
Dvina. It consists of four portions the main town, or fortress,
the old suburb, the new suburb, and on the left bank of the river
the village of Griva. Among the industrial establishments are
tanneries and breweries, saw-mills, flour-mills, brick and tile
works and limekilns. The town is an important commercial
centre, especially for flax, hemp, tallow and timber. The
population increased from 25,764 in 1860 to 72,231 in 1900,
DVORAK DWARF
739
consisting chiefly of Jews (about 30,000), Lithuanians and
Letts.
Dunaburg was originally founded in 1278 by the Livonian
Knights of the Sword, about 12 m. farther down the river than
its present site, at a spot still known as the Old Castle or Stariy
Zamok. In 1559 it was mortgaged by the grand-master of the
Knights to Sigismund Augustus, king of Poland. Although
captured in 1576 by Ivan the Terrible of Russia, it was again
restored to Poland; and in 1582 Stephen Bathori, king of
Poland, transferred the fortress to its present site. In the i7th
century it was held alternately by the Swedes and the Russians.
It was finally incorporated with Russia in 1772 on the first
division of Poland. In July 1812 the t&e-de-pont was vainly
stormed by the French under Oudinot, but a few weeks afterwards
the town was captured by them under Macdonald.
DVORAK, ANTON (1841-1904), Bohemian musical composer,
born at Nelahozeves (otherwise Muhlhausen) in Bohemia on
the 8th of September 1841, was the son of Frantisek Dvorak,
a small publican and village butcher. At the door of his father's
inn Dvofak first appeared as a practical musician, taking his
place among the fiddlers who scraped out their " furiants " and
other wild dances for the benefit of the holiday-making local
beaux and belles. At the village school he learnt from Josef
Spitz both to sing and to play the violin, with so much effect
that soon he was able to assist in the parish church services.
At twelve years old he was sent by his father to Zlonic, near
Schlan, to an uncle, with whom he lived while passing through
the higher-grade classes at school. Here, too, he was fortunate
enough to find a valuable friend in A. Liehmann, organist and
chief musician of the little town, a competent musician, who
instructed the boy in elementary theory, organ and pianoforte
playing. The theory studies, however, could not long be con-
tinued, since Liehmann soon acknowledged in his own dialect
that the boy was extraordinarily full of promise (" Aus Tonda,
dem Sappermentsbuben 'mal 'was werden konnte "), at the same
time realizing that he could not do much to assist. But Dvorak
soon left Zlonic for Bohmisch-Kamnitz, where he learnt German
and advanced his musical studies under Hancke. A year later
he was summoned to return to Zlonic to assist his father, who
had set up in business there. But his craving for a musical
career was not to be checked, and after considerable trouble
with his father consent was obtained to his settling in Prague
in order to devote himself entirely to music.
In October 1857 Dvofak entered the organ-school of the
Gesellschaft der Kirchenmusik, where he worked for three years.
The small financial aid his father was at first able to lend soon
ceased, and after being in Prague but a few months Dvofak
found himself practically thrown on his own resources. By
playing the viola in a private orchestra and in various inns
of the town he succeeded in obtaining a precarious livelihood.
On the opening in 1862 of the Bohemian Interimstheater, Dvofak,
with part of this band, formed the nucleus of the theatrical
orchestra, and remained connected with it for eleven years,
when he became organist of the church of St Adalbert. At this
time his small stipend was augmented slightly by the fees of a
few pupils, though the privations suffered by him and his wife (for
he had recently married) must have been great. But in spite
of financial worry and of the amount of time he had to devote
to his professional duties and private pupils, Dvofak found
leisure not only for his own studies of the classics, but also to
compose. His work, like his daily life, was beset with difficulties,
for he had not the means to provide himself with sufficient
music-paper, much less to hire a pianoforte; and it is possible
that several of his important early works would never have been
written had it not been for the generosity of Karel Bendl, the
composer, who helped him in many ways.
Dvofak himself said afterwards that he retained no recollection
of much that he then composed. In and about 1864 two sym-
phonies, a host of songs, some chamber-music, and an entire
opera, Alfred, lay unheard in his desk. The libretto of this
opera was made up from materials found in an old almanack.
Most of these works were burnt long ago. In 1873 he made his
first bid for popularity by his patriotic hymn Die Erben des
Meissen Berges (published many years later as Op. 30). Its
reception was enthusiastic, and Dvofak's subsequent works
were eagerly awaited and warmly received on production. In
1874 his opera Konig und Kohler resulted in a fiasco at Prague,
owing to its mixture of styles. Nothing daunted, Dvofak
recomposed the whole work in three months. In 1875, on the
recommendation of Brahms and Hanslick, he obtained a stipend
from the Kultus-Ministerium at Vienna, which freed him from
care and enabled him to indulge in composition to his heart's
content. Following on this success came a commission in 1877
for a series of Slavic dances, which took the public by storm.
Immediately compositions, old and new, began to pour from the
publisher. English sympathy was entirely won by the Stabat
Mater in 1883, and increased by the symphonies in D, D mi., and
F, G, and E mi. (The American], and the cantata The Spectre's
Bride, based on K. J. Erben's elaboration of the Bohemian
version of the saga treated in Burger's Leonore. The favourable
effect produced by these works was somewhat chilled by the
oratorio St Ludmila, a comparatively feeble work written " to
suit English taste " for the Leeds Festival of 1886. The three
overtures Opp. 91, 92, 93, failed to hold their place, but the
pseudo-American symphony has become one of Dvofak's most
popular works, and much of his chamber-music, of which there
is abundance, seems quite permanent in its place in concert
programmes. In 1892, after having frequently visited England,
Dvofak became head of the National Conservatory of
Music of America in New York. There he remained till 1895,
when he returned to Prague, where he died on the ist of May
1904.
Dvofak's music is characteristically national, though less
purely so than that of Smetana. But in spite of his industry
and dramatic talent not one of his operas has been really success-
ful. A master of the orchestra and a composer of real individu-
ality, he earned and deserved his place among the elect, not only
by his great gifts, but by his abnormal energy in their
development.
See W. H. Hadow, Studies in Modern Music (second series
1908).
DWARAKA, DWARKA, or JIGAT, a town of British India, in
Baroda state, near the extremity of the peninsula of Kathiawar,
Bombay. Pop. (1901) 7535. As the birthplace and residence of
Krishna, it is the most sacred spot in this part of India, and its
principal temple is visited annually by many thousand pilgrims.
The approach from the sea is by a fine flight of stone steps, and
the great spire rises to a height of 150 ft.
DWARF (A.S. dweorg, D. dwcrg, Icel. dvergr), the term generally
used to describe an extraordinarily under-sized individual of a
race of normal stature (for dwarf-races see PYGMY.) In Scandi-
navian mythology the word connoted smallness and deformity,
and was used of the elfins and goblins who were supposed to live
on the mountains or in the bowels of the earth, and to be kings
of metals and mines. The later use of the word certainly does
not imply deformity, for many of the dwarfs of history have been
singularly graceful and well formed. Dwarfishness is, however,
often accompanied by disproportion of the limbs.
From the earliest historic times dwarfs attracted attention,
and there was much competition on the part of kings and the
wealthy to obtain the little folk as attendants. It is certain that
members of the tiny Akka race of Equatorial Africa figured at
the courts of the Pharaohs of the early dynasties and were much
valued. Philetas of Cos, poet and grammarian (circa 330 B.C.),
tutor of Ptolemy Philadelphus, was alleged to be so tiny that he
had to wear leaden shoes lest he should be blown away. The
Romans practised artificial dwarfing, and the Latin nanus or
pumilo were terms alternatively used to describe the natural
and unnatural dwarf. Julia, the niece of Augustus, had a
dwarf named Coropas 2 ft. 4 in. high, and a freed-maid Andro-
meda who measured the same.
Various recipes for dwarfing children have been from time to
time in vogue. The most effective, according to report, was to
anoint the backbone with the grease of moles, bats and dormice.
740
The stunting of the growth of stable-boys who aspire to jockey's
honours is in no sense true dwarfing.
In later days there have been many dwarf-favourites at
European courts. British tradition has its earliest dwarf
mentioned in the old ballad which begins " In Arthur's court
Tom Thumb did live "; and on this evidence the prototype of
the modern Tom Thumb is alleged to have lived at the court of
King Edgar. Of authentic English dwarfs the first appears to
be John Jarvis (2 ft. high), who was page to Queen Mary I. Her
brother Edward VI. had his dwarf Xit. But the first English
dwarf of whom there is anything like an authentic history is
Jeffery Hudson (1610-1682). He was the son of a butcher at
Oakham, Rutlandshire, who kept and baited bulls for George
Villiers, first duke of Buckingham. Neither of Jeffery's parents
was under-sized, yet at nine years he measured scarcely 18 in.,
though he was gracefully proportioned. At a dinner given by
the duke to Charles I. and his queen he was brought in to table
in a pie out of which he stepped, and was at once adopted by
Henrietta Maria. The little fellow followed the fortunes of the
court in the Civil War, and is said to have been a captain of
horse, earning the nickname of " strenuous Jeffery " for his
activity. He fought two duels one with a turkey-cock, a
battle recorded by Davenant, and a second with Mr Crofts,
who came to the meeting with a squirt, but who in the more
serious encounter which ensued was shot dead by little Hudson,
who fired from horseback, the saddle putting him on a level with
his antagonist. Twice was Jeffery made prisoner once by
the Dunkirkers as he was returning from France, whither he
had been on homely business for the queen; the second time
was when he fell into the hands of Turkish pirates. His sufferings
during this latter captivity made him, he declared, grow, and
in his thirtieth year, having been of the same height since he was
nine, he steadily increased until he was 3 ft. 9 in. At the Restora-
tion he returned to England, where he lived on a pension granted
him by the duke of Buckingham. He was later accused of
participation in the " Popish Plot," and was imprisoned in the
Gate House. He was released and shortly after died in the
sixty-third year of his age.
Contemporary with Hudson were the two other dwarfs of
Henrietta Maria, Richard Gibson and his wife Anne. They
were married by the queen's wish; and the two together
measured only 2 in. over 7 ft. They had nine children, five of
whom, who Lived, were of ordinary stature. Edmund Waller
celebrated the nuptials, Evelyn designated the husband as the
" compendium of a man," and Lely painted them hand in hand.
Gibson was miniature painter to Charles I., and drawing-master
to the daughters of James II., Queens Mary and Anne, when they
were children. This Cumberland pygmy, who began his career as
a page, first in a " gentle," next in the royal family, died in 1690,
in his seventy-fifth year, and is buried in St Paul's, Covent
Garden. The last court dwarf in England was Coppernin, a
lively little imp in the service of the princess (Augusta) of Wales,
the mother of George III. The last dwarf retainer in a gentle-
man's family was the one kept by Mr Beckford, the author of
Vathek and builder of Fonthill. He was rather too big to be
flung from one guest to another, as used to be the custom at
dinners in earlier days when a dwarf was a " necessity " for
every noble family.
Of European court dwarfs the most famous were those of
Philip IV. of Spain, the hunchbacks whose features have been
immortalized by Velazquez. Stanislas, king of Poland, owned
Nicholas Ferry (Bebe), who measured 2 ft. 9 in. He was one of
three dwarf children of peasant parents in the Vosges. He died
in his 23rd year (1764). But Bebe was not so remarkable as
Richebourg, who died in Paris in 1858, at the age of 90. He was
only 23 in. high. He began life as a servant in the Orleans
family. In later years he was their pensioner. He is said to
have been put to strange use in the Revolution passing in and
out of Paris as an infant in a nurse's arms, but with despatches,
dangerous to carry, in the little man's baby-wrappings !
Of dwarfs exhibited in England, the most celebrated was the
Pole, Borulwaski (1730-1837). At six he measured 17 in., and
DWARS DWIGHT, J.
he finally in his thirtieth year reached 39 in. 1 (had a sisti
shorter than himself by the head and shoulders JBorulwa
was a handsome man, a wit, and something of i iholar I
travelled over all Europe; and he born in the rt of Geori
II. died in his well-earned retirement near Durhai In the reii
of Victoria. Borulwaski lies buried at Durham t '.he side
the Falstaffian Stephen Kemble. The companion .p remin
one of that of the dwarf skeleton of Jonathan Wil< y the si
of that of the Irish Giant, at the Royal College Surgeoi
London.
In the year in which Borulwaski died, Charles Str; )n, betl
known as " General Tom Thumb," was born. When enty-fi
he was 31 in. high. In 1844 he appeared in Englan where
had an extraordinary success. One result of his se n at t
Egyptian Hall, London, was to kill Haydon the pa. :r. 7
latter presented his great work " The Banishment of istide
for exhibition in the same building. The public ru; 1 to
the dwarf. He took 600 the first week, while Haydoi Imast
piece drew but 7, 133. The result was that the artist i Wit
suicide in despair. After extensive travel in both hei phw
Stratton again visited England in 1857, but the d\ f m
despite many personal and intellectual qualities, is 1
attractive than the dwarf boy. In the year 1863 the " ( hen
married the very minute American lady, Lavinia Wan \ (b
in 1842). He died on the I5th of July 1883.
Other modern dwarfs include Signor Hervio Nano, wh lla;
at the Olympic Theatre, London, in 1843; three Hig taj
named MacKinlay, children of a Scots shepherd, the \>ri
of whom was 45 in. ; a Spaniard, Don Francisco Hidalgo I i
a Dutchman, Jan Hannema (28 in.) ; and Mary Jane Yo\ IT
(Australia), who at fifteen was 35 in. high. She was cai v.
" dwarf-giantess " because she was 3 ft. 6 in. round the she 11
4 ft. 3 in. round the waist, and 2 ft. round the leg. Much i I
was aroused by the so-called Aztec dwarfs who were exhib I
London in 1853. In 1867 the pair were married, the cer< '
being publicly performed, and the bride's robes are said tc
cost no less than 2000. The wedding-breakfast was h>
Willis's Rooms. From time to time other dwarfs have
exhibited, among whom the most remarkable has been Che-
a Chinese, 42 years old and 25 in. high, who appeared in Lc
in 1880. George Prout (1774-1851), who was less than
high, was a well-known character in London in the
Victorian period, as a messenger at the Houses of Parliamc
See E. J. Wood, Giants and Dwarfs (1860).
DWARS, a tract of country in north-east India. It consi
two divisions, the Western Dwars and the Eastern Dwars, bi
which belonged to Bhutan prior to the Bhutan War of 1864-
a result of which they passed into possession of the British,
the Eastern Dwars were assigned to Assam and the Westf
Bengal. Since 1905 both divisions have been in the provii
Eastern Bengal and Assam. The five Eastern Dwars, en
respectively Bijni, Sidli, Chirang, Ripu and Guma, are sit
in the Goalpara district of Eastern Bengal and Assam, foi
a strip of flat country lying beneath the Bhutan moun
It is an unhealthy country for natives as well as Euroj
and is but slightly developed. The Western Dwars fc
region lying at the foot of the Himalayas in the nortl
of the Jalpaiguri district of Eastern Bengal and Assam,
comprises nine parganas, namely, Bhalka, Bhatibari,
Chakao-Kshattriya, Madari, Lakshmipur, Maraghat, Mair
and Chengmari. The Western Dwars are an important <
of the tea-planting industry.
DWIGHT, JOHN (d. 1703), the first distinguished E;
potter. One can only surmise as to his parentage, and th<
of his birth has been variously given from 1637 to 1640. A
ently he was educated at Oxford, and in 1661 was appc
registrar and scribe to the diocese of Chester, and the same
he proceeded to the degree of B.C.L. of Christ Church, O:
He resided at Chester for some time and acted as secretary t<
successive bishops. One of these, Bishop Hall, also hel
rectory of Wigan, Lancashire, and Dwight seems to have re
in that town, for three of his children were baptized there bei
DWIGHT, J. S. DWIGHT, T.
17 and 1671. In 1671, while he still apparently resided in
gan, he was granted his first patent for " the mistery of
nsparent earthenware, commonly known by the names of
rcelain or china, and of stoneware, vulgarly called Cologne
fire." It is not believed that much, if any, work was executed
Wigan, and he probably removed to Fulham in 1672 or 1673,
his name first appears on the rate books of Fulham, where he
as rated for a house in Bear Street, in 1674. He died in 1703,
nd his business was carried on by his descendants for some time,
ut with gradually diminishing success. It has been claimed that
)wight made the first porcelain in England, but there is no proof
[ this, though magnificent specimens of stoneware from his hands
re in existence. The British Museum contains a number of the
>est of Dwight's pieces, of which the finest is the bust of Prince
Rupert. Other specimens are in the Victoria and Albert Museum,
and they are sufficient to establish Dwight's fame as a potter of
the first rank. (See CERAMICS.)
DWIGHT. JOHN SULLIVAN (1813-1893), American writer on
music, was born at Boston and educated at Harvard. He
became a Unitarian minister, but abandoned this career and
joined the Brook Farm settlement as a teacher of music and other
subjects. In 1848 he settled as a musical critic at Boston, being
best known as founder and editor of the Journal of Music (1852-
1881), the most important musical periodical that has been
published in America. He died on the 5th of September 1893.
G. W. Cooke edited his letters (1898) and also wrote a memoir
(1899).
DWIGHT, THEODORE WILLIAM (1822-1892), American
jurist and educationalist, cousin of Theodore Dwight Woolsey
and of Timothy Dwight, was born on the i8th of July 1822 in
Catskill, New York. His father, Benjamin Woolsey Dwight
(1780-1850), an abolitionist and reformer, removed to Clinton,
New York, in 1831. The son graduated at Hamilton College in
1840, studied physics under S. F. B. Morse and John William
Draper, taught classics in Utica Academy in 1840-1841, and
studied law for one year at Yale. He was tutor at Hamilton in
1841-1846, at the same time teaching law privately; was made
Maynard professor of law, history, civil polity, and political
economy in 1846; received recognition of his law school in 1853,
and in 1858 accepted an invitation to Columbia to teach law upon
his own condition that he should found a law school. He himself
was this school for many years and did not retire from it until
1891, about a year before his death, at Clinton, New York, on the
28th of June 1892. A man of broad culture, he was best known as
the founder of a famous school of law and a famous method of
legal teaching, which was broadly educational and which called
for class-room recitation on the text-book studied and opposed
mere "taking notes" on lectures. His questioning was illus-
trative and its method Socratic. He was a non-resident pro-
fessor of law at Cornell (1869-1871) and at Amherst (1870-1872).
Dwight was an able jurist, frequently acted as referee in difficult
questions, in 1874-1875 was a judge of the New York commission
of appeals, appointed to clear the docket of the court of appeals,
and in 1 886 was counsel for the five Andover professors charged
with heresy. He was a prominent figure in political and social
(notably prison) reforms; published in 1867 a Report on the
Prisons and Reformatories of the United States and Canada, the
result of his labours on a New York state prison commission with
Enoch Cobb Wines (1806-1879); favoured indeterminate sen-
tences; drew up the bill for the establishment of the Elmira
Reformatory; and organized the State Charities Aid Association.
He edited Sir Henry Maine's Ancient Law (1864); was associate
editor of the American Law Register and legal editor of
Johnson's Cyclopaedia; and published Charitable Uses: Argu-
ment in the Rose Will Case (1863).
DWIGHT. TIMOTHY (1752-1817), American divine, writer,
and educationalist, was born at Northampton, Massachusetts,
on the i4th of May 1752. His father, Timothy Dwight, a
graduate of Yale College (1744), was a merchant, and his mother
was the third daughter of Jonathan Edwards. He was re-
markably precocious, and is said to have learned the alphabet at a
single lesson, and to have been able to read the Bible before he
was four years old. In 1769 he graduated at Yale College, and
then for two years taught in a grammar school at New Haven.
He was a tutor in Yale College from 1771 to 1777; and then,
having been licensed to preach, was a chaplain for a year in a
regiment of troops engaged in the War of Independence, inspiring
the troops both by his sermons and by several stirring war songs,
the most famous of which is " Columbia." From 1778 until 1783
he lived at Northampton, studying, farming, preaching, and
dabbling in politics. From 1783 until 1795 he was pastor of the
Congregational church at Greenfield Hill, Connecticut, where he
opened an academy which at once acquired a high reputation and
attracted pupils from all parts of the Union. From 1795 until
his death at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the nth of January
1817, he was president of Yale College, and by his judicious
management, by his remarkable ability as a teacher he taught
a variety of subjects, including theology, metaphysics, logic,
literature and oratory, and by his force of character and
magnetic personality, won great popularity and influence, and
restored that institution to the high place from which it had
fallen before his appointment. President Dwight was also
well known as an author. In verse he wrote an ambitious epic in
eleven books, The Conquest of Canaan, finished in 1774, but not
published until 1785; a somewhat ponderous and solemn satire,
The Triumph of Infidelity (1788), directed against Hume, Voltaire
and others; Greenfield Hill (1794), the suggestion for which
seems to have been derived from John Denham's Cooper's Hill;
and a number of minor poems and hymns, the best known of which
is that beginning "I love thy kingdom, Lord." Many of his
sermons were published posthumously under the titles Theology
Explained and Defended (5 vols., 1818-1819), to which a memoir
of the author by his two sons, W. T. and Sereno E. Dwight, is
prefixed, and Sermons by Timothy Dwight (2 vols., 1828), which
had a large circulation both in the United States and in England.
Probably his most important work, however, is his Travels in
New England and New York (4 vols., 1821-1822), which contains
much material of value concerning social and economic New
England and New York during the period 1796-1817.
See W. B. Sprague's " Life of Timothy Dwight " in vol. iv. (second
series) of Jared Sparks's Library of American Biography, and
especially an excellent chapter in Moses Coit Tyler's Three Men of
Letters (New York, 1895).
His fifth son, SERENO EDWARDS DWIGHT (1786-1850), born in
Greenfield Hill, Connecticut, graduated at Yale in 1803, was a
tutor there in 1806-1810, and successfully practised law in New
Haven in 1810-1816. Licensed to preach in 1816, he was the
chaplain of the United States Senate for one year, was pastor of
the Park Street church, Boston, in 1817-1826, and in 1833-1835
was president of Hamilton College, Clinton, New York. His
career was wrecked by accidental mercury poisoning, which
interfered with his work in Boston and at Hamilton College, and
made his life after 1839 solitary and comparatively uninfluential.
His publications include Life and Works of Jonathan Edwards
(10 vols., 1830); The Hebrew Wife (1836), an argument against
marriage with a deceased wife's sister; and Select Discourses
(1851); to which was prefixed a biographical sketch by his
brother William Dwight (1795-1865), who was also successively
a lawyer and a Congregational preacher.
President Dwight's grandson, TIMOTHY DWIGHT (1828- ),
a famous preacher and educationalist, was born at Norwich,
Connecticut, on the i6th of November 1828. He graduated at
Yale in 1849, continued his studies there and at Bonn and Berlin,
was professor of sacred literature and New Testament Greek in
the Yale Divinity School from 1858 to 1886, was licensed to
preach in 1861, and from 1886 to 1899 was president of Yale,
which during his administration greatly prospered and became in
name and in fact a university. Dr Dwight was also a member in
1876-1885 of the American committee for the revision of the
English Bible, was an editor from 1866 to 1874 of the New
Englander, which later became the Yale Review, and besides
editing and annotating several volumes of the English translation
of H. A. W. Meyer's Kritisch-exegetischer Kommentar zum Neuen
Testament, and writing many magazine articles, published a
742
DYAKS
collection of sermons entitled Thoughts of and for the Inner Life
(1899)-
DYAKS, or DAYAKS, the name given to the wild tribes found in
Borneo by the Malays on their first settlement there. Whether
they are the aborigines of the island or the successors of a Negrito
people whom they expelled is uncertain. If the latter, they are
descendants of an early pre-Malayan immigration. In any case,
though regarded by the Malays as aliens, the Dyaks are of the
same stock as the Malays. For themselves they have no general
name; but, broken as they are into numerous tribes, they are
distinguished by separate tribal names, many of which seem to be
merely those of the rivers on which their settlements are situated.
Sir Harry Keppel, who attempted to form a classification of the
Dyaks according to their ethnographical affinity, divides them
into five principal branches. The first of these, which he calls the
north-western, includes the natives of Sadong, Sarawak, Sambas,
Landak, Tayan, Melionow and Sangow. They all speak the
same language, and are remarkable for their dependence on the
Malay princes. The second branch, which is called emphatically
the Malayan from its greater retention of Malay characteristics,
occupies the north coast in Banting, Batang-Lupar, Rejang and
part of the valley of the Kapuas. To the third or Parian branch
belong the Dyaks of the rivers Kuti and Passir, who are said to
speak a language like that of Macassar. The fourth consists of
the Beyadjoes, who are settled in the valley of the Banjermassin;
and the fifth and lowest comprises the Manketans and Punans,
who are still nomadic and ignorant of agriculture.
Physically the Dyaks differ little from the Malays except in
their slimmer figure, lighter colour, more prominent nose and
higher forehead. In disposition they are as cheerful as the
Malay is morose. The typical Dyak is rather sljghtly built, but
is active and capable of enduring great fatigue. His features
are distinctly marked and often well formed. The forehead is
generally high, and the eyes are dark; the cheek-bones are
broad; the hair is black, and the colour of the skin a pure
reddish brown, frequently, in the female, approaching the Chinese
complexion. The beard is generally scanty, and in many tribes
the men pull out all the hair of the face. Both sexes file, dye, and
sometimes bore holes in the teeth and insert gold buttons. In
dress there is considerable variety, great alterations having
resulted from foreign influence. The original and still prevailing
style is simple, consisting of a waistcloth, generally of blue cotton,
for the men, and a tight-fitting petticoat for the women, who
acquire a peculiar mincing gait from its interference with their
walking. The favourite ornaments of both sexes are brass rings
for the legs and arms, hoops of rattan decorated in various ways,
necklaces of white and black beads, and crescent-shaped ear-rings
of a large size. The lobes of the ears are distended sometimes
nearly to the shoulders by disks of metal and bits of stick.
Tattooing is practised by most of the tribes, and the skulls of
infants are artificially deformed. The men usually go bare-
headed, or wear a bright-coloured kerchief. The custom of
betel-chewing being most universal, the betel-pouch is always
worn at the side. The weapons in use are a curved sword and a
long spear. The bow is unknown, but its place among some
tribes is partly supplied by the blowpipe, in the boring of which
they show great skill. When going to war the Dyak wears a
strong padded jacket, which proves no bad defence. A curious
custom among some tribes is the imprisonment of young girls for
two or three years before puberty, during which time they are not
allowed to see even their mothers.
The Dyak is decidedly intelligent, has a good memory and
keen powers of observation, is unsuspicious and hospitable, and
honest and truthful to a striking degree. The various tribes
differ greatly in religious ceremonies and beliefs. They have no
temples, priests or regular worship; but the father of each
family performs rites. A supreme god, Sang-Sang, seems
generally acknowledged, but subordinate deities are supposed to
watch over special departments of the world and human affairs.
Sacrifices both of animals and fruits and in some cases even of
human beings are offered to appease or invoke the gods;
divination of various kinds is resorted to for the purpose of
deciding the course to be pursued in any emergency; and
criminals are subjected to the ordeal by poison or otherwise.
Offerings are made to the dead and there is a very strong belief in
the existence of evil spirits, and all kinds of calamities and
diseases are ascribed to their malignity. Thus almost the whole
medical system of the Dyaks consists in the application of
appropriate charms or the offerings of conciliatory sacrifices.
Many of those natives who have had much intercourse with the
Malays have adopted a kind of mongrel Mahommedanism, with a
mixture of Hindu elements. The transmigration of souls seems to
be believed in by some tribes; and some have a system of
successive heavens rising one above the other very much in the
style of the Hindu cosmogony. In the treatment of their dead
much variety prevails; they are sometimes buried, sometimes
burned, and sometimes elevated on a lofty framework. The
Dyaks have no exact calculation of the year, and simply name the
months first month, second month, and so on. They calculate
the time of day by the height of the sun, and if asked how far
distant a place is can only reply by showing how high the sun
would be when you reached it if you set out in the morning.
In agriculture, navigation, and manufactures they have made
some progress. In a few districts a slight sort of plough is used,
but the usual instrument of tillage is a kind of cleaver. Two
crops, one of rice and the other of maize or vegetables, are taken,
and then the ground is allowed to lie fallow for eight or ten
years. The inland Dyaks collect the forest products, rattan,
gutta-percha, beeswax and edible birds' nests, and exchange
them for clothing or ornaments, especially brass wire or brass
guns in which consists the wealth of every chief. They spin and
weave their own cotton, and dye the cloth with indigo of their
own growing. Their iron and steel instruments are excellent,
the latter far surpassing European wares in strength and fineness
of edge. Their houses are neatly built of bamboos, and. raised
on piles a considerable height from the ground; but perhaps
their most remarkable constructive effort is the erection of
suspension bridges and paths over rivers and along the front of
precipices, in which they display a boldness and ingenuity that
surprise the European traveller. In the centre of most villages
is the communal house where the unmarried men live, which
serves as a general assembly hall. Some have a circuit of no
less than 1000 ft. One on the banks of the Lundi was 600 ft.
long and housed 400 persons.
The Dyaks have always been notorious for head-hunting, a
custom which has now been largely suppressed. It is essentially
a religious practice, the Dyak seeking a consecration for every
important event of his life by the acquisition of one or more
skulls. A child is believed ill-fated to whose mother the father
has not at its birth presented skulls. The young man is not
admitted to full tribal rights, nor can he woo a bride with any
hope of success, until he has a skull or more to adorn his hut;
a chief's authority would not be acknowledged without such
trophies of his prowess. The strictest rules govern head-hunting;
a period of fasting and confession, of isolation in a taboo hut,
precedes the expedition, for which the Dyak clothes himself in
the skins of wild beasts and puts on an animal mask. The Dyak
curiously enough prefers the head of a fellow-tribesman, and the
hunt is usually one of ambush rather than of open combat.
Among some tribes it was not sufficient to kill the victim. He
was tortured first, his body sprinkled with his own blood, and
even his flesh eaten under the eyes of priests and priestesses
who presided over the rites. Skulls, especially those of enemies,
were held in great veneration. At meals the choicest morseb
were offered them: they were supplied with betel and tobacco:
fulsome compliments and prayers for success in battle addressed
to them. Head-hunting at one time threatened the very
existence of the race; but in spite of their reformation in this
respect the Dyaks are not on the increase, a fact for which
A. R. Wallace accounts by the hard life the women lead and their
consequent slight fecundity.
The Dyaks speak a variety of dialects, most of which are still
very slightly known. The tribes on the coast have adopted a
great number of pure Malay words into common use, and it is
DYCE, A. DYCE, W.
743
often hard to ascertain their own proper synonyms. The
American missionaries have investigated the dialects of the west
coast (Landak, &c.), and their Rhenish brethren have devoted
their attention to those of the south, into one of which (that of
Pulu Petak) a complete translation of the Bible has been made.
Mr Hardeland, the translator, has also published a Dyak-German
dictionary.
DYCE, ALEXANDER (1798-1869), English dramatic editor
and literary historian, was born in Edinburgh on the soth of
June 1798. After receiving his early education at the high school
of his native city, he became a student at Exeter College, Oxford,
where he graduated B.A. in 1819. He took holy orders, and
became a curate at Lantegloss, in Cornwall, and subsequently
at Nayland, in Suffolk; in 1827 he settled in London. His first
books were Select Translations from Quintus Smyrnaeus (1821),
an edition of Collins (1827), and Specimens of British Poetesses
(1825). He issued annotated editions of George Peele, Robert
Greene, John Webster, Thomas Middleton, Marlowe, and Beau-
mont and Fletcher, with lives of the authors and much illustrative
matter. He completed, in 1833, an edition of James Shirley
left unfinished by William Gilford, and contributed biographies
of Shakespeare, Pope, Akenside and Beattie to Pickering's
Aldine Poets. He also edited (1836-1838) Richard Bentley's
works, and Specimens of British Sonnets (1833). His carefully
revised edition of John Skelton, which appeared in 1843, did
much to revive interest in that trenchant satirist. In 1857 his
edition of Shakespeare was published by Moxon; and the second
edition, a great improvement on the old one, was issued by
Chapman & Hall in 1866. He also published Remarks on
Collier's and Knight's Editions of Shakespeare (1844); A Few
Notes on Shakespeare (1853); and Strictures on Collier's new
Edition of Shakespeare (1859), a contribution to the Collier
controversy (see COLLIER, JOHN PAYNE), which ended a long
friendship between the two scholars. He was intimately con-
nected with several literary societies, and undertook the publica-
tion of Kempe's Nine Days' Wonder for the Camden Society;
and the old plays of Timon and Sir Thomas More were published
by him for the Shakespeare Society. He was associated with
Halliwell-Phillips, John Payne Collier and Thomas Wright as
one of the founders of the Percy Society, for publishing old
English poetry. Dyce also issued Recollections of the Table Talk
of Samuel Rogers (1856). He died on the isth of May 1869.
He had collected a valuable library, containing amongst other
treasures many rare Elizabethan books, and this collection he
bequeathed to the South Kensington Museum. He displayed
untiring industry, abundant learning, and admirable critical
acumen in his editions of the old English poets. His wide
reading in Elizabethan literature enabled him to explain much
that was formerly obscure in Shakespeare; while his sound
judgment was a check to extravagance in emendation. While
preserving all that was valuable in former editions, Dyce added
much fresh matter. His Glossary, a large volume of 500 pages,
was the most exhaustive that had appeared.
DYCE, WILLIAM (1806-1864), British painter, was born in
Aberdeen, where his father, a fellow of the Royal Society, was
a physician of some repute. He attended Marischal College,
took the degree of M.A. at sixteen years of age, and was destined
for one of the learned professions. Showing a turn for design
instead, he studied in the school of the Royal Scottish Academy
in Edinburgh, then as a probationer (not a full student) in the
Royal Academy of London, and thence, in 1825, he proceeded
to Rome, where he spent nine months. He returned to Aberdeen
in 1826, and painted several pictures; one of these, " Bacchus
nursed by the Nymphs of Nysa," was exhibited in 1827. In the
autumn of that year he went back to Italy, showing from the
first a strong sympathy with the earlier masters of the Florentine
and allied schools. A " Virgin and Child " which he painted
in Rome in 1828 was much noticed by Overbeck and other
foreign artists. In 1829 Dyce settled in Edinburgh, taking at
once a good rank in his profession, and showing considerable
versatility in subject-matter. Portrait-painting for some years
occupied much of his time; and he was particularly prized for
likenesses of ladies and children. In February 1837 he was
appointed master of the school of design of the Board of Manu-
factures, Edinburgh. In the same year he published a pamphlet
on the management of schools of this description, which led
to his transfer from Edinburgh, after eighteen months' service
there, to London, as superintendent and secretary of the then
recently established school of design at Somerset House. Dyce
was sent by the Board of Trade to the continent to examine the
organization of foreign schools; and a report which he eventually
printed, 1840, led to a remodelling of the London establishment.
In 1842 he was made a member of the council and inspector of
provincial schools, a post which he resigned in 1844. In this
latter year, being appointed professor of fine art in King's College,
London, he delivered a remarkable lecture, The Theory of the
Fine Arts. In 1835 he had been elected an associate of the Royal
Scottish Academy; this honour he relinquished upon settling
in London, and he was then made an honorary R.S.A. In 1844
he became an associate, in 1848 a full member, of the London
Royal Academy; he also was elected a member of the Academy
of Arts in Philadelphia. He was active in the deliberations of the
Royal Academy, and it is said that his tongue was the dread of
the urbane President, Sir Charles Eastlake, for Dyce was keen
in speech as in visage; it was on his proposal that the class of
retired Academicians was established. In January 1850 Dyce
married Jane, daughter of Mr James Brand, of Bedford Hill,
Surrey. He died at Streatham on the I4th of February 1864,
leaving two sons and two daughters.
Dyce was one of the most learned and accomplished of British
painters one of the highest in aim, and most consistently self-
respecting in workmanship. His finest productions, the frescoes
in the robing-room in the Houses of Parliament, did honour to
the country and time which produced them. Generally, however,
there is in Dyce's work more of earnestness, right conception,
and grave, sensitive, but rather restricted powers of realization,
than of authentic greatness. He has elevation, draughtsmanship,
expression, and on occasion fine colour; along with all these,
a certain leaning on precedent, and castigated semi-convention-
alized type of form and treatment, which bespeak rather the
scholarly than the originating mind in art. The following are
among his principal or most interesting works (oil pictures,
unless otherwise stated). 1829: " The Daughters of Jethro
defended by Moses"; "Puck." 1830: "The Golden Age";
" The Infant Hercules strangling the Serpents " (now in the
National Gallery, Edinburgh); " Christ crowned with Thorns."
1835: "A Dead Christ" (large lunette altarpiece). 1836:
" The Descent of Venus," from Ben Jonson's Triumph of Love;
" The Judgment of Solomon," prize cartoon in tempera for
tapestry (National Gallery, Edinburgh). 1837: " Francesca da
Rimini " (National Gallery, Edinburgh). 1838, and again 1846:
" The Madonna and Child." 1839: " Dunstan separating Edwy
and Elgiva." 1844: " Joash shooting the Arrow of Deliverance "
(the finest perhaps of the oil-paintings). 1850: " The Meeting
of Jacob and Rachel." 1851: "King Lear and the Fool in
the Storm." 1855: " Christabel." 1857: "Titian's first essay
in Colouring." 1859: " The Good Shepherd." 1860: " St
John bringing Home his Adopted Mother"; " Pegwell Bay"
(a coast scene of remarkably minute detail, showing the painter's
partial adhesion to the " pre-Raphaelite " movement). 1861:
" George Herbert at Bemerton." Dyce executed some excellent
cartoons for stained glass: that for the choristers' window,
Ely Cathedral, and that for a vast window at Alnwick in memory
of a duke of Northumberland; the design of " Paul rejected by
the Jews," now at South Kensington, belongs to the latter. In
fresco-painting his first work appears to have been the " Con-
secration of Archbishop Parker," painted in Lambeth palace.
In one of the Westminster Hall competitions for the decoration
of the Houses of Parliament, he displayed two heads from this
composition; and it is related that the great German fresco-
painter Cornelius, who had come over to England to give advice,
with a prospect of himself taking the chief direction of the
pictorial scheme, told the prince consort frankly that the English
ought not to be asking for him, when they had such a painter of
744
DYEING
their own as Mr Dyce. The cartoon by Dyce of the " Baptism
of Ethelbert " was approved and commissioned for the House of
Lords, and is the first of the works done there, 1846, in fresco.
In 1848 he began his great frescoes in the Robing-room subjects
from the legend of King Arthur, exhibiting chivalric virtue.
The whole room was to have been finished in eight years; but
ill-health and other vexations trammelled the artist, and the
series remains uncompleted. The largest picture figures " Hos-
pitality, the admission of Sir Tristram into the fellowship of
the Round Table." Then follow" Religion," the Vision of
Sir Galahad and his Companions; " Generosity," Arthur
unhorsed, and spared by the Victor; " Courtesy," Sir Tristram
harping to la Belle Yseult; " Mercy," Sir Gawaine's Vow. The
frescoes of sacred subjects in All Saints' church, Margaret Street,
London; of " Comus," in the summer-house of Buckingham
Palace; and of " Neptune and Britannia," at Osborne House,
are also by this painter.
Dyce was an elegant scholar in more ways than one. In 1828
he obtained the Blackwell prize at Aberdeen for an essay on
animal magnetism. In 1843-1844 he published an edition of
the Book of Common Prayer, with a dissertation on Gregorian
music, and its adaptation to English words. He founded the
Motett Society, for revival of ancient church-music, was a fine
organist, and composed a " non nobis " which has appropriately
been sung at Royal Academy banquets. His last considerable
writing relating to his own art was published in 1853, The
National Gallery: its Formation and Management.
See Redgrave's Dictionary of Artists (1878), and Dictionary of
National Biography. (W. M. R.)
DYEING (O. Eng. dedgian, dedh; Mid. Eng. deyen), the art of
colouring textile and other materials in such a manner that the
colours will not be readily removed by those influences to which
they are likely to be submitted e.g. washing, rubbing, light, &c.
The materials usually dyed are those made from the textile fibres,
silk, wool, cotton, &c., and intended for clothing or decoration;
but in addition to these may be mentioned straw, fur, leather,
paper, &c.
The art of dyeing dates from prehistoric times, and its practice
probably began with the first dawn of civilization. Although we
cannot trace the successive stages of its development
"kl'tch. from the beginning, we may suppose they were some-
what similar to those witnessed among certain un-
civilized tribes to-day e.g. the Maoris of New Zealand. At first
the dyes were probably mere fugitive stains obtained by means of
the juices of fruits, and the decoctions of flowers, leaves, barks and
roots; but in course of time methods were discovered, with the
aid of certain kinds of earth and mud containing alumina or iron,
whereby the stains could be rendered permanent, and then it was
that the true art of dyeing began. There is no doubt that dyeing
was, in the early period of its history, a home industry practised
by the women of the household, along with the sister arts of
spinning and weaving, for the purpose of embellishing the
materials manufactured for clothing.
Historical evidence shows that already at a remote period a
high state of civilization existed in Persia, India, and China, and
the belief is well founded that the arts of dyeing and printing have
been practised in these countries during a long succession of ages.
In early times the products and manufactures of India were
highly prized throughout Southern Asia, and in due course they
were introduced by Arabian merchants to Phoenicia and Egypt,
with which countries commercial intercourse, by way of the
Persian and Arabian Gulfs, seems to have existed from time
immemorial. Eventually the Egyptians themselves began to
practise the arts of dyeing and printing, utilizing no doubt both
the knowledge and the materials derived from India. Pliny the
historian has left us a brief record of the methods employed in
Egypt during the first century, as well as of the Tyrian purple dye
celebrated already 1000 B.C., while the chemical examination of
mummy cloths by Thomson and Schunck testifies to the use by
the Egyptian dyers of indigo and madder. The Phoenician and
Alexandrian merchants imported drugs and dyestuffs into Greece,
but we know little or nothing of the methods of dyeing pursued by
the Greeks and Romans, and such knowledge as they possessed
seems to have been almost entirely lost during the stormy period
of barbarism reigning in Europe during the 5th and succeed-
ing centuries. In Italy, however, some remnants of the art
fortunately survived these troublous times, and the importation
of Oriental products by the Venetian merchants about the
beginning of the i3th century helped to revive the industry.
From this time rapid progress was made, and the dyers formed
important guilds in Florence, Venice and other cities. It was
about this time, too, that a Florentine named Rucellai redis-
covered the method of making the purple dye orchil from
certain lichens of Asia Minor. In 1429 there was published at
Venice, under the title of Mariegola dell' arle de tentori, the first
European book on dyeing, which contained a collection of the
various processes in use at the time. From Italy a knowledge of
dyeing gradually extended to Germany, France and Flanders,
and it was from the latter country that the English king Edward
III. procured dyers for England, a Dyers' Company being in-
corporated in 1472 in the city of London.
A new impetus was given to the industry of dyeing by the
discovery of America in 1492, as well as by the opening up of the
way to the East Indies round the Cape of Good Hope in 1498. A
number of new dyestuffs were now introduced, and the dyewood
trade was transferred from Italy to Spain and Portugal, for the
East Indian products now came direct to Europe round the Cape
instead of by the old trade routes through Persia and Asia Minor.
Eastern art-fabrics were introduced in increasing quantity, and
with them came also information as to the methods of their
production. In Europe itself the cultivation of dye-plants
gradually received more and more attention, and both woad and
madder began to be cultivated, about 1507, in France, Germany
and Holland. Under the influence of Spain the Dutch largely
developed their industries and made considerable progress in
dyeing. The Spaniards, on their first arrival in Mexico (1518),
noticed the employment of the red dyestuff cochineal by the
natives, and at once imported it to Europe, where an increasing
demand for the new colouring matter gradually developed in the
course of the century. A further impetus was given to the trade
by the Dutch chemist Drebbel's accidental discovery, in 1630, of
the method of dyeing a brilliant scarlet on wool by means of
cochineal and tin solutions. The secret was soon communicated
to other dyers, and the new scarlet was dyed as a speciality at the
Gobelin dyeworks in Paris, and some time later (1643) at a
dyeworks in Bow, near London.
In 1662 the newly established Royal Society in London took a
useful step in advancing the art of dyeing, and in order to
inform and assist practical dyers, caused the publication of the
first original account, in the English language, of the methods
employed in dyeing, entitled " An apparatus to the history of the
common practices of Dyeing." Ten years later the French
Minister Colbert sought to improve as well as control the opera-
tions of dyeing, by publishing a code of instructions for the use of
the woollen dyers and manufacturers in France. From this time,
too, a succession of eminent chemists were appointed by the
French government to devote some of their attention to the study
of the industrial arts, including dyeing, with a view to their
progress and improvement. Dufay, Hellot, Macquer, Berthollet,
Roard and Chevreul (1700-1825) all rendered excellent service to
the art, by investigating the chemical principles of dyeing, by
publishing accounts of the various processes in vogue, by examin-
ing the nature and, properties of the dyestuffs employed, and by
explaining the cause of the several phenomena connected with
dyeing. With the advent of the i8th century, certain old
prejudices against the use of foreign dyewoods gradually dis-
appeared, and very rapid progress was made owing to the birth
of the modern chemistry and the discovery of several useful
chemical products and processes e.g. Prussian Blue (1710),
Saxony Blue or Indigo Extract (1740), sulphuric acid (1774)1
murexide (1776), picric acid (1788), carbonate of soda (1793),
bleaching powder (1798). Experiments on the practical side of
bleaching and dyeing were made during this period, in England
by Thomas Henry, Home and Bancroft, and in France by
DYEING
745
Dambourney, Gonfreville and others, each of whom has left
interesting records of his work.
Down to the middle of the igth century natural dyestuffs
alone, with but few exceptions, were at the command of the dyer.
But already in the year 1834 the German chemist Runge noticed
that one of the products obtained by distilling coal-tar, namely,
aniline, gave a bright blue coloration under the influence of
bleaching powder. No useful colouring matter, however, was
obtained from this product, and it was reserved for the English
chemist Sir W. H. Perkin to prepare the first aniline dye, namely,
the purple colouring matter Mauve (1856). The discovery of
other brilliant aniline dyestuffs followed in rapid succession, and
the dyer was in the course of a few years furnished with Magenta,
Aniline Blue, Hofmann's Violet, Iodine Green, Bismarck Brown,
Aniline Black, &c. Investigation has shown that the products
of the distillation of coal-tar are very numerous, and some of
them are found to be specially suitable for the preparation of
colouring matters. Such, for example, are benzene, naphthalene
and anthracene, from each of which distinct series of colouring
matters are derived. In 1869 the German chemists Graebe and
Liebermann succeeded in preparing Alizarin, the colouring matter
of the madder-root, from the coal-tar product anthracene, a
discovery which is of the greatest historical interest, since it is
the first instance of the artificial production of a vegetable
dyestuff. Another notable discovery is that of artificial Indigo
by Baeyer in 1878. Since 1856, indeed, an ever-increasing
number of chemists has been busily engaged in pursuing scientific
investigations with the view of preparing new colouring matters
from coal-tar products, and of these a few typical colours, with
the dates of their discovery, may be mentioned: Cachou de
Laval (1873); Eosin (1874); Alizarin Blue (1877); Xylidine
Scarlet (1878); Biebrich Scarlet (1879); Congo Red (1884);
Primuline Red (1887); Rhodamine (1887); Paranitraniline
Red (1889); Alizarin Bordeaux (1890); Alizarin Green (1895).
At the present time it may truly be said that the dyer
is furnished with quite an embarrassing number of coal-tar
dyestuffs which are capable of producing every variety of colour
possessing the most diverse properties. Many of the colours
produced are fugitive, but a considerable number are permanent
and withstand various influences, so that the general result for
some years has been the gradual displacement of the older
natural dyestuffs by the newer coal-tar colours.
During this period of discovery on the part of the chemist,
the mechanical engineer has been actively engaged in devising
machines suitable for carrying out, with a minimum of manual
labour, all the various operations connected with dyeing. This
introduction of improved machinery into the dyeing trade has
resulted in the production of better work, it has effected con-
siderable economy, and may be regarded as an important feature
in modern dyeing.
The art of dyeing is a branch of applied chemistry in which
the dyer is continually making use of chemical and physical
principles in order to bring about a permanent union
between the material to be dyed and the colouring
matter applied. If cotton or wool is boiled in water
containing finely powdered charcoal, or other insoluble coloured
powder, the material is not dyed, but merely soiled or stained.
This staining is entirely due to the entanglement of the coloured
powder by the rough surface of the fibre, and a vigorous washing
and rubbing suffices to remove all but mere traces of the colour.
True dyeing can only result when the colouring matter is pre-
sented to the fibre in a soluble condition, and is then, by some
means or other, rendered insoluble while it is absorbed by, or is
in direct contact with, the fibre. There must always be some
marked physical or chemical affinity existing between fibre and
colouring matter, and this depends upon the physical and
chemical properties of both. It is well known that the typical
fibres, wool, silk and cotton, behave very differently towards
the solution of any given colouring matter, and that the method
of dyeing employed varies with each fibre. As a general rule
wool has the greatest attraction for colouring matters, and dyes
most readily; cotton has the least attraction, while silk occupies
General
principles.
in this respect an intermediate position. These differences may
be to some extent due to differences of physical structure in
the fibres, but they are mainly due to their different chemical
composition.
On the other hand, a given fibre, e.g. cotton, behaves quite
differently in dyeing towards various colouring matters. Some
of these are not at all attracted by it, and are incapable of being
used as dyestuffs for cotton. For others cotton exhibits a marked
attraction, so that it is readily dyed by mere steeping in a hot
solution of the colouring matter. Again, for other colouring
matters cotton has little or no attraction, and cannot be dyed
with them until it has been previously impregnated or prepared
with a metallic salt, tannic acid or some other agent which is
capable of combining with the colouring matter and precipitating
it as an insoluble coloured compound within or upon the fibre.
Such differences of behaviour are to be ascribed to differences
in the chemical constitution or atomic arrangement of the various
colouring matters.
In the case of the coal-tar colours we are, for the most part,
well acquainted with their chemical constitution, and in accord-
ance with this knowledge the chemist has arranged ciassiff-
them in the following groups: (i) Nitro Colours, cation of
(2) Azo Colours, including Amido-azo, Oxy-azo, colouring
Tetrazo and Polyazo Colours. (3) Hydrazone Colours. matters -
(4) Oxy-quinone Colours, including Quinone-oxime Colours.
(5) Diphenylmethane and Triphenylmethane Colours, includ-
ing Rosaniline, Rosolic acid and Phthaleine Colours. (6)
Quinoneimide Colours, including Indamine, Indophenol, Thia-
zime, Thiazone, Oxazime, Oxazone, Azine, Induline, Quinoxa-
line and Fluorindine Colours. (7) Aniline Black. (8) Quinoline
and Acridine Colours. (9) Thiazol Colours. (10) Oxy-ketone,
Xanthone, Flavone and Cumarine Colours, (n) Indigo. (12)
Colours of unknown constitution.
This arrangement of the colouring matters in natural chemical
groups is well suited for the requirements of the chemist, but
another classification is that based on the mode of their applica-
tion in dyeing. This is much simpler than the previous one,
and being better adapted for the practical purposes of the dyer,
as well as for explaining the various methods of dyeing, it is
preferred for this article. According to this arrangement
colouring matters are classified under the following groups:
(i) Acid Colours. (2) Basic Colours. (3) Direct Colours. (4)
Developed Colours. (5) Mordant Colours. (6) Miscellaneous
Colours. (7) Mineral Colours. It is well to state that there is
no sharp line of division between some of these groups, for many
colours are applicable by more than one method, and might
quite well be placed in two, or even three, of the above groups.
This may be due either to the kind of fibre to which the colouring
matter is to be applied, or to certain details in the chemical
constitution of the latter which give it a twofold character.
ACID COLOURS. These dyestuffs are so called because they dye
the animal fibres wool and silk in an acid bath; they do not dye
cotton. From a chemical point of view the colouring matters
themselves are of an acid character, this being due to the presence
in the molecule of nitro (NO 2 ) or sulphonic acid (HSO 3 ) groups-
According to their origin and constitution they may be distin-
guished as nitro compounds, sulphonated azo compounds and
sulphonated basic colours. The acid colours are usually sold in
the form of their alkali salts, as variously coloured powders soluble
in water. For the alkali salts in neutral or alkaline solution wool
and silk have little or no affinity, but dyeing rapidly occurs if the
solution is acidified with sulphuric acid whereby the colour-acid is
liberated. This addition of acid, however, is necessary not only to
set free the colour-acid of the dyestuff, but also to alter partially
the chemical composition of the fibre, and thus render it capable
of uniting more readily with the free colour-acid. It has been
shown, namely, that if wool is boiled with dilute sulphuric acid,
and then thoroughly washed with boiling-water till free from acid,
it acquires the property of being dyed with acid colours even in
neutral solution. By this treatment a portion of the wool substance
is converted into so-called lanuginic acid, which has a strong at-
traction for the colour-acid of the dyestuff, with which it forms an
insoluble coloured compound. For dyeing wool, the general rule is
to charge the dyebath with the amount of dyestuff necessary to give
the required colour, say from i to 2 or 6% on the weight of wooV
employed, along with 10% sodium sulphate (Glauber's salt) and
4% sulphuric acid (1-84 sp. gr.). The woollen material is then
746
DYEING
introduced and continually handled or moved about in the solution,
while the temperature of the latter is gradually raised to the boiling
point in the course of J to I hour ; after boiling for i to J hour longer,
the operation is complete, and the material is washed and dried.
In practice, modifications of this normal process may be intro-
duced, in order to ensure the dyeing of an even colour, i.e. free
from such irregularities as cloudiness, streaks, &c., which may be
due to the quality of the material or to the special properties of
the acid colour employed. Materials of a firm, close texture, also
the existence of a strong affinity between fibre and colouring
matter, do not generally lend themselves to the dyeing of even
colours, or to a satisfactory penetration of the material. Some acid
colours dye even colours without any difficulty; others, however,
do not. The addition of sodium sulphate to the dyebath exerts
a restraining action ; the dyeing therefore proceeds more slowly and
regularly, and a more equal distribution and better absorption
of the colouring matter takes place. Other devices to obtain even
colours are: the use of old dye-liquors, a diminished amount of
acid, the employment of weaker acids, e.g. acetic or formic acid or
ammonium acetate, and the entering of the material at a low
temperature.
In the application of so-called Alkali Blue the process of dyeing
in an acid bath is impossible, owing to the insolubility of the colour-
acid in an acid solution. Wool and silk, however, possess an affinity
for the alkali salt of the colouring matter in neutral or alkaline
solution, hence these fibres are dyed with the addition of about
5% borax; the material acquires only a pale colour, that of the
alkali salt, in this dyebath, but by passing the washed material
into a cold or tepid dilute solution of sulphuric acid a full bright blue
colour is developed, due to the liberation of the colour-acid within
the fibre. In the case of other acid colours, e.g. Chromotrope,
Chrome Brown, Chromogen, Alizarin Yellow, &c., the dyeing in an
acid bath is followed by a treatment with a boiling solution of
bichromate of potash, alum, or chromium fluoride, whereby the
colouring matter on the fibre is changed into insoluble oxidation
products or colour-lakes. This operation of developing or fixing
the colour is effected either in the same bath at the end of the dyeing
operation, or in a separate bath. See also Artificial Mordant Colours.
When dyeing with certain acid colours, e.g. Epsine, Phloxine and
other allied bright pink colouring matters derived from resorcin,
the use of sulphuric acid as an assistant must be avoided, since the
colours would thereby be rendered paler and duller, and only acetic
acid must be employed.
The properties of the dyes obtained with the acid colours are
extremely varied. Many are fugitive to light; on the other hand,
many are satisfactorily fast, some even being very fast in this
respect. As a rule, they do not withstand the operations of milling
and scouring very well, hence acid colours are generally unsuitable
for tweed yarns or for loose wool. They are largely employed,
however, in dyeing other varieties of woollen yarn, silk yarn, union
fabrics, dress materials, leather, &c. Previous to the discovery
of the coal-tar colours very few acid colours were known, the most
important one being Indigo Extract. Prussian Blue as applied to
wool may also be regarded as belonging to this class, also the purple
dyestuff known as Orchil or Cudbear.
The following list includes some of the more important acid
colours now in use, arranged according to the colour they yield in
dyeing:
Red. Wool scarlet, brilliant scarlet, erythrine, crocein scarlet,
brilliant crocein, violamine G, scarlet 3R, crystal scarlet, new coccine,
chromotrope zR, azo acid magenta, Victoria scarjet, xylidine scarlet,
Palatine scarlet, Biebrich scarlet, pyrotine, orchil red, Bordeaux B,
milling red, azo carmine, acid magenta, fast acid violet A aR,
naphthylamine red, fast red, claret red, eosine, erythrosine, rose
Bengale, phloxine, cyanosine, cloth red, lanafuchsine, rosinduline,
erio carmine.
Orange. Diphenylamine orange; methyl orange, naphthol orange,
crocein orange, brilliant orange, orange G, orange N, mandarin G R.
Yellow. Picric acid, naphthol yellow S, fast yellow, brilliant
yellow S, azoflavine, metanil yellow, resorcine yellow, tartrazine,
quinoline yellow, milling yellow, azo yellow, Victoria yellow,
brilliant yellow S, citronine, Indian yellow.
Green. Acid green, guinea green, fast green, patent green, cyanol
green, erio green, brilliant acid green 6 G.
Blue. Alkali blue, soluble blue, opal blue, methyl blue, Hochst
new blue, patent blue, ketone blue, cyanine, thiocarmine, fast blue,
induline, violamine 3 B, azo acid blue, wool blue, indig* extract,
erio glaucine,_ erio cyanine, erio blue, lanacyl blue, sulphon-azurine,
sulphon-cyanine.
_ Violet. Acid violet, red violet, regina violet, formyl violet,
violamine B, fast violet, azo acid violet, erio violet, lanacyl violet.
Brown. Fast brown, naphthylamine brown, acid brown, resorcine
brown, azo brown, chrome brown, chromogene.
Black. Naphthol black, azo black, wool black, naphthylamine
black, jet black, anthracite black, Victoria black, azo acid black,
brilliant black, union black, brilliant black B.
BASIC COLOURS. These colouring matters are the salts of organic
colour-bases, their name being derived from the fact that their
dyeing power resides entirely in the basic part of the salt. In the
free state the bases are colourless and insoluble, but in combination
with acids they form salts which are coloured and for the most
part soluble in water. They are usually sold in the form of powder
or crystals, the latter exhibiting frequently a beautiful metallic
lustre. Wool and silk are dyed in a neutral bath, i.e. without any
addition, the material not requiring any previous preparation.
During the dyeing operation the animal fibres appear to play the part
of an acid, for they decompose the colouring matter and unite with
the colour-base to form an insoluble coloured salt or lake, while the
acid of the colouring matter is liberated and remains in solution.
Although, as a rule, a neutral dyebath is employed in dyeing wool,
a slight addition (2 %) of soap is sometimes made in order to give
a brighter colour, while in other cases, e.g. with Victoria Blue, the
dyebath must of necessity be made distinctly acid with acetic or
sulphuric acid. Silk is usually dyed in a bath containing " boiled-off
liquor " (i.e. the spent soap-liquor from the operation of scouring)
neutralized or slightly acidified with acetic or tartaric acid. For
a full colour use 2 or 3 % colouring matter, enter the wool at a low
temperature, heat gradually to near the boiling point in the course
of J hour, and continue dyeing for J hour. Owing to the slight
solubility of many basic colours, it is important to take the pre-
caution of filtering the colour solution into the dyebath through
a flannej filter, also to neutralize the alkalinity of calcareous water
with a little acetic acid, to prevent decomposition of the colouring
matter and precipitation of the colour-base.
Unlike the animal fibres, cotton has little or no affinity for the
basic colours; hence the cotton dyer makes use of the fact that
cotton has a natural attraction for tannic acid, and that the latter
forms insoluble lakes with the bases of basic colours. Previous
to dyeing, the cotton is prepared with tannic acid by steeping in
a cold solution of the latter for several hours; cotton pieces are run
at full width through a solution containing 2 to 6 oz. per gallon of
tannic acid, and after being evenly squeezed are dried on steam
cylinders. The cotton is then worked in a solution of tartar emetic
or stannic chloride, so that the tannic acid absorbed by the fibre
may be fixed upon it as insoluble tannate of antimony or tin.
Although the tannic acid is thus united with metallic oxide, it still
has the power of attracting, the base of the colouring matter, and
there is fixed upon the fibre an insoluble colour-lake, namely, a
tannate of antimony and colour-base, which constitutes the dye. In
this process the tannic acid is called the mordant, the tartar emetic
acts as the fixing-agent for the tannic acid, and the cotton as finally
prepared for dyeing is said to be mordanted. The proportions em-
ployed, reckoned on the weight of cotton, may vary from 2 to 10%
tannic acid, or the equivalent in a decoction of sumach, myrabolans,
or other tannin matter, and J to 3 % tartar emetic. After mordant-
ing and fixing of the mordant, the cotton is well washed and dyed
in the cold or at 6p C. for $ to I hour with the necessary colouring
matter. Applied in this manner, basic colours are moderately fast
to soap, but generally not to the action of light.
Linen is dyed in the same manner as cotton. Jute is dyed without
any previous preparation, since it behaves like a tannin-mordanted
fibre, attracting the basic colours direct.
The basic colours, to which class most of the earlier coal-fer
colours belonged, are remarkable for their great colouring power,
and in most cases for the brilliancy of the colours they yield. With
the exception of certain dark colours, they are fugitive to light. It
is interesting to note that only one vegetable colouring matter is at
present recognized as belonging to this class, namely, the yellow
dyestuff barberry bark and root (Berberis vulgaris) which contains
the alkaloid berberine.
The following is a list of the more important basic colours derived
from coal-tar:
Red. Magenta, safranine, rhodamine, pyronine red, rhoduline
red, rosazei'n, induline scarlet.
Orange. Chrysoidine, phosphine, acridine orange, tannin orange.
Yellow. Auramine, benzoflavine, thioflavine T, acridine yellow,
homophosphine, rhoduline yellow.
Green. Malachite green, emerald green, imperial green, China
green, brilliant green, Victoria green, diamond green, methylene
green, azine green.
Blue. Methylene blue, new methylene blue, toluidine blue,
thionine blue, mdamine blue, Victoria blue, night blue, Nile blue,
turquoise blue, marine blue, indoine blue, metamine blue, Capri
blue, indazine, metaphenylene blue, paraphenylene blue, toluylene
blue, indigene, indol blue, diphene blue, setopaline, setocyanine,
setoglaucine, Helvetia blue.
Violet. Methyl violet, crystaj violet, ethyl purple, methylem
violet, mauve, paraphenylene violet, rhoduline violet, methylem
heliotrope.
Brown. Bismarck brown.
Black. Diazine black.
Grey. Methylene grey, nigrisine, new grey.
DIRECT COLOURS. The characteristic feature of the dyestuffs
belonging to this class is that they dye cotton " direct " i.e. without
the aid of mordants. Two distinct series of colouring matters of this
group may be distinguished namely, Direct Cotton Colours and
Sulphide Colours.
(a) Direct Cotton Colours. The colours of this class are frequently
called the Substantive Cotton Colours, Benzo Colours, Diamine
Colours, Congo Colours. Considered from the chemical point of
ie
ene
DYEING
747
view, they are mostly alkali salts of sulphonated tetrazo colours
obtained by diazotizing certain diamido compounds, e.g. benzidine,
diamido-stilbene, &c., and uniting the products thus obtained with
various amines or phenols. The first colouring matter of this class
was the so-called Congo red, discovered in 1884, and since that time
a very great number have been introduced which yield almost every
variety of colour. The method of dyeing cotton consists in merely
boiling the material in a solution of the dyestuff, when the cotton
absorbs and retains the colouring matter by reason of a special
natural affinity. The concentration of the dyebath is of the greatest
importance, since the amount of colour taken up by the fibre is in
an inverse ratio to the amount of dye liquor present in the bath.
The addition of I to 3 oz. sodium sulphate and A to J oz. carbonate
of soda per gallon gives deeper colours, since it diminishes the solu-
bility of the colouring matter in the water and increases the affinity
of the cotton for the colouring matter. An excess of sodium sulphate
is to be avoided, otherwise precipitation of the colouring matter
and imperfect dyeing result. With many dyestuffs it is preferable
to use | to J oz..soap instead of soda. On cotton the dyed colours
are usually not very fast to light, and some are sensitive to alkali
or to acid, but their most serious defect is that they are not fast to
washing, the colour tending to run and stain neighbouring fibres.
Their fastness to light and washing is, however, greatly improved
by a short ($ hour) after-treatment with a boiling solution of copper
sulphate (3 %), with or without the addition of bichromate of potash
(i %). Wool and silk are dyed with the direct colours either neutral
or with the addition of a little acetic acid to the dyebath. On these
fibres the dyed colours are usually faster than on cotton to washing,
milling and light; some are very fast even to light e.g. Diamine
fast red, chrysophenine, Hessian yellow, &c. Many of the Direct
Colours are very useful for dyeing plain shades on union fabrics
composed of wool and cotton, silk and cotton, or wool and silk.
Owing to the facility of their application, they are also very suitable
for use as household dyes, especially for cotton goods.
A few vegetable dyestuffs belong to this class, notably Turmeric,
saffron, annatto and safflower, but they all yield colours which
are fugitive to light, and they are now of little importance. Tur-
meric is the underground stem or tuber of Curcuma tinctoria, a plant
growing abundantly in the East Indies. It dyes cotton, wool and
silk in a bath acidified with acetic acid or alum, yielding a bright
yellow colour which is turned brown by alkalis. Saffron consists
of the stigmata of the flower of Crocus sativus, which is grown in
Austria, France and Spain. It dyes a bright orange-yellow colour.
Annatto is the pulpy mass surrounding the seeds of Bixa orellana,
a plant which grows in South America e.g. Brazil, Cayenne, &c.
It dyes cotton and silk in an alkaline or soap bath an orange colour,
which is turned red by acids. Safflower consists of the dried florets
of Carthamus tinctorius, which is grown in the East Indies, Egypt
and southern Europe. Cotton is dyed a brilliant pink colour by
working it in a cold alkaline (sodium carbonate) extract of the
colouring matter, while gradually acidifying the solution with citric
acid (lime-juice).
The Direct Colours which are derived from coal-tar products are
very numerous indeed; they are largely employed, and occupy a
very important position among dyestuffs. The following list includes
the principal coal-tar colours of this group :
Red. Congo red, brilliant Congo, benzopurpurine, brilliant
purpurine, deltapurpurine, diamine scarlet, diamine fatt red,
rosazurine, salmon red, erica, Titan pink, St Denis red, Columbia red,
naphthylene red, Congo rubine, acetopurpurine, dianol red, thiamine
crimson, geranine, brilliant geranine, Columbia fast scarlet, benzo fast
scarlet, thiamine red, diamine rose, Dongola red, rosophenine.
Orange. Congo orange, benzo orange, toluylene orange, mikado
orange, brilliant orange, Columbia orange, diamine orange, pyramine
orange, benzo fast orange.
Yellow. Chrysamine, cresotin yellow, diamine yellow, carbazol
yellow, chrysophenine, Hessian yellow, curcumine yellow, thiazol
yellow, thioflavine S, oriol, mimosa yellow, Columbia yellow, cotton
yellow, chloramine yellow, direct yellow, diamine fast yellow, diamine
gold, sun yellow, stilbene yellow, chlorophenine, oxyphenine.
Green. Benzo olive, Columbia green, benzo green, diamine green,
direct green, diphenyl green, examine green, ebpli green.
Blue. Azo blue, benzoazurine, brilliant azurine, sulphpn-azurine,
diamine blue, benzo indigo blue, benzo black blue, Chicago blue,
Columbia blue, Erie blue, Zambezi blue, benzo cyanine, Congo blue,
diamine sky blue, brilliant benzo blue, benzo chrome black blue,
examine blue, diphenyl blue, diamineral blue, diaminogene, benzo
fast blue, diazo indigo blue, brilliant chlorazol blue.
Violet. -Hessian purple, Congo Corinth, heliotrope, Congo violet,
diamine violet, Hessian violet, azo violet, benzo violet, violet black,
diamine Bordeaux, chlorantine lilac, diphenyl violet, triazol violet,
Columbia violet.
Brown. Benzo brown, Congo brown, toluylene brown, diamine
brown, cotton brown, Hessian brown, terra-cotta, mikado brown,
catechu brown, wool brown, Columbia brown, Zambezi brown,
benzo chrome brown, direct fast brown, direct bronze brown,
chloramine brown, triazol brown, <oluylene brown, dianol brown,
Crumpsall direct fast brown.
Black. Diamine black, Columbia black, Nyanza black, Tabora
black, Zambezi black, chromanil black, benzo black, benzo fast
black, direct blue black, Pluto black, oxydiamine black, diamine
jet black, polyphenyl black, union black, triazol black, Titan black,
cotton black, examine black.
Grey. Benzo grey, benzo black, azo mauve, diaminogene, neutral
grey.
(b) Sulphide Colours. These dyestuffs are only suitable for dyeing
the vegetable fibres, since they must be applied in a strongly alkaline
bath. The dyestuff Cachou de Laval, discovered in 1873, was the
first member of this group, and was obtained by melting a mixture
of sodium sulphide and various organic substances e.g. bran, saw-
dust, &c. In recent years numerous other dyestuffs have been added
to the list, namely, grey, blue, green, brown, and especially black
colours, by submitting certain definite amido compounds of the
aromatic series to a similar treatment with sodium sulphide or
sodium thiosulphate, and subsequent oxidation. The mode of
dyeing with these colours is based on the fact that they are soluble
in an alkaline reducing agent, and if the cotton is worked in the
solution, subsequent oxidation develops the colour, which is fixed
upon the fibre in an insoluble condition. The material is boiled
for about one hour in a solution of the colour (10 to 15 %), with the
addition of sodium carbonate (i to 10%), common salt (10 to 20%),
and sodium sulphide (5 to 30 %) ; it is then washed in water, and
may be developed by heating in a bath containing 2 to 5 % of bi-
chromate of soda, and 3 to 6% acetic acid. A final washing with
water containing a little soda to remove acidity is advisable. The
sulphide colours are remarkable for their fastness to light, alkalis,
acids and washing, but unless proper care is exercised the cotton is
apt to be tendered on being stored for some time.
The following list includes some of the most important of the
colours of this class :
Yellow. Immedial yellow, pyrogene yellow, sulphur yellow,
thion yellow, thiogene yellow.
Orange. Eclipse phosphine, immedial orange, pyrogene orange,
thion orange, thiogene orange.
Green. Pyrogene green, Italian green, eclipse green, pyrol green,
immedial green, katigene green, thionol green.
Blue. Immedial blue, immedial sky_ blue, eclipse blue, katigene
indigo, pyrogene blue, sulphur blue, thion blue, thiogene blue.
Violet. Katigene violet, thiogene heliotrope, thiogene purple.
Brown. Pyrogene brown, pyrogene yellow, Cachou de Laval,
thiocatechine, katigene black brown, eclipse brown, immedial
brown, katigene brown, dianol brown.
Grey and Black. Pyrogene grey. Vidal black, immedial black,
katigene black, anthraquinone black, St Denis black, amidazol
black, cross dye black, eclipse black, carbide black, thiogene black,
sulphaniline black, sulfogene black, pyrogene black, dianol black,
sulphur black, thion black, kryogene black.
This class of colours is continually increasing in number, and for
certain purposes in cotton dyeing the group has acquired great
importance.
DEVELOPED COLOURS. This group includes certain azo colours
which are developed or produced upon the fibre itself (usually
cotton) by the successive application of their constituent elements.
It may be conveniently divided into the following sub-groups: In-
soluble Azo Colours, Developed Direct Colours, Benzo Nitrol Colours.
(a) The Insoluble Azo Colours are produced as insoluble
coloured precipitates by adding a solution of a diazo compound
to an alkaline solution of a phenol, or to an acid solution of an
amido compound. The necessary diazo compound is prepared by
allowing a solution containing nitrous acid to act upon a solution
of a primary aromatic amine. It is usually desirable to keep the
solutions cool with ice, owing to the very unstable nature of the diazo
compounds produced. The colour obtained varies according to
the particular diazo compound, as well as the amine or phenol
employed, ft - naphthol being the most useful among the latter.
The same coloured precipitates are produced upon the cotton fibre
if the material is first impregnated with an alkaline solution of the
phenol, then dried and passed into a cold solution of the diazo
solution. The most important of these colours is para-nitraniline
red, which is dyed in enormous quantities on cotton pieces. The
pieces are first " prepared " by running them on a padding machine
through a solution made up of 30 grms. /3- naphthol, 20 grms.
caustic soda, 50 grms. Turkey red oil, and 5 grms. tartar emetic in
looo grms. (i litre) water. They are then dried on the drying-
machine, and are passed, after being allowed to cool, into the diazo
solution, which is prepared as follows: 15 grms. para-nitraniline are
dissolved in 53 c.c. hydrochloric acid (34 Tw.) and a sufficiency of
water. To the cold solution a solution of loj grms. sodium nitrite
is added while stirring. The whole is then made up to 1200 c.c.,
and just before use 6p grms. sodium acetate are added. The colour
is developed almost immediately, but it is well to allow the cotton
to remain in contact with the solution for a few minutes. The dyed
cotton is squeezed, washed, soaped slightly, and finally rinsed in
water and dried. A brilliant red is then obtained which is fast
to_soap but not to light. If the para-nitraniline used in the fore-
going orocess is replaced by meta - nitraniline, a yellowish - orange
colour is obtained ; with a-naphthylamine, a claret-red ; with amido-
azo- toluene, a brownish red; with benzidine, a dark chocolate;
with dianisidine, a dark blue; and so on. The dyed colours are
fast to washing and are much used in practice, particularly the
DYEING
paranitraniline red, which serves as a substitute for Turkey-red,
although it is not so fast to light as the latter.
(b) Developed Direct Colours. The primuline colours were the
first representatives of this class and are derived from the yellow
dyestuff known as primuline, which dyes cotton in the same manner
as the direct colours. The primuline yellow thus obtained is fugitive
to light and of little practical value, but since the colouring matter
is an amido base it can be diazotized in the fibre and then developed
in solutions of phenols or amines, whereby azo dyes of various
hues may be obtained, according to the developer employed ; thus,
/3-naphthol develops a bright red colour, resorcin develops an
orange, phenol a yellow, naphthylamine a brown, &c. The dyeing
of the primuline yellow is effected by boiling the cotton for one hour
in a solution of primuline (5 %) and common salt (10 to 20 %). The
diazotizing operation consists in passing the dyed and rinsed cotton
for 5 to 10 minutes into a cold solution of nitrous acid i.e. a solution
of j oz. sodium nitrite per gallon of water, slightly acidified with
sulphuric acid. The diazotized material should not be exposed to
light, but at once washed in cold water and passed into the developer.
The developing process consists in working the diazotized material
for 5 to 10 minutes in a cold solution of the necessary phenol, and
finally washing with water. The only developer of any practical
importance is a solution of /3-naphthol in caustic soda, which
produces primuline red. The primuline colours are best adapted
for cotton dyeing, and the colours obtained are fast to washing and
to moderate soaping, but they are not very fast to light.
If cotton is dyed with other direct colours containing free amido
groups, the colour can be diazotized on the dyed fibre exactly in
the same manner as in the case of primuline-dyed cotton, and then
developed by passing into the solution of an amine or phenol, or by
treating it with a warm solution of sodium carbonate. In this
manner a new azo dye is produced upon the fibre, which differs from
the original one not only in colour, but also by being faster to washing
and other influences. A treatment with copper sulphate solution
after development is frequently beneficial in rendering the colour
faster to light. Some Direct Colours, indeed, are of little value,
owing, for example, to their sensibility to acids, until they have been
diazotized and developed, the usual developers being /3-naphthol,
resorcinol, phenol and phenylene-diamine.
The following Direct Colours, after being applied to cotton, may
be submitted to the above treatment, the colours produced being
chiefly blue, brown and black:
Blue. Diazurine, diazo blue, diamine blue, diaminogene.
Bed. Rosanthiene.
Brown. Diazo brown, diamine cutch, diamine brown, cotton
brown.
Grey and Black. Benzo blue, diazo blue black, diazo black,
diamine black, diazo brilliant black.
(c) Benzo Nitrol Colours. These are certain Direct Colours,
dyed on cotton in the ordinary manner, which are then developed
by passing into a diazo solution e.g. diazotized para-nitranihne,
&c. The dyed colour here plays the part of a phenol or amine,
and reacts with the diazo compound to produce a new colour.
The process is similar to the production of the Insoluble Azo Colours,
the /3-naphthol which is there applied to the fibre being here
replaced by a Direct Colour. The colour of the latter is rendered
much deeper by the process, and also faster to washing and to the
action of acids. The dyestuffs recommended for application in the
manner described are : Benzo nitrol brown, toluylene brown, direct
fast brown, Pluto black, direct blue black.
" Topping " Direct Colours. The direct colours possess the
remarkable property of precipitating the basic colours from aqueous
solution. Use is frequently made of this property for " topping "
cotton dyed with direct colours either with a view to obtain com-
pound shades or to brighten the colour. Thus by dyeing cotton
first yellow in chrysamine and then dyeing it again in a cold bath of
methylene blue a brilliant shade of green results. If, on the other
hand, a direct blue is topped with methylene blue, its brilliancy
may be enhanced.
MORDANT COLOURS. The colouring matters of this class include
some of the most important dyestuffs employed, since they furnish
many colours remarkable for their fastness to light, washing and
other influences. Employed by themselves, Mordant Colours are
usually of little or no value as dyestuffs, because, with few excep-
tions, either they are not attracted by the fibre, particularly in the
case of cotton, or they only yield a more or less fugitive stain.
Their importance and value as dyestuffs are due to the fact that
they act like weak acids and have the property of combining with
metallic oxides to form insoluble coloured compounds termed
" lakes," which vary in colour according to the metallic oxide or
salt employed. The most stable lakes are those in which the colour-
ing matter is combined with two metallic oxides, a sesquioxide and
a monoxide e.g. alumina and lime. In applying colouring matters
of this class the object of the dyer is to precipitate and fix these
coloured lakes upon and within the fibre, for which purpose two
operations are necessary, namely, mordanting and dyeing.
The mordanting operation aims at fixing upon the fibre the neces-
sary metallic oxide or insoluble basic salt, which is called the mordant,
although the term is also applied to the original metallic salt em-
ployed. In the subsequent dyeing operation the mordanted material
is boiled with a solution of the colouring matter, during which the
metallic oxide attracts and chemically combines with the colouring
matter, producing the coloured lake in situ on the fibre, which thus
becomes dyed. The mode of applying the mordants varies accord-
ing to the nature of the fibre and the metallic salt employed, the
chief mordants at present in use being salts of chromium, aluminium,
tin, copper and iron. The method of mordanting wool depends upon
its property of decomposing metallic salts, and fixing upon itself an
insoluble metallic compound, when boiled in their solutions. This
decomposition is facilitated by the heating and by the dilution of the
solution, but it is chiefly due to the action of the fibre itself. The
exact nature of the substance fixed upon the fibre has not in all cases
been determined ; probably it is a compound of the metallic oxide
with the wool-substance itself, which has the character of an amido-
acid. The mordant most largely employed for wool is bichromate
of potash, since, besides being simply applied, and leaving the
wool with a soft feel, it yields with the various mordant-dyestuffs
a large variety of fast colours. The wool is boiled for I to 15 hours
in a solution containing 2 to 3 % bichromate of potash on the weight
of the wool employed. During this operation the wool at first
attracts chromic acid, which is gradually reduced to chromium
chromate, so that the mordanted fibre has finally a pale olive-yellow
tint. In the dyebath, under the influence of a portion of the dyestuff,
further complete reduction to chromic hydrate occurs before it
combines with the colouring matter. Not unfrequently certain
so-called " assistants " are employed in small amount along with
the bichromate of potash e.g. sulphuric acid, cream of tartar,
tartaric acid, lactic acid, &c. The use of the organic acids here
mentioned ensures the complete reduction of the chromic acid on
the wool to chromic hydrate already in the mordant bath, and the
pale greenish mordanted wool is better adapted for dyeing with
colours which are susceptible to oxidation e.g. alizarin blue.
For special purposes chromium fluoride, chrome alum, &c., are em-
ployed. Alum or aluminium sulphate (8%), along with acid potas-
sium tartrate (cream of tartar) (7%), is used for brighter colours
e.g. reds, yellows, &c. The object of the tartar is to retard the
mordanting process and ensure the penetration of the wool by the
mordant, by preventing superficial precipitation through the action
of ammonia liberated from the wool; it ensures the ultimate pro-
duction of clear, bright, full colours. For still brighter colours,
notably yellow and red, stannous chloride was at one time largely
employed, now it is used less frequently; and the same may be said
of copper and ferrous sulphate, which were used for dark colours.
Silk may be often mordanted in the same manner as wool, but as a
rule it is treated like cotton. The silk is steeped for several hours in
cold neutral or basic solutions of chromium chloride, alum, ferric
sulphate, &c., then rinsed in water slightly, and passed into a cold
dilute solution of silicate of soda, in order to fix the mordants on
the fibre as insoluble silicates. Cotton does not, like wool and silk,
possess the property of decomposing metallic salts, hence the
methods of mordanting this fibre are more complex, and vary
according to the metallic salts and colouring matters employed,
as well as the particular effects to be obtained. One method is to
impregnate the cotton with a solution of so-called " sulphated oil "
or " Turkey-red oil "; the oil-prepared material is then dried and
passed into a cold solution of some metallic salt e.g. aluminium
acetate, basic chromium chloride, &c. The mordant is thus fixed
on the fibre as a metallic oleate, and after a passage through water
containing a little chalk or silicate of soda to remove acidity, and
a final rinsing, the cotton is ready for dyeing. Another method of
mordanting cotton is to fix the metallic salt on the fibre as a tannate
instead of an oleate. This is effected by first steeping the cotton in
a cold solution of tannic acid or in a cold decoction of some tannin
matter, e.g. sumach, in which operation the cotton attracts a consider-
able amount of tannic acid; after squeezing, the material is steeped
for an hour or more in a solution of the metallic salt, and finally
washed. The mordants employed in this case are various e.g.
basic aluminium or ferric sulphate, basic chromium chloride, stannic
chloride (cotton spirits), &c. There are other methods of mordanting
cotton besides those mentioned, but the main object in all cases is
to fix an insoluble metallic compound on the fibre. It is interesting
to note that whether the metallic oxide is united with the substance
of the fibre, as in the case of wool and silk, or precipitated as a
tannate, oleate, silicate, &c., as in the case of cotton or silk, it still
has the power of combining with the colouring matter in the dyebath
to form the coloured " lake " or dye on the material.
The dyeing operation consists in working the mordanted material
in a solution of the necessary colouring matter, the dyebath being
gradually raised to the boiling point. With many colouring matters,
e.g. with alizarin, it is necessary to add a small percentage of calcium
acetate to the dyebath, and also acetic acid if wool is being dyed.
In wool-dyeing, also, the mordanting operation may follow that of
dyeing instead of preceding it, in which case the boiling of the wool
with dyestuff is termed " stuffing," and the subsequent developing
of the colour by applying the mordant is termed " saddening,'
because this method has in the past been usually carried out with
iron and copper mordants, which give dull or sad colours. The
method of " stuffing and saddening may, however, be carried out
with other mordants, even for the production of bright colours,
and it is now frequently employed with certain alizarin dyestuffs
DYEING
749
for the production of pale shades which require to be very even and
regular in colour. There is still another method of applying Mordant
Colours in wool-dyeing, in which the dyestuff and the mordant are
applied simultaneously from the beginning; it is known as the
" single-bath method. It is only successful, however, in the case
of certain colouring matters and mordants, to some of which reference
will be made in the following paragraphs.
The Natural Mordant Colours. It is interesting to note that
nearly all the natural or vegetable dyestuffs employed belong to
the class of Mordant Colours, the most important of these being
included in the following list: Madder, Cochineal, Peachwood,
Sapanwood, Limawood, Camwood, Barwood, Sanderswood, Old Fustic,
Young Fustic, Quercitron Bark, Persian Berries, Weld, Logwood.
Madder consists of the dried ground roots of Rubia tinctorum,
a plant of Indian origin. Formerly cultivated largely in France
and Holland, it was long one of the most important dyestuffs em-
ployed, chiefly in the production of Turkey-red and in calico-
printing, also in wool-dyeing. With the different mordants it
yields very distinct colours, all fast to light and soap, namely,
red with aluminium, orange with tin, reddish brown with chromium,
purple and black with iron. Madder contains two closely allied
colouring matters, namely, alizarin and purpurin. The former,
which is by far the more important, is now prepared artificially from
the coal-tar product anthracene, and has almost entirely superseded
madder.
Cochineal is the dried scale-insect Coccus cacti, which lives on
certain of the cactus plants of Mexico and elsewhere. The rearing
of cochineal was once a large and important industry, and although
still pursued, it has seriously declined, in consequence of the dis-
covery of the azo scarlets derived from coal-tar. The colouring
matter of cochineal, carminic acid, is believed by chemists to be a
derivative of naphthalene, but its artificial production has not yet
been accomplished. Cochineal dyes a purple colour with chromium
mordant, crimson with aluminium, scarlet with tin, and grey or
slate with iron. Its chief employment is for the purpose of dyeing
crimson, and more especially scarlet, on wool. Crimson is dyed
by mordanting the wool with alum and tartar and dyeing in a
separate bath with ground cochineal. Scarlet on wool is obtained
by the single-bath method, namely, by dyeing the wool with a
mixture of stannous chloride (or nitrate of tin), oxalic acid, and
cochineal. It is usual to add also a small amount of the yellow
dyestuff flavine in order to obtain a yellower shade of scarlet.
The cochineal colours are very fast to light, but somewhat susceptible
to the action of alkalis.
Peachwood, Sapanwood and Limawood are usually referred to
as the " soluble red-woods," because of the solubility in water of
the colouring principle they contain. They consist of the ground
wood of various species of Caesalpinia found in Central America,
the East Indies and Peru. They all yield more or less similar colours
with the different mordants claret-brown with chromium, red with
aluminium, bright red with tin, dark slate with iron. Owing to the
fugitive character of all the colours to light, these dyewoods are
now comparatively little employed in dyeing.
Camwood, Barwood and Sanderswood represent the so-called
" insoluble red-woods," their colouring principles being sparingly
soluble even in boiling water. They are obtained from certain
species of Pterocarpus and Baphia, large trees growing in the interior
of West Africa. Their general dyeing properties are similar, a
claret-brown being obtained with chromium mordant, a brownish
red with aluminium, a brighter red with tin, and purplish brown
with iron. Their chief employment is in wool-dyeing, for the pro-
duction of various shades of brown, being best applied by the
"stuffing and saddening" method above described; but since
the colours are fugitive to light, they are now very largely replaced
by alizarin. A brown on wool is obtained by first boiling for one
to two hours in a decoction of the ground wood (50%), and then
boiling in a separate bath in solution of bichromate of potash (2 %)
for half an hour. These dye-woods are also employed by the indigo-
dyer, in order to give a brownish ground colour to the wool previous
to dyeing in the indigo vat, and thus obtain a deeper, fuller blue.
The colouring matters contained in these dyewoods have not been
exhaustively examined.
Fustic is a yellow dyestuff, and consists of the wood of the dyer's
mulberry tree, Morus tinctoria, which grows in Cuba, Jamaica, &c.
It is still an important and largely used dyestuff, being cheap, and
the colours obtained from it being satisfactorily fast to light and
other influences. With chromium mordant it yields an olive-yellow
or " old-gold " shade; with aluminium, yellow; with tin, a brighter
yellow; with iron, an olive-green. It is chiefly employed in wool-
dyeing along with other dyestuffs, and furnishes the yellow in com-
pound shades. Two colouring principles exist in Old Fustic, namely,
morin and maclurin, the former being the most important, and
generally regarded as the true colouring matter.
Quercitron Bark consists of the inner bark of an oak-tree,
Ouercus tinctoria, which grows in the North American States. It
dyes somewhat like Old Fustic, but gives with aluminium and
tin mordants brighter yellows, for which colours it is chiefly used.
The colouring principle of Quercitron Bark is called quercitrin,
which by the action of boiling mineral acid solutions is decomposed,
with the production of the true colouring matter termed quercetin.
So-called Flavine is a commercial preparation of Quercitron
Bark consisting of quercitrin or of quercetin; it is much used by
wool-dyers for the production of bright yellow and orange colours.
Wool is dyed in single bath by boiling with a mixture of Flavine
(8%), stannous chloride (4%) and oxalic acid (2%). Flavine is
used in small quantity along with cochineal for dyeing scarlet on
wool.
Persian Berries are the dried unripe fruit of various species
of Rhamnus growing in the Levant. The general dyeing properties
are similar to those of Quercitron Bark, the orange colour given with
tin mordant being particularly brilliant. The high price of this
dyestuff causes its employment to be somewhat limited. The colour-
ing matter of Persian Berries is called xanthorhamnin, which
by the action of fermentation and acids yields the true dyestuff
rhamnetin.
Weld is the dried plant Reseda luteola, a species of wild mignonette,
formerly largely cultivated in Europe. Its dyeing properties re-
semble those of Quercitron Bark, but the yellows with aluminium
and 1 tin mordants are much brighter and purer, and also faster to
light. It is still used to a limited extent for dyeing a bright yellow
on woollen cloth and braid for the decoration of military uniforms.
Quite recently the colouring matter of Weld, namely, luteolin, has
been prepared artificially, but the process is too expensive to be of
practical use.
Logwood is the heart-wood of Haematoxylon campechianum, a
tree growing in Central America. It is the most important natural
dyewood at present employed, being largely used for dyeing dark
blues and black on silk, wool and cotton. With chromium and
aluminium mordants logwood dyes a dark blue, and even black;
with tin, a dark purple; and with iron, black. The colours are only
moderately fast to light. On wool the mordant is bichromate of
potash; on cotton and silk an iron mordant is employed. Before
use by the dyer the logwood is ground and aged or oxidized, by
allowing moistened heaps of the ground wood to ferment slightly,
and by frequently turning it over to expose it freely to the air. By
this means the colouring principle haematoxylin which logwood
contains is changed into the true colouring matter haematei'n. The
constitution of this colouring matter has been recently discovered;
it is very closely allied to the brazilin of peachwood, sapanwood
and limawood, and is also a member of the -y-pyrone group of
colouring matters.
The importance of the above-mentioned natural dyestuffs is
gradually diminishing in favour of mordant dyestuffs and others
derived from coal-tar. Fustic and logwood are perhaps the most
largely used, and may continue to be employed for many years,
no satisfactory artificial substitutes having hitherto come into the
market.
The Artificial Mordant Colours are well represented by alizarin,
the colouring matter of the madder root, which was the first
natural dyestuff prepared artificially from the coal-tar product
anthracene (1868). For this reason many of these colours are
frequently referred to as the Alizarin Colours. At the present
time, however, there are numerous Mordant Colours which are
prepared from other initial materials than anthracene; they are
not chemically related to alizarin, and for these the term Alizarin
Colours is therefore inappropriate. The property, which Mordant
Colours possess in common, of combining with metals and pro-
ducing lakes, which readily adhere to the fibre, depends upon their
chemical constitution, more particularly upon the general and
relative position in the molecule of c;rtain side atomic groups.
In alizarin there are, for example, two characteristic hydroxyl
groups (OH) occupying a special (ortho) position in the molecule,
i.e. they are next to each other, and also next to one of the so-
called ketone groups (C : O). In other Mordant Colours there
are carboxyl (COOH) as well as hydroxyl groups, which are all-
important in this respect. In addition to this, the general dyeing
property is influenced by the constitution of the molecule itself,
and by the presence of other side-groups, e.g. NH 2 , HSOs, &c.,
which modify the colour as to solubility or hue. Hence it is that
the members of this group, while possessing the mordant-dyeing
property in common, differ materially in other points. Some,
like alizarin, are not in themselves to be regarded as colouring
matters, but rather as colouring principles, because they only
yield useful dyes in combination with metallic oxides. According
to their constitution, these may yield one or many colours with the
various metallic oxides employed, and they are used for cotton as
well as for wool and silk. Other Mordant Colours, e.g. many of the
Direct Colours and others, are capable of dyeing either the vegetable
or animal fibres without the aid Jof a mordant ; they are fully
developed colouring matters in themselves, and possess the mordant-
dyeing property as an additional feature, in consequence of the
details of their chemical constitution, to which reference has been
made in the foregoing paragraphs. As a rule these yield, at most,
various shades of one colour with the different oxides, and are only
suitable for the animaj fibres, particularly wool.
In the following list, the most important artificial Mordant
Colours are arranged according to the colour they give in con-
junction with the aluminium mordant, unless otherwise indicated.
Some of those named here dye the animal fibres, even without
mordants; some are Direct Colours possessing mordant-dyeing
750
DYEING
properties, others are sulphonic acid derivatives of Alizarin Colours,
suitable for wool but not for cotton.
Red. Alizarin, anthrapurpurin, flavopurpurin, purpurin,
alizarin Bordeaux, alizarin garnet R, alizarin maroon, alizarin S,
cloth red, diamine fast red, anthracene red, chrome red, chrome
Bordeaux, salicine red, erio chrome red, emin red, milling red.
Orange and Yellow. Alizarin orange, alizarin orange G, alizarin
yellow paste, alizarin yellow A, alizarin yellow C, anthracene
yellow, galloflavin, alizarin yellow GG, alizarin yellow R, diamond
flavin G, chrome yellow D, Crumpsall yellow, fast yellow, diamond
yellow, benzo orange R, cloth orange, carbazol yellow, chrysamine,
milling orange.
Green. Coerulein, coerulein S, alizarin green S, fast green (Fe),
naphthol green (Fe), Dioxin (Fe), Gambine (Fe), azo green, gal la nil
green, alizarin green G and B, acid alizarin green, alizarin cyanine
green, alizarin viridine, diamond green, chrome green, Domingo green.
Blue. Alizarin blue, alizarin blue S, alizarin cyanine, anthracene
blue, brilliant alizarin blue, alizarin indigo blue S, gallanilic indigo,
acid alizarin blue, brilliant alizarin cyanine, alizarin grisole, alizarin
sky blue, alizarin saphirole, gallanilide blue, delphine blue, gallamine
blue, celestine blue, chrome blue, gallazine A, phenocyanine, coreine.
Purple and Violet. Gallein, alizarin heliotrope, anthraquinone
violet, chrome prime, gallocyanine, chrome violet, anthracene
chrome violet.
Brown. Anthracene brown, chromogen, cloth brown, diamond
brown, alizarin brown, fast brown, alizarin acid brown, chrome
brown, palatine chrome brown, erio chrome brown.
Black. Alizarin black, diamond black, alizarin blue black,
alizarin cyanine black, alizarin fast grey, chromotrppe, chrome
black, erio chrome black, anthracite black, acid alizarin black,
anthracene chrome black.
A brief description of the application of a few of the more im-
portant of the above colouring matters will suffice.
Alizarin, Anthrapurpurin and Flavopurpurin give somewhat
similar shades with the different mordants, namely, brown with
chromium, red with aluminium, orange with tin, and purple with
iron.
In wool-dyeing they are applied along with other Mordant Colours
on chromium mordant for the production of a large variety of
compound shades, browns, drabs, greys, &c., the presence of acetic
acid in the dyebath being advantageous. When alum and tartar
mordant is employed, for the production of reds, it is necessary to
add a small amount (4 %) of calcium acetate to the dyebath, in order
to neutralize the strong acidity of the mordanted wool, and to furnish
the calcium of the colour-lake fixed upon the fibre, which is regarded
as an aluminium-calcium compound of the colouring matter.
In coMon-dyeing the above colouring matters are chiefly used for
the production of so-called Turkey-red, a colour remarkable for its
brilliancy and its fastness to light and soap. These properties are
due to the preparation of the cotton with oil, in addition to the
ordinary mordanting and dyeing, whereby there is fixed on the
fibre a permanent and stable lake, in which aluminium and calcium
are combined with alizarin and some form of fatty oxy-acid. In
the older processes employed, the preparation of the cotton with
oil was effected by passing the material several times through
emulsions of olive oil and potassium carbonate solution; at a
later date, and even now in the case of cloth, the cotton is first
impregnated with hot oil (Steiner's process), then passed through
solutions of alkali carbonate. After the preparation with oil or
oil-emulsions, the cotton is " stoved," i.e. heated for several hours
in special chambers or stoves to a temperature of about 70 C.,
during which operation the oil is decomposed and oxidized and
becomes indelibly attached to the fibre. The oil-prepared cotton
is steeped in cold solutions of basic aluminium sulphate or acetate,
washed, dyed with alizarin, and finally boiled for several hours
with soap solution under pressure in order to brighten the colour.
In the more recent and much more expeditious " sulphated-oil
process," castor oil is employed instead of olive oil, and before use
it is submitted to a treatment with sulphuric acid, the sulphated oil
thus obtained being finally more or less neutralized with alkali.
The cotton is impregnated with this sulphated-oil solution, dried,
mordanted with aluminium acetate, dyed, dried, steamed and
soaped. The operation of steaming plays an important part in
brightening and fixing the colour-lake on the fibre. In these and
all other Turkey-red processes, the oil, probably in the form of a
fatty oxy-acid, acts as a fixing agent for the aluminium and enters
into the composition of the red lake, imparting to it both brilliancy
and permanency.
Alizarin 5 is a sulphonic acid derivative of alizarin, and since
it is much more soluble, it readily yields levej colours. Silk is
dyed in a similar manner to wool, the fibre being mordanted by
the ordinary methods and then dyed in a separate bath.
Diamine Fast Red is applied to cotton as a Direct Colour, with
the addition of soda or soap to the dyebath. By treating the dyed
colour with a solution of fluoride of chromium, its fastness to wash-
ing is materially increased. Wool is dyed in a similar manner, sodium
sulphate being added to the dyebath, and the dyed colour treated
with fluoride of chromium or bichromate of potash. On wool, the
colour is so extremely fast to light and to milling that it may well
serve as a substitute for alizarin.
Alizarin Orange is employed in the same manner as alizarin.
In wool-dyeing it is usually applied on chromium mordant for
browns and a variety of compound shades in combination with
other Alizarin Colours and dyewood extracts, less frequently on
aluminium mordant.
Galloflavin is used in wool and silk dyeing on chromium mordant
as a substitute for fustic and other yellow dyewoods, to furnish
the yellow part of compound shades.
The alizarin yellows, R and GG, anthracene yellow, diamond
flavine, chrome yellow, diamond yellow, carbazol yellow, chry-
samine, &c., are Direct Colours with mordant-dyeing properties.
They also serve as substitutes for fustic in wool or silk dyeing, and
are dyed either on a chromium mordant, or first in an acid bath
and afterwards saddened with bichromate of potash.
Coerulein is employed in dyeing wool, silk or cotton with
aluminium or chromium mordants, either as a self-colour or for
compound shades. With aluminium mordant the colour is a
moderately bright green, more particularly on silk ; with chromium
mordant, an olive-green. Coerulei'n S is the more soluble bisulphite
compound of the ordinary coerulei'n. It is applied in the same
manner, care being taken, however, to dye for some time (one
hour) at a temperature not exceeding 60 C. until the bath is nearly
exhausted, and then only raising the temperature to the boiling
point. Without this precaution coerulein S is decomposed, and the
ordinary insoluble coerulein is precipitated. The colours obtained
are very fast to light.
Fast Green, Dioxine and Gambine are chiefly of use in calico-
printing and in wool-dyeing. With iron mordant they yield olive-
greens, which on wool are extremely fast to light. Cotton is im-
pregnated with ferrous acetate, dried, aged and fixed with silicate
of soda, then dyed in a neutral bath. Wool is mordanted with
ferrous sulphate and tartar (3% of each) and dyed in a neutral
bath.
Acid Alizarin Green, Alizarin Cyanine Green and Diamond Green
all dye wool direct in a bath acidified with acetic or sulphuric acid,
and the dyed colour may be afterwards fixed or saddened with
bichromate of potash, or they may be dyed on chromium-mordanted
wool. The first method is very useful for pale shades, since the
colours are very level or regular.
Alizarin Blue is a dark blue dyestuff which, owing to the fastness
of the colours it yields, has for many years been regarded as a worthy
substitute for indigo in wool-dyeing. It is applied in the same
manner as alizarin, the chromium mordant being alone employed.
Alizarin blue S is the soluble sodium bisulphite compound of alizarin
blue; it corresponds, therefore, to the above-mentioned coerulei'n S,
and in its application the same precautions as to the temperature
of the dyebath are necessary. The fastness of the dyed colours to
light, milling and acid satisfy the highest requirements.
Alizarin Cyanine, Anthracene Blue and Brilliant Alizarin Blue
were discovered later than the above-mentioned alizarin blues,
and, owing to their greater solubility and other advantages, they
have largely replaced them as substitutes for indigo. They are
dyed on chromium-mordanted wool, silk or cotton, and yield dark
purplish or greenish blues, according to the particular brand em-
ployed. The fastness of the dyed colours to light, and general
durability, are very satisfactory, but in fastness to milling and acids
they are to some extent inferior to alizarin blue.
Celestine Blue and Chrome Blue dye purplish blue and bright
blue respectively, and are dyed in the ordinary way upon a chromium
mordant. The colours they yield are inferior to the Alizarin Colours
in fastness to light, but on account of their clear shades they are often
used for brightening other colours.
Brilliant Alizarin Cyanine, Alizarin Viridine and Alizarin
Saphirole are true Alizarin Colours, and possess the same fastness
to light as other colours of this class. Unlike most of the Alizarin
Colours, they are capable of dyeing wool satisfactorily without the
aid of a metallic mordant namely, with the addition of sulphuric
acid to the dyebath, in the same manner as the Acid Colours. If
necessary, the dyed colours may be treated with bichromate of
potash. The colours thus produced are very fast to light and very
level, hence these dyestuffs are valuable in the production of the
most delicate compound shades, such as drabs, slates, greys, &c.,
which are desired to be fast to light. Alizarin saphirole dyes clear
blue, the colour produced being much more brilliant even than those
of brilliant alizarin cyanine.
Gallein, Gallocyanine, and especially Chrome Violet, dye some-
what bright purple shades, and are hence frequently employed
for brightening other colours, but they are only moderately fast to
light. They are applied in the usual manner, on a chromium
mordant.
Anthracene 'Brown is largely employed in the production of
compound shades. It dyes a dark, somewhat reddish, brown on
chromium mordant, the colour being very even and extremely fast
to light.
Alizarin Black is dyed on chromium mordant in the same
manner as alizarin, and is used as a self-colour or in combination
with other Alizarin Colours.
Diamond Black is very useful for dyeing good blacks on wool,
fast to light and acids. The wool is first dyed with the addition of
acetic and finally sulphuric acid. When the dyebath is exhausted.
DYEING
bichromate of potash (2%) is added, and boiling is continued for
half an hour longer.
The erio chrome colours (black, brown, red, &c.) are applied in
wool dyeing like diamond black.
Chromotrope, of which there are several brands, is an Acid Colour
which is applied to wool in an acid bath in the usual manner. The
red or purple colours thus obtained are saddened in the same bath
with bichromate of potash and changed into black, the colouring
matter being oxidized and simultaneously combined with chromium.
MiscELLANEOUsCoLOURS. Under thishead there may be arranged
a few dyestuffs which, although capable of inclusion under one or
other of the foregoing groups, it is more convenient to treat of
separately. Indigo, Aniline Black and Catechu, for example,
might be placed in the class of Developed Colours, since they are
all developed on the fibre, and indeed by the same method, namely,
by oxidation.
Indigo is one of our most important blue dyestuffs, which has
been employed from the earliest times. Indigo, being insoluble in
water, would be of no use in dyeing if it were not capable of being
rendered soluble. This is effected in two ways, corresponding to
which there are two methods of dyeing with indigo. One method
consists in dissolving the indigo in very strong sulphuric acid, where-
by it is converted into indigotin-disulphonic acid (Indigo Extract),
which is readily soluble in water. This substance belongs to the
group of Acid Colours; hence it is applied to the animal fibres,
wool and silk, by boiling in a solution of the colouring matter slightly
acidified with sulphuric acid. The second and most important
method is based on the fact that under the influence of reducing
agents (i.e. substances capable of yielding nascent hydrogen) indigo
blue is changed into indigo white, which is soluble in alkali, the
solution thus obtained being called a " vat." If textile materials
are steeped in a clear yellow solution of the reduced indigo and then
exposed to air, the indigo white absorbed by the fibre is oxidized
and reconverted into indigo blue within and upon the fibre, which
thus becomes dyed blue; this is the so-called " indigo-vat " method
of dyeing. Comparing the two methods, the " indigo-extract "
method is only applicable to the animal fibres, and although it
gives brighter colours, they are fugitive to light and are decolourized
by washing with alkaline solutions; the " vat method " is applicable
to all fibres, and gives somewhat dull blues, which are very fast to
light, washing, &c.
Cotton is dyed by means of the " lime and copperas vat," the
" zinc powder vat," or the " hydrosulphite vat." In the first-men-
tioned vat the ingredients are quicklime, ferrous sulphate and
finely ground indigo; the lime decomposes the ferrous sulphate
and precipitates ferrous hydrate; this quickly reduces the indigo
to indigo white, which dissolves in the excess of lime present. The
ingredients of the zinc powder vat are zinc powder, lime and indigo;
in the presence of the lime and indigo the zinc takes up oxygen from
the water, liberating the hydrogen necessary to reduce the indigo,
as in the previous vat. The constituents of the hydrosulphite vat
are hydrosulphite of soda, lime and indigo. The requisite hydro-
sulphite of soda is prepared by allowing zinc powder (13 ft) to act
upon a cold concentrated solution of bisulphite of soda (17 gallons
of sp. gr. i -225), taking care to avoid, as much as possible, access of
air and any heating of the mixture, to prevent decomposition. The
solution thus obtained is thoroughly neutralized by the addition of
lime; and after settling, the clear liquor is used for the vat, along
with indigo and lime. Here again the hydrosulphite takes up oxygen
from the water and liberates the necessary hydrogen. It is found
convenient to prepare, in the first instance, a very concentrated
standard of reduced indigo, and to add as much of this to the dye-vat
as may be required, along with lime and a little hyposulphite of soda.
The advantages of this vat are that it is easily prepared and that
there is very little sediment; moreover, it can be employed in
dyeing wool, as well as cotton, and it is now very generally in use.
The vat usually employed for dyeing wool is the so-called " woad
vat," which differs from the foregoing in that the hydrogen necessary
to reduce the indigo and bring it into solution is furnished, not by the
action of chemical agents, but by means of fermentation. The
ingredients of the woad vat are indigo, woad, bran, madder and
lime. The woad here employed is prepared by grinding the leaves
of the woad plant (Isatis tinctoria) to a paste, which is allowed to
ferment and then partially dried. It serves as the ferment to
excite lactic and butyric fermentation with the aid of the bran
and madder, the necessary hydrogen being thus evolved. Exces-
sive fermentation is avoided by making timely additions of lime;
sluggish fermentation is accelerated by additions of bran and
slightly raising the temperature. When the reduction and com-
plete solution of the indigo is effected, the vat is allowed to settle,
and the woollen material is immersed and moved about in the
clear liquor for half an hour to two hours, according to the shade
required, then squeezed and exposed to the air in order to develop
the blue colour on the fibre.
Thioindigo red is an artificial colouring matter belonging to the
indigo series and comes into the market in the form of a paste.
It is used in dyeing in exactly the same way as indigo, yielding
shades which range from a somewhat dull pink to a full claret shade
of red. The colours obtained are remarkable for their fastness.
Indanthrene. This colouring matter, which is also sold as a paste,
is an anthracene derivative, being formed by the action of caustic
potash on 0-amidoanthraquinone. It is reduced by hydrosulphite
of soda yielding a blue vat, in which cotton and other vegetable
fibres are dyed in the same way as in the indigo vat. Since a fair
amount of caustic soda is necessary for the setting of the vat, the
dyestuff is not suitable for animal fibres. Indanthrene yields on
cotton reddish shades of blue which are extremely fast to all external
influences; in fact the colour is so fast that when once fixed on
cotton it cannot be removed again from the fibre by any known
means.
Other vat colours belonging to this series, which are similarly
applied, are flavanthrene (yellow), viridanthrene (green), fuscan-
threne (grey-brown), violanthrene (dull violet) and melanthrene
(grey to black). The algol colours resemble the indanthrene colours
in their properties and application.
Aniline Black differs from other dyes in that it is not sold as a
ready-made dyestuff, but is produced in situ upon the fibre by
the oxidation of aniline. It is chiefly used for cotton, also for
silk and cotton-silk union fabrics, but seldom or not at all for wool.
Properly applied, this colour is one of the most permanent to light
and other influences with which we are acquainted. One method
of dyeing cotton is to work the material for about two hours in a
cold solution containing aniline (10 parts), hydrochloric acid (20
parts), bichromate of potash (20 parts), sulphuric acid (20 parts),
and ferrous sulphate (10 parts). The ferrous sulphate here em-
ployed is oxidized by the chromic acid to a ferric salt, which serves
as a carrier of oxygen to the aniline. This method of dyeing is
easily carried out, and it gives a good black; but since much of
the colouring matter is precipitated on the fibre superficially as
well as in the bath itself, the colour has the defect of rubbing off.
Another method is to impregnate the cotton with a solution con-
taining aniline hydrochloride (35 parts), neutralized with addition
of a little aniline oil, sodium chlorate (10 parts), ammonium chloride
(10 parts). Another mixture is 1.8 part aniline salt, 12 parts potas-
sium ferrocyanide, 200 parts water, 3-5 parts potassium chlorate
dissolved in water. After squeezing, the material is passed through
a special oxidation chamber, the air of which is heated to about
50 C. and also supplied with moisture. This oxidizing or ageing
is continuous, the material passing into the chamber at one end
in a colourless condition, and after about 20 minutes passing out
again with the black fully developed, a final treatment with hot
chromic acid solution and soaping being necessary to complete the
process. In this method, employing the first-mentioned solution,
chlorate of copper is formed, and this being a very unstable com-
pound, readily decomposes, and the aniline is oxidized by the
liberated chlor-oxygen compounds. The presence in the mixture
of a metallic salt is very important in aiding the development of
the black, and for this purpose salts of vanadium, cerium and copper
have proved to be specially useful. The chemistry of aniline black
is still incomplete, but it would appear that there are several oxida-
tion products of aniline. The first product is so-called emeraldine,
a dark green substance of the nature of a salt, which by treatment
with alkali yields a dark blue base called azurine. The further
oxidation of emeraldine yields nigraniline, also a dark green salt,
but the free base of which has a violet black colour. The latter
becomes greenish under the influence of acids, especially sulphuric
acid, and this explains the defect known as " greening " which is
developed in ordinary aniline blacks during exposure to air. By
a supplementary oxidation with chromic acid such a black is rendered
ungreenable, the nigraniline being probably changed into the more
stable chromate of nigraniline.
Catechu is a valuable brown dyestuff, obtained from various
species of Acacia, Areca and Uncaria growing in India. The wood,
leaves and fruit of these plants are extracted with boiling water;
the decoction is then evaporated to dryness or to a pasty consistency.
Catechu is largely used by the cotton dyer for the production of
brown, drab and similar colours. It is seldom employed for wool.
Cotton is usually dyed by boiling it for about one hour in a de-
coction of catechu (100%) containing copper sulphate (5%). After
squeezing, the'material is boiled for about fifteen minutes in a solution
of bichromate of potash (J oz. per gal.), then washed and dried.
By repeating the operations two or three times deeper shades are
obtained. During the boiling with catechu the cotton attracts the
active principles catechin and catechu-tannic acid, but it thus
acquires only a pale brown colour; in the bichromate of potash,
however, these are oxidized to form insoluble japonic acid, which
permeates the fibre, and a deep brown colour is thus developed.
Catechu browns are fast to a variety of influences, e.g. washing,
alkalis, acids, &c., but less so to light. Catechu has been recently
much employed, in conjunction with copper sulphate, for dyeing
the so-called khaki-brown on woollen material for military clothing.
On silk, catechu is much used for weighting purposes in dyeing black.
MINERAL COLOURS. Those include Chrome Yellow, Iron Buff,
Prussian Blue and Manganese Brown.
Chrome Yellow is only useful in cotton-dyeing as a self-colour,
or for conversion into chrome orange, or, in conjunction with
indigo, for the production of fast green colours. The cotton is first
impregnated with a solution of lead acetate or nitrate, squeezed,
and then passed through a solution of sodium sulphate or lime
water to fix the lead on the fibre as sulphate or oxide of lead. The
752
DYEING
material is then passed through a solution of bichromate of potash.
The colour is changed to a rich orange by a short, rapid passage
through boiling milk of lime, and at once washing with water, a basic
chromate of lead being thus produced. The colour is fast to light,
but has the defect of being blackened by sulphuretted hydrogen.
Iron Buff is produced by impregnating the cotton with a solution
of ferrous sulphate, squeezing, passing into sodium hydrate or
carbonate solution, and finally exposing to air, or passing through
a dilute solution of bleaching powder. The colour obtained, which
is virtually oxide of iron, or iron-rust, is fast to light and washing,
but is readily removed by acids.
Prussian Blue is applicable to wool, cotton and silk, but since
the introduction of coal-tar blues its employment has been very
much restricted. The colour is obtained on cotton by first dyeing
an iron buff, according to the method just described, and then
passing the dyed cotton into an acidified solution of potassium
ferrocyanide, when the blue is at once developed. A similar method
is employed for silk. Wool is dyed by heating it in a solution con-
taining potassium ferricyanide and sulphuric acid. The colour is
developed gradually as the temperature rises; it may be rendered
brighter by the addition of stannous chloride. On wool and silk
Prussian blue is very fast to light, but alkalis turn it brown (ferric
oxide).
Manganese brown or bronze is applied in wool, silk and cotton
dyeing. The animal fibres are readily dyed by boiling with a
solution of potassium permanganate, which, being at first absorbed
by the fibre, is readily reduced to insoluble brown manganic hydrate.
Since caustic potash is generated from the permanganate and is
liable to act detrimentally on the fibre, it is advisable to add some
magnesium sulphate to the permanganate bath in order to counter-
act this effect. Imitation furs are dyed in this manner on wool-
plush, the tips or other parts of the fibres being bleached by the
application of sulphurous acid. Cotton is dyed by first impregnating
jt with a solution of manganous chloride, then dyeing and passing
into a hot solution of caustic soda. There is thus precipitated on
the fibre manganous hydrate, which by a short passage into a cold
dilute solution of bleaching powder is oxidized and converted into
the brown manganic hydrate. This manganese bronze or brown
colour is very susceptible to, and readily bleached by, reducing
agents; hence when exposed to the action of an atmosphere in
which gas is freely burnt, the colour is liable to be discharged,
especially where the fabric "is most exposed. In other respects
manganese bronze is a very fast colour.
Dyeing on a large Scale. It is not possible to give here more
than a bare outline of the methods which are used on the large
scale for dyeing textile fibres, yarns and fabrics. In principle,
dyeing is effected by allowing an aqueous 1 solution of the dye-
stuff, with or without additions (alkalis, acids, salts, &c.), to act,
usually at an elevated temperature, on the material to be dyed.
During the process it is necessary, in order to ensure the uniform
distribution of the dyestuff in the material, that the latter should
either be moved more or less continuously in the dye liquor or
that the dye liquor should be circulated through the material.
The former mode of operation is in general use for hank, warp
and piece dyeing, but for textile fibres in the loose condition
or in the form of " slubbing," " sliver " or " cops " (see SPINNING)
the latter method has, in consequence of the introduction of
improved machinery, come more and more into vogue within
recent years.
Loose Material. Cotton and wool are frequently dyed in the
loose state, i.e. before being subjected to any mechanical treat-
ment. The simplest method of effecting this is to treat the
material in open vessels (boilers) which can be heated either by
means of steam or direct fire. Since, however, a certain amount
of felting or matting of the fibres cannot be avoided, it is fre-
quently found to be more advantageous to effect these treatments
in specially constructed apparatus in which the dye liquors are
circulated through the material.
Yarn. Yarn may be dyed either in the hank, in the warp or in
the cop, i.e. in the form in which the yarn leaves the spinning
frame. The dyeing in the hank is carried out in rectangular
dye-vats constructed of wood or stone like that shown in fig. i ,
in which the hanks are suspended from smooth wooden poles
or rods resting on the sides, and are thus immersed almost entirely
in the dye liquor. The heating of the vat is effected either by
means of live steam, i.e. by blowing steam into the dye solution
from a perforated pipe which runs along the bottom of the vat,
1 The term " dry dyeing," which is carried out only to a very
limited extent, relates to the dyeing of fabrics with the dyestuff
dissolved in liquids other than water, e.g. benzene, alcohol, &c.
or by means of a steam coil similarly situated. In order to expose
the hanks as uniformly as possible to the action of the dye liquor
they are turned by hand at regular intervals until the operation
is finished. Washing off is effected in the same or in a similar
vessel, after which excess of water is removed by wringing by
hand, through squeezing rollers or, what is generally preferred,
in a hydro-extractor (centrifugal machine). The drying of the
dyed and washed yarn is generally effected by suspending it
FIG. i. Dye- vat for Yarn.
on poles in steam-heated drying chambers. Yarn in the warp
is dyed in vats or " boxes " like that shown in fig. 2, through
which it is caused to pass continuously. The warps to be dyed
pass slowly up and down over the loose rollers in the first box B,
then through squeezing rollers S into the next, and the same
thing occurs in the second (also third and fourth in a four-box
machine) box A, whence they are delivered through a second
pair of squeezing rollers Si into the wagon W. The boxes may
contain the same or different liquors, according to the nature
of the dyestuff employed. Washing is done in the same machine,
while drying is effected on a cylinder drying machine like that
shown in figs. 8 and 9 of BLEACHING. Latterly, machines have
been introduced for dyeing warps on the beam, the dye liquor
being caused to circulate through the material, and the system
appears to be meeting with considerable success. Large quan-
tities of yarn, especially cotton, are now dyed in the cop.
When the dyed yarn is to be used as weft the main advantage
of this method is at once apparent, inasmuch as the labour,
time and waste of material incurred by reeling into hanks and then
winding back into the compact form so as to fit into the shuttle
are avoided. On the other hand the number of fast dyestuffs
suitable for cop dyeing is very limited. In the original cop-
dyeing machine constructed by Graemiger a thin tapering
perforated metallic tube is inserted in the hollow of each cop.
The cops are then attached to a perforated disk (which con-
FIG. 2.
stitutes the lid of a chamber or box) by inserting the protruding
ends of the tubes into the perforations. The chamber is now
immersed in the dye-bath and the hot b'quor is drawn through
the cops by means of a centrifugal pump and returned continu-
ously to the dye-bath. This principle, which is known as the
skewer or spindle system, is the one on which most modern cop-
dyeing machines are based. In the so-called " compact " system
of cop dyeing the cops are packed as closely as possible in a box,
the top and bottom (or the two opposite sides) of which are
DYEING
753
FIG. 3. Dye-jigger.
perforated, the interstices between the cops being filled up with
loose cotton, ground cork or sand. The dye liquor is then drawn
by suction or forced by pressure through the box, thus permeating
and dyeing the cops.
Pieces. Plain shades are usually dyed in the piece, this being
the most economical and at the same time the most expeditious
.means of obtaining the de-
'sired effect. The dyeing of
piece goods may be effected
by running them through the
dye liquor either at full
breadth or in rope form.
The machine in most com-
mon use for the first method
is the Lancashire " jigger,"
which is simple in principle
and is shown in section in
fig. 3. It consists essentially
of a dye-vessel constructed
of wood or cast iron and
containing loose guide rollers,
and r, at the top and
bottom. By coupling up the
roller B with the driving gear
the pieces which are batched
on A are drawn through the dye liquor and rolled on to B. A
band brake (not shown in the figure) applied to the axis of A gives
the pieces the required amount of tension in passing through
the dye-bath. As soon as the whole of the pieces have passed
through in this way from A to B, the machine is reversed, and
roller A draws them back again through the bath in a similar
way on to roller A. This alternating process goes on until the
dyeing is finished, when the goods are washed off, squeezed and
dried. The jigger is especially useful in cotton piece dyeing,
one great advantage being that it is suited for what is known
as a " short bath," i.e. a bath containing a minimum amount of
dye liquor, this being of great importance in the application of
dyestuffs which do not exhaust well, like the direct colours and
the sulphide colours. The padding machine is similar in principle
to the jigger, the pieces running over loose guide rollers through
the mordant or dye solution contained in a trough of suitable
shape and size, but on leaving the machine they pass through a
pair of squeezing rol-
lers which uniformly
express the excess of
liquor and cause it to
be returned to the
bath. The padding
machine is used more
for preparing (mor-
danting, &c.) than
for dyeing.
For the dyeing of
pieces in rope form
a so-called "dye-
b'eck " is used, which
is a machine of larger
dimensions than the
jigger. Across the
dye-bath is attached
a winch W (see fig. 4),
by means of which
the pieces, sewn to-
gether at the ends
so as to form an end-
FIG. 4.' Dye-vat for Piece Goods.
less band, are caused to circulate through the machine, being
drawn up on the front side of the machine and allowed to drop
back into the dye liquor on the other. This form of machine is
particularly suited for the mordanting and dyeing of heavy
goods. Washing off may be done in the same machine.
The drying of piece goods is done on steam-heated cylinders
like those used for the drying of bleached goods (see BLEACHING).
The operations which precede dyeing vary according to the
material to be dyed and the effects which it is desired to produce.
Loose wool, woollen and worsted yarn and piece goods of the
same material are almost invariably scoured (see BLEACHING)
before dyeing in order to remove the oily or greasy impurities
which would otherwise interfere with the penetration of the
dye solution. Silk is subjected to the process of discharging
or boiling off (see BLEACHING) in order to remove the silk gum
or sericine. Cotton which is to be dyed in dark shades does not
require any preparatory treatment, but for light or very bright
shades it is bleached before dyeing. Wool and silk are seldom
bleached before dyeing. Cotton, wool and union (cotton warp
and worsted weft) fabrics are frequently singed (see BLEACHING)
before dyeing. Worsted yarn, especially two-fold yarn, is very
liable to curl and become entangled when scoured, and in order
to avoid this it is necessary to stretch and " set " it. To this
end it is stretched tight on a specially constructed frame, placed
in boiling water, and then cooled. Similarly, union fabrics are
liable to " cockle " when wetted, and although this defect may
be put right in finishing, spots of water or raindrops will give
an uneven appearance of a permanent character to the goods.
To avoid this, the pieces are subjected previous to dyeing to the
so-called " crabbing " process, in which they are drawn under
great tension through boiling water and wound on to perforated
hollow cylinders. Steam is then blown through the goods and
they are allowed to cool.
With respect to the question of colour, we meet with two kinds
of substances in nature, those which possess colour and those
which do not. Why this difference? The physicist
says the former are bodies which reflect all the coloured
rays of the spectrum composing white light if opaque,
they appear white; if transparent, they are colourless. The
latter are bodies which absorb some of the spectrum rays only,
reflecting the remainder, and these together produce the impres-
sion of colour. A black substance is one which absorbs all the
spectrum rays. The fundamental reason, however, of this
difference of action on the part of substances towards light
remains still unknown. All substances which possess colour
are not necessarily dyestuffs, and the question may be again
asked, Why? It is a remarkable circumstance that most of
the dyestuffs at present employed occur among the so-called
aromatic or benzene compounds derived from coal-tar, and a
careful study of these has furnished a general explanation of
the point in question, which briefly is, that the dyeing property
of a substance depends upon its chemical constitution. Speaking
generally, those colouring matters which have the simplest
constitution are yellow, and as the molecular weight increases
their colour passes into orange, red, violet and blue. In recent
years chemists have begun to regard the constitution of nearly
all dyestuffs as similar to that of Quinone, and some even believe
that all coloured organic compounds have a quinonoid structure.
According to O. N. Witt, a colourless hydrocarbon, e.g. benzene,
becomes coloured by the introduction of one or more special
groups of atoms, which he terms the colour-bearing or chromo-
phorous groups, e.g. NO 2 , - N:N -, &c. Benzene, for example,
is colourless, whereas nitro-benzene and azo-benzene are yellow.
Such compounds containing chromophorous groups are termed
chromogens, because, although not dyestuffs themselves, they
are capable of generating such by the further introduction of
salt-forming atomic groups, e.g. OH, NH 2 . These Witt terms
auxochromous groups. In this way the chromogen tri-nilro-
benzene, C 6 H 3 (NO2)3, becomes the dyestuff Iri-nitro-phenol
(picric acid), CeHXNC^WOH), and the chromogen azo-benzene,
C 6 H 5 -N : N-CsHs, is changed into the dyestuff amido-azo-benzene
(Fast Yellow), C 6 H 5 -N : N-C 6 H 4 (NH 2 ). These two dyestuffs
are typical of a large number which possess either an acid or a
basic character according as they contain hydroxyl (OH) or
amido (NH 2 ) groups, and correspond to the Acid Colours and
Basic Colours to which reference has already been made. Other
important atomic groups which frequently occur, in addition
to the above,- are the carboxyl (COOH) and the sulphonic acid
(HSO 3 ) groups; these either increase the solubility of the
754
DYEING
colouring matter or assist in causing it to be attracted by the
fibre, &c. In many cases the free colour-acid or free colour-base
has little colour, this being only developed in the salt. The free
base rosaniline, for example, is colourless, whereas the salt
magenta (rosaniline hydrochloride) has a deep crimson colour
in solution. The free acid Alizarin is orange, while its alumina-
salt is bright red. It may be here stated that the scientific
classification of colouring matters into Nitro-colours, Azo-colours,
&c., already alluded to, is based on their chemical constitution,
or the chromophorous groups they contain, whereas the classifica-
tion according to their mode of application is dependent upon
the character and arrangement of the auxochromous groups.
The question of the mordant-dyeing property of certain colouring
matters containing (OH) and (COOH) groups has already been
explained under the head of Artificial Mordant Colours.
The peculiar property characteristic of dyestuffs, as distin-
guished from mere colouring matters, namely, that of being
readily attracted by the textile fibres, notably the animal fibres,
appears then to be due to their more or less marked acid or basic
character. Intimately connected with this is the fact that these
fibres also exhibit partly basic and partly acid characters, due
to the presence of carboxyl and amido groups. The behaviour
of magenta is typical of the Basic Colours. As already indicated,
rosaniline, the base of magenta, is colourless, and only becomes
coloured by its union with an acid, and yet wool and silk can be
as readily dyed with the colourless rosaniline (base) as with the
magenta (salt). The explanation is that the base rosaniline has
united with the fibre, which here plays the part of an acid, to
form a coloured salt. It has also been proved that in dyeing
the animal fibres with magenta (rosaniline hydrochloride),
the fibre unites with the rosaniline only, and liberates the hydro-
chloric acid. Further, magenta will not dye cotton unless the
fibre is previously prepared, e.g. with the mordant tannic acid,
with which the base rosaniline unites to form an insoluble salt.
In dyeing wool it is the fibre itself which acts as the mordant.
In the case of the Acid Colours the explanation is similar. In
many of these the free colour-acid has quite a different colour from
that of the alkali-salt, and yet on dyeing wool or silk with the free
colour-acid, the fibre exhibits the colour of the alkali-salt and
not of the colour-acid. In this case the fibre evidently plays the
part of a base. Another fact in favour of the view that the union
between fibre and colouring matter is of a chemical nature, is
that by altering the chemical constitution of the fibre its dyeing
properties are also altered; oxycellulose and nitrocellulose,
for example, have a greater attraction for Basic Colours than
cellulose. Such facts and considerations as these have helped
to establish the view that in the case of dyeing animal fibres
with many colouring matters the operation is a chemical process,
and not merely a mechanical absorption of the dyestuff. A
similar explanation does not suffice, however, in the case of dyeing
cotton with the Direct Colours. These are attracted by cotton
from their solutions as alkali salts, apparently without decom-
position. The affinity existing between the fibre and colouring
matter is somewhat feeble, for the latter can be removed from
the dyed fibre by merely boiling with water. The depth of colour
obtained in dyeing varies with the concentration of the colour
solution, or with the amount of some neutral salt, e.g. sodium
chloride, added as an assistant to the dye-bath; moreover, the
dye-bath is not exhausted. The colouring matter is submitted
to the action of two forces, the solvent power of the water and
the affinity of the fibre, and divides itself between the fibre and
the water. After dyeing for some time, a state of equilibrium
is attained in which the colouring matter is divided between the
fibre and the water in a given ratio, and prolonged dyeing does
not intensify the dyed colour.
Some investigators hold the view that in some cases the fibres
exert a purely physical attraction towards colouring matters, and
that the latter are held in an unchanged state by the fibre. The
phenomenon is regarded as one of purely mechanical surface-
attraction, and is compared with that exercised by animal char-
coal when employed in decolourizing a solution of some colouring
matter. Some consider such direct dyeing as mere diffusion of
the colouring matter into the fibre, and others that the colouring
matter is in a state of " solid solution " in the fibre, similar to
the solution of a metallic oxide in coloured glass. According to
this latter view, the cause of the dyeing of textile fibres is similar
to the attraction or solvent action exerted by ether when it with-
draws colouring matter from an aqueous solution by agitation.
Latterly the view has been advanced that dyeing is due to precipi-
tation of the colloid dyestuffs by the colloid substance of the fibre.
In the case of colours which are dyed on mordants, the question
is merely transferred to the nature of the attraction which exists
between the fibre and the mordant, for it has been conclusively
established that the union between the colouring matter and the
mordant is essentially chemical in character.
From our present knowledge it will be seen that we are unable
to give a final answer to the question of whether the dyeing
process is to be regarded as a chemical or a mechanical process.
There are arguments and facts which favour both views; but
in the case of wool and silk dyeing, the prevailing opinion in
most cases is in favour of the chemical theory, whereas in cotton-
dyeing, the mechanical theory is widely accepted. Probably
no single theory can explain satisfactorily the fundamental
cause of attraction in all cases of dyeing, and further investigation
is needed to answer fully this very difficult and abstruse question.
The poisonous nature or otherwise of the coal-tar dyes has been
frequently discussed, and the popular opinion, no doubt dating
from the time when magenta and its derivatives were
contaminated with arsenic, seems to be that they are
for the most part really poisonous, and ought to be
avoided for colouring materials worn next the skin, for articles
of food, &c. It is satisfactory to know that most of the colours
are not poisonous, but some few are namely, Picric acid,
Victoria Orange, Aurantia, Coralline, Metanil Yellow, Orange II.
and Safranine. Many coal-tar colours have, indeed, been
recommended as antiseptics or as medicinal remedies, e.g.
Methyl Violet, Auramine and Methylene Blue, because of their
special physiological action. In histology and bacteriology
many coal-tar colours have rendered excellent service in staining
microscopic preparations, and have enabled the investigator
to detect differences of structure, &c., previously unsuspected.
In photography many of the more fugitive colouring matters,
e.g. Cyanine, Eosine, Quinoline Red, &c., are employed in the
manufacture of ortho-chromatic plates, by means of which the
colours of natural objects can be photographed in the same
degrees of light and shade as they appear to the eye blue, for
example, appearing a darker grey, yellow, a lighter grey, in the
printed photograph.
Since the year 1856, in which the first coal-tar colour, mauve,
was discovered, the art of dyeing has made enormous advances,
mainly in consequence of the continued introduction of coal-tar
colours having the most varied properties and suitable for nearly
every requirement. The old idea that the vegetable dyestufis
are superior in fastness to light is gradually being given up, and,
if one may judge from the past, it seems evident that in the
future there will come a time when all our dyestuffs will be
prepared by artificial means.
AUTHORITIES. M&cquer, Hellot and le Pileur d'Apligny, The
Art of Dyeing Wool, Silk and Cotton (London, 1789); Bancroft,
Philosophy of Permanent Colours (2 vols., London, 1813) ; Berthollet-
Ure, Elements of the Art of Dyeing (2 vois., London, 1824) ; Chevreul,
Recherches chimiques sur la teinture (Paris, 1835-1861); O'Neill,
The Chemistry of Calico Printing, Dyeing and Bleaching (Manchester,
1860); Dictionary of Calico Printing and Dyeing (London, 1862);
Schutzenberger, Traite des matieres cplorantes (2 vols., Paris, 1867);
Bolley, Die Spinnfasern und die im Pflanzen- und Thierkorper
vorkommenden Farbstoffe (1867); Crookes, A Practical Handbook
of Dyeing and Calico-Printing (London, 1874) ! Jarmain, Wool-
Dyeing (1876); [O'Neill, Textile Colourist (4 vols., Manchester, 1876);
Calvert, Dyeing and Calico Printing (Manchester, 1876); Moyret,
Traite de la teinture des soies (Lyon, 1877) ; O'Neill, The Practice
and Principles of Calico Printing, Bleaching and Dyeing (Manchester,
1878); Girardm, Matieres textiles et matieres tinctoriales (Paris,
1880); Hummel, The Dyeing of Textile Fabrics (London, 1885);
Sansone, Dyeing (Manchester, 1888) ; Witt, Chemisette Technologic
der Gespinnstfasern (Brunswick, 1888); Benedikt and Knecht,
The Chemistry of the Coal-Tar Colours (London, 1889); Hurst, Silk
Dyeing, Printing and Finishing (London, 1892); Noelting and
DYER, E. DYMOKE
755
Lehne, Anilinschwarz (Berlin, 1892); Knecht, Rawson and Loewen-
thal, Manual of Dyeing (London, 1908); Steinbeck, Bleichen und
Fdrben der Seide und Halbseide (Berlin, 1895); Gardner, Wool-
Dyeing (Manchester, 1896) ; Rawson, Gardner and Laycock, A
Dictionary of Dyes, Mordants, &c. (London, 1901); Gros-Renaud,
Les Mordants en teinture et en impression (Paris, 1898) ; Georgievics,
The Chemical Technology of Textile Fabrics (London, 1902) ;
Paterson, The Science of Colour Mixing (London, 1900) ; Paterson,
Colour Matching on Textiles (London, 1901); Beech, The Dyeing
of Cotton Fabrics (London, 1901); Beech, The Dyeing of Woollen
Fabrics (London, 1902); The Journal of the Society of Dyers and
Colourists (Bradford, 1885-1908) and the publications of the colour
manufacturers. (J. J. H. ; E. K.)
DYER, SIR EDWARD (d. 1607), English courtier and poet,
son of Sir Thomas Dyer, Kt., was born at Sharpham Park,
Somersetshire. He was educated, according to Anthony a Wood,
either at Balliol College or at Broadgates Hall, Oxford. He
left the university without taking a degree, and after some time
spent abroad appeared at Queen Elizabeth's court. His first
patron was the earl of Leicester, who seems to have thought
of putting him forward as a rival to Sir Christopher Hatton
in the queen's favour. He is mentioned by Gabriel Harvey
with Sidney as one of the ornaments of the court. Sidney in his
will desired that his books should be divided between Fulke
Greville (Lord Brooke) and Dyer. He was employed by
Elizabeth on a mission (1584) to the Low Countries, and in 1589
was sent to Denmark. In a commission to inquire into manors
unjustly alienated from the crown in the west country he did
not altogether please the queen, but he received a grant of some
forfeited lands in Somerset in 1588. He was knighted and made
chancellor of the order of the Garter in 1596. William Oldys
says of him that he " would not stoop to fawn," and some of
his verses seem to show that the exigencies of life at court
oppressed him. He was buried at St Saviour's, Southwark, on
the nth of May 1607. Wood says that many esteemed him
to be a Rosicrucian, and that he was a firm believer in alchemy.
He had a great reputation as a poet among his contemporaries,
but very little of his work has survived. Puttenham in the
Arte of English Poesie speaks of " Maister Edward Dyar, for
Elegie most sweete, solempne, and of high conceit." One of
the poems universally accepted as his is " My Mynde to me a
kingdome is." Among the poems in England's Helicon (1600),
signed S.E.D., and included in Dr A. B. Grosart's collection
of Dyer's works {Miscellanies of the Fuller Worthies Library,
vol. iv., 1876) is the charming pastoral " My Phillis hath the
morninge sunne," but this comes from the Phillis of Thomas
Lodge. Grosart also prints a prose tract entitled The Prayse
of Nothing (1585). The Sixe Idillia from Theocritus, reckoned
by J. P. Collier among Dyer's works, were dedicated to, not
written by, him.
DYER, JOHN (c. 1700-1 758), British poet, theson of asolicitor,
was born in 1699 or 1700 at Aberglasney, in Carmarthenshire.
He was sent to Westminster school and was destined for
the law, but on his father's death he began to study painting.
He wandered about South Wales, sketching and occasionally
painting portraits. In 1 7 26 his first poem, Grongar Hill, appeared
in a miscellany published by Richard Savage, the poet. It was
an irregular ode in the so-called Pindaric style, but Dyer entirely
rewrote it into a loose measure of four cadences, and printed it
separately in 1727. It had an immediate and brilliant success.
Grongar Hill, as it now stands, is a short poem of only 150 lines,
describing in language of much freshness and picturesque charm
the view from a hill overlooking the poet's native vale of Towy.
A visit to Italy bore fruit in The Ruins of Rome (1740), a descrip-
tive piece in about 600 lines of Miltonic blank verse. He was
ordained priest in 1741, and held successively the livings of
Calthorp in Leicestershire, Belchford (1751), Coningsby (1752),
and Kirby-on-Bane (1756), the last three being Lincolnshire
parishes. He married, in 1741, a Miss Ensor, said to be descended
from the brother of Shakespeare. In 1757 he published his
longest work, the didactic blank-verse epic of The Fleece, in four
books, discoursing of the tending of sheep, of the shearing and
preparation of the wool, of weaving, and of trade in woollen
manufactures. The town took no interest in it, and Dodsley
facetiously prophesied that " Mr Dyer would be buried in
woollen." He died at Coningsby of consumption, on the isth
of December 1 758.
His peoms were collected by Dodsley in 1770, and by Mr Edward
Thomas in 1903 for the Welsh Library, vol. iv.
DYER, THOMAS HENRY (1804-1888), English historical and
antiquarian writer, was born in London on the 4th of May
1804. He was originally intended for a business career, and for
some time acted as clerk in a West India house; but finding his
services no longer required after the passing of the Negro Emanci-
pation Act, he decided to devote himself to literature. In 1850
he published the Life of Calvin, a conscientious and on the whole
impartial work, though the character of Calvin is somewhat
harshly drawn, and his influence in the religious world generally
is insufficiently appreciated. Dyer's first historical work was
the History of Modern Europe (1861-1864; 3 r d ed. revised and
continued to the end of the I9th century, by A. Hassall, 1901),
a meritorious compilation and storehouse of facts, but not very
readable. The History of the City of Rome (1865) down to
the end of the middle ages was followed by the History of the
Kings of Rome (1868), which, upholding against the German
school the general credibility of the account of early Roman
history, given in Livy and other classical authors, was violently
attacked by J. R. Seeley and the Saturday Review, as showing
ignorance of the comparative method. More favourable opinions
of the work were expressed by others, but it is generally agreed
that the author's scholarship is defective and that his views are
far too conservative. Roma Regalis (1872) and A Plea for Livy
(1873) were written in reply to his critics. Dyer frequently
visited Greece and Italy, and his topographical works are
probably his best; amongst these mention may be made of
Pompeii, its History, Buildings and Antiquities (1867, new ed.
in Bohn's Illustrated Library), and Ancient Athens, its History,
Topography and Remains (1873). His last publication was On
Imitative Art (1882). He died at Bath on the 3oth of January
1888.
DYMOKE, the name of an English family holding the office
of king's champion. The functions of the champion were to ride
into Westminster Hall at the coronation banquet, and challenge
all comers to impugn the king's title (see CHAMPION). The
earliest record of the ceremony at the coronation of an English
king dates from the accession of Richard II. On this occasion
the champion was Sir John Dymoke (d. 1381), who held the
manor of Scrivelsby, Lincolnshire, in right of his wife Margaret,
granddaughter of Joan Ludlow, who was the daughter and
co-heiress of Philip Marmion, last Baron Marmion. The Mar-
mions claimed descent from the lords of Fontenay, hereditary
champions of the dukes of Normandy, and held the castle of
Tamworth, Leicestershire, and the manor of Scrivelsby, Lincoln-
shire. The right to the championship was disputed with the
Dymoke family by Sir Baldwin de Freville, lord of Tamworth,
who was descended from an elder daughter of Philip Marmion.
The court of claims eventually decided in favour of the owners
of Scrivelsby on the ground that Scrivelsby was held in grand
serjeanty, that is, that its tenure was dependent on rendering
a special service, in this case the championship.
Sir Thomas Dymoke (i428?-i47i) joined a Lancastrian
rising in 1469, and, with his brother-in-law Richard, Lord Will-
oughby and Welles, was beheaded in 1471 by order of Edward IV.
after he had been induced to leave sanctuary on a promise of
personal safety. The estates were restored to his son Sir Robert
Dymoke (d. 1546), champion at the coronations of Richard III.,
Henry VII. and Henry VIII., who distinguished himself at the
siege of Tournai and became treasurer of the kingdom. His
descendants acted as champions at successive coronations.
Lewis Dymoke (d. 1820) put in an unsuccessful claim before the
House of Lords for the barony of Marmion. His nephew Henry
(1801-1865) was champion at the coronation of George IV.
He was accompanied on that occasion by the duke of Wellington
and Lord Howard of Effingham. Henry Dymoke was created
a baronet; he was succeeded by his brother John, rector of
Scrivelsby (1804-1873), whose son Henry Lionel died without
756
DYNAMICS
issue in 1875, when the baronetcy became extinct, the estate
passing to a collateral branch of the family. After the coronation
of George IV. the ceremony was allowed to lapse, but at the
coronation of King Edward VII. H. S. Dymoke bore the standard
of England in Westminster Abbey.
DYNAMICS (from Gr. dvvafiis, strength), the name of a branch
of the science of Mechanics (q.v.). The term was at one time
restricted to the treatment of motion as affected by force, being
thus opposed to Statics, which investigated equilibrium or
conditions of rest. In more recent times the word has been
applied comprehensively to the action of force on bodies either
at rest or in motion, thus including " dynamics " (now termed
kinetics) in the restricted sense and " statics."
ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS. The fundamental principles of
dynamics, and their application to special problems, are ex-
plained in the articles MECHANICS and MOTION, LAWS OF, where
brief indications are also given of the more general methods of
investigating the properties of a dynamical system, independently
of the accidents of its particular constitution, which were inaugur-
ated by J. L. Lagrange. These methods, in addition to the unity
and breadth which they have introduced into the treatment
of pure dynamics, have a peculiar interest in relation to modern
physical speculation, which finds itself confronted in various
directions with the problem of explaining on dynamical principles
the properties of systems whose ultimate mechanism can
at present only be vaguely conjectured. In determining the
properties of such systems the methods of analytical geometry
and of the infinitesimal calculus (or, more generally, of mathe-
matical analysis) are necessarily employed; for this reason the
subject has been named Analytical Dynamics. The following
article is devoted to an outline of such portions of general dynami-
cal theory as seem to be most important from the physical point
of view.
I. General Equations of Impulsive Motion.
The systems contemplated by Lagrange are composed of discrete
particles, or of rigid bodies, in finite number, connected (it may be)
in various ways by invariable geometrical relations, the funda-
mental postulate being that the position of every particle of the
system at any time can be completely specified by means of the
instantaneous values of a finite number of independent variables
2i, 92,"-g, each of which admits of continuous variation over a
certain range, so that if x, y, z be the Cartesian co-ordinates of any
one particle, we have for example
*=/(2i. 22,-2). y = &c., s=&c., . . (l)
where the functions / differ (of course) from particle to particle.
In modern language, the variables gi, g 2 ,...g are generalized co-
ordinates serving to specify the configuration of the system; their
derivatives with respect to the time are denoted by gi, g 2 ,...g^, and
are called the generalized, components of velocity. The continuous
sequence of configurations assumed by the system in any actual or
imagined motion (subject to the given connexions) is called the
path.
For the purposes of a connected outline of the whole subject it
is convenient to deviate somewhat from the historical order of
Impulsive development, and to begin with the consideration of
notion impulsive motion. Whatever the actual motion of the
system at any instant, we may conceive it to be generated
instantaneously from rest by the application of proper impulses.
On this view we have, if x, y, z be the rectangular co-ordinates of any
particle m,
m*=X', my=\', mi=Z', . . (2)
where X', Y', Z' are the components of the impulse on m. Now
let ox, oy, fe be any infinitesimal variations of x, y, z which are con-
sistent with the connexions of the system, and let us form the
equation
where the sign 2 indicates (as throughout this article) a summation
extending over all the particles of the system. To transform (3)
into an equation involving the variations Sqi, Sg 2l ... of the generalized
co-ordinates, we have
and therefore
. (5)
. (6)
where
^ ?*-+?y. ^L+JL I -A,
dq r dqjdq, dq, + dq r dq. \ ~ A< "
(7)
If we form the expression for the kinetic energy T of the system,
we find
Au2i 2 +A 22 g 2 2 +...+2Ai 2 g,g 2 +... (8)
The coefficients An, Azj,...Ai2,... are by an obvious analogy called
the coefficients of inertia of the system ; they are in general functions
of the co-ordinates gi, g 2 The equation (6) may now be written
This maybe regarded as the cardinal formula in Lagrange's method.
For the right-hand side of (3) we may write
!'z)=Q',g 1 +Q' 2 5g 2 + (10)
where
. (M)
The quantities Qi, Q 2l ... are called the generalized components of
impulse. Comparing (9) and (10), we have, since the variations
Sqi, Sg 2l ... are independent,
These are the general equations of impulsive motion.
It is now usual to write
3T
The quantities pi, pi,... represent the effects of the several com-
ponent impulses on the system, and are therefore called the general-
ized components of momentum. In terms of them we have
2m(xdx+ydy+z5z')=pi6qi+p2&qi + ..... (14)
Also, since T is a homogeneous quadratic function of the velocities
2i, 2V..,
2 r T=piq i +p 2 qi+ ....... (15)
This follows independently from (14), assuming the special variations
&x = xdt, &c., and therefore Sqi=q t dt, 5g 2 = g' 2 d/ .....
Again, if the values of the velocities and the momenta ~ y
in any other motion of the system through the same con- .. '
figuration be distinguished by accents, we have the identity
piq^+piq'^ ... =p'iqi+p'iQJ+ ...... (16)
each side being equal to the symmetrical expression
Aiigig'i-f-A 22 g22'2+...-)-Ai 2 (gig" 2 +g'ig 2 )+... . (17)
The theorem (16) leads to some important reciprocal relations.
Thus, let us suppose that the momenta pi, pi,... all vanish with
the exception of pi, and similarly that the momenta p\, p't,... all
vanish except p't. We have then piq'i=p'iqi, or
4,:pi=q.'i:p't ..... (18)
The interpretation is simplest when the co-ordinates g : , g 2 are
both of the same kind, e.g. both lines or both angles. We may
then conveniently put pi=p'i, and assert that the velocity of the
first type due to an impulse of the second type is equal to the velocity
of the second type due to an equal impulse of the first type. As an
example, suppose we have a chain of straight links hinged each to
the next, extended in a straight line, and free to move. A blow
at right angles to the chain, at any point P, will produce a certain
velocity at any other point Q; the theorem asserts that an equal
velocity will be produced at P by an equal blow at Q. Again, an
impulsive couple acting on any link A will produce a certain angular
velocity in any other link B; an equal couple applied to B will
produce an equal angular velocity in A. Also if an impulse F applied
at P produce an angular velocity u> in a link A, a couple Fa applied
to A will produce a linear velocity taa at P. Historically, we may
note that reciprocal relations in dynamics were first recognized by
H. L. F. Helmholtz in the domain of acoustics; their use has been
greatly extended by Lord Rayleigh.
The equations (13) determine the momenta pi, pi,... as linear
functions of the velocities gi, qi,... . Solving these.'we can express
4i, qi,... as linear functions of pi, pi,... . The resulting yelodtk*
equations give us the velocities produced by any given latermsol
system of impulses. Further, by substitution in (8), momeata
we can express the kinetic energy as a homogeneous
quadratic function of the momenta pi, pi,... . The kinetic energy,
as so expressed, will be denoted by T' ; thus
. (19)
where A'u, A' 22) ... A',... are certain coefficients depending on the
configuration. They have been called by Maxwell the coefficients
of mobility of the system. When the form (19) is given, the values
DYNAMICS
757
of the velocities in terms of the momenta can be expressed in a re-
markable form due to Sir W. R. Hamilton. The formula (15) may
be written
PiSi+PJ2J+-=T+T', . . . (20)
where T is supposed expressed as in (8), and T as in (19). Hence
if, for the moment, we denote by S a variation affecting the velocities,
and therefore the momenta, but not the configuration, we have
In virtue of (13) this reduces to
(22)
*T-* v f a
Since Spi, dpi,... may be taken to be independent, we infer that
_9T = ar
In the very remarkable exposition of the matter given by James
Clerk Maxwell in his Electricity and Magnetism, the Hamiltonian
expressions (23) for the velocities in terms of the impulses are
obtained directly from first principles, and the formulae .('3) are
then deduced by an inversion of the above argument.
An important modification of the above process -was introduced
by E. J. Routh and Lord Kelvin and P. G. Tait. Instead of express-
Roath's ' n S tne kinetic energy in terms of the velocities alone,
modifka- or ' n terms of the momenta alone, we may express it in
y on> terms of the velocities corresponding to some of the co-
ordinates, say qi, qz,...q m , and of the momenta corre-
sponding to the remaining co-ordinates, which (for the sake of dis-
tinction) we may denote by x, x', x*,.-.. Thus, T being expressed
as a homogeneous quadratic function of q t , qt,...q m , x, x, x",...,
the momenta corresponding to the co-ordinates x, x'i x*i may be
written
9T.
dT
dx"
(24)
These equations, when written out in full, determine x, X r , x",---
as linear functions of ji, g 2 ,...g m , K, K', *,.... We now consider
the function
R = T-K*-K'*'- K V- ....... (25)
supposed expressed, by means of the above relations in terms of
q\, qi, 9m, K, ', K*,.... Performing the operation S on both sides
of (25), we have
-Kdx-xSK- (26)
where, for brevity, only one term of each type has been exhibited.
Omitting the terms which cancel in virtue of (24), we have
aR.. , aR. aT..
r-r-o(7i -(-... T ^~OK-T-.. t = TT-OOi -f- . . . YOK ... 127]
dq\ * OK oqi v-*//
Since the variations Sqi, Sqi,... Sq m , SK, SK', SK",... may be taken to be
independent, we have
_ar_a_R _s>r_dJR
P*~flri, ~dn' P 2 ~Ari~flri.' (2)
a*"
(29)
An important property of the present transformation is that,
when expressed in terms of the new variables, the kinetic energy is
the sum of two homogeneous quadratic functions, thus
= iS+K,
(30)
where
momenta K, K', **,... alone. For in virtue of (29) we have, from
(25),
involves the velocities q\, q 2 ,... q m alone, and K the
of
and it is evident that the terms in R which are bilinear in respect
of the two sets of variables 51, q it ... q m and K, K', K",... will dis-
appear from the right-hand side.
It may be noted that the formula (30) gives immediate proof
of two important theorems due to Bertrand and to Lord Kelvin
Maximum resDect i ve ly- Let us suppose, in the first place, that
aaa the system is started by given impulses of certain types,
minimum Dut ' s otherwise free. J. L. F. Bertrand's theorem is to
energy. ne effect that the kinetic energy is greater than if by
impulses of the remaining types the system were con-
strained to take any other course. We may suppose the co-ordinates
to be so chosen that the constraint is expressed by the vanishing
of the velocities ji, q,,... q m , whilst the given impulses are K, K', K",....
Hence the energy in the actual motion is greater than in the
constrained motion by the amount <S.
Again, suppose that the system is started with prescribed velocity
components q t , g 2) ... q m , by means of proper impulses of the corre-
sponding types, but is otherwise free, so that in the motion actually
generated we have <t = o, K' = O, K* = O,... and therefore K = o. The
kinetic energy is therefore less than in any other motion consistent
with the prescribed velocity-conditions by the value which K
assumes when K, K', K",... represent the impulses due to the
constraints.
Simple illustrations of these theorems are afforded by the chain
of straight links already employed. Thus if a point of the chain
be held fixed, or if one or more of the joints be made rigid, the
energy generated by any given impulses is less than if the chain
had possessed its former freedom.
2. Continuous Motion of a System.
We may proceed to the continuous motion of a system. The
equations of motion of any particle of the system are of the form
mX=X, mj/ = \, 2 = Z . . . (i)
Now let x+Sx, y+Sy, z+Sz be the co-ordinates of m in any .____..
arbitrary motion of the system differing infinitely little eauatloas
from the actual motion, and let us form the equation
2m(x&x+ySy+z8z)=2(XSx+Y&y+ZSz') . . (2)
Lagrange's investigation consists in the transformation of (2) into
an equation involving the independent variations Sqi, 5g 2 ,... &q n .
It is important to notice that the symbols & and d/dt are com-
mutative, since
Hence
*=&*+*) -g
Zm (xSx + y&y+zdz) = -r,Sm(xSx +i/&y +zSz)
ZJ (xSx +y5i) +zSz)
(3)
(4)
by I (14). The last member may be written
dT
3T . 6T.
Hence, omitting the terms which cancel in virtue of i (13), we
find
-JI) 42,+.... (6)
For the right-hand side of (2) we have
(7)
& (8)
Q, =
The quantities Qi, Q 2l ... are called the generalized components of
force acting on the system.
Comparing (6) and (7) we find
ft T /5 T
A-aii-Q- A-fgi" " -. (9)
or, restoring the values of pi, p 2 ,...,
d (dt\ 3T d /dT\ 8T _
These are Lagrange's general equations of motion. Their number
is of course equal to that of the co-ordinates qi, qi,... to be determined.
Analytically, the above proof is that given by Lagrange, but
the terminology employed is of much more recent date, having
been first introduced by Lord Kelvin and P. G. Tait ; it has greatly
promoted the physical application of the subject. Another proof of
the equations (10), by direct transformation of co-ordinates, has
been given by Hamilton and independently by other writers (see
MECHANICS), but the yariational method of Lagrange is that which
stands in closest relation to the subsequent developments of the
subject. The chapter of Maxwell, already referred to, is a most
instructive commentary on the subject from the physical point of
view, although the proof there attempted of the equations (10) is
fallacious.
In a " conservative system " the work which would have to be
done by extraneous forces to bring the system from rest in some
standard configuration to rest in the configuration (q t , q,,... g n )
is independent of the path, and may therefore be regarded as a
definite function of q,, &,... q n . Denoting this function (the potential
energy) by V, we have, if there be no extraneous force on the system,
Z(X8*+YJ!/+Zfe) = -6V, . . . (II)
and therefore
Q' = ~aoT' 2= ~do~ ( I2 )
758
DYNAMICS
Hence the typical Lagrange's equation may be now written in
the form
d (dT\ _dT _ _dV_ ,,,
Tt\dq r / dq,~ dq,' ' l ' 3 '
or, again,
It has been proposed by Helmholtz to give the name kinetic potential
to the combination V T.
As shown under MECHANICS, 22, we derive from (10)
and therefore in the case of a conservative system free from ex-
traneous force,
j / (T+V)=OorT+V=const., . . (16)
which is the equation of energy. For examples of the application
of the formula (13) see MECHANICS, 22.
3. Constrained Systems.
It has so far been assumed that the geometrical relations, if
any, which exist between the various parts of the system
Gate of are o f tne type i (i), and so do not contain t explicitly.
varying -pjj e extension of Lagrange's equations to the case of
relations. .. vary i n g relations " of the type
x=f(t, gi, 22.-"2). y = &c., z = &c., . . (i)
was made by J. M. L. Vieille. We now have
d*4- 4-cj A- & & ( 1
so that the expression i (8) for the kinetic energy is to be replaced
by
2T = ao-r-2aigi+2a 2 g 2 +...+Angi a +A 22 g 2 2 +...+Aij2'ig2+..., (4)
where
Oo = <
d* <* fydz dz dz_)
dt dq r ^dt dq r ^dt dq,\'
(5)
and the forms of A m A r , are as given by i (7). It is to be re-
membered that the coefficients oo, <u, a 2 , ...An, AM,... Ai 2 ... will in
general involve t explicitly as well as implicitly through the co-
ordinates i/i> 2a ..... Again, we find
....... (6)
where p, is defined as in I (13). The derivation of Lagrange's
equations then follows exactly as before. It is to be noted that
the equation 2 (15) does not as a rule now hold. The proof in-
volved the assumption that T is a homogeneous quadratic function
of the velocities qi, g 2 ... .
It has been pointed out by R. B. Hayward that Vieille's case can
be brought under Lagrange's by introducing a new co-ordinate (x)
in place of /, so far as it appears explicitly in the relations (i). We
have then
2T = a,x s +2(a I g 1 +a 2 g 2 +...)x+A 11 g 1 ! +A 22 g 2 1 +...+2A 1 ^ 1 g,-|-... . (7)
The equations of motion will be as in 2 (10), with the additional
equation
ddT 3T Y .
^*r^ =x - ( 8 )
where X is the force corresponding to the co-ordinate x- We may
suppose X to be adjusted so as to make x = o, and in the remaining
equations nothing is altered if we write t for x before, instead of
after, the differentiations. The reason why the equation 2 (15)
no longer holds is that we should require to add a term Xx on the
right-hand side; this represents the rate at which work is being
done by the constraining forces required to keep x constant.
As an example, let x, y, z be the co-ordinates of a particle relative
to axes fixed in a solid which is free to rotate about the axis of z.
If be the angular co-ordinate of the solid, we find without difficulty
where 1 is the moment of inertia of the solid.
motion, viz.
d3T_3T_ ddT aT_ v <*a
dtdx d*~ A> dt~di>~d-*' ZJ
(9)
The equations of
become
and
If we suppose * adjusted so as to maintain ij> = o, or (again) if we
suppose the moment of inertia I to be infinitely great, we obtain
the familiar equations of motion relative to moving axes, viz.
where w has been written for <}>. These are the equations which
we should have obtained by applying Lagrange's rule at once to
the formula
"T =m(i?+y t +z 1 )+2mu>(x$ yi)+mai 2 (x s +y s ), . (15)
which gives the kinetic energy of the particle referred to axes rotating
with the constant angular velocity a. (See MECHANICS, 13.)
More generally, let us suppose that we have a certain group of
co-ordinates x. x' x',--. whose absolute values do not affect the
expression for the kinetic energy, and that by suitable forces of the
corresponding types the velocity-components x, x'< X*.--- are main-
tained constant. The remaining co-ordinates being denoted by
2i 22>-" ? we ma y write
where is a homogeneous quadratic function of the velocities
2i. &,4* of the type 1 (8), whilst T is a homogeneous quadratic
function of the velocities x, x'. x*, alone. The remaining terms,
which are bilinear in respect of the two sets of velocities, are in-
dicated more fully. The formulae (10) of 2 give n equations of
the type
"-& (17)
where
These quantities (r, s) are subject to the relations
(r, s) = (s, r), (r, r)=o. . . (19)
The remaining dynamical equations, equal in number to the co-
ordinates x, x', X*,-, yield expressions for the forces which
must be applied in order to maintain the velocities x. x'i x*.--
constant ; they need not be written down. If we follow the method
by which the equation of energy was established in 2, the equations
(17) lead, on taking account of the relations (19), to
...+Q.2.,. . (20)
or, in case the forces Q, depend only on the co-ordinates gi, g 2 ,...g
and are conservative,
JS+V T = const. . . . (21)
The conditions that the equations (17) should be satisfied by zero
values of the velocities gi, g 2 ,...g n
are
or in the case of conservative forces
4(V-T,)=o, . . . (23)
i.e. the value of V T must be stationary.
We may apply this to the case of a system whose configuration
relative to axes rotating with constant angular velocity (o>)
is defined by means of the n co-ordinates gi, g 2 ,...g n .
This is important on account of its bearing on the kinetic
theory of the tides. Since the Cartesian co-ordinates axes -
x, y, z of any particle m of the system relative to the moving axes
are functions of 21, qi,-<l*, of the form i (i), we have, by (15)
2T =o) 2 2m(jc J +y 2 ), . (14)
r-M*ji-ttrr), . . . (25)
whence
dfx
(26)
The conditions of relative equilibrium are given by (23).
It will be noticed that this expression V T , which is to be
stationary, differs from the true potential energy by a term which
represents the potential energy of the system in relation to fictitious
" centrifugal forces." The question of stability of relative equili-
brium will be noticed later ( 6).
It should be observed that the remarkable formula (20) may in
the present case be obtained directly as follows. From (15) and
(14) we find
(27)
-T,)+.Z(*Y-;yX).
DYNAMICS
759
This must be equal to the rate at which the forces acting on the
system do work, viz. to
Con-
itrained
systems.
where the first term represents the work done in virtue of the
rotation.
We have still to notice the modifications which Lagrange's
equations undergo when the co-ordinates q\, gj,...gn
are not all independently variable. In the first place,
we may suppose them connected by a number m ( <n)
of relations of the type
A(/, gi, g 2 , ...g.) =o, B(/, gi, g 2 , ... g) =o, &c. (28)
These may be interpreted as introducing partial constraints into
a previously free system. The variations Sqi, 8g 2 ,...Sg n in the ex-
pressions (6) and (7) of 2 which are to be equated are no longer
independent, but are subject to the relations
Introducing indeterminate multipliers X, n one for each of these
equations, we obtain in the usual manner n equations of the type
d aT aT_^,,aA, aB, , .
I r* a_ ( > \O /
in place of 2 (10). These equations, together with (28), serve
to determine the n co-ordinates gi, gi, ...g n and the m multipliers
X, 11
When t does not occur explicitly in the relations (28) the system
is said to be holonomic. The term connotes the existence of integral
(as opposed to differential) relations between the co-ordinates,
independent of the time.
Again, it may happen that although there are no prescribed
relations between the co-ordinates gi, 2s,...g, yet from the cir-
cumstances of the problem certain geometrical conditions are im-
posed on their variations, thus
AiSgi+A 2 8g 2 +... =o, BiSgi+B 2 8g 2 -|- ... =o, &c., (31)
where the coefficients are functions of gi, gj, ...g and (possibly) of/.
It is assumed that these equations are not integrable as regards the
variables gi. 2a 2; otherwise, we fall back on the previous con-
ditions. Cases of the present type arise, for instance, in ordinary
dynamics when we have a solid rolling on a (fixed or moving) surface.
The six co-ordinates which serve to specify the position of the solid
at any instant are not subject to any necessary relation, but the
conditions to be satisfied at the point of contact impose three con-
ditions of the form (31). The general equations of motion are
obtained, as before, by the method of indeterminate multipliers,
thus
The co-ordinates gi, g, ...g, and the indeterminate multipliers
X, ft are determined by these equations and by the velocity-
conditions corresponding to (31). When / does not appear explicitly
in the coefficients, these velocity-conditions take the forms
Aigi+A2gj+...=o, Bigi+B 2 g 2 +...=o, &c. (33)
Systems of this kind, where the relations (31) are not integrable, are
called non-holonomic.
4. Hamiltonian Equations of Motion.
In the Hamiltonian form of the equations of motion of a con-
servative system with unvarying relations, the kinetic energy is
supposed expressed in terms of the momenta pi, pi, ...and the co-
ordinates gi, qi, ... ,_ as in i (19). Since the symbol 5 now denotes
a variation extending to the co-ordinates as well as to the momenta,
we must add to the last member of I (21) ter/ns of the types
Since the variations &pi, &pi, ... Sqi, 8g 2 , ...may be taken to be inde-
pendent, we infer the equations i (23) as before, together with
= _ = _
dqi dqi ' dqz dq, ' '" '
Hence the Lagrangian equations 2 (14) transform into
,.
If we write
H=T'+V (4)
so that H denotes the total energy of the system, supposed expressed
in terms of the new variables, we get
_3H A= _3H )
dqi dqi
If to these we join the equations
. aH , aH /g\
which follow at once from i (23), since V does not involve pi, fa, ....
we obtain a complete system of differential equations of the first
order for the determination of the motion.
The equation of energy is verified immediately by (5) and (6),
since these make
d H __ aH , i aH . i i aH . . aH . . _Q /_\
The Hamiltonian transformation is extended to the case of
varying relations as follows. Instead of (4) we write
... (8)
and imagine H to be expressed in terms of the momenta pi, pi,...,
the co-ordinates gi, qi, ..., and the time. The internal forces of
the system are assumed to be conservative, with the potential
energy V. Performing the variation 5 on both sides, we find
Z ^ " ' ' (9)
terms which cancel in virtue of the definition of pi, pi,... being
omitted. Since Spi, &pi, ..., 8gi, 6g 2 , ... may be taken to be inde-
pendent, we infer
and
It follows from (n) that
'dpi'
(10)
(T-V) = - , -1(T-V) = - ... (n)
do i o Ot "0^2 Q%
(12)
The equations (10) and (12) have the same form as above, but H
is no longer equal to the energy of the system.
5. Cyclic Systems.
A cyclic or gyrostatic system is characterized by the following
properties. In the first place, the kinetic energy is not affected if
we alter the absolute values of certain of the co-ordinates, which
we will denote by x. x', x", , provided the remaining co-ordinates
2i> q*, Qm and the velocities, including of course the velocities
X, x', x i --.are unaltered. Secondly, there are no forces acting
on the system of the types x, x',x*. This case arises, for example,
when the system includes gyrostats which are free to rotate about
their axes, the co-ordinates x, x' ; x", then being the angular co-
ordinates of the gyrostats relatively to their frames. Again, in
theoretical hydrodynamics we have the problem of moving solids
in a frictionless liquid ; the ignored co-ordinates x. x'. X*i then refer
to the fluid, and are infinite in number. The same question presents
itself in various physical speculations where certain phenomena are
ascribed to the existence of latent motions in the ultimate constituents
of matter. The general theory of such systems has been treated by
E. J. Routh, Lord Kelvin, and H. L. F. Helmholtz.
If we suppose the kinetic energy T to be expressed, as in
Lagrange's method, in terms of the co-ordinates and n ou fi,'s
the velocities, the equations of motion corresponding gauatloas.
to XP x'. x*. reduce, in virtue of the above hypotheses,
to the forms
d aT
3T
whence
ar
ax"
aT
d_ aT
dt aF 7
aT ,
aT 7=K
=o,
. (D
- (2)
where ic, ', K', ... are the constant momenta corresponding to the
cyclic co-ordinates x. x'. X* ..... These equations are linear in
X> x'i X*t ! solving them with respect to these quantities and
substituting in the remaining Lagjrangian equations, we obtain
m differential equations to determine the remaining co-ordinates
9ii 22, 2m- The object of the present investigation is to ascertain
the general form of the resulting equations. The retained co-
ordinates gi, 2?i ? may be called (for distinction) the palpable
co-ordinates of the system; in many practical questions they are
the only co-ordinates directly in evidence.
If, as in i (25), we write
R-T-rf-'*'-"*"- ....... (3)
and imagine R to be expressed by means of (2) as a quadratic function
of q\, qt, ... Qm, K, *'. **. with coefficients which are in general
functions of the co-ordinates q\, q t , ... q m , then, performing the
operation 5 on both sides, we find
(4)
+gx+.:.+! T -2i+". -**-*-
y6o
DYNAMICS
Omitting the terms which cancel by (2), we find
3T dR 3T aR
dT_aR
dqi~dqi'
dR.
X ~aT>
dq*
dR
aR
(5)
. (6)
(7)
. (8)
Substituting in 2 (10), we have
d_dR_dR =Q aR_aR
These are Routh's forms of the modified Lagrangian equations.
Equivalent forms were obtained independently by Helmholtz at a
later date.
The function R is made up of three parts, thus
R = R 2 ,o+Ri,i+Rc (9)
where R$,o is a homogeneous quadratic function of ft, qt,...q m , Ro, 2 is
a homogeneous quadratic function of K, K', K",..., whilst
Kelvin's R^ cons i s t s of products of the velocities ft, qi,...q m into
equations. the momenta K< K ' t .... Hence from (3) and (7) we
VtnirA
' aR , ,aR , B aR
If, as in I (30), we write this in the form
T = iS+K,
then (3) may be written
' - (10)
. . (II)
. ; - (12)
where ft, ft,... are linear functions of K, K', K" say
the coefficients a,, a',, a",,... being in general functions of the co-
ordinates q\, qi,... q m . Evidently ft, denotes that part of the momen-
tum-component aR/ajr which is due to the cyclic motions. Now
d_dR._d_ /a<5, B \ _d_djls> aft. , d0r , ,
dt dg, dt\dq, / dt dq, dq\ dq%
aR a aK.aft, ,aft, , (I5)
Hence, substituting in (8), we obtain the typical equation of motion
of a gyrostatic system in the form
~ji~s-- a K r i l)?i+( r . 2)jj+... + (r, i)j, + ...+3 =Qr, (16)
where
This form is due to Lord Kelvin. When gi, g 2l ... g m have been
determined, as functions of the time, the velocities corresponding
to the cyclic co-ordinates can be found, if required, from the relations
(7), which may be written
3K
X = -j^ -oift-o^ 2 -...,
&c., &c.
It is to be particularly noticed that
(r, r)=o, (r, s) = - (s, r).
(18)
(19)
Hence, if in (16) we put r= i, 2, 3,... m, and multiply by q\, fa,... q m
respectively, and add, we find
J(*+K)-OA+QA+ . (20)
or, in the case of a conservative system
<S+V+K = const (21)
which is the equation of energy.
The equation (16) includes 3 (17) as a particular case, the
eliminated co-ordinate being the angular co-ordinate of a rotating
solid having an infinite moment of inertia.
In the particular case where the cyclic momenta K, K, K",... are
all zero, (16) reduces to
d 3JS a _
dtdj- r ~dq- r =Qr (22)
The form is the same as in 2, and the system now behaves, as
regards the co-ordinates gi, g 2l ... q m , exactly like the acyclic type
there contemplated. These co-ordinates do not, however, now
fix the position of every particle of the system. For example, if
by suitable forces the system be brought back to its initial con-
figuration (so far as this is defined by 51, q t ,... q m ), after performing
any evolutions, the ignored co-ordinates x, x', x", will not in
general return to their original values.
If in Lagrange's equations 2 (10) we reverse the sign of the time-
element dt, the equations are unaltered. The motion is therefore
reversible; that is to say, if as the system is passing through any
configuration its velocities q it &,... q m be all reversed, it will (if the
forces be the same in the same configuration) retrace its former
path. But it is important to observe that the statement does not
in general hold of a gyrostatic system; the terms of (16), which are
linear in qi, q 2 ,... q m , change sign with dt, whilst the others do not.
Hence the motion of a gyrostatic system is not reversible, unless
indeed we reverse the cyclic motions as well as the velocities
9i, g'z,..- g'm. For instance, the precessional motion of a top cannot
be reversed unless we reverse the spin.
The conditions of equilibrium of a system with latent cyclic motions
are obtained by putting g'i = o, g 2 = o,... q m = o in (16);
viz. they are
QaK ,-. aK
1= asT'Q 2= a^ ........ ( 2 3)
These may of course be obtained independently. Thus if the system
be guided from (apparent) rest in the configuration (gi, g 2 ,... g m )
to rest in the configuration (qi+Sqi, qi+Sq2,...q m +Sqm), the work
done by the forces must be equal to the increment of the kinetic
energy. Hence
Qi2i+Q232+...=*K, . . . (24)
which is equivalent to (23). The conditions are the same as for
the equilibrium of a system without latent motion, but endowed
with potential energy K. This is important from a physical point
of view, as showing how energy which is apparently potential may
in its ultimate essence be kinetic.
By means of the formulae (18), which now reduce to
X =
dK ., dK
X =--
aK
OK'
a*'
(25)
K may also be expressed as a homogeneous quadratic function of
the cyclic velocities x, X.', X.",-- Denoting it in this form by T ,
we have
Performing the variations, and omitting the terms which cancel by
(2^ and (25), we find
aTo aK aTo aK
agT = ~agT' ag 2 " = ~ag7 1 (*"
so that the formulae (23) become
Qi = ^- 2 , Q 2 = -g- 2 (28)
A simple example is furnished by the top (MECHANICS, 22). The
cyclic co-ordinates being ^, <t>, we find
rv*- A,w OT;r (f ~ " COS 8)* . V 2
2S=A<? 2 , 2K = % sin29 ; + c ,
whence we may verify that dT<,/dO= dK/dB in accordance with
(27). And the condition of equilibrium
- = -- (30)
dO dB ' ' ^ '
gives the condition of steady precession.
6. Stability of Steady Motion.
The small oscillations of a conservative system about a con-
figuration of equilibrium, and the criterion of stability, are discussed
in MECHANICS, 23. The question of the stability of given types of
motion is more difficult, owing to the want of a sufficiently general,
and at the same time precise, definition of what we mean by
"stability." A number of definitions which have been propounded by
different writers are examined by F. Klein and A. Sommerfeld in their
work Uber die Theorie des Kreisels (1897-1903). Rejecting previous
definitions, they base their criterion of stability on the character
of the changes produced in the path of the system by small arbitrary
disturbing impulses. If the undisturbed path be the limiting form
of the disturbed path when the impulses are indefinitely diminished,
it is said to be stable, but not otherwise. For instance, the vertical
fall of a particle under gravity is reckoned as stable, although for a
given impulsive disturbance, however small, the deviation of the
particle's position at any time t from the position which it would have
occupied in the original motion increases indefinitely with /. Even
this criterion, as the writers quoted themselves recognize, is not free
from ambiguity unless the phrase " limiting form," as applied to a
path, be strictly defined. It appears, moreover, that a definition
which is analytically precise may not in all cases be easy to reconcile
with geometrical prepossessions. Thus a particle moving in a circle
about a centre of force varying inversely as the cube of the distance
will if slightly disturbed either fall into the centre, or recede to infinity,
after describing in either case a spiral with an infinite number of
DYNAMICS
761
convolutions. Each of these spirals has, analytically, the circle as
its limiting form, although the motion in the circle is most naturally
described as unstable.
A special form of the problem, of great interest, presents itself in
the steady motion of a gyrostatic system, when the non-eliminated
co-ordinates 51, qt, ... q m all vanish (see 5). This has been dis-
cussed by Routh, Lord Kelvin and Tait, and Poincare. These
writers treat the question, by an extension of Lagrange's method,
as a problem of small oscillations. Whether we adopt the notion
of stability which this implies, or take up the position of Klein and
Sommerfeld, there is no difficulty in showing that stability is ensured
if V + K be a minimum as regards variations of q\, qi, ... q m . The
proof is the same as that of Dirichlet for the case of statical stability.
We can illustrate this condition from the case of the top, where,
in our previous notation,
V+K = Mgftcos0H 2 A M~"^op' (')
To examine whether the steady motion with the centre of gravity
vertically above the pivot is stable, we must put i^ v. We then
find without difficulty that V + K is a minimum provided 2 ^4AMg/z.
The method of small oscillations gave us the condition i^>^AMgh,
and indicated instability in the cases i^^^AMgh. The present
criterion can also be applied to show that the steady precessional
motions in which the axis has a constant inclination to the vertical
are stable.
The question remains, as before, whether it is essential for stability
that V+K should be a minimum. It appears that from the point
of view of the theory of small oscillations it is not essential, and
that there may even be stability when V+K is a maximum. The
precise conditions, which are of a somewhat elaborate character,
have been formulated by Routh. An important distinction has,
however, been established by Thomson and Tait, and by Poincare,
between what we may call ordinary or temporary stability (which
is stability in the above sense) and permanent or secular stability,
which means stability when regard is had to possible dissipative
forces called into play whenever the co-ordinates q\, q 2 ,... q m vary.
Since the total energy of the system at any instant is given (in
the notation of 5) by an expression of the form JS+V+K, where
Js> cannot be negative, the argument of Thomson and Tait, given
under MECHANICS, 23, for the statical question, shows that it is a
necessary as well as a sufficient condition for secular stability that
V+K should be a minimum. When a system is " ordinarily "
stable, but " secularly " unstable, the operation of the frictional
forces is to induce a gradual increase in the amplitude of the free
vibrations which are called into play by accidental disturbances.
There is a similar theory in relation to the constrained systems
considered in 3 above. The equation (21) there given leads to
the conclusion that for secular stability of any type of motion in
which the velocities gi, <jj, ... q n are zero it is necessary and sufficient
that the function V To should be a minimum.
The simplest possible example of this is the case of a particle at
the lowest point of a smooth spherical bowl which rotates with
constant angular velocity (to) about the vertical diameter. This
position obviously possesses " ordinary " stability. If a be the
radius of the bowl, and 9 denote angular distance from the lowest
point, we have
(2)
this is a minimum for = o only so long as w 2 <g/a. For greater
values of w the only position of " permanent " stability is that in
which the particle rotates with the bowl at an angular distance
cos~ 1 (g/" |2 a) from the lowest point. To examine the motion in the
neighbourhood of the lowest point, when frictional forces are taken
into account, we may take fixed ones, in a horizontal plane, through
the lowest point. Assuming that the friction varies as the relative
velocity, we have
. (4)
y=-pty-k(y-wx),
where p- = g/a. These combine into
where z = x+iy, i = V-i. Assuming z = Ce x ', we find
(5)
if the square of k be neglected. The complete solution is then
where
(6)
(7)
This represents two superposed circular vibrations, in opposite
directions, of period 2ir/p. If a<p, the amplitude of each of these
diminishes asymptotically to zero, and the position x = o, y = o is
permanently stable. But if u>>p the amplitude of that circular
vibration which agrees in sense with the rotation a will continually
increase, and the particle will work its way in an ever-widening
spiral path towards the eccentric position of secular stability. If
the bowl be not spherical but ellipsoidal, the vertical diameter being
a principal axis, it may easily be shown that the lowest position is
permanently stable only so long as the period of the rotation is
longer than that of the slower of the two normal modes in the
absence of rotation (see MECHANICS, 13).
7. Principle of Least Action.
The preceding theories give us statements applicable to the system
at any one instant of its motion. We now come to a series of
theorems relating to the whole motion of the system
between any two configurations through which it passes, i /<Mla O'
viz. we consider the actual motion and compare it with
other imaginable motions, differing infinitely little from it, between
the same two configurations. We use the symbol a to denote the
transition from the actual to any one of the hypothetical motions.
The best-known theorem of this class is that of Least Action,
originated by P. L. M. de Maupertuis, but first put in a definite form
by Lagrange. The " action ' of a single particle in passing from
one position to another is the space-integral of the momentum, or
the time-integral of the vis viva. The action of a dynamical system
is the sum of the actions of its constituent particles, and is accordingly
given by the formula
A = 2 Cmvd s = 2 Cmv*dt = 2 ( Tdt.
(i)
The theorem referred to asserts that the free motion of a conserva-
tive system between any two given configurations is characterized
by the property
A = o (2)
provided the total energy have the same constant value in the
varied motion as in the actual motion.
If t, t' be the times of passing through the initial and final con-
figurations respectively, we have
A =
since the upper and lower limits of the integral must both be regarded
as variable. This may be written
SA= C'sTdt + C"^m(xSx+ySy+!:Sz)dt+2'T'St'-2TSt
= C'&Tdt + \-Zrn (xSx+ySy+zSz )1 '
- C"2m(x&x+y&y+z&z)dt+2T'5t'-2T&t. . . (4)
Now, by d'Alembert's principle,
Zm(x&x+ySy+zSs)= -V, . . . (5)
and by hypothesis we have
S(T+V)=o (6)
The formula therefore reduces to
SA=[zm(x5x+ySy+z5z')Y+2T5t'-2T5l. . (7)
Since the terminal configurations are unaltered, we must have at
the lower limit
yM = o, &z+zSt = o, . . (8)
with similar relations at the upper limit. These reduce (7) to the
form (2).
The equation (2), it is to be noticed, merely expresses that the
variation of A vanishes to the first order; the phrase stationary
action has therefore been suggested as indicating more accurately
what has been proved. The action in the free path between two
given configurations is in fact not invariably a minimum, and even
when a minimum it need not be the least possible subject to the
given conditions. Simple illustrations are furnished by the case
of a single particle. A particle moving on a smooth surface, and
free from extraneous force, will have its velocity constant; hence
the theorem in this case resolves itself into
ds = 0, .
(9)
i.e. the path must be a geodesic line. Now a geodesic is not neces-
sarily the shortest path between two given points on it; for ex-
ample, on the sphere a great-circle arc ceases to be the shortest
path between its extremities when it exceeds 180. More gener-
ally, taking any surface, let a point P, starting from O, move along
a geodesic ; this geodesic will be a minimum path from O to P until
P passes through a point O' (if such exist), which is the intersection
with a consecutive geodesic through O. After this point the mini-
mum property ceases. On an anticlastic surface two geodesies
cannot intersect more than once, and each geodesic is therefore a
minimum path between any two of its points. These illustrations
are due to K. G. J. Jacobi, who has also formulated the general
criterion, applicable to all dynamical systems, as follows: Let
O and P denote any two configurations on a natural path of the
system. If this be the sole free path from O to P with the prescribed
amount of energy, the action from O to P is a minimum. But if
762
DYNAMICS
there be several distinct paths, let P vary from coincidence with O
along the first-named path; the action will then cease to be a
minimum when a configuration O' is reached such that two of the
possible paths from O to O' coincide. For instance, if O and P be
positions on the parabolic path of a projectile under gravity, there
will be a second path (with the same energy and therefore the same
velocity of projection from O), these two paths coinciding when
P is at the other extremity (O', say) of the focal chord through O.
The action from O to P will therefore be a minimum for all positions
of P short of O'. Two configurations such as O and O' in the
general statement are called conjugate kinetic foci. Cf . VARIATIONS,
CALCULUS OF.
Before leaving this topic the connexion of the principle of
stationary action with a well-known theorem of optics may be
noticed. For the motion of a particle in a conservative field of
force the principle takes the form
* = (10)
On the corpuscular theory of light is proportional to the refractive
index M of the medium, whence
= 0.
(n)
In the formula (2) the energy in the hypothetical motion is pre-
scribed, whilst the time of transit from the initial to the final con-
figuration is variable. In another and generally more
Hamilton- p 0nven ient theorem, due to Hamilton, the time of transit
j s p rescr jbed to be the same as in the actual motion, whilst
the energy may be different and need not (indeed) be
Under these conditions we have
ton pria
constant.
. (12)
where t, t' are the prescribed times of passing through the given
initial and final configurations. The proof of (12) is simple; we
have
'(T-V)d<= r'(T-
. . (13)
The integrated terms vanish at both limits, since by hypothesis
the configurations at these instants are fixed ; and the terms under
the integral sign vanish by d'Alembert's principle.
The fact that in (12) the variation does not affect the time of
transit renders the formula easy of application in any system of
co-ordinates. Thus, to deduce Lagrange's equations, we have
The integrated terms vanish at both limits; and in order that the
remainder of the right-hand member may vanish it is necessary
that the coefficients of 6ji, 652,... under the integral sign should
vanish for all values of I, since the variations in question are inde-
pendent, and subject only to the condition of vanishing at the
limits of integration. We are thus led to Lagrange's equation of
motion for a conservative system. It appears that the formula
(12) is a convenient as well as a compact embodiment of the whole
of ordinary dynamics.
The modification of the Hamiltonian principle appropriate to
the case of cyclic systems has been given by T. Larmor.
If We Write ' * S in * (25)l
..tern..
we shall have
= T-/oc-'x'-"x'-
(IS)
..... (16)
provided that the variation does not affect the cyclic momenta
, ', ',..., and that the configurations at times I and t' are un-
altered, so far as they depend on the palpable co-ordinates
fli, 2,S>- The initial and final values of the ignored co-ordinates
will in general be affected.
To prove (16) we have, on the above understandings,
where terms have been cancelled in virtue of 5 (2). The last
member of (17) represents a variation of the integral
'(T-V)<
on the supposition that X = o,X' = o,X* = o,... throughout, whilst
&Zi> t>&, &Q<* vanish at times t and t'; i.e. it is a variation in which
the initial and final configurations are absolutely unaltered. It
therefore vanishes as a consequence of the Hamiltonian principle
in its original form.
Larmor has also given the corresponding form of the principle
of least action. He shows that if we write
then
. (18)
(19)
provided the varied motion takes place with the same constant
value of the energy, and with the same constant cyclic momenta,
between the same two configurations, these being regarded as
defined by the palpable co-ordinates alone.
8. Hamilton's Principal and Characteristic Functions.
In the investigations next to be described a more extended
meaning is given to the symbol 5. We will, in the first
instance, denote by it an infinitesimal variation of the most Principal
general kind, affecting not merely the values of the co- function.
ordinates at any instant, but also the initial and final con-
figurations and the times of passing through them. If we put
(i)
we have, then,
Let us now denote by x'+Sx', y'+Sy', z'+Sz', the final co-ordinates
(i.e. at time t'+St') of a particle m. In the terms in (2) which relate
to the upper limit we must therefore write Sx'x'St', Sy'y'St',
Sz'i'St' for Sx, Sy, dz. With a similar modification at the lower
limit, we obtain
S =-
(3)
where H(=T+V) is the constant value of the energy in the free
motion of the system, and r(=t' l) is the time of transit. In
generalized co-ordinates this takes the form
8S= -
(4)
Now if we select any two arbitrary configurations as initial and
final, it is evident that we can in general (by suitable initial velocities
or impulses) start the system so that it will of itself pass from the
first to the second in any prescribed time T. On this view of the
matter, S will be a function of the initial and final co-ordinates
(gi, qi,... and q'i, q' ) and the time T, as independent variables.
And we obtain at once from (4)
as as
as
and
.
dr
(5)
(6)
S is called by Hamilton the principal function ; if its general form
for any system can be found, the preceding equations suffice to
determine the motion resulting from any given conditions. If we
substitute the values of pi, p-,,... and H from (5) and (6) in the ex-
pression for the kinetic energy in the form T' (see i), the equation
T'+V = H . . . (7)
becomes a partial differential equation to be satisfied by S. It has
been shown by Jacobi that the dynamical problem resolves itself
into obtaining a " complete " solution of this equation, involving
n + i arbitrary constants. This aspect of the subject, as a problem
in partial differential equations, has received great attention at the
hands of mathematicians, but must be passed over here.
There is a similar theory for the function
(g\ Character-
' v ' Istic
It follows from (4) that function.
(9)
This formula (it may be remarked) contains the principle of " least
DYNAMICS
7 6 3
action " as a particujar case. Selecting, as before, any two arbitrary
configurations, it is in general possible to start the system from one
of these, with a prescribed value of the total energy H, so that it
shall pass through the other. Hence, regarding A as a function of
the initial and final co-ordinates and the energy, we find
. . . (10)
and
A is called by Hamilton the characteristic function; it represents,
of course, the " action " of the system in the free motion (with
prescribed energy) between the two configurations. Like S, it
satisfies a partial differential equation, obtained by substitution
from (10) in (7).
The preceding theorems are easily adapted to the case of cyclic
systems. We have only to write
. (12)
in place of (i), and
, . . . (3)
in place of (8) ; cf. 7 ad fin. It is understood, of course, that in
(12) S is regarded as a function of the initial and final values of the
palpable co-ordinates qi, ga,...g m , and of the time of transit r, the
cyclic momenta being invariable. Similarly in (13), A is regarded
as a function of the initial and final values of q\, qi,...q m , and of the
total energy H, with the cyclic momenta invariable. It will be
found that the forms of (4) and (9) will be conserved, provided the
variations Jgi, Sq,,... be understood to refer to the palpable co-
ordinates alone. It follows that the equations (5), (6) and (10),
(n) will still hold under the new meanings of the symbols.
9. Reciprocal Properties of Direct and Reversed Motions.
We may employ Hamilton's principal function to prove a very
remarkable formula connecting any two slightly disturbed
natural motions of the system. If we use the symbols
S and A to denote the corresponding variations, the
theorem is
or, integrating from t to t',
X(6p',.&q',-
If for shortness we write
i ^
( r > S >
we have
/> r =-Z.(r, i)2.-Z.(r, s')Sq',
(2)
(3)
(4)
with a similar expression for A r . Hence the right-hand side of
(2) becomes
-S r |Z.(r, s)Sq.+Z.(r, s')Sq'.\bq,+2,{Z.(r, i)Ag.+S.(r, s')bq',}Sq,
= 2 r 2.(r > s')!S2r.A 2 '.-A gr .S 2 '.j . . (5)
The same value is obtained in like manner for the expression on
the left hand of (2); hence the theorem, which, in the form (i),
is due to Lagrange, and was employed by him as the basis of his
method of treating the dynamical theory of Variation of Arbitrary
Constants.
The formula (2) leads at once to some remarkable reciprocal re-
lations which were first expressed, in their complete form, by
. Helmholtz. Consider any natural motion of a con-
holtz~'s servative system between two configurations O and O'
reciprocal tnrou gh which it passes at times / and t' respectively,
. and let t' t = r. As the system is passing through O
1 let a small impulse Sp, be given to it, and let the conse-
quent alteration in the co-ordinate q, after the time r be Sq',. Next
consider the reversed motion of the system, in which it would, if
undisturbed, pass from O' to O in the same time T. Let a small
impulse &p', be applied as the system is passing through O', and
let the consequent change in the co-ordinate q, after a time T be Sq,.
Helmholtz's first theorem is to the effect that
Sq,:Sp', = &q',:Sp,. . . . (6)
To prove this, suppose, in (2), that all the Sq vanish, and likewise
all the Sp with the exception of Sp,. Further, suppose all the Aj'
to vanish, and likewise all the A' except Ap'., the formula then
gives
Sp,.bq,= -*p'..Sq',, . . . (7)
which is equivalent to Helmholtz's result, since we may suppose
the symbol A to refer to the reversed motion, provided we
change the signs of the A. In the most general motion of a top
(MECHANICS, 22), suppose that a small impulsive couple about the
vertical produces after a time T a change S9 in the inclination of the
axis, the theorem asserts that in the reversed motion an equal im-
pulsive couple in the plane of 6 will produce after a time T a change
&il in the azimuth of the axis, which is equal to SO. It is under-
stood, of course, that the couples have no components (in the
generalized sense) except of the types indicated; for instance, they
may consist in each case of a force applied to the top at a point of
the axis, and of the accompanying reaction at the pivot. Again, in
the corpuscular theory of light let O, O' be any two points on the axis
of a symmetrical optical combination, and let V, V be the correspond-
ing velocities of light. At O let a small impulse be applied per-
pendicular to the axis so as to produce an angular deflection &9, and
jet & be the corresponding lateral deviation.at O'. In like manner
in the reversed motion, let a small deflection SB' at O' produce a
lateral deviation at O. The theorem (6) asserts that
O Q f
V^=W ..-. (8)
or, in optical language, the " apparent distance " of O from O' is to
that of O'.from O in the ratio of the refractive indices at O' and O
respectively.
In the second reciprocal theorem of Helmholtz the configuration
O is slightly varied by a change Sq, in one of the co- Helm-
ordinates, the momenta being all unaltered, and Sq', is hottz's
the consequent variation in one of the momenta after second
time T. Similarly in the reversed motion a change Sp', reciprocal
produces after time T a change of momentum Sp,. The theorem.
theorem asserts that
This follows at once from (2) if we imagine all the Sp to vanish, and
likewise all the Sq save Sq,, and if (further) we imagine all the A/)'
to vanish, and all the Ag' save Ag',. Reverting to the optical
illustration, if F, F', be principal foci, we can infer that the converg-
ence at F' of a parallel beam from F is to the convergence at F of
a parallel beam from F' in the inverse ratio of the refractive indices
at F' and F. This is equivalent to Gauss's relation between the
two principal focal lengths of an optical instrument. It may be
obtained otherwise as a particular case of (8).
We have by no means exhausted the inferences to be drawn from
Lagrange's formula. It may be noted that (6) includes as particular
cases various important reciprocal relations in optics and acoustics
formulated by R. J. E. Clausius, Helmholtz, Thomson (Lord Kelvin)
and Tait, and Lord Rayleigh. In applying the theorem care must
be taken that in the reversed motion the reversal is complete, and
extends to every velocity in the system; in particular, in a cyclic
system the cyclic motions must be imagined to be reversed with
the rest. Conspicuous instances of the failure of the theorem
through incomplete reversal are afforded by the propagation of
sound in a .wind and the propagation of light in a magnetic
medium.
It may be worth while to point out, however, that there is no
such limitation to the use of Lagrange's formula (i). In applying
it to cyclic systems, it is convenient to introduce conditions already
laid down, viz. that the co-ordinates q, are the palpable co-ordinates
and that the cyclic momenta are invariable. Special inference can
then be drawn as before, but the interpretation cannot be expressed
so neatly owing to the non-reversibility of the motion.
AUTHORITIES. The most important and most accessible early
authorities are J. L. Lagrange, Mecanique analytique (ist ed. Paris,
1788, 2nd ed. Paris, 1811; reprinted in CEuvres, vols. xi., xii., Paris,
1 888-89); Hamilton, "Ona General Method in Dynamics, "Phil.Trans.
1834 and 1835; C. G. J. Jacobi, Vorlesungen iiber Dynamik (Berlin,
1866, reprinted in Werke, Supp.-Bd., Berlin, 1884). An account of
the extensive literature on the differential equations of dynamics and
on the theory of variation of parameters is given by A. Cayley,
" Report on Theoretical Dynamics," Brit. Assn. Rep. (1857), Mathe-
matical Papers, vol. iii. (Cambridge, 1890). For the modern develop-
ments reference may be made to Thomson and Tait, Natural Philo-
sophy (ist ed. Oxford, 1867, 2nd ed. Cambridge, 1879); Lord
Rayleigh, Theory of Sound, vol. i. (ist ed. London, 1877, 2nd ed.
London, 1894); E. J. Routh, Stability of Motion (London, 1877),
and Rigid Dynamics (4th ed. London, 1884) ; H. Helmholtz,
" TJber die physikalische Bedeutung des Prinzips der kleinsten
Action," Crelle, vol. c., 1886, reprinted (with other cognate papers)
in Wiss. Abh. vol. iii. (Leipzig, 1895); J- Larmor, "On Least
Action," Proc. Land. Math. Soc. vol. xv. (1884); E. T. Whittaker,
Analytical Dynamics (Cambridge, 1904). As to the question of
stability, reference may be made to H. Poincare, " Sur 1'equilibre
d'une masse fluide animee d'un mouvement de rotation " A eta math.
vol. vii. (1885); F. Klein and A. Sommerfeld, Theorie des Kreisels,
pts. i, 2 (Leipzig, 1897-1898); A. Lioupanoff and J. Hadamard,
Liouville, 5me serie, vol. iii. (1897); T. J. I. Bromwich, Proc. Land.
Math. Soc. vol. xxxiii. (1901). A remarkable interpretation of
various dynamical principles is given by H. Hertz in his posthumous
work Die Prinzipten der Mechanik (Leipzig, 1894), of which an
English translation appeared in 1900. (H. LB.)
7 6 4
DYNAMITE DYNAMO
DYNAMITE (Gr. dvvafus, power), the name given to several
explosive preparations containing nitroglycerin (q.v.) which are
almost exclusively used for blasting purposes. The first practical
application of nitroglycerin in this way was made by A. Nobel in
1863. He soaked gunpowder with the liquid and fired the gun-
powder by an ordinary fuse. Later he found that nitroglycerin
could be detonated by the explosion of several materials such as
fulminate of mercury, the use of which as a detonator he patented
in 1867. In 1866-1867 he experimented with charcoal and other
substances, and found the infusorial earth known as kieselguhr,
which consists mainly of silica (nearly 95%), eminently adapted
to the purpose, as it was inert, non-combustibie, and after a little
heating and preparation very porous, retaining a large amount
of nitroglycerin as water is held in a sponge, without very serious
exudation on standing. This kieselguhr dynamite is generally
made by incorporating three parts of nitroglycerin with one part
of the dry earth, the paste being then formed into cylindrical
cartridges. This work is done by hand. Generally a small
percentage of the kieselguhr is replaced by a mixture containing
sodium and ammonium carbonates, talc and ochre. This product
is known as dynamite No. i . Disabilities attaching to kieselguhr
dynamite are that when placed in water the nitroglycerin is
liable to be exuded or displaced, also that, like nitroglycerin
itself, it freezes fairly easily and thawing the frozen cartridges
is a dangerous operation. Other substances, e.g. kaolin, tripoli,
magnesia alba (magnesium carbonate), alumina, sugar, charcoal,
some powdered salts and mixtures of sawdust and salts, have been
shown to be absorbents more or less adapted to the purpose of
making a dynamite. Charcoal from cork is said to absorb about
90% of its weight of nitroglycerin. With the idea of obtaining
greater safety, mixtures have been made of nitroglycerin with
wood fibre, charcoal and metallic nitrates. Lithofracteur, for
instance, consists of 50% nitroglycerin and a mixture of
prepared sawdust, kieselguhr and barium nitrate. Car-
bonite contains 25% of nitroglycerin, the remainder being
a mixture of wood-meal and alkali nitrates, with about i%
of sulphur. Dualin, atlas dynamite and potentite are other
modifications.
A convenient form in which nitroglycerin can be made up for
blasting purposes, especially in wet ground, is the gelatinous
material obtained by the action of nitroglycerin, either alone
or with the help of solvents, on low-grade or soluble gun-cottons.
It is known as blasting gelatin, and was first made by Nobel
by incorporating 6 or 7% of low nitrated cellulose (collodion
cotton or soluble gun-cotton) with slightly warmed nitroglycerin.
The result is a transparent plastic material, of specific gravity
i S to i -6, which may be kept under water for a long time without
appreciable change. It is less sensitive to detonation than
ordinary dynamite, and although its explosion is slightly slower
it is more powerful than dynamite and much superior to the
liquid nitroglycerin. Blasting gelatin also freezes and is
sensitive to percussion in this state. Camphor and other sub-
stances have been added to blasting gelatin to render it more
solid and less sensitive. Some modifications of blasting gelatin,
e.g. gelignite, contain wood-meal and such oxygen-containing
salts as potassium nitrate. Experience has conclusively shown
that dynamites are more satisfactory, quicker, and more intense
in action than liquid nitroglycerin.
To prevent nitroglycerin and some of the forms of dynamite
from freezing it has been proposed to add to them small quantities
of either monochlor-dinitroglycerin or of a nitrated poly-glycerin.
The former is obtained by first acting upon glycerin with hydrogen
chloride to produce -chlorhydrin or chlor-propylene glycol,
CjH 7 OjCl, which is then nitrated as in the case of glycerin. The
latter is obtained by heating glycerin for six or seven hours to
about 300 C., whereby water is split off in such manner that a
diglycerin C 6 H 14 O 5 , for the most part, results. This on nitration
in the usual manner gives a product C 6 Hi N 4 Oi3, which burns and
explodes in a similar manner to ordinary nitroglycerin, but is
less sensitive and does not so easily freeze. The mono- and
di-nitrates of glycerin have also been proposed as additions to
ordinary nitroglycerin (q.v.) for the same purpose. (W. R. E. H.)
DYNAMO (a shortened form of " dynamo-electric machine,"
from Gr. SvvaniS, power), a machine for converting mechanical
into electrical energy.
The dynamo ranks with the telegraph and telephone as one
of the three striking applications of electrical and magnetic
science to which the material progress that marked the second
half of the igth century was in no small measure due. Since
the discovery of the principle of the dynamo by Faraday in 1831
the simple model which he first constructed has been gradually
developed into the machines of 5000 horse-power or more which
are now built to meet the needs of large cities for electric lighting
and power, while at the same time the numbers of dynamos
in use have increased almost beyond estimate. Yet such was the
insight of Faraday into the fundamental nature of the dynamo t^iat
the theory of its action which he laid down has remained essenti-
ally unchanged. His experiments on the current which was set
up in a coil of wire during its movement across the poles of a
magnet led naturally to the explanation of induced electro-
motive force as caused by the linking or unlinking of magnetic
lines of flux with an electric circuit. For the more definite case
of the dynamo, however, we may, with Faraday, make the
transition from line-linkage to the equivalent conception of
" line-cutting " as the source of E.M.F. in other words, to
the idea of electric conductors "cutting" or intersecting 1 the
lines of flux in virtue of relative motion of the magnetic field
and electric circuit. On the 28th of October 1831 Faraday
mounted a copper disk so that it could be rotated edgewise
between the poles of a permanent horse-shoe magnet. When
so rotated, it cut the lines of flux which passed transversely
through its lower half, and by means of two rubbing contacts,
one on its periphery and the other on its spindle, the circuit
was closed through a galvanometer, which indicated the passage
of a continuous current so long as the disk was rotated (fig. i).
Thus by the invention of the first
dynamo Faraday proved his idea that
the E.M.F. induced through the inter-
action of a magnetic field and an electric
circuit was due to the passage of a
portion of the electric circuit across the
lines of flux, or vice versa, and so could
be maintained if the cutting of the
lines were made continuous. 2 In com-
parison with Faraday's results, the subsequent advance is to be
regarded as a progressive perfecting of the mechanical and
electro-magnetic design, partly from the theoretical and partly
from the practical side, rather than as modifying or adding to
the idea which was originally present in his mind, and of which
he already saw the possibilities.
A dynamo, then, is a machine in which, by means of continuous
relative motion, an electrical conductor or system of conductors
forming part of a circuit is caused to cut the lines of a magnetic
field or fields; the cutting of the magnetic flux induces an electro-
motive force in the conductors, and when the circuit is closed
a current flows, whereby mechanical energy is converted into
electrical energy.
Little practical use could be made of electrical energy so long as its
only known sources were frictional machines and voltaic batteries.
The cost of the materials for producing electrical currents on a large
scale by chemical action was prohibitive, while the frictional machine
only yielded very small currents at extremely high potentials. In
thedynamc/,on the other hand, electrical energyin a convenient form
could be cheaply and easily obtained by mechanical means, and
with its invention the application of electricity to a wide range of
commercial purposes became economically possible. As a converter
of energy from one form to another it is only surpassed in efficiency
by another electrical appliance, namely, the transformer (see
TRANSFORMERS). In this there is merely conversion of electrical
energy at a high potential into electrical energy at a low potential,
or vice versa, but in the dynamo the mechanical energy which must
be applied to maintain the relative movement of magnetic field and
conductor is absorbed, and reappears in an electrical form. A true
transformation takes place, and the proportion which the rate of
1 Experimental Researches in Electricity, series ii. 6, pars. 256,
259-260, and series xxviii. 34.
2 Ibid, series i. 4, pars. 84-90.
FIG. i.
DYNAMO
765
delivery of electrical energy bears to the power absorbed, or in other
words the efficiency, is the more remarkable. The useful return or
" output " at the terminals of a large machine may amount to as
much as 95% of the mechanical energy which forms the " input."
Since it needs some prime mover to drive it, the dynamo has not
made any direct addition to our sources of energy, and does not
therefore rank with the primary battery or oil-engine, or even the
steam-engine, all of which draw their energy more immediately from
nature. Yet by the aid of the dynamo the power to be derived
from waterfalls can be economically and conveniently converted
into an electrical form and brought to the neighbouring factory or
distant town, to be there reconverted by motors into mechanical
power. Over any but very short distances energy is most easily
transmitted when it is in an electrical form, and turbine-driven
dynamos are very largely and successfully employed for such
transmission. Thus by conducing to the utilization of water-power
which may previously have had but little value owing to its dis-
advantageous situation, the dynamo may almost be said to have
added another to our available natural resources.
The two essential parts of the dynamo, as required by its
definition, may be illustrated by the original disk machine of
Faraday. They are (i) the iron magnet, between the poles of
which a magnetic field exists, and (2) the electrical conductors,
represented by the rotating copper disk. The sector of the disk
cutting the lines of the field forms part of a closed electric circuit,
and has an E.M.F. induced in it, by reason of which it is no longer
simply a conductor, but has become " active." In its more
highly developed form the simple copper disk is elaborated into
a system of many active wires or bars which form the " winding,"
and which are so interconnected as to add up their several
E.M.F. 's. Since these active wires are usually mounted on an
iron structure, which may be likened to the keeper or " arma-
ture " of a magnet rotating between its poles, the term " arma-
ture " has been extended to cover not only the iron core, but also
the wires on it, and when there is no iron core it is even applied
to the copper conductors themselves. In the dynamo of Faraday
the " armature " was the rotating portion, and such is the case
with modern continuous-current dynamos; in alternators,
however, the magnet, or a portion of it, is more commonly rotated
while the armature is stationary. It is in fact immaterial to the
action whether the one or the other is moved, or both, so long as
their relative motion causes the armature conductors to cut the
magnetic flux. As to the ultimate reason why an E.M.F. should
be thereby induced, physical science cannot as yet yield any
surer knowledge than in the days of Faraday. ' For the engineer,
it suffices to know that the E.M.F. of the dynamo is due to the
cutting of the magnetic flux by the active wires, and, further,
is proportional to the rate at which the lines are cut. 2
The equation of the electromotive force which is required in
order to render this statement quantitative must contain three
factors, namely, the density of the flux in the air-gap through
which the armature conductors move, the active length of these
wires, and the speed of their movement. For given values of
the first and third factors and a single straight wire moved
parallel to itself through a uniform field, the maximum rate of
cutting is evidently obtained when the three directions of the lines
of the conductor's length and
of the relative motion are re-
spectively at right angles to
each other, as shown by the
three co-ordinate axes of fig. 2.
The E.M.F. of the single wire is
then
E = B e LVXio- 8 volts. . . (i)
where B, is the density of the
flux within the air-gap ex-
pressed in C.G.S. lines per
square centimetre, L is the active length of the conductor
within the field in centimetres, and V is the velocity of move-
ment in centimetres per second. Further, the direction
in which the E.M.F. has the above maximum value is along
the length of the conductor, its " sense " being determined by
1 " On the Physical Lines of Magnetic Force," Phil. Mag., June
1852.
' Faraday, Exp. Res. series xxviii. 34, pars. 3104, 3114-3115.
FIG. 2.
the direction of the movement 3 in relation to the direction of the
field.
The second fundamental equation of the dynamo brings to
light its mechanical side, and rests on H. C. Oersted's discovery
of the interaction of a magnetic field and an electric current. If
a straight electric conductor through which a current is passing
be so placed in a magnetic field that its length is not parallel
to the direction of the lines of flux, it is acted on by a force which
will move it, if free, in a definite direction relatively to the
magnet; or if the conductor is fixed and the magnet is free, the
latter will itself move in the opposite direction. Now in the
dynamo the active wires are placed so that their length is at right
angles to the field; hence when they are rotated and an electric
current begins to flow under the E.M.F. which they induce, a
mutual force at once arises between the copper conductors and
the magnet, and the direction of this force must by Lenz's law
be opposed to the direction of the movement. Thus as soon
as the disk of fig. i is rotated and its circuit is closed, it experi-
ences a mechanical pull or drag which must be overcome by the
force applied to turn the disk. While the magnet must be firmly
held so as to remain stationary, the armature must be of such
mechanical construction that its wires can be forcibly driven
through the magnetic field against the mutual pull. This law
of electrodynamic action may be quantitatively stated in an
equation of mechanical force, analogous to the equation (I.) of
electromotive force, which states the law of electromagnetic
induction. If a conductor of length L cm., carrying a current
C amperes, is immersed in a field of uniform density B ff , and the
length of the conductor is at right angles to the direction of the
lines, it is acted on by a force
F = B t LCXio- 1 dynes,
(2)
and the direction of this force is at right angles to the conductor
and to the field. The rate at which electrical energy is developed,
when this force is overcome by moving the conductor as a
dynamo through the field, is EC = B,,LVC X lo" 8 watts, whence
the equality of the mechanical power absorbed and the electrical
power developed (as required by the law of the conservation
of energy) is easily established. The whole of this power is not,
however, available at the terminals of the machine; if R a be the
resistance of the armature in ohms, the passage of the current C a
through the armature conductors causes a drop of pressure of
CoR,, volts, and a corresponding loss of energy in the armature
at the rate of C 2 R a watts. As the resistance of the .external
circuit R, is lowered, the current C = E a /(R e +Ro) is increased.
The increase of the current is, however, accompanied by a pro-
gressive increase in the loss of energy over the armature, and as
this is expended in heating the armature conductors, their tem-
perature may rise so much as to destroy the insulating materials
with which they are covered. Hence the temperature which
the machine may be permitted to attain in its working is of great
importance in determining its output, the current which forms
one factor therein being primarily limited by the heating which
it produces in the armature winding. The lower the resistance
of the armature, the less the rise of its temperature for a given
current flowing through it; and the reason for the almost
universal adoption of copper as the material for the armature
conductors is now seen to lie in its high conductivity. 4
Since the voltage of the dynamo is the second factor to which
its output is proportional, the conditions which render the in-
duced E.M.F. a maximum must evidently be reproduced as far
as possible in practice, if the best use is to be made of a given
mass of iron and copper. The first problem, therefore, in the
construction of the dynamo is the disposition of the wires and
field in such a manner that the three directions of field, length o f
active conductors, and movement are at right angles to one
another, and so that the relative motion is continuous. Re-
ciprocating motion, such as would be obtained by direct attach-
ment of the conductors to the piston of a steam-engine, .has
* Id., ib. series i. 4, pars. 114-119.
4 Id., ib. series ii. 6, pars. 211, 213; series xxviii. 34, par.
3152.
7 66
DYNAMO
been successfully employed only in the special case of an
" oscillator," 1 producing a small current very rapidly changing
in direction. Rotary motion is therefore universally adopted,
and with this two distinct cases arise. Either (A) the active
length of the wire is parallel to the axis of rotation, or (B) it is at
right angles to it.
(A) If a conductor is rotated in the gap between the poles of
a horse-shoe magnet, and these poles have plane parallel faces
opposing one another as in fig. 3, not only is the density of the
flux in the interpolar gap small, but the direction of movement
is not always at right angles to the
direction of the lines, which for the
most part pass straight across from one
opposing face to the other. When the
conductor is midway between the poles
(i.e. either at its highest or lowest point) ,
1 it is at this instant sliding along the lines
and does not cut them, so that its
E.M.F. is zero. Taking this position as
the starting-point, as the conductor
moves round, its rate of line-cutting
increases to a maximum when it has
moved through a right angle and is oppo-
site to the centre of a pole-face (as in
fig. 3), from which point onward the
rate decreases to zero when it has moved
FIG. 3.
through 1 80. Each time the conductor crosses a line drawn sym-
metrically through the gap between the poles and at right angles
to the axis of rotation, the E.M.F. along its length is reversed in
direction, since the motion relatively to the direction of the field
is reversed. If the ends of the active conductor are electrically
connected to two collecting rings fixed upon, but insulated from,
the shaft, two stationary brushes bb can be pressed on the rings
so as to make a sliding contact. An external circuit can then
be connected to the brushes, which will form the " terminals "
of the machine, the periodically reversed or alternating E.M.F.
induced in the active conductor will cause an alternating current
to flow through conductor and external circuit, and the simplest
form of " alternator " is obtained. If the field cut by the
straight conductor is of uniform density, and all the lines pass
straight across from one pole-face to the other (both of which
assumptions are approximately correct), a curve connecting the
instantaneous values of the E.M.F. as ordinates with time
or degrees of angular movement as abscissae (as shown at the
foot of fig. 3), will, if the speed of rotation be uniform, be a sine
curve. If, however, the conductor is mounted on an iron
cylinder (fig. 4), 2 a sufficient margin
being allowed for mechanical clearance
between it and the poles, not only will
the reluctance of the magnetic circuit
be reduced and the total flux and its
density in the air-gap B g be thereby
increased, but the path of the lines
will become nearly radial, except at
the " fringe " near the edges of the
pole- tips; hence the relative directions
of the movement and of the lines will
be continuously at right angles. The
shape of the E.M.F. curve will then be
Volt.
FIG. 4.
as shown in fig. 4 flat-topped, with rounded corners rapidly
sloping down to the zero line.
But a single wire cannot thus be made to give more than a few
volts, and while dynamos for voltages from 5 to 10 are required
for certain purposes, the voltages in common use range from
' Invented by Nikola Tesla (Elec. Eng. vol. xiii. p. 83. Cf. Brit.
Pat. Spec. Nos. 2801 and 2812, 1894). Several early inventors, e.g.
Salvatore dal Negro in 1832 (Phil. Mag. third series, vol. i. p. 45),
adopted reciprocating or oscillatory motion, and this was again tried
by Edison in 1878.
'The advantage to be obtained by making the poles closely
embrace the armature core was first realized by Dr Werner von
Siemens in his " shuttle-wound " armature (Brit. Pat. No. 2107,
1856).
loo to 10,000. It is therefore necessary to connect a number
of such wires in series, so as to form an " armature winding."
If several similar conductors are arranged along the length of
the iron core parallel to the first (fig. 5), the E.M.F.'s generated
in the conductors which at any
moment are under the same pole are ,
similarly directed, and are opposite to $
the directions of the E.M.F.'s in the J|
conductors under the other pole (cf . M
fig. 5 where the dotted and crossed
ends of the wires indicate E.M.F^s
directed respectively towards and away
from the observer). Two distinct FIG. 5.
methods of winding thence arise, the similarity of the E.M.F.'s
under the same pole being taken advantage of in the first, and
the opposite E.M.F.'s under N and S poles in the second.
1. The first, or nng-winding, was invented by Dr Antonio
Pacinotti of Florence 3 in 1860, and was subsequently and inde-
pendently reintroduced in i87o 4 by the Belgian electrician,
Zenobe Theophile Gramme, whence it is also frequently called
the " Gramme" winding. By this method the farther end of
conductor i (fig. 5) is joined in series to the near end of con-
ductor 2 ; this latter lies next to it on the surface of the core or
immediately above it, so that both are simultaneously under
the same pole-piece. For this series connexion to be possible, the
armature core must be a hollow cylin-
der, supported from the shaft on an
open non-magnetic spider or hub, be-
tween the arms of which there is room
for the internal wire completing the
loop (fig. 6). The end of one complete
loop or turn embracing one side of the
armature core thus forms the starting-
point for another loop, and the process
can be continued if required to form
a coil of two or more turns. In the
ring armature the iron core serves
the double purpose of conducting the
lines across from one pole to the
other, and also of shielding from the magnetic flux the
hollow interior through which the connecting wires pass. Any
lines which leak across the central space are cut by the internal
wires, and the direction of cutting is such that the E.M.F.
caused thereby opposes the E.M.F. due to the active conductors
proper on the external surface. If, however, the section of iron
in the core be correctly proportioned, the number of lines which
cross the interior will bear but a small ratio to those which pass
entirely through the iron, and the counter E.M.F. of the internal
wires will become very small; they may then be regarded simply
as connectors for joining the external active wires in series.
2. The second or drum method was used in the original
" shuttle-wound " armatures invented
by Dr Werner von Siemens in 1856, and
is sometimes called the " Siemens "
winding. The farther end of conductor i
(fig. 5) is joined by a connecting wire to
the farther end of another conductor
2' situated nearly diametrically opposite
on the other side of the core and under
the opposite pole-piece. The near end of
the complete loop or turn is then brought
across the end of the core, and can be
used as the starting-point for another
loop beginning with conductor 2, which
is situated by the side of the first conductor. The iron
core may now be solid from the surface to the shaft, since
no connecting wires are brought through the centre, and
each loop embraces the entire armature core (fig. 7). By the
formation of two loops in the ring armature and of the single loop
in the drum armature, two active wires are placed in series;
SVT
FIG. 6.
inn
o- 180* sec
FIG. 7.
1 Nuovo Cimento (1865), 19, 378.
4 Brit. Pat. No. 1668 (1870) ; Con
'omptes rendus (1871), 73, 175.
DYNAMO
767
the curves of instantaneous E.M.F. are therefore similar in shape
to that of the single wire (fig. 4), but with their ordinates raised
throughout to double their former height, as shown at the foot
of fig. 6.
Next, if the free ends of either the ring or drum loops, instead
of being connected to two collecting rings, are attached to the
two halves of a split-ring insulated from the shaft (as shown in
fig. 7 in connexion with a drum armature), and the stationary
brushes are so set relatively to the loops that they pass over from
the one half of the split-ring to the other half at the moment
when the loops are passing the centre of the interpolar gap, and
so are giving little or no E.M.F., each brush will always remain
either positive or negative. The current in the external circuit
attached to the brushes will then have a constant direction,
although the E.M.F. in the active wires still remains alternating;
the curve of E.M.F. obtained at the brushes is thus (as in fig. 7)
entirely above the zero line. The first dynamo of H. Pixii, 1
which immediately followed Faraday's discovery, gave an
alternating current, but in 1832" the alternator was converted
into a machine giving a unidirected current by the substitution
of a rudimentary " commutator " in place of mercury collecting
cups.
(B) So far the length of the active wires has been parallel to the
axis of rotation, but they may equally well be arranged perpen-
dicularly thereto. The poles will then have plane faces and the
active wires will be disposed with their length approximately
radial to the axis of the shaft. In order to add their E.M.F.'s in
series, two types of winding may be employed, which are precisely
analogous in principle to the ring and drum windings under
arrangement (A).
3. The discoidal or flat-ring armature is equivalent to a ring
of which the radial depth greatly exceeds the length, with the
poles presented to one side of the ring instead of embracing its
cylindrical surface. A similar set of poles is also presented to
the opposite side of the ring, like poles being opposite to one
another, so that in effect each polar surface is divided into two
halves, and the groups of lines from each side bifurcate and pass
circumferentially through the armature core to issue into the
adjacent poles of opposite sign.
4. In the disk machine, no iron core is necessary for the arma-
ture, the two opposite poles of unlike sign being brought close
together, leaving but a short path for the lines in the air-gap
through which the active wires are rotated.
If the above elementary dynamos are compared with fig. i,
it will be found that they all possess a distinctive feature which
is not present in the original disk machine of Faraday. In the
four types of machine above described each active wire in each
revolution first cuts the group of lines forming a field in one
direction, and then cuts the same lines again in the opposite
direction relatively to the sense of the lines, so that along the
length of the wire the E.M.F. alternates in direction. But in
the dynamo of fig. i the sector of the copper disk which is at any
moment moving through the magnetic field and which forms
the single active element is always cutting the lines in the same
manner, so that the E.M.F. generated along its radial length is
continuous and unchanged in direction. This radical distinction
differentiates the two classes of heteropolar and homopolar
dynamos, Faraday's disk machine of fig. i being the type of the
latter class. In it the active element may be arranged either
l Ann. Chim. Phys. 1. 322.
1 Ibid. li. 76. Since in H. Pixii's machine the armature was
stationary, while both magnet and commutator rotated, four
brushes were used, and the arrangement was not so simple as
the split-ring described above, although the result was the same.
J. Saxton's machine (1833) and E. M. Clarke's machine (1835, see
Sturgeon's Annals of Electricity, i. 145) were similar to one another
in that a unidirected current was obtained by utilizing every alter-
nate half-wave of E.M.F., but the former still employed mercury
collecting cups, while the latter employed metal brushes. W.
Sturgeon in 1835 followed Pixii in utilizing the entire wave of
E.M.F., and abandoned the mercury cups in favour of metal brushes
pressing on four semicircular disks (Scientific Researches, p. 252).
The simple split-ring is described by Sir C. Wheatstone and Sir W. F.
Cooke in their Patent No. 8345 (1840).
parallel or at right angles to the axis of rotation; but in both
cases, in order to increase the E.M.F. by placing two or more
elements in series, it becomes necessary either (i) to employ
some form of sliding contact by which the current may be
collected from the end of one active element and passed round
a connecting wire into the next element without again cutting
the field in the reverse direction, or (2) to form on the armature
a loop of which each side is alternately active and inactive. The
first method limits the possibilities of the homopolar machine
so greatly when large currents and high voltages are required
that it is now only used in rare instances, as e.g. occasionally in
dynamos driven by steam-turbines which have a very high
speed of rotation. The second alternative may be carried into
effect with any of the four methods of armature winding, but
is practically confined to the drum and disk types. In its drum
form the field is divided into two or more projecting poles, all
of the same sign, with intervening neutral spaces of equal width,
and the span of the loop in the direction of rotation is at least
equal to the width of a polar projection, as in fig. 8, where two
polar projections are shown. Each side of the loop then plays
a dual part; it first cuts the lines of one polar projection and
generates an E.M.F., and next becomes an inactive connecting
wire, while the action is taken up by the opposite side of the
loop which has previously served as a connector but now cuts
the lines of the next polar projection. The E.M.F. is thus always
in the same direction along the side which is at any moment
active, but alternates round the loop as a whole, and the dis-
tinctive peculiarity of the homopolar machine, so soon as
any form of " winding "
is introduced into its
armature, is lost. It
results that the homo-
polar principle, which
would prima facie appear
specially suitable for the
generation of a uni-
directional E.M.F. and
continuous current, can
seldom be used for this
purpose and is practically confined to alternators. It may
therefore be said that in almost all dynamos, whether they
supply an alternating or a continuous current in the external
circuit, the E.M.F. and current in the armature are alternating.
Ring winding was largely employed in early continuous-
current dynamos and also in the alternators of Gramme and
H. Wilde, and later of Auguste de Meritens. Disk winding was
also successfully introduced for alternators, as in the magneto-
machines of Nollet (1849) and the alternators of Wilde (1866)
and'Siemens (1878), and its use was continued in the machines
of W. M. Mordey and S. Z. Ferranti. But although the ring,
discoidal-ring and disk methods of winding deserve mention
from their historical importance, experience has shown that
drum winding possesses a marked superiority for both electrical
and manufacturing reasons; the three former methods have
in fact been practically discarded in its favour, so that the drum
method will hereafter alone be considered.
The drum coil, composed of several loops wound side by side,
may therefore be regarded as the constituent active element out
of which the armature winding of the modern dynamo is de-
veloped. Its application to the multipolar machine is easily
followed from fig. 9, which illustrates the heteropolar type of
dynamo. The span of the loops, which is nearly 180 or across
the diameter of the two-pole machine, is reduced approximately
to 90 in the four-pole or to 60 in the six-pole machine and so on,
the curvature of the coil becoming gradually less as the number
of poles is increased. The passage of a coil through two magnetic
fields of opposite direction yields a complete wave of E.M.F.,
such as is shown in fig. 6, and the time in seconds taken to pass
through such a complete cycle is the " period " of the alternating
E.M.F. The number of complete periods through which the
E.M.F. of the coil passes per second is called the " periodicity "
or " frequency " of the machine. In the bipolar machine this
FIG. 8.
7 68
DYNAMO
is equal to the number of revolutions per second, and in the
multipolar machine it is equal to the number of pairs of fields
through which the coil passes in one second; hence in general
the periodicity is />N/6o, where N = the number of revolutions
per minute and /> = the number of pairs of poles, and this holds
true of the E.M.F. and current round the coil, even though the
I. Smooth.
FIG. 9.
II. Toothed.
E.M.F. and current furnished to the external circuit may be
rendered unidirectional or continuous. The only difference on
this point is that in the continuous-current machine the poles
are usually fewer than in the alternator, and the periodicity is
correspondingly lower. Thus in the former case the number
of poles ranges from. 2 to 12 and the usual frequencies from 5 to
20; but with alternators the frequencies in commercial use
range from 25 to 120, and in large machines driven by slow-
speed engines the number of poles may even be as high as 96.
The drum coil may be applied either to the external surface
of a rotating armature, the field-magnet being external and
stationary (fig. 9), or to the internal surface of a stationary
armature (fig. 10), the field-magnet being internal and rotat-
ing. While the former combination is universally adopted
in the continuous-current dynamo, the latter is more usual in
FIG. 10.
the modern alternator. In either case the iron armature core
must be "laminated"; the passage of the lines of the field
across its surface sets up E.M.F.'s which are in opposite direc-
tions under poles of opposite sign, so that if the core were a
solid mass a current-sheet would flow along its surface opposite
to a pole, and complete its circuit by passing through the deeper
layers of metal or by returning in a sheet under a pole of opposite
sign. Such "eddy-currents" can be practically avoided by
dividing the metal core into laminations at right angles to the
length of the active wires which are themselves arranged to
secure the greatest rate of line-cutting and maximum E.M.F.
The production of the eddy-current E.M.F. is not thereby
prevented, but the paths of the eddy-currents are so broken up
that the comparatively high resistance with which they meet
reduces their amount very greatly. The laminae must be lightly
insulated from one another, right up to their edges, so that the
E.M.F.'s which still act across their thickness will not be added
up along the length of the core, but will only produce extremely
small currents circulating through the interior of the separate
laminations. Each thin iron plate is either coated with an
insulating varnish or has one of its sides covered with a sheet of
very thin paper; the thickness of the laminae is usually about
one-fortieth of an inch, and if this is not exceeded the rate at
which energy is dissipated by eddy-currents in the core is
so far reduced that it does not
seriously impair the efficiency of the
machine.
Lastly, the drum coils may be
either attached to the surface of a
smooth armature core (fig. 9, I.), or
may be wound through holes formed
close to the periphery of the core,
or may be embedded in the slots
between projecting iron teeth (figs.
9 [II.] and 10). Originally employed
by Antonio Pacinotti in connexion
with ring winding, the toothed
armature was after some consider-
able use largely discarded in favour
of the smooth core; it has, how-
ever, been reintroduced with a
fuller understanding of the special
precautions necessitated in its design,
and it is now so commonly used
that it may be said to have superseded the smooth-surface
armature.
Not only does the toothed armature reduce the length of the
air-gap to the minimum permitted by mechanical and magnetic
considerations, and furnish better mechanical protection to the
armature coils, but it also ensures the positive holding of the active
wires against the mechanical drag which they experience as they
pass through the magnetic field. Further, the active wires in the
toothed armature'are relieved of a large proportion of this mechanical
drag, which is transferred to the iron teeth. The lines of the field,
after passing through the air-gap proper, divide between the teeth
and the slots in proportion to their relative permeances. Hence
at any moment the active wires are situated m a weak field, and
for a given armature current the force on them is only proportional
to this weak field. This important result is connected with the
fact that when the armature is giving current the distribution of
the lines over the face of each tooth is distorted, so that they become
denser on the "trailing" side than on the "leading" side; 1 the
effect of the non-uniform distribution acting on all the teeth is to
produce a magnetic drag on the armature core proportional to the
current passing through the wires, so that the total resisting force
remains the same as if the armature had a smooth core. The amount
by which the stress on the active wires is reduced entirely depends
upon the degree to which the teeth are saturated, but, since the
relative permeability of iron even at a flux density of 20,000 lines
per sq . cm. is to that of air approximately as 33 : 1 , the embedded wires
are very largely relieved of the driving stress. An additional gain
is that solid bars of much greater width can be used in the toothed
armature than on a smooth core without appreciable loss from
eddy-currents within their mass.
A disadvantage of the slotted core is, however, that it usually
necessitates the lamination of the pole-pieces. If the top of the slot
is open, and its width of opening is considerably greater than the
length of the air-gap from the iron of the pole-face to the surface
of the teeth, the lines become unequally distributed not only at the
surface of the teeth, but also at the face of the pole-pieces; and
this massing of the lines into bands causes the density at the pole-
face to be rhythmically varied as the teeth pass under it. No such
variation can take place in a solid mass of metal without the pro-
duction of eddy-currents within it; hence if the width of the slot-
opening is equal to or exceeds twice the length of the single air-gap,
lamination of the pole-pieces in the same plane as that of the
armature core becomes advisable.
If the wires are threaded through holes or tunnels pierced close
to the periphery of the core, the same advantages are gained as
with open slots, and lamination of the pole-pieces is rendered un-
necessary. But on the other hand, the process of winding becomes
laborious and expensive, while the increase in the inductance of
1 By the " leading " side of the tooth or of an armature coil or
sector is to be understood that side which first enters under a pole
after passing through the interpolar gap, and the edge of the pole
under which it enters is here termed the " leading " edge as opposed
to the " trailing " edge or corner from under which a tooth or coil
emerges into the gap between the poles ; cf. fig. 30, where the leading
and trailing pole-corners are marked // and tt.
DYNAMO
769
the coils owing to their being surrounded by a closed iron circuit
is prejudicial to sparkless commutation in the continuous-current
dynamo and to the regulation of the voltage of the alternator. A
compromise is found in the half-closed slot, which is not uncommon
in alternators, although the open slot is more usual in continuous-
current dynamos.
With the addition of more turns to the elementary drum loop
or of several complete coils, new questions arise, and in con-
nexion therewith the two great classes of machines, viz. alter-
nators and continuous-current dynamos, which have above been
treated side by side, diverge considerably, so that they are best
considered separately. The electromotive-force equation of
the alternator will be
first deduced, and sub-
sequently that of the
continuous-current
machine.
Corresponding to the
number of pairs of
poles in the multipolar
alternator, it is evident
that there may also be
an equal number of
coils as shown dia-
grammatically in fig.
ii. The additional
coils, being similarly
situated in respect to
other pairs of poles,
will exactly reproduce
the E.M.F. of the original coil in phase and magnitude, so
that when they are connected in series the total E.M.F. will
be proportional to the number of coils in series; or if they
are connected in parallel, while not adding to the E.M.F., they
will proportionately increase the current-carrying capacity of
the combination. But within each coil the addition of more
loops will not cause an equal increase in the total E.M.F., unless
the phases of the component E.M.F.'s due to the several turns
are identical, and on this account it becomes necessary to
consider the effect of the width of the coil-side.
If the additional loops are wound within the same slots as the
original loop, the winding is " concentrated," and each turn will
then add the same E.M.F. But if the coil-side is divided between
two or more slots, the phase of the E.M.F. yielded by the wires
in one slot being different from that of the wires in another
neighbouring slot, the sum of all the E.M.F.'s will be less than
the E.M.F. of one component loop
multiplied by the number of loops
or turns in the coil. The per-
centage reduction in the E.M.F.
will depend upon the number of
the slots in a coil-side and their
distance apart, i.e. on the virtual
width of the coil-side expressed as
. a fraction of the " pole-pitch " or
I the distance measured along the
pitch-line from the centre of one
pole to the centre of a neighbour-
.ing pole of opposite sign (fig. 12).
The winding is now to be regarded
as " grouped," since a small
number of distinct phases corre-
sponding to the groups within the two, three or four slots have
to be compounded together. As the number of slots per coil-
side is increased, an approach is gradually made to the case
of " uniform distribution," such as would obtain in a smooth-
core armature in which the turns of the coil are wound closely
side by side. Thus in the six-turn coil of fig. 12 A, which
represents the development of a two-pole armature when the
core is cut down to the shaft and opened out flat, there are
in effect six phases compounded together, each of which differs
but little from that of its next neighbour. With numerous
wires lying still closer together a large number of phases are
vm 25
FIG. 12.
compounded until the distribution becomes practically uniform;
the decrease in the E.M.F., as compared with that of a single
turn multiplied by the number in series, is then immediately
dependent upon the width of the coil-side relatively to the pole-
pitch.
If the width of the inner loop of fig. 12 A is less than that of
the pole-face, its two sides will for some portion of each period
be moving under the same pole, and " differential action "
results, the net E.M.F. being only that due to the difference
between the E.M.F.'s of the two sides. The loop of smallest
width must therefore exceed the width of pole-face, if direct
differential action is to be avoided. The same consideration also
determines the width of the outer loop; if this be deducted from
twice the pole-pitch, the difference should not be less than the
width of the pole-face, so that, e.g., in a bipolar machine the outer
loop may stand to the S. pole exactly . .
as the inner loop stands to the N.
pole (fig. 13). In other words, the
width of the coil-side must not ex-
ceed the width of the interpolar gap
between two fields. Evidently then
if the ratio of the pole-width to the
pole-pitch approaches unity, the
width of the coil-side must be very
small, and vice versa. A compromise between these con-
flicting considerations is found if the pole is made not much
more than half the pole-pitch, and the width of the coil-side is
similarly about half the pole-pitch and therefore equal in width
to the pole (fig. 13). A single large coil, such as that of fig. 12 A,
can, however, equally well be divided into two halves by taking
the end-connexions of one half of the turns round the opposite
side of the shaft (fig. 12 B), as indeed has already been done
in fig. 13. Each sheaf or band of active wires corresponding
to a pole is thereby unaffected, but the advantages are gained
that the axial length of the end-connexions is halved, and that
they have less inductance. Thus if in fig. n there are four turns
per coil, fig. 14 is electrically equivalent to it (save that the coils
are here shown divided into two parallel paths, each carrying
half the total current). When the large coils are divided as
above described, it results that there are as many coils as there
are poles, the outer foop of the small coil having a width equal
to the pole-pitch, and the inner a width equal to the pole-face.
Such is the form which the " single-phase alternator " takes,
but since only one-half of the armature core is now covered
with winding, an en-
tirely distinct but
similar set of coils
may be wound to form
a second armature
circuit between the
coils of the first cir-
cuit. The phase of
this second circuit will
differ by 90 or a
quarter of a period
from that of the first,
and it may either be
used to feed an en-
tirely separate external
circuit possibly at a
different pressure or, if
it be composed of the
same number of turns and therefore gives the same voltage, it may
be interconnected with the first circuit to form a " quarter-phase
alternator," as will be more fully described later. By an exten-
sion of the same process, if the width of each side of a coil is
reduced to one-sixth of the pole-pitch, three armature circuits
can be wound on the same core, and a " three-phase alternator,"
giving waves of E.M.F. differing in phase by 120, is obtained.
The fundamental " electromotive-force equation " of the hetero-
polar alternator can now be given a more definite form. Let Z, be
the number of C. G. S. lines or the total flux, which issuing from any
5
DYNAMO
one pole flows through the armature core, to leave it by another pole
of opposite sign. Since each active wire cuts these lines, first as they
enter the armature core and then as they emerge from it to enter
another pole, the total number of lines cut in one revolution by any
one active wire is 2/>Z. The time in seconds taken by one revolution
is 6o/N. The average E.M.F. induced in each active wire in one
revolution being proportional to the number of lines cut divided
by the time taken to cut them is therefore 2Z (N/6o) X iar* volts.
The active wires which are in series and form one distinct phase
may be divided into as many bands as there are poles; let each
such band contain / active wires, which as before explained may
either form one side of a sjngle large coil or the adjacent sides of
two coils when the large coil is divided into two halves. Since the
wires are joined up into loops, two bands are best considered together,
which with either arrangement yield in effect a single coil of t turns.
The average E.M.F. 's of all the wires in the two bands when added
together will therefore be ,jZa(/>N/6o)/X lo" 8 . But unless each band
is concentrated within a single slot, there must be some differential
action as they cross the neutral line between the poles, so that the
last expression is virtually the gross average E.M.F. of the loops
on the assumption that the component E.M.F. 's always act in agree-
ment round the coil and do not at times partially neutralize one
another. The net average E.M.F. of the coil as a whole, or the
arithmetical mean of all the instantaneous values of a half-wave
of the actual E.M.F. curve, is therefore reduced to an extent depend-
ing upon the amount of differential action and so upon the width
of the coil-side when this is not concentrated. Let ' = the co-
efficient by which the gross average E.M.F. must be multiplied to
give the net average E.M.F.; then k' may be called the width-
factor," and will have some value less than unity when the wires
of each band are spread over a number of slots. The net average
E.M.F. of the two bands corresponding to a pair of poles is thus
)<X icr 8 .
.
The shape of the curve of instantaneous E.M.F. of the coil must
further be taken into account. The " effective " value of an alter-
nating E.M.F. is equal to the square root of the mean square of its
instantaneous values, since this is the value of the equivalent uni-
directional and unvarying E.M.F., which when applied to a given
resistance develops energy at the same rate as the alternating
E.M.F., when the effect of the latter is averaged over one or any
whole number of periods. Let k" = the ratio of the square root of the
mean square to the average E.M.F. of the coil, i.e. ~ average M p '
Since it depends upon the shape of the E.M.F. curve, k* is also
known as the " form-factor "; thus if the length of gap between
pole-face and armature core and the spacing of the wires were so
graduated as to give a curve of E.M.F. varying after a sine law,
the form-factor would have the particular value of ir/2V2 = i-ii,
and to this condition practical alternators more or less conform.
The effective E.M .F. of the two bands corresponding to a pair of poles
is thus e < // = 4*'*'Z.,(/>N/6o)<X !(>-._
In any one phase there are p pairs of bands, and these may be
divided into q parallel paths, where q is one or any whole number
of which p is a multiple. The effective E.M.F. of a complete phase
is therefore pe,f/lq. Lastly, if m = the number of phases into which
the armature winding is divided, and T = the total number of active
wires on the armature counted all round its periphery, t = T/2pm,
and the effective E.M.F. per phase is E a = 2k'k"Z a (pNrl6omq) X IO" 8 .
The two factors k' and k* may be united into one coefficient, and
the equation then takes its final form
E = 2KZ (/>NT/6omg)Xio- volts ..... (ia)
In the alternator q is most commonly I, and there is only one circuit
per phase ; finally the value of K or the product of the width-factor
and the form-factor usually falls between the limits of I and I -25.
We have next to consider the effect of the addition of more
armature loops in the case of dynamos which give a unidirectional
E.M.F. in virtue of their split-ring collecting device, i.e. of the
type shown in fig. 7 with drum armature or its equivalent ring
form. As before, if the additional loops are wound in continua-
tion of the first as one coil connected to a single split-ring, this
coil must be more or less concentrated into a narrow band;
since if the width becomes nearly equal to or exceeds the width
of the interpolar gap, the two edges of the coil-side will just as in
the alternator act differentially against one another during part
of each revolution. The drum winding with a single coil thus
gives an armature of the H- or " shuttle " form invented by
Dr Werner von Siemens. Although the E.M.F. of such an
arrangement may have a much higher maximum value than that
of the curve of fig. 7 for a single loop, yet it still periodically
varies during each revolution and so gives a pulsating current,
which is for most practical uses unsuitable. But such pulsation
might be largely reduced if, for example, a second coil were
placed at right angles to the original coil and the two were con-
nected in series; the crests of the wave of E.M.F. of the second
coil will then coincide with the hollows of the first wave, and
although the maximum of the resultant curve of E.M.F. may
be no higher its fluctuations will be greatly decreased. A
spacial displacement of the new coils along the pole-pitch,
somewhat as in a polyphase machine, thus suggests itself, and
the process may be carried still further by increasing the number
of equally spaced coils, provided that they can be connected
in series and yet can have their connexion with the external
circuit reversed as they pass the neutral line between the poles.
Given two coils at right angles and with their split-rings
displaced through a corresponding angle of 90, they may be
connected in series by joining one brush to the opposite brush
of the second coil, the external circuit being applied to the two
remaining brushes. 1 The same arrangement may again be re-
peated with another pair of coils in parallel with the first, and
we thus obtain fig. 15 with four split-rings, their connexions to
FIG. 15.
the loops being marked by corresponding numerals; the four
coils will give the same E.M.F. as the two, but they will be jointly
capable of carrying twice the current, owing to their division
into two parallel circuits. Now in place of the four split-rings
may be employed the greatly simplified four-segment structure
shown in fig. 16, which serves precisely the same purpose as the
four split-rings but only requires two instead of eight brushes.
The effect of joining brush 2 in fig. 15 across to brush 3, brush 4
to brush 5, 5 to 6, &c., has virtually been to connect the end
of coil A with the beginning of coil B, and the end of coil B with
the beginning of coil A', and so on, until they form a continuous
closed helix. Each sector of fig. 16 will therefore replace two
halves of a pair of adjacent split-rings, if the end and beginning
of a pair of adjacent coils are connected to it in a regular order
of sequence. The four sectors are insulated from one another
and from the shaft, and the whole structure is
known as the "commutator," 2 its function
being not simply to collect the current but also
to commute its direction in any coil as it passes j
the interpolar gap. The principle of the " closed- I
coil continuous-current armature " is thus reached,
in which there are at least two parallel circuits
from brush to brush, and from which a practi-
cally steady current can be obtained. Each coil
is successively short-circuited, as a brush bridges
over the insulation between the two sectors which terminate
it; and the brushes must be so set that the period of
short-circuit takes place when the coil is generating little
or no E.M.F., i.e. when it is moving through the zone between
the pole-tips. The effect of the four coils in reducing the
percentage fluctuation of the E.M.F. is very marked, as
shown at the foot of fig. 15 (where the upper curve is the
resultant obtained by adding together the separate curves
of coils A and B), and the levelling process may evidently be
carried still further by the insertion of more coils and more
corresponding sectors in the commutator, until the whole
1 Such was the arrangement of Wheatstone's machine (Brit- P at -
No. 9022) of 1841, which was the first to give a more nearly " con-
tinuous " current, the number of sections and split-rings being five.
* Its development from the split-ring was due to Pacinotti and
Gramme (Brit. Pat. No. 1668, 1870) in connexion with their ring
armatures.
FIG. 16.
DYNAMO
771
FIG. 17.
armature is covered with winding. For example, figs. 17 and 18
show a ring and a drum armature, each with eight coils and
eight commutator sectors; their resultant curve, on the assump-
tion that a single active wire gives the flat-topped curve of fig. 4,
,, - will be the upper wavy line
of E.M.F. obtained by adding
together two of the resultant
curves of fig. 15, with a relative
displacement of 45. The
amount of fluctuation for a
given number of commutator
sectors depends upon the shape
of the curve of E.M.F. yielded
by the separate small sections
of the armature winding; the
greater the polar arc, the less
the fluctuation. In practice,
with a polar arc equal to about
0.75 of the pitch, any number
of sectors over 32 per pair of
poles yields an E.M.F. which
is sensibly constant through-
out one or any number of
revolutions.
The fundamental electro-
motive-force equation of the
continuous-current heteropolar
machine is easily obtained by
analogy from that of the alter-
nator. The gross average
E.W.F. from the two sides of
a drum loop without reference
to its direction is as before
4Z a (N/6o) X lo-s volts. But for
two reasons its net average E.M.F.
may be less; the span of the loop may be less than the pole-pitch,
so that even when the brushes are so set that the position of short-
circuit falls on the line where the field changes its direction, the two
sides of the loop for some little time act against each other; or,
secondly, even if the span of the loop be equal to the pole-pitch, the
brushes may be so set that the reversal of the direction of its induced
E.M.F. does not coincide with reversal of the current by the passage
of the coil under the brushes. The net average E.M.F. of the loop
is therefore proportional to the algebraic sum of the lines which it
cuts in passing from one brush to another, and this is equal to the
net amount of the flux which is included within the loop when
situated in the position of short-circuit under a brush. The amount
of this flux may be expressed as k'Z a where k' is some coefficient,
less than unity if the span of the coil be less than the pole-pitch, and
also varying with the position of
the brushes. The net average
E.M.F. of the loop is therefore
FIG. 1 8.
paied with its previous simple statement (I.). The three variable
terms still find their equivalents, but are differently expressed, the
density B ? being replaced by the total flux of one field Z , the length
L of the single active wire by the total number of such wires T, and
the velocity of movement V by the number of revolutions per second.
Even when the speed is fixed, an endless number of changes may
be rung by altering the relative values of the remaining two factors;
and in successful practice these may be varied between fairly wide
limits without detriment to the working or economy of the machine.
While it may be said that the equation of the E.M.F. was implicitly
known from Faraday's time onwards, the difficulty under which
designers laboured in early days was the problem of choosing the
correct relation of Z or T for the required output; this, again,
was due chiefly to the difficulty of predetermining the total flux
before the machine was constructed. The general error lay in
employing too weak a field and too many turns on the armature, and
credit must here be given to the American inventors, E. Weston and
T. A. Edison, for their early appreciation of the superiority in
practical working of the drum armature, with comparatively few
active wires rotating in a strong field.
Continuous-current Dynamos. On passing to the separate
consideration of alternators and continuous-current dynamos,
the chief constructive features of the latter will first
be taken in greater detail. As already stated in the < urecore
continuous-current dynamo the armature is usually
the rotating portion, and the necessity of laminating its core
has been generally described. The thin iron stampings employed
to build up the core take the form of circular washers or " disks,"
which in small machines are strung directly on the shaft; in
larger multipolar machines, in which the required radial depth
of iron is small relatively to the diameter, a central cast iron
hub supports the disks. Since the driving force is transmitted
through the shaft to the disks, they must in the former case be
securely fixed by keys sunk into the shaft; when a central hub
is employed (fig. 19) it is keyed to the shaft, and its projecting
arms engage in notches stamped on the inner circumference
of the disks, or the latter have dovetailed projections fitting
into the arms. The disks are then tightly compressed and
clamped between stout end-plates so as to form a nearly solid
iron cylinder of axial length slightly exceeding the correspond-
ing dimension of the poles. If the armature is more than 4 ft.
in diameter, the disks become too large to be conveniently
handled in one piece, and are therefore made in segments, which
are built up so as to break joint alternately. Prior to assem-
blage, the external circumference of each disk is notched in a
stamping machine with the required number of slots to receive
the armature coils, and the longitudinal grooves thereby formed
in the finished core only require to have their sharp edges
In practice the number of sec-
tions of thearmature winding is so
large and their distribution round
the armature periphery is so
uniform, that the sum total ofL
the instantaneous E.M.F.'s of
the several sections which are in
series becomes at any moment
equal to the net average E.M.F.
of one loop multiplied by the
number which are in series. If
the winding is divided into q
parallel circuits, the number of
loops in series is r/zq, so that the
total E.M.F. is E<, = 2('/g)Z <l (N/6o)TXio- 8 volts. Thus as com-
pared with the alternator not only is there no division of the
winding into separate phases, but the form-factor k" disappears,
since the effective and average E.M.F.'s are the same. Further
whereas in the alternator q may =i, in the continuous-current
closed-coil armature there can never be less than two circuits in
parallel from brush to brush, and if more, their number must always
be a multiple of two, so that q can never be less than two and
must always be an even number. Lastly, the factor k' is usually so
closely equal to I, that the simplified equation may in practice be
adopted, viz.
E = (2/g)Z (/)N/6o)TXio- 8 volts . . (16)
The fundamental equation of the electromotive force of the
dynamo in its fully developed forms (i a) (and I b) may be com-
FIG. 19.
smoothed off so that there may be no risk of injury to the
insulation of the coils.
With open slots either the armature coils may be encased
with wrappings of oiled linen, varnished paper and thin flexible
micanite sheeting in order to insulate them electrically
from the iron slots in which they are afterwards em-
bedded; or the slots may be themselves lined with
moulded troughs of micanite, &c., for the reception of the arma-
ture coils, the latter method being necessary with half-closed
slots. According to the nature of the coils armatures may be
divided into the two classes of coil-wound and bar-wound. In
the former class, round copper wire, double-cotton covered, is
77 *
DYNAMO
employed, and the coils are either wound by hand directly on
to the armature core, or are shaped on formers prior to being
inserted in the armature slots. Hand-winding is now only
employed in very small bipolar machines, the process being
expensive and accompanied by the disadvantage that if one
section requires to be repaired, the whole armature usually has
to be dismantled and re-wound. Former-wound coils are, on
the other hand, economical in labour, perfectly symmetrical
and interchangeable, and can be thoroughly insulated before
they are placed in the slots. The shapers employed in the form-
ing process are very various, but are usually arranged to give
to the finished coil a lozenge shape, the two straight active
sides which fit into the straight slots being joined by V-shaped
ends; at each apex of the coil the wire is given a twist, so that
the two sides fall into different levels, an upper and a lower,
corresponding to the two layers which the coil-sides foim on the
finished armature. Rectangular wire of comparatively small
section may be similarly treated, and if qnly one loop is required
per section, wide and thin strip can be bent into a complete
loop, so that the only soldered joints are those at the commutator
end where the loops are interconnected. But finally with
massive rectangular conductors, the transition must be made to
bar-winding, in which each bar is a half-loop, insulated by being
taped after it has been bent to the required shape; the separate
bars are arranged on the armature in two layers, and their ends
are soldered together subsequently to form loops. As a general
rule, whether bars or former-wound coils are employed, the
armature is barrel-wound, i.e. the end-connexions project out-
wards from the slots with but little change of level, so that they
form a cylindrical mass supported on projections from the end-
plates of the core (fig. 19); but, in certain cases, the end-con-
nexions are bent downwards at right angles to the shaft, and
they may then consist of separate strips of copper bent to a
so-called butterfly or evolute shape.
After the coils or loops have been assembled in the slots on the
armature core, and the commutator has been fixed in place on
theshaft, the soldering of the ends of the coils proceeds, by which
at once the union of the end of one coil with the beginning of the
next, and also their connexion to the commutator sectors, is
effected, and in this lies the essential part of armature winding.
The development of the modern drum armature, with its numerous
coils connected in orderly sequence into a symmetrical winding,
Lap , as contrasted with the earlier Siemens armatures, was
winding, initiated by F. von Hefner Alteneck (1871), and the laws
governing the interconnexion of the coils have now been
elaborated into a definite system of winding formulae. Whatever
the number of wires or bars in each side of a coil, i.e. whether it
consist of a single loop or of many turns, the final connexions of its
free ends are not thereby affected, and it may be mentally replaced
by a single loop with two active inducing sides. The coil-sides in
their final position are thus to be
regarded as separate primary ele-
ments, even in number, and dis-
tributed uniformly round the
armature periphery or divided into
small, equally spaced groups by
>* being located within the sjots of a
toothed armature. Attention must
, then be directed simply to the
span of the back connexion between
the elements at the end of the
armature further from the com-
mutator, and to the span of the
front connexion by which the last
turn of a coil is finally connected
to the first turn of the next in
Lap-loops sequence, precisely as if each coil
FIG. 20. of many turns were reduced to a
single loop. In order to avoid
direct differential action, the span of the back connexion which
fixes the width of the coil must exceed the width of the pole-
face, and should not be far different from the pole-pitch; it
is usually a little less than the pole-pitch. Taking any one
element as No. I in fig. 20, where for simplicity a smooth-core
bipolar armature is shown, the number of winding-spaces, each
to be occupied by an element, which must be counted off in order
to find the position of the next element in series, is called the " pitch "
of the end-connexion, front or back, as the case may be. Thus the
back pitch of the winding as marked by the dotted line in fig. 20 is
10
7, the second side of the first loop being the element numbered
1+7 = 8. In forming the front end-connexion which completes
the loop and joins it to the next in succession, two possible cases
present themselves. By the first, or " lap-winding," the front
end-connexion is brought backwards, and passing on its way to a
junction with a commutator sector is led to a third element lying
within the two sides of the first loop, i.e. the second loop starts with
the element, No. 3, lying next but one to the starting-point of the
FIG. 21.
first loop. The winding therefore returns backwards on itself to form
each front end, but as a whole it works continually forwards round
the armature, until it finally " re-enters," after every element has
been traversed. The development of the completed winding on a
flat surface shows that it takes the form of a number of partially
overlapping loops, whence its name originates. The firm-line
portion of fig. 21 gives the development of an armature similar to
that of fig. 1 8 when cut through at the point marked X and opened
out; two of the overlapping loops
are marked thereon in heavy lines.
The multipolar lap-wound armature
is obtained by simply repeating the
bipolar winding p times, as indicated
by the dotted additions of fig. 21
which convert it from a two-pole to
a four-pole machine. The character- *(
istic feature of the lap- wound arma-
ture is that there are as many
parallel paths from brush to brush,
and as many points at which the
current must be collected, as there
are poles. As the bipolar closed-coil
continuous-current armature has
been shown to consist in reality of
two circuits in parallel, each giving
the same E.M.F. and carrying half
the total current, so the multipolar
lap-wound drum consists of p pairs of parallel paths, each giving
the same E.M.F. and carrying i/2p of the total current. Thus in
equation I. 6 we have q 2p, and the special form which the E.M.F.
equation of the lap-wound armature takes is Eo = Z (N/6o)TXlo~ 8
volts. All the brushes which are of the same sign must be connected
together in order to collect the total armature current. The several
brush-sets of the multipolar lap-wound machine may again be
reduced to two by " cross-connexion " of sectors situated 36o/#>
Wave-loops
FIG. 22.
FIG. 23.
apart, but this is seldom done, since the commutator must then be
lengthened p times in order to obtain the necessary brush contact-
surface for the collection of the entire current.
But for many purposes, especially where the voltage is high and
the current small, it is advantageous to add together the inductive
effect of the several poles of the multipolar machine by jy av e-
throwing the E.M.F.'s of half the total number of elements w iadlaf.
into series, the number of parallel circuits being conversely
again reduced to two. This is effected by the second method of
winding the closed-coil continuous current drum, which is known
DYNAMO
773
as " wave-winding." The front pitch is now in the same direction
round the armature as the back pitch (fig. 22), so that the beginning
of the second loop, i.e. element No. 15, lies outside the first loop.
After p loops have been formed and as many elements have been
traversed as there are poles, the distance covered either falls short of
or exceeds a complete tour of the armature by two winding-spaces,
or the width of two elements. A second and third tour are then
made, and so on, until finally the winding again closes upon itself.
When the completed winding is developed as in fig. 23, it is seen
to work continuously forwards round the armature in zigzag waves,
one of which is marked in heavy lines, and the number of complete
tours is equal to the average of the back and front pitches. Since
the number of parallel circuits from brush to brush is a 2, the
E.M.F. equation of the wave-wound drum is E = pZ a (N/6o) rXlo~ 8
volts. Only two sets of brushes are necessary, but in order to
shorten the length of the commutator, other sets may also be added
at the point of highest and lowest potential up to as many in number
as there are poles. Thus the advantage of the wave-wound armature
is that for a given voltage and number of poles the number of active
wires is only i/p of that in the lap-wound drum, each being of larger
cross-section in order to carry p times as much current ; hence the
ratio of the room occupied by the insulation to the copper area is
less, and the available space is better utilized. A further ad vantage
is that the two circuits from brush to brush consist of elements
influenced by all the poles, so that if for any reason, such as eccen-
tricity of the armature within the bore of the pole-pieces, or want of
uniformity in the magnetic qualities of the poles, the flux of each
field is not equal to that of every other, the equality of the voltage
produced by the two halves of the winding is not affected thereby.
In appearance the two classes of armatures, lap and wave, may
be distinguished in the barrel type of winding by the slope of the
upper layer of back end-connexions, and that of the front connexions
at the commutator end being parallel to one another in the latter,
and oppositely directed in the former.
After completion of the winding, the end-connexions are
firmly bound down by bands of steel or phosphor bronze binding
wire, so as to resist the stress of centrifugal force. In the case
FIG. 24.
of smooth-surface armatures, such bands are also placed at
intervals along the length of the armature core, but in toothed
armatures, although the coils are often in small machines secured
in the slots by similar bands of a non-magnetic high-resistance
wire, the use of hard-wood wedges driven into notches at the
sides of the slots becomes preferable, and in very large machines
indispensable. The external appearance of a typical armature
with lap-winding is shown in fig. 24.
A sound mechanical construction of the commutator is of
vital importance to the good working of the continuous-current
Dynamo. The narrow, wedge-shaped sectors of hard-
' drawn copper, with their insulating strips of thin
mica, are built up into a cylinder, tightly clamped
together, and turned in the lathe; at each end a V-shaped
groove is turned, and into these are fitted rings of micanite
of corresponding section (fig. 19); the whole is then slipped
over a cast iron sleeve, and at either end strong rings are forced
into the V-shaped grooves under great pressure and fixed by a
number of closely-pitched tightening bolts. In dynamos driven
by steam-turbines in which the peripheral speed of the com-
mutator is very high, rings of steel are frequently shrunk on the
surface of the commutator at either end and at its centre. But
in every case the copper must be entirely insulated from the
supporting body of metal by the interposition of mica or micanite
and the prevention of any movement of the sectors under
frequent and long-continued heating and cooling calls for the
greatest care in both the design and the manufacture.
On passing to the second fundamental part of the dynamo,
namely, the field-magnet, its functions may be briefly recalled as
follows: It has to supply the magnetic flux; to pro-
vide for it an iron path as nearly closed as possible
upon the armature, save for the air-gaps which must maga et.
exist between the pole-system and the armature core,
the one stationary and the other rotating; and, lastly, it has
to give the lines such direction and intensity within the air-gaps
that they may be cut by the armature wires to the best advan-
tage. Roughly corresponding to the three functions above
summarized are the three portions which are more or less differen-
tiated in the complete structure. These are: (i) the magnet
" cores " or " limbs," carrying the exciting coils whereby the
inert iron is converted into an electro-magnet; (2) the yoke,
which joins the limbs together and conducts the flux between
them; and (3) the pole-pieces, which face the armature and
transmit the lines from the limbs through the air-gap to the
armature core, or vice versa.
Of the countless shapes which the field-magnet may take, it
may be said, without much exaggeration, that almost all have been
tried; yet those which have proved economical
and successful, and hence have met with general
adoption, may be classed under a compara-
tively small number of types. For bipolar
machines the single horse-shoe (fig. 25), which
is the lineal successor of the permanent magnet
employed in the first magneto-electric machines,
was formerly very largely used. It takes two
principal forms, according as the pole-pieces and
armature are above or beneath the magnet
limbs and yoke. The " over-type " form is
best suited to small belt-driven dynamos, while
the " under-type " is admirably adapted to be
directly driven by the steam-engine, the arma-
FIG. 25.
ture shaft being immediately coupled to the crank-shaft of the engine.
In the latter case the magnet must be mounted on non-magnetic
supports of gun-metal or zinc, so as to hold it at some distance
away from the iron bedplate which carries both engine and dynamo;
otherwise a large proportion of the flux which passes through the
magnet limbs would leak through the bedplate across from pole
to pole without passing through the armature core, and so would not
be cut by the armature wires.
Next may be placed the " Manchester " field (fig. 26) the type
of a divided magnetic circuit in which the flux forming one field or
pole is divided between two magnets. An exciting coil is placed
on each half of the double horse-shoe magnet, the pair being so
wound that consequent poles are formed above and below the
armature. Each magnet thus carries one-half of the total flux, the
lines of the two halves uniting to
form a common field where they issue
forth into or leave the air-gaps. The
pole-pieces may be lighter than in the
single horse-shoe type, and the field
is much more symmetrical, whence it
is well suited to ring armatures of
large diameter. Yet these advantages
are greatly discounted by the excessive
magnetic leakage, and by the increased
weight of copper in the exciting coils.
Even if the greater percentage which
FIG. 26.
the leakage lines bear to the useful flux is neglected, and the cross
sectional area of each magnet core is but half that of the equivalent
single horse-shoe, the weight of wire in the double magnet for the
same rise of temperature in the coils must be some 40% more than
in the single horse-shoe, and the rate at which energy is expended
in heating the coils will exceed that of the single horse-shoe in the
same proportion.
Thirdly comes the two-pole ironclad type, so called from the
exciting coil being more or less encased by the iron yoke ; this latter
is divided into two halves, which pass on either side of the armature.
Unless the yoke be kept well away from the polar edges and arma-
ture, the leakage across the air into the yoke becomes considerable,
especially if only one exciting coil is used, as in fig. 27 A; it is better,
therefore, to divide the excitation between two coils, as in fig. 27 B,
when the field also becomes symmetrical.
From this form is easily derived the multipolar type of fig. 28 or
fig. 29, which is by far the most usual for any number of poles from
four upwards; its leakage coefficient is but small, and it is economical
in weight both of iron and copper.
As regards the materials of which magnets are made, generally
speaking there is little difference in the permeability of " wrought
iron" or "mild steel forgings " and good "cast steel"; typical
774
DYNAMO
(B,H) curves connecting the magnetizing force required with different
flux-densities for these materialsare given under ELECTROMAGNETISM.
On the other hand there is a marked inferiority in the
Materials case Q f cagt ; ron) " \ v hieh for a flux-density of B =
of magnets. gooo c.G.S. ]{ nes per gq. cm . requ i res practically the
same number of ampere-turns per centimetre length as steel requires
for B = 16,000. Whatever the material, if the flux-density be pressed
to a high value the ampere-turns are very largely increased owing to
its approaching saturation, and this implies either a large amount
of copper in the field coils or an undue expenditure of electrical
energy in their excitation. Hence there is a limit imposed by
practical considerations to the density at which the magnet should
be worked, and this limit may be placed at about B = 16,000 for
wrought iron or steel, and at half this value for cast iron. For
a given flux, therefore, the cast iron magnet must have twice the
sectional area and be twice as heavy, although this disadvantage
is partly compensated
by its greater cheap-
ness. If, however, cast
i,. iron be used for the
' portion of the magnetic
circuit which is covered
I with the exciting coils,
the further disadvan-
tage must be added
that the weight of cop-
per on the field-magnet
is much increased, so
that it is usual to em-
ploy forgings or cast
steel for the magnet
FIG. 27.
cores on which the coils are wound. If weight is not a disadvantage,
a cast iron yoke may be combined with the wrought iron or cast
steel magnet cores. An absence of joints in the magnetic circuit
is only desirable from the point of view of economy of expense in
machining the component parts during manufacture; when the
surfaces which abut against each other are drawn firmly together
by screws, the want of homogeneity at the joint, which virtually
amounts to the presence of a very thin film of air, produces little
or no effect on the total reluctance by comparison with the very
much longer air-gaps surrounding the armature. In order to re-
duce the eddy-currents in the pole-pieces, due to the use of toothed
armatures with relatively wide slots, the poles themselves must be
laminated, or must have fixed to them laminated pole-shoes, built
up of thin strips of mild steel riveted together (as shown in fig. 29).
However it be built up, the mechanical strength of the magnet
system must be carefully considered. Any two surfaces between
which there exists a field of density B a experience a force tending
to draw them together proportional to the square of the density,
and having a value of B, s /(i'735 X io 6 ) Ib per sq. in. of surface,
over which the density may be regarded as having the uniform
value B e . Hence, quite apart from the torque with which the
stationary part of the dynamo tends to
turn with the rotating part as soon as
current is taken out of the armature,
there exists a force tending to make the
pole-pieces close on the armature as soon
as the field is excited. Since both arma-
ture and magnet must be capable of
} resisting this force, they require to be
rigidly held ; although the one or the other
must be capable of rotation, there should
) otherwise be no possibility of one part of
the magnetic circuit shifting relatively
to any other part. An important con-
p g elusion may be drawn from this cir-
cumstance. If the armature be placed
exactly concentric within the bore of the poles, and the two or
more magnetic fields be symmetrical about a line joining their
centres, there is no tendency for the armature core to be drawn in
one direction more than in another; but if there is any difference
between the densities of the several fields, it will cause an unbalanced
stress on the armature and its shaft, under which it will bend, and
as this bending is continually reversed relatively to the fibres of the
shaft, they will eventually become weakened and give way. Especi-
ally is this likely to take place in dynamos with short air-gaps,
wherein any difference in the lengths of the air-gaps produces a
much greater percentage difference in the flux-density than in
dynamos with long air-gaps. In toothed armatures with short
air-gaps the shaft must on this account be sufficiently strong to
withstand the stress without appreciable bending.
Reference has already been made to the importance in dynamo
design of the predetermination of the flux due to a given number
of ampere-turns wound on the field-magnet, or, con-
T verselv > of tne number of ampere-turns which must
be furnished by the exciting coils in order that a certain
flux corresponding to one field may flow through the
armature core from each pole. An equally important problem
magnetic
is the correct proportioning of the field-magnet, so that the
useful flux Z may be obtained with the greatest economy in
materials and exciting energy. The key to the two problems is
to be found in the concept of a magnetic circuit as originated by
H. A. Rowland and R. H. M. Bosanquet; 1 and the full solution
of both may be especially connected with the name of Dr J.
Hopkinson, from his practical application of the concept in his
design of the Edison-Hopkinson machine, and in his paper on
" Dynamo-Electric Machinery." 2 The publication of this paper
in 1886 begins the second era in the history of the dynamo;
it at once raised its design from the level of empirical rules-of-
thumb to a science, and is thus worthy to be ranked as the
necessary supplement of the original discoveries of Faraday.
The process of predetermining the necessary ampere-turns is
described in a simple case under ELECTROMAGNETISM. In its
extension to the complete dynamo, it consists merely in the
division of the magnetic circuit into such portions as have the
same sectional area and permeability and carry approximately
the same total flux; the difference of magnetic potential that
must exist between the ends of each section of the magnet in
order that the flux may pass through it is then calculated
seriatim for the several portions into which the magnetic circuit
is divided, and the separate items are summed up into one
FIG.
A iVJ. ^7'
magnetomotive force that must be furnished by the exciting
coils.
The chief sections of the magnetic circuit are (i) the air-gaps,
(2) the armature core, and (3) the iron magnet.
The air-gap of a dynamo with smooth-core armature is partly
filled with copper and partly with the cotton, mica, or other materials
used to insulate the core and wires; all these substances are, how-
ever, sensibly non-magnetic, so that the whole interferric gap
between the iron of the pole-pieces and the iron of the armature
may be treated as an air-space, of which the permeability is constant
for all values of the flux density, and in the C.G.S. system is unity.
Hence if / and A a be the length and area of the single air-gap in cm.
and sq. cm., the reluctance of the double air-gap is 2/ ? /A , and the
difference of magnetic potential required to pass Z a lines over this
reluctance is Z a .2^ ( ,/A 1 , = B .2/ ; or, since one ampere-turn gives
1-257 C.G.S. units of magnetomotive force, the exciting power in
ampere-turns required over the two air-gaps is X s = B .2/ ( ,/i-257 =
0-8 Bj.2/,,. In the determination of the area A a small allowance
must be made for the fringe of lines which extend beyond the actual
polar face. In the toothed armature with open slots, the lines are
no longer uniformly distributed over the air-gap area, but are
graduated into alternate bands of dense and weak induction corre-
sponding to the teeth and slots. Further, the lines curve round into
the sides of the teeth, so that their average length of path in the
air and the air-gap reluctance is not so easily calculated. Allowance
must be made for this by taking an increased length of air-gap
= ml a , where m is the ratio maximum density /mean density, of which
the value is chiefly determined by the ratios of the width of tooth
to width of slot and of the width of slot to the air-gap between
pole-face and surface of the armature core.
1 And extended by G. Kapp, " On Modern Continuous-Current
Dynamo-Electric Machines, Proc. Inst. C.E. vol. Ixxxiii. p. 136.
* Drs J. and E. Hopkinson, " Dynamo-Electric Machinery," Phil.
Trans., May 6, 1886; this was further expanded in a second paper
on " Dynamo-Electric Machinery," Proc. Roy. Soc., Feb. 15, 1892,
and both are reprinted in Original Papers on Dynamo-Machinery
and Allied Subjects.
DYNAMO
775
The armature core must be divided into the teeth and the core
proper below the teeth. Owing to the tapering section of the teeth,
the density rises towards their root, and when this reaches a high
value, such as 18,000 or more lines per sq. cm., the saturation of
the iron again forces an increasing proportion of the lines outwards
into the slot. A distinction must then be drawn between the
" apparent " induction which would hold if all the lines were con-
centrated in the teeth, and the " real " induction. The area of the
iron is obtained by multiplying the number of teeth under the pole-
face by their width and by the net length of the iron core parallel
to the axis of rotation. The latter is the gross length of the armature
less the space lost through the insulating varnish or paper between
the disks or through the presence of ventilating ducts, which are
introduced at intervals along the length of the core. The former
deduction averages about 7 to 10 % of the gross length, while the
latter, especially in large multipolar machines, is an even more
important item. After calculating the density at different sections
of the teeth, reference has now to be made to a (B,H) or flux-density
curve, from which may be found the number of ampere-turns
required per cm. length of path. This number may be expressed
as a function of the density in the teeth, and if/ (B ( ) be its average
value over the length of a tooth, the ampere-turns of excitation
required over the teeth on either side of the core as the lines of one
field enter or leave the armature is X<=/(Bi).2/i, where It is the
length of a single tooth in cm.
In the core proper below the teeth the length of path continually
shortens as we pass from the middle of the pole towards the centre
line of symmetry. On the other hand, as the lines gradually accumu-
late in the core, their density increases from zero midway under the
poles until it reaches a maximum on the line of symmetry. The
two effects partially counteract one another, and tend to equalize
the difference of magnetic potential required over the paths of
varying lengths; but since the reluctivity of the iron increases
more rapidly than the density of the lines, we may approximately
take for the length of path (/) the minimum peripheral distance
between the edges of adjacent pole-faces, and then assume the
maximum value of the density of the lines as holding throughout
this entire path. In ring and drum machines the flux issuing from
one pole divides into two halves in the armature core, so that the
maximum density of lines in the armature is B a = Z<,/2a&, where a =
the radial depth of the disks in centimetres and b = the net length of
iron core. The total exciting power required between the pole-
pieces is therefore, at no load, Xp = Xj+Xi4-Xo, where X =
/(B )./ ; in order, however, to allow for the effect of the armature
current, which increases with the load, a further term Xt must be
added.
In the continuous-current dynamo it may be, and usually is,
necessary to move the brushes forward from the interpolar line of
symmetry through a small angle in the direction of rotation, in
order to avoid sparking between the brushes and the commutator
(vide infra). When the dynamo is giving current, the wires on
either side of the diameter of commutation form a current-sheet
flowing along the surface of the armature from end to end, and
whatever the actual end-connexions of the wires, the wires may be
imagined to be joined together into a system of loops such that the
two sides of each loop are carrying current in opposite directions.
Thus a number of armature ampere-turns are formed, and their
effect on the entire system of magnet and armature must be taken
into account. So long as the diameter of commutation coincides
with the line of symmetry, the armature may be regarded as a
cylindrical electromagnet producing a flux of lines, as shown in
fig. 30. The direction of the self-induced flux in the air-gaps is
the same as that of the lines of the external field in one quadrant
on one side of DC, but opposed to it in the other quadrant on the
same side of DC; hence in the
resultant field due to the combined
action of the field-magnet and
armature ampere-turns, the flux is
as much strengthened over the one
half of each polar face as it is
weakened over the other, and the
total number of lines is unaffected,
although their distribution is
altered. The armature ampere-
turns are then called cross-turns,
since they produce a cross-field,
which, when combined with the sym-
metrical field, causes the leading
pole-corners II to be weakened and the trailing pole-corners it to be
strengthened, the neutral line of zero field being thus twisted forwards
in the direction of rotation. But when the brushes and diameter of
commutation are shifted forward, as shown in fig. 31, it will be seen
that a number of ampere-turns, forming a zone between the lines
Dn and mC, are in effect wound immediately on the magnetic circuit,
proper, and this belt of ampere-turns is in direct opposition to the
ampere-turns of the field, as shown by the dotted and crossed wires
on the pole-pieces. The armature ampere-turns are then divisible
into the two bands, the back-turns, included within twice the angle
of lead X, weakening the field, and the cross-turns, bounded by the
lines Dm, nC, again producing distortion of the weakened sym-
metrical field. If, therefore, a certain flux is to be passed through
the armature core in opposition to the demagnetizing turns, the
difference of magnetic potential between the pole-faces must include
not onlyXo.Xi, andXj, but also an item X&, in order to balance the
" back ' ampere-turns of the armature. The amount by which
the brushes must be shifted forward increases with the armature
current, and in corresponding proportion the back ampere-turns
are also increased, their value being CT2X/36o, where c = the current
carried by each of the T active wires. Thus the term Xt takes into
account the effect of the armature reaction on the total flux; it
varies as the armature current and angle of lead required to avoid
sparking are increased; and the reason for its introduction in the
fourth place (Xp = X,+X l -j-X,,-(-Xt), is that it increases the mag-
netic difference of potential which
must exist between the poles of the
dynamo, and to which the greater
part of the leakage is due. The
leakage paths which are in parallel
with the armature across the poles
must now be estimated, and so a new
value be derived for the flux at the
commencement of the iron-magnet
path. If P = their joint permeance,
the leakage flux due to the differ-
ence of potential at the poles is
FIG. 31.
z, = i -257X2 X P, and this must be added to the useful flux
Zo, or Zj, = Z<,-|-z,. There are also certain leakage paths in
parallel with the magnet cores, and upon the permeance of these
a varying number of ampere-turns is acting as we proceed along
the magnet coils; the magnet flux therefore increases by the ad-
dition of leakage along the length of the limbs, and finally reaches
a maximum near the yoke. Either, then, the density in the magnet
B m = Z m /A m will vary if the same sectional area be retained through-
put, or the sectional area of the magnet must itself be progressively
increased. In general, sufficient accuracy will be obtained by
assuming a certain number of additional leakage lines z, as travers-
ing the entire length of magnet limbs and yoke ( = /,), so that the
density in the magnet has the uniform value B m = (Z p +z,,)/A m .
The leakage flux added on actually within the length of the magnet
core or z t will be approximately equal to half the total M.M.F. of
the coils multiplied by the permeance of the leakage paths around
one coil. The corresponding value of H can then be obtained from
the (B, H) curve of the material of which the magnet is composed,
and the ampere-turns thus determined must be added to X p , or
X = X p +X m , where X m =/(B m )/ m . The final equation for the ex-
citing power required on a magnetic circuit as a whole will therefore
take the form
X=AT=o-8B,.2; s +/(B I )2Z ( +/(B < ,)/ +X 4 -f/(B m );, n . ( 3 )
If the magnet cores are of wrought iron or cast steel, and the yoke
is of cast iron, the last term must be divided into two portions
corresponding to the different materials, i.e. into /(B m )/ m +/(By)/,,.
In the ordinary multipolar machine with as many magnet-coils as
there are poles, each coil must furnish half the above number of
ampere-turns.
Since no substance is impermeable to the passage of magnetic flux,
the only form of magnetic circuit free from leakage is one uniformly
wound with ampere-turns over its whole length. The
reduction of the magnetic leakage to a minimum in any
given type is therefore primarily a question of distribut- tea
ing the winding as far as possible uniformly upon the circuit, and
as the winding must be more or less concentrated into coils, it resolves
itself into the necessity of introducing as long air-paths as possible
between any surfaces which are at different magnetic potentials.
No iron should be brought near the machine which does not form
part of the magnetic circuit proper, and especially no iron should be
brought near the poles, between which the difference of magnetic
potential practically reaches its maximum value. In default of a
machine of the same size or similar type on which to experiment,
the probable direction of the leakage flux must be assumed from
the drawing, and the air surrounding the machine must be mapped
out into areas, between which the permeances are calculated as
closely as possible by means of such approximate formulae as those
devised by Professor G. Forbes.
In the earliest " magneto-electric " machines permanent steel
magnets, either simple or compound, were employed, and for many
years these were retained in certain alternators, some a
of which are still in use for arc lighting in lighthouses. Bxcitailoa
But since the field they furnish is very weak, a great
advance was made when they were replaced by soft mtt " ei -
iron electromagnets, which could be made to yield a much more
intense flux. As early as 1831 Faraday 1 experimented with electro-
magnets, and after 1850 they gradually superseded the permanent
magnet. When the total ampere-turns required to excite the
electromagnet have been determined, it remains to decide how
the excitation shall be obtained; and, according to the method
1 Exp. Res., series i. 4, par. in. In 1845 Wheatstone and Cooke
patented the use of " voltaic " magnets in place of permanent
magnets (No. 10,655).
776
DYNAMO
adopted, continuous-current machines may be divided into four
well-defined classes.
The simplest method, and that which was first used, is separate
excitation from some other source of direct current, which may
be either a primary or a secondary battery or another dynamo
(fie Vt) But since the armature yields a continuous current, it
was early suggested (by J. Brett in 1848 and F. Sinsteden in 1851)
that this current might be utilized to increase the flux; combinations
of permanent and electromagnets were therefore next employed,
acting either on the main armature or on separate armatures, until
in 1867 Dr Werner von Siemens
1 and Sir C. Wheatstone almost
simultaneously discovered that
the dynamo could be made self-
exciting through the residual
magnetism retained in the soft
iron cores of the electromagnet.
The former proposed to take the
whole of the current round the
magnet coils which were in series
with the armature and external
circuit, while the latter proposed
to utilize only a portion derived
by a shunt from the main cir-
cuit; we thus arrive at the
second and third classes, namely,
series and shunt machines. The
starting of the process of ex-
FIG. 32.
citation in either case is the
same; when the brushes are touching the commutator and the
armature is rotated, the small amount of flux left in the magnet
is cut by the wires, and a very small current begins to flow round
the closed circuit; this increases the flux, which in turn further
increases the E.M.F. and current, until, finally, the cumulative effect
stops through the increasing saturation of the iron cores. Fig. 33,
illustrating the series machine, shows the winding of the exciting
coils to be composed of a few turns of thick wire. Since the current
is undivided throughout the whole circuit, the resistance of both the
armature and field-magnet winding must be low as compared with
that of the external circuit, if the useful power available at the
terminals of the machine is to form a large percentage of the total
electrical power in other words, if the efficiency is to be high.
Fig. 34 shows the third method, in which the winding of the field-
magnets is a shunt or fine-wire circuit of many turns applied to the
terminals of the machine; in this case the resistance of the shunt
FIG. 33. FIG. 34.
must be high as compared with that of the external circuit, in order
that only a small proportion of the total energy may be absorbed
in the field.
Since the whole of the armature current passes round the field-
magnet of the series machine, any alteration in the resistance of
the external circuit will affect the excitation and also the voltage.
A curve connecting together corresponding values of external
current and terminal voltage for a given speed of rotation is known
as the external-characteristic of the machine; in its main features
it has the same appearance as a curve of magnetic flux, but when
the current exceeds a certain amount it begins to bend downwards
and the voltage decreases. The reason for this will be found in
the armature reaction at large loads, which gradually produces a
more and more powerful demagnetizing effect, as the brushes are
shifted forwards to avoid sparking; eventually the back ampere-
turns overpower any addition to the field that would otherwise
be due to the increased current flowing round the magnet. The
"external characteristic " for a shunt machine has an entirely
different _shape. The field-magnet circuit being connected in
parallel with the external circuit, the exciting current, if the applied
voltage remains the same, is in no way affected by alterations in the
resistance of the latter. As, however, an increase in the externa 1
current causes a greater loss of volts in the armature and a greater
armature reaction, the terminal voltage, which is also the exciting
voltage, is highest at no load and then diminishes. The fall is at
first gradual, but after a certain critical value of the armature
current is reached, the machine is rapidly demagnetized and loses
its voltage entirely.
The last method of excitation, namely, compound-tuinding (fig. 35),
s a combination of the two preceding, and was first used by S. A!
Varley and by C. F. Brush. If a machine is in the first instance shunt-
wound, and a certain number of series-turns are added, the latter, since
they carry the external current, can be made to counteract the effect
which the increased external current
would have in lowering the voltage
of the simple shunt machine. The
ampere-turns of the series winding
must be such that they not only
balance the increase of the demag-
netizing back ampere-turns on the
armature, but further increase the
useful flux, and compensate for the
loss of volts over their own resistance
and that of thearmature. The machine
will then give for a constant speed
nearly constant voltage at its ter-
minals, and the curve of the external
characteristic becomes a straight line
for all loads within its capacity. Since
with most prime movers an increase of
the load is accompanied by a drop in
FIG. 35.
Com-
mutation
and
sparking
at the
brushes.
speed, this effect may also be counteracted; while, lastly, if the
series-turns are stijl further increased, the voltage may be made to
rise with an increasing load, and the machine is " over-compounded."
At the initial moment when an armature coil is first short-
circuited by the passage of the two sectors forming its ends under
the contact surface of a brush, a certain amount of
electromagnetic energy is stored up in its magnetic
field as linked with the ampere-turns of the coil when
carrying its full share of the total armature current.
During the period of short-circuit this quantity of
energy has to be dissipated as the current falls to zero,
and has again to be re-stored as the current is reversed and raised
to the same value, but in the opposite direction. The period
of short-circuit as fixed by the widths of the brush and of the
mica insulation between the sectors, and by the peripheral
speed of the commutator is extremely brief, and only lasts on
an average from ^Joth to rc^Tth of a second. The problem of
sparkless commutation is therefore primarily a question of our
ability to dissipate and to re-store the required amount of energy
with sufficient rapidity.
An important aid towards the solution of this problem is
found in the effect of the varying contact j resistance between
the brush and the surfaces of the leading and trailing sectors
which it covers. As the commutator moves under the brush,
the area of contact which the brush makes with the leading
sector diminishes, and the resistance between the two rises;
conversely, the area of contact between the brush and the trailing
sector increases and the resistance falls. This action tends
automatically to bring the current through each sector into
strict proportionality to the amount of its surface which is
covered by the brush, and so to keep the current-density and
the loss of volts over the contacts uniform and constant. As
soon as the current-density in the two portions of the brush
becomes unequal, a greater amount of heat is developed at the
commutator surface, and this in the first place affords an addi-
tional outlet for the dissipation of the stored energy of the coil,
while after reversal of the current it is the accompaniment of
a re-storage of the required energy. This energy, as well as
that which is spent in heating the coil, can in fact, in default of
other sources, be derived through the action of the unequal
current-density from the electrical output of the rest of the
armature winding, and so only indirectly from the prime mover.
In practice, when the normal contact-resistance of the brushes
is low relatively to the resistance of the coil, as is the case with
metal brushes of copper or brass gauze, but little benefit can be
obtained from the action of the varying contact-resistance. It
exerts no appreciable effect until close towards the end of the
period of short-circuit, and then only with such a high-current-
density at the trailing edge of the leaving sector that at the
moment of parting the brush-tip is fused, or its metal volatilized,
and sparking has in fact set in. With such brushes, then, it
becomes necessary to call in the aid of a reversing E.M.F.
impressed upon the coil by the magnetic field through which
it is moving. If such a reversing field comes into action while
DYNAMO
777
the current is still unreversed, its E.M.F. is opposed to the
direction of the current, and the coil is therefore driving the
armature forward as in a motor; it thus affords a ready means
of rapidly dissipating part of the initial energy in the form of
mechanical work instead of as heat. After the current has
been reversed, the converse process sets in, and the prime
mover directly expends mechanical energy not only in heating
the coil, but also in storing up electromagnetic energy with a
rapidity dependent upon the strength of the reversing field.
The required direction of external field can be obtained in the
dynamo by shifting the brushes forward, so that the short-
circuited coil enters into the fringe of lines issuing from the
leading pole-tip, i.e. by giving the brushes an " angle of lead."
An objection to this process is that the main flux is thereby
weakened owing to the belt of back ampere-turns which arises
(v. supra). A still greater objection is that the amount of the
angle of lead must be suited to the value of the load, the correc-
tive power of copper brushes being very small if the reversing
E.M.F. is not closely adjusted in proportion to the armature
current.
On this account metal brushes have been almost entirely
superseded by carbon moulded into hard blocks. With these,
owing to their higher specific contact-resistance, a very con-
siderable reversing effect can be obtained through the action of
unequal current-density, and indeed in favourable cases complete
sparklessness can be obtained throughout the entire range of
load of the machine with a fixed position of the brushes. Yet
if the work which they are called upon to perform exceeds certain
limits, they tend to become overheated with consequent glowing
or sparking at their tips, so that, wherever possible, it is advisable
to reinforce their action by a certain amount of reversing field,
the brushes being set so that its strength is roughly correct for,
say, half load.
In the case of dynamos driven by steam-turbines, sparkless
commutation is especially difficult to obtain owing to the high
speed of rotation and the very short space of time in which the
current has to be reversed. Special " reversing poles " then
become necessary; these are wound with magnetizing coils in
series with the main armature current, so that the strength of
field which they yield is roughly proportional to the current
which has to be reversed. These again may be combined with
a " compensating winding " embedded in the pole-faces and
carrying current in the opposite direction to the armature
ampere-turns, so as to neutralize the cross effect of the latter
and prevent distortion of the resultant field.
From the moment that a dynamo begins to run with excited
field, heat is continuously generated by the passage of the current
Heating through the windings of the field-magnet coils and the
effects armature, as well as by the action of hysteresis and
eddy currents in the armature and pole-pieces. Whether
the source of the heat be in the field-magnet or in the armature, the
mass in which it originates will continue to rise in temperature
until such a difference of temperature is established between itself
and the surrounding air that the rate at which the heat is carried
off by radiation, convection and conduction is equal to the rate -at
which it is being generated. Evidently, then, the temperatuie
which any part of the machine attains after a prolonged run must
depend on the extent and effectiveness of the cooling surface from
which radiation takes place, upon the presence or absence of any
currents of air set up by the rotation of itself or surrounding parts,
and upon the presence of neighbouring masses of metal to carry
away the heat by conduction. In the field-magnet coils the rate
at which heat is being generated is easily determined, since it is equal
to the square of the current passing through them multiplied by
their resistance. Further, the magnet is usually stationary, and
only indirectly affected by draughts of air due to the rotating arma-
ture. Hence for machines of a given type and of similar proportions,
it is not difficult to decide upon some method of reckoning the cool-
ing surface of the magnet coils Se, such that the rise of temperature
above that of the surrounding air may be predicted from an equation
of the form i=jfeW/S, where W = the rate in watts at which heat
is generated in the coils, and k is some constant depending upon the
exact method of reckoning their cooling surface. As a general rule
the cooling surface of a field-coil is reckoned as equal to the exposed
outer surface of its wire, the influence of the end flanges being
neglected, or only taken into account in the case of very short
bobbins wound with a considerable depth of wire. In the case of
the rotating armature a similar formula must be constructed, but
with the addition of a factor to allow for the increase in the effective-
ness of any given cooling surface due to the rotation causing con-
vection currents in the surrounding air. Only experiment can
determine the exact effect of this, and even with a given type of
armature it is dependent on the number of poles, each of which helps
to break up the air-currents, and so to dissipate the heat. For
example, in two-pole machines with drum bar-armatures, if the cool-
ing surface be reckoned as equal to the cylindrical exterior plus the
area of the two ends, the heating coefficient for a peripheral speed of
1500 ft. per minute is less than half of that for the same armature
when at rest. A further difficulty still meets the designer in the
correct predetermination of the total loss of watts in an armature
before the machine has been tested. It is made up of three separate
items, namely, the copper loss in the armature winding, the loss
by hysteresis in the iron, and the loss by eddy currents, which
again may be divided into those in the armature bars and end-
connexions, and those in the core and its end-plates. The two
latter items are both dependent upon the speed of the machine;
but whereas the hysteresis loss is proportional to the speed for a
given density of flux in the armature, the eddy current loss is
proportional to the square of the speed, and owing to this differ-
ence, the one loss can be separated from the other by testing an
armature at varying speeds. Thus for a given rise of temperature,
the question of the amount of current which can be taken out of
an armature at different speeds depends upon the proportion which
the hysteresis and eddy watts bear to the copper loss, and the ratio
in which the effectiveness of the cooling surface is altered by the
alteration in speed. Experimental data, again, can alone decide
upon the amount of eddy currents that may be expected in given
armatures, and caution is required in applying the results of one
machine to another in which any of the conditions, such as the
number of poles, density in the teeth, proportions of slot depth to
width, &c., are radically altered.
It remains to add, that the rise of temperature which may be
permitted in any part of a dynamo after a prolonged run is very
generally placed at about 70 Fahr. above the surrounding air.
Such a limit in ordinary conditions of working leads to a final
temperature of about 170 Fahr., beyond which the durability of
the insulation of the wires is liable to be injuriously affected. Upon
some such basis the output of a dynamo in continuous working is
rated, although for short periods of, say, two hours the normal full-
load current of a large machine may be exceeded by some 25%
without unduly heating the armature.
For the electro-deposition of metals or the electrolytic treat-
ment of ores a continuous current is a necessity; but, apart from
such use, the purposes from which the continuous-
current dynamo is well adapted are so numerous that
they cover nearly the whole field of electrical engineer-
ing, with one important exception. To meet these
various uses, the pressures for which the machine is
designed are of equally wide range; for the transmission of
power over long distances they may be as high as 3000 volts,
and for electrolytic work as low as five. Each electrolytic bath,
with its leads, requires on an average only some four or five volts,
so that even when several are worked in series the voltage of the
dynamo seldom exceeds 60. On the other hand, the current is
large and may amount to as much as from 1000 to 14,000 amperes,
necessitating the use of two commutators, one at either end of
the armature, in order to collect the current without excessive
heating of the sectors and brushes. The field-magnets are in-
variably shunt-wound, in order to avoid reversal of the current
through polarization at the electrodes of the bath. For in-
candescent lighting by glow lamps, the requirements of small
isolated installations and of central stations for the distribution
of electrical energy over large areas must be distinguished. For
the lighting of a private house or small factory, the dynamo
giving from 5 to 100 kilo-watts of output is commonly wound
for a voltage of 100, and is driven by pulley and belt from a gas,
oil or steam-engine; or, if approaching the higher limit above
mentioned, it is often directly coupled to the crank-shaft of the
steam-engine. If used in conjunction with an accumulator of
secondary cells, it is shunt-wound, and must give the higher
voltage necessary to charge the battery; otherwise it is com-
pound-wound, in order to maintain the pressure on the lamps
constant under all loads within its capacity. The compound-
wound dynamo is likewise the most usual for the lighting of
steamships, and is then directly coupled to its steam-engine;
its output seldom exceeds too kilo-watts, at a voltage of 100 or
1 10. For larger installations a voltage of 250 is commonly used,
while for central-station work, economy in the distributing
Uses or
con-
tinuous-
current
dynamos.
778
DYNAMO
mains dictates a higher voltage, especially in connexion with
a three- wire system; the larger dynamos may then give 500
volts, and be connected directly across the two outer wires. A
pair of smaller machines coupled together, and each capable of
giving 250 volts, are often placed in series across the system,
with their common junction connected to the middle wire; the
one which at any time is on the side carrying the smaller current
will act as a motor and drive the other as a dynamo, so as to
balance the system. The directly-coupled steam dynamo may
be said to have practically displaced the belt- or rope-driven
sets which were formerly common in central stations. The
generating units of the central station are arranged in progressive
sizes, rising from, it may be, 250 or 500 horse-power up to 750
or looo, or in large towns to as much as 5000 horse-power. If
for lighting only, they are usually shunt-wound, the regulation
of the voltage, to keep the pressure constant on the distributing
system under the gradual changes of load, being effected by
variable resistances in the shunt circuit of the field-magnets.
Generators used for supplying current to electric tramways
are commonly wound for 500 volts at no load and are over-
compounded, so that the voltage rises to 550 volts at the maxi-
mum load, and thus compensates for the loss of volts over the
transmitting lines. For arc lighting it was formerly usual to
employ a class of dynamo which, from the nature of its con-
struction, was called an "open-coil" machine, and which gave
a unidirectional but pulsating current. Of such machines the
Brush and Thomson-Houston types were very widely used;
their E.M.F. ranged from 2000 to 3000 volts for working a large
number of arcs in series, and by means of special regulators their
current was maintained constant over a wide range of voltage.
But as their efficiency was low and they could not be applied to
any other purpose, they have been largely superseded in central
stations by closed-coil dynamos or alternators, which can also
be used for incandescent lighting. In cases where the central
station is situated at some distance from the district to which
the electric energy is to be supplied, voltages from 1000 to 2000
are employed, and these are transformed down at certain
distributing centres by continuous-current transformers (see
TRANSFORMERS and ELECTRICITY SUPPLY). These latter
machines are in reality motor-driven dynamos, and hence are also
called motor-generators; the armatures of the motor and
dynamo are often wound on the same core, with a commutator
at either end, the one to receive the high-pressure motor current,
and the other to collect the low-pressure current furnished by
the dynamo.
In all large central stations it is necessary that the dynamos
should be capable of being run in parallel, so that their outputs
may be combined on the same " omnibus bars " and thence dis-
tributed to the network of feeders. With simple shunt-wound
machines this is easily effected by coupling together terminals of
like sign when the voltage of the two or more machines are closely
equal. With compound-wound dynamos not only must the external
terminals of like sign be coupled together, but the junctions of the
brush leads with the series winding must be connected] by an
" equalizing " lead of low resistance; otherwise, should the E.M.F.
of one machine for any reason fall below the voltage of the omnibus
bars, there is a danger of its polarity being reversed by a back
current from the others with which it is in parallel.
Owing to the necessary presence in the continuous-current dynamo
of the commutator, with its attendant liability to sparking at the
brushes, and further, owing to the difficulty of insulating the rotating
armature wires, a pressure of 3000 volts has seldom been exceeded
in any one continuous-current machine, and has been given above
as the limiting voltage of the class. If therefore it is required to
work with higher pressures in order to secure economy in the trans-
mitting lines, two or more machines must be coupled in series by
connecting together terminals which are of unlike sign. 1 The stress
of the total voltage may still fall on the insulation of the winding
1 Between Moutiers and Lyons, a distance of 115 m., energy is
transmitted on the Thury direct-current system at a maximum
pressure of 60,000 volts. Four groups of machines in series are
employed, each group consisting of four machines in series; the
rated output of each component machine is 75 amperes at 3900
volts or 400 h.p. A water turbine drives two pairs of such machines
through an insulating coupling, and the sub-base of each pair of
machines is separately insulated from earth, the foundation being
also of special insulating materials.
from the body of the machine; hence for high-voltage transmission
of power over very long distances, the continuous-current dynamo
in certain points yields in convenience to the alternator. In this
there is no commutator, the armature coils may be stationary and
can be more thoroughly insulated, while further, if it be thought
undesirable to design the machine for the full transmitting voltage,
it is easy to wind the armature for a low pressure; this can be
subsequently transformed up to a high pressure by means of the
alternating-current transformer, which has stationary windings
and so high an efficiency that but little loss arises from its use.
With these remarks, the transition may be made to the fuller
discussion of the alternator.
Alternators.
The frequency employed in alternating-current systems for
distributing power and light varies between such wide limits
as 25 and 133; yet in recent times the tendency _
. , . , . , ' Frequency.
has been towards standard frequencies of 25, 50
and 100 as a maximum. High frequencies involve more
copper in the magnet coils, owing to the greater number of poles,
and a greater loss of power in their excitation, but the alternator
as a whole is somewhat lighter, and the transformers are cheaper.
On the other hand, high frequency may cause prejudicial effects,
due to the inductance and capacity of the distributing lines;
and in asynchronous motors used on polyphase systems the
increased number of poles necessary to obtain reasonable speeds
reduces their efficiency, and is otherwise disadvantageous,
especially for small horse-powers. A frequency lower than 40 is,
however, not permissible where arc lighting is to form any con-
siderable portion of the work and is to be effected by the alter-
nating current without rectification, since below this value the
eye can detect the periodic alteration in the light as the carbons
alternately cool and become heated. Thus for combined lighting
and power 50 or 60 are the most usual frequencies; but if the
system is designed solely or chiefly for the distribution of power,
a still lower frequency is preferable. On this account 25 was
selected by the engineers for the Niagara Falls power trans-
mission, after careful consideration of the problem, and this
frequency has since been widely adopted in similar cases.
The most usual type of heteropolar alternator has an internal
rotating field-magnet system, and an external stationary arma-
ture, as in fig. 10. The coils of the armature, which ^/ier-
must for high voltages be heavily insulated, are then aator
not subjected to the additional stresses due to centri- >"-
fugal force; and further, the collecting rings which atruct ' oa -
must be attached to the rotating portion need only transmit
the exciting current at a low voltage.
The homopolar machine possesses the advantages that only
a single exciting coil is required, whatever the number of polar
projections, and that both the armature and field-magnet coils
may be stationary. From fig. 8 it will be seen that it is not
essential that the ex-
citing coil should
revolve with the in-
ternal magnet, but it
may be supported
from the external
stationary armature f
while still embracing
the central part of the
rotor. The E.M.F. is
set up in the armature
coils through the
periodic variation of _
the flux through them
as the iron projections sweep past, and these latter may
be likened to a number of " keepers," which complete the
magnetic circuit. From the action of the rotating iron masses
they may also be considered as the inducing elements or
" inductors," and the homopolar machine is thence also
known as the " inductor alternator." If the end of the
rotor marked S in fig. 8 is split up into a number of S polar
projections similar to the N poles, a second set of armature coils
may be arranged opposite to them, and we obtain an inductor
DYNAMO
779
alternator with double armature. Or the polar projections at
the two ends may be staggered, and a single armature winding
be passed straight through the armature, as in fig. 36, which
shows at the side the appearance of the revolving inductor with
its crown of polar projections in one ring opposite to the gaps
may be subjected, its own weight tends to deform it. The
segmental core-disks are usually secured to the internal circum-
ference of a circular cast iron frame; the latter has a box section
of considerable radial depth to give stiffness to it, and the disks
are tightly clamped between internal flanges, one being a fixed
FIG. 37.
between the polar projections of the other ring. But in spite
of its advantage of the single stationary exciting coil, the in-
ductor alternator has such a high degree of leakage, and the effect
of armature reaction is so detrimental in it, that the type has
been gradually abandoned, and a return has been almost univer-
sally made to the heteropolar alternator with internal poles
radiating outwards from a circular yoke-ring. The construction
of a typical machine of this class is illustrated in fig. 37.
Since the field-magnet coils rotate, they must be carefully
designed to withstand centrifugal force, and are best composed
of flat copper strip wound on edge with thin insulation between
adjacent layers. The coil is secured by the edges of the pole-
shoes which overhang the pole and tightly compress the coil
against the yoke-ring; the only effect from centrifugal force is
then to compress still further the flat turns of copper against
the pole-shoes without deformation. The poles are either of
cast steel of circular or oblong section, bolted to the rim of the
yoke-ring, or are built up of thin laminations of sheet steel.
When the peripheral speed is very high, the yoke-ring will be
of cast steel or may itself be built up of sheet steel laminations,
this material being reliable and easily tested to ensure its sound
mechanical strength. If the armature slots are open, the pole-
pieces will in any case be laminated to reduce the eddy currents
set up by the variation of the flux-density.
Owing to the great number of poles J of the alternator when
driven by a reciprocating steam-engine, the diameter of its
rotor is usually larger and its length less than in the continuous-
current dynamo of corresponding output. The support of the
armature core when of large diameter is therefore a more difficult
problem, since, apart from any magnetic strains to which it
1 For experiments on high-frequency currents, Nikola Tesla con-
structed an alternator having 384 poles and giving a frequency of
about 10,000 (Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng. 1892, 21, p. 82). The opposite
extreme is found in alternators directly coupled to the Parsons steam-
turbine, in which, with a speed of 3000 revs, per min., only two
poles are required to give a frequency of 50. By a combination
of a Parsons steam-turbine running at 12,000 revs, per min. with an
alternator of 140 poles a frequency of 14,000 has been obtained
(Engineering, 25th of August 1899). For description of an experi-
mental machine for 10,000 cycles per second when running at
3000 revs, per min., see Trans. Amer. Inst. Elect. Eng. vol. xxiii.
p. 417-
part of the frame and the other loose, with transverse bolts
passing right through from side to side (fig. 37). In order to
lessen the weight of the .structure and its expense in material,
the cast iron frame has in some cases been entirely dispensed
with, and braced tie-rods have been used to render the effective
iron of the armature core-disks self-supporting.
Owing to the high speed of the turbo-alternator, its rotor calls
for the utmost care in its design to withstand the effect of
centrifugal force with-
out any shifting of the
exciting coils, and to
secure a perfect balance.
The appearance of
the armature of a
typical three - phase
alternator is illustrated
in fig. 38, which shows
a portion of the lower
half after removal of
the field-magnet.
With open slots the
coils, after being wound
on formers to the re-
quired shape, are
thoroughly impreg-
nated with insulating
compound, dried, and
after a further wrapping
with several layers of
insulating material,
finally pressed into the
slots together with a FIG. 38.
sheet of leatheroid or
flexible micanite. The end-connexions of each group of coils
of one phase project straight out from the slots or are
bent upwards alternately with those of the other phases, so
that they may clear one another (fig. 37). A wooden wedge
driven into a groove at the top of each slot is often used
to lock the coil in place. With slots nearly closed at the
top, the coils are formed by hand by threading the wire
DYNAMO
through tubes of micanite or specially prepared paper linin,
the slots; or with single-turn loops, stout bars of copper o
U-shape can be driven through the slots and closed by soldere(
connexions at the other end.
The first experimental determination of the shape of the E.M.F
curve of an alternator was made by J. Joubert in 1880. A revolvin
. . contact-maker charged a condenser with the E.M.F
E.MP produced by the armature at a particular instant durin fe
curr'e ' each period. The condenser was discharged through i
ballistic galvanometer, and from the measured throw th
instantaneous E.M.F. could be deduced. The contact-maker wa
then shifted through a small angle, and the instantaneous E.M.F
at the new position corresponding to a different moment in the perioc
was measured; this process was repeated until the E.M.F. curve
for a complete period could be traced. Various modifications o
the same principle have since been used, and a form of " oscillo
graph " (q.v.) has been perfected which is well adapted for thi
purpose of tracing the curves both of E.M.F. and of current. The
machine on which Joubert carried out his experiments was a Siemens
disk alternator having no iron in its armature, and it was found thai
the curve of E.M.F. was practically identical with a sine curve
The same law has also been found to hold true for a smooth-core
ring or drum armature, but the presence of the iron core enables
the armature current to produce greater distorting effect, so that
the curves under load may vary considerably from their shape at
no load. In toothed armatures, the broken surface of the core
and the still greater reaction from the armature current, may
produce wide variations from the sine law, the general tendency
being to give the E.M.F. curve a more peaked form. The great
convenience of the assumption that the E.M.F. obeys the sine law
has led to its being very commonly used as the basis for the mathe-
matical analysis of alternator problems; but any deductions made
from this premiss require to be applied with caution if they are
likely to be modified by a different shape of the curve. Further, the
same alternator will give widely different curves even of E.M.F.,
and still more so of current, according to the nature of the external
circuit to which it is connected. As will be explained later, the phase
of the current relatively to the E.M.F. depends not only on the in-
ductance of the alternator itself, but also upon the inductance and
capacity of the external circuit, so that the same current will produce
different effects according to the amount by which it lags or leads.
The question as to the relative advantages of differently shaped
E.M.F. curves has led to much discussion, but can only be answered
by reference to the nature of the work that the alternator has to
do i.e. whether it be arc lighting, motor driving, or incandescent
lighting through transformers. The shape of the E.M.F. curve is,
however, of great importance in one respect, since upon it depends
the ratio of the maximum instantaneous E.M.F. to the effective
value, and the insulation of the entire circuit, both external and
internal, must be capable of withstanding the maximum E.M.F.
While the maximum value of the sine curve isVa or 1-414 times
the effective value, the maximum value of a A. curve is 1-732 times
the effective value, so that for the same effective E.M.F. thearmature
wires must not only be more heavily insulated than in thecontinuous-
current dynamo, but also the more peaked the curve the better
must be the insulation.
Since an alternating current cannot be used for exciting the
field-magnet, recourse must be had to some source of a direct
Exctta- current. This is usually obtained from a small auxiliary
tloa. continuous-current dynamo, called an exciter, which may
' be an entirely separate machine, separately driven and
used for exciting several alternators, or may be driven from the
alternator itself; in the latter case the armature of the exciter is
often coupled directly to the rotating shaft of the alternator, while
its field-magnet is attached to the bed-plate. Although separate
excitation is the more usual method, the alternator can also be made
self-exciting if a part or the whole of the alternating current is
rectified, and thus converted into a direct current.
The general idea of the polyphase alternator giving two or more
E.M.F. a of the same frequency, but displaced in phase, has been
Quarter- already described. The several phases may be entirely
phase independent, and such was the case with the early poly-
alter. phase machines of Gramme, who used four independent
nators. circuits, and also in the large two-phase alternators
_ designed by J. E. H. Gordon in 1883. If the phases are
thus entirely separate, each requires two collector rings and two
wires to its external circuit, i.e. four in all for two-phase and six
for three-phase machines. The only advantage of the polyphase
machine as thus used is that the whole of the surface of the arma-
ture core may be efficiently covered with winding, and the output
the alternator for a given size be thereby increased. It is, how-
ever, also possible so to interlink the several circuits of the armature
at the necessary number of transmitting lines to the external
circuits may be reduced, and also the weight of copper in them for
a given loss in the transmission. 1 The condition which obviously
'As in the historical transmission of energy from Lauffen to
Frankfort (1891).
must be fulfil ed, for such interlinking of the phases to be possible
is that m the lines which are to meet at any common junction the
algebraic sum of the instantaneous currents, reckoned as positive
if away from such junction and as negative if towards it, must be
zero. Thus if the phases be diagrammatically represented by the
relative angular position of the coils in fig. 39, the current in thecoils
A and B differs in phase from the current in the coils C and D hi
a quarter of a period or 90; hence if the two wires 6 and d be
replaced by the single wire bd, this third wire will serve as a common
path for the currents of the two phases either outwards or on their
return. At any instant the value of the current in the third wire
FIG. 39.
must be the vector sum of the two currents in the other wires and
if the shape of the curves of instantaneous E.M.F. and current are
identical, and are assumed to be sinusoidal, the effective value
of the current m the third wire will be the vector sum of the effective
values of the currents in the other wires; in other words, if the
system is balanced.the effective current in the third wire is V 2 , or I -4 1 4
times the current in either of the two outer wires. Since the currents
of the two phases do not reach their maximum values at the same
time, the sectional area of the third wire need not be twice that of
the others; in order to secure maximum efficiency by employine
the same current density in all three wires, it need only be 40 7
greater than that of either of the outer wires. The effective voltage
between the external leads may in the same way be calculated by
a vector diagram, and with the above star connexion the voltage
between the outer pair of wires a and c isV2, or 1-414 times the
voltage between either of the outer wires
and the common wire bd. Next, if the four
coils are joined up into a continuous helix,
just as in the winding of a continuous-current
machine, four wires may be attached to
equidistant points at the opposite ends of
two diameters at right angles to each other
(fig. 40). Such a method is known as the
mesh connexion, and gives a perfectly sym-
metrical four-phase system of distribution.
Four collecting rings are necessary if the arma- FIG. 40.
:ure rotates, and there is no saving in copper in
:he transmitting lines; but the importance of the arrangement lieo in
ts use in connexion with rotary converters, in which it is necessary
that the winding of the armature should form a closed circuit. If
e = the effective voltage of one phase A, the voltage between any
jair of adjacent lines in the diagram is e, and between m and o or
n and p is e V2. The current in any line is the resultant of the
currents in the two phases connected to it, and its effective value
s c V 2, where c is the current of one phase.
When we pass to machines giving three phases differing by
-jo , the same methods of star and mesh connexion find their
analogies. If the current in coil A (fig. 41) is flowing
away from the centre, and has its maximum value, the
currents in coils B and C are flowing towards the centre, " *
and are each of half the magnitude of the current in A;
he algebraic sum of the currents is therefore zero, and
his will also be the case for all other instants. Hence the three
FIG. 41.
oils can be united together at the centre, and three external wires
re alone required. In this star or "Y" connexion, if e be the
ffective voltage of each phase, or the voltage between any one
f the three collecting rings and the common connexion, the volts
etween any pair of transmitting lines will be E=e V 3 (fig- 41);
1 the load be balanced, the effective current C in each of the three
nes will be equal, and the total output in watts will be W = sCe =
CE/V3 = 1-732 EC, or 1-732 times the product of the effective
oltage between the lines and the current in any single line. Next,
the three coils are closed upon themselves in a mesh or delta
ishion (fig. 42), the three transmitting wires may be connected to
ic junctions of the coils (by means of collecting rings if the armature
otates). The voltage E between any pair of wires is evidently
DYNAMO
781
Armature
reaction
la alter-
aators.
FlG. 42.
that generated by one phase, and the current in a line wire is the
resultant of that in two adjacent phases; or in a balanced system,
if c be the current in each phase, the current in the line wire beyond
a collecting ring is C=cV3, hence the watts areW = 3cE=3CE/V3
= 1-732 EC, as before. Thus any three-phase winding may be
changed over from the star to the delta connexion, and will then
give 1-732 times as much current, but only 1/1-732 times the voltage,
so that the output remains the same.
The " armature reaction " of the alternator, when the term is
used in its widest sense to cover all the effects of the alternating
current in the armature as linked with a magnetic circuit
or circuits, may be divided into three items which are
different in their origin and consequences. In the first
place the armature current produces a self-induced flux
in local circuits independent of the main magnetic circuit,
as e.g. linked with the ends of the coils as they project outwards
from the armature core; such lines may be caljed " secondary
leakage," of which the characteristic feature is that
its amount is independent of the position of the
coils relatively to the poles. The alternations of
this flux give rise to an inductive voltage lagging
qo behind the phase of the current, and this
leakage or reactance voltage must be directly
counterbalanced electrically by an equal component
in the opposite sense in the voltage from the
main field. The second and third elements are
more immediately magnetic and are entirely de-
pendent upon the position of the coils in relation to
the poles and in relation to the phase of the current which they then
carry. When the side of a drum coil is immediately under the centre
of a pole, its ampere-turns are cross-magnetizing, i.e. produce a
distortion of the main flux, displacing its maximum density to one
or other edge of the pole. When the coil-side is midway between the
poles and the axes of coil and pole coincide, the coil stands exactly
opposite to the pole and embraces the same magnetic circuit as the
field-magnet coils; its turns are therefore directly magnetizing,
either weakening or strengthening the main flux according to the
direction of the current. In intermediate positions the ampere-
turns of the coil gradually pass from cross- to direct and vice versa.
When the instantaneous values of either the cross or direct mag-
netizing effect are integrated over a period and averaged, due
account being taken of the number of slots per coil-side and of the
different phases of the currents in the polyphase machine, expressions
are obtained for the equivalent cross and direct ampere-turns of the
armature as acting upon a pair of poles. For a given winding and
current, the determining factor in either the one or the other is
found to be the relative phase angle between the axis of a coil in
its position when carrying the maximum current and the centre
^of a pole, the transverse reaction being proportional to the cosine
'of this angle, and the direct reaction to its sine. If the external
circuit is inductive, the maximum value of the current lags behind
the E.M.F. and so behind the centre of the pole; such a negative
angle of lag causes the direct magnetizing turns to become back
turns, directly weakening the main field and lowering the terminal
voltage. Thus, just as in the continuous-current dynamo, for a
given voltage under load the excitation between the pole-pieces
Xp must not only supply the net excitation required over the air-
gaps, armature core and teeth, but must also balance the back
ampere-turns Xi, of the armature.
Evidently therefore the characteristic curve connecting armature
current and terminal volts will with a constant exciting current
depend on the nature of the load, whether inductive or non-inductive,
and upon the amount of inductance already possessed by the arma-
ture itself. With an inductive load it will fall more rapidly from its
initial maximum value, or, conversely, if the initial voltage is to be
maintained under an increasing load, the exciting current will have
to be increased more than if the load were non-inductive. In
practical working many disadvantages result from a rapid drop of
the terminal E.M.F. under increasing load, so that between no load
and full load the variation in terminal voltage with constant exci-
tation should not exceed 15 %. Thus the output of an alternator
is limited either by its heating or by its armature reaction, just as
is the output of a continuous-current dynamo; in the case of the
alternator, however, the limit set by armature reaction is not due
to any sparking at the brushes, but to the drop in terminal voltage
as the current is increased, and the consequent difficulty in main-
taining a constant potential on the external circuit.
The joint operation of several alternators so that their outputs
may be delivered into the same external circuit is sharply dis-
tinguished from the corresponding problem in continuous-
current dynamos by the necessary condition that they
must be in synchronism,- i.e. not only must they be so
driven that their frequency is the same, but their E.M.F.'s
must be in phase or, as it is also expressed, the machines
must be in step. Although in practice it is impossible to run two
alternators in series unless they are rigidly coupled together which
virtually reduces them to one machine two or more machines can
be run in parallel, as was first described by H. Wilde in 1868 and
subsequently redemonstrated by J. Hopkinson and W. G. Adams
in 1884. Their E.M.F.'s should be as nearly as possible in syn-
coupling
of alter-
nators.
chronism, but, as contrasted with series connexion, parallel coupling
gives them a certain power of recovery if they fall out of step, or
are not in exact synchronism when thrown into parallel. In such
circumstances a synchronizing current passes between the two
machines, due to the difference in their instantaneous pressures;
and as this current agrees in phase more nearly with the leading
than with the lagging machine, the former machine does work as a
generator on the latter as a motor. Hence the lagging machine
is accelerated and the leading machine is retarded, until their
frequencies and phase are again the same.
The chief use of the alternator has already been alluded to.
Since it can be employed to produce very high pressures either
directly or through the medium of transformers, it is
specially adapted to the electrical transmission of
energy over long distances. 1 In the early days of aators.
electric lighting, the alternate-current system was
adopted for a great number of central stations; the machines,
designed to give a pressure of 2000 volts, supplied transformers
which were situated at considerable distances and spread over
large areas, without an undue amount of copper in the trans-
mitting lines. While there was later a tendency to return to
the continuous current for central stations, owing to the intro-
duction of better means for economizing the weight of copper in
the mains, the alternating current again came into favour,
as rendering it possible to place the central station in some
convenient site far away from the district which it was to serve.
The pioneer central station in this direction was the Deptford
station of the London Electric Supply Corporation, which fur-
nished current to the heart of London from a distance of 7 m.
In this case, however, the alternators were single-phase and gave
the high pressure of 10,000 volts immediately, while more
recently the tendency has been to employ step-up transformers
and a polyphase system. The advantage of the latter is that
the current, after reaching the distant sub-stations, can be dealt
with by rotary converters, through which it is transformed
into a continuous current. The alternator is also used for
welding, smelting in electric furnaces, and other metallurgical
processes where heating effects are alone required; the large
currents needed therein can be produced without the disadvan-
tage of the commutator, and, if necessary, transformers can be
interposed to lower the voltage and still further increase the
current. The alternating system can thus meet very various
needs, and its great recommendation may be said to lie in the
flexibility with which it can supply electrical energy through
transformers at any potential, or through rotary converters in
continuous-current form.
AUTHORITIES. For the further study of the dynamo, the following
may be consulted, in addition to the references already given :
General: S. P. Thompson, Dynamo-Electric Machinery Con-
tinuous-Current Machines (1904), Alternating-Current Machinery
(1905, London); G. Kapp, Dynamos, Alternators and Transformers
(London, 1893) ; Id., Electric Transmission of Energy (London,
1894); Id., Dynamo Construction; Electrical and Mechanical
(London, 1899) ; H. F. Parshall and H. M. Hobart, Electric Generators
(London, 1900) ; C. C. Hawkins and F. Wallis, The Dynamo (London,
1903); E. Arnold, Konstruktionstafeln fiir den Dynamobau (Stutt-
gart, 1902) ; C. P. Steinmetz, Elements of Electrical Engineering
(New York, 1901).
Continuous-Current Dynamos: J. Fischer-Hinnen, Continuous-
Current Dynamos (London, 1899); E. Arnold, Die Gleichstrom-
maschine (Berlin, 1902) ; F. Niethammer, Berechnung und Kon-
struktion der Gleichstrommaschinen und Gleichstrommotoren (Stuttgart,
1904).
Alternators: D. C. Jackson and J. P. Jackson, Alternating
Currents and Alternating Current Machinery (New York, 1903);
J. A. Fleming, The Alternate Current Transformer (London, 1899);
C. P. Steinmetz, Alternating Current Phenomena (New York, 1900) ;
E. Arnold, Die Wechselstromtechnik (Berlin, 1904); S. P. Thompson,
Polyphase Electric Currents (London, 1900) ; A. Stewart, Modern
Polyphase Machinery (London, 1906) ; M. Oudin, Standard Polyphase
Apparatus and Systems (New York, 1904). (C. C. H.)
1 In the pioneer three-phase transmission between Laufen and
Frankfort (Electrician, vol. xxvi. p. 637, and xxvii. p. 548), the
three-phase current was transformed up from about 55 to 8500 volts,
the distance being no m. A large number of installations driven
by water power are now at work, in which energy is transmitted
on the alternating-current system over distances of about 100 m.
at pressures ranging from 20,000 to 67,000 volts.
782
DYNAMOMETER
DYNAMOMETER (Gr. diva/us, strength, and nerpov, a
measure), an instrument for measuring force exerted by men,
animals and machines. The name has been applied generally to
all kinds of instruments used in the measurement of a force, as for
example electric dynamometers, but the term specially denotes
apparatus used in connexion with the measurement of work, or
in the measurement of the horse-power of engines and motors. If
P .[represent the average value of the component of a force in the
direction of the displacement, s, of its point of application, the
product Ps measures the work done during the displacement.
When the force acts on a body free to turn about a fixed axis
only, it is convenient to express the work done by the trans-
formed product TO, where T is the average turning moment or
torque acting to produce the displacement 6 radians. The
apparatus used to measure P or T is the dynamometer. The
factors s or 6 are observed independently. Apparatus is added
to some dynamometers by means of which a curve showing the
variations of P on a distance base is drawn automatically, the
area of the diagram representing the work done; with others,
integrating apparatus is combined, from which the work done
during a given interval may be read off directly. It is convenient
to distinguish between absorption and transmission dyna-
mometers. In the first kind the work done is converted into
heat; in the second it is transmitted, after measurement, for
use.
Absorption Dynamometers. Baron Prony's dynamometer (Ann.
Chim. Phys. 1821, vol. 19), which has been modified in various
ways, consists in its original form of two symmetrically shaped
timber beams clamped to the engine-shaft. When these are held
from turning, their frictional resistance may be adjusted by means
of nuts on the screwed bolts which hold them together until the
shaft revolves at a given speed. To promote smoothness of action,
the rubbing surfaces are lubricated. A weight is moved along the
arm of one of the beams until it just keeps the brake steady midway
between the stops which must be provided to hold it when the weight
fails to do so. The general theory of this kind of brake is as
follows: Let F be the whole frictional resistance, r the common
radius of the rubbing surfaces, W the force which holds the brake
from turning and whose line of action is at a perpendicular distance
R from the axis of the shaft, N the revolutions of the shaft per
minute, a its angular velocity in radians per second ; then, assuming
that the adjustments are made so that the engine runs steadily at a
uniform speed, and that the brake is held still, clear of the stops
and without oscillation, by W, the torque T exerted by the engine
is equal to the frictional torque Fr acting at the brake surfaces,
and this is measured by the statical moment of the weight W about
the axis of revolution ; that is
T = Fr=WR (i)
Hence WR measures the torque T.
If more than one force be applied to hold the brake from turning,
Fr. and therefore T, are measured by the algebraical sum of their
individual moments with respect to the axis. If the brake is not
balanced, its moment about the axis must be included. Therefore,
quite generally,
T = 2WR (2)
The factor 9 of the product T0 is found by means of a revolution
counter. The power of a motor is measured by the rate at which it
works, and this is expressed by Tw = in foot-pounds per second.
or - in horse-power units. The latter is commonly referred to
as the " brake horse-power." The maintenance of the conditions of
steadiness implied in equation (i) depends upon the constancy of
F, and therefore of the coefficient of friction ft between the rubbing
surfaces. The heating at the surfaces, the variations in their smooth-
ness, and the variations of the lubrication make it continuously
variable, and necessitate frequent adjustment of W or of the nuts.
J. V. Poncelet (1788-1867) invented a form of Prony brake which
automatically adjusted its grip as it changed, thereby maintaining
F constant.
The principle of the compensating brake devised by J. G. Appold
(1800-1865) is shown in fig. I. A flexible steel band, lined with
wood blocks, is gripped on the motor fly-wheel or pulley by a screw
A, which, together with W, is adjusted to hold the brake steady.
Compensation is effected by the lever L inserted at B. This has a
slotted end, engaged by a pin P fixed to the framing, and it will be
seen that its action is to slacken the band if the load tends to rise
and to tighten it in the contrary case. The external forces holding
the brake from turning are W, distant R from the axis, and the re-
action, Wi say, of the lever against the fixed pin P, distant Ri
from the axis. The moment of W t may be positive or negative.
The torque T at any instant of steady running is therefore
Lord Kelvin patented a brake in 1858 (fig. 2) consisting of a
rope or cord wrapped round the circumference of a rotating
wheel, to one end of which is applied a regulated force, the other
end being fixed to a spring
balance. The ropes are
spaced laterally by the blocks
B, B, B, B, which also serve
to prevent them from slip-
ping sideways. _ When the
wheel is turning in the direc-
tion indicated, the forces
holding the band still are
W, and p, the observed pull
on the spring balance. Both
these forces usually act at
the same radius R, the dis-
tance from the axis to the
centre line of the rope, in
which case the torque T is
(W-p)R, and consequently
the brake horse-power is
" -)RX2yN. W hen '
33.000 FIG. i.
changes the weight W rises or
falls against the action of the spring balance until a stable condition
of running is obtained. The ratio is given by e? e , where 6 = 2-718;
it is the coefficient of friction and the angle, measured in radians,
subtended by the arc of contact between the rope and the wheel. In
fig. 2 9 = 2?r. The ratio W/p increases very rapidly as 9 is increased,
and therefore, by making 8 sufficiently large, p may conveniently
be made a small fraction of W, thereby rendering errors of obser-
vation of the spring balance negligible. Thus this kind of brake,
though cheap to make, is, when 9 is large enough, an exceedingly
accurate measuring instrument, readily applied and easily controlled.
It has come into very general use in recent years, and has practically
superseded the older forms
of block brakes.
It is sometimes necessary
to use water to keep the
brake wheel cool. Engines
specially designed for test-
ing are usually provided
with a brake wheel having
a trough-shaped rim. Water
trickles continuously into
the trough, and the cen-
trifugal action holds it as an
inside lining against the rim,
where it slowly evaporates.
Fig. 3 shows a band-brake
invented by Professor James
Thomson, suitable for test-
ing motors exerting a con-
stant torque (see Engineer-
ing, 22nd October 1880).
To maintain e* e constant,
compensation for variation
of it is made by inversely
varying 8. A and B are fast
and loose pulleys, and the
brake band is placed partly
over the one and partly over
the other. Weights W and
w are adjusted to the torque.
The band turns with the fast
pulley if it increase, thereby
slightly turning the loose
pulley, otherwise at rest,
until 9 is adjusted to the
new value of it. This form
of brake was also invented
independently by J. A. M.
L. Carpentier, and the prin-
ciple has been used in the
Raffard brake. A self-com-
pensating brake of another
kind, by Marcel Deprez,
was described with Car-
pentier's in 1880 (Bulletin
de la societG d'encourage- FIG. 2.
ment, Paris). W. E. Ayrton
and J. Perry used a band or rope brake in which compensation is
effected by the pulley drawing in or letting out a part of the band
or rope which has been roughened or in which a knot has been tied.
In an effective water-brake invented by W. Froude (see Proc.
Inst. M. E. 1877), two similar castings, A and B, each consisting
DYNAMOMETER
783
of a boss and circumferential annular channel, are placed face to face
on a shaft, to which B is keyed, A being free (fig. 4). A ring tube of
elliptical section is thus formed. Each channel is divided into a
series of pockets by equally spaced vanes inclined at 45. When
A is held still, and B rotated, centrifugal action sets up vortex
currents in the water in the pockets; thus a continuous circulation
is caused between B and A, and the consequent changes of momen-
tum give rise to oblique reactions. The moments of the components
of these actions and reactions in a plane to which the axis of rotation
is at right angles are the two
aspects of the torque acting, and
therefore the torque acting on B
through the shaft is measured by
the torque required to hold A
still. Froude constructed a brake
to take up 2000 H.P. at 90
I revs, per mm. by duplicating this
apparatus. This replaced the
propeller of the ship whose
engines were to be tested, and
the outer casing was held from
turning by a suitable arrangement
of levers carried to weighing
apparatus conveniently disposed
on the wharf. The torque corre-
sponding to 2000 H.P. at 90 revs,
per min. is 116,772 foot-pounds,
and a brake 5 ft. in diameter
gave this resistance. Thin metal
FIG. 3. sluices were arranged to slide be-
tween the wheel and casing, and
by their means the range of action could be varied from 300 H.P.
at 120 revs, per min. to the maximum.
Professor Osborne Reynolds in 1887 patented a water-brake (see
Proc. Inst. C.E. 99, p. 167), using Froude's turbine to obtain the
highly resisting spiral vortices, and arranging passages in the casing
for the entry of water at the hub of the wheel and its exit at the
circumference. Water enters at E (fig. 5), and finds its way into the
interior of the wheel, A, driving the air in front of it through the air-
passages K, K. Then following into the pocketed chambers Vi, Vz,
it is caught into the vortex, and finally escapes at the circumference,
flowing away at F. The air-ways k, k, in the fixed vanes establish
communication between the cores of the vortices and the atmo-
sphere. From i to 30 H.P. may be measured at 100 revs, per min.
by a brake-wheel of this kind 18 in. in diameter. For other speeds
the power varies as the cube of the speed. The casing is held from
turning by weights hanging on an attached arm. The cocks regu-
FIG. 4.
lating the water are connected to the casing, so that any tilting
automatically regulates the flow, and therefore the thickness of the
film in the vortex. In this way the brake may be arranged to
maintain a constant torque, notwithstanding variation of the speed.
In G. I. Alden's brake (see Trans. Amer. Soc. Eng. vol. xi.) the
resistance is obtained by turning a cast iron disk against the frictional
resistance of two thin copper plates, which are held in a casing
free to turn upon the shaft, and are so arranged that the pressure
between the rubbing surfaces is controlled, and the heat developed
by friction carried away, by the regulated flow of water through the
casing. The torque required to hold the casing still against the action
of the disk measures the torque exerted by the shaft to which the
disk is keyed.
Transmission Dynamometers. The essential part of many trans-
mission dynamometers is a spring whose deformation indirectly
measures the magnitude of the force transmitted through it. For
many kinds of spring the change of form is practically proportional
to the force, but the relation should always be determined experi-
mentally. General A. J. Morin (see Notice sur divers appareils
dynamometriques, Paris, 1841), in his classical experiments on
traction, arranged his appar-
atus so that the change in
form of the spring was con-
tinuously recorded on a sheet
of paper drawn under a style.
For longer experiments he
used a " Compteur " or
mechanical integrator, sug-
gested by J. V. Poncelet,
from which the work done
during a given displacement
could be read off directly.
This device consists of a
roller of radius r, pressed
into contact with a disk.
The two are carried on a
common frame, so arranged
that a change in form of
the spring causes a relative
displacement of the disk and
roller, the point of contact
moving radially from or
towards the centre of the
disk. The radial distance * is
at any instant proportional
to the force acting through
the spring. The angular dis-
placement, 8, of the disk is
made proportional to the
displacement, s, of the point FIG. 5.
of application of the force
by suitable driving gear. If d<t> is the angular displacement of
the roller corresponding to displacements, dO of the disk, and
ds of the point of application of P, a, and C constants, then
d4, = = Pds = C.Pds, and therefore <j> = cC'' Pds; that is, the
r r J *i
angular displacement of the roller measures the work done
during the displacement from s\ to s-t. The shaft carrying the
roller is connected to a counter so that <f> may be observed. The
angular velocity of the shaft is proportional to the rate of working.
Morin's dynamometer is shown in fig. 6. The transmitting spring is
made up of two flat bars linked at their ends. Their centres si, si,
are held respectively by the pieces A, B, which together form a sliding
pair. The block A carries the disk D, B carries the roller R and
counting gear. The pulley E is driven from an axle of the carriage.
In a dynamometer used by F. W. Webb to measure the tractive
resistance of trains on the London & North-Western railway, a
tractive pull or push compresses two spiral springs by a definite
amount, which is recorded to scale by a pencil on a sheet of paper,
drawn continuously from a storage drum at the rate of 3 in. per
mile, by a roller driven from one of the carriage axles. Thus the
diagram shows the tractive force at any instant. A second pencil
electrically connected to a clock traces a time line on the diagram
with a kick at every thirty seconds. A third pencil traces an obser-
vation line in which a kick can be made at will by pressing any one
of the electrical pushes placed about the car, and a fourth draws
a datum line. The spring of the
dynamometer car used by W. Dean
on the Great Western railway is made
up of thirty flat plates, 7 ft. 6 in.
long, 5 in. X fin. at the centre, spaced
by distance pieces nibbed into the
plates at the centre and by rollers at
the ends. The draw-bar is connected
to the buckle, which is carried on
rollers, the ends of the spring resting
on plates fixed to the under-frame.
The gear operating the paper roll is
driven from the axle of an inde-
pendent wheel which is let down into
contact with the rail when required.
This wheel serves also to measure
the distance travelled. A Morin disk
and roller integrator is connected
with the apparatus, so that the work done during a journey may
be read off. Five lines are traced on the diagram.
In spring dynamometers designed to measure a transmitted
torque, the mechanical problem of ascertaining the change of
form of the spring is complicated by the fact that the spring and
the whole apparatus are rotating together. In the Ayrton and
Perry transmission dynamometer or spring coupling of this type,
7 8 4
DYNASTY DYSART
the relative angular displacement is proportional to the radius
of the circle described by the end of a light lever operated by
mechanism between the spring-connected parts. By a device used
by W. E. Dalby (Proc. Inst.C.E. 1897-1898, p. 132) the change in
form of the spring is shown on a fixed indicator, which may be placed
in any convenient position. Two equal sprocket wheels Qi.Qa, are
fastened, the one to the spring pulley, the other to the shaft. An
endless band is placed over them to form two loops, which during
rotation remain at the same distance apart, unless relative angular
displacement occurs be-
tween Qi and Q 2 (fig. 7)
due to a change in form
of the spring. The change
in the distance d is pro-
portional to the change
in the torque transmitted
from the shaft to the
pulley. To measure this,
guide pulleys are placed
in the loops guided by a
geometric slide, the one
pulley carrying a scale,
and the other an index.
A recording drum or in-
tegrating apparatus may
be arranged on the pulley
frames. Aquickvanation,
or a periodic variation of
the magnitude of the force
or torque transmitted
through the springs, tends
to set up oscillations, and
this tendency increases
the nearer the periodic
time of the force variation
Such vibrations may be
FIG. 7.
approaches a periodic time of the spring.
damped out to a considerable extent by the use of a dash-pot,
or may be practically prevented by using a relatively stiff spring.
Every part of a machine transmitting force suffers elastic defor-
mation, and the force may be measured indirectly by measuring
the deformation. The relation between the two should in all cases
be found experimentally. G. A. Hirn (see Les Pandynamomltres,
Paris, 1876) employed this principle to measure the torque trans-
mitted by a shaft. Signer Rosio used a telephonic method to effect
the same end, and mechanical, optical and telephonic devices have
been utilized by the Rev. F. J. Jervis-Smith. (See Phil. Mag.
February 1898.)
H. Frahm, 1 during an important investigation on the torsional
vibration of propeller shafts, measured the relative angular displace-
ment of two flanges on a propeller shaft, selected as far apart as
possible, by means of an electrical device (Engineering, 6th of
February 1903). These measurements were utilized in combination
with appropriate elastic coefficients of the material to find the
horse-power transmitted from the engines along the shaft to the
propeller. In this way the effective horse-power and also the
mechanical efficiency of a number of large marine engines, each of
several thousand horse-power, have been determined.
When a belt, in which the maximum and minimum tensions
are respectively P and p Ib, drives a pulley, the torque exerted
FIG. 8.
is (P-p)r Ib ft., r being the radius of the pulley plus half the thick-
ness of the belt. P and p may be measured directly by leading the
belt round two freely hanging guide pulleys, one in the tight, the
other in the slack part of the belt, and adjusting loads on them until
a stable condition of running is obtained. In W. Froude's belt
dynamometer (see Proc. Inst.M.E., 1858) (fig. 8) the guide pulleys
Gi, Gi are carried upon an arm free to turn about the axis O. H
is a pulley to guide the approaching and receding parts of the belt
to and from the beam in parallel directions. Neglecting friction, the
1 H. Frahm, " Neue Untersuchungen tiber die dynamischen
Vorgange in den Wellenleitungen von Schiffsmaschinen mit beson-
derer Berucksichtigung der Resonanzschwingungen," Zeitschrift
des Vereins deutscher Ingenieure, 3ist May 1902.
unbalanced torque acting on the beam is 4r\P-p] Ib ft. If a force
Q acting at R maintains equilibrium, QR/4 = (P-p)r=T. Q is
supplied by a spring, the extensions of which are recorded on a drum
driven proportionally to the angular displacement of the driving
pulley; thus a work diagram is obtained. In the Farcot form the
guide pulleys are attached to separate weighing levers placed hori-
zontally below the apparatus. In a belt dynamometer built for the
Franklin Institute from the designs of Tatham, the weighing levers
are separate and arranged horizontally at the top of the apparatus.
The weighing beam in the Hefner-Alteneck dynamometer is placed
transversely to the belt (see Eleclrotechnischen Zeitschrift, 1881, 7).
The force Q, usually measured by a spring, required to maintain
the beam in its central position is proportional to (P-p). If
the angle 0i =0 2 = 120, Q = (P - p) neglecting friction.
When a shaft is driven by means of gearing the driving torque
is measured by the product of the resultant pressure P acting
between the wheel teeth and the radius of the pitch circle of the
wheel fixed to the shaft. Fig. 9, which has been reproduced from
J. White's A New Century of Inventions (Manchester, 1822), illus-
trates possibly the earliest application of this principle to dynamo-
metry. The wheel D, keyed to the shaft overcoming the resistance
to be measured, is driven from wheel N by two bevel wheels L, L,
carried in a loose pulley K. The two shafts, though in a line, are
independent. A torque applied to the shaft A can be transmitted
to D, neglecting friction, without change only if the central pulley
K is held from turning; the torque required to do this is twice the
torque transmitted.
The torque acting on the armature of an electric motor is neces-
sarily accompanied by an equal and opposite torque acting on the
FIG. 9.
frame. If, therefore, the motor is mounted on a cradle free to turn
about knife-edges, the reacting torque is the only torque tending
to turn the cradle when it is in a vertical position, and may therefore
be measured by adjusting weights to hold the cradle in a vertical
position. The rate at which the motor is transmitting work is then
- H.P., where n is the revolutions per second of the armature.
See James Dredge, Electric Illumination, vol. ii. (London, 1885);
W. W. Beaumont, " Dynamometers and Friction Brakes," Proc.
Inst.C.E. vol. xcv. (London, 1889); E. Brauer, " tJber Brems-
dynamometer and verwandte Kraftmesser," Zeitschrift des Vereins
deutscher Ingenieure (Berlin, 1888); J. J. Flather, Dynamometers
and the Measurement of Power (New York, 1893). (W. E. D.)
DYNASTY (Gr. 8uvaaTtia, sovereignty, the position of a
Ktivaorris, lord, ruler, from Sbvaffdcu, to be able, Swapis, power),
a family or line of rulers, a succession of sovereigns of a country
belonging to a single family or tracing their descent to a common
ancestor. The term is particularly used in the history of ancient
Egypt as a convenient means of arranging the chronology.
DYSART, a royal and police burgh and seaport of Fifeshire,
Scotland, on the shore of the Firth of Forth, 2 m. N.E. of Kirk-
caldy by the North British railway. Pop. (1901) 3562. It has
a quaint old-fashioned appearance, many ancient houses in
High Street bearing inscriptions and dates. The public build-
ings include a town hall, library, cottage hospital, mechanics'
institute and memorial hall. Scarcely anything is left of the old
chapel dedicated to St Dennis, which for a time was used as a
DYSENTERY
785
Smithy; and of the chapel of St Serf, the patron saint of the
burgh, only the tower remains. The chief industries are the
manufacture of bed and table linen, towelling and woollen cloth,
shipbuilding and flax-spinning. There is a steady export of
coal, and the harbour is provided with a wet dock and patent
slip. In smuggling days the " canty carles " of Dysart were
professed "free traders." In the I5th and i6th centuries the
town was a leading seat of the salt industry (" salt to Dysart "
was the equivalent of " coals to Newcastle "), but the salt-pans
have been abandoned for a considerable period. Nail-making,
once famous, is another extinct industry. During the time
of the alliance between Scotland and Holland, which was closer
in Fifeshire than in other counties, Dysart became known as
Little Holland. To the west of the town is Dysart House, the
residence of the earl of Rosslyn. With Burntisland and King-
horn Dysart forms one of the Kirkcaldy district group of parlia-
mentary burghs. The town is mentioned as early as 874 in
connexion with a Danish invasion. Its name is said to be a
corruption of the Latin desertum, " a desert," which was applied
to a cave on the seashore occupied by St Serf. In the cave the
saint held his famous colloquy with the devil, in which Satan
was worsted and contemptuously dismissed. From James V.
the town received the rights of a royal burgh. In 1559 it was the
headquarters of the Lords of the Congregation, and in 1607 the
scene of the meetings of the synod of Fife known as the Three
Synods of Dysart. Ravensheugh Castle, on the shore to the west
of the town, is the Ravenscraig of Sir Walter Scott's ballad of
" Rosabelle."
William Murray, a native of the place, was made earl of Dysart
in 1643, and his eldest child and heir, a daughter, Elizabeth,
obtained in 1670 a regrant of the title, which passed to the de-
scendants of her first marriage with Sir Lionel Tollemache, Bart.,
of Helmingham; she married secondly the ist duke of Lauder-
dale, but had no children by him, and died in 1698. This countess
of Dysart (afterwards duchess of Lauderdale) was a famous
beauty of the period, and notorious both for her amours and for
her political influence. She was said to have been the mistress
of Oliver Cromwell, and also of Lauderdale before her first
husband's death, and was a leader at the court of Charles II.
Wycherley is supposed to have aimed at her in his Widow
Blackacre in the Plain Dealer. Her son, Lionel Tollemache
(d. 1727), transmitted the earldom to his grandson Lionel (d.
1770), whose sons Lionel (d. 1799) and Wilbraham (d. 1821)
succeeded; they died without issue, and their sister Louisa (d.
1840), who married John Manners, an illegitimate son of the
second son of the 2nd duke of Rutland, became countess in her
own right, being succeeded by her grandson (d. 1878), and his
grandson, the 8th earl.
The earldom of Dysart must not be confounded with that of
Desart (Irish), created (barony 1733) in 1793, and held in the
Cuffe family, who were originally of Creech St Michael, Somerset,
the Irish branch dating from Queen Elizabeth's time.
DYSENTERY (from the Gr. prefix 5va-, in the sense of " bad,"
and tvTtpov, the intestine), also called " bloody flux," an in-
fectious disease with a local lesion in the form of inflammation
and ulceration of the lower portion of the bowels. Although
at one time a common disease in Great Britain, dysentery is
now very rarely met with there, and is for the most part confined
to warm countries, where it is the cause of a large amount of
mortality. (For the pathology see DIGESTIVE ORGANS.)
Recently considerable advance has been made in our know-
ledge of dysentery, and it appears that there are two distinct
types of the disease: (i) amoebic dysentery, which is due to the
presence of the amoeba histolytica (of Schaudinn) in the in-
testine; (2) bacillary dysentery, which has as causative agent two
separate bacteria, (a) that discovered by Shiga in Japan, (6)
that discovered by Flexner in the Philippine Islands. With
regard to the bacillary type, at first both organisms were con-
sidered to be identical, and the name bacillus dysenteriae was
given to them; but later it was shown that these bacilli are
different, both in regard to their cultural characteristics and
also in that one (Shiga) gives out a soluble toxin, whilst the
other has so far resisted all efforts to discover it. Further, the
serum of a patient affected with one of the types has a marked
agglutinative power on the variety with which he is infected
and not on the other.
Clinically, dysentery manifests itself with varying degrees of
intensity, and it is often impossible without microscopical
examination to determine between the amoebic and bacillary
forms. In well-marked cases the following are the chief symp-
toms. The attack is commonly preceded by certain premonitory
indications in the form of general illness, loss of appetite, and
some amount of diarrhoea, which gradually increases in severity,
and is accompanied with griping pains in the abdomen (tormina).
The discharges from the bowels succeed each other with great
frequency, and the painful feeling of pressure downwards
(tenesmus) becomes so intense that the patient is constantly
desiring to defecate. The matters passed from the bowels,
which at first resemble those of ordinary diarrhoea, soon change
their character, becoming scanty, mucous or slimy, and subse-
quently mixed with, or consisting wholly of, blood, along with
shreds of exudation thrown off from the mucous membrane of
the intestine. The evacuations possess a peculiarly offensive
odour characteristic of the disease. Although the constitutional
disturbance is at first comparatively slight, it increases with the
advance of the disease, and febrile symptoms come on attended
with urgent thirst and scanty and painful flow of urine. Along
with this the nervous depression is very marked, and the state
of prostration to which the patient is reduced can scarcely be
exceeded. Should no improvement occur death may take place
in from one to three weeks, either from repeated losses of blood,
or from gradual exhaustion consequent on the continuance of
the symptoms, in which case the discharges from the bowels
become more offensive and are passed involuntarily.
When, on the other hand, the disease is checked, the signs
of improvement are shown in the cessation of the pain, in the
evacuations being less frequent and more natural, and in relief
from the state of extreme depression. Convalescence is, how-
ever, generally slow, and recovery may be imperfect the
disease continuing in a chronic form, which may exist for a
variable length of time, giving rise to much suffering, and not
unfrequently leading to an ultimately fatal result.
The dysentery poison appears to exert its effects upon the
glandular structures of the large intestine, particularly in its
lower part. In the milder forms of the disease there is simply
a congested or inflamed condition of the mucous membrane,
with perhaps some inflammatory exudation on its surface, which
is passed off by the discharges from the bowels. But in the more
severe forms ulceration of the mucous membrane takes place.
Commencing in and around the solitary glands of the large in-
testine in the form of exudations, these ulcers, small at first,
enlarge and run into each other, till a large portion of the bowel
may be implicated in the ulcerative process. Should the disease
be arrested these ulcers may heal entirely, but occasionally they
remain, causing more or less disorganization of the coats of the
intestines, as is often found in chronic dysentery. Sometimes,
though rarely, the ulcers perforate the intestines, causing rapidly
fatal inflammation of the peritoneum, or they may erode a blood
vessel and produce violent haemorrhage. Even where they
undergo healing they may cause such a stricture of the calibre
of the intestinal canal as to give rise to the symptoms of obstruc-
tion which ultimately prove fatal. One of the severest compli-
cations of the disease is abscess of the liver, usually said to be
solitary, and known as tropical abscess of the liver, but probably
is more frequently multiple than is usually thought.
Treatment. Where the disease is endemic or is prevailing
epidemically, it is of great importance to use all preventive
measures, and for this purpose the avoidance of all causes likely
to precipitate an attack is to be enjoined. Exposure to cold
after heat, the use of unripe fruit, and intemperance in eating
and drinking should be forbidden; and the utmost care taken
as to the quality of the food and drinking water. In houses or
hospitals where cases of the disease are under treatment, dis-
infectants should be freely employed, and the evacuations of the
786
DYSPEPSIA
patients removed as speedily as possible, having previously
been sterilized in much the same manner as is employed in
typhoid fever. In the milder varieties of this complaint, such
as those occurring sporadically, and where the symptoms are
probably due to matters in the bowels setting up the dysen-
teric irritation, the employment of diaphoretic medicines is to
be recommended, and the administration of such a laxative as
castor oil, to which a small quantity of laudanum has been added,
will often, by removing the source of the mischief, arrest the
attack; but a method of treatment more to be recommended is
the use of salines in large doses, such as one drachm of sodium
sulphate from four to eight times a day. This treatment may
with advantage be combined with the internal administration
of ipecacuanha, which still retains its reputation in this disease.
Latterly, free irrigation of the bowel with astringents, such as
silver nitrate, tannalbin, &c., has been attended with success in
those cases which have been able to tolerate the injections.
In many instances they cannot be used owing to the extreme
degree of irritability of the bowel. The operation of appendi-
costomy, or bringing the appendix to the surface and using it as
the site for the introduction of the irrigating fluid, has been
attended with considerable success.
In those cases due to Shiga's bacillus the ideal treatment has
been put at our disposal by the preparation of a specific anti-
toxin; this has been given a trial in several grave epidemics
of late, and may be said to be the most satisfactory treatment
and offer the greatest hope of recovery. It is also of great use
as a prophylactic.
The preparations of morphia are of great value in the sympto-
matic treatment of the disease. They may be applied externally
as fomentations, for the relief of tormina; by rectal injection
for the relief of the tenesmus and irritability of the bowel;
hypodermically in advanced cases, for the relief of the general
distress. In amoebic dysentery, warm injections of quinine per
rectum have proved very efficacious, are usually well tolerated,
and are not attended with any ill effects. The diet should be
restricted, consisting chiefly of soups and farinaceous foods;
more especially is this of importance in the chronic form. For
the thirst ice may be given by the mouth. Even in the chronic
forms, confinement to bed and restriction of diet are the
most important elements of the treatment. Removal from the
hot climate and unhygienic surroundings must naturally be
attended to.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Allbutt and Rolleston, System of Medicine,
vol. ii. part ii. (1907), " Dysentery," Drs Andrew Davidson and
Simon Flexner; Davidson, Hygiene and Diseases of Warm Climates
(Edinburgh, 1903); Fearnside in Ind. Med. Gaz. (July 1905); Ford
in Journal of Tropical Medicine (July 15, 1904) ; Korentchewsky
in Bulletin de I'Institut Pasteur (February 1905) ; Shiga : Osier and
M'Crae's System of Medicine, vol. ii. p. 781 (1907); Skschivan and
Stefansky in Berliner klinische Wochenschrift (February II, 1907);
Vaillard and Dopter, on the treatment by antidysenteric serum,
Annales de I'Institut Pasteur, No. 5, p. 326 (1906); J. A. Pottinger,
" Appendicostomy in Chronic Dysentery," Lancet (December 28,
1907); Robert Doerr, Das Dysenterietoxin (Gustav Fischer, Jena,
1907); F. M. Sandwith, " Hunterian Lecture on the Treatment of
Dysentery," Lancet (December 7, 1907).
DYSPEPSIA (from the Gr. prefix Svc-, hard, ill, and
to digest), or indigestion, a term vaguely given to a group of
pathological symptoms. There are comparatively few diseases
of any moment where some of the phenomena of dyspepsia are
not present as associated symptoms, and not infrequently these
exist to such a degree as to mask the real disease, of which they
are only complications. This is especially the case in many
organic diseases of the alimentary canal, in which the symptoms
of dyspepsia are often the most prominent. In its restricted
meaning, however (and it is to this that the present article
applies), the term is used to describe a functional derangement
of the natural process of digestion, apart from any structural
change in the organs concerned in the act.
The causes of this trouble may be divided into (a) those which
concern the food, and (6) those which concern the organism.
Among the causes connected with the food are not only the
indulgence in indigestible articles of diet, but the too common
practice of eating too much of what may be otherwise quite
wholesome and digestible; and irregular, too frequent or too
infrequent meals. The quantity of food required by different
individuals varies between wide limits, but also the quantity
required by the same individual varies considerably according
to circumstances, more food being needed in cold than in warm
weather, and more in an active open-air occupation than in a
sedentary one. The thorough mastication of the food is a very
important precursor of digestion, 1 and this only too often fails,
either owing to haste over meals or because of painful or deficient
teeth. Again, the quality of the food is of importance, some
kinds of flesh being harder and more difficult of mastication
than others. This is especially the case with meat that has
been smoked or salted, and with that cooked too soon after the
death of the animal. Drinks are a common source of dyspepsia.
Beer when new and its fermentation not completed is especially
bad. Vinegar and acid wines, if taken in large quantities, tend
to produce gastric catarrh, and tea is a very fruitful source of
this trouble. Even too much water at meal-times may cause
indigestion, since the food in the mouth is apt to be softened
by the water instead of saliva, and also the gastric juice becomes
unduly diluted, rendering the digestion in the stomach too slow
and prolonged. Carious teeth and oral sepsis, from whatsoever
cause, lead to the same trouble.
Of the causes which concern the organism, nervous influences
come first. Bad news may take away all power of digestion
and even provoke vomiting, and any worry or mental trouble
tends to bring on this condition. General weakness and atony
of the body affects the stomach in like degree, and, if the muscles
of the abdominal wall be much wasted, they become too weak to
support the abdominal viscera in place. Hence results a general
tendency for these organs to fall, giving rise to a condition of
visceroptosis, of which an obstinate dyspepsia is a very marked
feature. Adhesions of the intestines from old inflammatory
troubles, floating kidney and bad circulation may each be a
cause of painful digestion. Again, a dyspepsia that will not
yield to treatment is often one of the symptoms of renal disease,
or, in young people of fifteen to twenty years of age, it may
be the earliest sign of a gouty diathesis, or even of a more seri-
ous condition still incipient phthisis. Chronic dyspepsia, by
weakening the organism, renders it more liable to fall a prey to the
attacks of the tubercle bacillus, but, on the other hand, the
tuberculous lesion in the lung is often accompanied by a most
intractable form of dyspepsia. From this it is clear that any
condition which lessens the general well-being of the organism
as a whole, apart from its producing any permanent morbid
condition in the stomach, may yet interfere with the normal
digestive processes and so give rise to dyspepsia.
The symptoms of dyspepsia, even when due to a like cause,
are so numerous and diversified in different individuals that
probably no description could exactly represent them as they
occur in any given case. All that can be here attempted is to
mention some of the more prominent morbid phenomena usually
present in greater or less degree.
Very briefly, a furred tongue, foul breath, disturbance of
appetite, nausea and vomiting, oppression in the chest, pain,
flatulence and distension, acidity, pyrosis and constipation or
diarrhoea are a few of the commonest symptoms.
When the attack is dependent on some error in diet, and the
dyspepsia consequently more of an acute character, there is
often pain followed with sickness and vomiting of the offensive
matters, after which the patient soon regains his former healthy
state. What are commonly known as " bilious attacks " are
frequently of this character. In the more chronic cases of
dyspepsia the symptoms are somewhat different. A sensation
of discomfort comes on shortly after a meal, and is more of the
nature of weight and distension in the stomach than of actual
pain, although this too may be present. These feelings may come
1 This aspect of the matter " buccal digestion " has been
specially emphasized in recent years by Horace Fletcher of the
United States, whose experience of the results of systematic " chew-
ing," confirmed by Sir M. Foster, Prof. Chittenden and others, has
almost revolutionized the science of dietetics.
DYSTELEOLOGY DZUNGARIA
787
on after each meal, or only after certain meals, and they may
arise irrespective of the kind of food taken, or only after certain
articles of diet. As in most of such cases the food is long re-
tained in the stomach, it is apt to undergo fermentive changes,
one of the results of which is the accumulation of gases which
cause flatulence and eructations of an acid or foul character.
Occasionally quantities of hot, sour, tasteless or bitter fluid
pyrosis or mouthfuls of half-digested food, regurgitate from
the stomach. Temporary relief may be obtained when another
meal is taken, but soon the uncomfortable sensations return
as before. The appetite may be craving or deficient, or desirous
of abnormal kinds of food. The tongue registers the gastric
condition with great delicacy: a pasty white fur on the tongue
is considered a sign of weakness or atony of the digestive tract ;
a clean pointed tongue with large papillae, and rather red at the
edges and tip, is a sign of gastric irritation; and a pale flabby
tongue suggests the need of stimulating treatment. Constipation
is more common in the chronic forms of dyspepsia, diarrhoea in
the acute.
Numerous disagreeable and painful sensations hi other parts
are experienced, and are indeed often more distressing than the
merely gastric symptoms. Pains in the chest, shortness of
breathing, palpitation, headache, giddiness, affections of vision,
coldness of the extremities, and general languor are common
accompaniments of dyspepsia; while the nervous phenomena
are specially troublesome in the form of sleeplessness, irritability,
despondency and hypochondriasis.
As regards treatment only a few general observations can be
made. The careful arrangement of the diet is a matter of first
importance. Quantity must be regulated by the digestive
capabilities of the individual, .his age, and the demands made
upon his strength by work. There is little doubt that the danger
is in most instances on the side of excess, and the rule which
enjoins the cessation from eating before the appetite is satisfied
is a safe one for dyspeptics. Due time, too, must be given for
the digestion of a meal, and from four to six hours are in general
required for this purpose. Long fasts, however, are nearly as
hurtful as too frequent meals. Of no less importance is the kind
of food taken, and on this point those who suffer from indigestion
must ever exercise the greatest care. It must be borne in mind
that idiosyncrasy often plays an important part in digestion,
some persons being unable to partake without injury of sub-
stances which are generally regarded as wholesome and digestible.
In most cases it is found very helpful to separate the protein
from the farinaceous food, and the more severe the dyspepsia
the more thoroughly should this be done, only relaxing as the
dyspepsia yields. No fluid should be drunk at meal-times, but
from one to two tumblers of hot water should be drunk from an
hour to an hour and a half before food. This washes any remnant
of the last meal from the stomach, and also supplies material for
the free secretion of saliva and gastric juice, thus promoting
and accelerating digestion. The only exception to this is in the
case of a dilated stomach, when it is wholly contra-indicated.
With regard to mastication, Sir Andrew Clark's rule is a very
good one, and is more easily followed than the ideal theory laid
down by Horace Fletcher, according to whom any food is digest-
ible if properly treated while still in the mouth. Clark's rule is
that as the mouth normally contains thirty-two teeth, thirty-
two bites should be given before the food is swallowed. This,
of course, is a practical doctor's concession to human weakness.
Mr Fletcher would train every one to " chew " till the contents
of the mouth were swallowed by reflex action without deliberate
act; and he applies this theory of mastication and salivation
also to drinks (except water). Again, a lack of warmth being
a source of dyspepsia, this should be attended to, the back of
the neck, the front of the abdomen and the feet being the parts
that require special attention. The feet should be raised on
a stool, the ankles protected with warm stockings and a woollen
" cummerbund " wound two or three times round the body.
Experience has shown that in this complaint no particular kind
of food or avoidance of food- is absolutely to be relied on, but
that in general the best diet is one of a mixed animal and vege-
table kind, simply but well cooked. The partaking of many
dishes, of highly-seasoned or salted meats, raw vegetables, newly-
baked bread, pastry and confectionery are all well-known
common causes of dyspepsia, and should be avoided. When
even the simple diet usually taken is found to disagree, it
may be necessary to change it temporarily for a still lighter
form, such as a milk diet, and that even in very moderate
quantity.
The employment of alcoholic stimulants to assist digestion
is largely resorted to, both with and without medical advice.
While it seems probable that in certain cases of atonic dyspepsia,
particularly in the feeble and aged, the moderate administration
of alcohol has the effect of stimulating the secretion of gastric
juice, and is an important adjuvant to other remedies, the
advantages of its habitual use as an aid to digestion by the young
and otherwise healthy, is more than questionable, and it will
generally be found that among them, those are least troubled
with indigestion who abstain from it. Rest should be taken
both before and after food, and general hygienic measures are
highly important, since whatever improves the state of the
health will have a favourable influence on digestion. Hence
regular exercise in the open air, early rising and the cold bath
are to be strongly recommended.
The medicinal treatment of dyspepsia can only be undertaken
by a physician, but the following is a very brief re'sume of the
drugs he depends on to-day. Bicarbonate of soda with some
bitter, as quassia, gentian or columba, is much in vogue as a
direct gastric stimulant. In irritable dyspepsia some form of
bismuth in solution or powder; and, to assist digestion through
the nervous system, nux vomica and strychnine can be relied
on. To give directly digestive material, hydrochloric acid,
pepsin and rennet are prescribed in many forms, but where
there is much vomiting ingluvin is more efficacious than pepsin.
When farinaceous food is badly borne, diastase is helpful, given
either before or with the meal. To prevent fermentation, phenol,
creasote and sulpho-carbolate of soda are all extremely useful
in skilled hands; and for intestinal decomposition and flatulent
distension, bismuth salicylate with salol or j3-naphthol is much
used. Cyllin, and charcoal in many forms, may be taken both
for gastric and intestinal flatulence. But all these drugs, of
proved value though they are, must be modified and combined
to suit the special idiosyncrasy of the patient, and are therefore
often worse than useless in inexperienced hands. The condition
of the bowels must always have due attention.
See also DIGESTIVE ORGANS; NUTRITION and DIETETICS.
DYSTELEOLOGY, a modern word invented by Haeckel
(Evolution of Man) for the doctrine of purposelessness, as
opposed to the philosophical doctrine of design (Teleology).
DZUNGARIA, DSONGARIA, or JUNGARIA, a former Mongolian
kingdom of Central Asia, raised to its highest pitch by Kaldan
or Bushtu Khan in the latter half of the I7th century, but
completely destroyed by Chinese invasion about 1757-1759.
It has played an important part in the history of Mongolia and
the great migrations of Mongolian stems westward. Now its
territory belongs partly to the Chinese empire (east Turkestan
and north-western Mongolia) and partly to Russian Turkestan
(provinces of Semiryechensk and Semipalatinsk). It derived
its name from the Dsongars, or Songars, who were so called
because they formed the left wing (dson, left; gar, hand) of the
Mongolian army. Its widest limit included Kashgar, Yarkand,
Khotan, the whole region of the T'ien Shan, or Tian-shan,
Mountains, and in short the greater proportion of that part of
Central Asia which extends from 35 to 50 N. and from 72 to
97 E. The name, however, is more properly applied only to
the present Chinese province of T'ien Shan-pei-lu and the country
watered by the Hi. As a political or geographical term it has
practically disappeared from the map; but the range of moun-
tains stretching north-east along the southern frontier of the
Land of the Seven Streams, as the district to the south-east of
the Balkhash Lake is called, preserves the name of Dzungarian
Range.
788
E EABANI
EThe fifth symbol in the English alphabet occupies also
the same position in Phoenician and in the other
alphabets descended from Phoenician. As the Semitic
alphabet did not represent vowels, E was originally an
aspirate. Its earliest form, while writing is still from right to left,
is ^k, the upright being continued some distance below the lowest
of the cross-strokes. In some of the Greek alphabets it appears
as with the upright prolonged at both top and bottom, but
it soon took the form with which we are familiar, though in
the earlier examples of this form the cross-strokes are not
horizontal but drop at an angle, . In Corinth and places
under its early influence like Megara, or colonized from it like
Corcyra, the symbol for e takes the form ^ or B, while at Sicyon
in the 6th and 5th centuries B.C. it is represented by X- In
early Latin it was sometimes represented by two perpendicular
strokes of equal length, 1 1 .
In the earliest Greek inscriptions and always in Latin the
symbol E represented both the short and the long e-sound.
In Greek also it was often used for the close long sound which
arose either by contraction of two short e-sounds or by the loss
of a consonant, after a short e-sound, as in ^iXeire, " you love,"
for <#>iXere, and <t>ativds, " bright," out of an earlier <}>a.tcrv6s.
The Ionian Greeks of Asia Minor, who had altogether lost the
aspirate, were the first to use the symbol H for the long e-sound,
and in official documents at Athens down to 403 B.C., when the
Greek alphabet as still known was adopted by the state, E
represented e, tj and the sound arising by contraction or consonant
loss as mentioned above which henceforth was written with
two symbols, fi, and being really a single sound is known as
the " spurious diphthong." There were some minor distinctions
in usage of the symbols E and H which need not here be given
in detail. The ancient Greek name was el, not Epsilon as
popularly supposed; the names of the Greek letters are
given from Kallias, an earlier contemporary of Euripides, in
Athenaeus x. p. 453 d.
In Greek the short e-sound to which E was ultimately limited
was a close sound inclining more towards i than a; hence the
representation of the contraction of e by ei. Its value in
Latin was exactly the opposite, the Latin short e being open,
and the long close. In English there has been a gradual
narrowing of the long vowels, a becoming approximately ei
and e becoming i (Sweet, History of English Sounds, 781,817 ff.
2nd ed.). In languages where the diphthong ai has become a
monophthong, the resulting sound is some variety of long e.
Often the gradual assimilation can be traced through the inter-
mediate stage of ae to e, as in the Old Latin aidilis, which in
classical Latin is aedilis, and in medieval MSS. edilis.
The variety of spelling in English for the long and short e-
sounds is conveniently illustrated in Miss Soames's Introduction
to the Study of Phonetics, pp. 16 and 20. (P. Gi.)
EA (written by means of two signs signifying " house "
and " water"), in the Babylonian religion, originally the patron
deity of Eridu, situated in ancient times at the head of the Persian
Gulf, but now, by reason of the constant accumulation of soil
in the Euphrates valley, at some distance from the gulf. Eridu,
meaning " the good city," was one of the oldest settlements in
the Euphrates valley, and is now represented by the mounds
known as Abu Shahrein. In the absence of excavations on that
site, we are dependent for our knowledge of Ea on material
found elsewhere. This is, however, sufficient to enable us to
state definitely that Ea was a water-deity, and there is every
reason to believe that the Persian Gulf was the body of water
more particularly sacred to him. Whether Ea (or A-e as some
scholars prefer) represents the real pronunciation of his name
we do not know. All attempts to connect Ea with Yah and
Yahweh are idle conjectures without any substantial basis.
He is figured as a man covered with the body of a fish, and this
representation, as likewise the name of his temple E-apsu,
" house of the watery deep," points decidedly to his character
as a god of the waters (see OANNES) . Of his cult at Eridu, which
reverts to the oldest period of Babylonian history, nothing
definite is known beyond the fact that the name of his temple
was E-saggila, " the lofty house " pointing to a staged tower
as in the case of the temple of Bel (q.v.) at Nippur, known as
E-Kur, i.e. " mountain house " and that incantations, involv-
ing ceremonial rites, in which water as a sacred element played
a prominent part, formed a feature of his worship. Whether
Eridu at one time also played an important political r&le is not
certain, though not improbable. At all events, the prominence
of the Ea cult led, as in the case of Nippur, to the survival of
Eridu as a sacred city, long after it had ceased to have any
significance as a political centre. Myths in which Ea figures
prominently have been found in Assur-bani-pal's library, in-
dicating that Ea was regarded as the protector and teacher of
mankind. He is essentially a god of civilization, and it was natural
that he was also looked upon as the creator of man, and of the
world in general. Traces of this view appear in the Marduk epic
celebrating the achievements of this god, and the close connexion
between the Ea cult at Eridu and that of Marduk also follows
from two considerations: (i) that the name of Marduk 's sanctu-
ary at Babylon bears the same name, E-saggila, as that of Ea
in Eridu, and (2) that Marduk is generally termed the son of Ea,
who derives his powers from the voluntary abdication of the
father in favour of his son. Accordingly, the incantations
originally composed for the Ea cult were re-edited by the priests
of Babylon and adapted to the worship of Marduk, and, similarly,
the hymns to Marduk betray traces of the transfer of attributes
to Marduk which originally belonged to Ea.
It is, however, more particularly as the third figure in the triad,
the two other members of which were Anu (q.v.) and Bel (q.v.),
that Ea acquires his permanent place in the pantheon. To him
was assigned the control of the watery element, and in this
capacity he becomes the shar apsi, i.e. king of the Apsu or " the
deep." The Apsu was figured as an ocean encircling the earth,
and since the gathering place of the dead, known as Aralu, was
situated near the confines of the Apsu, he was also designated
as En-Ki, i.e. " lord of that which is below," in contrast to Anu,
who was the lord of the " above " or the heavens. The cult
of Ea extended throughout Babylonia and Assyria. We find
temples and shrines erected in his honour, e.g. at Nippur, Girsu,
Ur, Babylon, Sippar and Nineveh, and the numerous epithets
given to him, as well as the various forms under which the god
appears, alike bear witness to the popularity which he enjoyed
from the earliest to the latest period of Babylonian-Assyrian
history. The consort of Ea, known as Damkina, " lady of that
which is below," or Nin-Ki, having the same meaning, or
Damgal-nunna, " great lady of the waters," represents a pale
reflection of Ea and plays a part merely in association with
her lord. (M. JA.)
EABANI, the name of the friend of Gilgamesh, the hero in the
Babylonian epic (see GILGAMESH, EPIC OF). Eabani, whose
name signifies " Ea creates," pointing to the tradition which
made the god Ea (q.v.) the creator of mankind, is represented
in the epic as the type of the primeval man. He is a wild man
who lives with the animals of the field until lured away from his
surroundings by the charms of a woman. Created to become
a rival to Gilgamesh, he strikes up a friendship with the hero, and
together they proceed to a cedar forest guarded by Khumbaba,
whom they kill. The goddess Irnina (a form of Ishtar, q.v.)
in revenge kills Eabani, and the balance of the epic is taken
up with Gilgamesh's lament for his friend, his wanderings in
quest of a remote ancestor, Ut-Napishtim, from whom he
hopes to learn how he may escape the fate of Eabani,
and his finally learning from his friend of the sad fate in
store for all mortals except the favourites of the god, like
EACHARD EAGLE
789
Ut-Napishtim, to whom immortal life is vouchsafed as a
special boon. (M. JA.)
EACHARD, JOHN (i636?-i697), English divine, was born in
Suffolk, and was educated at Catharine Hall, Cambridge, of
which he became master in 1675 in succession to John Lightfoot.
He was created D.D. in 1676 by royal mandate, and was twice
(in 1679 and 1695) vice-chancellor of the university. He died
on the 7th of July 1697. In 1670 he had published anonymously
a humorous satire entitled The Ground and Occasions of the
Contempt of the Clergy enquired into in a letter to R. L., which
excited much attention and provoked several replies, one of them
being from John Owen. These were met by Some Observations,
ffc. , in a second letter to R.L.(i6ji), written in the same bantering
tone as the original work. Eachard attributed the contempt
into which the clergy had fallen to their imperfect education,
their insufficient incomes, and the want of a true vocation.
His descriptions, which were somewhat exaggerated, were
largely used by Macaulay in his History of England. He gave
amusing illustrations of the absurdity and poverty of the current
pulpit oratory of his day, some of them being taken from the
sermons of his own father. He attacked the philosophy of Hobbes
in his Mr Hobb's Slate of Nature considered; in a dialogue
between Philautus and Timothy (1672), and in his Some Opinions
of Mr Hobbs considered in a second dialogue (1673). These were
written in their author's chosen vein of light satire, and Dryden
praised them as highly effective within their own range.
Eachard's own sermons, however, were not superior to those
he satirized. Swift (Works, xii. 279) alludes to him as a signal
instance of a successful humorist who entirely failed as a serious
writer.
A collected edition of his works in three volumes, with a notice
of his life, was published in 1774. The Contempt of the Clergy was
reprinted in E. Arber's English Garner. A Free Enquiry into the
Causes of the very great Esteem that the Nonconforming Preachers
are generally in with their Followers (1673) has been attributed to
Eachard on insufficient grounds.
EADBALD (d. 640), king of Kent, succeeded to the throne
on the death of his father /Ethelberht in 616. He had not been
influenced by the teaching of the Christian missionaries, and
his first step on his accession was to marry his father's widow.
After his subsequent conversion by Laurentius, archbishop of
Canterbury, he recalled the bishops Mellitus and Justus, and built
a church dedicated to the Virgin at Canterbury. He arranged
a marriage between his sister ^Ethelberg and Edwin of Northum-
bria, on whose defeat and death in 633 he received his sister and
Paulinus, and offered the latter the bishopric of Rochester.
Eadbald married Emma, a Prankish princess, and died on the
aoth of January 640.
See Bede, Historia ecclesiastica (ed. C. Plummer, Oxford, 1896);
Saxon Chronicle (ed. J. Earle and C. Plummer, Oxford, 1899).
EADIE, JOHN (1810-1876), Scottish theologian and biblical
critic, was born at Alva, in Stirlingshire, on the 9th of May 1810.
Having taken the arts curriculum at Glasgow University, he
studied for the ministry at the Divinity Hall of the Secession
Church, a dissenting body which, on its union a few years later
with the Relief Church, adopted the title United Presbyterian.
In 1835 ne became minister of the Cambridge Street Secession
church in Glasgow, and for many years he was generally regarded
as the leading representative of his denomination in Glasgow.
As a preacher, though he was not eloquent, he was distinguished
by good sense, earnestness and breadth of sympathy. In 1863
he removed with a portion of his congregation to a new church
at Lansdowne Crescent. In 1843 Eadie was appointed professor
of biblical literature and hermeneutics in the Divinity Hall of
the United Presbyterian body. He held this appointment along
with his ministerial charge till the close of his life. Though
not a profound scholar, he was surpassed by few biblical com-
mentators of his day in range of learning, and in soundness of
judgment. In the professor's chair, as in the pulpit, his strength
lay in the tact with which he selected the soundest results of
biblical criticism, whether his own or that of others, and pre-
sented them in a clear and connected form, with a constant view
to their practical bearing. He received the degree of LL.D.
from Glasgow in 1844, and that of D.D. from St Andrews in
1850.
His publications were connected with biblical criticism and
interpretation, some of them being for popular use and others
more strictly scientific. To the former class belong the Biblical
Cyclopaedia, his edition of Cruden's Concordance, his Early
Oriental History, and his discourses on the Divine Love and on
Paul the Preacher; to the latter his commentaries on the Greek
text of St Paul's epistles to the Ephesians, Colossians, Philippians
and Galatians, published at intervals in four volumes. His last
work was the History of the English Bible (2 vols., 1876). He
rendered good service as one of the revisers of the authorized
version. He died at Glasgow on the 3rd of June 1876. His
valuable library was bought and presented to the United Presby-
terian College.
EADMER, or EDMER (c. io6o-c. 1124), English historian and
ecclesiastic, was probably, as his name suggests, of English,
and not of Norman parentage. He became a monk in the
Benedictine monastery of Christ Church, Canterbury, where
he made the acquaintance of Anselm, at that time visiting
England as abbot of Bee. The intimacy was renewed when
Anselm became archbishop of Canterbury in 1093; thence-
forward Eadmer was not only his disciple and follower, but his
friend and director, being formally appointed to this position
by Pope Urban II. In 1120 he was nominated to the arch-
bishopric of St Andrews, but as the Scots would not recognize
the authority of the see of Canterbury he was never consecrated,
and soon afterwards he resigned his claim to the archbishopric.
His death is generally assigned to the year 1 1 24.
Eadmer left a large number of writings, the most important
of which is his Hisloriae nmorum, a work which deals mainly
with the history of England between 1066 and 1122. Although
concerned principally with ecclesiastical affairs scholars agree
in regarding the Historiae as one of the ablest and most valuable
writings of its kind. It was first edited by John Selden in 1623
and, with Eadmer's Vita Anselmi, has been edited by Martin
Rule for the " Rolls Series " (London, 1884) . The Vita Anselmi,
first printed at Antwerp in 1551, is probably the best life of the
saint. Less noteworthy are Eadmer's lives of St Dunstan, St
Bregwin, archbishop of Canterbury, and St Oswald, archbishop
of York; these are all printed in Henry Wharton's Anglia Sacra,
part ii. (1691), where a list of Eadmer's writings will be found.
The manuscripts of most of Eadmer's works are preserved in
the library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge.
See M. Rule, On Eadmer's Elaboration of tlte first four Books of
" Hisloriae novorum " (1886) ; and Pere Ragey, Eadmer (Paris, 1892).
EADS, JAMES BUCHANAN (1820-1887), American engineer,
was born at Lawrenceburg, Indiana, on the 23rd of May 1820.
His first engineering work of any importance was in raising
sunken steamers. In 1845 he established glass works in St Louis.
During the Civil War he constructed ironclad steamers and
mortar boats for the Federal government. His next important
engineering achievement was the construction of the great steel
arch bridge across the Mississippi at St Louis (see BKJDGE, fig.
29), upon which he was engaged from 1867 till 1874. The
work, however, upon which his reputation principally rests
was his deepening and fixing the channel at the mouths of the
Mississippi by means of jetties, whereby the narrowed stream
was made to scour out its own channel and carry the sediment
out to sea. Shortly before his death he projected a scheme for
a ship railway across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in lieu of an
isthmian canal. He died at Nassau, in the Bahamas, on the
8th of March 1887.
EAGLE (Fr. aigle, from the Lat. aquila), the name generally
given to the larger diurnal birds of prey which are not vultures;
but the limits of the subfamily A quilinae have been very variously
assigned by different writers on systematic ornithology, and there
are eagles smaller than certain buzzards. By some authorities
the Laemmergeier of the Alps, and other high mountains of
Europe, North Africa and Asia, is accounted an eagle, but by
others the genus Gypaelus is placed with the Vulturidae as its
790
EAGLE
common English name (bearded vulture) shows. There are also
other forms, such as the South American Harpyia and its allies,
which though generally called eagleshavebeen ranked as buzzards.
In the absence of any truly scientific definition of the family
Aqutiinae it is best to leave these and many other more or less
questionable members of the group such as the genera Spizaelus,
X
FIG. i. Sea-Eagle.
Circaelus, Spilornis, Helotarsus, and so forth and to treat here
of those whose position cannot be gainsaid.
True eagles inhabit all the regions of the world, and some seven
or eight species at least are found in Europe, of which two are
resident in the British Islands. In England and in the Lowlands
of Scotland eagles only exist as stragglers; but in the Hebrides
and some parts of the Highlands a good many may yet be found,
and their numbers appear to have rather increased of late years
than diminished; for the foresters and shepherds, finding that
a high price can be got for their eggs, take care to protect the
owners of the eyries, which are nearly all well known, and to keep
up the stock by allowing them at times to rear their young.
There are also now not a few occupiers of Scottish forests who
interfere so far as they can to protect the king of birds. 1 In
Ireland the extirpation of eagles seems to have been carried on
almost unaffected by the prudent considerations which in the
northern kingdom have operated so favourably for the race, and
except in the wildest parts of Donegal, Mayo and Kerry, eagles
in the sister island are almost birds of the past.
Of the two British species the erne (Icel. (Ern) or sea-eagle
(by some called also the white-tailed and cinereous eagle)
Haliaetus albicilla affects chiefly the coast and neighbourhood
of inland waters, living in great part on the fish and refuse that is
thrown up on the shore, though it not unfrequently takes living
prey, such as lambs, hares and rabbits. On these last, indeed,
young examples mostly feed when they wander southward in
1 Lord Breadalbane (d. 1871) was perhaps the first large landowner
who set the example that has been since followed by others. On his
unrivalled forest of Black Mount, eagles elsewhere persecuted to
the death were by him ordered to be unmolested so long as they
were not numerous enough to cause considerable depredations on the
farmers' flocks. He thought that the spectacle of a soaring eagle
was a fitting adjunct to the grandeur of his Argyllshire mountain
scenery, and a good equivalent for the occasional loss of a lamb,
or the slight deduction from the rent paid by his tenantry in
consequence.
autumn, as they yearly do, and appear in England. The adults
(fig. i) are distinguished by their prevalent greyish-brown colour,
their pale head, yellow beak and white tail characters, however,
wanting in the immature, which do not assume the perfect
plumage for some three or four years. The eyry is commonly
placed in a high cliff or on an island in a lake sometimes on the
ground, at others in a tree and consists of a vast mass of sticks
in the midst of which is formed a hollow lined with Luzula
sylvatica (as first observed by John Wolley) or some similar
grass, and here are laid the two or three white eggs. In former
days the sea-eagle seems to have bred in seveial parts of England
as the Lake district, and possibly even in the Isle of Wight
and on Dartmoor. This species inhabits all the northern part of
the Old World from Iceland to Kamchatka, and breeds in Europe
so far to the southward as Albania. In the New World, however,
it is only found in Greenland, being elsewhere replaced by the
white-headed or bald eagle, H. leucocephalus, a bird of similar
habits, and the chosen emblem of the United States of America.
In the far east of Asia occurs a still larger and finer sea-eagle,
H. pelagicus, remarkable for its white thighs and upper wing-
coverts. South-eastern Europe and India furnish a much smaller
species,HJec0ryM,whichhasitsrepresentative,.H'Jewc0gas/er,
in the Malay Archipelago and Australia, and, as allies in South
Africa and Madagascar,.?? . vocifer and H .vociferoides respectively.
All these eagles may be distinguished by their scaly tarsi, while
the group next to be treated of have the tarsi feathered to the
toes.
The golden or mountain eagle, Aquila chrysaetus, is the second
FIG. 2. Mountain-Eagle.
British species. This also formerly inhabited England, and a nest,
found in 1668 in the Peak of Derbyshire, is well described by
Willughby, in whose time it was said to breed also in the Snowdon
range. It seldom if ever frequents the coast, and is more active
on the wing than the sea-eagle, being able to take some birds
as they fly, but a large part of its sustenance is the flesh of animals
that die a natural death. Its eyry is generally placed and built
like that of the other British species, 2 but the neighbourhood of
* As already stated, the site chosen varies greatly. Occasionally
placed in a niche in what passes for a perpendicular cliff to which
access could only be gained by a skilful cragsman with a rope, the
writer has known a nest to within 10 or 15 yds. of which he rode on
a pony. Two beautiful views of as many golden eagles' nests,
drawn on the spot by Joseph Wolf, are given in the Ootheca Wolleyana,
and a fine series of eggs is also figured in the same work.
EAGLEHAWK EAR
791
water is not requisite. The eggs, from two to four in number,
vary from a pure white to a mottled, and often highly coloured,
surface, on which appear different shades of red and purple.
The adult bird (fig. 2) is of a rich dark brown, with the elongated
feathers of the neck, especially on the nape, light tawny, in which
imagination sees a " golden " hue, and the tail marbled with
brown and ashy-grey. In the young the tail is white at the base,
and the neck has scarcely any tawny tint. The golden eagle
does not occur in Iceland, but occupies suitable situations over
the rest of the Palaearctic Region and a considerable portion of
the Nearctic though the American bird has been, by some,
considered a distinct species. Domesticated, it has many times
been trained to take prey for its master in Europe, and to this
species is thought to belong an eagle habitually used by the
Kirghiz Tatars, who call it Bergut or Bearcoot, for the capture
of antelopes, foxes and wolves. It is carried hooded on horse-
back or on a perch between two men, and released when the quarry
is in sight. Such a bird, when well trained, is valued, says
P. S. Pallas, at the price of two camels. It is quite possible,
however, that more than one kind of eagle is thus used, and the
services of A. heliaca (which is the imperial eagle of some
writers 1 ) and of A. mogilnik both of which are found in
central Asia, as well as in south-eastern Europe may also be
employed.
A smaller form of eagle, which has usually gone under the
name of A. naevia, is now thought by the best authorities to
include three local races, or, in the eyes of some, species. They
inhabit Europe, North Africa and western Asia to India, and two
examples of one of them A. clanga, the form which is somewhat
plentiful in north-eastern Germany have occurred in Cornwall.
The smallest true eagle is A. pennata, which inhabits southern
Europe, Africa and India. Differing from other eagles of their
genus by its wedge-shaped tail, though otherwise greatly re-
sembling them, is the A audax of Australia. Lastly may be
noticed here a small group of eagles, characterized by their
long legs, forming the genus Nisaetus, of which one species,
N. fasdatus, is found in Europe. (A. N.)
EAGLEHAWK, a borough of Bendigo county, Victoria,
Australia, 105 m. by rail N.N.W. of Melbourne and 4 m. from
Bendigo, with which it is connected by steam tramway. Pop.
(1901) 8130. It stands on the Bendigo gold-bearing reef, and its
mines are important.
EAGRE (a word of obscure origin; the earliest form seems
to be higre, Latinized as higra, which William of Malmesbury
gives as the name of the bore in the Severn; the New English
Dictionary rejects the usual derivations from the O. Eng. eagor
or egor, which is seen in compounds meaning " flood," and
also the connexion with the Norse sea-god Aegir), a tide wave
of great height rushing up an estuary (see BORE), used locally
of the Humber and Trent.
EAKINS, THOMAS (1844- ), American portrait and figure
painter, was born at Philadelphia, on the 25th of July 1844.
A pupil of J. L. Gerome, in the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Paris, and
Also of Leon Bonnat, besides working in the studio of the sculptor
Dumont, he became a prolific portrait painter. He also painted
genre pictures, sending to the Centennial Exhibition at Phila-
delphia, in 1876, the " Chess Players," now in the Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York. A large canvas, " The Surgical
Clinic of Professor Gross," owned by Jefferson Medical College,
Philadelphia, contains many life-sized figures. Eakins, with
his pupil Samuel Murray (b. 1870), modelled the heroic
" Prophets " for the Witherspoon Building, Philadelphia, and
his work in painting has a decided sculptural quality. He was
for some years professor of anatomy at the schools of the Penn-
sylvania Academy of Fine Arts in Philadelphia. A man of great
inventiveness, he experimented in many directions, depicting
on canvas modern athletic sports, the negro, and early American
life, but he is best known by his portraits. He received awards
at the Columbian (1893), Paris (1900), Pan-American (1900),
and the St Louis (1904), Expositions; and won the Temple
1 Which species may have been the traditional emblem of Roman
power, and the Ales Jovis, is very uncertain.
medal in the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, and the
Proctor prize of the National Academy of Design.
EALING, a municipal borough in the Killing parliamentary
division of Middlesex, England, suburban to London, 9 m. W.
of St Paul's cathedral. Pop. (1891) 23,979; (ipoi) 33,3i-
The nucleus of the town, the ancient village, lies south of the
highroad to Uxbridge, west of the open Baling Common. The
place is wholly residential. At St Mary's church, almost wholly
rebuilt c. 1870, are buried John Oldmixon, the historian (d. 1742),
and Home Tooke (d.i8i2). The church of All Saints (1905) com-
memorates Spencer Perceval, prime minister, who was assassi-
nated in the House of Commons in 1812. It was erected under
the will of his daughter Frederica, a resident of Baling. Gunners-
bury Park, south of Ealing Common, is a handsome Italian
mansion. Among former owners of the property was Princess
Amelia, daughter of George II., who lived here from 1761 till
her death in 1786. The name of Gunnersbury is said to be
traceable to the residence here of Gunilda, niece of King Canute.
The manor of Ealing early belonged to the see of London; but
it is not mentioned in Domesday and its history is obscure.
EAR (common Teut.; O.E. Sure, Ger. Ohr, Du. oor, akin to
Lat. auris, Gr. ovs), in anatomy, the organ of hearing.
The human ear is divided into three parts external, middle
and internal. The external ear consists of the pinna and the
external auditory meatus. The pinna is composed of a yellow
fibro-cartilaginous framework covered by skin, and has an
external and an internal or cranial surface. Round the margin
of the external surface in its upper three quarters is a rim called
the helix (fig. i, a), in which is often seen a little prominence
FIG. i. The Ear as seen in Section.
Helix.
Antitragus.
Antihelix.
Concha.
Lobule.
Mastoid process.
Portip dura.
Styloid process. -
Internal carotid artery.
Eustachian tube.
Tip of petrous process.
n, External auditory meatus.
0, Membrana tympani.
p, Tympanum.
1, points to malleus.
2, to incus.
3, to stapes.
4, to cochlea.
5, 6, 7, the three semicircular
canals.
8 and 9, facial and auditory
nerves.
known as Darwin's tubercle, representing the folded-over apex
of a prick-eared ancestor. Concentric with the helix and nearer
the meatus is the antihelix (b), which, above, divides into two
limbs to enclose the triangular fossa of the antihelix. Between
the helix and the antihelix is the fossa of the helix. In front
of the antihelix is the deep fossa known as the concha (fig. i,d),
and from the anterior part of this the meatus passes inward
into the skull. Overlapping the meatus from in front is a flap
called the tragus, and below and behind this is another smaller
flap, the antitragus. The lower part of the pinna is the lobule
(e) , which contains no cartilage. On the cranial surface of the
pinna elevations correspond to the concha and to the fossae
792
EAR
of the helix and antihelix. The pinna can be slightly moved by
the anterior, superior and posterior auricular muscles, and in
addition to these there are four small intrinsic muscles on the
external surface, known as the belicis major and minor, the
tragicus and the antitragicus, and two on the internal surface
called the obliquus and transversus. The external auditory
meatus (fig. i, ) is a tube running at first forward and upward,
then a little backward and then forward and slightly downward ;
of course all the time it is also running inward until the tympanic
membrane is reached. The tube is about an inch long, its outer
third being cartilaginous and its inner two-thirds bony. It is
lined by skin in its whole length, the sweat glands of which are
modified to secrete the wax or cerumen.
The middle ear or tympanum (fig. i, p) is a small cavity in the
temporal bone, the shape of which may perhaps be realized by
imagining a hock bottle subjected to lateral pressure in such a
way that its circular section becomes triangular, the base of the
triangle being above. The neck of the bottle, also laterally
compressed, will represent the Eustachian tube (fig. i, /), which
runs forward, inward and downward, to open into the naso-
pharynx, and so admits air into the tympanum. The bottom
of the bottle will represent the posterior wall of the tympanum,
from the upper part of which an opening leads backward into
the mastoid antrum and so into the air-cells of the mastoid
process. Lower down is a little pyramid which transmits the
stapedius muscle, and at the base of this is a small opening known
as the iter chordae posterius, for the chorda tympani to come
through from the facial nerve. The roof is formed by a very
thin plate of bone, called the legmen tympani, which separates
the cavity from the middle fossa of the skull. Below the roof
the upper part of the tympanum is somewhat constricted off
from the rest, and to this part the term " attic " is often applied.
The floor is a mere groove formed by the meeting of the external
and internal walls. The outer wall is largely occupied by the
tympanic membrane (fig. i, o), which entirely separates the
middle ear from the external auditory meatus; it is circular,
and so placed that it slopes from above, downward and inward,
and from behind, forward and inward. Externally it is lined
by skin, internally by mucous membrane, while between the
two is a firm fibrous membrane, convex inward about its centre
to form the umbo. Just in front of the membrane on the outer
wall is the Glaserian fissure leading to the glenoid cavity, and
close to this is the canal of Huguier for the chorda tympani
nerve. The inner wall shows a promontory caused by the
cochlea and grooved by the tympanic plexus of nerves; above
and behind it is the fenestra ovalis, while below and behind the
fenestra rotunda is seen, closed by a membrane. Curving round,
above and behind the promontory and fenestrae, is a ridge
caused by the aqueductus Fallopii or canal for the facial nerve.
The whole tympanum is about half an inch from before backward,
and half an inch high, and is spanned from side to side by three
small bones, of which the malleus (fig. i, 1) is the most external.
This is attached by its handle to the umbo of the tympanic mem-
brane, while its head lies in the attic and articulates posteriorly
with the upper part of the next bone or incus (fig. i, 2). The
tong process of the incus runs downward and ends in a little
knob called the os orbiculare, which is jointed on to the stapes
or stirrup bone (fig. i, 3). The two branches of the stapes are
anterior and posterior, while the footplate fits into the fenestra
ovalis and is bound to it by a membrane. It will thus be seen
that the stapes lies nearly at right angles to the long process
of the incus. From the front of the malleus a slender process
projects forward into the Glaserian fissure, while from the back
of the incus the posterior process is directed backward and is
attached to the posterior wall of the tympanum. These two
processes form a fulcrum by which the lever action of the malleus
and incus is brought about, so that when the handle of the
malleus is pushed in by the membrane the head moves out;
the top of the incus, attached to it, also moves out, and the os
orbiculare moves in, and so the stapes is pressed into the fenestra
ovalis. The stapedius and tensor tympanic muscles, the latter
of which enters the tympanum in a canal just above the
oc
FIG. 2. Diagram of the Mem-
branous Labyrinth.
DC, Ductus cochlearis.
Ductus reuniens.
Sacculus.
Utriculus.
Ductus endolymphaticus.
Semicircular canals.
(After Waldeyer.)
dr,
S,
U,
dv,
SC
Eustachian tube to be attached to the malleus, modify the
movements of the ossicles.
The mucous membrane lining the tympanum is continuous
through the Eustachian tube with that of the naso-pharynx,
and is reflected on to the ossicles, muscles and chorda tympani
nerve. It is ciliated except where it covers the membrana
tympani, ossicles and promontory; here it is stratified.
The internal ear or labyrinth consists of a bony and a mem-
branous part, the latter of which is contained in the former.
The bony labyrinth is composed of the vestibule, the semi-
circular canals and the cochlea. The vestibule lies just internal
to the posterior part of the tympanum, and there would be a
communication between the two, through the fenestra ovalis,
were it not that the foot-
plate of the stapes blocks the
way. The inner wall of the
vestibule is separated from
the bottom of the internal
auditory meatus by a plate
of bone pierced by many
foramina for branches of the
auditory nerve (fig. i, 9),
while at the lower part is the
opening of the aqueductus
vestibuli, by means of which
a communication is estab-
lished with the posterior
cranial fossa. Posteriorly
the three semicircular canals
open into the vestibule; of
these the external (fig. i, 7) has two independent openings, but
the superior and posterior (fig. i , 5 and 6) join together at one
end and so have a common opening, while at their other ends they
open separately. The three canals have therefore five openings
into the vestibule instead of six. One end of each canal is dilated
to form its ampulla. The superior semicircular canal is vertical,
and the two pillars of its arch are nearly external and internal;
the external canal is horizontal, its two pillars being anterior and
posterior, while the convexity of the arch of the posterior canal
is backward and its two pillars are superior and inferior.
Anteriorly the vestibule leads into the
cochlea (fig. i, J!), which is twisted two
and a half times round a central pillar
called the modiolus, the whole cochlea
forming a rounded cone something like
the shell of a snail though it is only
about 5 mm. from base to apex. Pro-
jecting from the modiolus is a horizontal
plate which runs round it from base to
apex like a spiral staircase; this is
known as the lamina spiralis, and it
stretches nearly half-way across the canal
of the cochlea. At the summit it ends
in a little hook named the hamulus. The
modiolus is pierced by canals which
transmit branches of the auditory nerve
to the lamina spiralis.
The membranous labyrinth lies in the
bony labyrinth, but does not fill it; be-
tween the two is the fluid called peri-
lymph, while inside the membranous nar cells covering the
labyrinth is the endolymph. In the bony crista acustica ; p, peri-
vestibule lie two membranous bags,
the saccule (fig. a , S) in front, and the P~
utricle (fig. 2, U) behind; each of these (After Riidinger.)
has a special patch or macula to which
twigs of the auditory nerve are supplied, and in the mucous
membrane of which specialized hair cells are found (fig. 3, p).
Attached to the maculae are crystals of carbonate of lime
called otoconia. The membranous semicircular canals are very
much smaller in section than tbe bony; in the ampulla of
each is a ridge, the crista acustica, which is covered by a mucous
cl
FIG. 3. d, Colura-
,
pheral, and c, central
EAR
793
membrane containing sensory hair cells like those in the maculae.
All the canals open into the utricle. From the lower part of the
saccule a small canal called the ductus endolymphaticus (fig. 2,
</p) runs into the aqueductus vestibuli; it is soon joined by a
small duct from the utricle, and ends, close to the dura mater of
t he posterior fossa of the cranium, as the saccus endolymphaticus,
which may have minute perforations through which the endolymph
can pass. Anteriorly the saccule com-
municates with the membranous
cochlea or scala media by a short
ductus reuniens (fig. 2, dr). A sec-
tion through each turn of the cochlea
shows the bony lamina spiralis, already Limbus laminae
noticed, which is continued right
across the canal by the basilar mem-
brane (fig. 4, bm), thus cutting the
canal into an upper and lower half and
connected with the outer wall by the
strong spiral ligament (fig. 4, sF).
Near the free end of the lamina
spiralis another membrane called the
membrane of Reissner (fig. 4, R) is
attached, and runs outward and
upward to the outer wall, taking a
triangular slice out of the upper half
of the section. There are now three
at the apex of the cochlea, it ends in a blind extremity of consider-
able morphological interest called the lagena.
The scala media contains the essential organ of hearing or
organ of Corti (fig. 4, oc), which lies upon the inner part of the
basilar membrane; it consists of a tunnel bounded on each side
of the inner and outer rods of Corti; on each side of these are
the inner and outer hair cells, between the latter of which are
Outer rod of Corti
Inner rod of Corti Outer hair cells
Inner hair cell
Hensen's stripe
Membrana tectoria
Sulcu; spiralis
intcrnus
Cells of Hensen
Membrana basilaris
spiralis
Cells of Claudius
Inner spiral
fasciculus
Vas spirale
Cells of Deiters
Space of Nuel
Tunnel of Corti
Canals Seen in Section, the Upper Of (F l m R ' Howden-Cunningham's r/-B,t / Anatomy.)
which is the scala vestibuli (fig. 4, FlG ' 5- Transverse Section of Corti s Organ from the Central Coil of Cochlea (Retzius).
middle and outer the scala media, ductus coch-
SV), the
learis or true membranous cochlea (fig. 4, DC), while the lower
is the scala tympani (fig. 4, ST). The scala vestibuli and scala
tympani communicate at the apex of the cochlea by an opening
known as the helicotrema, so that the perilymph can here pass
from one canal to the other. At the base of the cochlea the
FIG. 4. Transverse Section through the Tube of the Cochlea.
m, Modiolus.
O, Outer wall of cochlea.
SV, Scala vestibuli.
ST, Scala tympani.
DC, Ductus cochlearis.
wR, Membrane of Reissner.
bm, Basilar membrane.
cs, Crista spiralis.
si. Spiral ligament.
sg. Spiral ganglion of auditory
nerve.
oc, Organ of Corti.
perilymph in the scala vestibuli is continuous with that in the
vestibule, but that in the scala tympani bathes the inner surface
of the membrane stretched across the fenestra rotunda, and also
communicates with the subarachnoid space through the aque-
ductus cochleae, which opens into the posterior cranial fossa.
The scala media containing endolymph communicates, as has
been shown, with the saccule through the canalis reuniens, while,
found the supporting cells of Deiters. Most externally are the
large cells of Hensen. A delicate membrane called the lamina
reticularis covers the top of all these, and is pierced by the hairs
of the hair cells, while above this is the loose membrana tectoria
attached to the periosteum of the lamina spiralis, near its tip,
internally, and possibly to some of Deiter's cells externally. The
cochlear branch of the auditory nerve enters the lamina spiralis,
where a spiral ganglion (fig. 4, sg) is developed on it; after this
it is distributed to the inner and outer hair cells.
For further details see Text-Book of Anatomy, edited by D. J.
Cunningham (Edinburgh, 1906); Quain's Elements of Anatomy
(London, 1893); Gray's Anatomy (London, 1905); A Treatise on
Anatomy, edited by H. Morris (London, 1902); A Text-Book of
Human Anatomy, by A. Macalister (London, 1889).
Embryology. The pinna is formed from six tubercles which
appear round the dorsal end of the hyomandibular cleft or,
more strictly speaking, pouch. Those for the tragus and anterior
part of the helix belong to the first or mandibular arch, while
those for the antitragus, antihelix and lobule come from the
second or hyoid arch. The tubercle for the helix is dorsal to the
end of the cleft where the two arches join. The external auditory
meatus, tympanum and Eustachian tube are remains of the
hyomandibular cleft, the membrana tympani being a remnant
of the cleft membrane and therefore lined by ectoderm outside
and entoderm inside. The origin of the ossicles is very doubtful.
H. Gadow's view, which is one of the latest, is that all three are
derived from the hyomandibular plate which connects the dorsal
ends of the hyoid and mandibular bars (Analomischer Anzeiger,
Bd. xix., 1901, p. 396). Other papers which should be consulted
are those of E. Gaupp, Analom. Hefte, Ergebnisse, Bd. 8, 1898,
p. 991, and J. A. Hammar, Archivf. mikr. Anal, lix., 1902. These
papers will give a clue to the immense literature of the subject.
The internal ear first appears as a pit from the cephalic
ectoderm, the mouth of which in Man and other mammals closes
up, so that a pear-shaped cavity is left. The stalk of the pear
which is nearest the point of invagination is called the recessus
labyrinthi, and this, after losing its connexion with the surface
of the embryo, grows backward toward the posterior cranial
fossa and becomes the ductus endolymphaticus. The lower part
of the vesicle grows forward and becomes the cochlea, while from
the upper part three hollow circular plates grow out, the central
parts of which disappear, leaving the margin as the semicircu-
lar canals. Subsequently constrictions appear in the vesicle
marking off the saccule and utricle. From the surrounding
794
EAR
mesoderm the petrous bone is formed by a process of
chondrification and ossification.
See W. His, Junr., Archiv f. Anal, und Phys., 1889, supplement,
p. i ; also Streeter, Am. Journ. of Anal, vi., 1907.
Comparative Anatomy. The ectodermal inpushing of the
internal ear has probably a common origin with the organs of
the lateral line of fish. In the lower forms the ductus endolym-
phaticus retains its communication with the exterior on the
dorsum of the head, and in some Elasmobranchs the opening is
wide enough to allow the passage of particles of sand into the
saccule. It is probable that this duct is the same which, taking
a different direction and losing its communication with the skin,
abuts on the posterior cranial fossa of higher forms (see Rudolf
Krause, " Die Entwickelung des Aq. vestibuli seu d. Endelym-
phaticus," Anat. Anzeiger, Bd. xix., 1901, p. 49). In certain
Teleostean fishes the swim bladder forms a secondary communica-
tion with the internal ear by means of special ossicles (see G.
Ridewood, Journ. Anat. 6* Phys. vol. xxvi.). Among the
Cyclostomata the external semicircular canals are wanting;
Petromyzon has the superior and posterior only, while in Myxine
these two appear to be fused so that only one is seen. In higher
types the three canals are constant. Concretions of carbonate of
lime are present in the internal ears of almost all vertebrates;
when these are very small they are called otoconia, but when, as
in most of the teleostean fishes, they form huge concretions, they
are spoken of as otoliths. One shark, Squatina, has sand instead
of otoconia (C. Stewart, Journ. Linn. Society, xxix. 409). The
utricle, saccule, semicircular canals, ductus endolymphaticus
and a short lagena are the only parts of the ear present in
fish.
The Amphibia have an important sensory area at the base of
the lagena known as the macula acustica basilaris, which is
probably the first rudiment of a true cochlea. The ductus
endolymphaticus has lost its communication with the skin, but
it is frequently prolonged into the skull and along the spinal
canal, from which it protrudes, through the intervertebral
foramina, bulging into the coelom. This is the case in the com-
mon frog (A. Coggi, Anat. Anz. 5. Jahrg., 1890, p. 177). In this
class the tympanum and Eustachian tube are first developed;
the membrana tympani lies flush with the skin of the side of the
head, and the sound-waves are transmitted from it to the internal
ear by a single bony rod the columella.
In the Reptilia the internal ear passes through a great range
of development. In the Chelonia and Ophidia the cochlea is as
rudimentary as in the Amphibia, but in the higher forms
(Crocodilia) there is a lengthened and slightly twisted cochlea,
at the end of which the lagena forms a minute terminal appen-
dage. At the same time indications of the scalae tympani and
vestibuli appear. As in the Amphibia the ductus endolymphati-
cus sometimes extends into the cranial cavity and on into other
parts of the body. Snakes have no tympanic membrane. In the
birds the cochlea resembles that of the crocodiles, but the posterior
semicircular canal is above the superior where they join one
another. In certain lizards and birds (owls) a small fold of skin
represents the first appearance of an external ear. In the
monotremes the internal ear is reptilian in its arrangement,
but above them the mammals always have a spirally twisted
cochlea, the number of turns varying from one and a half in the
Cetacea to nearly five in the rodent Coelogenys. The lagena is
reduced to a mere vestige. The organ of Corti is peculiar to
mammals, and the single columella of the middle ear is replaced
by the three ossicles already described in Man (see Alban Doran,
" Morphology of the Mammalian Ossicula auditus," Proc. Linn.
Soc., 1876-1877, xiii. 185; also Trans. Linn. Soc. 2nd Ser. Zool.
i. 371). In some mammals, especially Carnivora, the middle
ear is enlarged to form the tympanic bulla, but the mastoid cells
are peculiar to Man.
For further details see G. Retzius, Das Gehororgan der Wirbel-
thiere (Stockholm, 1881-1884); Catalogue of, the Museum of the R.
College of Surgeons Physiological Series, vol. iii. (London, 1906);
R. Wiedersheim's Vergleichende Anatomic der Wirbeltiere (Jena,
1902). (F. G. P.)
DISEASES OF THE EAR
Modern scientific aural surgery and medicine (commonly
known as Otology) dates from the time of Sir William Wilde
of Dublin (1843), whose work marked a great advance in the
application of anatomical, physiological and therapeutical
knowledge to the study of this organ. Less noticeable con-
tributions to the subject had not long before been made by
Saunders (1827), Kramer (1833), Pilcher (1841) and Yearsley
(1841). The next important event in the history of otology
was the publication of J. Toynbee's book in 1860 containing
his valuable anatomical and pathological observations. Von
Troltsch of Wurzburg, following on the lines of Wilde and
Toynbee,' produced two well-known works in 1861 and 1862,
laying the foundation of the study in Germany. In that country
and in Austria he was followed by Hermann Schwartze, Politzer,
Gruber, Weber-Liel, Riidinger, Moos and numerous others.
France produced Itard, de la Charriere, Meniere, Loewenberg
and Bonnafont; and Belgium, Charles Delstanche, father and
son. In Great Britain the work was carried on by James Hinton
(1874), Peter Allen (1871), Patterson Cassells and Sir William
Dalby. In America we may count among the early otologists
Edward H. Clarke (1858), D. B. St John Roosa, H. Knapp,
Clarence J. Blake, Albert H. Buck and Charles Burnett. Other
workers ah 1 over the world are too numerous to mention.
Various Diseases and Injuries. Diseases of the ear may affect
any of the three divisions, the external, middle or internal ear.
The commoner affections of the auricle are eczema, various
tumours (simple and malignant), and serous and sebaceous
cysts. Haematoma auris (othaematoma), or effusion of blood
into the auricle, is often due to injury, but may occur
spontaneously, especially in insane persons. The chief diseases
of the external auditory canal are as follows: impacted cerumen
(or wax), circumscribed (or furuncular) inflammation, diffuse
inflammation, strictures due to inflammatory affections, bony
growths, fungi (otomycosis), malignant disease, caries and
necrosis, and foreign bodies.
Diseases of the middle ear fall into two categories, suppurative
and non-suppurative (i.e. with and without the formation of pus).
Suppurative inflammation of the middle ear is either acute or
chronic, and is in either case accompanied by perforation of the
drum head and discharge from the ear. The chief importance
of these affections, in addition to the symptoms of pain, deafness,
discharge, &c., is the serious complications which may ensue
from their neglect, viz. aural polypi, caries and necrosis of the
bone, affections of the mastoid process, including the mastoid
antrum, paralysis of the facial nerve, and the still more serious
intracranial and vascular infective diseases, such as abscess in
the brain (cerebrum or cerebellum), meningitis, with subdural
and extradural abscesses, septic thrombosis of the sigmoid and
other venous sinuses, and pyaemia. It is owing to the possi-
bility of these complications that life insurance companies usually,
and rightly, inquire as to the presence of ear discharge before
accepting a life. Patterson Cassells of Glasgow urged this special
point as long ago as 1877. Acute suppurative disease of the
middle ear is often due to the exanthemata, scarlatina, measles
and smallpox, and to bathing and diving. It may also be caused
by influenza, diphtheria and pulmonary phthisis.
Non-suppurative disease of the middle ear may be acute or
chronic. In the acute form the inflammation is less violent than
in the acute suppurative inflammation, and is rarely accom-
panied by perforation. Chronic non-suppurative inflammation
may be divided into the moist form, in which the symptoms are
improved by inflation of the tympanum through the Eustachian
tube, and the dry form (including sclerosis), which is more in-
tractable and in which this procedure has little or no beneficial
effect. Diseases of the internal ear may be primary or secondary
to an affection of the tympanum or to intracranial disease.
Injuries to any part of the ear may occur, among the commoner
being injuries to the auricle, rupture of the drum head (from
explosions, blows on the ear or the introduction of sharp bodies
into the ear canal), and injuries from fractured skull. Congenital
EARL
795
malformations of the ear are most frequently met with in the
auricle and external canal.
Methods of Examination. The methods of examining the ear
are roughly threefold: (i) Testing the hearing with watch,
voice and tuning-fork. The latter is especially used to distinguish
between disease of the middle ear (conducting apparatus) and
that of the internal ear (perceptive apparatus). Our knowledge
of the subject has been brought to its present state by the labours
of many observers, notably Weber, Rinne, Schwabach, Lucae
and Gelle. (2) Examination of the canal and drum-head with
speculum and reflector, introduced by Kramer, Wilde and von
Troltsch. (3) Examination of the drum-cavity through the
Eustachian tube by the various methods of inflation.
Symptoms. The chief symptoms of ear diseases are deafness,
noises in the ear (tinnitus aurium), giddiness, pain and discharge.
Deafness (or other disturbance of hearing) and noises may occur
from disease in almost any part of the ear. Purulent discharge
usually comes from the middle ear. Giddiness is more commonly
associated with affections of the internal ear.
Treatment. Ear diseases are treated on ordinary surgical and
medical lines, due regard being had to the anatomical and physio-
logical peculiarities of this organ of sense, and especially to its
close relationship, on the one hand to the nose and naso-pharynx,
and on the other hand to the cranium and its contents. The chief
advance in aural surgery in recent years has been in the surgery
of the mastoid process and antrum. The pioneers of this work
were H. Schwartze of Halle, and Stacke of Erfurt, who have been
followed by a host of workers in all parts of the world. This
development led to increased attention being paid to the intra-
cranial complications of suppurative ear disease, in the treatment
of which great strides have been made in the last few years.
Effects of Diseases of the Nose on the Ear. The influence of
diseases of the nose and naso-pharynx on ear diseases was brought
out by Loewenberg of Paris, Voltolini of Breslau, and especially
by Wilhelm Meyer of Copenhagen, the discoverer of adenoid
vegetations of the naso-pharynx (" adenoids "), who recognized
the great importance of this disease and gave an inimitable
account of it in the Trans, of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical
Society of London, 1870, and the Archivfur Ohrenheilkunde, 1873.
Adenoid vegetations, which consist of an abnormal enlargement
of Luschka's tonsil in the vault of the pharynx, frequently give
rise to ear disease in children, and, if not attended to, lay the
foundation of nasal and ear troubles in after life. They are often
associated with enlargement of the faucial tonsils.
Journals. In 1864 the Archivfur Ohrenheilkunde was started by
Politzer and Schwartze, and, in 1867, the Monatsschrift fur Ohren-
heilkunde (a monthly publication) was founded by Voltolini, Gruber,
Weber-Liel and Riidinger. Appearing first as the Archives of
Ophthalmology and Otology, simultaneously in English and German,
in 1869, the Archives of Otology became a separate publication under
the editorship of Knapp, Moos and Roosa in 1879. Amongst other
journals now existing are Annales des maladies de t'oreule et du
larynx (Paris), Journal of Laryngology (London), Centralblatt fur
Ohrenheilkunde (Leipzig), &c.
Societies. The earliest society formed was the American Oto-
logical Society (1868), which held annual meetings and published
yearly transactions. Flourishing societies for the study of otology
(sometimes combined with laryngology) exist in almost all civilized
countries, and they usually publish transactions consisting of original
papers and cases. The Otological Society of the United Kingdom
was founded in 1900.
International Congresses. International Otoloeical congresses
have been held at intervals of about four years at New York, Milan,
Basel, Brussels, Florence, London and Bordeaux (1904). The pro-
ceedings of the congresses appear as substantial volumes.
Hospitals. The earliest record of a public institution for the
treatment of ear diseases is a Dispensary for Diseases of the Eye
and Ear in London, started by Saunders and Cooper, which existed
in 1804; the aural part, however, was soon closed, so that the actual
oldest institution appears to be the Royal Ear Hospital, London,
which was founded by Curtis in 1816. Four years later there was
started the New York Eye and Ear Infirmary. At the present time
in every large town of Europe and America ear diseases are treated
either in separate departments of general hospitals or in institutions
especially devoted to the purpose.
For a history of otology from the earliest times refer to A Practical
Treatise on the Diseases of the Ear, by D. B. St John Roosa, M.D.,
LL.D. (6th edition, New York, 1885), and for a general account of
the present state of otological science to A Text-Book of the Diseases
of the Ear for Students and Practitioners, by Professor Dr Adam
Politzer, transl. by Milton J. Ballin, Ph.B., M.D., and Clarence J.
Heller, M.D. (4th edition, London, 1902). (E. C. B.*)
EARL, a title and rank of nobility (corresponding to Lat.
comes; Fr. comte), now the third in order of the British peerage,
and accordingly intervening between marquess and viscount.
Earl, however, is the oldest title and rank of English nobles,
and was the highest until the year 1337, when the Black Prince
was created duke of Cornwall by Edward III.
The nature of a modern earldom is readily understood, since
it is a rank and dignity of nobility which, while it confers no
official power or authority, is inalienable, indivisible, and descends
in regular succession to all the heirs under the limitation in the
grant until, on their failure, it becomes extinct.
The title is of Scandinavian origin, and first appears in England
under Canute as jarl, which was englished as eorl. Like the
ealdorman), whose place he took, the eorl was a great royal officer,
who mightbesetoverseveralcounties, but who presided separately
in the county court of each with the bishop of the diocese.
Although there were counts in Normandy before the Norman
Conquest, they differed in character from the English earls,
and the earl's position appears to have been but slightly modified
by the Conquest. He was still generally entitled to the " third
penny " of the county, but his office tended, under Norman
influence, to become an hereditary dignity and his sphere was
restricted by the Conqueror to a single county. The right to
the " third penny " is a question of some obscurity, but its
possession seems to have been deemed the distinctive mark of
an earl, while the girding with " the sword of the county "
formed the essential feature in his creation or investiture, as it.
continued to do for centuries later. The fact that every earl
was the earl of a particular county has been much obscured
by the loose usage of early times, when the style adopted was
sometimes that of the noble's surname (e.g. the Earls Ferrers),
sometimes that of his chief seat (e.g. the Earls of Arundel) , and
sometimes that of the county. Palatine earldoms, or palatinates,
were those which possessed regalia, i.e. special privileges delegated
by the crown. The two great examples, which dated from
Norman times, were Chester and Durham, where the earl and
the bishop respectively had their own courts and jurisdiction,
and were almost petty sovereigns.
The earliest known charter creating an earl is that by which
Stephen bestowed on Geoffrey de Mandeville, in or about 1140,
the earldom of Essex as an hereditary dignity. Several other
creations by Stephen and the empress Maud followed in quick
succession. From at least the time of the Conquest the earl
had a double character; he was one of the " barons," or tenants
in chief, in virtue of the fief he held of the crown, as well as an
earl in virtue of his " belting " (with the sword) and his " third
penny " of the county. His fief would descend to the heirs of
his body; and the earliest charters creating earldoms were
granted with the same " limitation." The dignity might thus
descend to a woman, and, in that case, like the territorial fief,
it would be held by her husband, who might be summoned to
parliament in right of it. The earldom of Warwick thus passed
through several families till it was finally obtained, in 1449,
by the Kingmaker, who had married the heiress of the former
earls. But in the case of " co-heiresses " (more daughters than
one), the king determined which, if any, should inherit the
dignity.
The I4th century saw some changes introduced. The earldom
of March, created in 1328, was the first that was not named
from a county or its capital town. Under Edward III. also an
idea appears to have arisen that earldoms were connected with
the tenure of lands, and in 1337 several fresh ones were created
and large grants of lands made for their support. The first
earldom granted with limitation to the heirs male of the grantee's
body was that of Nottingham in 1383. Another innovation
was the grant of the first earldom for life only in 1377. The
girding with the sword was the only observance at a creation till
the first year of Edward VI., when the imposition of the cap
79 6
EARLE, J. EARL MARSHAL
of dignity and a circlet of gold was added. Under James I. the
patent of creation was declared to be sufficient without any
ceremony. An earl's robe of estate has three bars of ermine,
but possibly it had originally four.
Something should be said of anomalous earldoms with Norman
or Scottish styles. The Norman styles originated either under
the Norman kings or at the time of the conquest of Normandy
by the house of Lancaster. To the former period belonged
that of Aumale, which successive fresh creatjons, under the
Latinized form " Albemarle " have perpetuated to the present
day (see ALBEMARLE, EARLS AND DUKES OF). The so-called
earls of Eu and of Mortain, in that period, were really holders
of Norman comtes. Henry V. and his son created five or six,
it is said, but really seven at least, Norman countships or
earldoms, of which Harcourt (1418), Perche (1419), Dreux (1427)
and Mortain (? 1430) were bestowed on English nobles, Eu (1419),
and Tankerville (1419) on English commoners, and Longueville
(1419) on a foreigner, Gaston de Foix. Of these the earldom of
" Eu" was assumed by the earls of Essex till the death of Robert,
the parliament's general (1646), while the title of Tankerville
still survives under a modern creation (1714)- An anomalous
royal licence of 1661 permitted the earl of Bath to use the title of
earl of Corbeil by alleged hereditary right. Of Scottish earldoms
recognized in the English parliament the most remarkable case is
that of the Lords Umfraville, who were summoned for three gene-
rations (1297-1380), as earls of Angus; Henry, Lord Beaumont,
also was summoned as earl of Buchan from 1334 to 1339.
The earldom of Chester is granted to the pnnces of Wales on
their creation, and the Scottish earldom of Carrick is held by
the eldest son of the sovereign under act of parliament.
The premier earldom is that of Arundel (q.v.), but as this
is at present united with the dukedom of Norfolk, the oldest
earldom not merged in a higher title is that of Shrewsbury (1442),
the next in seniority being Derby (1485), and Huntingdon (1529).
These three have been known as " the catskin earls," a term of
uncertain origin. The ancient earldom of Wiltshire (1397) was
unsuccessfully claimed in 1869 by Mr Scrope of Danby, and that
of Norfolk (1312), in 1906, by Lord Mowbray and Stourton.
The premier earldom of Scotland as recognized by the Union
Roll (1707), is that of Crawford, held by the Lindsays since its
creation in 1398; but it is not one of the ancient " seven earl-
doms." The Decreet of Ranking (1606) appears to have recog-
nized the earldom of Sutherland as the most ancient in virtue
of a charter of 1347, but the House of Lords' decision of 1771
recognized it as having descended from at least the year 1275,
and it may be as old as 1228. It is at present united with the
dukedom of Sutherland. The original " seven earldoms " (of
which it was one) represented seven provinces, each of which
was under a " mormaer." This Celtic title was rendered " jarl '
by the Norsemen, and under Alexander I. (c. 1115) began to be
replaced by earl (comes), owing to Anglo-Norman influence,
which also tended to make these earldoms less official and more
feudal.
In Ireland the duke of Leinster is, as earl of Kildare, premier
earl as well as premier duke.
An earl is " Right Honourable," and is styled " My Lord.'
His eldest son bears his father's " second title," and therefore
that second title being in most cases a viscounty, he generally
is styled " Viscount "; where, as with Devon and Huntingdon
there is no second title, one may be assumed for convenience
under all circumstances, however, the eldest son of an earl takes
precedence immediately after the viscounts. The younger sons
of earls are " Honourable," but all their daughters are " Ladies.'
In formal documents and instruments, the sovereign, when
addressing or making mention of any peer of the degree of an
earl, usually designates him " trusty and well-beloved cousin,"
a form of appellation first adopted by Henry IV., who either
by descent or alliance was actually related to every earl am
duke in the realm. The wife of an earl is a countess; she i:
" Right Honourable," and is styled " My Lady." For the earl'
coronet see CROWN AND CORONET.
See Lord's Reports on the Dignity of a Peer; Pike's Constitutiona
Jistory of the House of Lords; Selden's Titles of Honour; G. E.
H(okayne)'s Complete Peerage; Round's Geoffrey de Mandeville.
(J- H. R.)
EARLE, JOHN (c. 1601-1665), English divine, was born at
York about 1601. He matriculated at Christ Church, Oxford,
>ut migrated to Merton, where he obtained a fellowship. In
63 1 he was proctor and also chaplain to Philip, earl of Pembroke,
hen chancellor of the university, who presented him to the
ectory of Bishopston in Wiltshire. His fame spread, and in
1641 he was appointed chaplain and tutor to Prince Charles,
n 1643 he was elected one of the Assembly of Divines at West-
minster, but his sympathies with the king and with the Anglican
hurch were so strong that he declined to sit. Early in 1643 he
was chosen chancellor of the cathedral of Salisbury, but of this
preferment he was soon deprived as a " malignant." After
'romwell's great victory at Worcester, Earle went abroad, and
was named clerk of the closet and chaplain to Charles II. He
spent a year at Antwerp in the house of Isaac Walton's friend,
eorge Morley, who afterwards became bishop of Winchester,
rle next joined the duke of York (James II.) at Paris, returning
to England at the Restoration. He was at once appointed dean
of Westminster, and in 1661 was one of the commissioners for
revising the liturgy. He was on friendly terms with Richard
Baxter. In November 1662 he was consecrated bishop of
Worcester, and was translated, ten months later, to the see of
Salisbury, where he conciliated the nonconformists. He was
strongly opposed to the Conventicle and Five Mile Acts. During
the great plague Earle attended the king and queen at Oxford,
and there he died on the i7th of November 1665.
Earle 's chief title to remembrance is his witty and humorous
work entitled Microcosmographie, or a Peece of the World dis-
covered, in Essayes and Characters, which throws light on the
manners of the time. First published anonymously in 1628,
it became very popular, and ran through ten editions in the
lifetime of the author. The style is quaint and epigrammatic;
and the reader is frequently reminded of Thomas Fuller by such
passages as this: " A university dunner is a gentlemen follower
cheaply purchased, for his own money has hyr'd him." Several
reprints of the book have been issued since the author's death;
and in 1671 a French translation by J. Dymock appeared with
the title of Le Vice ridicule. Earle was employed by Charles II.
to make the Latin translation of the Eikon Basilike, published
in 1649. A similar translation of R. Hooker's Ecclesiastical
Polity was accidentally destroyed.
" Dr Earle," says Lord Clarendon in his Life, " was a man of
great piety and devotion, a most eloquent and powerful preacher,
and of a conversation so pleasant and delightful, so very innocent,
and so very facetious, that no man's company was more desired
and loved. No man was more negligent in his dress and habit
and mien, no man more wary and cultivated in his behaviour
and discourse. He was very dear to the Lord Falkland, with
whom he spent as much time as he could make his own."
See especially Philip Bliss's edition of the Microcosmograptiie
(London, 1811), and E. Arber's Reprint (London, 1868).
EARLE, RALPH (1751-1801), American historical and por-
trait painter, was born at Leicester, Massachusetts, on the nth
of May 1751. Like so many of the colonial craftsmen, Earle
was self-taught, and for many years was an itinerant painter.
He went with the Governor's Guard to Lexington and made
battle sketches, from which in 1775 he painted four scenes,
engraved by Amos Doolittle, which are probably the first his-
torical paintings by an American. After the War of Independ-
ence, Earle went to London, entered the studio of Benjamin
West, and painted the king and many notables. After his return
to America in 1786 he made portraits of Timothy Dwight,
Governor Caleb Strong, Roger Sherman, and other prominent
men. He also painted a large picture of Niagara Falls. He
died at Bolton, Connecticut, on the i6th of August 1801.
EARL MARSHAL, in England, a functionary who ranks as
the eighth of the great officers of state. He is the head of the
college of arms, and has the appointment of the kings-of-arms,
heralds and pursuivants at his discretion. He attends the
sovereign in opening and closing the session of parliament,
EARLOM EARLY
797
walking opposite to the lord great chamberlain on his or her
right hand. It is his duty to make arrangements for the order
of all state processions and ceremonials, especially for coronations
and royal marriages and funerals. Like the lord high constable
he rode into Westminster Hall with the champion after a coro-
nation, till the coronation banquet was abandoned, taking
his place on the left hand, and with the lord great chamberlain
he assists at the introduction of all newly-created peers into the
House of Lords.
The marshal appears in the feudal armies to have been in
command of the cavalry under the constable, and to have in
some measure superseded him as master of the horse in the
royal palace. He exercised joint and co-ordinate jurisdiction
with the constable in the court of chivalry, and afterwards
became the sole judge of that tribunal till its obsolescence.
The marshalship of England was formerly believed to have been
inherited from the Clares by the Marshal family, who had only
been marshals of the household. It was held, however, by the
latter family, as the office of chief (magister) marshal, as early
as the days of Henry I. Through them, under Henry III., it
passed to the Bigods, as their eldest co-heirs. In 1306 it fell to
the crown on the death of the last Bigod, earl of Norfolk, who had
made Edward I. his heir, and in 1316 it was granted by Edward II.
to his own younger brother, Thomas " of Brotherton," earl of
Norfolk. As yet the style of the office was only " marshal "
although the last Bigod holder, being an earl, was sometimes
loosely spoken of as the earl marshal. The office, having reverted
to the crown, was granted out anew by Richard II., in 1385, to
Thomas Mowbray, earl of Nottingham, the representative of
Thomas " of Brotherton." In 1386 the style of " earl marshal "
was formally granted to him in addition. After several attainders
and partial restorations in the reigns of the Tudors and the
Stuarts, the earl marshalship was granted anew to the Howards
by Charles II. in 1672 and entailed on their male line, with many
specific remainders and limitations, under which settlement
it has regularly descended to the present duke of Norfolk.
Its holders, however, could not execute the office until the Roman
Catholic emancipation, and had to appoint deputies. The duke
is styled earl marshal " and hereditary marshal of England," but
the double style would seem to be an error, though the Mowbrays,
with their double creation (1385, 1386) might have claimed
it. His Grace appends the letters " E.M." to his signature,
and bears behind his shield two batons crossed in ealtire, the
marshal's rod (virga) having been the badge of the office from
Norman times. There appear to have been hereditary marshals
of Ireland, but their history is not well ascertained. The Keiths
were Great Marischals of Scotland from at least the days of
Robert Bruce, and were created earls marischal in or about
1458, but lost both earldom and office by the attainder cf George,
the loth earl, in 1716. (See also MARSHAL; STATE, GREAT
OFFICERS OF.)
See " The Marshalship of England," in J. H. Round, Commune
of London and Other Studies (London, 1899); G. E. C(okayne)'s
Complete Peerage. (J. H. R.)
EARLOM, RICHARD (1742-1822), English mezzotint en-
graver, was born and died in London. His natural faculty for art
appears to have been first called into exercise by admiration for
the lord mayor's state coach, just decorated by Cipriani. He tried
to copy the paintings, and was sent to study under Cipriani. He
displayed great skill as a draughtsman, and at the same time
acquired without assistance the art of engraving in mezzotint.
In 1765 he was employed by Alderman Boydell, then one of the
most liberal promoters of the fine arts, to make a series of draw-
ings from the pictures at Houghton Hall; and these he afterwards
engraved in mezzotint. His most perfect works as engraver are
perhaps the fruit and flower pieces after the Dutch artists Van
Os and Van Huysum. Amongst his historical and figure subjects
are " Agrippina," after West; " Love in Bondage," after
Guido Reni; the " Royal Academy," the " Embassy of Hyder-
beck to meet Lord Cornwallis," and a " Tiger Hunt," the last
three after Zoffany; and " Lord Heathfield," after Sir Joshua
Reynolds. Earlom also executed a series of 200 facsimiles of
the drawings and sketches of Claude Lorraine, which was
published in 3 vols. folio, under the title of Liber verilatis
(1777-1819).
EARLSTON (formerly ERCILDOUNE, of which it is a corrup-
tion), a parish and market town of Berwickshire, Scotland. Pop.
(1901) 1049. It is situated on Leader Water in Lauderdale,
72-J m. S.E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway branch
line from Reston Junction to St Boswells, and about 4 m. N.E.
of Melrose. When the place was a hamlet of rude huts it was
called Arcioldun or " Prospect Fort," with reference to Black
Hill (1003 ft.), on the top of which may yet be traced the con-
centric rings of the British fort by which it was crowned. It is
said to be possible to make out the remains of the cave-dwellings
of the Ottadeni, the aborigines of the district. In the i2th and
I3th centuries the Lindsays and the earls of March and Dunbar
were the chief baronial families. The particular link with the
remote past, however, is the ivy-clad ruin of the ancient tower,
" The Rhymer's Castle," the traditional residence of Thomas
Learmont, commonly called Thomas of Ercildoune, or Thomas
the Rhymer, poet and prophet, and friend of the Fairies, who
was born here about 1225. Rhymer's Tower was crumbling to
pieces, and its stones were being used in the erection of dykes,
cottages and houses, when the Edinburgh Border Counties
Association acquired the relic and surrounding lands in 1895,
and took steps to prevent further spoliation and decay. The
leading manufactures are ginghams, tweeds and shirtings, and
the town is also an important agricultural centre, stock sales
taking place at regular intervals and cattle and horse fairs being
held every year. Some 3 m. away is the estate of Bemersyde,
said to have been in the possession of the Haigs for nearly 1000
years. The prospect from Bemersyde Hill was Sir Walter
Scott's favourite view. The castle at Bemersyde was erected
in 1535 to secure the peace of the Border.
EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894), American soldier
and lawyer, was born in Franklin county, Virginia, on the 3rd
of November 1816, and graduated at the U.S. Military Academy
in 1837. He served in the Seminole War of 1837-38, after which
he resigned in order to practise law in Franklin county, Va.
He also engaged in state politics, and served in the Mexican War
as a major of Virginia volunteers. He was strongly opposed to
secession, but thought it his duty to conform to the action of his
state. As a colonel in the Confederate army, he rendered con-
spicuous service at the first battle of Bull Run (q.v.). Promoted
brigadier-general, and subsequently major-general, Early served
throughout the Virginian campaigns of 1862-63, an d defended
the lines of Fredericksburg during the battle of Chancellorsville.
At Gettysburg he commanded his division of Swell's corps.
In the campaign of 1864 Early, who had now reached the rank
of lieutenant-general, commanded the Confederate forces in the
Shenandoah Valley. The action of Lynchburg left him free to
move northwards, his opponent being compelled to march away
from the Valley. Early promptly utilized his advantage, crossed
the Potomac, and defeated, on the Monocacy, all the troops
which could be gathered to meet him. He appeared before the
lines of Washington, put part of Maryland and Pennsylvania
under contribution, and only retired to the Valley when
threatened by heavy forces hurriedly sent up to Washington.
He then fought a successful action at Winchester, reappeared
on the Potomac, and sent his cavalry on a raid into
Pennsylvania. A greatly superior army was now formed under
General Sheridan to oppose Early. In spite of his skill and energy
the Confederate leader was defeated in the battles of Winchester
and Fisher's Hill. Finally, on the igth of October, after inflict-
ing at first a severe blow upon the Federal arm}' in its camps
on Cedar Creek, he was decisively beaten by Sheridan. (See
SHENANDOAH VALLEY CAMPAIGNS.) Waynesboro (March 1865)
was his last fight, after which he was relieved from his command.
General Early was regarded by many as the ablest soldier, after
Lee and Jackson, in the Army of Northern Virginia, and one of
the ablest in the whole Confederate army. That he failed to make
headway against an army far superior in numbers, and led by a
general of the calibre of Sheridan, cannot be held to prove the
79 8
EARLY ENGLISH PERIOD EAR-RING
falsity of this judgment. After the peace he went to Canada, but
in 1867 returned to resume the practice of law. For a time he
managed in conjunction with General Beauregard the Louisiana
lottery. He died at Lynchburg, Va., on the 2nd of March 1894.
General Early was for a time president of the Southern Historical
Society, and wrote, besides various essays and historical papers,
A Memoir of the Last Year of the War, &c. (1867).
EARLY ENGLISH PERIOD, in architecture, the term given
by Rickman to the first pointed or Gothic style in England,
nominally 1189-1307, which succeeded the Romanesque or
Norman period towards the end of the i2th century, and
developed into the Decorated period in the commencement of
the 1 4th century. It is chiefly characterized by the almost
universal employment of the pointed arch, not only in arches of
wide span such as those of the nave arcade, but for doorways
and windows. The actual introduction of the pointed arch took
place at a much earlier date, as in the nave arcade of the Cis-
tercian Abbey of Build was (1140), though the clerestory window
above has semicircular arches. It is customary, therefore, to
make allowance for a transitional epoch from the middle of the
1 2th century. Although the pointed arches used are sometimes
equilateral and sometimes drop-arches, the lancet-arch is the
most characteristic. The period is best recognized in England by
the great depth given to the hollows of the mouldings, alternat-
ing with fillets and rolls, by the decoration of the hollows with
the dog-tooth ornament, by the circular abacus of the capitals,
and the employment of slender detached shafts of Purbeck
marble which are attached to piers by circular moulded shaft-
rings (Fr. anneau).
The arches are sometimes cusped; circles with trefoils,
quatrefoils, &c., are introduced into the tracery, and large rose
windows in the transept or nave, as at Lincoln (1220). The
conventional foliage decorating the capitals is of great beauty and
variety, and extends to spandrils, bosses, &c. In the spandrils
of the arches of the nave, transept or choir arcades, diaper work
is occasionally found, as in the transept of Westminster Abbey.
The latter is one of the chief examples of the period, to which
must be added the cathedral of Salisbury (except the tower);
the Galilee at Ely; nave and transept of Wells (1225-1240);
nave of Lincoln; west front of Peterborough; and the minster
at Beverley. (R. P. S.)
EARN, the name of a loch and river in Perthshire, Scotland.
The loch, lying almost due east and west, is 6% m. long and
f m. in maximum breadth, 287 ft. deep, with a mean depth of
138 ft., covers an area of nearly 4 sq. m., has a drainage basin of
over 545 sq. m., and stands 317 ft. above the sea. Its waters are
said never to freeze. It discharges by the river Earn. The points
of interest on its shores are Lochearnhead (at the southern
extremity of Glen Ogle), which has a station on the Callander-
Oban railway, and the ruins of St Blane's chapel; Edinample
Castle, an old turreted mansion belonging to the marquess of
Breadalbane, situated in well-wooded grounds near the pretty
falls of the Ample; Ardvorlich House, the original of Darlin-
varach in Scott's Legend of Montrose, and the village of St
Fillans at the foot of the loch, once the terminus of the branch
of the Caledonian railway from Perth. The river flows out of
Loch Earn, pursues an eastward course with a gentle inclination
towards the south, and reaches the Firth of Tay, 6| m. below
Perth, after a total run of 49 m. Its chief tributaries on the right
are the Ruchil, Machany, Ruthven, May and Farg, and on the
left, the Lednock and Turret. It is navigable by vessels of 50
tons as far up as Bridge of Earn, and is a notable fishing stream,
abounding with salmon and trout, perch and pike being also
plentiful. On the Lednock are the falls of the Devil's Cauldron
and on the Turret and its feeders several graceful cascades. The
principal places of interest on the banks of the Earn are Dunira,
the favourite seat of Henry Dundas, ist Viscount Melville, who
took the title of his barony from the estate and to whose memory
an obelisk was raised on the adjoining hill of Dunmore; the
village of Comrie; the town of Crieff ; the ruined castle of
Innerpeffray, founded in 1610 by the ist Lord Maderty, close
to which is the library founded in 1691 by the 3rd Lord Maderty,
containing some rare black-letter books and the Bible that be-
longed to the marquess of Montrose; Gascon Hall, now in ruins,
but with traditions reaching back to the days of Wallace;
Dupplin Castle, a fine Tudor mansion, seat of the earl of Kinnoull|
who derives from it the title of his viscounty; Aberdalgie|
Forgandenny and Bridge of Earn, a health resort situated
amidst picturesque surroundings. Strathearn, as the valley of
the Earn is called, extending from the loch to the Firth of Tay,
is a beautiful and, on the whole, fertile tract, though liable at
times to heavy floods. The earl of Perth is hereditary steward
of Strathearn.
EARNEST (probably a corruption of the obsolete arles or erles,
adapted from Lat. equivalent arrha, due to a confusion with the
adjective " earnest," serious, O. Eng. eornust, cognate with Ger.
ernst), the payment of a sum of money by the buyer of goods to
the seller on the conclusion of a bargain as a pledge for its due
performance. It is almost similar to the arrha of the Roman law,
which may be traced back in the history of legal institutions to
a period when the validity of a contract depended not so much
upon the real intention of the parties, as upon the due observance
of a prescribed ceremony. 'But earnest was never part payment,
which arrha might have been. Apart from its survival as a
custom, its chief importance in English law is its recognition by
the Statute of Frauds as giving validity to contracts for the sale
of goods of a value exceeding 10 (see SALE OF GOODS). It is
in that statute clearly distinguished from part payment, con-
sequently any sum, however small, would be sufficient as earnest,
being given as a token that the contract is binding and should
be expressly stated so by the giver. The giving of earnest,
or hand-money, as it is sometimes called, has now fallen into very
general disuse.
EAR-RING, an ornament worn pendent from the ear, and
generally suspended (especially among the more civilized races)
by means of a ring or hook passing through the pendulous
lobe of the ear. Among savage races the impulse to decorate,
or at any rate to modify the appearance of the ear, is almost
universal. With such peoples the ear appendage is chiefly
remarkable for its extravagant dimensions. Many examples
may be seen in the ethnographic galleries of the British Museum.
The Berawan people of Borneo use plugs through the lobe of the
ear 3$ in. in diameter. More extraordinary still is an example
of a stone ear-plug worn by a Masai, 45 in. in diameter and
weighing 2 ft 14 oz. (Man, 1905, p. 22). It is stated that
according to the Masai standard of fashion, the lobes of the ears
should be enlarged so as to be capable of meeting above the head.
Among the superior races, though ear ornaments of extravagant
size and elaboration are not unknown, moderation in size is com-
monly observed, and greater attention is paid to workmanship
and fineness of material.
The general usage appears to have been to have ear-rings
worn in pairs, the two ornaments in all respects resembling each
other; in ancient times, or more recently among Oriental races,
a single ear-ring has sometimes been worn. The use of this kind
of ornament, which constantly was of great value, dates from the
remotest historical antiquity, the earliest mention of ear-rings
occurring in the book of Genesis. It appears probable that the
ear-rings of Jacob's family, which he buried with his strange idols
at Bethel, were regarded as amulets or talismans, such unquestion-
ably being the estimation in which some ornaments of this class
have been held from a very early period, as they still are held in
the East. Thus in New Zealand ear-rings are decorated with the
teeth of enemies, and with talismanic sharks' teeth. Among
all the Oriental races of whom we have any accurate knowledge,
the Hebrews and Egyptians excepted, ear-rings always have been
in general use by both sexes; while in the West, as well as by
the Hebrews and Egyptians, as a general rule they have been
considered exclusively female ornaments. By the Greeks and
Romans also ear-rings were worn only by women, and the wearing
of them by a man is often spoken of as distinctively oriental.
In archaic art, ear-rings are frequently represented or their
traces are left in the perforated ear lobes of early statues. After
the 4th century such perforations occur seldom. In one instance,
EARTH
799
a Greek inscription records the weight of the detachable gold orna-
ments on a statue, among which a pair of ear-rings is included.
Ear-rings of characteristic form are frequently discovered by
excavation. In Egypt, a system of pendent
chains is found hanging from a disk. In
Assyria the decoration consists of pendants
or knobs attached to a rigid ring. In
the early civilization represented by Dr
Schliemann's Trojan investigations, pieces
of gold plate are suspended by parallel
chains. In the Mycenaean period, ear-rings
are infrequent in Greece, but have been
found in abundance in the Mycenaean finds
of Enkomi (Cyprus) in the form of pendent
bulls'-heads, or of decorative forms based on
the bull's head. In the tombs of the Greek
settlers in the Crimea (4th century B.C.),
ear-rings are found of marvellous complexity
Fro? La Grand, En- and beauty. The lexicographer Pollux,
cyclopedic. speaking of the names given to ear-rings,
FIG. i. Ear-ring derived from their forms, mentions carya-
frorn an Assyrian bas t ids, hippocamps and centauresses. Jewels
of the same class, of exquisite beauty and
of workmanship that is truly wonderful, have been rescued
from the sepulchres of ancient Etruria. Ear-rings of compara-
tively simple forms, but set with pearls
and other stones, were the mode in
Rome. In some instances, the stones
were of fabulous value. During the
Byzantine period they once more attained
an extravagant size. Researches among
the burial places of Anglo-Saxon Britain
have led to the discovery of jewels in con-
siderable numbers, which among their
varieties include ear-rings executed in a
style that proves the Anglo-Saxons to
have made no inconsiderable advances
in the arts of civilization.
These same ornaments, which never
have fallen into disuse, enjoy at the
present day a considerable degree of
favour, and the tide of fashion has set
towards their increased use. Like all
other modern jewels, however, the ear-
rin S s ,. f Our 1 own * imeS *s works of art
ing the sea, with the can claim no historical at tributes, because
' ' Achilles, they consist as well of reproductions from
all past ages and of every race as of
fanciful productions that certainly can
be assigned to no style of art whatever.
pedie.
armour of
Ear-ring from the
Crimea, Hermitage
museum.
As one of the curiosities of the subject it may be mentioned
that Antonia, wife of Drusus, is said by Pliny to have attached
a pair of ear-rings to her pet lamprey.
EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde,
Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears
only in the Gr. ?pttf, on the ground; it has been connected
by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which
is seen in the Lat. arare, obsolete Eng. " ear," and Gr. apovv, but
this is now considered very doubtful; see G. Curtius, Greek
Etymology, Eng. trans., i. 426; Max Mtiller, Lectures, 8th ed.
i. 294). From early times the word " earth " has been used
in several connexions from that of soil or ground to that
of the planet which we inhabit, but it is difficult to trace
the exact historic sequence of the diverse usages. In the
cosmogony of the Pythagoreans, Platonists and other philo-
sophers, the term or its equivalent denoted an element or
fundamental quality which conferred upon m.atter the character
of earthiness; and in the subsequent development of theories
as to the ultimate composition of matter by the alchemists,
iatrochemists, and early phlogistonists an element of the same
name was retained (see ELEMENT). In modern chemistry, the
common term " earth " is applied to certain oxides: the
" alkaline earths " (q.v.) are the oxides of calcium (lime), barium
(baryta) and strontium (strontia) ; the " rare earths " (q.v.) are
the oxides of a certain class of rare metals.
THE EARTH
The terrestrial globe is a member of the Solar system, the third
in distance from the Sun, and the largest within the orbit of
Jupiter. In the wider sense it may be regarded as composed
of a gaseous atmosphere (see METEOROLOGY), which encircles
the crust or lithosphere (see GEOGRAPHY), and surface waters
or hydrosphere (see OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY). The descrip-
tion of the surface features is a branch of Geography, and the
discussions as to their origin and permanence belongs to Physio-
graphy (in the narrower sense), physiographical geology, or
physical geography. The investigation of the crust belongs
to geology and of rocks in particular to petrology.
In the present article we shall treat the subject matter of the
Earth as a planet under the following headings: (i) Figure
and Size, (2) Mass and Density, (3)Astronomical Relations,
(4) Evolution and Age. These subjects will be treated summarily,
readers being referred to the article ASTRONOMY and to the
cross-references for details.
i. Figure and Size. To primitive man the Earth was a flat
disk with its surface diversified by mountains, rivers and seas.
In many cosmogonies this disk was encircled by waters, un-
measurable by man and extending to a junction with the sky;
and the disk stood as an island rising up through the waters from
the floor of the universe, or was borne as an immovable ship on
the surface. Of such a nature was the cosmogony of the Baby-
lonians and Hebrews; Homer states the same idea, naming
the encircling waters 'fl/ceai'os; and Hesiod regarded it as a
disk midway between the sky and the infernal regions. The
theory that the Earth extended downwards to the limit of the
universe was subjected to modification when it was seen that the
same sun and stars reappeared in the east after their setting in
the west. But man slowly realized that the earth was isolated
in space, floating freely as a balloon, and much speculation was
associated about that which supported the Earth. Tunnels
in the foundations to permit the passage of the sun and stars
were suggested; the Greeks considered twelve columns to
support the heavens, and in their mythology the god Atlas
appears condemned to support the columns; while the Egyptians
had the Earth supported by four elephants, which themselves
stood on a tortoise swimming on a sea. Earthquakes were
regarded as due to a movement of these foundations; in Japan
this was considered to be due to the motion of a great spider,
an animal subsequently replaced by a cat-fish; in Mongolia
it is a hog; in India, a mole; in some parts of South America,
a whale; and among some of the North American Indians,
a giant tortoise.
The doctrine of the spherical form has been erroneously
assigned to Thales; but he accepted the Semitic conception of the
disk, and regarded the production of springs after earthquakes
as due to the inrushing of the'waters under the Earth into fissures
in the surface. His pupil, Anaximander (610-547), according
to Diogenes Laertius, believed it to be spherical (see The
Observatory, 1894, P. 208); and Anaximenes probably held a
similar view. The spherical form is undoubtedly a discovery
of Pythagoras, and was taught by the Pythagoreans and by the
Eleatic Parmenides. The expositor of greatest moment was
Aristotle; his arguments are those which we employ to-day:
the ship gradually disappearing from hull to mast as it recedes
from the harbour to the horizon; the circular shadow cast by the
Earth on the Moon during an eclipse, and the alteration in the
appearance of the heavens as one passes from point to point on
the Earth's surface. 1 He records attempts made to determine
the circumference; but the first scientific investigation in this
1 Aristotle regarded the Earth as haying an upper inhabited half
and a lower uninhabited one, and the air on the lower half as tending
to flow upwards through the Earth. The obstruction of this passage
brought about an accumulation of air within the Earth, and the
increased pressure may occasion oscillations of the surface, which
may be so intense as to cause earthquakes.
8oo
EARTH
direction was made 150 years later by Eratosthenes. The
spherical form, however, only became generally accepted after
the Earth's circumnavigation (see GEOGRAPHY).
The historical development of the methods for determining
the figure of the Earth (by which we mean a theoretical surface
in part indicated by the ocean at rest, and in other parts by the
level to which water freely communicating with the oceans
by canals traversing the land masses would rise) and the mathe-
matical investigation of this problem are treated in the articles
EARTH, FIGURE OF THE, and GEODESY; here the results are
summarized. Sir Isaac Newton deduced from the mechanical
consideration of the figure of equilibrium of a mass of rotating
fluid, the form of an oblate spheroid, the ellipticity of a meridian
section being 1/231, and the axes in the ratio 230 : 231. Geodetic
measurements by the Cassinis and other French astronomers
pointed to a prolate form, but the Newtonian figure was
proved to be correct by the measurement of meridional arcs
in Peru and Lapland by the expeditions organized by the
French Academy of Sciences. More recent work points
to an elliptical equatorial section, thus making the earth
pear-shaped. The position of the longer axis is somewhat un-
certain; it is certainly in Africa, Clarke placing it in longitude
8 15' W., and Schubert in longitude 41 4' E.; W. J. Sollas,
arguing from terrestrial symmetry, has chosen the position
lat. 6 N., long. 28 E., i.e. between Clarke's and Schubert's
positions. For the lengths of the axes and the ellipticity of the
Earth, see EARTH, FIGURE OF THE.
2. Mass and Density. The earliest scientific investigation
on the density and mass of the Earth (the problem is really single
if the volume of the Earth be known) was made by Newton, who,
mainly from astronomical considerations, suggested the limiting
densities 5 and 6; it is remarkable that this prophetic guess
should be realized, the mean value from subsequent researches
being about si, which gives for the mass the value 6Xio 21 tons.
The density of the Earth has been determined by several experi-
menters within recent years by methods described in the article
GRAVITATION; the most probable value is there stated to be
5-527-
3. Astronomical Relations. The grandest achievements of
astronomical science are undoubtedly to be associated with
the elucidation of the complex motion of our planet. The
notion that the Earth was fixed and immovable at the centre
of an immeasurable universe long possessed the minds of men;
and we find the illustrious Ptolemy accepting this view in the
2nd century A.D.. and rejecting the notion of a rotating Earth
a theory which had been proposed as early as the sth century
B.C. by Philolaus on philosophical grounds, and in the 3rd century
B.C. by the astronomer Aristarchus of Samos. He argued that
if the Earth rotated then points at the equator had the enormous
velocity of about 1000 m. per hour, and as a consequence there
should be terrific gales from the east; the fact that there were
no such gales invalidated, in his opinion, the theory. The
Ptolemaic theory was unchallenged until 1 543, in which year the
De Revolittionibus orbium Celestium of Copernicus was published.
In this work it was shown that the common astronomical
phenomena could be more simply explained by regarding
the Earth as annually revolving about a fixed Sun, and daily
rotating about itself. A clean sweep was made of the geocentric
epicyclic motions of the planets which Ptolemy's theory de-
manded, and in place there was substituted a procession of planets
about the Sun at different distances. The development of the
Copernican theory the corner-stone of modern astronomy
by Johann Kepler and Sir Isaac Newton is treated in the article
ASTRONOMY: History; here we shall summarily discuss the
motions of our planet and its relation to the solar system.
The Earth has two principal motions revolution about the
Sun, rotation about its axis; there are in addition a number
of secular motions.
Revolution. The Earth revolves about the Sun in an
elliptical orbit having the Sun at one focus. The plane of the
orbit is termed the ecliptic; it is inclined to the Earth's equator
at an angle termed the obliquity, and the points of intersection
of the equator and ecliptic are termed the equinoctial points.
The major axis of the ellipse is the line of apsides; when the
Earth is nearest the Sun it is said to be in perihelion, when
farthest it is in aphelion. The mean distance of the Earth from
the Sun is a most important astronomical constant, since it is
the unit of linear measurement; its value is about 93,000,000 m.,
and the difference between the perihelion and aphelion distances
is about 3,000,000 m. The eccentricity of the orbit is 0-016751.
A tabular comparison of the orbital constants of the Earth and
the other planets is given in the article PLANET. The period
of revolution with regard to the Sun, or, in other words, the time
taken by the Sun apparently to pass from one equinox to the
same equinox, is the tropical or equinoctial year; its length is
365 d. 5 hrs. 48 m. 46 sees. It is about 20 minutes shorter than
the true or sidereal year, which is the time taken for the Sun
apparently to travel from one star to it again. The difference
in these two years is due to the secular variation termed pre-
cession (see below). A third year is named the anomalistic year,
which is the time occupied in the passage from perihelion to
perihelion; it is a little longer than the sidereal.
Rotation. The Earth rotates about an axis terminating
at the north and south geographical poles, and perpendicular
to the equator; the period of rotation is termed the day (q.v.),
of which several kinds are distinguished according to the body
or point of reference. The rotation is performed from west to
east; this daily rotation occasions the diurnal motion of the
celestial sphere, the rising of the Sun and stars in the east and
their setting in the west, and also the phenomena of day and
night. The inclination of the axis to the ecliptic brings about
the presentation of places in different latitudes to the more direct
rays of the sun; this is revealed in the variation in the length of
daylight with the time of the year, and the phenomena of seasons.
Although the rotation of the Earth was an accepted fact soon
after its suggestion by Copernicus, an experimental proof was
wanting until 1851, when Foucault performed his celebrated
pendulum experiment at the Pantheon, Paris. A pendulum
about 200 ft. long, composed of a flexible wire carrying a heavy
iron bob, was suspended so as to be free to oscillate in any direc-
tion. The bob was provided with a style which passed over a
table strewn with fine sand, so that the style traced the direction
in which the bob was swinging. It was found that the oscillat-
ing pendulum never retraced its path, but at each swing it was
apparently deviated to the right, and moreover the deviations
in equal times were themselves equal. This means that the floor
of the Pantheon was moving, and therefore the Earth was
rotating. If the pendulum were swung in the southern hemi-
sphere, the deviation would be to the left; if at the equator it
would not deviate, while at the poles the plane of oscillation would
traverse a complete circle in 24 hours.
The rotation of the Earth appears to be perfectly uniform,
comparisons of the times of transits, eclipses, &c., point to a
variation of less than voTS'th of a second since the time of Ptolemy.
Theoretical investigations on the phenomena of tidal friction
point, however, to a retardation, which may to some extent be
diminished by the accelerations occasioned by the shrinkage of
the globe, and some other factors difficult to evaluate (see TIDE).
We now proceed to the secular variations.
Precession. The axis of the earth does not preserve an in-
variable direction in space, but in a certain time it describes a
cone, in much the same manner as the axis of a top spinning out
of the vertical. The equator, which preserves approximately
the same inclination to the ecliptic (there is a slight variation in
the obliquity which we shall mention later), must move so that
its intersections with the ecliptic, or equinoctial points, pass in
a retrograde direction, i.e. opposite to that of the Earth. This
motion is termed the precession of the equinoxes, and was observed
by Hipparchus in- the 2nd century B.C.; Ptolemy corrected the
catalogue of Hipparchus for precession by adding 2 40' to the
longitudes, the latitudes being unaltered by this motion, which at
the present time is 50-26" annually, the complete circuit being
made in about 26,000 years. Owing to precession the signs of
the zodiac are traversing paths through the constellations, or,
EARTH, FIGURE OF THE
801
in other words, the constellations are continually shifting with
regard to the equinoctial points; at one time the vernal equinox
Aries was in the constellations of that name; it is now in Pisces,
and will then pass into Aquarius. The pole star, i.e. the star
towards which the Earth's axis points, is also shifting owing to
precession; in about 2700 B.C. the Chinese observed a Draconis
as the pole star (at present a Ursae minoris occupies this position
and will do so until 3500); in 13600 Vega (a Lyrae) the brightest
star in the Northern hemisphere, will be nearest.
Precession is the result of the Sun and the Moon's attraction
on the Earth not being a single force through its centre of gravity.
If the Earth were a homogeneous sphere the attractions would
act through the centre, and such forces would have no effect
upon the rotation about the centre of gravity, but the Earth
being spheroidal the equatorial band which stands up as it were
beyond the surface of a sphere is more strongly attracted, with
the result that the axis undergoes a tilting. The precession due
to the Sun is termed the solar precession and that due'to the
Moon the lunar precession; the joint effect (two-thirds of which
is due to the Moon) is the luni-solar precession. Solar precession
is greatest at the solstices and zero at the equinoxes; the part
of luni-solar precession due to the Moon varies with the position
of the Moon in its orbit. The obliquity is unchanged by pre-
cession (see PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES).
Nutation. In treating precession we have stated that the axis
of the Earth traces a cone, and it follows that the pole describes
a circle (approximately) on the celestial sphere, about the pole
of the ecliptic. This is not quite true. Irregularities in the
attracting forces which occasion precession also cause a slight
oscillation backwards and forwards over the mean precessional
path of the pole, the pole tracing a wavy line or nodding. Both
the Sun and Moon contribute to this effect. Solar nutation
depends upon the position of the Sun on the ecliptic; its period
is therefore i year, and in extent it is only 1-2"; lunar nutation
depends upon the position of the Moon's nodes; its period is
therefore about 18-6 years, the time of revolution of the nodes,
and its extent is 9- 2". There is also given to the obliquity a small
oscillation to and fro. Nutation is one of the great discoveries
of James Bradley (1747).
Planetary Precession. So far we have regarded the ecliptic as
absolutely fixed, and treated precession as a real motion of the
equator. The ecliptic (q.v.), however, is itself subject to a motion,
due to the attractions of the planets on the Earth. This effect
also displaces the equinoctial points. Its annual value is 0-13".
The term General Precession in longitude is given to the dis-
placement of the intersection of the equator with the apparent
ecliptic on the latter. The standard value is 50-2453", which
prevailed in 1850, and the value at 1850+^, i.e. the constant of
precession, is 50-2453" + 0-0002225* /. This value is also liable
to a very small change. The nutation of the obliquity at time
1850 + t is given by the formula 23 27' 32-0" 0-47" t. Com-
plete expressions for these functions are given in Newcomb's
Spherical Astronomy (1908), and in the Nautical Almanac.
The variation of the line of apsides is the name given to the
motion of the major axis of the Earth's orbit along the ecliptic.
It is due to the general influence of the planets, and the revolu-
tion is effected in 21,000 years.
The variation of the eccentricity denotes an oscillation of the
form of the Earth's orbit between a circle and ellipse. This
followed the mathematical researches of Lagrange and Leverrier.
It was suggested by Sir John Herschel in 1830 that this variation
might occasion great climatic changes, and James Croll developed
the theory as affording a solution of the glacial periods in geology
(q.v.).
Variation of Latitude. Another secular motion of the Earth
is due to the fact that the axis of rotation is not rigidly fixed
within it, but its polar extremities wander in a circle of about
50 ft. diameter. This oscillation brings about a variability
in terrestrial latitudes, hence the name. Euler showed mathe-
matically that such an oscillation existed, and, making certain
assumptions as to the rigidity of the Earth, deduced that its
period was 305 days; S. C. Chandler, from 1890 onwards,
vm. 26
deduced from observations of the stars a period of 428 days;
and Simon Newcomb explained the deviation of these periods
by pointing out that Euler's assumption of a perfectly rigid
Earth is not in accordance with fact. For details of this intricate
subject see the articles LATITUDE and EARTH, FIGURE OF THE.
4. Evolution and Age. In its earliest history the mass now
consolidated as the Earth and Moon was part of a vast nebulous
aggregate, which in the course of time formed a central nucleus
our Sun which shed its outer layers in such a manner as to
form the solar system (see NEBULAR THEORY). The moon may
have been formed from the Earth in a similar manner, but the
theory of tidal friction suggests the elongation of the Earth along
an equatorial axis to form a pear-shaped figure, and that in the
course of time the protuberance shot off to form the Moon
(see TIDE). The age of the Earth has been investigated from
several directions, as have also associated questions related to
climatic changes, internal temperature, orientation of the land
and water (permanence of oceans and continents), &c. These
problems are treated in the articles GEOLOGY and GEOGRAPHY.
EARTH, FIGURE OF THE. The determination of the figure
of the earth is a problem of the highest importance in astronomy,
inasmuch as the diameter of the earth is the unit to which all
celestial distances must be referred.
Historical.
Reasoning from the uniform level appearance of the horizon,
the variations in altitude of the circumpolar stars as one travels
towards the north or south, the disappearance of a ship standing
out to sea, and perhaps other phenomena, the earliest astrono-
mers regarded the earth as a sphere, and they endeavoured
to ascertain its dimensions. Aristotle relates that the mathema-
ticians had found the circumference to be 400,000 stadia (about
46,000 miles). But Eratosthenes (c. 250 B.C.) appears to have
been the first who entertained an accurate idea of the principles
on which the determination of the figure of the earth really de-
pends, and attempted to reduce them to practice. His results
were very inaccurate, but his method is the same as that which is
followed at the present day depending, in fact,on the comparison
of a line measured on the earth's surface with the corresponding
arc of the heavens. 'He observed that at Syene in Upper Egypt,
on the day of the summer solstice, the sun was exactly vertical,
whilst at Alexandria at the same season of the year its zenith
distance was 7 12', or one-fiftieth of the circumference of a
circle. He assumed that these places were on the same meridian;
and, reckoning their distance apart as 5000 stadia, he inferred
that the circumference of the earth was 250,000 stadia (about
29,000 miles). A similar attempt was made by Posidonius, who
adopted a method which differed from that of Eratosthenes only
in using a star instead of the sun. He obtained 240,000 stadia
(about 27,600 miles) for the circumference. Ptolemy in his
Geography assigns the length of the degree as 500 stadia.
The Arabs also investigated the question of the earth's mag-
nitude. The caliph Abdallah al Mamun (A.D. 814), having fixed
on a spot in the plains of Mesopotamia, despatched one company
of astronomers northwards and another southwards, measuring
the journey by rods, until each found the altitude of the pole
to have changed one degree. But the result of this measurement
does not appear to have been very satisfactory. From this
time the subject seems to have attracted no attention until about
1500, when Jean Fernel (1497-1558), a Frenchman, measured
a distance in the direction of the meridian near Paris by count-
ing the number of revolutions of the wheel of a carriage. His
astronomical observations were made with a triangle used as a
quadrant, and his resulting length of a degree was very near the
truth.
Willebrord Snell J substituted a chain of triangles for actual
linear measurement. He measured his base line on the frozen
surface of the meadows near Leiden, and measured the angles of
his triangles, which lay between Alkmaar and Bergen-op-Zoom,
with a quadrant and semicircles. He took the precaution of
1 Eratosthenes Batavus, sea de terrae ambitus vera quantitate
suscitatus, a Willebrordo Snellio, Lugduni-Batavorum \i6ij).
802
EARTH, FIGURE OF THE
comparing his standard with that of the French, so that his
result was expressed in toises (the length of the toise is about
6-39 English ft.). The work was recomputed and reobserved
by P. von Musschenbroek in 1729. In 1637 an Englishman,
Richard Norwood, published a determination of the figure of the
earth in a volume entitled The Seaman's Practice, contayning
a Fundamentall Probleme in Navigation experimentally verified,
namely, touching the Compasse of the Earth and Sea and the
quantity of a Degree in our English Measures. He observed on
the nth of June 1633 the sun's meridian altitude in London
as 62 i', and on the 6th of June 1635, his meridian altitude
in York as 59 33'. He measured the distance between these
places partly with a chain and partly by pacing. By this means,
through compensation of errors, he arrived at 367,176 ft. for the
degree a very fair result.
The application of the telescope to angular instruments was
the next important step. Jean Pi card was the first who in 1669,
with the telescope, using such precautions as the nature of the
operation requires, measured an arc of meridian. He measured
with wooden rods a base line of 5663 toises, and a second or base
of verification of 3902 toises; his triangulation extended from
Malvoisine, near Paris, to Sourdon, near Amiens. The angles
of the triangles were measured with a quadrant furnished with
a telescope having cross-wires. The difference of latitude of the
terminal stations was determined by observations made with a
sector on a star in Cassiopeia, giving i 22' 55" for the amplitude.
The terrestrial measurement gave 78,850 toises, whencehe inferred
for the length of the degree 57,060 toises.
Hitherto geodetic observations had been confined to the
determination of the magnitude of the earth considered as a
sphere, but a discovery made by Jean Richer (d. 1696) turned
the attention of mathematicians to its deviation from a spherical
form. This astronomer, having been sent by the Academy of
Sciences of Paris to the island of Cayenne, in South America,
for the purpose of investigating the amount of astronomical
refraction and other astronomical objects, observed that his
clock, which had been regulated at Paris to beat seconds, lost
about two minutes and a half daily at Cayenne, and that in order
to bring it to measure mean solar time it was necessary to shorten
the pendulum by more than a line (about T\th of an i n -)- This
fact, which was scarcely credited till it had been confirmed by
the subsequent observations of Varin and Deshayes on the coasts
of Africa and America, was first explained in the third book of
Newton's Principia, who showed that it could only be referred
to a diminution of gravity arising either from a protuberance of
the equatorial parts of the earth and consequent increase of the
distance from the centre, or from the counteracting effect of the
centrifugal force. About the same time (1673) appeared Christian
Huygens' De Horologio Oscillatorio, in which for the first time
were found correct notions on the subject of centrifugal force.
It does not, -however, appear that they were applied to the
theoretical investigation of the figure of the earth before the
publication of Newton's Principia. In 1690 Huygens published
his De Causa Gramtatis, which contains an investigation of the
figure of the earth on the supposition that the attraction of every
particle is towards the centre.
Between 1684 and 1718 J. and D. Cassini, starting from
Picard's base, carried a triangulation northwards from Paris
to Dunkirk and southwards from Paris to Collioure. They
measured a base of 7246 toises near Perpignan, and a somewhat
shorter base near Dunkirk; and from the northern portion of
the arc, which had an amplitude of 2 12' 9", obtained for the
length of a degree 56,960 toises; while from the southern portion,
of which the amplitude was 6 18' 57", they obtained 57,097
toises. The immediate inference from this was that, the degree
diminishing with increasing latitude, the earth must be a prolate
spheroid. This conclusion was totally opposed to the theoretical
investigations of Newton and Huygens, and accordingly the
Academy of Sciences of Paris determined to apply a decisive
test by the measurement of arcs at a great distance from each
other one in the neighbourhood of the equator, the other in a
high latitude. Thus arose the celebrated expeditions of the French
academicians. In May 1735 Louis Godin, Pierre Bouguer and
Charles Marie de la Condamine, under the auspices of Louis XV.,
proceeded to Peru, where, assisted by two Spanish officers, after
ten years of laborious exertion, they measured an arc of 3 7'
the northern end near the equator. The second party consisted
of Pierre Louis Moreau de Maupertuis, Alexis Claude Clairault
Charles Etienne Louis Camus, Pierre Charles Lemonnier, and
Reginaud Outhier, who reached the Gulf of Bothnia in July 1736;
they were in some respects more fortunate than the first party,
inasmuch as they completed the measurement of an arc near the
polar circle of 57' amplitude and returned within sixteen months
from the date of their departure.
The measurement of Bouguer and De la Condamine was
executed with great care, and on account of the locality, as well
as the manner in which all the details were conducted, it has
always been regarded as a most valuable determination. The
southern limit was at Tarqui, the northern at Cotchesqui. A base
of 6272 toises was measured in the vicinity of Quito, near the
northern extremity of the arc, and a second base of 5260 toises
near the southern extremity. The mountainous nature of the
country made the work very laborious, in some cases the differ-
ence of heights of two neighbouring stations exceeding i mile;
and they had much trouble with their instruments, those with
which they were to determine the latitudes proving untrust-
worthy. But they succeeded by simultaneous observations of
the same star at the two extremities of the arc in obtaining very
fair results. The whole length of the arc amounted to 176,945
toises, while the difference of iatitudeswas3 7' 3". In consequence
of a misunderstanding that arose between De la Condamine
and Bouguer, their operations were conducted separately,
and each wrote a full account of the expedition. Bouguer's
book was published in 1749; that of De la Condamine in 1751.
The toise used in this measure was afterwards regarded as the
standard toise, and is always referred to as the Toise of Peru.
The party of Maupertuis, though their work was quickly
despatched, had also to contend with great difficulties. Not
being able to make use of the small islands in the Gulf of Bothnia
for the trigonometrical stations, they were forced to penetrate
into the forests of Lapland, commencing operations at Tornea,
a city situated on the mainland near the extremity of the gulf.
From this, the southern extremity of their arc, they carried a
chain of triangles northward to the mountain Kittis, which they
selected as the northern terminus. The latitudes were determined
by observations with a sector (made by George Graham) of the
zenith distance of a and o Draconis. The base line was measured
on the frozen surface of the river Tornea about the middle of the
arc; two parties measured it separately, and they differed by
about 4 in. The result of the whole was that the difference of
latitudes of the terminal stations was 57' 29" -6, and the length
of the arc 55,023 toises. In this expedition, as well as in that to
Peru, observations were made with a pendulum to determine
the force of gravity; and these observations coincided with the
geodetic results in proving that the earth was an oblate and not
prolate spheroid.
In 1740 was published in the Paris M (moires an account, by
Cassini de Thury, of a remeasurement by himself and Nicolas
Louis de Lacaille of the meridian of Paris. With a view to
determine more accurately the variation of the degree along the
meridian, they divided the distance from Dunkirk to Collioure
into four partial arcs of about two degrees each, by observing the
latitude at five stations. The results previously obtained by
J. and D. Cassini were not confirmed, but, on the contrary,
the length of the degree derived from these partial arcs showed
on the whole an increase with an increasing latitude. Cassini
and Lacaille also measured an arc of parallel across the mouth
of the Rhone. The difference of time of the extremities was
determined by the observers at either end noting the instant
of a signal given by flashing gunpowder at a point near the
middle of the arc.
While at the Cape of Good Hope in 1752, engaged in various
astronomical observations, Lacaille measured an arc of meridian
of i 13' 17", which gave him for the length of the degree 57,037
EARTH, FIGURE OF THE
803
toises an unexpected result, which has led to the remeasurement
of the arc by Sir Thomas Maclear (see GEODESY).
Passing over the measurements made between Rome and
Rimini and on the plains of Piedmont by the Jesuits Ruggiero
Giuseppe Boscovich and Giovanni Battista Beccaria, and also the
arc measured with deal rods in North America by Charles Mason
and Jeremiah Dixon, we come to the commencement of the
English triangulation. In 1783, in consequence of a representa-
tion from Cassini de Thury on the advantages that would accrue
from the geodetic connexion of Paris and Greenwich, General
William Roy was, with the king's approval, appointed by the
Royal Society to conduct the operations on the part of England,
Count Cassini, Mechain and Delambre being appointed on the
French side. A precision previously unknown was attained
by the use of Ramsden's theodolite, which was the first to make
the spherical excess of triangles measurable. The wooden rods
with which the first base was measured were replaced by glass
rods, which were afterwards rejected for the steel chain of
Ramsden. (For further details see Account of the Trigonometrical
Survey of England and Wales.)
Shortly after this, the National Convention of France, having
agreed to remodel their system of weights and measures, chose for
their unit of length the ten-millionth part of the meridian
quadrant. In order to obtain this length precisely, the re-
measurement of the French meridian was resolved on, and
deputed to J. B. J. Delambre and Pierre Francois Andre Mechain.
The details of this operation will be found in the Base du systeme
mttrique decimale. The arc was subsequently extended by
Jean Baptiste Biot and Dominique Francois Jean Arago to
the island of Iviza. Operations for the connexion of England
with the continent of Europe were resumed in 1821 to 1823 by
Henry Kater and Thomas Frederick Colby on the English side,
and F. J. D. Arago and Claude Louis Mathieu on the French.
The publication in 1838 of Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel's Grad-
messung in Ostpreussen marks an era in the science of geodesy.
Here we find the method of least squares applied to the cal-
culation of a network of triangles and the reduction of the
observations generally. The systematic manner in which all
the observations were taken with the view of securing final
results of extreme accuracy is admirable. The triangulation,
which was a small one, extended about a degree and a half
along the shores of the Baltic in a N.N.E. direction. The
angles were observed with theodolites of 12 and 15 in. diameter,
and the latitudes determined by means of the transit instrument
in the prime vertical a method much used in Germany.
(The base apparatus is described in the article GEODESY.)
The principal triangulation of Great Britain and Ireland,
which was commenced in 1783 under General Roy, for the more
immediate purpose of connecting the observatories of Greenwich
and Paris, had been gradually extended, under the successive
direction of Colonel E. Williams, General W. Mudge, General
T. F. Colby, Colonel L. A. Hall, and Colonel Sir Henry James;
it was finished in 1851. The number of stations is about 250.
At 32 of these the latitudes were determined with Ramsden's
and Airy's zenith sectors. The theodolites used for this work
were, in addition to the two great theodolites of Ramsden which
were used by General Roy and Captain Kater, a smaller theo-
dolite of 18 in. diameter by the same mechanician, and another
of 24 in. diameter by Messrs Troughton and Simms. Observa-
tions for determination of absolute azimuth were made with
those instruments at a large number of stations; the stars
a, 5, and X Ursae Minoris and 51 Cephei being those observed
always at the greatest azimuths. At six of these stations the
probable error of the result is under 0-4", at twelve under 0-5",
at thirty-four under 0-7": so that the absolute azimuth of the
whole network is determined wfth extreme accuracy. Of the
seven base lines which have been measured, five were by means
of steel chains and two with Colby's compensation bars (see
GEODESY). The triangulation was computed by least squares.
The total number of equations of condition for the triangulation
is 920; if therefore the whole had been reduced in one mass, as
it should have been, the solution of an equation of 920 unknown
quantities would have occurred as a part of the work. To
avoid this an approximation was resorted to; the triangulation
was divided into twenty-one parts or figures; four of these,
not adjacent, were first adjusted by the method explained, and
the corrections thus determined in these figures carried into
the equations of condition of the adjacent figures. The average
number of equations in a figure is 44; the largest equation
is one of 77 unknown quantities. The vertical limb of Airy's
zenith sector is read by four microscopes, and in the complete
observation of a star there are 10 micrometer readings and 12
level readings. The instrument is portable; and a complete
determination of latitude, affected with the mean of the declina-
tion errors of two stars, is effected by two micrometer readings
and four level readings. The observation consists in measuring
with the telescope micrometer the difference of zenith distances
of two stars which cross the meridian, one to the north and
the other to the south of the observer at zenith distances which
differ by not much more than 10' or 1 5', the interval of the times of
transit being not less than one nor more than twenty minutes.
The advantages are that, with simplicity in the construction of the
instrument and facility in the manipulation, refraction is elimi-
nated (or nearly so, as the stars are generally selected within
25 of the zenith), and there is no large divided circle. The
telescope, which is counterpoised on one side of the vertical
axis, has a small circle for finding, and there is also a small
horizontal circle. This instrument is universally used in
American geodesy.
The principal work containing the methods and results of these
operations was published in 1858 with the title " Ordnance Trigono-
metrical Survey of Great Britain and Ireland. Account of the
observations and calculations of the principal triangulation and of
the figure, dimensions and mean specific gravity of the earth as
derived therefrom. Drawn up by Captain Alexander Ross Clarke,
R.E., F.R.A.S., under the direction of Lieut.-Colonel H. James,
R.E., F.R.S., M.R.I. A., &c." A supplement appeared in 1862:
" Extension of the Triangulation of the Ordnance Survey into
France and Belgium, with the measurement of an arc of parallel in
52 N. from Valentia in Ireland to Mount Kemmel in Belgium.
Published by ... Col. Sir Henry James."
Extensive operations for surveying India and determining
the figure of the earth were commenced in 1800. Colonel W.
Lambton started the great meridian arc at Punnae in latitude
8 9', and, following generally the methods of the English survey,
he carried his triangulation as far north as 20 30'. The work
was continued by Sir George (then Captain) Everest, who carried
it to the latitude of 29 30'. Two admirable volumes by Sir
George Everest, published in 1830 and in 1847, Ei ve the details
of this undertaking. The survey was afterwards prosecuted by
Colonel T. T. Walker, R.E., who made valuable contributions
to geodesy. The working out of the Indian chains of triangle
by the method of least squares presents peculiar difficulties,
but, enormous in extent as the work was, it has been thoroughly
carried out. The ten base lines on which the survey depends
were measured with Colby's compensation bars.
The survey is detailed in eighteen volumes, published at Dehra
Dun, and entitled Account of the Operations of the Great Trigono-
metrical Survey of India. Of these the first nine were published
under the direction of Colonel Walker; and the remainder by
Colonels Strahan and St G. C. Gore, Major S. G. Burrard and others.
Vol. i., 1870, treats of the base lines; vol. ii., 1879, history and general
descriptions of the principal triangulation and of its reduction;
vol. v., 1879, pendulum operations (Captains T. P. Basevi and W. T.
Heaviside) ; vols. xi., 1890, and xviii., 1906, latitudes; vols. ix., 1883,
x., 1887, xv., 1893, longitudes; vol. xvii., 1901, the Indo-European
longitude-arcs from Karachi to Greenwich. The other volumes con-
tain the triangulations.
In 1860 Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve published his Arc du
mSridien de 25 20' enlre le Danube et la Mer Glaciate mesurS
depuis 1816 jusqu'en 1855. The latitudes of the thirteen astro-
nomical stations of this arc were determined partly with vertical
circles and partly by means of the transit instrument in the prime
vertical. The triangulation, a great part of which, however,
is a simple chain of triangles, is reduced by the method of least
squares, and the probable errors of the resulting distances of
parallels is given; the probable error of the whole arc in length
is 6-2 toises. Ten base lines were measured. The sum of the
8 04
EARTH, FIGURE OF THE
lengths of the ten measured bases is 29,863 toises, so that the
average length of a base line is 19,100 ft. The azimuths were
observed at fourteen stations. In high latitudes the determina-
tion of the meridian is a matter of great difficulty; nevertheless
the azimuths at all the northern stations were successfully
determined, the probable error of the result at Fuglenaes being
* o"'S3.
Before proceeding with the modern developments of geodetic
measurements and their application to the figure of the earth,
we must discuss the " mechanical theory," which is indispensable
for a full understanding of the subject.
Mechanical Theory.
Newton, by applying his theory of gravitation, combined
with the so-called centrifugal force, to the earth, and assuming
that an oblate ellipsoid of rotation is a form of equilibrium for
a homogeneous fluid rotating with uniform angular velocity,
obtained the ratio of the axes 229 : 230, and the law of variation
of gravity on the surface. A few years later Huygens published
an investigation of the figure of the earth, supposing the attrac-
tion of every particle to be towards the centre of the earth,
obtaining as a result that the proportion of the axes should be
578 : 579- In 1740 Colin Maclaurin, in his De causa physica
fluxus et refluxus maris, demonstrated that the oblate ellipsoid
of revolution is a figure which satisfies the conditions of equi-
librium in the case of a revolving homogeneous fluid mass, whose
particles attract one another according to the law of the inverse
square of the distance; he gave the equation connecting the
ellipticity with the proportion of the centrifugal force at the
equator to gravity, and determined the attraction on a particle
situated anywhere on the surface of such a body. In 1743
Clairault published his Theorie de la figure de la terre, which
contains a remarkable theorem (" Clairault's Theorem "), estab-
lishing a relation between the ellipticity of the earth and the
variation of gravity from the equator to the poles. Assuming
that the earth is composed of concentric ellipsoidal strata having
a common axis of rotation, each stratum homogeneous in itself,
but the ellipticities and densities of the successive strata varying
according to any law, and that the superficial stratum has the
same form as if it were fluid, he proved that
where g, g' are the amounts of gravity at the equator and at
the pole respectively, e the ellipticity of the meridian (or " flatten-
ing "), and m the ratio of the centrifugal force at the equator to g.
He also proved that the increase of gravity in proceeding from
the equator to the poles is as the square of the sine of the latitude.
This, taken with the former theorem, gives the means of deter-
mining the earth's ellipticity from observation of the relative
force of gravity at any two places. P. S. Laplace, who devoted
much attention to the subject, remarks on Clairault's work that
" the importance of all his results and the elegance with which
they are presented place this work amongst the most beautiful
of mathematical productions " (Isaac Todhunter's History of the
Mathematical Theories of Attraction and the Figure of the Earth,
vol. i. p. 229).
The problem of the figure of the earth treated as a question
of mechanics or hydrostatics is one of great difficulty, and it
would be quite impracticable but for the circumstance that
the surface differs but little from a sphere. In order to express
the forces at any point of the body arising from the attraction
of its particles, the form of the surface is required, but this form
is the very one which it is the object of the investigation to
discover; hence the complexity of the subject, and even with
all the present resources of mathematicians only a partial and
imperfect solution can be obtained.
We may here briefly indicate the line of reasoning by which some
of the most important results may be obtained. If X, Y, Z be the
components parallel to three rectangular axes of the forces acting
on a particle of a fluid mass at the point x, y, z, then, p being the
pressure there, and p the density,
dp = p(Xdx+Ydy+Zdz);
and for equilibrium the necessary conditions are, that p(Xdx+
Ydy+Zdz) be a complete differential, and at the free surfaceXdx-)-
Ydy -\-Zdz =o. This equation implies that the resultant of the forces
is normal to the surface at every point, and in a homogeneous fluid
it is obviously the differential equation of all surfaces of equal pres-
sure. If the fluid be heterogeneous then it is to be remarked that for
forces of attraction according to the ordinary law of gravitation,
if X, Y, Z be the components of the attraction of a mass whose
potential is V, then
Xdx+ Ydy+Zdz = < dx+ <n dy+ dV dZi
which is a complete differential. And in the case of a fluid rotating
with uniform velocity, in which the so-called centrifugal force enters
as a force acting on each particle proportional to its distance from
the axis of rotation, the corresponding part of Xdx+Ydy+Zdz is
obviously a complete differential. Therefore for the forces with
which we are now concerned Xdx+'Ydy+Zdz = dlJ, where U is some
function of x, y, z, and it is necessary for equilibrium that dp = pdl]
be a complete differential ; that is, p must be a function of U or a
function of p, and so also p a function of U. So that <fU =o is the
differential equation of surfaces of equal pressure and density.
We may now show that a.homogeneous fluid mass in the form of
an oblate ellipsoid of revolution having a uniform velocity of rotation
can be in equilibrium. It may be proved that the attraction of the
ellipsoid x*+y>+z 2 (i +e 2 ) = c 2 (i -fe 2 ) upon a particle P of its mass at
x, y, z has for components
X=-A*, Y=-Ay, Z = -Cz,
where
r
=
and k* the constant of attraction. Besides the attraction of the mass
of the ellipsoid, the centrifugal force at P has for components
+x 2 , -t-yw 2 , o ; then the condition of fluid equilibrium is
( A - oj 2 ) xdx + ( A - u 2 ) ydy + Czdz = o,
which by integration gives
(A - u 2 ) (x*+y*) +Cz 2 = constant.
This is the equation of an ellipsoid of rotation, and therefore the
equilibrium is possible. The equation coincides with that of the sur-
face of the fluid mass if we make
which gives
In the case of the earth, which is nearly spherical, we obtain by
expanding the expression for u 2 in powers of t 2 , rejecting the higher
powers, and remarking that the ellipticity e = je 2 ,
coV2ir 2 p = 4Vi5 = 8e/is.
Now if m be the ratio of the centrifugal force to the intensity of
gravity at the equator, and a = c(l-\-e), then
In the case of the earth it is a matter of observation that
m = 1/289, hence the ellipticity
e = SOT/4 = 1/231,
so that the ratio of the axes on the supposition of a homogeneous
fluid earth is 230 : 231, as stated by Newton.
Now, to come to the case of a heterogeneous fluid, we shall assume
that its surfaces of equal density are spheroids, concentric and
having a common axis of rotation, and that the ellipticity of these
surfaces varies from the centre to the outer surface, the density also
varying. In other words, the body is composed of homogeneous
spheroidal shells of variable density and ellipticity. On this sup-
position we shall express the attraction of the mass upon a particle in
its interior, and then, taking into account the centrifugal force, form
the equation expressing the condition of fluid equilibrium. The
attraction of the homogeneous spheroid * 2 +y 2 -(-2 2 (i +2e) =c 2 (i -\-2e),
where e is the ellipticity (of which the square is neglected), on an
internal particle, whose co-ordinates are x=f, y = o, z = h, has for its
* and z components
X'= -frk*pf(i -fe), Z'= -frfeWi+fe),
the Y component being of course zero. Hence we infer that the at-
traction of a shell whose inner surface has an ellipticity e, and its
outer surface an ellipticity e+de, the density being p, is expressed by
To apply this to our heterogeneous spheroid; if we put c\ for the
semiaxis of that surface of equal density on which is situated the
attracted point P, and Co for the semiaxis of the outer surface, the
attraction of that portion of the body which is exterior to P, namely,
of all the shells which enclose P, has for components
, z,- -
EARTH, FIGURE OF THE
805
both e and p being functions of c. Again the attraction of a homo-
geneous spheroid of density p on an external point /, h has the
components
X'=-frk 1 pfr-*{c(i+2e)-\ec*\,
Z" = - JTrPphr-' \c>( i +2e) - X'ec 6 ) ,
where X = |(4A J -/ 2 )/r, X' = 5(2#-3/ 2 )/r 4 , and r 2 =/ 2 +ft 2 .
Now e being considered a function of c, we can at once express the
attraction of a shell (density p) contained between the surface denned
by c+dc, e+de and that denned by c, e upon an external point ; the
differentials with respect to c, viz. dX* dZ", must then be integrated
with p under the integral sign as being a function of c. The integra-
tion will extend from c = o to c = c\. Thus the components of the
attraction of the heterogeneous spheroid upon a particle within its
mass, whose co-ordinates are /, o, h, are
We take into account the rotation of the earth by adding the centri-
fugal force /w 2 = F to X. Now, the surface of constant density upon
which the point/, o, h is situated gives (l 2e] fdf -\-hdh = o; and the
condition of equilibrium is that (X+F)df+Zdh = o. Therefore,
which, neglecting small quantities of the order e 2 and putting
w'P = 4Tr 2 k 1 , gives
Here we must now put c for ci, c for r\ and i-\-2e under the first
integral sign may be replaced by unity, since small quantities of the
second order are neglected. Two differentiations lead us to the
following very important differential equation (Clairault):
de . I 2pc 6\
dc + \fp^Sc~c'/ e ''
When p is expressed in terms of c, this equation can be integrated.
We infer then that a rotating spheroid of very small ellipticity, com-
posed of fluid homogeneous strata such as we have specified, will be
in equilibrium; and when the law of the density is expressed, the
law of the corresponding ellipticities will follow.
If we put M for the mass of the spheroid, then
and putting c = c in the equation expressing the condition of equili-
brium, we find
Making these substitutions in the expressions for the forces at the
surface, and putting r/c= l+e e(h/c)*, we get
Here G is gravity in the latitude <t>, and a the radius of the equator.
Since
sec = (<;
= ^f \ i ~
an expression which contains the theorems we have referred to as
discovered by Clairault.
The theory of the figure of the earth as a rotating ellipsoid has
been especially investigated by Laplace in his Mecanique celeste.
The principal English works are: Sir George Airy, Mathematical
Tracts, a lucid treatment without the use of Laplace's coefficients;
Archdeacon Pratt's Attractions and Figure of the Earth; and
O'Brien's Mathematical Tracts; in the last two Laplace's coefficients
are used.
In 1845 Sir G. G. Stokes (Camb. Trans, viii. ; see also Camb.
Dub. Math. Journ., 1849, i y -) proved that if the external form
of the sea imagined to percolate the land by canals be a
spheroid with small ellipticity, then the law of gravity is that
which we have shown above; his proof required no assumption
as to the ellipticity of the internal strata, or as to the past or
present fluidity of the earth. This investigation admits of being
regarded conversely, viz. as determining the elliptical form of
the earth from measurements of gravity; if G, the observed
value of gravity in latitude <f>, be expressed in the form
G = g(i+ j3 sin 2 <t>), where g is the value at the equator and
a coefficient. In this investigation, the square and higher powers
of the ellipticity are neglected; the solution was completed
by F. R. Helmert with regard to the square of the ellipticity,
who showed that a term with sin 2 2< appeared (see Helmert,
Geodasie, ii. 83). For the coefficient of this term, the gravity
measurements give a small but not sufficiently certain value;
we therefore assume a value which agrees best with the hypothesis
of the fluid state of the entire earth; this assumption is well
supported, since even at a depth of only 50 km. the pressure of
the superincumbent crust is so great that rocks become plastic,
and behave approximately as fluids, and consequently the crust
of the earth floats, to some extent, on the interior (even though
this may not be fluid in the usual sense of the word). This is
the geological theory of " Isostasis " (cf. GEOLOGY) ; it agrees
with the results of measurements of gravity (vide infra), and was
brought forward in the middle of the igth century by J. H.
Pratt, who deduced it from observations made in India.
The sin 2 2< term in the expression for G, and the corresponding
deviation of the meridian from an ellipse, have been analytically
established by Sir G. H. Darwin and E. Wiechert; earlier and
less complete investigations were made by Sir G. B. Airy and
O. Callandreau. In consequence of the sin 2 2< term, two para-
meters of the level surfaces in the interior of the earth are to be
determined; for this purpose, Darwin develops two differential
equations in the place of the one by Clairault. By assuming
Roche's law for the variation of the density in the interior of the
Earth, viz. p=pik(c/ci)*, k being a coefficient, it is shown that
in latitude 45, the meridian is depressed about 35 metres from
the ellipse, and the coefficient of the term sin 2 $ cos 2 </>( = i sin 2 2<)
is 0-0000295. According to Wiechert the earth is composed
of a kernel and a shell, the kernel being composed of material,
chiefly metallic iron, of density near 8-2, and the shell, about
900 miles thick, of silicates, &c., of density about 3-2. On this
assumption the depression in latitude 45 is 2f metres, and the
coefficient of sin 2 <t> cos 2 < is, in round numbers, 0-OOOO28O. 1
To this additional term in the formula for G, there corresponds
an extension of Clairault's formula for the calculation of the
flattening from /3 with terms of the higher orders; this was first
accomplished by Helmert.
For a long time the assumption of an ellipsoid with three
unequal axes has been held possible for the figure of the earth, in
consequence of an important theorem due to K. G. Jacobi, who
proved that for a homogeneous fluid in rotation a spheroid is not
the only form of equilibrium; an ellipsoid rotating round its
least axis may with certain proportions of the axes and a certain
time of revolution be a form of equilibrium. 2 It has been objected
to the figure of three unequal axes that it does not satisfy, in
the proportions of the axes, the conditions brought out in
Jacobi's theorem (c:a<i/>/2). Admitting this, it has to be
noted, on the other hand, that Jacobi's theorem contemplates a
homogeneous fluid, and this is certainly far from the actual
condition of our globe; indeed the irregular distribution of
continents and oceans suggests the possibility of a sensible
divergence from a perfect surface of revolution. We may,
however, assume the ellipsoid with three unequal axes to be an
interpolation form. More plausible forms are little adapted for
computation. 3 Consequently we now generally take the ellipsoid
of rotation as a basis, especially so because measurements of
gravity have shown that the deviation from it is but trifling.
Local Attraction.
In speaking of the figure of the earth, we mean the surface
of the sea imagined to percolate the continents by canals. That
1 0. Callendreau, " Memoire sur la theorie de la figure des
planetes," Ann. obs. de Paris (1889); G. H. Darwin, " The Theory
of the Figure of the Earth carried to the Second Order of Small
Quantities," Man. Not. R.A.S., 1899; E. Wiechert, " t)ber die
Massenverteilung im Innern der Erde," Nach. d. kon. G. d. W. zu
Cott., 1897. 2 See I. Todhunter, Proc. Roy. Soc., 1870.
1 J. H. Jeans, " On the Vibrations and Stability of a Gravitating
Planet," Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. 71 ; G. H. Darwin, " On the Figure
and Stability of a liquid Satellite," Phil. Trans. 206, p. 161 ; A. E. H.
Love, " The Gravitational Stability of the Earth," Phil. Trans. 207,
p. 237 ; Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. 80.
8o6
EARTH, FIGURE OF THE
this surface should turn out, after precise measurements, to be
exactly an ellipsoid of revolution is a priori improbable. Al-
though it may be highly probable that originally the earth was
a fluid mass, yet in the cooling whereby the present crust has
resulted, the actual solid surface has been left most irregular
in form. It is clear that these irregularities of the visible surface
must be accompanied by irregularities in the mathematical
figure of the earth, and when we consider the general surface
of our globe, its irregular distribution of mountain masses,
continents, with oceans and islands, we are prepared to admit
that the earth may not be precisely any surface of revolution.
Nevertheless, there must exist some spheroid which agrees very
closely with the mathematical figure of the earth, and has the
same axis of rotation. We must conceive this figure as exhibiting
slight departures from the spheroid, the two surfaces cutting
one another in various lines; thus a point of the surface is
defined by its latitude, longitude, and its height above the
" spheroid of reference." Calling this height N, then of the
actual magnitude of this quantity we can generally have no
information, it only obtrudes itself on our notice by its variations.
In the vicinity of mountains it may change sign in the space
of a few miles; N being regarded as a function of the latitude
and longitude, if its differential coefficient with respect to the
former be zero at a certain point, the normals to the two surfaces
then will lie in the prime vertical; if the differential coefficient
of N with respect to the longitude be zero, the two normals will
lie in the meridian; if both coefficients are zero, the normals
will coincide. The comparisons of terrestrial measurements with
the corresponding astronomical observations have always been
accompanied with discrepancies. Suppose A and B to be two
trigonometrical stations, and that at A there is a disturbing force
drawing the vertical through an angle 5, then it is evident that
the apparent zenith of A will be really that of some other place
A', whose distance from A is r8, when r is the earth's radius;
and similarly if there be a disturbance at B of the amount 5',
the apparent zenith of B will be really that of some other place
B', whose distance from B is rS'. Hence we have the discrepancy
that, while the geodetic measurements deal with the points
A and B, the astronomical observations belong to the points
A', B'. Should 5, 5' be equal and parallel, the displacements
AA', BB' will be equal and parallel, and no discrepancy will
appear. The non-recognition of this circumstance often led
to much perplexity in the early history of geodesy. Suppose
that, through the unknown variations of N, the probable error
of an observed latitude (that is, the angle between the normal
to the mathematical surface of the earth at the given point
and that of the corresponding point on the spheroid of reference)
be e, then if we compare two arcs of a degree each in mean
latitudes, and near each other,, say about five degrees of latitude
apart, the probable error of the resulting value of the ellipticity
will be approximately -5-^*, e being expressed in seconds,
so that if 6 be so great as 2" the probable error of the resulting
ellipticity will be greater than the ellipticity itself.
It is necessary at times to calculate the attraction of a
mountain, and the consequent disturbance of the astronomical
zenith, at any point within its influence. The deflection of the
plumb-line, caused by a local attraction whose amount is 2 AS,
is measured by the ratio of PAS to the force of gravity at the
station. Expressed in seconds, the deflection A is
where p is the mean density of the earth, 8 that of the attracting
mass, and \=fs- 3 xdv, in which dv is a volume element of the
attracting mass within the distance s from the point of deflection,
and * the projection of s on the horizontal plane through this
point, the linear unit in expressing A being a mile. Suppose,
for instance, a table-land whose form is a rectangle of 1 2 miles by
8 miles, having a height of 500 ft. and density half that of the
earth; let the observer be 2 miles distant from the middle
point of the longer side. The deflection then is i"-472; but at
i mile it increases to 2*- 20.
At sixteen astronomical stations in the English survey the
disturbance of latitude due to the form of the ground has been
computed, and the following will give an idea of the results.
At six stations the deflection is under 2", at six others it is
between 2" and 4", and at four stations it exceeds 4*. There is
one very exceptional station on the north coast of Banffshire,
near the village of Portsoy, at which the deflection amounts
to 10", so that if that village were placed on a map in a position
to correspond with its astronomical latitude, it would be 1000 ft.
out of position ! There is the sea to the north and an undulating
country to the south, which, however, to a spectator at the
station does not suggest any great disturbance of gravity. A
somewhat rough estimate of the local attraction from external
causes gives a maximum limit of 5*, therefore we have 5* which
must arise from unequal density in the underlying strata in the
surrounding country. In order to throw light on this remarkable
phenomenon, the latitudes of a number of stations between
Nairn on the west, Fraserburgh on the east, and the Grampians
on the south, were observed, and the local deflections determined.
It is somewhat singular that the deflections diminish in all
directions, not very regularly certainly, and most slowly in a south-
west direction, finally disappearing, and leaving the maximum
at the original station at Portsoy.
The method employed by Dr C. Hutton for computing the
attraction of masses of ground is so simple and effectual that it
can hardly be improved on. Let a horizontal plane pass through
the given station; let r, 6 be the polar co-ordinates of any point
in this plane, and r, 6, z, the co-ordinates of a particle of the
attracting mass; and let it be required to find the attraction of
a portion of the mass contained between the horizontal planes
z=o, z = h, the cylindrical surfaces r=r t , r=r*, and the vertical
planes Q=0i, 6 = 61. The component of the attraction at the
station or origin along the line 6=0 is
By taking rt-r\, sufficiently small, and supposing h also small
compared with ri+r 2 (as it usually is), the attraction is
where r= \ (fi+rj). This form suggests the following procedure.
Draw on the contoured map a series of equidistant circles,
concentric with the station, intersected by radial lines so disposed
that the sines of their azimuths are in arithmetical progression.
Then, having estimated from the map the mean heights of the
various compartments, the calculation is obvious.
In mountainous countries, as near the Alps and in the Caucasus,
deflections have been observed to the amount of as much as
30', while in the Himalayas deflections amounting to 60* were
observed. On the other hand, deflections have been observed
in flat countries, such as that noted by Professor K. G. Schweizer,
who has shown that, at certain stations in the vicinity of Moscow,
within a distance of 16 miles the plumb-line varies 16* in such a
manner as to indicate a vast deficiency of matter in the underlying
strata; deflections of 10* were observed in the level regions of
north Germany.
Since the attraction of a mountain mass is expressed as a
numerical multiple of 5 : p the ratio of the density of the moun-
tain to that of the earth, if we have any independent means of
ascertaining the amount of the deflection, we have at once the
ratio p : 8, and thus we obtain the mean density of the earth,
as, for instance, at Schiehallion, and afterwards at Arthur's
Seat. Experiments of this kind for determining the mean
density of the earth have been made in greater numbers; but
they are not free from objection (see GRAVITATION).
Let us now consider the perturbation attending a spherical
subterranean mass. A compact mass of great density at a small
distance under the surface of the earth will produce an elevation
of the mathematical surface which is expressed by the formula
y = o/i{(l 2u cos 9+tt 2 )"* 1|,
where a is the radius of the (spherical) earth, a(i - u) the distance
EARTH, FIGURE OF THE
807
of the disturbing mass below the surface, n the ratio of the dis-
turbing mass to the mass of the earth, and a& the distance of any
point on the surface from that point, say Q, which is vertically
over the disturbing mass. The maximum value of y is at Q,
where it is y=anu(iu). The deflection at the distance ad
is A=/* sin 0(i 2 cos0 + w 2 ) $> or since 9 is small, putting
k+u=i, we have A = /x0(/i 2 +0 2 )~*. The maximum deflec-
tion takes place at a point whose distance from Q is to the
depth of the mass as i: Vz, and its amount is 2/1/3 ^3 A 2 .
If, for instance, the disturbing mass were a sphere a mile
in diameter, the excess of its density above that of the sur-
rounding country being equal to half the density of the
earth, and the depth of its centre half a mile, the greatest de-
flection would be 5", and the greatest value of y only two inches.
Thus a large disturbance of gravity may arise from an irregularity
in the mathematical surface whose actual magnitude, as regards
height at least, is extremely small.
The effect of the disturbing mass ft on the vibrations of a
pendulum would be a maximum at Q; if v be the number of
seconds of time gained per diem by the pendulum at Q, and <r
the number of seconds of anglejn the maximum deflection, then
it may be shown that v/a = ir-^3/io.
The great Indian survey, and the attendant measurements of
the degree of latitude, gave occasion to elaborate investigations
of the deflection of the plumb-line in the neighbourhood of the
high plateaus and mountain chains of Central Asia. Archdeacon
Pratt (Phil. Trans., 1855 and 1857), in instituting these investiga-
tions, took into consideration the influence of the apparent
diminution of the mass of the earth's crust occasioned by the
neighbouring ocean-basins; he concluded that the accumulated
masses of mountain chains, &c., corresponded to subterranean
mass diminutions, so that over any level surface in a fixed depth
(perhaps 100 miles or more) the masses of prisms of equal section
are equal. This is supported by the gravity measurements at
Mor6 in the Himalayas at a height of 4696 metres, which showed
no deflection due to the mountain chain (Phil. Trans., 1871);
more recently, H. A. Faye (Compt. rend., 1880) arrived at the
same conclusion for the entire continent.
This compensation, however, must only be regarded as a general
principle; in certain cases, the compensating masses show marked
horizontal displacements. Further investigations, especially of
gravity measurements, will undoubtedly establish other im-
portant facts. Colonel S. G. Burrard has recently recalculated,
with the aid of more exact data, certain Indian deviations
of the plumb-line, and has established that in the region
south of the Himalayas (lat. 24) there is a subterranean per-
turbing mass. The extent of the compensation of the high
mountain chains is difficult to recognize from the latitude
observations, since the same effect may result from different
causes; on the other hand, observations of geographical longi-
tude have established a strong compensation. 1
Meridian Arcs.
The astronomical stations for the measurement of the degree
of latitude will generally lie not exactly on the same meridian;
and it is therefore necessary to calculate the arcs of metidian
M which lie between the latitude of neighbouring stations. If
S be the geodetic line calculated from the triangulation with the
astronomically determined azimuths Oi and Oj, then
, .
M
in which 20=01+0.2180, Aa=O2 ai 180.
The length of the arc of meridian between the latitudes
and 02 is
where a 2 e 2 =a 2 6 s ; instead of using the eccentricity e, put the
ratio of the axes b: a=i : i+n, then
1 Survey of India, " The Attraction of the Himalaya Mountains
upon the Plumb Line in India " (1901), p. 98.
M _ f't'tb(i+n)(i-n')d<t>
' -Jfr (i
This, after integration, gives
M/6= (i+n+fr+fyao
-6M-
Oo = $2 01
0!= sin (<fc-<fo) cos
ai = sin 2 (02 - .M cos 2 (<fc + $,)
where
The part of M which depends on n 3 is very small; in fact, if we
calculate it for one of the longest arcs measured, the Russian arc,
it amounts to only an inch and a half, therefore we omit this
term, and put for M/6 the value
oo-
a,+
a 2 .
Now, if we suppose the observed latitudes to be affected with
errors, and that the true latitudes are <t>i+xi, fa+xi; and if
further we suppose that n\-\-dn is the true value of a b: a+b,
and that n\ itself is merely a very approximate numerical value,
we get, on making these substitutions and neglecting the influence
of the corrections x on the position of the arc in latitude, i.e. on
a,
n a, dn
here das> = x 2 xi; and as b is only known approximately, put
b = bi(i+u); then we get, after dividing through by the co-
efficient of dao, which is = i+i 3i cos(</>2 <i) cos(<^2-f-<^>i),
an equation of the form Xz=Xi+h+fu-}-gv, where for con-
venience we put v for dn.
Now in every measured arc there are not only the extreme
stations determined in latitude, but also a number of inter-
mediate stations so that if there be i+i stations there will be
i equations
In combining a number of different arcs of meridian, with
the view of determining the figure of the earth, each arc will
supply a number of equations in u and v and the corrections to
its observed latitudes. Then, according to the method of least
squares, those values of u and v are the most probable which
render the sum of the squares of all the errors x a minimum.
The corrections x which are here applied arise not from errors
of observation only. The mere uncertainty of a latitude, as
determined with modern instruments, does not exceed a very
small fraction of a second as far as errors of observation go, but
no accuracy in observing will remove the error that may arise
from local attraction. This, as we have seen, may amount to
some seconds, so that the corrections * to the observed latitudes
are attributable to local attraction. Archdeacon Pratt objected
to this mode of applying least squares first used by Bessel; but
Bessel was right, and the objection is groundless. Bessel found,
in 1841, from ten meridian arcs with a total amplitude of so-6:
= 3272077 toises = 6377397 metres.
e (ellipticity) = (a b)/a= 1/299-15 (prob. error3-2).
The probable error in the length of the earth's quadrant is
=*= 336 m.
We now give a series of some meridian-arcs measurements,
which were utilized in 1866 by A. R. Clarke in the Comparisons
of the Standards of Length, pp. 280-287; details of the calcula-
tions are given by the same author in his Geodesy (1880), pp.
311 et seq.
The data of the French arc from Formentera to Dunkirk are
8o8
EARTH, FIGURE OF THE
Stations.
Astronomical
Latitudes.
O / ff
38 39 53-17
41 21 44-96
41 22 47-90
43 12 54-3
48 50 47-98
51 2 8-41
Distance of
Parallels.
Ft.
982671-04
988701-92
1657287-93
3710827-13
4509790-84
Formentera
Mountjouy
Barcelona
Carcassonne
Pantheon
Dunkirk .
The distance of the parallels of Dunkirk and Greenwich,
deduced from the extension of the triangulation of England
into France, in 1862, is 161407-3 ft., which is 3-9 ft. greater than
that obtained from Captain Rater's triangulation, and 3-2 ft.
less than the distance calculated by Delambre from General Roy's
triangulation. The following table shows the data of the
English arc with the distances in standard feet from Formentera.
' ' Ft.
Formentera
Greenwich 51 28 38-30 4671198-3
Arbury
Clifton .
Kellie Law
Stirling .
Saxavord
The latitude assigned in this table to Saxavord is not the
directly observed latitude, which is 60 49' 38-58", for there
are here a cluster of three points, whose latitudes are astronomic-
ally determined; and if we transfer, by means of the geodesic
connexion, the latitude of Gerth of Scaw to Saxavord, we get
60 49' 36-59"; and if we similarly transfer the latitude of Balta,
we get 60 49' 36-46". The mean of these three is that entered
in the above table.
For the Indian arc in long. 77 40' we have the following
data :
Ft.
51
28
38-30
52
13
26-59
53
27
29-50
56
H
53-6o
57
27
49-12
60
49
37-21
5394063-4
6413221-7
8086820-7
Punnea .
Putchapolliam
Dodagunta
Namthabad .
Daumergida .
Takalkhera .
Kalianpur
Kaliana .
8
10
12
15
18
21
24
29
9
59
59
5
3
5
7
30
31-132
42-276
52-165
53-562
15-292
Si-SS 2
11-262
48-322
1029174-9
1756562-0
2518376-3
3591788-4
4697329-5
5794695-7
7755835-9
The data of the Russian arc (long. 26 40') taken from Struve's
work are as below :
Ft.
Staro Nekrasovsk
45 20 2-94
Vodu-Luy
47 i 24-98 616529-81
Suprunkovzy
48 45 3-04 1246762-17
Kremenets
50 5 49-95 I73755I-48
Byelin
52 2 42-16 2448745-17
Nemesh .
54 39 4-16 3400312-63
Jacobstadt
56 30 4-97 4076412-28
Dorpat .
58 22 47-56 4762421-43
Hogland
60 5 9-84 5386135-39
Kilpi-maki
62 38 5-25 6317905-67
Tornea
65 49 44-57 7486789-97
Stuorroivi
68 40 58-40 8530517-90
Fuglenaes
70 40 11-23 9257921-06
From the arc measured in Cape Colony by Sir Thomas Maclear
in long. 18 30', we have
' " Ft.
29 44 17-66
31 58 9-u
33 56 3-20
34 13 32-13
34 21 6-26
North End . . .
Heerenlogement Berg
Royal Observatory .
Zwart Kop .
Cape Point . . .
811507-7
1526386-8
1632583-3
I678375-7
And, finally, for the Peruvian arc, in long. 281 o'.
Tarqui
Cotchesqui
Ft.
3
o
1131036-3
32-068
31-387
Having now stated the data of the problem, we may seek that
oblate ellipsoid (spheroid) which best represents the observations.
Whatever the real figure may be, it is certain that if we suppose
it an ellipsoid with three unequal axes, the arithmetical pro-
cess will bring out an ellipsoid, which will agree better with all
the observed latitudes than any spheroid would, therefore we
do not prove that it is an ellipsoid; to prove this, arcs of
longitude would be required. The result for the spheroid may
be expressed thus :
= 20926062 ft. =6378206-4 metres.
6 = 20855121 ^. = 6356583-8 metres.
b: = 293-98 : 294-98.
As might be expected, the sum of the squares of the 40 latitude
corrections, viz. 153-99, is greater in this figure than in that of
three axes, where it amounts to 138-30. For this case, in the
Indian arc the largest corrections are at Dodagunta, + 3-87",
and at Kalianpur, - 3-68". In the Russian arc the largest
corrections are + 3-76", at Tornea, and -3 -31", at Staro Nekra-
sovsk. Of the whole 40 corrections, 16 are under i-o", 10
between i-o" and 2-0", to between 2-0" and 3-0", and 4 over
3-0". The probable error of an observed latitude is + 1-42";
for the spheroidal it would be very slightly larger. This quantity
may be taken therefore as approximately the probable amount
of local deflection.
If p be the radius of curvature of the meridian in latitude (j>, p'
that perpendicular to the meridian, D the length of a degree of
the meridian, D' the length of a degree of longitude, r the radius
drawn from the centre of the earth, V the angle of the vertical
with the radius-vector, then
Ft.
p =20890606-6 106411-5 cos 2<f> + 225-8 cos 40
p' =20961607-3 - 35590-9 cos 20 + 45-2 cos 40
D= 364609-87 - 1857-14 cos 20 + 3-94 cos 40
D= 365538-480030- 310-17 cos 30 + 0-39 cos 50
Log r/a = 9-9992645 + -0007374 cos 20 --OOOOOI9COS40
V =700-44" sin 20 1-19* sin 40.
A. R. Clarke has recalculated the elements of the ellipsoid
of the earth; his values, derived in 1880, in which he utilized
the measurements of parallel arcs in India, are particularly in
practice. These values are :
= 20926202 ft. =6378249 metres.
6 = 20854895 ^. = 6356515 metres.
b : a = 292 -465 : 293-465.
The calculation of the elements of the ellipsoid of rotation from
measurements of the curvature of arcs in any given azimuth by
means of geographical longitudes, latitudes and azimuths is in-
dicated in the article GEODESY ; reference may be made to Principal
Triangulation, Helmert's Geodasie, and the publications of the
Kgl. Preuss. Geod. Inst. : Lotabweichungen (1886), and Die europ.
Langengradmessung in 52 Br. (1893). For the calculation of an
ellipsoid with three unequal axes see Comparison of Standards,
preface; and for non-elliptical meridians, Principal Triangulation,
P- 733-
Gravitation-Measurements.
According to Clairault's theorem (see above) the ellipticity e
of the mathematical surface of the earth is equal to the difference
fwz ft, where m is the ratio of the centrifugal force at the
equator to gravity at the equator, and ft is derived from the
formula G = g(i +/3 sin 2 <). Since the beginning of the igth
century many efforts have been made to determine the constants
of this formula, and numerous expeditions undertaken to
investigate the intensity of gravity in different latitudes. If m
be known, it is only necessary to determine ft for the evaluation
of e; consequently it is unnecessary to determine G absolutely,
for the relative values of G at two known latitudes suffice.
Such relative measurements are easier and more exact than
absolute ones. In some cases the ordinary thread pendulum,
i.e. a spherical bob suspended by a wire, has been employed;
but more often a rigid metal rod, bearing a weight and a knife-
edge on which it may oscillate, has been adopted. The main
point is the constancy of the pendulum. From the formula for
the time of oscillation of the mathematically ideal pendulum,
* = 2irV//G, / being the length, it follows that for two points
Gi/G-*I/*f.
In 1808 J. B. Biot commenced his pendulum observations at
several stations in western Europe; and in 1817-1825 Captain
Louis de Freycinet and L. I. Duperrey prosecuted similar
observations far into the southern hemisphere. Captain Henry
Kater confined himself to British stations (.1818-1819); Captain
E. Sabine, from 1819 to 1829, observed similarly, with Kater's
pendulum, at seventeen stations ranging from the West Indies
EARTH, FIGURE OF THE
809
to Greenland and Spitsbergen; and in 1824-1831, Captain
Henry Foster (who met his death by drowning in Central
America) experimented at sixteen stations; his observations
were completed by Francis Baily in London. Of other workers
in this field mention may be made of F. B. Liitke (1826-1829),
a Russian rear-admiral, and Captains J. B. Basevi and W. T.
Heaviside, who observed during 1865 to 1873 at Kew and at
29 Indian stations, particularly at More in the Himalayas at a
height of 4696 metres. Of the earlier absolute determinations we
may mention those of Biot, Kater, and Bessel at Paris, London
and Konigsberg respectively. The measurements were par-
ticularly difficult by reason of the length of the pendulums
employed, these generally being second-pendulums over i
metre long. In about 1880, Colonel Robert von Sterneck of
Austria introduced the half-second pendulum, which permitted
far quicker and more accurate work. The use of these pendulums
spread in all countries, and the number of gravity stations
consequently increased: in 1880 there were about 120, in 1900
there were about 1600, of which the greater number were in
Europe. Sir E. Sabine 1 calculated the ellipticity to be 1/288-5,
a value shown to be too high by Helmert, who in 1884, with the
aid of 120 stations, gave the value z/299-26, 2 and in 1901, with
about 1400 stations, derived the value i/2g8-3. 3 The reason for
the excessive estimate of Sabine is that he did not take into
account the systematic difference between the values of G for
continents and islands; it was found that in consequence of
the constitution of the earth's crust (Pratt) G is greater on small
H, and g, the value at sea-level. This is supposed to take
into account the attraction of the elevated strata or plateau ;
but, from the analytical method, this is not correct; it is also
disadvantageous since, in general, the land-masses are compen-
sated subterraneously, by reason of the isostasis of the earth's
crust.
In 1849 Stokes showed that the normal elevations N of the
geoid towards the ellipsoid are calculable from the deviations Ag
of the acceleration of gravity, i.e. the differences between the
observed g and the value calculated from the normal G formula.
The method assumes that gravity is measured on the earth's
surf ace at a sufficient number of points, and that it is conformably
reduced. In order to secure the convergence of the expansions
in spherical harmonics, it is necessary to assume all masses
outside a surface parallel to the surface of the sea at a depth of
21 km. ( = RXellipticity) to be condensed on this surface (Hel-
mert, Geod. ii. 172). In addition to the reduction with 2gH/R,
there still result small reductions with mountain chains and
coasts, and somewhat larger ones for islands. The sea-surface
generally varies but very little by this condensation. The
elevation (N) of the geoid is then equal to
where \l/ is the spherical distance from the point N, and
denotes the mean value of Ag for all points in the same distance
\f/ around; F is a function of \[/, and has the following values:
*=
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
I 3
140
150
1 60
170
180!
F =
i
1-22
0-94
0-47
0-06
-0-54
0-90
-1-08
-i -08
0-91
0-62
-0-27
+0-08
0-36
o-53
0-56
0-46
0-26
o I
islands of the ocean than on continents by an amount which may
approach to 0-3 cm. Moreover, stations in the neighbourhood
of coasts shelving to deep seas have a surplus, but a little smaller.
Consequently, Helmert conducted his calculations of 1901 for
continents and coasts separately, and obtained G for the coasts
0-036 cm. greater than for the continents, while the value of |3
remained the same. The mean value, reduced to continents, is
= 978-03(1+0-005302 sin 2 4> 0-000007 sin 2 20)cm/sec 2 .
The small term involving sin 2 2< could not be calculated with
sufficient exactness from the observations, and is therefore taken
from the theoretical views of Sir G. H. Darwin and E. Wiechert.
For the constant g = 978-03 cm. another correction has been
suggested (1906) by the absolute determinations made by F.
Kiihnen and Ph. Furtwangler at Potsdam. 4
A report on the pendulum measurements of the igth century
has been given by Helmert in the Cpmptes rendus des seances de
la iy conference generate de I' 'Association Geod. Internationale a
Paris (1900), ii. 139-385-
A difficulty presents itself in the case of the application of
measurements of gravity to the determination of the figure of
the earth by reason of the extrusion or standing out of the land-
masses (continents, &c.) above the sea-level. The potential
of gravity has a different mathematical expression outside the
masses than inside. The difficulty is removed by assuming
(with Sir G. G. Stokes) the vertical condensation of the masses
on the sea-level, without its form being considerably altered
(scarcely i metre radially). Further, the value of gravity (g)
measured at the height H is corrected to sea-level by + 2gH/R,
where R is the radius of the earth. Another correction, due
to P. Bouguer, is fgSH/pR, where 5 is the density of the
strata of height H, and p the m;an density of the earth.
These two corrections are represented in " Bouguer's Rule ":
gH = g( I 2H/R-f 3SH/2pR), where g H is the gravity at height
1 Account of Experiments to Determine the Figure of the Earth by
means of a Pendulum vibrating Seconds in Different Latitudes (1825).
2 Helmert, Theorien d. hoheren Geod. ii., Leipzig, 1884.
3 Helmert, Sitzber. d. kgl. preuss. Ak. d. Wiss. zu Berlin (1901),
P- 336.
" Bestimmung der absoluten Grosse der Schwerkraft zu Potsdam
mit Reversionspendeln " (Veroffentiichung des kgl. preuss. Geod. Inst.,
N.F., No. 27).
H. Poincare (Bull. Astr., 1901, p. 5) has exhibited N by means
of Lame's functions; in this case the condensation is effected
on an ellipsoidal surface, which approximates to the geoid.
This condensation is, in practice, the same as to the geoid
itself.
If we imagine the outer land-masses to be condensed on the
sea-level, and the inner masses (which, together with the outer
masses, causes the deviation of the geoid from the ellipsoid)
to be compensated in the sea-level by a disturbing stratum
(which, according to Gauss, is possible), and if these masses of
both kinds correspond at the point N to a stratum of thickness
D and density 5, then, according to Helmert (Geod. ii. 260) we
have approximately
Since N slowly varies empirically, it follows that in restricted
regions (of a few 100 km. in diameter) Ag is a measure of the
variation of D. By applying the reduction of Bouguer to g, D is
diminished by H and only gives the thickness of the ideal
disturbing mass which corresponds to the perturbations due to
subterranean masses. Ag has positive values on coasts, small
islands, and high and medium mountain chains, and occasionally
in plains; while in valleys and at the foot of mountain ranges
it is negative (up to 0-2 cm.). We conclude from this that the
masses of smaller density existing under high mountain chains
lie not only vertically underneath but also spread out sideways.
The European Arc of Parallel in 52 Lat.
Many measurements of degrees of longitudes along central
parallels in Europe were projected and partly carried out as
early as the first half of the igth century; these, however,
only became of importance after the introduction of the electric
telegraph, through whicn calculations of astronomical longitudes
obtained a much higher degree of accuracy. Of the greatest
moment is the measurement near the parallel of 52 lat., which
extended from Valentia in Ireland to Orsk in the southern Ural
mountains over 69 long, (about 6750 km.). F. G. W. Struve,
who is to be regarded as the father of the Russo-Scandinavian
latitude-degree measurements, was the originator of this investi-
gation. Having made the requisite arrangements with the
8io
EARTH, FIGURE OF THE
governments in 1857, he transferred them to his son Otto, who, in
1860, secured the co-operation of England. A new connexion
of England with the continent, via the English Channel, was
accomplished in the next two years; whereas the requisite
triangulations in Prussia and Russia extended over several
decennaries. The number of longitude stations originally
arranged for was 15; and the determinations of the differences
in longitude were uniformly commenced by the Russian observers
E. I. von Forsch, J. I. Zylinski, B. Tiele and others; Feaghmain
(Valentia) being reserved for English observers. ( With the
concluding calculation of these operations, newer determinations
of differences of longitudes were also applicable, by which the
number of stations was brought up to 29. Since local deflections
of the plumb-line were suspected at Feaghmain, the most
westerly station, the longitude (with respect to Greenwich) of
the trigonometrical station Killorglin at the head of Dingle Bay
was shortly afterwards determined.
The results (1891-1894) are given in volumes xlvii. and 1. of the
memoirs (Zapiski) of the military topographical division of the
Russian general staff, volume li. contains a reconnexion of Orsk.
The observations made west of Warsaw are detailed in the Die
europ. Ldngengradmessung in 52 Br., i. and ii., 1893, 1896, pub-
lished by the Kgl. Preuss. Geod. Inst.
The following figures are quoted from Helmert's report
" Die Grosse der Erde " (Sitzb. d. Berl. Akad. d. Wiss., 1906,
p. 53 5) :
Easterly Deviation of the Astronomical Zenith.
Name. Longitude.
o i r
Feaghmain . . -10 21 -3-3
Killorglin . . - 9 47 +2-8
Haverfordwest . 4 58 + 1-6
Greenwich . . 00+1-5
Rosendael-Nieuport + 2 35 1-7
Bonn ... + 76 -4-4
Gottingen . + 9 57 -2-4
Brocken . . -fio 37 +2-3
Leipzig . +12 23 +2-7
Rauenberg-Berlin +13 23 +1-7
Grossenhain . +13 33 2-9
Schneekoppe . + 15 45 +0-1
Springberg . +16 37 +0-8
Breslau-Rosenthal +17 2 +3'5
Trockenberg . + 18 53 -0-5
Schonsee . +18 54 -2-9
Mirov . +19 18 +2-2
Warsaw . +21 2 +1-9
Grodno . +23 50 -2-8
Bobruisk . +29 14 +0-5
Orel . . +36 4 +4'4
Lipetsk . +39 36 +0-2
Saratov . +46 3 +6-4
Samara . +50 5 -2-6
Orenburg . +55 7 +1-7
Orsk . . +58 34 -8-0
These deviations of the plumb-line correspond to an ellipsoid
having an equatorial radius (a) of nearly 6,378,000 metres (prob.
error =*= 70 metres) and an ellipticity 1/299-15. The latter was
taken for granted; it is nearly equal to the result from the
gravity-measurements ; the value for a then gives 2ij 2 a mini-
mum (nearly). The astronomical values of the geographical
longitudes (with regard to Greenwich) are assumed, according to
the compensation of longitude differences carried out by van de
Sande Bakhuyzen (Comp. rend, des seances de la commission
permanente de I' Association Geod. Internationale a Geneve, 1893,
annexe A.I.). Recent determinations (Albrecht, Astr. Nach.,
3993/4) have introduced only small alterations in the deviations,
a being slightly increased.
Of considerable importance in the investigation of the great
arc was the representation of the linear lengths found in different
countries, in terms of the same unit. The necessity for this had
previously occurred in the computation of the figure of the earth
from latitude-degree-measurements. A. R. Clarke instituted
an extensive series of comparisons at Southampton (see Com-
parisons of Standards of Length of England, France, Belgium,
Prussia, Russia, India and Australia, made at the Ordnance
Survey Office, Southampton, 1866, and a paper in the Philosophical
Transactions for 1873, by Lieut.-Col. A. R. Clarke, C.B., R.E.,
on the further comparisons of the standards of Austria, Spain,
the United States, Cape of Good Hope and Russia) and found
that i toise= 6-394 53348 ft., i metre =3-28086933 ft.
In 1875 a number of European states concluded the metre
convention, and in 1877 an international weights-and-measures
bureau was established at Breteuil. Until this time the
metre was determined by the end-surfaces of a platinum rod
(metre des archives); subsequently, rods of platinum-iridium,
of cross-section H, were constructed, having engraved lines at
both ends of the bridge, which determine the distance of a metre.
There were thirty of the rods which gave as accurately as possible
the length of the metre; and these were distributed among the
different states (see WEIGHTS AND MEASURES). Careful com-
parisons with several standard toises showed that the metre was
not exactly equal to 443,296 lines of the toise, but, in round num-
bers, 1/75000 of the length smaller. The metre according to the
older relation is called the " legal metre," according to the new
relation the "international metre." The values are (see Europ.
Ldngengradmessung, i. p. 230) :
Legal metre = 3-28o86933 ft., International metre = 3-2808257 ft.
The values of a given above are in terms of the international
metre; the earlier ones in legal metres, while the gravity
formulae are in international metres.
The International Geodetic Association (Internationale
Erdmessung).
On the- proposition of the Prussian lieutenant-general, Johann
Jacob Baeyer, a conference of delegates of several European
states met at Berlin in 1862 to discuss the question of a " Central
European degree-measurement." The first general conference
took place at Berlin two years later; shortly afterwards other
countries joined the movement, which was then named " The
European degree-measurement." From 1866 till 1886 Prussia
had borne the expense incident to the central bureau at Berlin;
but when in 1886 the operations received further extension and
the title was altered to " The International Earth-measurement "
or " International Geodetic Association," the co-operating states
made financial contributions to this purpose. The central bureau
is affiliated with the Prussian Geodetic Institute, which, since
1892, has been situated on the Telegraphenberg near Potsdam.
After Baeyer's death Prof. Friedrich Robert Helmert was
appointed director. The funds are devoted to the advancement
of such scientific works as concern all countries and deal with
geodetic problems of a general or universal nature. During the
period 1897-1906 the following twenty-one countries belonged to
the association: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, England, France,
Germany, Greece, Holland, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Mexico,
Norway, Portugal, Rumania, Russia, Servia, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland and the United States of America. At the present
time general conferences take place every three years. 1
Baeyer projected the investigation of the curvature of the
meridians and the parallels of the mathematical surface of the
earth stretching from Christiania to Palermo for 12 degrees of
longitude; he sought to co-ordinate and complete the network
of triangles in the countries through which these meridians
passed, and to represent his results by a common unit of length.
This proposition has been carried out, and extended over the
greater part of Europe; as a matter of fact, the network has,
with trifling gaps, been carried over the whole of western and
central Europe, and, by some chains of triangles, over European
Russia. Through the co-operation of France, the network has
been extended into north Africa as far as the geographical
latitude of 32; in Greece a network, united with those of Italy
and Bosnia, has been carried out by the Austrian colonel, Heinrich
Hartl; Servia has projected similar triangulations; Rumania
has begun to make the triangle measurements, and three base
1 Die Konigl. Observatorien fur Astrophysik, Meteorologie und
Geoddsie bei Potsdam (Berlin, 1890); Verhandlungen der I. Allge-
meinen Conferenz der Bevollmdchtigten zur mitteleurop. Gradmessung,
October, 1864, in Berlin (Berlin, 1865) ; A. Hirsch, Verhandlungen
der VIII. Allg. Conf. der Internationalen Erdmessung, October, 1886,
in Berlin (Berlin, 1887); and Verhandlungen der XI. Allg. Conf.
d. I. E., October, 1895, in Berlin (1896).,
EARTH, FIGURE OF THE
811
lines have been measured by French officers with Brunner's
apparatus. At present, in Rumania, there is being worked a
connexion between the arc of parallel in lat. 4J /4& in Russia
(stretching from Astrakan to Kishinev) with Austria-Hungary.
In the latter country and in southBavaria the connecting triangles
for this parallel have been recently revised, as well as the French
chain on the Paris parallel, which has been connected with the
German net by the co-operation of German and French geodesists.
This will give a long arc of parallel, really projected in the first
half of the ipth century. The calculation of the Russian section
gives, with an assumed ellipticity of 1/299-15, the value o =
6377350 metres; this is rather uncertain, since the arc embraces
only 19 in longitude.
We may here recall that in France geodetic studies have
recovered their former expansion under the vigorous impulse
of Colonel (afterwards General) Francois Perrier. When occupied
with the triangulation of Algeria, Colonel Perrier had conceived
the possibility of the geodetic junction of Algeria to Spain, over
the Mediterranean ; therefore the French meridian line, which was
already connected with England, and was thus produced to the
6oth parallel, could further be linked to the Spanish triangulation,
cross thence into Algeria and extend to the Sahara, so as to form
an arc of about 30 in length. But it then became urgent to
proceed to a new measurement of the French arc, between
Dunkirk and Perpignan. In 1869 Perrier was authorized to
undertake that revision. He devoted himself to that work till
the end of his career, closed by premature death in February
1888, at the very moment when the Depot de la guerre had just
been transformed into the Geographical Service of the Army,
of which General F. Perrier was the first director. His work
was continued by his assistant, Colonel (afterwards General)
J. A. L. Bassot. The operations concerning the revision of the
French arc were completed only in 1896. Meanwhile the French
geodesists had accomplished the junction of Algeria to Spain,
with the help of the geodesists of the Madrid Institute under
General Carlos Ibanez (1879), and measured the meridian line
between Algiers and El Aghuat (1881). They have since been
busy in prolonging the meridians of El Aghuat and Biskra, so
as to converge towards Wargla, through Ghardaia and Tuggurt.
The fundamental co-ordinates of the Panthe'on have also been
obtained anew, by connecting the Pantheon and the Paris
Observatory with the five stations of Bry-sur-Marne, Morlu,
Mont Valerien, Chatillon and Montsouris, where the observations
of latitude and azimuth have been effected. 1
According to the calculations made at the central bureau of
the international association on the great meridian arc extending
from the Shetland Islands, through Great Britain, France and
Spain to El Aghuat in Algeria, a = 63 7 793 5 metres, the ellipticity
being assumed as 1/299-1 5. The following table gives the differ-
ence: astronomical-geodetic latitude. The net does not follow
the meridian exactly, but deviates both to the west and to the
east; actually, the meridian of Greenwich is nearer the mean
than that of Paris (Helmert, Grosse d. Erde).
West Europe-Africa Meridian-arc.*
Name. Latitude.
A.-G.
Saxavord
Balta .
Ben Hutig .
Cowhythe
Great Stirling
Kellie Law .
Calton Hill .
Durham
Burleigh Moor
Clifton Beacon
60 49-6 4-0
60 45-0 6-1
58 33-1 +o-3
57 4i-i +7-3
57 27-8 -2-3
56 14-9 -3-7
55 57-4 +3-5
54 46-1 -0-9
54 34-3 +2-1
53 27-5 +1-3
1 Ibanez and Perrier, Jonction geod. et astr. de I'Algerie avec
I'Espagne (Paris, 1886); Memorial du depot general de la guerre,
t. xii.: Nouvelle meridienne de France (Paris, 1885, 1902, 1904);
Camples rendus des seances de la i2'-iy conference generate de I'Assoc.
Geod. Internal., 1898 at Stuttgart, 1900 at Paris, 1903 at Copenhagen,
1906 at Budapest (Berlin, 1899, 1901, 1904, 1908); A. Ferrero,
Rapport sur les Iriangulations, pres. d. la 12' conf. gen. 1898.
1 R. Schumann, C. r. de Budapest, p. 244.
West Europe-Africa Meridian-arc (contd.).
Name.
Arbury Hill .
Greenwich
Nieuport
Rosendael .
Lihons .
Pantheon
Chevry
Saligny le Vif
Arpheuille
Puy de D6me
Rodez .
Carcassonne .
Rivesaltes
Montolar
Ldrida .
Javalon .
Desierto
Chinchilla .
Mola de Formentera
Tetfca .
Roldan .
Conjuros
Mt. Sabiha .
Nemours
Bouzareah
Algiers (Voirol)
Guelt esStel.
El Aghuat
Latitude,
i '
52 13-4
51 28-6
51 7'8
5i 2-7
49 49-9
48 50-8
48 0-5
47 2-7
46 13-7
46-5
21-4
13-3
45-2
45
44
43
42
41
41
40
40
38
38
37
38-5
37-o
13-8
55-2
39-9
, 15-2
36 56-6
36 44-4
39-6
5-8
48-0
45-1
7-8
48-0
35
35
33
A.-G.
g
-3-o
-2-5
-0-4
-0-9
+0-5
0-0
+2-2
+3-o
+6-3
+7-0
+ 1-7
+0-7
-0-7
+3-6
0-2
O-2
-4-5
+2-2
1-2
+3-5
-6-0
-12-6
+6-5
+7-4
+2-9
-9-1
i-o
-2-8
SalignyleVlf
.ArphralU*
Puy de DOOM
812
EARTH, FIGURE OF THE
While the radius of curvature of this arc is obviously not uni-
form (being, in the mean, about 600 metres greater in the northern
than in the southern part), the Russo-Scandinavian meridian arc
(from 45 to 70), on the other hand, is very uniformly curved,
and gives, with an ellipticity of 1/299-15, a = 6378455 metres;
this arc gives the plausible value 1/298-6 for the ellipticity. But
in the case of this arc the orographical circumstances are more
favourable.
The west-European and the Russo-Scandinavian meridians
indicate another anomaly of the geoid. They were connected
at the Central Bureau by means of east-to-west triangle chains
(principally by the arc of parallel measurements in lat. 52);
it was shown that, if one proceeds from the west-European
meridian arcs, the differences between the astronomical and
geodetic latitudes of the Russo-Scandinavian arc become some
4* greater. 1
The central European meridian, which passes through Germany
and the countries adjacent on the north and south, is under
review at Potsdam (see the publications of the Kgl. Preuss. Geod.
Inst., Lolabweichungen, Nos. 1-3). Particular notice must be
made of the Vienna meridian, now carried southwards to Malta.
The Italian triangulation is now complete, and has been joined
with the neighbouring countries on the north, and with Tunis
on the south.
The United States Coast and Geodetic Survey has published
an account of the transcontinental triangulation and measure-
ment of an arc of the parallel of 39, which extends from Cape May
(New Jersey), on the Atlantic coast, to Point Arena (California),
on the Pacific coast, and embraces 48 46' of longitude, with
a linear development of about 4225 km. (2625 miles). The
triangulation depends upon ten base-lines, with an aggregate
length of 86 km. the longest exceeding 17 km. in length, which
have been measured with the utmost care. In crossing the
Rocky Mountains, many of its sides exceed 100 miles in length,
and there is one side reaching to a length of 294 km., or 183
miles; the altitude of many of the stations is also considerable,
reaching to 4300 metres, or 14,108 ft., in the case of Pike's Peak,
and to 14,421 ft. at Elbert Peak, Colo. All geometrical condi-
tions subsisting in the triangulation are satisfied by adjustment,
inclusive of the required accord of the base-lines, so that the
same length for any given line is found, no matter from what
line one may start. 2
Over or near the arc were distributed 109 latitude stations,
occupied with zenith telescopes; 73 azimuth stations; and
29 telegraphically determined longitudes. It has thus been
possible to study in a very complete manner the deviations
of the vertical, which in the mountainous regions sometimes
amount to 25 seconds, and even to 29 seconds.
With the ellipticity 1/299-15, a= 6377897 65 metres (prob.
error) ; in this calculation, however, some exceedingly perturbed
stations are excluded; for the employed stations the mean
perturbation in longitude is ="=4-9" (zenith-deflection east-to-
west 3-8*).
The computations relative to another arc, the " eastern
oblique arc of the United States," are also finished. 3 It extends
from Calais (Maine) in the north-east, to the Gulf of Mexico,
and terminates at New Orleans (Louisiana), in the south. Its
length is 2612 km. (1623 miles), the difference of latitude 15 i',
and of longitude 22 47'. In the main, the triangulation follows
the Appalachian chain of mountains, bifurcating once, so as
to leave an oval space between the two branches. It includes
among its stations Mount Washington (1920 metres) and Mount
Mitchell (2038 metres). It depends upon six base-lines, and the
adjustment is effected in the same manner as for the arc of the
1 0. and A. Borsch, " Verbindung d. russ.-skandinav. mit der
franz.-engl. Breitengradmessung " (Verhandlungen der 9. Allgem.
Conf. d. I. E. in Paris, 1889, Ann. xi.).
U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey; H. S. Pritchett, superin-
tendent. The Transcontinental Triangulation and the American Arc
of the Parallel, by C. A. Schott (Washington, 1900).
U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey; O. H. Tittmann, superin-
tendent. The Eastern Oblique Arc of the United States, by C. A.
Schctt (1902).
parallel. The astronomical data have been afforded by 71
latitude stations, 17 longitude stations, and 56 azimuth stations,
distributed over the whole extent of the arc. The resulting
dimensions of an osculating spheroid were found to be
= 6378157 metres 90 (prob. error),
e(ellipticity) = 1/304-5 1-9 (prob. error).
With the ellipticityi/399-is, a = 6378o4imetres8o (prob.er.).
During the years 1903-1906 the United States Coast and
Geodetic Survey, under the direction of O. H. Tittmann and the
special management of John F. Hayford, executed a calculation
of the best ellipsoid of rotation for the United States. There were
507 astronomical determinations employed, all the stations being
connected through the net-work of triangles. The observed
latitudes, longitude and azimuths were improved by the attrac-
tions of the earth's crust on the hypothesis of isostasis for three
depths of the surface of 114, 121 and 162 km., where the isostasis
is complete. The land-masses, within the distance of 4126 km.,
were taken into consideration. In the derivation of an ellipsoid
of rotation, the first case proved itself the most favourable,
and there resulted:
a =6378283tnetres74(prob.er.),ellipticity = 1/297-8 0-9 (prob.er.).
The most favourable value for the depth of the isostatic surface
is approximately 1 14 km.
The measurement of a great meridian arc, in long. 98 W.,
has been commenced; it has a range of latitude of 23, and will
extend over 50 when produced southwards and northwards by
Mexico and Canada. It may afterwards be connected with the
arc of Quito. A new measurement of the meridian arc of Quito
was executed in the years 1901-1906 bythe Service geographique
of France under the direction of the Academie des Sciences,
the ground having been previously reconnoitred in 1899. The
new arc has an amplitude in latitude of 5 53' 33", and stretches
from Tulcan (lat. o 48' 25") on the borders of Columbia and
Ecuador, through Columbia to Payta (lat. - 5 5' 8") in Peru.
The end-points, at which the chain of triangles has a slight
north-easterly trend, show a longitude difference of 3. Of the
74 triangle points, 64 were latitude stations; 6 azimuths and
8 longitude-differences were measured, three base-lines were
laid down, and gravity was determined from six points, in order
to maintain indications over the general deformation of the
geoid in that region. Computations of the attraction of the
mountains on the plumb-line are also being considered. The
work has been much delayed by the hardships and difficulties
encountered. It was conducted by Lieut. - Colonel Robert
Bourgeois, assisted by eleven officers and twenty-four soldiers
of the geodetic branch of the Service geographique. Of these
officers mention may be made of Commandant E. Maurain,
who retired in 1904 after suffering great hardships; Commandant
L. Massenet, who died in 1905; and Captains I. Lacombe,
A. Lallemand, and Lieut. Georges Perrier (son of General
Perrier) . It is conceivable that the chain of triangles in longitude
98 in North America may be united with that of Ecuador and
Peru: a continuous chain over the whole of America is certainly
but a question of time. During the years 1899-1902 the
measurement of an arc of meridian was made in the extreme
north, in Spitzbergen, between the latitudes 76 38' and 80 50',
according to the project of P. G. Rosen. The southern part
was determined by the Russians O. Backlund, Captain D. D.
Sergieffsky, F. N. Tschernychev, A. Hansky and others during
1890-1901, with the aid of i base-line, 15 trigonometrical, n
latitude and 5 gravity stations. The northern part, which
has one side in common with the southern part, has been
determined by Swedes (Professors Rosen, father and son, E.
Jaderin, T. Rubin and others), who utilized i base-line, 9 azimuth
measurements, 18 trigonometrical, 17 latitude and 5 gravity
stations. The party worked under excessive difficulties, which
were accentuated by the arctic climate. Consequently, in the
first year, little headway was made. 4
4 Missions scientifiques pour la mesure d'un arc de meridien an
Spitzberg entreprises en 1899-1902 sous les auspices des gouvernements
russe et suedois. Mission russe (St Petersbourg, 1904) ; Mission
suedoise (Stockholm, 1904).
EARTH CURRENTS
813
Sir David Gill, when director of the Royal Observatory, Cape
Town, instituted the magnificent project of working a latitude-
degree measurement along the meridian of 30 long. This
meridian passes through Natal, the Transvaal, by Lake Tangan-
yika, and from thence to Cairo; connexion with the Russo-
Scandinavian meridian arc of the same longitude should be
made through Asia Minor, Turkey, Bulgaria and Rumania.
With the completion of this project a continuous arc of 105
in latitude will have been measured. 1
Extensive triangle chains, suitable for latitude-degree measure-
ments, have also been effected in Japan and Australia.
Besides, the systematization of gravity measurements is of
importance, and for this purpose the association has instituted
many reforms. It has ensured that the relative measurements
made at the stations in different countries should be reduced
conformably with the absolute determinations made at Potsdam;
the result was that, in 1906, the intensities of gravitation at
some 2000 stations had been co-ordinated. The intensity of
gravity on the sea has been determined by the comparison of
barometric and hypsometric observations (Mohn's method).
The association, at the proposal of Helmert, provided the
necessary funds for two expeditions: English Channel Rio
de Janeiro, and the Red Sea Australia San Francisco Japan.
Dr O. Hecker of the central bureau was in charge; he successfully
overcame the difficulties of the work, and established the ten-
ability of the isostatic hypothesis, which necessitates that the
intensity of gravity on the deep seas has, in general, the same
value as on the continents (without regard to the proximity of
coasts). 2
As the result of the more recent determinations, the ellipticity,
compression or flattening of the ellipsoid of the earth may
be assumed to be very nearly 1/298.3; a value determined in
1901 by Helmert from the measurements of gravity. The semi-
major axis, a, of the meridian ellipse may exceed 6,378,000 inter,
metres by about 200 metres. The central bureau have adopted,
for practical reasons, the value 1/299-15, after Bessel, for which
tables exist; and also the value 1=6377397.155(1 + o-oooi).
The methods of theoretical astronomy also permit the evalua-
tion of these constants. The semi-axis a is calculable from the
parallax of the moon and the acceleration of gravity on the
earth; but the results are somewhat uncertain: the ellipticity
deduced from lunar perturbations is i/297~82 (Helmert,
Geodasie, ii. pp. 460-473); William Harkness (The Solar
Parallax and its related Constants, 1891) from all possible data
derived the values: ellipticity = i/3OO-23, a = 6377972i25
metres. Harkness also considered in this investigation the rela-
tion of the ellipticity to precession and nutation; newer investi-
gations of the latter lead to the limiting values 1/296, 1/298
(Wiechert). It was clearly noticed in this method of determina-
tion that the influence of the assumption as to the density of the
strata in the interior of the earth was but very slight (Radau,
Bull. astr. ii. (1885) 157). The deviations of the geoid from the
flattened ellipsoid of rotation with regard to the heights (the
directions oi normals being nearly the same) will scarcely
exceed +ioo metres (Helmert). 8
The basis of the degree- and gravity-measurements is actually
formed by a stationary sea-surface, which is assumed to be level.
However, by the influence of winds and ocean currents the mean
surface of the sea near the coasts (which one assumes as the
fundamental sea-surface) can deviate somewhat from a level
surface. According to the more recent levelling it varies at the
most by only some decimeters. 4
1 Sir David Gill, Report on the Geodetic Survey of South Africa,
1833-1892 (Cape Town, 1896), vol. ii. 1901, vol. iii. 1905.
1 0. Hecker, Bestimmung der Schwerkraft a. d. Atlantischen
Ozean (Veroffentl. d. Kgl. Preuss. Geod. Inst. No. n), Berlin,
1903-
1 F. R. Helmert, " Neuere Fortschritte in der Erkenntnis der
math. Erdgestalt " (Verhandl. des VII. Internationalen Geographen-
Kongresses, Berlin, 1899), London, 1901.
4 C. Lallemand, " Rapport sur les travaux du service du nivelle-
ment general de la France, de 1900 a 1903 " (Comp. rend, de la 14'
conf. gen. de I'Assoc. Geod. Intern., 1903, p. 178).
It is well known that the masses of the earth are continually
undergoing small changes; the earth's crust and sea-surface
reciprocally oscillate, and the axis of rotation vibrates relatively
to the body of the earth. The investigation of these problems
falls in the programme of the Association.' By continued observa-
tions of the water-level on sea-coasts, results have already been
obtained as to the relative motions of the land and sea (cf.
GEOLOGY); more exact levelling will, in the course of time,
provide observations on countries remote from the sea-coast.
Since 1900 an international service has been organized between
some astronomical stations distributed over the north parallel
of 39 8', at which geographical latitudes are observed whenever
possible. The association contributes to all these stations,
supporting four entirely: two in America, one in Italy, and one
in Japan; the others partially (Tschardjui in Russia, and
Cincinnati observatory). Some observatories, especially Pulkowa,
Leiden and Tokyo, take part voluntarily. Since 1906 another
station for South America and one for Australia in latitude
-31 55' have been added. According to the existing data,
geographical latitudes exhibit variations amounting to o-25",
which, for the greater part, proceed from a twelve- and a fourteen-
month period. 6 (A. R. C.; F. R. H.)
EARTH CURRENTS. After the invention of telegraphy it
was soon found that telegraph lines in which the circuit is com-
pleted by the earth are traversed by natural electric currents
which occasionally interfere seriously with their use, and which
are known as " earth currents."
i. Amongst the pioneers in investigating the subject were
several English telegraphists, e.g. W. H. Barlow (1) and C. V.
Walker (2), who were in charge respectively of the Midland and
South-Eastern telegraph systems. Barlow noticed the existence
of a more or less regular diurnal variation, and the result
confirmed by all subsequent investigators that earth currents
proper occur in a line only when both ends are earthed. Walker,
as the result of general instructions issued to telegraph clerks,
collected numerous statistics as to the phenomena during times
of large earth currents. His results and those given by Barlow
both indicate that the lines to suffer most from earth currents
in England have the general direction N.E. to S.W. As Walker
points out, it is the direction of the terminal plates relative to
one another that is the essential thing. At the same time he
noticed that whilst at any given instant the currents in parallel
lines have with rare exceptions the same direction, some lines
show normally stronger currents than others, and he suggested
that differences in the geological structure of the intervening
ground might be of importance. This is a point which seems
still somewhat obscure.
Our present knowledge of the subject owes much to practical
men, but even in the early days of telegraphy the fact that
telegraph systems are commercial undertakings, and cannot allow
5 T. Albrecht, Resultate des internal. Breitendienstes, i. and ii.
(Berlin, 1903 and 1906) ; F. Klein and A. Sommerfeld, Uber die
Theorie des Kreisels, Iii. p. 672 ; R. Spitaler, " Die periodischen Luft-
massenverschiebungen und ihr Einfluss auf die Lagenanderung der
Erdaxe " (Petermanns Mitleilungen, Ergdnzungsheft, 137) ; S. New-
comb, " Statement of the Theoretical Laws of the Polar Motion "
(Astronomical Journal, 1898, xix. 158) ; F. R. Helmert, " Zur
Erklarung der beobachteten Breitenanderungen " (Astr. Nachr. No.
3014); J. Weeder, " The M-monthly period of the motion of the
Pole from determinations of the azimuth of the meridian marks of
the Leiden observatory " (Kon. Ak. van Wetenschappen to Amster-
dam, 1900) ; A. Sokolof, " Determination du mouvement du p61e terr.
au moyen des mires meridiennes de Poulkovo " (Mel. math, et astr.
vii., 1894) ; J. Bonsdorff, " Beobachtungen von d Cassiopejae mit
dem grossen Zenitteleskop " (Mitteilungen der Nikolai-Hauptstern-
warte zu Pulko-wo, 1907); J. Larmor and E. H. Hills, " The irregular
movement of the Earth's axis of rotation : a contribution towards
the analysis of its causes " (Monthly Notices R.A.S., 1906, Ixvii. 22) ;
A. S. Cristie, " The latitude variation Tide " (Phil. Soc. of Wash.,
1.895, Bull. xiii. 103) ; H. G. van de Sande Bakhuysen, " Uber die
Anderung der Polhohe " (Astr. Nachr. No. 3261); A. V. Backlund,
" Zur Frage nach der Bewegung des Erdpoles " (Astr. Nachr.
No. 3787); R. Schumann, " Uber die Polhohenschwankung "
(Astr. Nachr. No. 3873) ; " Numerische Untersuchung " (Ergan-
zungshefte zu den Astr. Nachr. No. n); Weitere Untersuchungen
(No. 4142); Bull, astr., 1900, June, report of different theoretical
EARTH CURRENTS
the public to wait the convenience of science, was a serious
obstacle to their employment for research. Thus Walker
feelingly says, when regretting his paucity of data during a
notable earth current disturbance : " Our clerks were at their
wits' end to dear off the telegrams. ... At a time when observa-
tions would have been very highly acceptable they were too much
occupied with their ordinary duties." Some valuable observa-
tions have, however, been made on long telegraph lines where
special facilities have been given.
Amongst these may be mentioned the observations on French
lines in 1883 described by E. E. Blavier (3), and those on two
German lines Berlin-Thorn and Berlin-Dresden during 1884 to
1888 discussed by B. Weinstein (4).
2. Of the experimental lines specially constructed perhaps
the best known are the Greenwich lines instituted by Sir G. B.
Airy (6), the lines at Pawlowsk due to H. Wild (6), and those at
Pare Saint Maur, near Paris (7).
Experimental Lines. At Greenwich observations were com-
menced in 1865, but there have been serious disturbances due
to artificial currents from electric railways for many years.
There are two lines, one to Dartford distant about 10 m., in a
direction somewhat south of east, the other to Croydon distant
about 8 m., in a direction west of south.
Information from a single line is incomplete, and unless this
is clearly understood erroneous ideas may be derived. The times
at which the current is largest and least, or when it vanishes, in
an east-west line, tell nothing directly as to the amplitude at the
time of the resultant current. The lines laid down at Pawlowsk
in 1883 lay nearly in and perpendicular to the geographical
meridian, a distinct desideratum, but were only about i km.
long. The installation at Pare Saint Maur, discussed by T.
Moureaux, calls for fuller description. There are three lines,
one having terminal earth plates 14-8 km. apart in the geo-
graphical meridian, a second having its earth plates due east and
west of one another, also 14-8 km. apart, and the third forming
a closed circuit wholly insulated from the ground. In each of
the three lines is a Deprez d'Arsonval galvanometer. Light
reflected from the galvanometer mirrors falls on photographic
paper wound round a drum turned by clockwork, and a con-
tinuous record is thus obtained.
3. Each galvanometer has a resistance of about 200 ohms,
but is shunted by a resistance of only 2 ohms. The total effective
resistances in the N.-S. and E.-W. lines are 225 and 348 ohms
respectively. If * is the current recorded, L, g and s the resist-
ances of the line, galvanometer and shunt respectively, then
E, the difference of potential between the two earth plates, is
given by
To calibrate the record, a Daniell cell is put in a circuit in-
cluding 1000 ohms and the three galvanometers as shunted.
If i' be the current recorded, e the E.M.F. of the cell, then
e =i'(i+g/s)\iooo+3gs/(g+s)}. Under the conditions at Pare
Saint Maur we may write 2 for gs/(g + s), and 1-072 for e, and
thence we have approximately E = o-24o(i/i') for the N.-S. line,
and E=o-37i(j/t') for the E.-W. line.
The method of standardization assumes a potential difference
between earth plates which varies slowly enough to produce a
practically steady current. There are several causes producing
currents in a telegraph wire which do not satisfy this limitation.
During thunderstorms surgings may arise, at least in overhead
wires, without these being actually struck. Again, if the circuit
includes a variable magnetic field, electric currents will be
produced independently of any direct source of potential differ-
ence. In the third circuit at Pare Saint Maur, where no earth
plates exist, the current must be mainly due to changes in the
earth's vertical magnetic field, with superposed disturbances
due to atmospheric electricity or aerial waves. Even in the
other circuits, magnetic and atmospheric influences play some
part, and when their contribution is important, the galvanometer
deflection has an uncertain value. What a galvanometer records
when traversed by a suddenly varying current depends on other
things than its mere resistance.
Even when the current is fairly steady, its exact significance
is not easily stated. In the first place there is usually an appreci-
able E.M.F. between a plate and the earth in contact with it,
and this E.M.F. may vary with the temperature and the dryness
of the soil. Naturally one employs similar plates buried to the
same depth at the two ends, but absolute identity and invaria-
bility of conditions can hardly be secured. In some cases, in
short lines (8), there is reason to fear that plate E.M.F.'s have
been responsible for a good deal that has been ascribed to true
earth currents. With deep earth plates, in dry ground, this
source of uncertainty can, however, enter but little into the
diurnal inequality.
4. Another difficulty is the question of the resistance in the
earth itself. A given E.M.F. between plates 10 m. apart may
mean very different currents travelling through the earth,
according to the chemical constitution and condition of the
surface strata.
According to Professor A. Schuster (9), if p and p' be the
specific resistances of the material of the wire and of the soil,
the current i which would pass along an underground cable
formed of actual soil, equal in diameter to the wire connecting
the plates, is given by I i'p/p' where i' is the observed current
in the wire. As p' will vary with the depth, and be different at
different places along the route, while discontinuities may arise
from geological faults, water channels and so on, it is clear that
even the most careful observations convey but a general idea
as to the absolute intensity of the currents in the earth itself.
In Schuster's formula, as in the formulae deduced for Pare Saint
Maur, it is regarded as immaterial whether the wire connecting
the plates is above or below ground. This view is in accordance
with records obtained by Blavier (3) from two lines between
Paris and Nancy, the one an air line, the other underground.
5. The earliest quantitative results for the regular diurnal
changes in earth currents are probably those deduced by Airy
(6) from the records at Greenwich between 1865 and 1867.
Airy resolved the observed currents from the two Greenwich
lines in and perpendicular to the magnetic meridian (then about
21 to the west of astronomical north). The information given
by Airy as to the precise meaning of the quantities he terms
" magnetic tendency " to north and to west is somewhat
scanty, but we are unlikely to be much wrong in accepting his
figures as proportional to the earth currents from magnetic
east to west and from magnetic north to south respectively.
Airy gives mean hourly values for each month of the year.
The corresponding mean diurnal inequality for the whole
year appears in Table I., the unit being arbitrary. In
every month the algebraic mean of the 24 hourly values
represented a current from north to south in the magnetic
meridian, and from east to west in the perpendicular direc-
tion; in the same arbitrary units used in Table I. the mean
values of these two " constant " currents were respectively
777 and 559.
6. Diurnal Variation. Probably the most complete records
of diurnal variation are those discussed by Weinstein (4), which
depend on several years' records on lines from Berlin to Dresden
and to Thorn. Relative to Berlin the geographical co-ordinates
of the other two places are:
Thorn o 29' N. lat. 5 12' E. long.
Dresden. . l28' S. lat. o 2i'E. long.
Thus the Berlin-Dresden line was directed about 85 east of south,
and the Berlin-Thorn line somewhat more to the north of east.
The latter line had a length about 2.18 times that of the former.
The resistances in the two lines were made the same, so if we
suppose the difference of potential between earth plates along
a given direction to vary as their distance apart, the current
observed in the Thorn-Berlin line has to be divided by 2-18 to be
comparable with the other. In this way, resolving along and
perpendicular to the geographical meridian, Weinstein gives
as proportional to the earth currents from east to west and
from south to north respectively
J= 0-147*' +0-4351, and J'=o-989i'-o-ioot,
EARTH CURRENTS
815
where t and ' are the observed currents in the Thorn-Berlin and
Dresden-Berlin lines respectively, both being counted positive
when flowing towards Berlin.
It is tacitly assumed that the average earth conductivity
is the same between Berlin and Thorn as between Berlin and
Dresden. It should also be noticed that local
time at Berlin and Thorn differs by fully 20
minutes, while thecrests of the diurnal variations
in short lines at the two places would probably
occur about the same local time. The result
is probably a less sharp occurrence of maxima
and minima, and a relatively smaller range, than in a short
line having the same orientation.
It was found that the average current derived from a number
of undisturbed days on either line might be regarded as made up
of a " constant part " plus a regular diurnal inequality, the con-
stant part representing the algebraic mean value of the 24 hourly
readings. In both lines the constant part showed a decided
alteration during the third year changing sign in one line
in consequence, it is believed, of alterations made in the earth
plates. The constant part was regarded as a plate effect, and was
omitted from further consideration. Table I. shows in terms
of an arbitrary unit whose relation to that employed for
Greenwich data is unknown the diurnal inequality in the
currents along the two lines, and the inequalities thence cal-
culated for ideal lines in and perpendicular to the geographical
meridian. Currents are regarded as positive when directed from
Berlin to Dresden and from north to south, the opposite point
of view to that adopted by Weinstein. The table also shows
the mean numerical value of the resultant current (the " con-
stant " part being omitted) for each hour of the day, for the year
as a whole, and for winter (November to February), equinox
(March, April, September, October) and summer (May to
TABLE I.
arithmetic means from the several months composing the
season in question.
7. The mean of the 24 hourly numerical values of the resultant
current for each month of the year a deducible from Weinstein's
data the unit being the same as before are given in Table II.
TABLE II. Mean Numerical Value of Resultant Current.
Jan.
Feb.
March
April
May
June
July
Aug.
Sep.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
152
211
293
328
313
314
337
300
258
235
165
132
Mean Diurnal Inequalities for the year.
Numerical Values of resultant
current.
Greenwich.
Thorn- Berlin-Dresden.
Thorn-Berlin-Dresden.
North
East
Roi-lirt
XK^t-n
North
East
Mean hourly values from
Hour.
to
South
(Mag.)
to
West
(Mag.)
D6rlin
to
Dresden.
i norn
to
Berlin.
to
South
(Ast.)
to
West
(Ast.)
Year.
Winter.
Equinox.
Summer.
i
-94
-41
-17
-13
20
10
81
94
51
98
2
-68
-24
-6
-13
-9
ii
84
US
39
97
3
-44
-8
I
i
i
i
84
"3
31
1 08
4
-18
+9
20
+ 15
-17
+ 17
1OI
9 4
58
127
5
-30
i
-79
+21
-74
+32
122
58
78
230
6
7
-63
121
-11
-139
-138
+5
-36
-136
-144
+26
-14
148
1 66
80
155
139
206
225
136
8
-175
-123
-7
-98
-28
203
152
185
271
9
-156
-'37
+249
-156
+212
-184
305
67
272
575
10
-43
-77
+54<>
-184
+494
-254
557
232
628
811
ii
+82
+ i
+722
-165
+678
-263
728
411
885
887
Noon
+207
+66
+673
-107
+642
2OO
675
441
848
735
i
+245
+94
+404
20
+395
-79
400
284
5io
406
2
+205
+ 113
+35
+55
+46
+47
98
68
103
'25
3
+ 153
+97
-261
+99
-237
+ 132
272
136
355
324
4
+ 159
+ 108
-397
+ 114
-368
+ 167
404
218
503
492
5
+ 167
+ 118
-391
+ 108
-363
+ 160
397
206
453
532
6
+ 125
+95
-3ii
+96
-287
+ 137
319
176
333
446
7
+43
+55
-237
+85
-216
+ "5
247
1 80
250
312
8
22
+4
-191
+74
-173
+98
201
207
217
181
9
-"5
-49
-168
+59
-153
+81
174
208
194
1 20
10
-138
-74
-135
+40
-125
+58
138
155
149
ill
II
-136
-70
-84
+ 18
-79
+29
89
64
95
107
Midnight
-147
-80
-43
2
-43
+4
91
42
119
in
August). There is a marked double period in both the
N.-S. and E.-W. currents. In both cases the numerically
largest currents occur from 10 A.M. to noon, the directions
then being from north to south and from west to east.
The currents tend to die out and change sign about 2 P.M.,
the numerical magnitude then rising again rapidly to 4 or
5 P.M. The current in -the meridian is notably the larger.
The numerical values assigned to the resultant current are
There is thus a conspicuous minimum at mid-winter, and but
little difference between the monthly means from April to August.
This is closely analogous to what is seen in the daily range of
the magnetic elements in similar latitudes (see MAGNETISM,
TERRESTRIAL). There is also considerable resemblance between
the curve whose ordinates represent the diurnal inequality in
the current passing from north to south, and the curve showing
the hourly change in the westerly component of the horizontal
magnetic force in similar European latitudes.
8. Relations -with Sun-spots, Auroras and Magnetic Storms.
Weinstein gives curves representing the mean diurnal inequality
for separate years. In both lines the diurnal amplitudes were
notably smaller in the later years which were near sun-spot
minimum. This raises a presumption that the regular diurnal
earth currents, like the ranges of the magnetic elements, follow
the n-year sun-spot period. When we pass to the large and
irregular earth currents, which are of practical interest in
telegraphy, there is every reason to suppose that the sun-spot
period applies. These currents are always accompanied by
magnetic disturbances, and when specially striking by brilliant
aurora. One most conspicuous example of this occurred in the
end of August and beginning of September 1859. The magnetic
disturbances recorded were
of almost unexampled size
and rapidity, the accom-
panying aurora was extra-
ordinarily brilliant, and
E.M.F.'s of 700 and 800
volts are said to have been
reached on telegraph lines
500 to 600 km. long. It is
doubtful whether the dis-
turbances of 1859 have been
equalled since, but earth
current voltages of the order
of 0-5 volts per mile have
been recorded by various
authorities, e.g. Sir W. H.
Preece (10).
It was the practice for
several years to publish in
the Ann. du bureau central
meteor ologique synchronous
magnetic and earth current
curves from Pare Saint Maur
corresponding to the chief
disturbances of the year. In
most cases there is a marked
similarity between the curve
of magnetic declination and
that of the north-south earth
current. At times there is
also a distinct resemblance
between the horizontal force magnetic curve and that of
the east-west earth current, but exceptions to this are not
infrequent. Similar phenomena appear in synchronous
Greenwich records published by Airy in 1868; these show
a close accordance between the horizontal force curves and
those of the currents from magnetic east to west. Originally
it was supposed by Airy that whilst rapid movements in
the declination and north-south current curves sometimes
8i6
EARTH-NUT
occurred simultaneously, there was a distinct tendency for the
latter to precede the former. More recent examinations of the
Greenwich records by W. Ellis (11), and of the Pare St Maur
curves by Moureaux, have not confirmed this result, and it is now
believed that the two phenomena are practically simultaneous.
There has also been a conflict of views as to the connexion
between magnetic and earth current disturbances. Airy's
observations tended to suggest that the earth current was the
primary cause, and the magnetic disturbance in considerable
part at least its effect. Others, on the contrary, have supposed
earth currents to be a direct effect of changes in the earth's
magnetic field. The prevailing view now is that both the
magnetic and the earth current disturbances are due to electric
currents in the upper atmosphere, these upper currents becoming
visible at times as aurora.
9. There seems some evidence that earth currents can be
called into existence by purely local causes, notably difference
of level. Thus K. A. Brander (12) has observed a current
flowing constantly for a good many days from Airolo (height
1 1 60 metres) to the Hospice St Gotthard (height 2094 metres).
In an 8-km. line from Resina to the top of Vesuvius L. Palmieri
(13) observing in 1889 at three-hour intervals from 9 A.M. to
9 P.M. always found a current running uphill so long as the
mountain was quiet. On a long line from Vienna to Graz A.
Baumgartner (14) found that the current generally flowed from
both ends towards intervening higher ground during the day,
but in the opposite directions at night. During a fortnight in
September and October 1885 hourly readings were taken of the
current in the telegraph cable from Fort-William to Ben Nevis
Observatory, and the results were discussed by H. N. Dickson
(15), who found a marked preponderance of currents up the line
to the summit. The recorded mean data, otherwise regarded,
represent a " constant " current, equal to 29 in the arbitrary
units employed by Dickson, flowing up the line, together with
the following diurnal inequality, + denoting current towards
Fort- William (i.e. down the hill, and nearly east to west).
Hour
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
A.M.
P.M.
21
+24
-41
+ 18
+ 13
+ H5
+23
+ 18
+55
+75
-3
~5
+25
+50
-32
-9
There is thus a diurnal inequality, which is by no means very
irregular considering the limited number of days, and it bears
at least a general resemblance to that shown by Weinstein's
figures for an east-west line in Germany. This will serve to
illustrate the uncertainties affecting these and analogous observa-
tions. A constant current in one direction may arise in whole or
part from plate E.M.F.'s; a current showing a diurnal inequality
will naturally arise between any two places some distance apart
whether they be at different levels or not. Finally, when
records are taken only for a short time, doubts must arise as
to the generality of the results. During the Ben Nevis observa-
tions, for instance, we are told that the summit was almost
constantly enveloped in fog or mist. By having three earth
plates in the same vertical plane, one at the top of a mountain,
the others at opposite sides of it, and then observing the currents
between the summit and each of the base stations, as well as
directly between the base stations during an adequate number
of days representative of different seasons of the year and
different climatic conditions many uncertainties would soon
be removed.
10. Artificial Currents. The great extension in the applica-
tions of electricity to lighting, traction and power transmission,
characteristic of the end of the igth century, has led to the
existence of large artificial earth currents, which exert a disturb-
ing influence on galvanometers and magnetic instruments, and
also tend to destroy metal pipes. In the former case, whilst
the disturbance is generally loosely assigned to stray or " vaga-
bond " earth currents, this is only partly correct. The currents
used for traction are large, and even if there were a perfectly
insulated return there would be a considerable resultant magnetic
field at distances from the track which were not largely in
excess of the distance apart of the direct and return currents
(16). At a distance of half a mile or more from an electric tram
line the disturbance is usually largest in magnetographs recording
the vertical component of the earth's field. The magnets are
slightly displaced from the position they would occupy if un-
disturbed, and are kept in continuous oscillation whilst the
trams are running (17). The extent of the oscillation depends
on the damping of the magnets.
The distance from an electric tram line where the disturbance
ceases to be felt varies with the system adopted. It also depends
on the length of the line and its subdivision into sections, on
the strength of the currents supplied, the amount of leakage, the
absence or presence of " boosters," and finally on the sensitive-
ness of the magnetic instruments. At the U.S. Coast and
Geodetic Survey's observatory at Cheltenham the effect of the
Washington electric trams has been detected by highly sensitive
magnetographs, though the nearest point of the line is 12 m.
away (18). Amongst the magnetic observatories which have
suffered severely from this cause are those at Toronto, Washing-
ton (Naval Observatory), Kew, Paris (Pare St Maur), Perpignan,
Nice, Lisbon, Vienna, Rome, Bombay (Colaba) and Batavia.
In some cases magnetic observations have been wholly suspended,
in others new observatories have been built on more remote sites.
As regards damage to underground pipes, mainly gas and
water pipes, numerous observations have been made, especially
in Germany and the United States. When electric tramways
have uninsulated returns, and the potential of the rails is allowed
to differ considerably from that of the earth, very considerable
currents are found in neighbouring pipes. Under these condi-
tions, if the joints between contiguous pipes forming a main
present appreciable resistance, whilst the surrounding earth
through moisture or any other cause is a fair conductor, current
passes locally from the pipes to the earth causing electrolytic
corrosion of the pipes. Owing to the diversity of interests
concerned, the extent of the damage thus caused has been very
variously estimated. In some instances it has been so consider-
able as to be the alleged cause of the ultimate failure of water
pipes to stand the pressure they are
exposed to.
+6
3 4 BIBLIOGRAPHY. See Svante August
Arrhenius, Lehrbuch der kosmischen Physik
(Leipzig, 1903), pp. 984-990. For lists of references see J. E.
Burbank, Terrestrial Magnetism, vol. 10 (1905), p. 23, and
P. Bachmetjew (8). For papers descriptive of corrosion of pipes,
&c., by artificial currents see Science Abstracts (in recent years
in the volumes devoted to engineering) under the heading " Trac-
tion, Electric; Electrolysis." The following are the references
in the text: (l) Phil. Trans. R.S. for 1849, pt. i. p. 61 ; (2) Phil.
Trans. R.S. vol. 151 (1861), p. 89, and vol. 152 (1862), p. 203; (3)
Etude des courants telluriques (Paris, 1884) ; (4) Die Erdstrome im
deutschen Reichstelegraphengebiet (Braunschweig, 1900) ; (5) Phil.
Trans. R.S. vol. 158 (1868), p. 465, and vol. 160 (1870), p. 215; (6)
Mem. de I'Academie St-Petersbourg, t. 31, No. 12 (1883); (7) T.
Moureaux, Ann. du Bureau Central Met. (Annee 1893), I Mem. p.
B 23 ; (8) P. Bachmetjew, Mem. de I'Academie St-Petersbourg, vol. 12,
No. 3 (1901); (9) Terrestrial Magnetism, vol. 3 (1898), p. 130; (10)
Journal Tel. Engineers (1881) ; (11) Proc. R.S. vol. 52 (1892), p. 191 ;
(12) Akad. Abhandlung (Helsingfors, 1888); (13) Acad. Napoli Rend.
(1890), and Atti (1894, 1895); (14) Pogg. Ann. vol. 76, p. 135; (15)
Proc. R.S.E. vol. 13, p. 530; (16) A. Riicker, Phil. Mag. I (1901), p.
423, and R. T. Glazebrook, ibid. p. 432; (17) J. Edler, Elektrnlech.
Zeit. vol. 20 (1899); (IS) L. A. Bauer, Terrestrial Magnetism, vol. II
(1906), p. 53. (C. CH.)
EARTH-NUT, the English name for a plant known botanically
as Conopodium denudatum (or Bunium flexuosum) , a member of
the natural order Umbelliferae, which has a brown tuber-like
root-stock the size of a chestnut. It grows in woods and fields,
has a slender flexuous smooth stem 2 to 3 ft. high, much-divided
leaves, and small white flowers in many-rayed terminal compound
umbels. Boswell Syme, in English Botany, iv. 114, says: " The
common names of this plant in England are various. It is
known as earth-nut, pig-nut, ar-nut, kipper-nut, hawk-nut,
jar-nut, earth-chestnut and ground-nut. Though really ex-
cellent in taste and unobjectionable as food, it is disregarded
in England by all but pigs and children, both of whom
appreciate it and seek eagerly for it." Dr Withering de-
scribes the roots as little inferior to chestnuts. In Holland
9
10
ii
-59
-56
-62
-37
-46
-28
EARTH PILLAR EARTHQUAKE
817
and elsewhere on the continent of Europe they are more
generally eaten.
EARTH PILLAR, a pillar of soft rock, or earth, capped by
some harder material that has protected it from denudation.
The "bad lands" of western North America furnish numerous
examples. Here "the formations are often beds of sandstone
or shale alternating with unindurated beds of clay. A semi-
arid climate where the precipitation is much . concentrated
seems to be most favourable to the development of this type
of formation." The country round the Dead Sea, where loose
friable sandy clay is capped by harder rock, produces " bad-land "
topography. The cap of hard rock gives way at the joints, and
the water making its way downwards washes away the softer
material directly under the cracks, which become wider, leaving
isolated columns of clay capped with hard sandstone or limestone.
These become smaller and fewer as denudation proceeds, the
pillars standing a great height at times, until finally they all
disappear.
EARTHQUAKE. Although the terrible effects which often
accompany earthquakes have in all ages forced themselves upon
the attention of man, the exact investigation of seismic phenomena
dates only from the middle of the igth century. A new science
has been thus established under the name of seismology (Gr.
tmajuos, an earthquake).
History. Accounts of earthquakes are to be found scattered
through the writings of many ancient authors, but they are, for
the most part, of little value to the seismologist. There is a
natural tendency to exaggeration in describing such phenomena,
sometimes indeed to the extent of importing a supernatural
element into the description. It is true that attempts were made
by some ancient writers on natural philosophy to offer a rational
explanation of earthquake phenomena, but the hypotheses
which their explanations involved are, as a rule, too fanciful to
be worth reproducing at the present day. It is therefore un-
necessary to dwell upon the references to seismic phenomena
which have come down to us in the writings of such historians
and philosophers as Thucydides, Aristotle and Strabo, Seneca,
Livy and Pliny. Nor is much to be gleaned from the pages of
medieval and later writers on earthquakes, of whom the most
notable are Fromondi (1527), Maggio (1571) and Travagini
(1679). In England, the earliest work worthy of mention is
Robert Hooke's Discourse on Earthquakes, written in 1668, and
read at a later date before the Royal Society. This discourse,
though containing many passages of considerable merit, tended
but little to a correct interpretation of the phenomena in question.
Equally unsatisfactory were the attempts of Joseph Priestley
and some other scientific writers of the i8th century to connect
the cause of earthquakes with electrical phenomena. The great
earthquake of Lisbon in 1755 led the Rev. John Michell, professor
of mineralogy at Cambridge, to turn his attention to the subject;
and in 1760 he published in the Philosophical Transactions a
remarkable essay on the Cause and Phenomena of Earthquakes.
A suggestion of much scientific interest was made by Thomas
Young, when in his Lectures on Natural Philosophy, published
in 1807, he remarked that an earthquake "is probably pro-
pagated through the earth nearly in the same manner as a noise
is conveyed through the air." The recognition of the fact that
the seismologist has to deal with the investigation of wave-
motion in solids lies at the very base of his science. In 1846
Robert Mallet communicated to the Royal Irish Academy his
first paper "On the Dynamics of Earthquakes"; and in the
following year W. Hopkins, of Cambridge, presented to the
British Association a valuable report in which earthquake
phenomena were discussed in some detail. Mallet's labours
were continued for many years chiefly in the form of Reports to
the British Association, and culminated in his great work on
the Neapolitan earthquake of 1857. An entirely new impetus,,
however, was given to the study of earthquakes by an energetic
body of observers in Japan, who commenced their investigations
about the year 1880, mainly through the influence of Prof.
John Milne, then of Tokyo. Their work, carried on by means of
new instruments of precision, and since taken up by observers
in many parts of the world, has so extended our knowledge of
earthquake-motion that seismology has now become practically
a new department of physical science.
It is hardly too much to say, however, that the earliest
systematic application of scientific principles to the study of the
effects of an earthquake was made by Mallet in his investigation
of the Neapolitan earthquake mentioned above. It is true, the
great Calabrian earthquake of 1783 had been the subject of
careful inquiry by the Royal Academy of Naples, as also by
Deodat Dolomieu and some other scientific authorities; but in
consequence of the misconception which at that time prevailed
with regard to the nature of seismic activity, the results of the
inquiry, though in many ways interesting, were of very limited
scientific value. It was reserved for Mallet to undertake for
the first time an extensive series of systematic observations in
an area of great seismic disturbance, with the view of explaining
the phenomena by the application of the laws of wave-motion.
The " Great Neapolitan Earthquake," by which more than
12,300 lives were lost, was felt in greater or less degree over
all Italy south of the parallel of 42. and has been jveapo/l-
regarded as ranking third in order of severity among the tan earth-
recorded earthquakes of Europe. The principal shock "**,
occurred at about 10 P.M. on the i6th of December
1857; but, as is usually the case, it had been preceded by minor
disturbances and was followed by numerous after-shocks which
continued for many months. Early in 1858, aided by a grant
from the Royal Society, Mallet visited the devastated districts,
and spent more than two months in studying the effects of the
catastrophe, especially examining, with the eye of an engineer,
the cracks and ruins of the buildings. His voluminous report
was published in 1862, and though his methods of research and
his deductions have in many cases been superseded by the
advance of knowledge, the report still remains a memorable
work in the history of seismology.
Much of Mallet's labour was directed to the determination of
the position and magnitude of the subterranean source from
which the vibratory impulses originated. This is known variously
as the seismic centre, centrum, hypocentre, origin or focus. It
is often convenient to regard this centre theoretically as a point,
but practically it must be a locus or space of three dimensions,
which in different cases varies much in size and shape, and may
be of great magnitude. That part of the surface of the earth
which is vertically above the centre is called the epicentre; or,
if of considerable area, the epicentral or epifocal tract. A
vertical line joining the epicentre and the focus was termed by
Mallet the seismic vertical. He calculated that in the case of the
Neapolitan earthquake the focal cavity was a curved lamelliform
fissure, having a length of about 10 m. and a height of about
32 m., whilst its width was inconsiderable. The central point
of this fissure, the theoretical seismic centre, he estimated to
have been at a depth of about 6| m. from the surface. Dr C.
Davison, in discussing Mallet's data, was led to the conclusion
that there were two distinct foci, possibly situated on a fault,
or plane of dislocation, running hi a north-west and south-east
direction. Mallet located his epicentre near the village of
Caggiano, not far from Polla, while the other seems to have been
in the neighbourhood of Montemurro, about 25 m. to the south-
east.
The intensity, or violence, of an earthquake is greatest in or
near the epicentre, whence it decreases in all directions. A line
drawn through points of equal intensity forms a curve round the
epicentre known as an isoseist, an isoseismal or an isoseismic
line. If the intensity declined equally hi all directions the
isoseismals would be circles, but as this is rarely if ever the case
in nature they usually become ellipses and other closed curves.
The tract which is most violently shaken was termed by Mallet
the meizoseismic area, whilst the line of maximum destruction
is known as the meizoseismic line. That isoseismal along which
the decline of energy is most rapid was called by K. von Seebach
a pleistoseist.
In order to determine the position of the seismic centre, Mallet
made much use of the cracks in damaged buildings, especially
8i8
EARTHQUAKE
in walls of masonry, holding that the direction of such fractures
must generally be at right angles to that in which the normal
earthquake-wave reached them. In this way he obtained the
" angle of emergence " of the wave. He also assumed that
free-falling bodies would be overthrown and projected in the
direction of propagation of the wave, so that the epicentre might
immediately be found from the intersection of such directions.
These data are, however, subject to much error, especially
through want of homogeneity in the rocks, but Mallet's work
was still of great value.
A different method of ascertaining the depth of the focus
was adopted by Major C. E. Button in his investigation of the
Charleston Charleston earthquake of the 3ist of August 1886
eanh- for the U.S. Geological Survey. This catastrophe
quake, was nera id e( j by shocks of greater or less severity a
few days previously at Summerville, a village 22 m.
north-west of Charleston. The great earthquake occurred at
9.51 P.M., standard time of the 75th meridian, and in about
70 seconds almost every building in Charleston was more or
less seriously damaged, while many lives were lost. The
epicentral tract was mainly a forest region with but few
buildings, and the principal records of seismological value were
afforded by the lines of railway which traversed the disturbed
area. In many places these rails were flexured and dislocated.
Numerous fissures opened in the ground, and many of these
discharged water, mixed sometimes with sand and silt, which
was thrown up in jets rising in some cases to a height of 20 ft.
Two epicentres were recognized one near Woodstock station
on the South Carolina railway, and the other, being the centre
of a much smaller tract, about 14 m. south-west of the first and
near the station of Rantowles on the Charleston and Savannah
line. Around these centres' and far away isoseismal lines were
drawn, the relative intensity at different places being roughly
estimated by the effects of the catastrophe on various structures
and natural objects, or, where visible records were wanting,
by personal evidence, which is often vague and variable. The
Rossi-Forel scale was adopted. This is an arbitrary scale
formulated by Professor M. S. de Rossi, of Rome, and Dr F. A.
Forel, of Geneva, based mostly on the ordinary phenomena
observed during an earthquake, and consisting of ten degrees,
of which the lowest is the feeblest, viz. I. Microseismic shock;
II. Extremely feeble shock; III. Very feeble shock; IV.
Feeble; V. Shock of moderate intensity; VI. Fairly strong
shock; VII. Strong shock; VIII. Very strong shock; IX.
Extremely strong shock; X. Shock of extreme in tensity.
Other conventional scales, some being less detailed, have been
drawn up by observers in such earthquake-shaken countries
as Italy and Japan. A curve, or theoretical isoseismal, drawn
through certain points where the decline of intensity on receding
from the epicentre seems to be greatest was called by Button
an " index-circle "; and it can be shown that the radius of such
a circle multiplied by the square root of 3 gives the focal depth
theoretically. In this way it was computed that in the Charleston
earthquake the origin under Woodstock must have had a depth
of about 1 2 m. and that near Rantowles a depth of nearly 8 m.
The determination of the index-circle presents much difficulty,
and the conclusions must be regarded as only approximate.
It is probable, according to R. B. Oldham, that local
earthquakes may originate in the " outer skin " of the earth,
whilst a large world-shaking earthquake takes its origin in the
deeper part of the " crust," whence such a disturbance is termed a
bathyseism. Large earthquakes may have very extended origins,
with no definite centre, or with several foci.
The gigantic disaster known as the "Great Indian Earthquake,"
which occurred on the I2th of June 1897, was the subject of
anat careful investigation by the Geological Survey of
Indian India and was described in detail by the super-
intendent, R. B. Oldham. It is sometimes termed
the Assam earthquake, since it was in that pro-
vince that the effects were most severe, but the shocks
were felt over a large part of India, and indeed far beyond its
boundaries. Much of the area which suffered most disturbance
earth-
quake,
1897.
was a wild country, sparsely populated, with but few buildings
of brick or stone from which the violence of the shocks could
be estimated. The epicentral tract was of great size, having
an estimated area of about 6000 sq. m., but the mischief was
most severe in the neighbourhood of Shillong, where the
stonework of bridges, churches and other buildings was abso-
lutely levelled to the ground. After the main disturbance,
shocks of greater or less severity continued at intervals for many
weeks. It is supposed that this earthquake was connected with
movement of subterranean rock-masses of enormous magnitude
along a great thrust-plane, or series of such planes, having a
length of about 200 m. and a maximum breadth of not less than
50 m. It is pointed out by Oldham that this may be compared
for size with the great Faille du Midi in Belgium, which is known
to extend for a distance of 120 m. The depth of the principal
focus, though not actually capable of determination, was prob-
ably less than 5 m. from the surface. From the focus many
secondary faults and fractures proceeded, some reaching the
surface of the ground. Enormous landslips accompanied the
earthquake, and as an indirect effect of these slides the form of
the water-courses became in certain cases modified. Permanent
changes of level were also observed.
Eight years after the great Assam earthquake India was
visited by another earthquake, which, though less intense,
resulted in the loss of about 20,000 lives. This cata- Kangra
strophe is known as the Kangra earthquake, since its etrth-
centre seems to have been located in the Kangra *,
valley, in the north-west Himalaya. It occurred on I90S '
the 4th of April 1005, and the first great shocks were felt in the
chief epifocal district at about 6.9 A.M., Madras time. Although
the tract chiefly affected was around Kangra and Bharmsala,
there was a subordinate epifocal tract in Behra Bun and the
neighbourhood of Mussoorie, whilst the effects of the earthquake
extended in slight measure to Lahore and other cities of the
plain. It is estimated that the earthquake was felt over an area of
about 1,625,000 m. Immediately after the calamity a scientific
examination of its effects was made by the Geological Survey
of India, and a report was drawn up by the superintendent,
C. S. Middlemiss.
The great earthquake, which, with the subsequent fire, wrought
such terrible destruction in and around San Francisco on the i8th
of April 1906, was the most disastrous ever recorded in California
California. It occurred between 10 and 15 minutes earth-
after 5 A.M., standard time of the I2oth meridian. *?*"'
The moment at which the disaster began and the
duration of the shock varied at different localities in the great
area over which the earthquake was felt. At San Francisco
the main shock lasted rather more than one minute.
According to the official Report, the earthquake was due
to rupture and movement along the plane of the San Andreas
fault, one of a series which runs for several hundred miles
approximately in a N.W. and S.E. direction near the coast
line. Evidence of fresh movement along this plane of dis-
location was traced for a distance of 190 m. from San Juan
on the south to Point Arena on the north. There the trace of
the fault is lost beneath the sea, but either the same fault or
another appears 75 m. to the north at Point Belgada. The belt
of disturbed country is notoriously unstable, and part of the
fault had been known as the " earthquake crack." The direction
is marked by lines of straight cliffs, long ponds and narrow
depressions, forming a Rift, or old line of seismic disturbance.
According to Br G. K. Gilbert the earthquake zone has a length
of 300 or 400 m. The principal displacement of rock, in 1906,
was horizontal, amounting generally to about 10 ft. (maximum
21 ft.), but there was also locally a slight vertical movement,
which towards the north end of the fault reached 3 ft. Move-
ment was traced for a distance of about 270 m., and it is estimated
that at least 175,000 sq. m. of country must have been disturbed.
In estimating the intensity of the earthquake in San Francisco
a new scale was introduced by H. O. Wood. The greatest
structural damage occurred on soft alluvial soil and "made
ground." Most of the loss of property in San Francisco was
EARTHQUAKE
819
due to the terrible fire which followed the earthquake and was
beyond control owing to the destruction of the system of water-
supply.
Immediately after the catastrophe a California Earthquake
Investigation Committee was appointed by the governor of
the state; and the American Association for the Advancement
of Science afterwards instituted a Seismological Committee.
The elaborate Report of the State Investigation Committee,
by the chairman, Professor A. C. Lawson, was published in 1908.
On the i?th of August 1006 a disastrous earthquake occurred
at Valparaiso, and the year 1906 was marked generally by
exceptional seismic activity.
The Jamaica earthquake of the I4th of January 1907 appears
to have accompanied movement of rock along an east and west
fracture or series of fractures under the sea a few miles from the
city of Kingston. The statue of Queen Victoria at Kingston
was turned upon its pedestal the eighth of a revolution.
A terrible earthquake occurred in Calabria and Sicily on
December 28, 1908, practically destroying Messina and Reggio.
Messina According to the official returns the total loss of life
earth- was 77,283. Whilst the principal centre seems to
quake, have been in the Strait of Messina, whence the dis-
1908. turbance is generally known as the Messina earthquake,
there were independent centres in the Calabrian peninsula,
a country which had been visited by severe earthquakes not
long previously, namely on September 8, 1905, and October
23, 1907. The principal shock of the great Messina earthquake
of 1908 occurred at 5.21 A.M. (4.21 Greenwich time), and had a
duration of from 30 to 40 seconds. Neither during nor immedi-
ately before the catastrophe was there any special volcanic
disturbance at Etna or at Stromboli, but it is believed that there
must have been movement along a great plane of weakness in
the neighbourhood of the Strait of Messina, which has been
studied by E. Cortese. The sea-floor in the strait probably
suffered great disturbance, resulting in the remarkable move-
ment of water observed on the coast. At first the sea retired,
and then a great wave rolled in, followed by others generally
of decreasing amplitude, though at Catania the second was said
to have been greater than the first. At Messina the height of
the great wave was 2.70 metres, whilst at Ah" and Giardini it
reached 8.40 metres and at San Alessio as much as 11.7 metres.
At Malta the tide-gauge recorded a wave of 0.91 metre. The
depth of the chief earthquake-centre was estimated by Dr E.
Oddone at about 9 kilometres. The earthquake and accompany-
ing phenomena were studied also by Professor A. Ricco, Dr M.
Baratta and Professor G. Platania and by Dr F. Omori of Tokyo.
After the great disturbance, shocks continued to affect the region
intermittently for several months. In certain respects the
earthquake of 1908 presented much resemblance to the great
Calabrian catastrophe of 1783.
It has been proposed by R. D. Oldham that the disturbance
which causes the fracture and permanent displacement of the
rocks during an earthquake should be called an " earthshake,"
leaving the term earthquake especially for the vibratory motion.
The movement of the earthquake is molecular, whilst that of
the earthshake is molar. Subsequently he suggested the terms
mochleusis and orchesis (/xoxXeuco, I heave; opxeo/idi, I dance),
to denote respectively the molar and the molecular movement,
retaining the word earthquake for use in its ordinary sense.
In most earthquakes the proximate cause is generally regarded
as the fracture and sudden movement of underground rock-
masses. Disturbances of this type are known as " tectonic "
earthquakes, since they are connected with the folding and fault-
ing of the rocks of the earth's crust. They indicate a relief of
the strain to which the rock-masses are subjected by mountain-
making and other crustal movements, and they are consequently
apt to occur along the steep face of a table-land or the margin
of a continent with a great slope from land to sea. In many
cases the immediate seat of the originating impulse is located
beneath the sea, giving rise to submarine disturbances which
have been called " seaquakes." Much attention has been given
to these suboceanic disturbances by Professor E. Rudolph.
Professor J. H. Jeans has pointed out that the regions of the
earth's crust most affected by earthquakes lie on a great circle
corresponding with the equator of the slightly pear-shaped
figure that he assigns to the earth. This would represent a belt
of weakness, subject to crushing, from the tendency of the pear
to pass into a spherical or spheroidal form under the action of
internal stresses. According to the comte de Montessus de
Ballore, the regions of maximum seismic instability appear
to be arranged on two great circles, inclined to each other at
about 67. These are the Circumpacific and Mediterranean zones.
Maps of the world, showing the origins of large earthquakes
each year, accompany the Annual Reports of the Seismological
Committee of the British Association, drawn up by Professor
Milne. It is important to note that Professor Milne has shown
a relationship between earthquake-frequency and the wandering
of the earth's pole from its mean position. Earthquakes seem
to have been most frequent when the displacement of the pole
has been comparatively great, or when the change in the direction
of movement has been marked. Valuable earthquake catalogues
have been compiled at various times by Alexis Perrey, R. and
J. W. Mallet, John Milne, T. Oldham, C. W. C. Fuchs, F. de
Montessus de Ballore and others.
Such earthquakes as are felt from time to time in Great Britain
may generally be traced to the formation of faults, or rather
to incidents in the growth of old faults. The East
Anglian earthquake of the 22nd of April 1884 the
most disastrous that had occurred in the British Isles quakes.
for centuries was investigated by Prof. R. Meldola
and W. White on behalf of the Essex Field Club. The shocks
probably proceeded from two foci one near the villages of
Peldon and Abberton, the other near Wivenhoe and Rowhedge,
in N.E. Essex. It is believed that the superficial disturbance
resulted from rupture of rocks along a deep fault. An attempt
has been made by H. Darwin, for the Seismological Committee
of the British Association, to detect and measure any gradual
movement of the strata along a fault, by observation at the
Ridgeway fault, near Upway, in Dorsetshire. Dr C. Davison
in studying the earthquakes which have originated in Britain
since 1889 finds that several have been " twins." A twin earth-
quake has two maxima of intensity proceeding from two foci,
whereas a double earthquake has its successive impulses from
what is practically a single focus. The Hereford earthquake
of December 1896, which resulted in great structural damage,
was a twin, having one epicentre near Hereford and the other
near Ross. Davison refers it to a slip along a fault-plane between
the anticlinal areas of Woolhope and May Hill; and according
to the same authority the Inverness earthquake of the i8th of
September 1901 was referable to movement along a fault
between Loch Ness and Inverness. The South Wales earthquake
of June 27, 1906, was probably due to movement connected
with the Armorican system of folds, striking in an east and west
direction.
It may be noted that when a slip occurs along a fault, the
displacement underground may be but slight and may die out
before reaching the surface, so that no scarp is formed. In
connexion, however, with a seismic disturbance of the first
magnitude the superficial features may be markedly affected.
Thus, the great Japan earthquake of October 1891 known
often as the Mino-Owari earthquake was connected with
the formation or development of a fault which, according to
Professor B. Koto, was traced on the surface for a distance of
nearly 50 m. and presented in places a scarp with a vertical
throw of as much as 20 ft., while probably the maximum dis-
placement underground was very much greater.
Although most earthquakes seem to be of tectonic type,
there are some which are evidently connected, directly or
indirectly, with volcanic activity (see VOLCANO). Such, it is
commonly believed, were the earthquakes which disturbed
the Isle of Ischia in 1881 and 1883, and were studied by Professor
J. Johnston-Lavis and G. Mercalli. In addition to the tectonic
and volcanic types, there are occasional earthquakes of minor
importance which may be referred to the collapse of the roof of
820
EARTHQUAKE
caverns, or other falls of rock in underground cavities at no
great depth. According to Prof. T. J. J. See most earthquakes
are due, directly or indirectly, to the explosive action of steam,
formed chiefly by the leakage of sea- water through the ocean floor.
Whatever the nature of the impulse which originates the
earthquake, it gives rise to a series of waves which are propagated
through the earth's substance and also superficially. In
one j c j n( j i known as normal or condensational waves,
or waves of elastic compression, the particles vibrate
to and from the centre of disturbance, moving in the
direction in which the wave travels, and therefore in a way
analogous to the movement of air in a sound-wave. Associated
with this type are other waves termed transverse waves, or
waves of elastic distortion, in which the particles vibrate across
or around the direction in which the wave is propagated.
The normal waves result from a temporary change of volume
in the medium; the transverse from a change of shape. The
distance through which an earth-particle moves from its mean
position of rest, whether radially or transversely, is called the
amplitude of the wave; whilst the double amplitude, or total
distance of movement, to and fro or up and down, like the
distance from crest to trough of a water wave, may be regarded
as the range of the wave. The period of a wave is the time
required for the vibrating particle to complete an oscillation.
As the rocks of the earth's crust are very heterogeneous, the
earthquake-waves suffer refraction and reflection as they pass
from one rock to another differing in density and elasticity.
In this way the waves break up and become much modified in
course of transmission, thus introducing great complexity into
the phenomena. It is known that the normal waves travel
more rapidly than the transverse.
Measurements of the surface speed at which earthquake- waves
travel require very accurate time-measurers, and these are
not generally available in earthquake-shaken regions. Observa-
tions during the Charleston earthquake of 1886 were at that time
of exceptional value, since they were made over a large area
where standard time was kept. Lines drawn through places
around the epicentre at which the shock arrives at the same
moment are called coseismal lines. The motion of the wave is to
be distinguished from the movement of the vibrating particles.
The velocity of the earth-particle is its rate of movement, but
this is constantly changing during the vibration, and the rate
at which the velocity changes is technically called the accelera-
tion of the particle.
Unfelt movements of the ground are registered in the
earthquake records, or seismograms, obtained by the delicate
instruments used by modern seismologists. From the study of
the records of a great earthquake from a distant source, some-
times termed a teleseismic disturbance, some interesting in-
ferences have been drawn with respect to the constitution of
the interior of the earth. The complete record shows two phases
of " preliminary tremors " preceding the principal waves. It is
believed that while the preliminary tremors pass through the
body of the earth, the principal waves travel along or parallel to
the surface. Probably the first phase represents condensational,
and the second phase distortional, waves. Professor Milne con-
cludes from the speed of the waves at different depths that
materials having similar physical properties to those at the
surface may extend to a depth of about 30 m., below which they
pass into a fairly homogeneous nucleus. From the different rates
of propagation of the precursors it has been inferred by R. D.
Oldham that below the outer crust, which is probably not
everywhere of the same thickness, the earth is of practically
uniform character to a depth of about six-tenths of the radius,
but the remaining four-tenths may represent a core differ-
ing physically and perhaps chemically from the outer part.
Oldham also suggests, from his study of oceanic and continental
wave-paths, that there is probably a difference in the constitu-
tion of the earth beneath oceans and beneath continents.
The surface waves, which are waves of great length and long
period and are propagated to great distances with practically a
constant velocity , have been regarded as quasi-elastic gravitational
waves. Further, in a great earthquake the surface of the ground
is sometimes visibly agitated in the epifocal district by undula-
tions which may be responsible for severe superficial damage.
(See also for elastic waves ELASTICITY, 89.)
An old classification of earthquake-shocks, traces of which still
linger in popular nomenclature, described them as " undulatory,"
when the movement of the ground was mainly in a horizontal
direction; " subsultory," when the motion was vertical, like the
effect of a normal wave at the epicentre; and " vorticose,"
when the movement was rotatory, apparently due to successive
impulses in varying directions.
The sounds which are associated with seismic phenomena,
often described as subterranean rumbling and roaring, are not
without scientific interest, and have been carefully studied by
Davison. " Isacoustic lines " are curves drawn through places
where the sound is heard by the same percentage of observers.
The sound is always low and often inaudible to many.
The refined instruments which are now used by seismologists
for determining the elements of earthquake motion and for
recording earthquakes from distant origins are described in the
article SEISMOMETER. These instruments were developed as a
consequence of the attention given in modern times to the study
of earthquakes in the Far East. (F. W. R.*)
Strange as it may appear, the advances that have been
made in the study of earthquakes and the world-wide interest
shown in their phenomena were initiated in work com-
menced in Japan. When the Japanese government, ^*~
desiring to adopt Western knowledge, invited to j apaa ,
its shores bodies of men to act as its instructors, the
attention of the newcomers was naturally attracted to the
frequent shakings of the ground. Interest in these phenomena
increased more rapidly than their frequency, and at length it was
felt that something should be done for their systematic study.
At midnight on the 22nd of February 1880 movements more
violent than usual occurred; chimneys were shattered or rotated,
tiles slid down from roofs, and in the morning it was seen that
Yokohama had the appearance of a city that had suffered a
bombardment. The excitement was intense, and before the ruins
had been removed a meeting was convened and the Seismological
Society of Japan established. The twenty volumes of original
papers published by this body summarize to a large extent the
results of the later study of seismology. 1
The attention of the students of earthquakes in Japan was
at first directed almost entirely to seismometry or earthquake
measurement. Forms of apparatus which then existed, as for
example the seismographs, seismometers and seismoscopes
of Mallet, Palmieri and others, were subjected to trial; but
inasmuch as they did little more than indicate that an earthquake
had taken place the more elaborate forms recording also the
time of its occurrence they were rapidly discarded, and instru-
ments were constructed to measure earthquake motion. Slightly
modified types of the new instruments devised in Japan were
adopted throughout the Italian peninsula, and it is fair to say
that the seismometry developed in Japan revolutionized the
seismometry of the world. The records obtained from the new
instruments increased our knowledge of the character of earth-
quake motion, and the engineer and the architect were placed
in a position to construct so that the effects of known movements
could be minimized. It was no doubt the marked success, both
practical and scientific, attending these investigations that led
the Japanese government to establish a chair of seismology at its
university, to organize a system of nearly 1000 observing stations
throughout the country, and in 1893 to appoint a committee of
scientific and practical men to carry out investigations which
might palliate the effects of seismic disturbances. In the first
year this committee received a grant of 5000, and as liberal
sums for the same purpose appear from time to time in the
"The publications for 1880-1892 were termed the Transactions
of the Seismological Society of Japan, and for 1893-1895 the Seismo-
logical Journal of Japan. The observations are now published by
the Earthquake Investigation Committee of Japan, and edited by
F. Omori, professor of seismology at the university of Tokyo.
EARTHQUAKE
821
parliamentary estimates, it may be assumed that the work has
been fraught with good results. In their publications we find not
only records of experiences and experiments in Japan, but descrip-
tions and comments upon earthquake effects in other countries.
In two of the volumes there are long and extremely well illus-
trated accounts of the earthquake which on the izth of June
1897 devastated Assam, to which country two members of the
above-mentioned committee were despatched to gather such
information as might be of value to the architect and builder
in earthquake-shaken districts.
A great impetus to seismological investigation in Europe and
America was no doubt given by the realization of the fact that
a large earthquake originating in any one part of the
world may be recorded in almost any other. Italy
research. f r man y years past has had its observatories for
recording earthquakes which can be felt, and which
are of local origin, but at the present time at all its first-class
stations we find instruments to record the unfelt movements
due to earthquakes originating at great distances, and as much
attention is now paid to the large earthquakes of the world as
to the smaller ones originating within Italian territory. 1 The
Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften of Vienna established
earthquake observatories in Austria, 2 and the Central Observa-
torium of St Petersburg has carried out similar work in Russia.
Germany attached a seismological observatory to its university
at Strassburg, whilst provision has been made for a professorship
of Earth Physics (Geophysik) at Gottingen. 3 In accordance with
the recommendation of the British Association, seismographs
of a similar character have been installed at stations all over
the world. 4 The principal objects of this extended and still
extending system of stations are to determine the velocity with
which motion is propagated over the surface and through the
interior of the earth, to locate the positions of sub-oceanic earth-
quake origins, and generally to extend our knowledge respecting
the physical nature of the planet on which we live.
We now know that earthquakes are many times more frequent
than was previously supposed. In Japan, for example, between
1885 and 1892 no fewer than 8331 were recorded that
Frequency t on t ^ avera g e there were during that time
of earth" ..
quakes. more than 1000 disturbances per year. Although
many of these did not cause a sensible shaking over
areas exceeding a few hundred square miles, many of them were
sufficiently intense to propagate vibrations round and through
the globe. If we pick out the well-marked earthquake districts
of the world, and give to each of them a seismicity or earthquake
frequency per unit area one- third of that in Japan, the conclusion
arrived at is that considerable areas of our planet are on the
average shaken every half-hour.
The knowledge which we now possess respecting the localities
where earthquakes are frequent and the forms of the foci from
which they have spread, enables us to speak definitely
ind "rth res P ec ti n S the originating causes of many of these
quakes. phenomena. It is found, for example, that although
in many countries there may be displays of volcanic
and seismic activity taking place almost side by side, it is only
rarely that there is direct relationship between the two. Now
and then, however, before a volcano breaks into eruption there
may be a few ineffectual efforts to form a vent, each of which
1 The chief Italian station is at Rocca di Papa near Rome. It is
equipped with delicate instruments designed by its director, Giovanni
Agamennone. The records since 1895 are published in the Bollettino
delta Societa Sismologica Italiana, edited by Luigi Palazzo, director
of the Central Office for Meteorology and Geodynamics at Rome.
2 The chief Austrian publications are : Mittheilungen der Erd-
bebencommission der k. Akad. der Wissen. in Wien (since 1897); Die
Erdbebenwarte (1901-1907) ; and the " Neueste Erdbebennachrichten,
Beilage der Monatsschrift " Die Erdbebenwarte."
* The " International Seismological Association " was founded at
Strassburg in 1903, and publishes the Beitrdge zur Geophysik, edited
by George Gerland, director of the Strassburg station; the papers
are printed in several languages.
4 The records of the British Association stations are published
(since 1896) in the Reports. Chile has a national earthquake service
(founded after the Valparaiso earthquake of August 1906) directed
by comte de Montessus de Ballore.
is accompanied by no more than a slight local shaking of the
ground. This is true even for the largest and most violent
eruptions, when mountains have with practically a single effort
blown off their heads and shoulders. Thus the earthquake which
accompanied the eruption of Bandaisan, in central Japan, in
1888 was felt only over a radius of 25 m. The analyses of the
seismic registers of Japan clearly indicate that comparatively
few shakings originate near to the volcanoes of the country, the
majority of them, like those of many other countries, coming
from regions where volcanic rocks are absent. The greatest
number spread inland from the Pacific seaboard, the movement
becoming more and more feeble as it approaches the backbone
of the country, which is drilled with numerous volcanic vents.
What is true for Japan is generally true for the western coasts of
North and South America.
Speaking broadly, earthquakes are most frequent along the
steeper flexures in the earth's surface, and in those regions where
there is geological evidence to show that slow secular
movements in the earth's crust are possibly yet in
progress. With a unit distance of i degrees, or 1 20 quakes.
geographical m., we find that the slopes running
eastwards from the highlands of Japan and westwards from the
Andean ridges down into the Pacific vary from i in 20 to i in 30,
and it is on the faces or near to the bottom of these slopes that
seismic efforts are frequent. The slopes running from Australia,
eastern America and western Europe into the neighbouring
oceans vary between i in 70 and i in 250, and in these regions
earthquakes are of rare occurrence. The seismic activity met
with in the Himalayas and the Alps finds its best explanation
in the fact that these mountains are geologically recent, and
there are no reasons to doubt that the forces which brought
their folds into existence are yet in action.
This peculiar association of earthquakes with pronounced
topographical configuration and certain geological conditions
evidently indicates that the origin of many of them is connected
with rock folding. Inasmuch as certain large earthquakes have
been accompanied by rock fracture, as for example in 1891,
when in central Japan a fault some 50 m. in length was created,
whilst the origins of others have been distinctly traced to the
line of an existing fault or its continuation, we may conclude
that the majority of earthquakes are spasmodic accelerations in
the secular movements which are creating (and in some instances
possibly obliterating) the more prominent features of the earth's
surface. These secular movements, which include upheavals,
subsidences, horizontal displacements all of which are explained
on the assumption of a crust seeking support on a nucleus
gradually contracting by loss of heat, are collectively referred
to as bradyseismical (jSpoSfe, slow) movements. To these may
be added movements directly attributable to the influence of
gravity. Sub-oceanic districts in a state of seismic strain may
be so far loaded by the accumulation of sediments that gentle
bending may be accompanied by sudden yieldings. This possibly
accounts for the frequency of earthquakes off the mouth of
the Tonegawa on the eastern side of Japan. The distortions so
frequently observed in fossils and pebbles, the varying thickness
of contorted strata, and the " creep " in coal-mines, together
with other phenomena, indicate that rocks may flow. Observa-
tions of this nature lead to the supposition that high plateau-like
regions may be gradually subsiding under the influence of their
own weight, and that the process of settlement may from time
to time be spasmodic in its character. Whether the earthquakes
which originate round the submerged basal frontiers of the
continents bounding the Pacific are ever attributable to such
activities, it is impossible to say. All that we know with certainty
is that they are sometimes accompanied by such a vast displace-
ment of material that the ocean has been set into a state of oscil-
lation for periods of 24 hours, that in some instances there have
been marked changes in depth, and that enormous sub-oceanic
landslips have occurred. These phenomena are, however, equally
well explained on the assumption of sudden faulting accom-
panied by violent shaking, which would dislodge steeply inclined
beds of material beneath the ocean as it does upon the land.
822
EARTHQUAKE
Although the proximate cause of earthquake motion is traced
to sudden yieldings in the crust of the earth brought about
by some form of bradyseismical action, the exist-
ence of at least two distinct types of seismic motion
quake indicates that the mechanical conditions accompany-
motion. j n g tne fracturing of rocks are not always identical.
90 or 95 % of the earthquakes which can be recorded con-
sist of elastic or quasi-elastic vibrations. The remainder,
including the large earthquakes, not only exhibit the elastic
movements, but are accompanied by surface undulations which
are propagated most certainly for some hundreds of miles round
their origin, and then as horizontal movements sweep over the
whole surface of the globe. The former of these may accompany
the formation of a new fault or the sudden renewal of movement
along an old one; they are cracking or rending effects, without
any great displacement. The latter are probably fracturings
accompanied by vertical and horizontal displacements of masses
of the earth's crust sufficiently great to set up the observed
surface undulations. These shocks are so frequently followed
a few minutes later by disturbances, which from their similarity
to the movements which have preceded them may be called
earthquake echoes, that we are led to the speculation that we are
here dealing with the caving-in of ill-supported portions of the
earth's crust, the waves from which are radiated to boundaries
and then returned to their origin to coalesce and give rise to a
second impulse not unlike the primary. Succeeding the first
repetition of motion recorded by the seismograph there is often
a rhythmical repetition of similar wave groups, suggesting the
existence within our earth of phenomena akin to multiple echoes.
The introduction of new methods into seismometry quickly
revolutionized our ideas respecting the character of earthquake
Character motion - Although an earthquake may be strongly
dearth- felt within a distance of 50 m. from its origin, and
quake although the movements in the upper storeys of
motion. buildings within the shaken area may be large, the
actual range of the horizontal motion of the ground is usually
less than fa of an inch. With such earthquakes ordinary seismo-
graphs for recording vertical motion do not show any disturbance.
When the movement reaches in. it becomes dangerous, and
a back-and-forth movement of an inch is usually accompanied
by destructive effects. In this latter case the amplitude of the
vertical record which indicates the existence of surface waves
will vary between 3 and y-J-j of an inch. In the earthquake which
devastated central Japan on the 26th of October 1891, nearly
every building within the epifocal district fell, the ground was
fissured, forests slipped down from mountain sides to dam up
valleys, whilst the valleys themselves were permanently com-
pressed. The horizontal movements seem to have reached
9 in. or i ft., and the surface undulations were visible to the eye.
The rapidity with which the movements are performed varies
throughout a disturbance. A typical earthquake usually com-
mences with minute elastic vibrations, the periods
Period O f -which var y between and -fa of a second. These
"duration. are recorded by seismographs, and are noticed by
certain of the lower animals like pheasants, which
before the occurrence of movement perceptible to human beings
scream as if alarmed. When an earthquake is preceded by a
sound we have evidence of preliminary tremors even more
rapid than those recorded by seismographs. Following these
precursors there is a shock or shocks, the period of which will be
i or 2 seconds. From this climax the movements, although
irregular in character, become slower and smaller until finally
they are imperceptible. The duration of a small earthquake
usually varies from a few seconds to a minute, but large earth-
quakes, which are accompanied by surface undulations, may be
felt for 2 or 3 minutes, whilst an ordinary seismograph indicates
a duration of from 6 to 1 2 minutes. A free horizontal pendulum
tells us that with severe earthquakes the ground comes to rest
by a series of more or less rhythmical surgings continuing over
i or 2 hours. Although the maximum displacement has a
definite direction, the successive vibrations are frequently
performed in many different azimuths. The predominating
direction at a given station in certain instances is apparently
at right angles to the strike of the neighbouring strata, this
being the direction of easiest yielding.
Earthquake motion as recorded at stations several thousands
of miles distant from its origin exhibits characteristics strikingly
different from those just described. The precursors
now show periods of from i to 5 seconds, whilst the Vetoclt y-
largest movements corresponding to the shocks may have
periods of from 20 to 40 seconds. The interval of time by
which the first tremors have outraced the maximum movement
has also become greater. Within a few hundreds of miles from
an origin this interval increases steadily, the velocity of propa-
gation of the first movements being about 2 km. per second,
whilst that of the latter may be taken at about 1-6 km. per
second. Beyond this distance the velocity of transmission of
the first movements rapidly increases, and for great distances,
as for example from Japan to England, it is higher than we
should expect for waves of compression passing through steel
or glass. This observation precludes the idea that these pre-
liminary tremors have travelled through the heterogeneous
crust of the earth, and since the average velocity of their trans-
mission increases with the length of the path along which they
have travelled, and we but rarely obtain certain evidence that a
seismograph has been disturbed by waves which have reached
it by travelling in opposite directions round the world, we are
led to the conclusion that earthquake precursors pass through
our earth and not round its surface. The following table relating
to earthquakes, which originated off the coast of Borneo on the
2oth and 27th of September 1897, is illustrative of the velocities
here considered:
Localities.
Distance
from
origin
in degrees.
Velocity
in kms.
per sec. if
on chord.
J Average
depth of
chord in
kms.
Nicolaieff
Potsdam
Catania, Ischia, Rocca di
Papa, Rome ....
Isle of Wight ....
8l e
92
9 6 !
103
8-1
8-4
9-0
9-8
8-0
9-1
9-5
10-2
The chords referred to here are those joining the earthquake
origins and distant observing stations, and it will be noted that
one-quarter of the square root of the average depths at which
these run closely corresponds to observed average velocities
if wave paths followed chords. This increase of velocity with
average depth shows that the paths followed through the earth
must be curved with their convexity towards the centre of the
earth. These observations do not directly tell us to what ex-
tent a true wave path is deflected from the direction of a chord,
but they suggest as an extremely plausible assumption that
the square of the speed is a linear function of the depth below
the surface of the earth. With this assumption Dr C. G. Knott
shows that the square of the speed (v 2 ) can be expressed
linearly in terms of the average depth of the chord d, thus:
i> 2 = 2'9-)--o26 d, the units being miles and seconds. The formula
applies with fair accuracy to moderate and high values of d, but
it gives too high a value for short chords. It follows that the
square of the speed increases 0-9% per mile of descent in the
earth. The conclusion we arrive at is that the preliminary
tremors which pass through the earth do so in the vicinity
of their origin at the rate of almost 2-3 km. per second. This
velocity increases as the wave path plunges downwards, attaining
in the central regions a velocity of 16 to 17 kms., whilst the
highest average velocity which is across a diameter lies between
10 and 12 kms. per second.
The large surface waves radiating from an origin to a distant
place have velocities lying between 1-6 and 4 kms. per second,
and it has been observed that when the higher velocity has been
noted this refers to an observation at a station very remote
from the origin. One explanation of this is the assumption that
only very large waves indicating a large initial disturbance are
capable of travelling to great distances, and as pointed out by
EARTHQUAKE
823
R. D. Oldham, large waves under the influence of gravity will
travel faster than small waves. These waves (which may be
gravitational or distortional) are recorded as slow tiltings of the
ground measured by angles of 0-5 to 10 or 15 seconds of arc, or
as horizontal displacements of 0-5 or several millimetres. Their
calculated lengths have reached 50 kms. (31 m.).
In the section of this article relating to the cause of earthquakes
a little has been said about their frequency or the number of
times these phenomena are repeated during a given
Frequency. j nterva [ o f time. It has been shown that all countries
are very often moved by earthquakes which have originated
at great distances. Great Britain, for example, is crossed about
100 times a year by earthquake waves having durations of from
3 minutes to 3 hours, whilst the vibratory motions which originate
in that country are not only small but of rare occurrence. In the
earlier stages of the world's history, because the contraction of
its nucleus was more rapid than it is at present, it is commonly
inferred that phenomena accompanying bradyseismical activity
must have been more pronounced and have shown themselves
upon a grander scale than they do at the present time. Now,
although the records of our rocks only carry us back over a certain
portion of this history, they certainly represent an interval of
time sufficiently long to furnish some evidence of such enfeeble-
ment if it ever existed. So far from this being the case, however,
we meet with distinct evidences in the later chapters of geological
history of plutonic awakenings much more violent than those
recorded at its commencement. During Palaeozoic times many
mountain ranges were formed, and accompanying these erogenic
processes there was marked volcanic activity. In the succeeding
Secondary period plutonic forces were quiescent, but during
the formation of the early Tertiaries, when some of the largest
mountain ranges were created, they awoke with a vigour greater
than had ever been previously exhibited. At this period it is not
improbable that Scotland was as remarkable for its volcanoes
and its earthquakes as Japan is at the present day. If the
statement relating to the general decrease in bradyseismical
changes referred merely to their frequency, and omitted reference
to their magnitude, the views of the geologist and physicist
might harmonize. One explanation for this divergence of
opinion may rest on the fact that too little attention has been
directed to all the conditions which accompany the adaptation
of the earth's crust to its shrinking nucleus. As the latter grows
smaller the puckerings and foldings of the former should grow
larger. Each succeeding geological epoch should be characterized
by mountain formations more stupendous than those which
preceded them, whilst the fracturing, dislocation, caving-in of
ill-supported regions, and creation of lines of freedom for the
exhibition of volcanic activity which would accompany these
changes, would grow in magnitude. The written records of
many countries reflect but on a smaller scale the crystallized
records in their hills. In 1844, at Comrie, in Perthshire, as many
as twelve earthquakes were recorded in a single month, whilst
now there are but one or two per year. Earthquake frequency
varies with time. A district under the influence of hypogenic
activities reaches a condition of seismic strain which usually
is relieved rapidly at first, but subsequently more slowly.
The small shocks which follow an initial large disturbance are
known as after-shocks. The first shock which in 1891 devastated
central Japan was accompanied by the formation of a large fault,
and the 3364 small shocks which succeeded this during the
following two years are regarded as due to intermittent settle-
ments of disjointed material. The decreasing frequency with
which after-shocks occur may be represented by a curve. Dr F.
Omori points out that the continuation of such a curve gives the
means of determining the length of time which will probably
elapse before the region to which it refers will return to the same
seismic quiescence that it had prior to the initial disturbance.
The positive results that we have respecting the periodicity
of earthquakes are but few. Generally earthquakes are some-
what more frequent during winter than during summer, and this
applies to both the northern and southern hemispheres. The
annual periodicity, which, however, does not show itself if only
pheno-
mena.
destructive earthquakes are considered, finds an explanation,
according to Dr Knott, in the annual periodicity of long-
continued stresses, as for example those due to the
accumulation of snow and to barometric gradients.
For certain earthquake regions there appears to be a
distinct semi-annual period for which no satisfactory explana-
tion has yet been adduced. Although the elaborate registers
of Japan, which have enabled us to group earthquakes according
to their respective origins and varying intensities, and to separate
after-shocks from initial disturbances, have been subjected by
Dr Knott to most careful analysis, with the object of discovering
periodicities connected with the ebb and flow of the tides, the
lunar day or lunar months, nothing of marked character has
been found. Certainly there is slight evidence of a periodicity
connected with the times of conjunction and opposition of the
sun and moon, and a maximum frequency near the tune of
perigee, but the effect of lunar stresses is comparatively insigni-
ficant. Ordinary earthquakes, and especially after-shocks, show
a diurnal period, but we cannot say that there are more earth-
quakes during the night than during the day.
Many experiments and investigations have been made to
determine a possible relationship between earthquakes and
electrical phenomena, but beyond drawing attention
to the fact that luminous appearances may accompany
the friction of moving masses of rock, and that a
temporary current may be established in a line by the
disturbance of an earth-plate, these inquiries have yielded but
little of importance. The inquiries respecting a possible relation-
ship between adjustments so frequently taking place within
and beneath that region called the crust of the earth and mag-
netic phenomena are, however, of a more promising nature.
We have seen that at or near the origin of earthquakes which for
several hours disturb continents, and occasionally cause oceans
to oscillate for longer periods, we sometimes have direct evidence
of the bodily displacement of many cubic miles of material.
When this material is volcanic it is almost invariably magnetic,
and we perceive in its sudden rearrangement causes which should
produce magnetic effects within an epifocal district. In Japan,
where attention is being directed to phenomena of this descrip-
tion, not only have such effects been observed, but unusual
magnetic disturbances have been noted prior to the occurrence
of large earthquakes. These may, of course, be regarded as mere
coincidences, but when we consider volcanic and seismic activities
as evidences of physical and chemical changes, together with
mechanical displacements of a magnetic magma, it is reason-
able to suppose that they should have at least a local influence
upon magnetic needles. Another form of disturbance to which
magnetic needles are subjected is that which accompanies the
passage of large earth-waves beneath certain observatories
situated at great distances from earthquake origins. At Utrecht,
Potsdam and Wilhelmshaven the magnetographs are frequently
disturbed by seismic waves, whilst at many other European
observatories such effects are absent or only barely appreciable.
To explain these marked differences in the behaviour of magnetic
needles at different stations we are at present only in a position
to formulate hypotheses. They may be due to the fact that
different needles have different periodic times of oscillation;
it is possible that at one observatory the mechanical movements
of the ground are much greater than at others; we may speculate
on the existence of materials beneath and around various observa-
tories which are different in their magnetic characters; and,
lastly, we may picture a crust of varying thickness, which from
time to time is caused to rise and fall upon a magnetic magma,
the places nearest to this being the most disturbed.
A subject to which but little attention has been directed is
the effect which displays of seismic and volcanic activities have
had upon the human mind. The effects are distinctly
dual and opposite in character. In countries like
England, where earthquakes are seldom experienced,
the prevailing idea is that they are associated with all
that is baneful. For certain earthquakes, which fortunately
are less than i % of those which are annually recorded, this is
824
EARTHQUAKE
partially true. A disastrous shock may unnerve a whole com-
munity. Effects of this nature, however, differ in a marked
manner with different nationalities. After the shock of 1891,
when Japan lost 9960 of its inhabitants, amongst the wounded
indications of mental excitement were shown in spinal and other
trouble. Notwithstanding the lightheartedness of this particular
nation, it is difficult to imagine that the long series of seismic
effects chronicled in Japanese history, which culminated in
1896 in the loss of 29,000 lives by sea-waves, has been without
some effect upon its mental and moral character. Several
earthquakes are annually commemorated by special services
at temples. In bygone times governments have recognized
earthquakes as visitations of an angry deity, whom they have
endeavoured to appease by repealing stringent laws and taxes.
In other countries the sermons which have been preached to
show that the tremblings of the world were visitations consequent
on impiety, and the prayers which have been formulated to
ward off disasters in the future, far exceed in number the earth-
quakes which gave rise to them. In 1755 many of the English
clergy held the view that Lisbon was destroyed because its
inhabitants were Catholics, whilst the survivors from that
disaster attributed their misfortune to the fact that they had
tolerated a few Protestant heretics in their midst. To avoid
a recurrence of disaster certain of these were baptized by force.
In the myths relating to underground monsters and personages
that are said to be the cause of earthquakes we see the direct
effects which exhibitions of seismic and volcanic activity have
produced upon the imagination. The beliefs, or more properly,
perhaps, the poetical fancies, thus engendered have exhibited
themselves in various forms. Beneath Japan there is said to be
a catfish, which in other countries is replaced by a mole, a hog,
an elephant or other living creature, which when it is restless
shakes the globe. The Kamchadales picture a subterranean
deity called Tuil, who in Scandinavian mythology is represented
by the evil genius Loki. We have only to think of the reference
in the Decalogue forbidding the making of graven images of that
which is in the earth beneath, to see in early Biblical history
evidence of a subterranean mythology; and it seems probable
that the same causes which led to the creation of Pluto, Vulcan
and Poseidon gave rise to practices condemned by Moses.
Perhaps the greatest practical benefits derived from seismo-
logical investigations relate to important changes and new
Building principles which have been introduced into the arts of
to with- the engineer and builder when constructing in earth-
siaad quake countries. The new rules and formulae, rather
cart t~ than being theoretical deductions from hypotheses,
are the outcome of observation and experiment. True
measures of earthquake motion have been given to us by modern
seismometers, with the result that seismic destructivity can be
accurately expressed in mechanical units. From observation
we now know the greatest acceleration and maximum velocity
of an earth particle likely to be encountered; and these are
measures of the destructivity. The engineer is therefore dealing
with known forces, and he has to bear in mind that these are
chiefly applied in a horizontal direction. A formula connecting
the acceleration requisite to overturn bodies of different dimen-
sions has been given. The acceleration which will fracture or
shatter a column firmly fixed at its foundation to the moving
earth may be expressed as follows:
6 fw
where
a = the acceleration per sec. per sec.
F = the force of cohesion, or force per unit surface, which when
gradually applied produces fracture.
A = area of base fractured.
B = thickness of the column.
/= height of centre of gravity of column above the fractured
base.
70 = the weight of the portion broken off.
With this formula and its derivatives we are enabled to state
the height to which a wall, for example, may be built capable
of resisting any assumed acceleration. Experience has shown
that yielding first shows itself at the base of a pier, a wall or a
building, and it is therefore clear that the lower portion of such
structures should be of greater dimensions or stronger than that
above. Piers having these increased dimensions below, and
tapering upwards in a proper manner, so that every horizontal
section is sufficiently strong to resist the effects of the inertia
of its superstructure, are employed to carry railways in Japan.
In that country cast-iron piers are things of the past, whilst
piers of masonry, together with their foundations, no longer
follow the rules of ordinary engineering practice.
After flood, fire, earthquake, or when opportunity presents
itself, changes are introduced in the construction of ordinary
buildings. In a so-called earthquake-proof house, although
externally it is similar to other dwellings, we find rafters running
from the ridge pole to the floor sills, an exceedingly light roof,
iron straps and sockets replacing mortices and tenons, and many
other departures from ordinary rules. Masonry arches for
bridges or arched openings in walls (unless protected by lintels),
heavy gables, ornamental copings, cappings for chimneys'
have by their repeated failure shown that they are undesirable
features for construction in earthquake countries. As sites for
buildings it is well to avoid soft ground, on which the movement
is always greater than on hard ground. Excessive movement
also takes place along the face of unsupported openings, and for
this reason the edges of scarps, bluffs, cuttings and river-banks
are localities to be avoided. In short, the rules and precautions
which have to be recognized so as to avoid or mitigate the
effects of earthquake movement are so numerous that students
of engineering and architecture in Japan receive a special course
of lectures on this subject. When it is remembered that a large
earthquake may entail a loss of life greater than that which
takes place in many wars, and that for the reconstruction of
ordinary buildings, factories and public works an expenditure
of several million pounds sterling is required, the importance
of these studies cannot be overrated. Severe earthquakes are
fortunately unknown in the British Isles, but we have simply
to turn our eyes to earthquake-shaken colonies and lands in
close commercial touch with Great Britain to realize the im-
portance of mitigating such disasters as much as possible, and
any endeavour to obviate the wholesale destruction of life
should appeal to the civilized communities of the world.
An unexpected application of seismometry has been to record
the vibration of railway trains, bridges and steamships. An
instrument of suitable construction will give records Applies-
of the more or less violent jolting and vibratory tionsof
movements of a train, and so localize irregularities *ei*mo-
due to changes in the character of ballast and sleepers,
to variation in gauge, &c. An instrument placed on a locomotive
throws considerable light upon the effects due to the methods of
balancing the wheels, and by alterations in this respect a saving
of fuel of from i to 5 Ib of coal per mile per locomotive has
sometimes been effected.
By mapping the centres from which earthquakes originate
off the coast of Japan, we have not only determined districts
where geological activity is pronounced, but have placed before
the cable engineer well-defined localities which it is advisable
to avoid; and in the records of unfelt earthquakes which
originate far from land similar information is being collected
for the deeper parts of the oceans. Occasionally these records
have almost immediately made clear the cause of a cable failure.
From lack of such information in 1888, when the cables connect-
ing Australia with the outer world were simultaneously broken,
the sudden isolation was regarded as a possible operation of
war, and the colonists called out their naval and military reserves.
Records of earthquakes originating at great distances have
also frequently enabled us to anticipate, to correct, to extend, or
to disprove telegraphic accounts of the disasters. Whatever
information a seismogram may give is certain, whilst the informa-
tion gathered from telegrams may in the process of transit
become exaggerated or minimized. Otherwise unaccountable
disturbances in records from magnetographs, barographs and
other instruments employed in observatories are frequently
EARTH-STAREARWIG
825
explained by reference to the traces yielded by seismometers.
Perhaps the greatest triumph in seismological investigation has
been the determination of the varying rates at which motion is
propagated through the world. These measurements have already
thrown new light upon its effective rigidity, and if we assume
that the density of the earth increases uniformly from its surface
towards its centre, so that its mean density is 5-5, then, according
to Knott, the coefficient of elasticity which governs- the trans-
mission of preliminary tremors of an earthquake increases at a
rate of nearly i 2 % per mile of descent. (J. Mi.)
AUTHORITIES. I. Milne, Seismology (London, 1898), Earthquakes
(London, 1898), Bakerian Lecture, " Recent Advances in Seis-
mology," Proc. Roy. Soc., 1906, 77, p. 365; J. A. Ewing, Memoir
on Earthquake Measurement (Tokyo, 1883); C. E. Dutton, Earth-
quakes in the Light of the New Seismology (London, 1904) ; " The
Charleston Earthquake of Aug. 31, 1886," Ninth Annual Report
of the United States Geological Survey, 1889; W. H. Hobbs, Earth-
quakes, an Introduction to Seismic Geology (London, 1908), " The
San Francisco Earthquake and Fire, 1906," Bull. U.S. Ceol. Surv.
No. 324; " The California Earthquake of Ap. 18, 1906," Rep. State
Earthq. Com. (Washington, D.C., 1908) ; R. D. Oldham, " Report on
the Great Earthquake of 12 June 1897," Mem. Geol. Surv. India, xxix.
1899, " On the Propagation of Earthquake Motion to great Dis-
tances," Phil. Trans., 1900, A, vol. 194, p. 135, " The Constitution
of the Interior of the Earth as revealed by Earthquakes," Quar.
Jour. Geol. Soc., 1906, 62, p. 456; 1907, 63, p. 344; C. Davison, A
Study of Recent Earthquakes (London, 1905) ; The Hereford Earth-
quake of December 17, 1896 (Birmingham, 1899), " The Investiga-
tion of Earthquakes," Beitrdge z. Geophysik, Bd. ix., 1908, p. 201,
and papers on British earthquakes in Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. ;
T. J. J. See, " The Cause of Earthquakes, Mountain Formation and
Kindred Phenomena connected with the Physics of the Earth,"
Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., 1906, 45, p. 273; F. Freeh, " Erdbeben und
Gebirgsbau," Petermann's Mitteilungen, Bd. 53, 1907, p. 245 (with
maps) ; C. G. Knott, The Physics of Earthquake Phenomena (Oxford,
1908) ; Comte F. de Montessus de Ballore, Les Tremblements de terre:
geographic seismologique (Paris, 1906), La Science seismologique
(1907); Transactions of the Seismological Society of Japan; Seismo-
logical Journal (Yokohama) ; Bollettino della Societa Sismologica
Italiana (Rome); Reports of the British Association, containing the
annual reports of the Committee for Seismological Investigations;
papers in the Beitrdge zur Geophysik and the Ergdnzungsbdnde.
EARTH-STAR (Geaster), in botany, a kind of puff-ball, with a
distinct outer coat which, on separating from the inner, splits
into several divisions, which be-
come reflexed and spread like a
star. The inner coat enveloping
the spores is supported, like a ball,
either with or without a stalk on
the upper face of the star. The
spores escape generally by means
of a distinct aperture which ap-
From Slrasburger's Lehrbuch der pears in the top of the ball. There
Botanik, by permission of Gustav are severa i spec ie s in Britain found
Geaster Granulosus,nat. size. on the ground or on decaying leaves.
They are rare or local, but more
common in the south or south-east of England than in other
parts of Britain.
EARTHWORM, the common name of a chaetopod worm
found nearly all over the world. Linnaeus recognized only one
species of earthworm and named it Lumbricus lerrestris. There
are now one thousand well-characterized species known from
different parts of the world, and the number increases almost
daily. The earthworms of England belong entirely to the three
genera Lumbricus, Allolobophora and Allurus, which are further
subdivided by some systematists; and these genera form the
prevalent earthworm fauna of the Palaearctic region and are
also very numerous in the Nearctic region. Elsewhere they do
not appear to be indigenous, but are replaced by the numerous
other genera of the families enumerated in the article Chaetopoda
(q.v.). It is a remarkable fact that these genera, comprizing a
separate family Lumbricidae, when introduced into tropical
and other countries, thrive abundantly and oust the indigenous
forms. In gatherings of earthworms from various extra-European
countries it is always found that if the collections have been
made in cultivated ground and near the coast the worms are of
European species; farther inland the native forms are met with.
Inasmuch as in every case the Lumbricidae from non-European
countries are identical with European species, since it has been
shown that these animals are very readily introduced accidentally
with plants, &c., and in view of the fact that they are impatient
of sea water, it seems clear that the presence of these Lumbricidae
in other continents is due to accidental transportation. Most
earthworms live in the soil, which they devour as they burrow
through it. A few, like their allies the river worms (Limicolae),
habitually frequent streams, lakes, &c. One .genus, at any rate,
viz. Pontodrilus, seeks an unusual environment, and is found
in heaps of sea-weed cast up by the sea. The range of this genus
is therefore naturally wider than that of other genera which are
confined to land masses and cannot cross the sea by their own
efforts. It might be inferred, therefore, and the inference is
proved by facts, that truly oceanic islands have no indigenous
fauna of earthworms, but are inhabited by forms which are
identical with those of neighbouring continents, and doubtless,
therefore, accidentally introduced.
Like the leeches the earthworms produce cocoons which are
a product of the glandular epithelium of the clitellum. In these
cocoons are deposited the eggs together with a certain amount
of albumen upon which the developing embryos feed. So far
as is known, the production of cocoons is universal among
earthworms and the remaining Oligochaeta of aquatic habit.
The young leave the cocoon as fully formed earthworms in which,
however, the genitalia are not fully developed. There is no
free living larval stage. Out of a single cocoon emerge a varying
number of young worms, the numbers being apparently char-
acteristic of the species. The work of earthworms in aiding
in the production of the subsoil and in levelling the surface was
first studied by C. Darwin, and has since been investigated by
others. This work is partly carried out beneath the surface
and partly on the surface, upon which the worms wander at
night and eject the swallowed and triturated earth; frequently
castings of some height are formed of coiled ropes of agglutinated
particles of mould. The indigenous species of Great Britain,
about twenty in number, do not grow to a greater length than
some 10 in.; but in several tropical countries there are species
which grow to a length of from 3 to 6 ft. Thus we have in
Natal the gigantic Microchaeta rappi, in Ceylon Megascolex
coeruleus, in Australia Megascolides australis, and an equally
large form in South America. (F. E. B.)
EARWIG, an insect belonging to the Forficulidae, a family
usually referred to the Orthoptera, but sometimes regarded
as typifying a special order, to which the names Dermaptera,
Dermatoptera and Euplexoptera have been given, in allusion
to certain peculiarities in the structure of the wings in the species
that possess them. The front wings are short and horny and
when at rest meet without overlapping in the middle line, like
the wing-cases of brachelytrous (cocktail) beetles. The hind
wings, on the contrary, are for the most part membranous and,
when extended, of large size; each consists of two portions, the
distal of which, in virtue of the arrangement and jointing of its
nervures, is capable of being both doubled up and folded fanwise
beneath the proximal, which is partly horny when the wing is
tucked away under the front wing-case of the same side. Apart
from these characteristics, the most distinctive feature of
earwigs is the presence at the end of the abdomen of a pair of
pincers which are in reality modified appendages, known as
cercopods, and represent the similar limbs of Japyx and the
caudal feelers of Campodea and some other insects.
The Forficulidae are almost cosmopolitan; but the various
species and genera differ from each other both in structure and
size to a comparatively slight extent. The length and armature
of the pincers and the presence or absence of wings are perhaps
the most important features used by systematists in distinguish-
ing the various kinds. Of particular zoological interest in this
connexion is a Ceylonese genus Dyscritina, in which the cercopods
are long, many-jointed and filiform during the early stages of
growth, and only assume at the last moult the forcipate structure
characteristic of the family. The best known earwig is the
common European species, Forficula auricularia. This insect
is gregarious and nocturnal. It hides by day under stones or
826
EASEMENT
the loosened bark of trees or in any crevice or hole sheltered
from the light. At night it crawls about in search of food, which
consists to a small extent of dead animal or vegetable matter,
but principally, as gardeners are aware, of the petals and other
parts of flowers of growing shoots and soft ripe fruit. During
the winter earwigs lie dormant; but in the early months of the
year females with their eggs may be found in the soil, frequently
in deserted earthworm burrows. Maternal instincts are well
developed, both the eggs, which number about fifty, and the
young being carefully brooded and watched over by the parent.
Except for the absence of wings, the young are miniature models
of the adult. As growth proceeds the integument is periodically
cast; and at the final moult the perfect winged insect appears.
Males and females are like each other in size, but may be dis-
tinguished by the difference in the number of visible abdominal
segments, the male having nine and the female seven. In the
male, moreover, the pincers are caliper-like and toothed at the
base, whereas in the female they are untoothed and only lightly
curved at the tip. These differences suggest that the pincers
aid in the pairing of the sexes. However that may be, they
are known to be used in the folding of the wings; and their
importance as weapons of defence is attested by the pre-
cision and effect with which they are wielded against assailants
like ants. (R. I. P.)
EASEMENT (Fr. aise; O. Fr. aisement; Anglo-Lat. aisia-
mentum, a privilege or convenience), in English law, a species
of " servitude " or limited right of use over land belonging to
another. It is distinguished from profits a prendre another
species of servitude which involves a right to participate in the
profits of the soil of another since an easement confers merely
a convenience (aisiamentum) to be exercised over the land of
another (without any participation in the profits of it), i.e. a
right to use the soil or produce of the soil in a way tending to the
more convenient enjoyment of another piece of land. Thus
a right of way is an easement, a right of common is a profit. An
easement is distinguishable also from a licence, which, unless it
is coupled with a grant, is personal to both grantor and grantee
and is neither binding on the licensor, nor, in general, assignable
by the licensee; while both the benefit and the burden of an
easement are annexed to land (Gale on Easements, 8th ed. p. 2).
With easements are sometimes classed certain closely allied
" natural rights," such as a landowner's right to lateral support
for his soil in its natural state, and a riparian owner's right to the
natural flow of a stream.
The essential features of an easement, in the strict sense of
the term, are therefore these: (i.) It is an incorporeal right;
a right to the use and enjoyment of land not to the land itself;
(ii.) it is imposed upon corporeal property; (iii.) it is a right
without profit; (iv.) it requires for its constitution two distinct
tenements the " dominant tenement " which enjoys the right,
and the " servient tenement " which submits to it. This last
characteristic excludes from the category of easements the
so-called " easements in gross," such as a right of way conferred
by grant independently of the possession of any tenement by
the grantee. The true easement is an " appendant " or " appur-
tenant " right, not a " right in gross."
Further classifications of easements must be noted. They
are divided into (a) affirmative or positive, those which authorize
the commission of an act by the dominant owner, e.g. rights of
way, a right to draw water from a spring, rights of aqueduct,
and negative, when the easement restricts the rights of the
servient owner over his own property, e.g. prevents him from
building on land so as to obstruct ancient lights (cf. also the
right to the support of neighbouring soil); (b) continuous, of
which the enjoyment may be continual without the interference
of man, e.g. access to light, and discontinuous, where there must
be a fresh act on each occasion of the exercise of the right, e.g.
a right of way, or right to draw water; (c) apparent, where
there are visible external signs of the exercise of the right, e.g. a
right to dam up a watercourse, and non-apparent, where such
signs are absent, e.g. a right to lateral support from land, a
prohibition to build above a certain height.
Acquisition of Easements. Easements may be acquired (a) by
express grant, either by statute, or by deed inter vivos, or by
will; (6) by an implied grant; (c) by express or implied reserva-
tion, e.g. by the owner of land in selling the fee (as to implied
reservation, see Gale on Easements, 8th ed. pp. 137 et seq.);
(d) by prescription, either at common law or under the Prescrip-
tion Act 1832. An express grant,or expressreservation.of an ease-
ment cannot be effected except by deed. An easement arises by
implied grant where a man makes one part of his tenement depend-
ent on another, or makes the parts mutually interdependent,
and grants any such part with the dependence attaching to it to
another person (Innes, Law of Easements, 7th ed. p. 10). For
example, a man builds two houses, each of which by the plan of
construction receives support from the other; this mutual
right of support is a <7M<z-easement, of which on severance of
the tenements the grantee of one will have the benefit; where
the enjoyment of the severed tenement could not be had at all
without such a right, it is said to be an " easement of necessity."
Easements are acquired by prescription at common law by
proof of " immemorial user " by the dominant owner and those
through whom he claims. At one time it was thought that
such proof must date back to the first year (1189) of Richard I.
(see preamble to Prescription Act 1832). The ground, however,
on which prescription was admitted as a means of acquiring
easements was the fiction of a " lost grant." Long enjoyment
of the right pointed to its having had a legal origin in a grant
from the servient owner, and so any period of reasonably long
use came to be accepted. A " lost grant " may be presumed to
have been made (the question is one of fact) if 20 years' uninter-
rupted enjoyment is shown. To avoid the difficulties of proof
of prescriptive right at common law, the Prescription Act 1832
established shorter periods of user. In the case of easements,
other than light, the periods of prescription are 20 years for a
claim that may be defeated, and 40 years for an indefeasible
claim (s. 2). The right of access of light is dealt with under s. 3
(see ANCIENT LIGHTS). The enjoyment to become prescriptive
must be open, i.e. of such a character that the owner of the
tenement said to be servient has a reasonable opportunity of
becoming aware of the adverse claim (Union Lighterage Co. v.
London Graving Dock Co., 1902, 2 Ch. 557); and it must be
enjoyed as of right (Gardner v. Hodgson's Kingston Brewery Co.,
1903, A.C. 229) as against the owner of the tenement affected
(Kilgour v. Gaddes, 1904, i K.B. 457). The periods of prescrip-
tion are to be reckoned backwards from the time when some
suit or matter involving the claim of the dominant owner has
arisen (s. 4). Nothing is to be deemed an interruption unless
the act of interruption has been submitted to, or acquiesced in,
for a year (s. 4).
Easements may be extinguished (i.) by express release here
an instrument under seal is necessary; (ii.) by "merger," i.e.
where both tenements become the property of the same owner;
(iii.) by abandonment through non-user. In the case of dis-
continuous easements, the shortest period of non-user may
suffice if there is direct evidence of an intention to abandon.
A word may be added here as to the right to air. It is an
actionable nuisance to cause pollution of the air entering a
dwelling-house. The owner of a dwelling-house may by pre-
scription acquire a right to the passage of air through it by a
defined channel; and the enjoyment without interruption of
ventilation by means of air flowing in a definite channel, with the
knowledge of the owner and occupier of the adjoining premises,
creates a presumption of the grant of such an easement (see
Gale on Easements, 8th ed. p. 338).
In Scots Law the term " easement " is unknown. Both the
name " servitude " and the main species of servitudes existing
in Roman law (q.v.) have been adopted. The classification of
servitudes into positive and negative, &c., and the modes of
their creation and extinction, are similar to those of English law.
The statutory period of prescription is 40 years (Scots Acts 1617,
c. 12), or 20 years in the case of enjoyment under any ex facie
valid irredeemable title duly recorded in the appropriate register
of sasines (Conveyancing [Scotland] Act 1874). There are
EAST, A. EAST ANGLIA
827
certain servitudes special to Scots law, e.g. " thirlage," by
which lands are " thirled " or bound to a particular mill, and
the possessors obliged to grind their grain there, for payment of
certain multures (quantities of grain or meal, payable to the mill-
owner) and sequels (small quantities given to the mill servants)
as the customary price of grinding. Statutory provision has
been made for the commutation of these duties (Thirlage Act
1799), and they have now almost disappeared.
The French Code Civil (Arts. 637 et seq.) and the other
European codes (e.g. Belgium, arts. 637 et seq.; Holland, arts.
721 et seq.; Italy, arts. 531 et seq.; Spain, arts. 530 et seq.;
Germany, arts. 1018 et seq.) closely follow Roman law. French
law is in force in Mauritius, and has been followed in Quebec
(Civil Code, arts. 499 et seq.) and St Lucia (Civil Code, arts.
449 et seq.). In India the law is regulated, on English lines,
by the Easements Act 1882 (Act v. of 1882). The term " ease-
ments," however, in India includes profits d prendre. In the
South African colonies the law of easements is based on the
Roman Dutch law (see Maasdorp, Institutes of Cape Law, 1904;
Bk. ii. p. 166 et seq.). In most of the other colonies the law
of easements is similar to English law. In some, however, it
has been provided by statute that rights to the access and use of
light or water cannot be acquired by prescription: e.g. Victoria
(Water Act 1890, No. 1156, s. 3), Ontario (Real Property Limita-
tion Act, Revised Stats. Ontario, 1897; c. 133, s. 36, light).
In the United States the law of easements is founded upon,
and substantially identical with, English law. The English
doctrine, however, as to acquisition of right of light and air by
prescription is not accepted in most of the States.
AUTHORITIES. English Law. Gale, Law of Easements (8th ed.,
London, 1908); Godda'rd, Law of Easements (6th ed., London,
1904) ; Innes, Digest of the Law of Easements (7th ed., London, 1903).
Indian Law. Peacock, Easements in British India (Calcutta, 1904) ;
Hudson and Inman, Law of Light and Air (2nd ed., London, 1905).
Scots Law: Erskine, Principles of the Law of Scotland (2oth ed.,
Edinburgh, 1903). American Law : Jones, Law of Easements
(New York, 1898); Bouvier, Law Diet. (Boston and London, 1897);
Ruling Cases, London and Boston, 18941901, tit. Easement
(American Notes). (A. W. R.)
EAST, ALFRED (1840- ), English painter and etcher, was
born at Kettering on the isth of December 1849. One of the
most prominent among modern English landscape painters, he
received his art education first at the Glasgow School of Art
and then in Paris at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, and under
Robert-Fleury and Bouguereau. His landscapes are remarkable
for the lyrical use of colour and for the pleasing rhythm of line
which is the result of careful selection and building up of the
elements that constitute the scene. Based on keen observation of
the colour of nature and on careful studies of the details, they are
arranged with a rare and by no means obvious sense of balance
and compositional beauty which summarily discards all dis-
turbing accidents of nature. He also achieved distinction as
an etcher, and published an instructive and useful volume
on landscape painting (London, 1906). He began to exhibit at
the Royal Academy in 1882, and was elected an associate. In
1906 he became president of the Royal Society of British Artists.
Many of his works are to be found in the English provincial
galleries; Manchester owns "The SilentSomme" and "Autumn ";
Liverpool, " Gibraltar from Algeciras "; Leeds, " The Golden
Valley"; Birmingham, "Hayle from Lelant"; Preston, "An Idyll
of Spring"; and Hull, "Evening on the Cotswolds." His
" Passing Storm " is at the Luxembourg; " The Nene Valley "
at the Venice gallery; and " A Haunt of Ancient Peace " at
the National gallery in Budapest. In 1903 he received the order
of the Crown of Italy in connexion with his services to the
Venice international exhibition; and he was made an honorary
member of the Japanese Meiji Bijutsu Kai.
EAST ANGLIA, one of the kingdoms into which Anglo-Saxon
Britain was divided. Bede gives no information about its origin
except that its earliest settlers were Angles. The kingdom of
East Anglia comprised the two counties of Norfolk and Suffolk.
With regard to the western boundary we have no accurate
information, but it was probably formed by the fens of
Cambridgeshire.
This kingdom first appears in Bede's narrative early in the
7th century, when its power was at its height. Towards the end
of the reign of ./Ethelberht, who died about 616, Raedwald
of East Anglia, who had apparently spent some time at the court
of Kent, began to win for himself the chief position among the
Anglo-Saxon kings of his day. His position was assured, at least
temporarily, in 617, when he decided to espouse the cause of the
Northumbrian prince Edwin, then a fugitive at his court, and
defeated .lEthelfrith of Northumbria on the banks of the Idle,
a tributary of the Trent, in Mercian territory. Raedwald had
been converted to Christianity in Kent, but after his return home
he relapsed, according to Bede, owing to the influence of his wife,
and there were to be seen in the same building a Christian and a
pagan altar. Bede states that Raedwald was the son of Tytili,
the son of Wuffa, from whom the East Anglian royal family
derived their name Wuffingas. According to the Historia
Brittonum Guffa (Wuffa) was the son of (Guecha) Wehha, who
first ruled the East Angles in Britain. This would put the organi-
zation of the kingdom in the first or second quarter of the 6th
century. Eorpwald, the son of Raedwald, was converted to
Christianity by Edwin, but was soon afterwards slain by Ricberht
(627 or 628), whereupon the kingdom again became pagan for
three years, when Sigeberht, the brother of Eorpwald, became
king and founded a see for Felix at Dunwich. Sigeberht also
founded a school in East Anglia, and on the arrival of an Irish
missionary named Furseus he built him a monastery at Cnob-
heresburg, perhaps to be identified with Burgh Castle. Before
644, however, Sigeberht resigned the crown in favour of his
brother Ecgric and retired to a monastery. Shortly afterwards
both brothers were slain by Penda of Mercia in his invasion of
East Anglia, and Anna became king. This king was an en-
thusiastic Christian, and converted Ccenwalh, king of Wessex,
who had fled to his court. Two of his daughters, Saethryth
and .iEthelberg, took the veil; while another, Sexburg, was
married to Earconberht, king of Kent; and a fourth, ^ithel-
thryth, after two marriages, with Tondberht of the South Gyrwe
and Ecgfrith of Northumbria, became abbess of Ely. In 654
Anna was slain by Penda of Mercia, and was succeeded by his
brother ^Ethelhere, who was killed in 655 at the Winwaed,
fighting for the Mercian king against Oswio of Northumbria.
In 673 Archbishop Theodore divided the East Anglian diocese
into two, Elmham being the seat of the northern, Dunwich
that of the southern bishop. A long blank follows in the history
of this kingdom, until in 792 we find Offa of Mercia slaying
^Ethelberht, king of East Anglia, who is said to have been his
son-in-law. East Anglia was subject to the supremacy of the
Mercian kings until 825, when its people slew Beornwulf of
Mercia, and with their king acknowledged Ecgberht (Egbert)
of Wessex as their lord. In 870 Edmund, king of East Anglia,
was killed by the Danes under I'varr and Ubbi, the sons of
Ragnar LoSbrok.
The following is a list of the kings of East Anglia of whom there
is record. Wehha; Wuffa; Raedwald, son of Tytili and grand-
son of Wuffa (reigning 617); Eorpwald, son of Raedwald (d. 627
or 628); Sigeberht, brother of Eorpwald; Ecgric, brother of
Sigeberht (both slain before 644) ; Anna, son of Ene and grandson
of Tytili (d. 654); ^thelhere, brother of Anna (d. 655); jEthel-
wald, a third brother; Aldwulf (succ. 663, d. 713), son of
^Ethelric and grandson of Ene; Elfwald, son of Aldwulf (d. 749) ;
Hun Beonna and Alberht; jEthelberht (792); Edmund (870).
After the death of Ragnar LoSbrok's sons East Anglia was
occupied by the Danish king Guthrum, who made a treaty
with Alfred settling their respective boundaries, probably about
880. Guthrum died in 890. A later king named Eohric took up
the cause of ^thelwald, the son of jEthelred I., and was slain in
the fight with the Kentish army at the Holm in 905. A war
broke out with King Edward the Elder in 913; in 921 a king
whose name is unknown was killed at the fall of Tempsford,
and in the same year the Danes of East Anglia submitted to
Edward the Elder. From this time, probably, East Anglia was
governed by English earls, the most famous of whom were
jEthelstan, surnamed Half - King (932-956) and his sons,
828
EASTBOURNE EASTER
jEthelwold (956-962), and ^Ethelwine, surnamed Dei amicus
(962-992).
See Bede, Hist. Eccl. (ed. C. Plummer, Oxford, 1896), ii. 5, 15,
iii. 7, 8, 18-20, 22, iv. 3, 5, 23; Saxon Chronicle (ed. Earle and
Plummer, Oxford, 1899), s. a. 823, 838, 866, 870, 880, 885, 890, 894,
905, 921; Histaria Brittonum (San-Marte, 1844), s. 59; H. Sweet,
Oldest English Texts, p. 171 (London, 1885). (F. G. M. B.)
EASTBOURNE, a municipal borough (1883) in the Eastbourne
parliamentary division of Sussex, England, 61 m. S.S.E. of
London by the London, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop.
(1891) 34,969; (1901) 43,3445 (local census, 1909) 49,286. It
is situated 3 m. N.E. of Beachy Head, the loftiest headland on the
English Channel coast. It once consisted of three parts the
village of East Bourne, a mile inland; South Bourne, lying back
from the shore; and Seahouses, facing the beach. The church
of St Mary, the ancient parish church of East Bourne, is a
fine transitional Norman building; and there are numerous
modern churches and chapels. The principal buildings and
institutions are the town hall and municipal buildings, the
Princess Alice Memorial and other hospitals, a free library and,
among many high-class schools, Eastbourne College for boys,
founded in 1867. There is a fine pier with pavilion, and a marine
parade nearly 3 m. in extent, arranged in terraced promenades.
Devonshire Park of 13 acres is pleasantly laid out, and contains
a pavilion and a theatre. The duke of Devonshire is the principal
landowner. Golf h'nks are laid out on the neighbouring downs.
A Roman villa was formerly seen close to the shore, but it is
not now visible. The corporation consists of a mayor, 8 aldermen
and 24 councillors. In 1910 the corporation promoted a bill in
parliament to add the Hampden Park district in the parish of
Willingdon to the borough and to make Eastbourne, with this
extension, a county borough.
EAST CHICAGO, a city of Lake county, Indiana, U.S.A., on
Lake Michigan, about 19 m. S.E. of the business centre of Chicago.
Pop. (1890) 1255; (1900)3411 (1331 foreign-born); (1910) 19,098.
It is served by several railways, including the Pennsylvania, the
Wabash, the Chicago Terminal Transfer (whose shops are here),
the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Chicago, Indiana &
Southern, and the Indiana Harbor railways. East Chicago
covers an area whose greatest dimensions are 4 by 35 m. That
part of the city along the lake, known as Indiana Harbor, dates
from 1901 and has grown very rapidly because of its position at
the southernmost part of the Calumet District, and because of the
meeting here of railway and lake commerce. A good harbour
has been constructed, a new ship canal connecting the harbour
with the Calumet river. East Chicago is industrially virtually
a part of " Greater " Chicago; among its manufactures are iron
and steel, cement, lumber, boilers, hay presses, chains, chemicals
and foundry products. East Chicago was chartered as a city in
1893-
EASTER, the annual festival observed throughout Christen-
dom in commemoration of the resurrection of Jesus Christ.
The name Easter (Ger. Ostern), like the names of the days
of the week, is a survival from the old Teutonic mythology.
According to Bede (De Temp. Rat. c. xv.) it is derived from
Eostre, or Ostdra, the Anglo-Saxon goddess of spring, to whom
the month answering to our April, and called Eostur-monath,
was dedicated. This month, Bede says, was the same as the
mensis paschalis, " when the old festival was observed with the
gladness of a new solemnity."
The name of the festival in other languages (as Fr. p&ques;
Ital. pasqua; Span, pascua; Dan. paaske; Dutch paasch; Welsh
pasg) is derived from the Lat. pascha and the Gr.
These in turn come from the Chaldee or Aramaean form
pascha', of the Hebrew name of the Passover festival npj
pesach, from ncv " he passed over," in memory of the great
deliverance, when the destroying angel " passed over the houses,
of the children of Israel in Egypt when he smote the Egyptians "
(Exod. xii. 27).
An erroneous derivation of the word pascha from the Greek
waaxtiv, " to suffer," thus connected with the sufferings or
passion of the Lord, is given by some of the Fathers of the Church,
as Irenaeus, Tertullian and others, who were ignorant of Hebrew.
St Augustine (In Joann. Tract. 55) notices this false etymology,
shows how similarity of sound had led to it, and gives the
correct derivation.
There is no indication of the observance of the Easter festival
in the New Testament, or in the writings of the apostoh'c Fathers.
The sanctity of special times was an idea absent from the minds
of the first Christians. " The whole of time is a festival unto
Christians because of the excellency of the good things which
have been given " is the comment of St Chrysostom on i Cor. v. 7,
which has been erroneously supposed to refer to an apostolic
observance of Easter. The ecclesiastical historian Socrates
(Hist. Eccl. v. 22) states, with perfect truth, that neither the
Lord nor his apostles enjoined the keeping of this or any other
festival. He says: " The apostles had no thought of appointing
festival days, but of promoting a life of blamelessness and
piety "; and he attributes the observance of Easter by the
church to the perpetuation of an old usage, " just as many other
customs have been established."
This is doubtless the true statement of the case. The first
Christians continued to observe the Jewish festivals, though in a
new spirit, as commemorations of events which those festivals
had foreshadowed. Thus the Passover, with a new conception
added to it of Christ as the true Paschal Lamb and the first
fruits from the dead, continued to be observed, and became the
Christian Easter.
Although the observance of Easter was at a very early period
the practice of the Christian church, a serious difference as to
the day for its observance soon arose between the Christians
of Jewish and those of Gentile descent, which led to a long and
bitter controversy. The point at issue, was when the Paschal
fast was to be reckoned as ending. With the Jewish Christians,
whose leading thought was the death of Christ as the Paschal
Lamb, the fast ended at the same time as that of the Jews, on the
fourteenth day of the moon at evening, and the Easter festival
immediately followed, without regard to the day of the week.
The Gentile Christians, on the other hand, unfettered by Jewish
traditions, identified the first day of the week with the Resurrec-
tion, and kept the preceding Friday as the commemoration of the
crucifixion, irrespective of the day of the month. With the one
the observance of the day of the month, with the other the
observance of the day of the week, was the guiding principle.
Generally speaking, the Western churches kept Easter on the
first day of the week, while the Eastern churches followed the
Jewish rule, and kept Easter on the fourteenth day. St Polycarp,
the disciple of St John the Evangelist and bishop of Smyrna,
visited Rome in 159 to confer with Anicetus, the bishop of that
see, on the subject; and urged the tradition, which he had
received from the apostle, of observing the fourteenth day.
Anicetus, however, declined to admit the Jewish custom in the
churches under his jurisdiction, but readily communicated with
Polycarp and those who followed it. About forty years later
(197) the question was discussed in a very different spirit between
Victor, bishop of Rome, and Polycrates, metropolitan of pro-
consular Asia. That province was the only portion of Christendom
which still adhered to the Jewish usage, and Victor demanded
that all should adopt the usage prevailing at Rome. This
Polycrates firmly refused to agree to, and urged many weighty
reasons to the contrary, whereupon Victor proceeded to ex-
communicate Polycrates and the Christians who continued the
Eastern usage. He was, however, restrained from actually
proceeding to enforce the decree of excommunication, owing to
the remonstrance of Irenaeus and the bishops of Gaul. Peace was
thus maintained, and the Asiatic churches retained their usage
unmolested (Euseb. H.E. v. 23-25). We find the Jewish usage
from time to time reasserting itself after this, but it never
prevailed to any large extent.
A final settlement of the dispute was one among the other
reasons which led Constantino to summon the council of Nicaea
in 325. At that time the Syrians and Antiochenes were the
solitary champions of the observance of the fourteenth day.
The decision of the council was unanimous that Easter was to be
kept on Sunday, and on the same Sunday throughout the world,
EASTER
829
and " that none should hereafter follow the blindness of the
Jews " (Socrates, H.E. i. 9). The correct date of the Easter
festival was to be calculated at Alexandria, the home of astro-
nomical science, and the bishop of that see was to announce it
yearly to the churches under his jurisdiction, and also to the
occupant of the Roman see, by whom it was to be communicated
to the Western churches. The few who afterwards separated
themselves from the unity of the church, and continued to keep
the fourteenth day, were named Quartodecimani, and the dispute
itself is known as the Quarto-deciman controversy. Although
measures had thus been taken to secure uniformity of observance,
and to put an end to a controversy which had endangered
Christian unity, a new difficulty had to be encountered owing
to the absence of any authoritative rule by which the paschal
moon was to be ascertained. The subject is a very difficult and
complex one (see also CALENDAR). Briefly, it may be explained
here that Easter day is the first Sunday after the full moon
following the vernal equinox. ThiSj of course, varies in different
longitudes, while a farther difficulty occurred in the attempt to
fix the correct time of Easter by means of cycles of years, when
the changes of the sun and moon more or less exactly repeat
themselves. At first an eight years' cycle was adopted, but it
was found to be faulty, then the Jewish cycle of 84 years was
used, and remained in force at Rome till the year 457, when a
more accurate calculation of a cycle of 532 years, invented by
Victorius of Acquitaine, took its place. Ultimately a cycle of
19 years was accepted, and it is the use of this cycle which makes
the Golden Number and Sunday Letter, explained in the preface
to the Book of Common Prayer, necessary. Owing to this lack
of decision as to the accurate finding of Easter, St Augustine
tells us (Epist. 23) that in the year 387 the churches of Gaul kept
Easter on the 2ist of March, those of Italy on the i8th of April,
and those of Egypt on the 25th of April; and it appears from
a letter of Leo the Great (Epist. 64, ad Martian.) that in 455 there
was a difference of eight days between the Roman and the
Alexandrine Easter. Gregory of Tours relates that in 577 " there
was a doubt about Easter. In Gaul we with many other cities
kept Easter on the fourteenth calends of May, others, as the
Spaniards, on the twelfth calends of April."
The ancient British and Celtic churches followed the cycle of
84 years which they had originally received from Rome, and
their stubborn refusal to abandon it caused much bitter con-
troversy in the 8th century between their representatives and
St Augustine of Canterbury and the Latin missionaries. These
latter unfairly attempted to fix the stigma of the Quartodeciman
observance on the British and Celtic churches, and they are even
now sometimes ignorantly spoken of as having followed the
Asiatic practice as to Easter. This, however, is quite erroneous.
The British and Celtic churches always kept Easter according
to the Nicene decree on a Sunday. The difference between
them and the Roman Church, at this period, was that they still
followed the 84 years' cycle in computing Easter, which had
been abandoned at Rome for the more accurate cycle of 532 years.
This difference of calculation led to Easter being observed on
different Sundays, in certain years, in England, by the adherents
of the two churches. Thus Bede records that in a certain year
(which must have been 645, 647, 648 or 651) Queen Eanfleda,
who had received her instruction from a Kentish priest of the
Roman obedience, was fasting and keeping Palm Sunday, while
her husband, Oswy, king of Northumbria, following the rule of
the British church, was celebrating the Easter festival. This
diversity of usage was ended, so far as the kingdom of North-
umbria was concerned, by the council of Streaneshalch, or Whitby,
in 654. To Archbishop Theodore is usually ascribed the credit
of ending the difference in the rest of England in 669.
The Gregorian correction of the calendar in 1 582 has once more
led to different days being observed. So far as Western Christen-
dom is concerned the corrected calendar is now universally
accepted, and Easter is kept on the same day, but it was not until
1752 that the Gregorian reformation of the calendar was adopted
in Great Britain and Ireland. Jealousy of everything emanating
from Rome still keeps the Eastern churches from correcting the
calendar according to the Gregorian reformation, and thus their
Easter usually falls before, or after, that of the Western churches,
and only very rarely, as was the case in 1865, do the two coincide.
Easter, as commemorating the central fact of the Christian
religion, has always been regarded as the chief festival of the
Christian year, and according to a regulation of Constantine it
was to be the first day of the year. This reckoning of the year
as beginning at Easter lingered in France till 1565, when, by
an ordinance of Charles IX., the ist of January finally took
its place.
Four different periods may be mentioned as connected with
the observance of Easter, viz. (i) the preparatory fast of the
forty days of Lent; (2) the fifteen days, beginning with the
Sunday before and ending with the Sunday after Easter, during
which the ceremonies of Holy Week and the services of the
Octave of Easter were observed; this period, called by the
French the Quinzaine de Pdques, was specially observed in that
country; (3) the Octave of Easter, during which the newly-
baptized wore their white garments, which they laid aside on
the Sunday after Easter, known as Dominica in albis depositis
from this custom; another name for this Sunday was Pascha
clausum, or the close of Easter, and from a clipping of the word
" close " the English name of " Low " Sunday is believed to be
derived; (4) Eastertide proper, or the paschal season beginning
at Easter and lasting till Whit Sunday, during the whole of which
time the festival character of the Easter season was maintained
in the services of the church.
Many ecclesiastical ceremonies, growing up from early times,
clustered round the celebration of the Easter festival. One of
the most notable of these was the use of the paschal candle.
This was a candle of very large dimensions, set in a candlestick
big enough to hold it, which was usually placed on the north
side, just below the first ascent to the high altar. It was kept
alight during each service till Whitsuntide. The Paschal, as it
was called at Durham cathedral, was one of the chief sights of
that church before the Reformation. It was an elaborate con-
struction of polished brass, and, contrary to the usual custom,
seems to have been placed in the centre of the altar-step, long
branches stretching out towards the four cardinal points, bearing
smaller candles. The central stem of the candlestick was about
38 ft. high, and bore the paschal candle proper, and together
they reached a combined height of about 70 ft., the candle being
lighted from an opening above. Other paschal candles seem to
have been of scarcely less size. At Lincoln, c. 1300, the candle
was to weigh three stones of wax; at Salisbury in 1517 it was
to be 36 ft. long; and at Westminster in 1558 it weighed no less
than 3 cwt. of wax. After Whitsuntide what remained was made
into smaller candles for the funerals of the poor. In the ancient
churches at Rome the paschal candlesticks were fixtures, but
elsewhere they were usually movable, and were brought into the
church and set up on the Thursday before Easter. At Winchester
the paschal candlestick was of silver, and was the gift of Canute.
Others of more or less importance are recorded as having been
at Canterbury, Bury St Edmunds, Hereford and York. The
burning of the paschal candle still forms part of the Easter cere-
monial of the Roman Catholic Church (see LIGHTS, CEREMONIAL).
The liturgical colour for Easter was everywhere white, as the
sign of joy, light and purity, and the churches and altars were
adorned with the best ornaments that each possessed. Flowers
and shrubs no doubt in early times were also used for this
purpose, but what evidence there is goes against the medieval
use of such decorations, which are so popular at the present day.
It is not the purpose of this article to enter on the wide subject
of the popular observances, such as the giving and sending of
Pasch or Easter eggs as presents. For such the reader may con-
sult Brand's Popular Antiquities, Hone's Every-Day Book, and
Chambers's Book of Days.
AUTHORITIES. Bir.gham, Antiquities of the Christian Church;
Bede, Ecclesiastical History of England; Procter and Frere, A New
History of the Book of Common Prayer (London, 1901); Surtees
Society, Kites of Durham, ed. J. T. Fowler (1903); De Morgan,
Companion to the Almanac (1845) ; De Moleon, Voyages lilurgiques
(Paris, 1718). (T. M. F.)
830 EASTER ISLAND EASTERN BENGAL AND ASSAM
EASTER ISLAND (Rapanui, i.e. Great Rapa), an island in
the eastern part of the South Pacific ocean, belonging to Chile
(since 1888), in 27 8' S. and 109 28' W., 1400 m. E. of Pitcairn,
and 2000 m. from the South American coast. It is roughly
triangular in shape, with its hypotenuse 12 m. long running
north-east and south-west, and its three angles marked by
three volcanic peaks, of which the north-eastern reaches 1768 ft.
of altitude. The area of the island is 45 sq. m. The coast has
no good natural harbour, and landing is difficult. There is no lack
of fertile soil, and the climate is moist enough to make up for the
absence of running water. Formerly the island appears to have
been wooded, but it now presents only a few bushes (Ed-wardsia,
Broussonetia, &c.), ferns, grasses, sedges, &c. The natives grow
bananas in the shelter of artificial pits, also sugar-canes and
sweet potatoes, and keep a few goats and a large stock of domestic
fowls, and a Tahitian commercial house breeds cattle and sheep
on the island.
It is doubtful whether Rapanui was discovered by Davis in
1686, though it is sometimes marked Davis Island on maps.
Admiral Roggeveen reached it on Easter day 1722; in 1774
Captain Cook discovered it anew and called it Teapi or Waihu.
It was subsequently visited by La Perouse (1776), Kotzebue
(1816), &c. At the time of Roggeveen's discovery the island
probably contained from 2000 to 3000 inhabitants of Polynesian
race, who, according to their own tradition, came from Rapa Iti
(Little Rapa) or Oparo, one of the Tubuai or Austral group.
In 1863 a large proportion of the inhabitants were kidnapped
by the Peruvians and transported to work at the guano diggings
on the Chincha Islands. The next year a Jesuit mission from
Tahiti reached the island and succeeded in the task of civilization.
The natives, who number scarcely one hundred, are all Christians.
Easter Island is famous for its wonderful archaeological
remains. Here are found immense platforms built of large cut
stones fitted together without cement. They are generally built
upon headlands, and on the slope towards the sea. The walls
on the seaside are, in some of the platforms, nearly 30 ft. high
and from 200 to 300 ft. long, by about 30 ft. wide. Some of the
squared stones are as much as 6 ft. long. On the land side of the
platforms there is a broad terrace with large stone pedestals upon
which once stood colossal stone images carved somewhat into
the shape of the human trunk. On some of the platforms there
are upwards of a dozen images, now thrown from their pedestals
and lying in all directions. Their usual height is from 14 to i6ft.,
but the largest are 37 ft., while some are only about 4 ft. They
are formed from a grey trachytic lava found at the east end
of the island. The top of the heads of the images is cut flat to
receive round crowns made of a reddish vesicular tuff found at
a crater about 8 m. distant from the quarry where the images
were cut. A number of these crowns still lie at the crater
apparently ready for removal, some of the largest being over 10 ft.
in diameter. In the atlas illustrating the voyage of La Perouse
a plan of the island is given, with the position of several of the
platforms. Two of the images are also represented in a plate.
One statue, 8 ft. in height and weighing 4 tons, was brought to
England, and is now in the British Museum. In one part of the
island are the remains of stone houses nearly 100 ft. long by
about 20 ft. wide. These are built in courses of large flat stones
fitted together without cement, the walls being about 5 ft.
thick and over 5 ft. high. They are lined on the inside with
upright slabs, on which are painted geometrical figures and
representations of animals. The roofs are formed by placing
slabs so that each course overlaps the lower one until the opening
becomes about 5 ft. wide, when it is covered with flat slabs
reaching from one side to the other. The lava rocks near the
houses are carved into the resemblance of various animals and
human faces, forming, probably, a kind of picture writing.
Wooden tablets covered with various signs and figures have also
been found. The only ancient implement discovered on the
island is a kind of stone chisel, but it seems impossible that such
large and numerous works could have been executed with such
a tool. The present inhabitants of Easter Island know nothing
of the construction of these remarkable works; and the entire
subject of their existence in this small and remote island is a
mystery.
EASTERN BENGAL AND ASSAM, a province of British India,
which was constituted out of Assam and the eastern portion of
Bengal on the i6th of October 1905. Area 111,569 sq. m.; pop.
(1901) 30,961,459. It is situated between 20 45' and 28 if N.,
and between 87 48' and 97 5' E. The province, as thus re-
constituted, consists of the Bengal districts of Dacca, Mymen-
singh, Faridpur, Backergunje, Tippera, Noakhali, Chittagong,
Chittagong Hill Tracts, Rajshahi, Dinajpur, Jalpaiguri, Rang-
pur, Bogra, Pabna, Malda, and the native states of Kuch Behar
and Hill Tippera; and the whole of the former area of Assam
consisting of the districts of Goalpara, Kamrup, Darrang,
Nowgong, Sibsagar, Lakhimpur, Sylhet, Cachar, Garo Hills!
Khasi and Jaintia Hills, Naga Hills and Lushai Hills. It is
bounded on the N. by Bhutan, on the W. by Burma, on the S. by
Burma and the Bay of Bengal, and on the E. by Bengal. The
line of demarcation between Bengal and the new province begins
at the frontier of Bhutan, east of Darjeeling, runs south-west to
Sahibganj on the Ganges and thence follows the course of the
Ganges down to the deltaic branch, called the Haringhata,
which leaves the main stream above Goalanda, and the course of
the latter, which runs south into the Bay of Bengal. The capital
of the province is Dacca, and its chief port is Chittagong.
The Bengal districts which were transferred to Eastern Bengal
and Assam comprised northern and eastern Bengal, the most
prosperous and least overcrowded portion of Bengal. The land
there is less densely populated, wages are higher and food
cheaper, and the rainfall more copious and more regular, while
the staple crops of jute, tobacco and rice command a higher price
relative to the rent of the land than in Behar or other parts of
Bengal. The population are largely Mahommedans and of a more
virile stock than the Bengali proper. Northern Bengal corre-
sponds almost exactly with the Rajshahi division and lies within
the boundaries of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers. It
contains much high land of a stiff red clay, with an undulat-
ing surface covered for the most part with scrub jungle. The
inhabitants are Indo-Chinese, not Indo-Aryans as in Bengal
proper, and are Mahommedan by religion instead of Hindu.
Eastern Bengal consists of the Dacca and Chittagong divisions
which are mainly Bengali in race and Hindu in religion. For the
Assamese districts see ASSAM. The province as a whole contains
18,036,688 Mahommedans and 12,036,538 Hindus. In language
27,272,895 of the inhabitants speak Bengali, 1,349,784 speak
Assamese, and the remainder Hindi and various hill dialects,
Manipuri, Bodo, Khasi and Garo. The administration is in the
hands of a lieutenant-governor, assisted by a legislative council
of fifteen members. Under him are five commissioners, and
financial matters are regulated by a board of revenue consisting
of two members.
The constitution of the new province arose out of the fact that
Bengal had grown too unwieldy for the administration of a single
lieutenant-governor. In 1868 Sir Stafford Northcote drew
attention to the greatly augmented demands that the outlying
portions of Bengal made on the time and labour of the govern-
ment. At that time the population of the province was between
40 and 50 millions, and the question was left in abeyance until
1903, when the population had risen to 785 millions. In the
meantime the importance of rendering Assam a self-contained
and independent administration with a service of its own, and
of providing for its future commercial expansion, had arisen.
These two considerations led Lord Curzon to propose that Bengal
should be lopped of territory both on its eastern and western
borders, and that all the districts east of the Brahmaputra should
be constituted into a separate province. This proposal was
bitterly opposed by the Hindus of Bengal on the ground that it
would destroy the unity of the Bengali race; and their agitation
was associated with the Swadeshi (own country) movement for
the boycott of British goods.
After the constitution of the province in October 1905, the
agitation in Eastern Bengal increased. Public meetings of pro-
test were held, vernacular broadsheets containing scandalous
EASTERN QUESTION
831
attacks on the British authorities were circulated, schoolboys
and others were organized and drilled as so-called " national
volunteers," and employed as pickets to prevent the sale of
British goods. Such was the state of things when Sir J. Bamp-
fylde Fuller entered on his office as first lieutenant-governor of
Eastern Bengal in January 1906. His reception was ominous.
Representative bodies that were dominated by Hindus refused
to vote the usual addresses of welcome, and non-official Hindus
abstained from paying the customary calls. There were, however,
no further overt signs of objection to the lieutenant-governor
personally, and after a month or two in spite of, or perhaps
because of, his efforts to restrain sedition and to keep discipline
in the schools there was a decided change in the attitude of
Hindu opinion. At Dacca, in July, for instance, the reception at
Government House was attended by large numbers of Bengali
gentlemen, who assured the lieutenant-governor that " the
trouble was nearly ended." The agitation was, in fact, largely
artificial, the work of Calcutta lawyers, journalists and
schoolmasters; the mass of the people, naturally law-abiding,
was unmoved by it so long as the government showed a firm
hand; while the Mussulmans, who formed a large proportion of
the whole, saw in the maintenance of the partition and of the
prestige of the British government the guarantees of their own
security.
All seemed to be going well when an unfortunate difference of
opinion occurred between the lieutenant-governor and the
central government, resulting in the resignation of Sir Bamp-
fylde Fuller (August 1906) and in ulterior consequences destined
to be of far-reaching import. The facts are briefly as follows.
Acting on a report of Dr P. Chatterji, inspector of schools, dated
January 2, 1906, the lieutenant-governor, on the loth of February,
addressed a letter to the registrar of Calcutta University recom-
mending that the privilege of affiliation to the university should
be withdrawn from the Banwarilal and Victoria high schools at
Sirajganj in Pabna, as a punishment for the seditious conduct
of both pupils and teachers. Apart from numerous cases of
illegal interference with trade and of disorder in the streets
reported against the students, two specific outrages of a serious
character were instanced as having occurred on the isth of
November: the raiding of a cart laden with English cloth
belonging to Marwari traders, and a cowardly assault by some
40 or 50 lads on the English manager of the Bank of Bengal.
These outrages " were not the result of thoughtlessness or sudden
excitement, but were the outcome of a regularly organized
scheme, set on foot and guided by the masters of these schools,
for employing the students in enforcing a boycott." All attempts
to discover and punish the offenders had been frustrated by the
refusal of the school authorities to take action, and in the opinion
of the lieutenant-governor the only course open was to apply the
remedy suggested in the circular letter addressed to magistrates
and collectors (October 10, 1905) by Mr R. W. Carlyle, theofficiat-
ing chief secretary to the government of Bengal, directing them,
in the event of students taking any part in political agitation,
boycotting and the like, to inform the heads of schools or colleges
concerned that, unless they prevented such action being taken
by the boys attending their institutions, their grant-in-aid and the
privilege of competing for scholarships and of receiving scholar-
ship-holders would be withdrawn, and that the university would
be asked to disaffiliate their institutions.
The reply, dated July 5th, from the secretary in the home
department of the government of India, was to use Sir
Bampfylde's own later expression to throw him over. It was
likely that a difference of opinion in the syndicate of the uni-
versity would arise as to the degree of culpability that attached
to the proprietors of the schools; in the event of the syndicate
taking any " punitive action," the matter was certain to be raised
in the senate, and would lead to an acrimonious public discussion,
in which the partition of Bengal and the administration of the
new province would be violently attacked; and in the actual
state of public opinion in Bengal it seemed to the government of
India highly inexpedient that such a debate should take place.
" Collective punishment," too, " would be liable to be mis-
construed in England," and the government preferred to rely
on the gradual effect of the new university regulations, which
aimed " at discouraging the participation of students in political
movements by enforcing the responsibility of masters and the
managing committees of schools for maintaining discipline."
On receipt of this communication Sir Bampfylde Fuller at
once tendered his resignation to the viceroy (July 15). He
pointed out that to withdraw from the position taken up would
be " concession, not in the interests of education, but to those
people in Calcutta who have been striving to render my govern-
ment impossible, in order to discredit the partition "; that
previous concessions had had merely provocative effects, and
that were he to give way in this matter his authority would be so
weakened that he would be unable to maintain order in the
country. On the 3rd of August, after some days of deliberation,
the viceroy telegraphed saying that he was " unable to reconsider
the orders sent," and accepting Sir Bampfylde's resignation.
By the Anglo-Indian press the news was received with something
like consternation, the Times of India describing the resignation
as one of the gravest blunders ever committed in the history of
British rule in India, and as a direct incentive to the forces of
disquiet, disturbance and unrest. Equally emphatic was the
verdict of the Mussulman community forming two-thirds of the
population of Eastern Bengal. On the 7th of August, the day of
Sir Bampfylde Fuller's departure from Dacca, a mass-meeting
of 30,000 Mahommedans was held, which placed on record their
disapproval of a system of government " which maintains no
continuity of policy," and expressed its feeling that the lowering
of British prestige must " alienate the sympathy of a numerically
important and loyal section of His Majesty's subjects "; and
many meetings of Mussulmans subsequently passed resolutions
to the same general effect. The Akhbar-i-Islam, the organ of
Bombay Mussulman opinion, deplored the " unwise step "
taken by the government, and ascribed it to Lord Minto's fear
of the Babu press, a display of weakness of which the Babus
would not be slow to take advantage.
This latter prophecy was not slow in fulfilling itself. So early
as the 8th of August Calcutta was the scene of several large
demonstrations at which the Swadeshi vow was renewed, and
at which resolutions were passed declining to accept the partition
as a settled fact, and resolving on the continuance of the agitation.
The tone of the Babu press was openly exultant: " We have
read the familiar story of the Russian traveller and the wolves,"
said a leading Indian newspaper in Calcutta. " The British
government follows a similar policy. First the little babies
were offered up in the shape of the Bande Mataram circular
and the Carlyle circular. Now a bigger boy has gone in the
person of our own Joseph. Courage, therefore, O wolves!
Press on and the horse will soon be yours to devour ! Afterwards
the traveller himself will alone be left." 1 The task before the
new lieutenant-governor of Eastern Bengal, the Hon. L. Hare,
was obviously no easy one. The encouragement given to sedition
by the weakness of the government in this case was shown by
later events in Bengal and elsewhere (see INDIA: History, ad fin.).
For the early history of the various portions of the province see
BENGAL and ASSAM.
See Sir James Bourdillon, The Partition of Bengal (Society of Arts,
!95) I official blue-books on The ReconsMution of the Provinces of
Bengal and Assam (Cd. 2658 and 2746), and Resignation of Sir J.
Bampfylde Fuller, lieutenant-governor, &c. (Cd. 3242). A long
letter from Sir J. B. Fuller, headed J'accuse, attacking the general
policy of the Indian government in regard to the seditious propa-
ganda, appeared in The Times of June 6, 1908.
EASTERN QUESTION, THE, the expression used in diplomacy
from about the time of the congress of Verona (1822) to compre-
hend the international problems involved in the decay of the
Turkish empire and its supposed impending dissolution. The
essential questions that are involved are so old that historians
commonly speak of the " Eastern Question " in reference to
events that happened long before the actual phrase was coined.
But, wherever used, it is always the Turkish Question, the
1 Quoted by Mr F. S. P. Lely in The Times of November 22, 1906.
8 3 2
EASTERN QUESTION
generic term in which subsidiary issues, e.g. the Greek, Armenian
or Macedonian questions, are embraced. That a phrase of so
wide and loose a nature should have been stereotyped in so
narrow a sense is simply the outcome of the conditions under
which it was invented. To the European diplomatists of the
first half of the ipth century the Ottoman empire was still the
only East with which they were collectively brought into contact.
The rivalry of Great Britain and Russia in Persia had not
yet raised the question of the Middle East; still less any
ambitions of Germany in the Euphrates valley. The immense
and incalculable problems involved in the rise of Japan, the
awakening of China, and their relations to the European powers
and to America known as the Far Eastern Question are
comparatively but affairs of yesterday.
The Eastern Question, though its roots are set far back in
history in the ancient contest between the political and intel-
lectual ideals of Greece and Asia, and in the perennial rivalry
of the powers for the control of the great trade routes to the
East dates in its modern sense from the treaty of Kuchuk
Kainarji in 1774, which marked the definitive establishment of
Russia as a Black Sea power and formed the basis of her special
claims to interfere in the affairs of the Ottoman empire. The
compact between Napoleon and the emperor Alexander I. at
Tilsit (1807) marked a new phase, which culminated in 1812 in
the treaty of Bucharest, in which Russia definitely appeared
as the protector of the Christian nationalities subject to the
Ottoman sultan.
The attitude of the various powers in the Eastern Question
was now defined. Russia, apart from her desire to protect the
Orthodox nationalities subject to the Ottoman power, aimed
at owning or controlling the straits by which alone she could
find an outlet to the Mediterranean and the ocean beyond.
Austria, once the champion of Europe against the Turk, saw in
the Russian advance on the Danube a greater peril than any to
be feared from the moribund Ottoman power, and made the
maintenance of the integrity of Turkey a prime object of her
policy. She was thus brought into line with Great Britain,
whose traditional friendship with Turkey was strengthened by
the rise of a new power whose rapid advance threatened the
stability of British rule in India. But though Austria, Great
Britain and presently France, were all equally interested in
maintaining the Ottoman empire, the failure of the congress of
Vienna in 1815 to take action in the matter of a guarantee of
Turkey, and the exclusion of the Sultan from the Holy
Alliance, seemed to endorse the claim of Russia to regard
the Eastern Question as " her domestic concern " in which
" Europe " had no right to interfere. The revolt of the Greeks
(1821) put this claim to the test; by the treaty of Adrianople
(1829) Russia stipulated for their autonomy as part of the price
of peace, but the powers assembled in conference at London
refused to recognize this settlement, and the establishment
of Greece as an independent kingdom (1832) was really aimed
at the pretensions and the influence of Russia. These reached
their high-water mark in the treaty of Unkiar Skelessi (July 8th,
1832). It was no longer a question of the partition of Turkey
or of a Russian conquest of Constantinople, but of the deliberate
degradation by Russia of the Ottoman empire into a weak state
wholly dependent upon herself . The ten years' crisis (1831-1841)
evoked by the revolt of Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt, thus
resolved itself into a diplomatic struggle between Russia and the
other powers to maintainor to recover influence at Constantinople.
The Russian experiment of maintaining the integrity of Turkey
while practically treating her as a vassal state, ended with the
compromise of 1841; and the emperor Nicholas I. reverted to
the older idea of expelling the Turks from Europe. The Eastern
Question, however, slumbered until, in 1851, the matter of the
Holy Places was raised by Napoleon III., involving the whole
question of the influence in Ottoman affairs of France under
the capitulations of 1740 and of Russia under the treaty of 1774.
The Crimean War followed and in 1856 the treaty of Paris, by
which the powers hoped to stem the tide of Russian advance and
establish the integrity of a reformed Ottoman state. Turkey
was now for the first time solemnly admitted to the European
concert. The next critical phase was opened in 1871, when
Russia took advantage of the collapse of France to denounce the
Black Sea clauses of the treaty of 1856. The renewal of an
aggressive policy thus announced to the world soon produced
a new crisis in the Eastern Question, which had meanwhile
become complicated by the growth of Pan-Slav ideals in eastern
Europe. In 1875 a rising in Herzegovina gave evidence of a state
of feeling in the Balkan peninsula which called for the intervention
of Europe, if a disastrous war were to be prevented. But this
intervention, embodied in the " Andrassy Note " (December 1875)
and the Berlin memorandum (May 1876), met with the stubborn
opposition of Turkey, where the " young Turks " were beginning
to oppose a Pan-Islamic to the Pan-Slav ideal. The Russo-
Turkish War of 1877-78 followed, concluded by the treaty of San
Stefano, the terms of which were modified in Turkey's favour by
the congress of Berlin (1878), which marks the beginning of the
later phase of the Eastern Question. Between Russia and Turkey
it interposed, in effect, a barrier of independent (Rumania, Servia)
and quasi-independent (Bulgaria) states, erected with the counsel
and consent of collective Europe. It thus, while ostensibly
weakening, actually tended to strengthen the Ottoman power of
resistance.
The period following the treaty of Berlin is coincident with the
reign of Sultan Abd-ul-Hamid II. The international position of
the Ottoman empire was strengthened by the able, if Machiavel-
lian, statecraft of the sultan; while the danger of disruption from
within was lessened by the more effective central control made
possible by railways, telegraphs, and the other mechanical im-
provements borrowed from western civilization. With the
spread of the Pan-Islamic movement, moreover, the undefined
authority of the sultan as caliph of Islam received a fresh
importance even in countries beyond the borders of the Ottoman
empire, while in countries formerly, or nominally still, subject
to it, it caused, and promised to cause, incalculable trouble.
The Eastern Question thus developed, in the latter years of
the i gth century, from that of the problems raised by the impend-
ing break-up of a moribund empire, into the even more complex
question of how to deal with an empire which showed vigorous
evidence of life, but of a type of life which, though on all sides
in close touch with modern European civilization, was incapable
of being brought into harmony with it. The belief in the im-
minent collapse of the Ottoman dominion was weakened almost
to extinction; so was the belief, which inspired the treaty of
1856, in the capacity of Turkey to reform and develop itself
on European lines. But the Ottoman empire remained, the
mistress of vast undeveloped wealth. The remaining phase of the
Eastern Question, if we except the concerted efforts to impose,
good government on Macedonia in the interests of European
peace, or the side issues in Egypt and Arabia, was the rivalry
of the progressive nations for the right to exploit this wealth.
In this rivalry Germany, whose interest in Turkey even so late
as the congress of Berlin had been wholly subordinate, took a
leading part, unhampered by the traditional policies or the
humanitarian considerations by which the interests of the older
powers were prejudiced. The motives of German intervention
in the Eastern Question were ostensibly commercial; but the
Bagdad railway concession, postulating for its ultimate success
the control of the trade route by way of the Euphrates valley,
involved political issues of the highest moment and opened up a
new and perilous phase of the question of the Middle East.
This was the position when in 1908 an entirely new situation
was created by the Turkish revolution. As the result of the
patient and masterly organization of the " young Turks," com-
bined with the universal discontent with the rule of the sultan
and the palace camarilla, the impossible seemed to be achieved,
and the heterogeneous elements composing the Ottoman empire
to be united in the desire to establish a unified state on the con-
stitutional model of the West. The result on the international
situation was profound. Great Britain hastened to re-knit the
bonds of her ancient friendship with Turkey; the powers,
without exception, professed their sympathy with the new regime.
EAST GRINSTEAD EAST HAMPTON
833
The establishment of a united Turkey on a constitutional and
nationalist basis was, however, not slow in producing a fresh
complication in the Eastern Question. Sooner or later the
issue was sure to be raised of the status of those countries, still
nominally part of the Ottoman empire, but in effect independent,
like Bulgaria, or subject to another state, like Bosnia and
Herzegovina. The cutting of the Gordian knot by Austria's
annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and by the proclamation
of the independence of Bulgaria, and of Prince Ferdinand's
assumption of the old title of tsar (king), threatened to raise the
Eastern Question once more in its acutest form. The inter-
national concert defined in the treaty of Berlin had been rudely
shaken, if not destroyed; the denunciation by Austria, without
consulting her co-signatories, of the clauses of the treaty affecting
herself seemed to invalidate all the rest; and in the absence of
the restraining force of a united concert of the great powers, free
play seemed likely once more to be given to the rival ambitions
of the Balkan nationalities, the situation being complicated by
the necessity for the dominant party in the renovated Turkish
state to maintain its prestige. During the anxious months
that followed the Austrian coup, the efforts of diplomacy were
directed to calming the excitement of Servians, Montenegrins
and the Young Turks, and to considering a European conference
in which the fait accompli should be regularized in accordance
with the accepted canons of international law. The long delay
in announcing the assembly of the conference proved the extreme
difficulty of arriving at any satisfactory basis of settlement;
and though the efforts of the powers succeeded in salving the
wounded pride of the Turks, and restraining the impetuosity
of the Serbs and Montenegrins, warlike preparations on the part
of Austria continued during the winter of 1008-1909, being
justified by the agitation in Servia, Montenegro and the annexed
provinces. It was not till April 1909 (see EUROPE: ad fin.)
that the crisis was ended, through the effectual backing given
bv Germany to Austria; and Russia, followed by England and
France, gave way and assented to what had been done.
See TURKEY: History, where cross-references to the articles on
the various phases of the Eastern Question will be found, together
with a bibliography. See also E. Dnault, La Question d' orient depuis
son origine (Paris, 1898), a comprehensive sketch of the whole subject,
including the Middle and Far East. (W. A. P.)
EAST GRINSTEAD, a market town in the East Grinstead
parliamentary division of Sussex, England, 30 m. S. by E. from
London by the London, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. of
urban district (1901) 6094. St Swithin's church contains, among
numerous ancient memorials, one of the iron memorial slabs
(1507) peculiar to certain churches of Sussex, and recalling the
period when iron was extensively worked in the district. There
may be noticed Sackville College (an almshouse founded in 1608),
and St Margaret's home and orphanage, founded by the Rev.
John Mason Neale (1818-1866), warden of Sackville College.
Brewing and brick and tile making are carried on. In the
vicinity (near Forest Row station) is the golf course of the Royal
Ashdown Forest Golf Club.
The hundred of East Grinstead (Grenestede, Estgrensted)
was in the possession of the count of Mortain in 1086, but no
mention of a vill or manor of East Grinstead is made in the
Domesday Survey. In the reign of Henry III. the hundred was
part of the honour of Aquila, then in the king's hands. The
honour was granted by him to Peter of Savoy, through whom
it passed to his niece Queen Eleanor. In the next reign the
king's mother held the borough of East Grinstead as parcel of
the honour of Aquila. East Grinstead was included in a grant
by Edward III. to John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, and it
remained part of the duchy of Lancaster until James I. granted
the borough to Sir George Rivers, through whom it was obtained
by the Sackvilles, earls of Dorset. East Grinstead was a borough
by prescription. In the i6th century it was governed by an
alderman, bailiff and constable. It returned two members to
parliament from 1307 until 1832, but was disenfranchised by
the Reform Act. In 1285 the king ordered that his market at
Grenestede should be held on Saturday instead of Sunday, and
in 1516 the inhabitants of the town were granted a market each
vrn. 27
week on Saturday and a fair every year on the eve of St Andrew
and two days following. Charles I. granted the earl of Dorset
a market on Thursday instead of the Saturday market, and fairs
on the i6th of April and the 26th of September every year.
Thursday is still the market-day, and cattle-fairs are now held
on the 2ist of April and the nth of December.
EAST HAM, a municipal borough in the southern parlia-
mentary division of Essex, England, contiguous to West Ham,
and thus forming geographically part of the eastward extension of
London. Pop. (1901) 96,018. Its modern growth has been very
rapid, the population being in the main of the artisan class.
There are some chemical and other factories. The ancient
parish church of St Mary Magdalen retains Norman work in the
chancel, which terminates in an eastern apse. There is a monu-
ment for Edmund Neville who claimed the earldom of Westmor-
land in the i7th century, and William Stukeley, the antiquary,
was buried in the churchyard. East Ham was incorporated
in 1904, and among its municipal undertakings is a technical
college (1905). The corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen
and 1 8 councillors. Area, 33205 acres.
EASTHAMPTON, a township of Hampshire county, Mass.,
U.S.A., in the Connecticut Valley. Pop. (1900) 5603, of whom
1731 were foreign-born; (1905) 6808; (1910) 8524. Itisservedby
the Boston & Maine, and the New York, New Haven & Hartford
railways, and by interurban electric railways. The township
is generally level, and is surrounded by high hills. In East-
hampton are a free public library and Williston Seminary; the
latter, one of the oldest and largest preparatory schools in New
England, was founded in 1841 by the gifts of Samuel Williston
(1795-1874) and Emily Graves Williston (1797-1885). Mr and
Mrs Williston built up the industry of covering buttons with
cloth, at first doing the work by hand, then (1827) experimenting
with machinery, and in 1848 building a factory for making and
covering buttons. As the soil was fertile and well watered, the
township had been agricultural up to this time. It is now chiefly
devoted to manufacturing. Among its products are cotton goods,
especially mercerised goods, for the manufacture of which it has
one of the largest plants in the country; rubber, thread, elastic
fabrics, suspenders and buttons. Parts of Northampton and
Southampton were incorporated as the " district " of East-
hampton in 1785; it became a township in 1809, and in 1841
and 1850 annexed parts of Southampton.
EAST HAMPTON, a township of Suffolk county, New York,
in the extreme S.E. part of Long Island, occupying the peninsula
of Montauk, and bounded on the S. and E. by the Atlantic Ocean,
and on the N. by Block Island Sound, Gardiner's Bay and
Peconic Bay. Pop. (1900) 3746; (1905) 4303; (1910) 4722.
The township, 25 m. long and 8 m. at its greatest width from
north to south, has an irregular north coast-line and a very
regular south coast-line. The surface is rougher to the west
where there are several large lakes, notably Great Pond, 2 m.
long. The scenery is picturesque and the township is much
frequented by artists. Montauk Lighthouse, on Turtle Hill,
was first built in 1795. At Montauk, after the Spanish- American
War, was Camp Wikoff, a large U.S. military camp. The
township is served by the southern division of the Long Island
railway, the terminus of which is Montauk. Other villages of
the township, all summer resorts, are: Promised Land, Amagan-
sett, East Hampton and Sag Harbor: the la^t named, only partly
in the township, was incorporated in 1803 and had a population
of 1969 in 1900, and 3084 in 1910. Silverware and watch cases
are manufactured here. From Sag Harbor, which is a port of
entry, a daily steamer runs to New York city. The village
received many gifts in 1906-1908 from Mrs Russell Sage. Most
of the present township was bought from the Indians (Montauks,
Corchaugs and Shinnecocks) in 1648 for about 30, through the
governors of Connecticut and New Haven, by nine Massa-
chusetts freemen, mostly inhabitants of Lynn, Massachusetts.
With twenty other families they settled here in 1649, calling the
place Maidstone, from the old home of some of the settlers in
Kent; but as early as 1650 the name East Hampton was used
in reference to the earlier settlement of South Hampton. Until
834
EAST INDIA COMPANY
1664, when all Long Island passed to the duke of York, the
government was by town meeting, autonomous and independent
except for occasional appeals to Connecticut. In 1683 Gardiner's
Island, settled by Lion Gardiner in 1639 and so one of the first
English settlements in what is now New York state, was made
a part of Long Island and of East Hampton township. The
English settlements in East Hampton were repeatedly threatened
by pirates and privateers, and there are many stories of treasure
buried by Captain Kidd on Gardiner's Island and on Montauk
Point. The Clinton Academy, opened in East Hampton village
in 1785, was long a famous school. Of the church built here
in 1653 (first Congregational and after 1747 Presbyterian in
government), Lyman Beecher was pastor in 1799-1810; and in
East Hampton were born his elder children. Whale fishing was
begun in East Hampton in 1675, when four Indians were engaged
by whites in off -shore whaling; but Sag Harbor, which was first
settled in 1730 and was held by the British after the battle of
Long Island as a strategic naval and shipping point, became the
centre of the whaling business. The first successful whaling
voyage was made from Sag Harbor in 1785, and although the
Embargo ruined the fishing for a time, it revived during 1830-
1850. Cod and menhaden fishing, the latter for the manufacture
of fish-oil and guano, were important for a time, but in the
second half of the I9th century Sag Harbor lost its commercial
importance.
EAST INDIA COMPANY, an incorporated company for ex-
ploiting the trade with India and the Far East. In the i?th
and 1 8th centuries East India companies were established by
England, Holland, France, Denmark, Scotland, Spain, Austria
and Sweden. By far the most important of these was the
English East India Company, which became the dominant
power in India, and only handed over its functions to the British
Government in 1858 (see also DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY,
OSTEND COMPANY).
The English East India Company was founded at the end of
the i6th century in order to compete with the Dutch merchants,
who had obtained a practical monopoly of the trade
ttxl ' sb with the Spice Islands, and had raised the price of
India Co. pepper from 33. to 8s. per ft. Queen Elizabeth incor-
porated it by royal charter, dated December 31, 1600,
under the title of " The Governor and Company of Merchants
of London, trading into the East Indies." This charter conferred
the sole right of trading with the East Indies, i.e. with all countries
lying beyond the Cape of Good Hope or the Straits of Magellan,
upon the company for a term of 1 5 years. Unauthorized inter-
lopers were liable to forfeiture of ships and cargo. There were
125 shareholders in the original East India Company, with a
capital of 72,000: the first governor was Sir Thomas Smythe.
The early voyages of the company, from 1601 to 1612, are dis-
tinguished as the " separate voyages," because the subscribers
individually bore the cost of each voyage and reaped the whole
profits, which seldom fell below 100%. After 1612 the voyages
were conducted on the joint stock system for the benefit of the
company as a whole. These early voyages, whose own narra-
tives may be read in Purchas, pushed as far as Japan, and estab-
lished friendly relations at the court of the Great Mogul. In
1610-1611 Captain Hippon planted the first English factories
on the mainland of India, at Masulipatam and at Pettapoli in
the Bay of Bengal. The profitable nature of the company's
trade had induced James I. to grant subsidiary licences to private
traders; but in 1609 he renewed the company's charter " for
ever," though with a proviso that it might be revoked on three
years' notice if the trade should not prove profitable to the realm.
Meanwhile friction was arising between the English and
Dutch East India Companies. The Dutch traders considered
that they had prior rights in the Far East, and their
awl Dutch ascen dancy in the Indian Archipelago was indeed
disputes, firmly established on the basis of territorial dominion
and authority. In 1613 they made advances to the
English company with a suggestion for co-operation, but the
offer was declined, and the next few years were fertile in disputes
between the armed traders of both nations. In 1619 was ratified
a " treaty of defence " to prevent disputes between the English
and Dutch companies. When it was proclaimed in the East,
hostilities solemnly ceased for the space of an hour, while the
Dutch and English fleets, dressed out in all their flags and with
yards manned, saluted each other; but the treaty ended in the
smoke of that stately salutation, and perpetual and fruitless
contentions between the Dutch and English companies went on
just as before. In 1623 these disputes culminated in the " mas-
sacre of Amboyna," where the Dutch governor tortured and
executed the English residents on a charge of conspiring to seize
the fort. Great and lasting indignation was aroused in England,
but it was not until the time of Cromwell that some pecuniary
reparation was exacted for the heirs of the victims. The
immediate result was that the English company tacitly admitted
the Dutch claims to a monopoly of the trade in the Far East
and confined their operations to the mainland of India and the
adjoining countries.
The necessity of good ships for the East Indian trade had
led the company in 1609 to construct their dockyard at Deptford,
from which, as Monson observes, dates " the increase
of great ships in England." Down to the middle of the jf fias '
ipth century, the famous " East Indiamen " held
unquestioned pre-eminence among the merchant vessels of the
world. Throughout the I7th century they had to be prepared
at any moment to fight not merely Malay pirates, but the armed
trading vessels of their Dutch, French and Portuguese rivals.
Many such battles are recorded in the history of the East India
Company, and usually with successful results.
It was not until it had been in existence for more than a century
that the English East India Company obtained a practical
monopoly of the Indian trade. In 1635, a year after The ac-
the Great Mogul had granted it the liberty of trading guisi-
throughout Bengal, Charles I. issued a licence to '
Courten's rival association, known as " the Assada '
Merchants," on the ground that the company had neglected
English interests. The piratical methods of their rivals disgraced
the company with the Mogul officials, and a modus vivendi was
only reached in 1649. In 1657 Cromwell renewed the charter of
1609, providing that the Indian trade should be in the hands of
a single joint stock company. The new company thus formed
bought up the factories, forts and privileges of the old one. It
was further consolidated by the fostering care of Charles II.,
who granted it five important charters. From a simple trading
company, it grew under his reign into a great chartered company
to use the modern term with the right to acquire territory,
coin money, command fortresses and troops, form alliances, make
war and peace, and exercise both civil and criminal jurisdiction.
It is accordingly in 1689, when the three presidencies of Bengal,
Madras and Bombay had lately been established, that the ruling
career of the East India Company begins, with the passing by
its directors of the following resolution for the guidance of the
local governments in India: " The increase of our revenue
is the subject of our care, as much as our trade; 'tis that must
maintain our force when twenty accidents may interrupt our
trade; 'tis that must make us a nation in India; without that
we are but a great number of interlopers, united by His Majesty's
royal charter, fit only to trade where nobody of power thinks
it their interest to prevent us; and upon this account it is that
the wise Dutch, in all their general advices that we have seen,
write ten paragraphs concerning their government, their civil
and military policy, warfare, and the increase of their revenue,
for one paragraph they write concerning trade." From this
moment the history of the transactions of the East India Com-
pany becomes the history of British India (see INDIA: History).
Here we shall only trace the later changes in the constitution and
powers of the ruling body itself.
The great prosperity of the company under the Restoration,
and the immense profits of the Indian trade, attracted a number
of private traders, both outside merchants and dis-
missed or retired servants of the company, who came The later-
to be known as " interlopers." - In 1683 the case of l P en -
Thomas Sandys, an interloper, raised the whole question of the
EAST INDIES EASTLAKE
835
royal prerogative to create a monopoly of the Indian trade.
The case was tried by Judge Jeffreys, who upheld the royal
prerogative; but in spite of his decision the custom of inter-
loping continued and laid the foundation of many great fortunes.
By 1691 the interlopers had formed themselves into a new
society, meeting at Dowgate, and rivalling the old company;
the case was carried before the House of Commons, which de-
clared in 1694 that " all the subjects of England -have equal
right to trade to the East Indies unless prohibited by act of
parliament." This decision led up to the act of 1698, which
created a new East India Company in consideration of a loan
of two millions to the state. The old company subscribed
315,000 and became the dominant factor in the new body;
while at the same time it retained its charter for three years,
its factories, forts and assured position in India. The rivalry
between the two companies continued both in England and in
India, until they were finally amalgamated by a tripartite in-
denture between the companies and Queen Anne (1702), which
was ratified under the Godolphin Award (1708). Under this
award the company was to lend the nation 3,200,000, and its
exclusive privileges were to cease at three years' notice after
this amount had been repaid. But by this time the need for
permanence in the Indian establishment began to be felt, while
parliament would not relinquish its privilege of " milking "
the company from time to time. In 1712 an act was passed con-
tinuing the privileges of the company even after their fund should
be redeemed; in 1730 the charter was prolonged until 1766,
and in 1742 the term was extended until 1783 in return for the
loan of a million. This million was required for the war with
France, which extended to India and involved the English and
French companies there in long-drawn hostilities, in which the
names of Dupleix and Clive became prominent.
So long as the company's chief business was that of trade, it
was left to manage its own affairs. The original charter of
rht Elizabeth had placed its control in the hands of a
company governor and a committee of twenty-four, and this
and the arrangement subsisted in essence down to the time of
cmwa - George III. The chairman and court of directors in
London exercised unchecked control over their servants in India.
But after Clive's brilliant victory at Plassey (1757) had made
the company a ruling power in India, it was felt to be necessary
that the British government should have some control over the
territories thus acquired. Lord North's Regulating Act (1773)
raised the governor of Bengal Warren Hastings to the rank
of governor-general, and provided that his nomination, though
made by a court of directors, should in future be subject to the
approval of the crown; in conjunction with a council of four,
he was entrusted with the power of peace and war; a supreme
court of judicature was established, to which the judges were
appointed by the crown; and legislative power was conferred
on the governor-general and his council. Next followed Pitt's
India Bill (1784), which created the board of control, as a
department of the English government, to exercise political,
military and financial superintendence over the British posses-
sions in India. This bill first authorized the historic phrase
" governor-general in council." From this date the direction
of Indian policy passed definitely from the company to the
governor-general in India and the ministry in London. In 1813
Lord Liverpool passed a bill which further gave the board of
control authority over the company's commercial transactions,
and abolished its monopoly of Indian trade, whilst leaving it
the monopoly of the valuable trade with China, chiefly in tea.
Finally, under Earl Grey's act of 1833, the company was deprived
of this monopoly also. Its property was then secured on the
Indian possessions, and its annual dividends of ten guineas per
i oo stock were made a charge upon the Indian revenue. Hence-
forward the East India Company ceased to be a trading concern
and exercised only administrative functions. Such a position
could not, in the nature of things, be permanent, and the great
cataclysm of the Indian Mutiny was followed by the entire
transference of Indian administration from the company to the
crown, on the 2nd of August 1858.
See Purchas his Pilgrimes (ed. 1905), vols. 2, 3, 4, 5, for the charter
of Elizabeth and the early voyages; Sir W. W. Hunter, History
of British India (1899); Beckles Willson, Ledger and Sword (1903);
Sir George Birdwood, Report on the Old Records of the India Office
(1879) ; The East India Company's First Letter Book (1895) ; Letters
Received by the East India Company from its Servants in the East,
ed. Foster, (1896 ff.). See also the interesting memorial volume
Relics of the Honourable East India Company (ed. Griggs, 1909),
letterpress by Sir G. Birdwood and W. Foster.
EAST INDIES, a name formerly applied vaguely, in its widest
sense, to the whole area of India, Further India and the Malay
Archipelago, in distinction from the West Indies, which, at the
time of their discovery, were taken to be the extreme parts of
the Indian region. The term " East Indies " is still sometimes
applied to the Malay Archipelago (q.v.) alone, and the phrase
" Dutch East Indies " is commonly used to denote the Dutch
possessions which constitute the greater part of that archipelago.
The Dutch themselves use the term Nederlandsch-Indie.
EASTLAKE, SIR CHARLES LOCK (1793-1865), English
painter, was born on the I7th of November 1793 at Plymouth,
where his father, a man of uncommon gifts but of indolent
temperament, was solicitor to the admiralty and judge advocate 1
of the admiralty court. Charles was educated (like Sir Joshua
Reynolds) at the Plympton grammar-school, and in London at
the Charterhouse. Towards 1809, partly through the influence
of his fellow-Devonian Haydon, of whom he became a pupil,
he determined to be a painter; he also studied in the Royal
Academy school. In 1813 he exhibited in the British Institution
his first picture, a work of considerable size, " Christ restoring
life to the Daughter of Jairus." In 1814 he was commissioned
to copy some of the paintings collected by Napoleon in the
Louvre; he returned to England in 1815, and practised portrait-
painting at Plymouth. Here he saw Napoleon a captive on
the " Bellerophon "; from a boat he made some sketches of'
the emperor, and he afterwards painted, from these sketches
and from memory, a life-sized full-length portrait of him (with
some of his officers) which was pronounced a good likeness;
it belongs to the marquess of Lansdowne. In 1817 Eastlake
went to Italy; in 1819 to Greece; in 1820 back to Italy, where
he remained altogether fourteen years, chiefly in Rome and in
Ferrara.
In 1827 he exhibited at the Royal Academy his picture Of the
Spartan Isidas, who (as narrated by Plutarch in the life of
Agesilaus), rushing naked out of his bath, performed prodigies
of valour against the Theban host. This was the first work that
attracted much notice to the name of Eastlake, who in conse-
quence obtained his election as A.R.A.; in 1830, wheh'he
returned to England, he was chosen R.A. In 1850 he succeeded
Shee as president of the Royal Academy, and was knighted.
Prior to this, in 1841, he had been appointed secretary to the
royal commission for decorating the Houses of Parliament, and
he retained this post until the commission was dissolved in 1862.
In 1843 he was made keeper of the National Gallery, a post
which he resigned in 1847 in consequence of an unfortunate
purchase that roused much animadversion, a portrait erroneously
ascribed to Holbein; in 1855, director of the same institution,
with more extended powers. During his directorship he pur-
chased for the gallery 155 pictures, mostly of the Italian schools.
He became also a D.C.L. of Oxford, F.R.S., a chevalier of the
Legion of Honour, and member of various foreign academies.
In 1849 he married Miss Elizabeth Rigby, who had already then
become known as a writer (Letters from the Baltic, 1841 ; Liwnian
Tales, 1846; The Jewess, 1848) and as a contributor to the
Quarterly Review. Lady Eastlake (1809-1893) had for some years
been interested in art subjects, and after her marriage she
naturally devoted more attention to them, translating Waagen's
Treasures of Art in Great Britain (1854-1857), and completing
Mrs Jameson's History of our Lord in Works of Art. In 1865
Sir. Charles Eastlake fell ill at Milan; and he died at Pisa on the
24th of December in the same year. Lady Eastlake, who sur-
vived him for many years, continued to play an active part as a
writer on art (Five Great Painters, 1883, &c.), and had a large
circle of friends among the most interesting men and women of
the day. In 1880 she published a volume of Letters from France
8 3 6
EAST LIVERPOOL EASTON
describing events in Paris during 1789), written by her father,
Edward Rigby (1747-1821), a distinguished Norwich doctor
who was known also for his practical interest in agriculture, and
who is said to have made known the flying shuttle to Norwich
manufacturers.
As a painter, Sir Charles Eastlake was gentle, harmonious,
diligent and correct; lacking fire of invention or of execution;
eclectic, without being exactly imitative; influenced rather by a
love of ideal grace and beauty than by any marked bent of
individual power or vigorous originality. Among his principal
works (which were not numerous, 51 being the total exhibited in
the Academy) are: 1828, " Pilgrims arriving in sight of Rome "
(repeated in 1835 and 1836, and perhaps on the whole his
chef-d'au-ore); 1829, " Byron's Dream " (in the Tate Gallery);
1834, the " Escape of Francesco di Carrara " (a duplicate in
the Tate Gallery); 1841, " Christ Lamenting over Jerusalem "
(ditto); 1843, " Hagar and Ishmael "; 1845, " Comus "; 1849,
"Helena"; 1851, " Ippolita Torelli "; 1853, " Violante ";
1855, " Beatrice." These female heads, of a refined semi-ideal
quality, with something of Venetian glow of tint, are the most
satisfactory specimens of Eastlake's work to an artist's eye.
He was an accomplished and judicious scholar in matters of art,
and published, in 1840, a translation of Goethe's Theory of
Colours; in 1847 (his chief literary work) Materials for a History
of OU-Painting, especially valuable as regards the Flemish school;
in 1848, Contributions to the Literature of the Fine Arts (a second
series was edited by Lady Eastlake in 1870, and accompanied by a
Memoir from her pen); in 1851 and 1855, translated editions of
Kugler's History of the Italian School of Painting, and Handbook
of Painting (new edition, by Lady Eastlake, 1874).
See W. Cosmo Monkhouse, Pictures by Sir Charles Eastlake, with
biographical and critical Sketch (1875). " (W. M. R.)
EAST LIVERPOOL, a city of Columbiana county, Ohio, U.S.A.,
on the Ohio river, about 106 m. S.E. of Cleveland. Pop. (1890)
10,956; (1900) 16,485, of whom 2112 were foreign-born; (1910
census) 20,387. It is served by the Pennsylvania railway, by
river steamboats, and by interurban electric lines. Next to
Trenton, New Jersey, East Liverpool is the most important
place in the United States for the manufacture of earthen-
ware and pottery, 4859 out of its 5228 wage-earners, or 92-9%,
being employed in this industry in 1905, when $5,3 73,85 2 (83-5%
of the value of all its factory products) was the value of the
earthenware and pottery. No other city in the United States
is so exclusively devoted to the manufacture of pottery; in 1908
there were 32 potteries in the city and its immediate vicinity.
The manufacture of white ware, begun in 1872, is the most
important branch of the industry almost half of the " cream-
coloured," white granite ware and semivitreous porcelain pro-
duced in the United States in 1905 (in value, $4,344,468 out of
$9,195,703) being manufactured in East Liverpool. Though
there are large clay deposits in the vicinity, very little of it can be
used for crockery, and most of the clay used in the city's potteries
is obtained from other states; some of it is imported from Europe.
After 1872 a large number of skilled English pottery -workers
settled in the city. The city's product of pottery, terra-cotta
and fireclay increased from $2,137,063 to $4,105,200 from 1890
to 1900, and in the latter year almost equalled that of Trenton,
N.J., the two cities together producing more than half (50-9%)
of the total pottery product of the United States; in 1905 East
Liverpool and Trenton together produced 42-1% of the total
value of the country's pottery product. The municipality owns
and operates its water-works. East Liverpool was settled in
1798, and was incorporated in 1834.
EAST LONDON, a town of the Cape province, South Africa, at
the mouth of the Buffalo river, in 33 i' S. 27 55' E., 543 m.
E.N.E. of Cape Town by sea and 666 m. S. of Johannesburg by
rail. Pop.(i904) 25, 22o,ofwhom 14,674 werewhites. Thetown
is picturesquely situated on both sides of the river, which is
spanned by a combined road and railway bridge. The railway
terminus and business quarter are on the east side on the top of
the cliffs, which rise 150 ft. above the river. In Oxford Street,
the chief thoroughfare, is the town hall, a handsome building
erected in 1898. Higher up a number of churches and a school
are grouped round Vincent Square, a large open space. In conse-
quence of the excellent sea bathing, and the beauty of the river
banks above the town, East London is the chief seaside holiday
resort of the Cape province. The town is the entrepot of a rich
agricultural district, including the Transkei, Basutoland and the
south of Orange Free State, and the port of the Cape nearest
Johannesburg. It ranks third among the ports of the province.
The roadstead is exposed and insecure, but the inner harbour,
constructed at a cost of over 2,000,000, is protected from all
winds. A shifting sand bar lies at the mouth of the river, but
the building of training walls and dredging have increased the
minimum depth of water to 22 ft. From the east bank of the
Buffalo a pier and from the west bank a breakwater project into
the Indian Ocean, the entrance being 450 ft. wide, reduced
between the training walls to 250 ft. There is extensive wharf
accommodation on both sides of the river, and steamers of over
8000 tons can moor alongside. There is a patent slip capable
of taking vessels of 1000 tons dead weight. An aerial steel
ropeway from the river bank to the town greatly facilitates the
delivery of cargo. The imports are chiefly textiles, hardware
and provisions, the exports mainly wool and mohair. The
rateable value of the town in 1908 was 4,108,000, and the
municipal rate if d.
East London owes its foundation to the necessities of the
Kaffir war of 1846-1847. The British, requiring a port nearer
the scene of war than those then existing, selected a site at the
mouth of the Buffalo river, and in 1847 the first cargo of military
stores was landed. A fort, named Glamorgan, was built, and the
place permanently occupied. Around this military post grew
up the town, known at first as Port Rex. Numbers of its in-
habitants are descendants of German immigrants who settled in
the district in 1857. The prosperity of the town dates from the
era of railway and port development in the last decade of the
igth century. In 1875 the value of the exports was 131,803
and that of the imports 552,033. In 1904 the value of the
exports was 1,165,938 and that of the imports 4,688,415. In
1907 the exports, notwithstanding a period of severe trade
depression, were valued at 1,475,355, but the imports had fallen
to 3,354,633-
EASTON, a city and the county-seat of Northampton county,
Pennsylvania, U.S.A., at the confluence of the Lehigh river and
Bushkill Creek with the Delaware, about 60 m. N. of Philadelphia.
Pop. (1890) 14,481; (1900) 25,238, of whom 2135 were foreign-
born; (1910 census) 28,523. Easton is served by the Central
of New Jersey, the Lehigh Valley, the Lehigh & Hudson River
and the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western railways, and is
connected by canals with the anthracite coal region to the
north-west and with Bristol, Pa. A bridge across the Delaware
river connects it with Phillipsburg, New Jersey, which is served
by the Pennsylvania railway. The city is built on rolling ground,
commanding pleasant views of hill and river scenery. Many
fine residences overlook city and country from the hillsides, and
a Carnegie library is prominent among the public buildings.
Lafayette College, a Presbyterian institution opened in 1832,
is finely situated on a bluff north of the Bushkill and Delaware.
The college provides the following courses of instruction:
graduate, classical, Latin scientific, general scientific, civil
engineering, electrical engineering, mining engineering and
chemical; in 1908 it had 38 instructors and 442 students, 256
of whom were enrolled in the scientific and engineering courses.
Overlooking the Bushkill is the Easton Cemetery, in which is
the grave of George Taylor (1716-1781), a signer of the Declara-
tion of Independence, with a monument of Italian marble to
his memory. Among the city's manufactures are silk, hosiery
and knit goods, flour, malt liquors, brick, tile, drills, lumber and
planing mill products and organs; in 1905 the value of all the
factory products was $5,654,594, of which $2,290,598, or 40-5%,
was the value of the silk manufactures. Easton is the commercial
centre of an important mining region, which produces, in par-
ticular, iron ore, soapstone, cement, slate and building stone.
The municipality owns and operates an electric-lighting plant.
EAST ORANGE EAST PRUSSIA
837
Eastern was a garden spot of the Indians, and here, because they
would not negotiate elsewhere, several important treaties were
made between 1756 and 1762 during the French and Indian War.
The place was laid out in 1752, and was made the county-seat
of the newly erected county. It was incorporated as a borough
in 1789, received a new borough charter in 1823, and in 1887 was
chartered as a city. South Easton was annexed in 1898. '
EAST ORANGE, a city of Essex county, New Jersey, U.S.A.,
in the north-eastern part of the state, adjoining the city of Newark,
and about 12 m. W. of New York city. Pop. (1890) 13,282;
(1900) 21,506, of whom 3950 were foreign-born and 1420 were
negroes; (1910 census) 34,371. It is served by the Morris &
Essex division of the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western railway
and by the Orange branch of the Erie (the former having
four stations Ampere, Grove Street, East Orange and Brick
Church), and is connected with Newark, Orange and West
Orange by electric line. The city covers an area of about 4 sq. m. ,
and has broad, well-paved streets, bordered with fine shade trees
(under the jurisdiction of a " Shade Tree Commission "). It is
primarily a residential suburb of New York and Newark, and
has many beautiful homes; with Orange, West Orange and
South Orange it forms virtually one community, popularly
known as " the Oranges." The public school system is excellent,
and the city has a Carnegie library (1903), with more than
22,000 volumes in 1907. Among the principal buildings are
several attractive churches, the city hall, and the club-house of
the Woman's Club of Orange. The principal manufactures of
East Orange are electrical machinery, apparatus, and supplies
(the factory of the Crocker- Wheeler Co. being here in a part
of the city known as " Ampere ") and pharmaceutical materials.
The total value of the city's factory products in 1905 was
$2,326,552. East Orange has a fine water-works system, which
it owns and operates; the water supply is obtained from artesian
wells at White Oaks Ridge, in the township of Milburn (about
10 m. from the city hall) ; thence the water is pumped to a steel
reinforced reservoir (capacity 5,000,000 gallons) on the mountain
back of South Orange. In 1863 the township of East Orange
was separated from the township of Orange, which, in turn, had
been separated from the township of Newark in 1806. An act
of the New Jersey legislature in 1895 created the office of town-
ship president, with power of appointment and veto. Four years
later East Orange was chartered as a city.
See H. Whittemore, The Founders and Builders of the Oranges
(Newark, 1896).
EASTPORT, a city and port of entry of Washington county,
Maine, U.S.A., co-extensive with Moose Island in Passamaquoddy
Bay, about 190 m.E.N.E. of Portland. Pop. (1890) 4908; (1900)
5311 (1554 foreign-born); (1910) 4961. It is served by the
Washington County railway, and by steamboat lines to Boston,
Portland and Calais. It is the'most eastern city of the United
States, and is separated from the mainland by a narrow
channel, which is spanned by a bridge. The harbour is well
protected from the winds, and the tide, which rises and falls
here about 25 ft., prevents it from being obstructed with ice.
The city is built on ground sloping gently to the water's edge,
and commands delightful views of the bay, in which there are
several islands. Its principal industry is the canning of sardines;
there are also clam canneries. Shoes, mustard, decorated tin,
and shocks are manufactured, and fish and lobsters are shipped
from here in the season. The city is the port of entry for the
customs district of Passamaquoddy; in 1908 its imports were
valued at $994,961, and its exports at $1,155,791. Eastport
was first settled about 1782 by fishermen; it became a port of
entry in 1790, was incorporated as a town in 1798, and was
chartered as a city in 1893. It was a notorious place for
smuggling under the Embargo Acts of 1807 and 1808. On the
nth of July 1814, during the war of 1812, it was taken by the
British. As the British government claimed the islands of
Passamaquoddy Bay under the treaty of 1783, the British
forces retained possession of Eastport after the close of the war
and held it under martial law until July 1818, when it was
.surrendered in accordance with the decision rendered in
November 1817 by commissioners appointed under Article IV.
of the treaty of Ghent (1814), this decision awarding Moose
Island, Dudley Island and Frederick Island to the United States
and the other islands, including the Island of Grand Manan in
the Bay of Fundy, to Great Britain.
EAST PROVIDENCE, a township of Providence county,
Rhode Island, U.S.A., on the E. side of Providence river, opposite
Providence. Pop. (1890) 8422; (1900) 12,138, of whom 2067
were foreign-born; (1910 census) 15,808. Area, 12^ sq. m.
It is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway.
It has a rolling surface and contains several villages, one of which,
known as Rumford, has important manufactories of chemicals
and electrical supplies. South of this village, along the river
bank, are several attractive summer resorts, Hunt's Mills,
Silver Spring, Riverside, Vanity Fair, Kettle Point and Bullock's
Point being prominent among them. In 1905 the factory
products of the township were valued at $5,035,288. The
oyster trade is important. It was within the present limits of
this township that Roger Williams established himself in the
spring of 1636, until he learned that the place was within the
jurisdiction of the Plymouth Colony. About 1644 it was settled
by a company from Weymouth as a part of a town of Rehoboth.
In 1812 Rehoboth was divided, and the west part was made the
township of Seekonk. Finally, in 1861, it was decided that the
west part of Seekonk belonged to Rhode Island, and in the
following year that part was incorporated as the township of
East Providence.
EAST PRUSSIA (Ost-Preussen), the easternmost province of
the kingdom of Prussia, bounded on the N. by the Baltic, on the
E. and S.W. by Russia and Russian Poland, and on the W. by
the Prussian province of West Prussia. It has an area of 14,284
sq. m., and had, in 1905, a population of 2,025,741. It shares in
the general characteristics of the great north German plain,
but, though low, its surface is by no means absolutely flat, as the
southern half is traversed by a low ridge or plateau, which attains
a height of 1025 ft. at a point near the western boundary of the
province. This plateau, here named the Prussian Seenplatte, is
thickly sprinkled with small lakes, among which is the Spirding
See, 46 sq. m. in extent and the largest inland lake in the Prussian
monarchy. The coast is lined with low dunes or sandhills, in
front of which lie the large littoral lakes or lagoons named the
Frisches Haff and the Kurisches Haff. The first of these receives
the waters of the Nogat and the Pregel, and the other those
of the Memel or Niemen. East Prussia is the coldest part of
Germany, its mean annual temperature being about 44 F.,
while the mean January temperature of Tilsit is only 25. The
rainfall is 24 in. per annum. About half the province is under
tillage; 18% is occupied by forests, and about 23% by meadows
and pastures. The most fertile soil is found in the valleys of the
Pregel and the Memel, but the southern slopes of the Baltic
plateau and the district to the north of the Memel consist in
great part of sterile moor, sand and bog. The chief crops are rye,
oats and potatoes, while flax is cultivated in the district of
Ermeland, between the Passarge and the upper Alle. East
Prussia is the headquarters of the horse-breeding of the country,
and contains the principal government stud of Trakehnen;
numerous cattle are also fattened on the rich pastures of the river-
valleys. The extensive woods in the south part of the province
harbour a few wolves and lynxes, and the elk is still preserved
in the forest of Ibenhorst, near the Kurisches Haff. The fisheries
in the lakes and haffs are of some importance; but the only
mineral product of note is amber, which is found in the peninsula
of Samland in greater abundance than in any other part of the
world. Manufactures are almost confined to the principal towns,
though linen-weaving is practised as a domestic industry.
Commerce is facilitated by canals connecting the Memel and
Pregel and also the principal lakes, but is somewhat hampered
by the heavy dues exacted at the Russian frontier. A brisk
foreign trade is carried on through the seaports of Kb'nigsberg,
the capital of the province, and Memel, the exports consisting
mainly of timber and grain.
The population of the province was in 1900 1,996,626, and
8 3 8
EASTWICK EATON, T.
included 1,698,465 Protestants, 269,196 Roman Catholics and
13,877 Jews. The Roman Catholics are mainly confined to the
district of Ermeland, in which the ordinary proportions of the
confessions are completely reversed. The bulk of the inhabitants
are of German blood, but there are above 400,000 Protestant
Poles (Masurians or Masovians) in the south part of the province,
and 175,000 Lithuanians in the north. As in other provinces
where the Polish element is strong, East Prussia is somewhat
below the general average of the kingdom in education. There
is a university at Konigsberg.
See Lohmeyer, Geschichte von Ost-und West- Preussen (Gotha,
1884); Briinneck, Zur Geschichte des Kirchen-Patronats in Ost-
und West-Preussen (Berlin, 1902), and Ost-Preussen, Land und Volk
(Stuttgart, 1901-1902;.
EASTWICK, EDWARD BACKHOUSE (1814-1883), British
Orientalist, was born in 1814, a member of an Anglo-Indian
family. Educated at Charterhouse and at Oxford, he joined
the Bombay infantry in 1836, but, owing to his talent for
languages, was soon given a political post. In 1843 he translated
the Persian Kessahi Sanjdn, or History of the Arrival of the
Par sees in India; and he wrote a Life of Zoroaster, a Sindhi
vocabulary, and various papers in the transactions of the
Bombay Asiatic Society. Compelled by ill-health to return to
Europe, he went to Frankfort, where he learned German and
translated Schiller's Revolt of the Netherlands and Bopp's Com-
parative Grammar. In 1845 he was appointed professor of
Hindustani at Haileybury College. Two years later he published
a Hindustani grammar, and, in subsequent years, a new edition
of the Gulistan, with a translation in prose and verse, also an
edition with vocabulary of the Hindi translation by Lallu L&1 of
Chatur Chuj Misr's Prem Sagar, and translations of the Bagh-o-
Bahar, and of the Anvdr-i Suhaili of Bidpal. In 1851 he was
elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1857-1858 he edited
The Autobiography of LUtfullah. He also edited for the Bible
Society the Book of Genesis in tht Dakhani language. From
1860 to 1863 he was in Persia as secretary to the British Legation,
publishing on his return The Journal of a Diplomate. In 1866
he became private secretary to the secretary of state for India,
Lord Cranborne (afterwards marquess of Salisbury), and in
1867 went, as in 1864, on a government mission to Venezuela.
On his return he wrote, at the request of Charles Dickens, for
All the Year Round, " Sketches of Life in a South American
Republic." From 1868 to 1874 he was M.P. for Penryn and
Falmouth. In 1875 he received the degree of M.A. with the
franchise from the university of Oxford, " as a slight recognition
of distinguished services." At various times he wrote several
of Murray's Indian hand-books. His last work was the Kaisar-
namah-i-Hind ("the lay of the empress"), in two volumes
(1878-1882). He died at Ventnor, Isle of Wight, on the i6th of
July 1883.
EATON, DORMAN BRIDGMAN (1823-1899), American lawyer,
was born at Hardwick, Vermont, on the 27th of June 1823. He
graduated at the university of Vermont in 1848 and at the
Harvard Law School in 1850, and in the latter year was admitted
to the bar in New York city. There he became associated in
practice with William Kent, the son of the great chancellor, an
edition of whose Commentaries he assisted in editing. Eaton
early became interested in municipal and civil service reform.
He was conspicuous in the fight against Tweed and his followers,
by one of whom he was assaulted; he required a long period of
rest, and went to Europe, where he studied the workings of
the civil service in various countries. From 1873 to 1875 he
was a member of the first United States Civil Service Commission.
In 1877, at the request of President Hayes, he made a careful
study of the British civil service, and three years later published
Civil Service in Great Britain. He drafted the Pendleton Civil
Service Act of 1883, and later became a member of the new
commission established by it. He resigned in 1885, but was
almost immediately reappointed by President Cleveland, and
served until 1886, editing the 3rd and 4th Reports of the com-
mission. He was an organizer (1878) of the first society for
the furtherance of civil service reform in New York, of the
National Civil Service Reform Association, and of the National
Conference of the Unitarian Church (1865). He died in New York
city on the 23rd of December 1899, leaving $100,000 each to
Harvard and Columbia universities for the establishments of
professorships in government. He was a legal writer and editor,
and a frequent contributor to the leading reviews. In addition
to the works mentioned he published Should Judges be Elected?
(1873), The Independent Movement in New York (1880), Term
and Tenure of Office (1882), The Spoils System and Civil Service
Reform (1882), Problems of Police Legislation (1895) and The
Government of Municipalities (1899).
See the privately printed memorial volume, Dorman B. Eaton
1823-1899 (New York, 1900).
EATON, MARGARET O'NEILL (1796-1879), better known
as PEGGY O'NEILL, was the daughter of the keeper of a popular
Washington tavern, and was noted for her beauty, wit and
vivacity. About 1823, she married a purser in the United
States navy, John B. Timberlake, who committed suicide while
on service in the Mediterranean in 1828. In the following year
she married John Henry Eaton (1790-1856), a Tennessee poli-
tician, at the time a member of the United States Senate.
Senator Eaton was a close personal friend of President Jackson,
who in 1829 appointed him secretary of war. This sudden
elevation of Mrs Eaton into the cabinet social circle was resented
by the wives of several of Jackson's secretaries, and charges
were made against her of improper conduct with Eaton previous
to her marriage to him. The refusal of the wives of the cabinet
members to recognize the wife of his friend angered President
Jackson, and he tried in vain to coerce them. Eventually, and
partly for this reason, he almost completely reorganized his
cabinet. The effect of the incident on the political fortunes
of the vice-president, John C. Calhoun, whose wife was one of
the recalcitrants, was perhaps most important. Partly on this
account, Jackson's favour was transferred from Calhoun to
Martin Van Buren, the secretary of state, who had taken Jack-
son's side in the quarrel and had shown marked attention to
Mrs Eaton, and whose subsequent elevation to the vice-presi-
dency and presidency through Jackson's favour is no doubt
partly attributable to this incident. In 1836 Mrs Eaton accom-
panied her husband to Spain, where he was United States
minister in 1836-1840. After the death of her husband she
married a young Italian dancing-master, Antonio Buchignani,
but soon obtained a divorce from him. She died in Washington
on the 8th of November 1879.
See James Parton's Life of Andrew Jackson (New York, 1860).
EATON, THEOPHILUS (c. 1590-1658), English colonial gover-
nor in America, was born at Stony Stratford, Buckingham-
shire, about 1590. He was educated in Coventry, became a
successful merchant, travelled widely throughout Europe, and
for several years was the financial agent of Charles I. in Denmark.
He subsequently settled in London, where he joined the Puritan
congregation of the Rev. John Davenport, whom he had known
since boyhood. The pressure upon the Puritans increasing,
Eaton, who had been one of the original patentees of the Massa-
chusetts Bay colony in 1629, determined to use his influence and
fortune to establish an independent colony of which his pastor
should be the head. In 1637 he emigrated with Davenport to
Massachusetts, and in the following year (March 1638) he and
Davenport founded New Haven. In October 1639 a form of
government was adopted, based on the Mosiac Law, and Eaton
was elected governor, a post which he continued to hold by annual
re-election, first over New Haven alone, and after 1643 over the
New Haven Colony or Jurisdiction, until his death at New Haven
on the 7th of January 1658. His administration was embar-
rassed by constantly recurring disputes with the neighbouring
Dutch settlements,especially after Stamford(Conn.) and Southold
(Long Island) had entered the New Haven Jurisdiction, but his
prudence and diplomacy prevented an actual outbreak of hos-
tilities. He was prominent in the affairs of the New England
Confederation, of which he was one of the founders (1643). In
1655 he and Davenport drew up the code of laws, popularly
known as the " Connecticut Blue Laws," which were published
EATON, WILLIAM EAUX-BONNES
m London in 1656 under the title New Haven's Settling in New
England and some Lawes for Government published for the Use of
that Colony.
A sketch of his life appears in Cotton Mather's Magnalia (London,
1702) ; see also J. B. Moore's " Memoir of Theophilus Eaton " in the
Collections of the New York Historical Society, second series, vol. ii.
(New York, 1849).
EATON, WILLIAM (1764-1811), American soldier, was born
in Woodstock, Connecticut, on the 23rd of February 1764. As
a boy he served for a short time in the Continental army. He
was a school teacher for several years, graduated at Dartmouth
College in 1790, was clerk of the lower house of the Vermont
legislature in 1791-1792, and in 1792 re-entered the army as a
captain, later serving against the Indians in Ohio and Georgia.
In 1797 he was appointed consul to Tunis, where he arrived in
February 1799. In March 1799, with the consuls to Tripoli and
Algiers, he negotiated alterations in the treaty of 1797 with
Tunis. He rendered great service to Danish merchantmen by
buying on credit several Danish prizes in Tunis and turning
them over to their original owners for the redemption of his
notes. In 1803 he quarrelled with the Bey, was ordered from
the country, and returned to the United States to urge American
intervention for the restoration of Ahmet Karamanli to the
throne of Tripoli, arguing that this would impress the Barbary
States with the power of the United States. In 1804 he returned
to the Mediterranean as United States naval agent to the Barbary
States with Barren's fleet. On the 23rd of February 1805 he
agreed with Ahmet that the United States should undertake to
re-establish him in Tripoli, that the expenses of the expedition
should be repaid to the United States by Ahmet, and that Eaton
should be general and commander-in-chief of the land forces in
Ahmet's campaign; as the secretary of the navy had given the
entire matter into the hands of Commodore Barren, and as
Barron and Tobias Lear (1762-1816), the United States consul-
general at Algiers and a diplomatic agent to conduct negotiations,
had been instructed to consider the advisability of making
arrangements with the existing government in Tripoli, Eaton far
exceeded his authority. On the 8th of March he started for
Derna across the Libyan desert from the Arab's Tower, 40 m. W.
of Alexandria, with a force of about 500 men, including a few
Americans, about 40 Greeks and some Arab cavalry. In the
march of nearly 600 m. the camel-drivers and the Arab chiefs
repeatedly mutinied, and Ahmet Pasha once put himself at the
head of the Arabs and ordered them to attack Eaton. Ahmet
more than once wished to give up the expedition. There were
practically no provisions for the latter part of the march. On
the 27th of April with the assistance of three bombarding cruisers
Eaton captured Derna an exploit commemorated by Whittier's
poem Derne. On the i3th of May and on the loth of June he
successfully withstood the attacks of Tripolitan forces sent to
dislodge him. On the 1 2th of June he abandoned the town upon
orders from Commodore Rodgers, for Lear had made peace
(4th June) with Yussuf, the de facto Pasha of Tripoli. Eaton
returned to the United States, and received a grant of 10,000
acres in Maine from the Massachusetts legislature. According to
a deposition which he made in January 1807 he was approached
by Aaron Burr (q.v.), who attempted to enlist him in his " con-
spiracy," and wished him to win over the marine corps and to
sound Preble and Decatur. As he received from the government,
soon after making this deposition, about $10,000 to liquidate
claims for his expense in Tripoli, which he had long pressed in
vain, his good faith has been doubted. At Burr's trial at Rich-
mond in 1807 Eaton was one of the witnesses, but his testimony
was unimportant. In May 1807 he was elected a member of the
Massachusetts House of Representatives, and served for one term.
He died on the ist of June 1811 in Brimfield, Massachusetts.
See the anonymously published Life of the Late Gen. William Eaton
(Brookfield Massachusetts, 1813) by Charles Prentiss; C. C. Felton,
Lite oi William Eaton " in Sparks's Library of American Biography
vol. ix. (Boston, 1838); and Gardner W. Allen's Our Navy and the
Barbary Corsairs (Boston, 1905).
EATON, WYATT (1840-1896), American portrait and figure
painter, was born at Philipsburg, Canada, on the 6th of May 1849.
839
He was a pupil of the schools of the National Academy of Design,
New York, and in 1872 went to Paris, where he studied in the
Ecole des Beaux-Arts under J. L. Gerome. He made the
acquaintance of J. F. Millet at Barbizon, and was also influenced
by his friend Jules Bastien-Lepage. After his return to the
United States in 1876 he became a teacher in Cooper Institute
and opened a studio in New York city. He was one of the
organizers (and the first secretary) of the Society of American
Artists. Among his portraits are those of William Cullen
Bryant and Timothy Cole, the wood engraver (" The Man with
the Violin "). Eaton died at Newport, Rhode Island, on the 7th
of June 1896.
EAU CLAIRE, a city and the county-seat of Eau Claire
county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., on the Chippewa river, at the mouth
of the Eau Claire, about 87 m. E. of St Paul. Pop. (1890)
1 74iS; (190) 17,517, of whom 4996 were foreign-born; (1910
census) 18,310. It is served by the Chicago & North-Western,
the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, and the Wisconsin Central
railways, and is connected by an electric line with Chippewa
Falls (12 m. distant). The city has a Carnegie library with
17,200 volumes in 1908, a Federal building, county court house,
normal school and insane asylum. It has abundant water-
power, and is an important lumber manufacturing centre;
among its other manufactures are flour, wooden-ware, agricul-
tural machinery, saw-mill machinery, logging locomotives,
wood pulp, paper, linen, mattresses, shoes and trunks. The
total value of factory products in 1905 was $3,601,558. The
city is the principal wholesale and jobbing market for the pros-
perous Chippewa Valley. Eau Claire was first settled about
1847, and was chartered as a city in 1872; its growth dates from
the development of the north-western lumber trade in the decade
1870-1880. In 1881 a serious strike necessitated the calling out of
state militia for its suppression and the protection of property
EAU DE COLOGNE (Ger. Kolnisches Wasser, "Cologne
water "), a perfume, so named from the city of Cologne, where
its manufacture was first established by an Italian, Johann (or
Giovanni) Maria Farina (1685-1766), who settled at Cologne
in 1709. The perfume gained a high reputation by 1766, and
Farina associated himself with his nephew, to whose grandson
the secret was ultimately imparted; the original perfume is
still manufactured by members of this family under the name
of the founder. The manufacture is, however, carried on at
Cologne, and also in Italy, by other firms bearing the name
Farina, and the scent has become part of the regular output of
perfumers. The discovery has also been ascribed to a Paul de
Feminis, who is supposed to have brought his recipe from Milan
to Cologne, of which he became a citizen in 1600, and sold the
perfume under the name Eau admirable, leaving the secret at
his death to his nephew Johann Maria Farina. Certain of the
Farinas claim to use his process. It was originally prepared
by making an alcoholic infusion of certain flowers, pot-herbs,
drugs and spices, distilling and then adding definite quantities
of several vegetable essences. The purity and thorough blending
of the ingredients are of the greatest importance. The original
perfume is simulated and even excelled by artificial preparations.
The oils of lemon, bergamot and orange are employed, together
with the oils of neroli and rosemary in the better class. The
common practice consists in dissolving the oils, in certain definite
proportions based on experience, in pure alcohol and distilling,
the distillate being diluted by rose-water.
EAUX-BONNES, a watering-place of south-western France
m the department of Basses-Pyrenees, 3 | m. S.E. of the small
town of Laruns- the latter being 24 m. S. of Pau by rail. Pop.
(1906) 610. Eaux-Bonnes is situated at a height of 2460 ft.
at the entrance of a fine gorge, overlooking the confluence of
two torrents, the Valentin and the Sourde. The village is well
known for its sulphurous and saline mineral waters (first men-
tioned in the middle of the I4th century) , which are beneficial
in affections of the throat and lungs. They vary between
50 and 90 F. in temperature, and are used for drinking and
bathing. There are two thermal establishments, a casino and
fine promenades.
840
EAVES EBERBACH
The watering-place of LES EAUX-CHAUDES is 5 m. by road
south- west of Eaux-Bonnes,inawild gorge on the Gave d'Ossau.
The springs are sulphurous, varying in temperature from 52 to
97 F., and are used in cases of rheumatism, certain maladies of
women, &c. The thermal establishment is a handsome marble
building.
There is fine mountain scenery in the neighbourhood of both
places, the Pic de Ger near Eaux-Bonnes, commanding an
extensive view. The valley of Ossau, one of the most beautiful in
the Pyrenees, before the Revolution formed a community which,
though dependent on Beam, had its own legal organization,
manners and costumes, the last of which are still to be seen on
holidays.
EAVES (not a plural form as is sometimes supposed, but
singular; O. Eng. efes, in Mid. High Ger. obse, Gothic ubizuta, a
porch; connected with " over "), in architecture, the projecting
edge of a sloping roof, which overhangs the face of the wall so
as to throw off the water.
EAVESDRIP, or EAVESDROP, that width of ground around
a house or building which receives the rain water dropping from
the eaves. By an ancient Saxon law, a landowner was forbidden
to erect any building at less than 2 ft. from the boundary of his
land, and was thus prevented from injuring his neighbour's house
or property by the dripping of water from his eaves. The law
of Eavesdrip has had its equivalent in the Roman stillicidium,
which prohibited building up to the very edge of an estate.
From the Saxon custom arose the term " eavesdropper,"
i.e. any one who stands within " the eavesdrop " of a house,
hence one who pries into others' business or listens to secrets.
At common law an eavesdropper was regarded as a common
nuisance, and was presentable at the court leet, and indictable
at the sheriff's tourn and punishable by fine and finding sureties
for good behaviour. Though the offence of eavesdropping still
exists at common law, there is no modern instance of a prosecu-
tion or indictment.
EBBW VALE, an urban district in the western parliamentary
division of Monmouthshire, England, 21 m. N.W. of Newport
on the Great Western, London & North- Western and Rhymney
railways. Pop. (1891)17,312; (1901) 20,994. It lies near the
head of the valley of the river Ebbw, at an elevation of nearly
1000 ft., in a wild and mountainous mining district, which con-
tains large collieries and important iron and steel works.
EBEL, HERMANN WILHELM (1820-1875), German phil-
ologist, was born at Berlin on the loth of May 1820. He dis-
played in his early years a remarkable capacity for the study of
languages, and at the same time a passionate fondness for music
and poetry. At the age of sixteen he became a student at the
university of Berlin, applying himself especially to philology,
and attending the lectures of Bockh. Music continued to be the
favourite. occupation of his leisure hours, and he pursued the
study of it under the direction of Marx. In the spring of 1838
he passed to the university of Halle, and there began to apply
himself to comparative philology under Pott. Returning in the
following year to his native city, he continued this study as a
disciple of Bopp. He took his degree in 1842, and, after spending
his year of probation at the French Gymnasium of Berlin, he
resumed with great earnestness his language studies. About
1847 he began to study Old Persian. In 1852 he accepted a
professorship at the Beheim-Schwarzbach Institution at Filehne,
which post he held for six years. It was during this period that
his studies in the Old Slavic and Celtic languages began. In
1858 he removed to Schneidemuhl, and there he discharged the
duties of first professor for ten years. He was afterwards called
to the chair of comparative philology at the university of Berlin.
He died at Misdroy on the igth of August 1875. The most
important work of Dr Ebel in the field of Celtic philology is his
revised edition of the Grammatica Celtica of Professor Zeuss,
completed in 1871. This had been preceded by his treatises De
verbi Britannici future ac conjunctiva (1866), and De Zeussii curis
positis in Grammatica Celtica (1869). He made many learned
contributions to Ktihn's Zeitschrift fiir vergleichende Sprach-
forschung, and to A. Schleicher's Beitrage zur vergleichenden
Sprachforschung; and a selection of these contributions was
translated into English by Sullivan, and published under the
title of Celtic Studies (1863). Ebel contributed the Old Irish
section to Schleicher's Indogermanische Chrestomathie (1869).
Among his other works must be named Die Lehrvworter der
deutschen Sprache (1856).
EBEL, JOHANN GOTTFRIED (1764-1830), the author of the
first real guide-book to Switzerland, was born at Zullichau
(Prussia). He became a medical man, visited Switzerland for
the first time in 1790, and became so enamoured of it that he
spent three years exploring the country and collecting all kinds
of information relating to it. The result was the publication
(Zurich, i^g^oihisAnleitungaufdie niitzlichste und genussvollste
Art in der Schweitzzu reisen (2 vols,), in which he gave a complete
account of the country, the General Information sections being
followed by an alphabetically arranged list of places, with
descriptions. It at once superseded all other works of the
kind, and was the best Swiss guide-book till the appearance of
" Murray " (1838). It was particularly strong on the geological
and historical sides. The second (1804-1805) and third (1809-
1810) editions rilled four volumes, but the following (the 8th
appeared in 1843) were in a single volume. The work was trans-
lated into French in 1795 (many later editions) and into English
(by 1818). Ebel also published a work (2 vols., Leipzig, 1798-
1802) entitled Schilderungen der Gebirgsvolker der Schvjeiz,
which deals mainly with the pastoral cantons of Glarus and
Appenzell. In 1801 he was naturalized a Swiss citizen, and
settled down in Zurich. In 1808 he issued his chief geo-
logical work, fiber den Bau der Erde im Alpengebirge (Zurich,
2 vols.). He took an active share in promoting all that could
make his adopted country better known, e.g. Heinrich Keller's
map (1813), the building of a hotel on the Rigi (1816), and the
preparation of a panorama from that point (1823). From
1810 onwards he lived at Zurich, with the family of his friend,
Conrad Escher von der Linth (1767-1823), the celebrated
engineer. (W. A. B. C.)
EBER, PAUL (1511-1569), German theologian, was born
at Kitzingen in Franconia, and was educated at Nuremberg
and Wittenberg, where he became the close friend of Philip
Melanchthon. In 1541 he was appointed professor of Latin
grammar at Wittenberg, and in 1557 professor of the Old Testa-
ment. His range of learning was wide, and he published a
handbook of Jewish history, a historical calendar intended to
supersede the Roman Saints' Calendar, and a revision of the
Latin Old Testament. In the theological conflict of the time he
played a large part, doing what he could to mediate between
the extremists. From 1559 to the close of his life he was
superintendent-general of the electorate of Saxony. He attained
some fame as a hymn-writer, his best-known composition being
" Wenn wir in hochsten Nothen sein." He died at Wittenberg
on the toth of December 1 569.
EBERBACH, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Baden,
romantically situated on the Neckar, at the foot of the Katzen-
buckel, 19 m. E. of Heidelberg by the railway to Wurzburg.
Pop. (1900) 5857. It contains an Evangelical and a Roman
Catholic church, a commercial and a technical school, and, in
addition to manufacturing cigars, leather and cutlery, carries
on by water an active trade in timber and wine. Eberbach was
founded in 1227 by the German king Henry VII., who acquired
the castle (the ruins of which overhang the town) from the
bishop of Worms. It became an imperial town and passed later
to the Palatinate.
See Wirth, Geschichte der Stadt Eberbach (Stuttgart, 1864).
EBERBACH, a famous Cistercian monastery of Germany, in
the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, situated near Hattenheim
in the Rheingau, 10 m. N.W. from Wiesbaden. Founded in
1 1 16 by Archbishop Adalbert of Mainz, as a house of Augustinian
canons regular, it was bestowed by him in 1131 upon the Bene-
dictines, but was shortly afterwards repurchased and conferred
upon the Cistercian order. The Romanesque church (consecrated
in 1 1 86) contains numerous interesting monuments and tombs,
notable among them being those of the archbishop of Mainz,
EBERHARD, COUNT EBERS
841
Gerlach (d. 1371) and Adolph II. of Nassau (d. 1475). It was
despoiled during the Thirty Years' War, was secularized in 1803,
and now serves as a house of correction. Its cellars contain some
of the finest vintages of the Rhine wines of the locality.
See Bar, DiplomatischeGeschichtederAbtei Eberbach (Wiesb., 1851-
1858 and 1886, 3 vols.), and Schafer, Die Abtei Eberbach im Mittel-
alter (Berlin, 1901).
EBERHARD, surnamed IM BART (Barbattis), count and
afterwards duke of Wiirttemberg (1445-1496), was the second
son of Louis I., count of Wiirttemberg-Urach (d. 1450), and
succeeded his elder brother Louis II. in 1457. His uncle Ulrich V.,
count of Wurttemberg-Stuttgart (d. 1480), acted as his guardian,
but in 1459, assisted by Frederick I., elector palatine, he threw
off this restraint, and undertook the government of the district
of Urach as Count Eberhard V. He neglected his duties as a
ruler and lived a reckless life until 1468, when he made a pilgrim-
age to Jerusalem. He visited Italy, became acquainted with
some famous scholars, and in 1474 married Barbara di Gonzaga,
daughter of Lodovico III., marquis of Mantua, a lady distin-
guished for her intellectual qualities. In 1482 he brought about
the treaty of Miinsingen with his cousin Eberhard VI., count of
Wurttemberg-Stuttgart. By this treaty the districts of Urach
and Stuttgart into which Wiirttemberg had been divided in
1437 were again united, and for the future the county was
declared indivisible, and the right of primogeniture established.
The treaty led to some disturbances, but in 1492 the sanction
of the nobles was secured for its provisions. In return for this
Eberhard agreed to some limitations on the power of the count,
and so in a sense founded the constitution of Wiirttemberg.
At the diet of Worms in 1495 the emperor Maximilian I.
guaranteed the treaty, confirmed the possessions and prerogatives
of the house of Wiirttemberg, and raised Eberhard to the rank
of duke. Eberhard, although a lover of peace, was one of the
founders of the Swabian League in 1488, and assisted to release
Maximilian, then king of the Romans, from his imprisonment
at Bruges in the same year. He gave charters to the towns of
Stuttgart and Tubingen, and introduced order into the convents
of his land, some of which he secularized. He took a keen interest
in the new learning, founded the university of Tubingen in 1476,
befriended John Reuchlin, whom he made his private secretary,
welcomed scholars to his court, and is said to have learned Latin
in later life. In 1482 he again visited Italy and received the
Golden Rose from Pope Sixtus IV. He won the esteem of the
emperors Frederick III. and Maximilian I. on account of his
wisdom and fidelity, and his people held him in high regard.
His later years were mainly spent at Stuttgart, but he died at
Tubingen on the 25th of February 1496, and in 1537 his ashes
were placed in the choir of the Stiftskirche there. Eberhard
left no children, and the succession passed to his cousin Eberhard,
who became Duke Eberhard II.
See Rosslin, Leben Eberhards im Barte (Tubingen, 1793); Bossert,
Eberhard im Bart (Stuttgart, 1884).
EBERHARD, CHRISTIAN AUGUST GOTTLOB (1769-1845),
German miscellaneous writer, was born at Belzig, near Witten-
berg, on the 1 2th of January 1769. He studied theology at
Leipzig; but, a story he contributed to a periodical having
proved successful, he devoted himself to literature. With the
exception of Hannchen und die Kilchlein (1822), a narrative
poem in ten parts, and an epic on the Creation, Der erste Mensch
und die Erde (1828), Eberhard's work was ephemeral in character
and is now forgotten. He died at Dresden on the I3th of May
His collected works (Gesammelte Schrifteri) appeared in 20 volumes
in 1830-1831.
EBERHARD, JOHANN AUGUSTUS (1730-1809), German
theologian and philosopher, was born at Halberstadt in Lower
Saxony, where his father was singing-master at the church of
St Martin's, and teacher of the school of the same name. He
studied theology at the university of Halle, and became tutor
to the eldest son of the baron von der Horst, to whose family
he attached himself for a number of years. In 1763 he was
appointed con-rector of the school of St Martin's, and second
preacher in the hospital church of the Holy Ghost; but he soon
afterwards resigned these offices and followed his patron to
Berlin. There he met Nicolai and Moses Mendelssohn, with
whom he formed a close friendship. In 1 768 he became preacher
or chaplain to the workhouse at Berlin and the neighbouring
fishing village of Stralow. Here he wrote his Neue Apologie des
Socrates (1772), a work occasioned by an attack on the fifteenth
chapter .of Marmontel's Bel-lsarius made by Peter Hofstede, a
clergyman of Rotterdam, who maintained the patristic view
that the virtues of the noblest pagans were only splendida peccata.
Eberhard stated the arguments for the broader view with
dignity, acuteness and learning, but the liberality of the reason-
ing gave great offence to the strictly orthodox divines, and is
believed to have obstructed his preferment in the church.
In 1774 he was appointed to the living of Charlottenburg.
A second volume of his Apologie appeared in 1778. In this he
not only endeavoured to obviate some objections which were
taken to the former part, but continued his inquiries into the
doctrines of the Christian religion, religious toleration and the
proper rules for interpreting the Scriptures. In 1778 he accepted
the professorship of philosophy at Halle. As an academical
teacher, however, he was unsuccessful. His powers as an original
thinker were not equal to his learning and his literary gifts, as
was shown in his opposition to the philosophy of Kant. In 1786
he was admitted a member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences;
in 1805 the king of Prussia conferred upon him the honorary title
of a privy-councillor. In 1808 he obtained the degree of doctor
in divinity, which was given him as a reward for his theological
writings. He died on the 6th of January 1809. He was master
of the learned languages, spoke and wrote French with facility
and correctness, and understood English, Italian and Dutch.
He possessed a just and discriminating taste for the fine arts, and
was a great lover of music.
Works: Neue Apologie des Socrates, &c. (2 vols., 1772-1778);
Allgemeine TheoriedesDenkensundEmpfindens,&c. (Berlin, 1776), an
essay which gained the prize assigned by the Royal Society of Berlin
for that year; Von dem Begriff der Phttosophie und ihren Theilen
(Berlin, 1778) a short essay, in which he announced the plan of his
lectures on being appointed to the professorship at Halle ; Lobschrift
auf Herrn Johann Thunmann Prof, der Weltweisheit und Beredsam-
keit auf der Uniyersitat zu Halle (Halle, 1779); Amyntor, eine
Geschichte in Briefen (Berlin, 1782) written with the view of
counteracting the influence of those sceptical and Epicurean prin-
ciples in religion and morals then so prevalent in France, and rapidly
spreading amongst the higher ranks in Germany ; fiber die Zeichen
der Aufklarung einer Nation, &c. (Halle, 1783); Theorie der schonen
Kunsle und Wissenschaften, &c. (Halle, 1783, 3rd ed. 1790); Ver-
mischte Schriften (Halle, 1784) ; Neue vermischte Schriften (ib. 1786) ;
Allgemeine Geschichte der Philosophie, &c. (Halle, 1788), 2nd ed.
with a continuation and chronological tables (1796); Versuch einer
allgemeinen-deutschen Synonymik (Halle and Leipzig, 1795-1802,
6 vols., 4th ed. 1852-1853), long reckoned the best work on the
synonyms of the German language (an abridgment of it was published
by the author in one large volume, Halle, 1802); Handbuch der
Aesthetik (Halle, 1803-1805, 2nd ed. 1807-1820). He also edited
the Philosophisches Magazin (1788-1792) and the Philosophisches
Archiv (1792-1795)-
See F ' .Kico\a.i,Gedachtnisschrift aufJ.A .Eberhard(R&L\m and Stettin,
1810) ; also K. H. JCrdens, Lexicon deutscher Dichter und Prosaisten.
EBERLIN, JOHANN ERNST (1702-1762), German musician
and composer, was born in Bavaria, and became afterwards
organist in the cathedral at Salzburg, where he died. Most of
his compositions were for the church (oratorios, &c.), but he also
wrote some important fugues, sonatas and preludes; and his
pieces were at one time highly valued by Mozart.
EBERS, GEORG MORITZ (1837-1898), German Egyptologist
and novelist, was born in Berlin on the ist of March 1837. At
Gottingen he studied jurisprudence, and at Berlin oriental
languages and archaeology. Having made a special study of
Egyptology, he became in 1865 decent in Egyptian language and
antiquities at Jena, and in 1870 he was appointed professor in
these subjects at Leipzig. He had made two scientific journeys
to Egypt, and his first work of importance, Agypten und die
Bilcher Moses, appeared in 1867-1868. In 1874 he edited the
celebrated medical papyrus (" Papyrus Ebers ") which he had
discovered in Thebes (translation by H. Joachim, 1890). Ebers
early conceived the idea of popularizing Egyptian lore by means
of historical romances. Eine iigyptische Konizstochier was
842
EBERSWALDE EBIONITES
published in 1864, and obtained great success. His subsequent
works of the same kind Uarda. (1877), Homo sum (1878), Die
Schwestern (1880), Der Kaiser (1881), of which the scene is laid
in Egypt at the time of Hadrian, Serapis (1885), Die Nilbraut
(1887), and Kleopatra (1894), were also well received, and did
much to make the public familiar with the discoveries of Egypt-
ologists. Ebers also turned his attention to other fields of
historical fiction especially the i6th century (Die Fran Burger-
meisterin, 1882; Die Gred, 1887) without, however, attaining
the success of his Egyptian novels. Apart from their antiquarian
and historical interest, Ebers's books have not a very high literary
value. His other writings include a descriptive work on Egypt
(Agypten in Wort und Bild, 2nd ed., 1880), a guide to Egypt
(1886) and a life (1885) of his old teacher, the Egyptologist
Karl Richard Lepsius. The state of his health led him in 1889
to retire from his chair at Leipzig on a pension. He died at
Tutzing in Bavaria, on the 7th of August 1898.
Ebers's Gesammelte Werke appeared in 25 vols. at Stuttgart (1893-
1895). Many of his books have been translated into English. For
his life see his Die Geschichte meines Lebens (Stuttgart, 1893); also
R. Gosche, G. Ebers, der Forscher und Dichter (2nd ed.. Leipzig,
1887).
EBERSWALDE, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia,
28 m. N.E. of Berlin by rail; on the Finow canal. Pop. (1905)
23,876. The town has a Roman Catholic and two Evangelical
churches, a school of forestry, a gymnasium, a higher-grade girls'
school and two schools of domestic economy. It possesses a
mineral spring, which attracts numerous summer visitors, and
has various industries, which include iron-founding and the
making of horse-shoe nails, roofing material and bricks. A
considerable trade is carried on in grain, wood and coals. In
the immediate neighbourhood are one of the chief brass-foundries
in Germany and an extensive government paper-mill, in which
the paper for the notes of the imperial bank is manufactured.
Eberswalde received its municipal charter in 1257. It was
taken and sacked during the Thirty Years' War. In 1747
Frederick the Great brought a colony of Thuringian cutlers to the
town, but this branch of industry has entirely died out. About
4 m. to the north lies the old Cistercian monastery of Chorin,
the fine Gothic church of which contains the tombs of several
margraves of Brandenburg.
EBERT, FRIEDRICH ADOLF (1791-1834), German biblio-
grapher, was born at Taucha, near Leipzig, on the gth of July
1791, the son of a Lutheran pastor. At the age of fifteen he was
appointed to a subordinate post in the municipal library of
Leipzig. He studied theology for a short time at Leipzig, and
afterwards philology at Wittenberg, where he graduated doctor in
philosophy in 1812. While still a student he had already pub-
lished, in 1811, a work on public libraries, and in 1812 another
work entitled Hierarchies in religionem ac lileras commoda. In
1813 he was attached to the Leipzig University library, and in
1814 was appointed secretary to the Royal library of Dresden.
The same year he published F. Taubmanns Leben und Verdienste,
and in 1819 Torquato Tasso, a translation from Pierre Louis
Ginguene with annotations. The rich resources open to him in
the Dresden library enabled him to undertake the work on which
his reputation chiefly rests, the Allgemeines bibliographisches
Lcxikon, the first volume of which appeared in 182 1 and the second
ia 1830. This was the first work of the kind produced in Germany,
and the most scientific published anywhere. From 1823 to 1825
Ebert was librarian to the duke of Brunswick at Wolfenbuttel,
but returning to Dresden was made, in 1827, chief librarian of
the Dresden Royal library. Among his other works are Die
Bildung des Bibliothekars (1820), Geschichte und Beschreibung der
koniglichen ofentlichen Bibliothek in Dresden (1822), Zur Hand-
schriftenkunde (1825-1827), and Culturperioden des obersiich-
sischen Mitlelalters (1825). Ebert was a contributor to various
journals and took part in the editing of Ersch and Gruber's great
encyclopaedia. He died at Dresden on the i3th of November
1834, in consequence of a fall from the ladder in his library.
See the article in Ersch und Grubers Encyclopadie, and that in the
Attg. deutsclh, Biog. by his successor in the post of chief librarian in
Dresden, Schnorr von Carolsfeld.
EBINGEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wiirttem-
berg, on the Schmiecha, a left-hand tributary of the Danube,
22 m. S. of Tubingen and 37 m. W. of Ulm by rail. It manu-
factures velvet and cotton-velvet (" Manchester ") goods, stock-
ings, stays, hats, needles, tools, &c. There are also tanneries.
Pop. 9000.
EBIONITES (Heb. V W , " poor men "), a name given to the
ultra-Jewish party in the early Christian church. It is first met
with in Irenaeus (Adv. Haer. i. 26. 2), who sheds no light on the
origin of the Ebionites, but says that while they admit the world
to have been made by the true God (in contrast to the Demiurge
of the Gnostics), they held Cerinthian views on the person of
Christ, used only the Gospel of Matthew (probably the Gospel
according to the Hebrews so Eusebius), and rejected Paul as an
apostate from the Mosaic Law, to the customs and ordinances of
which, including circumcision, they steadily adhered. A similar
account is given by Hippolytus (Haer. vii. 35), who invents a
founder named Ebion. Origen (Contra Celsum, v. 61; In Matt.
torn. xvi. 12) divides the Ebionites into two classes according to
their acceptance or rejection of the virgin birth of Jesus, but
says that all alike reject the Pauline epistles. This is confirmed
by Eusebius, who adds that even those who admitted the virgin
birth did not accept the pre-existence of Jesus as Logos and
Sophia. They kept both the Jewish Sabbath and the Christian
Lord's day, and held extreme millenarian ideas in which Jerusalem
figured as the centre of the coming Messianic kingdom. Epi-
phanius with his customary confusion makes two separate sects,
Ebionites and Nazarenes. Both names, however, refer to the
same people 1 (the Jewish Christians of Syria), the latter going
back to the designation of apostolic times (Acts xxiv. 5), and the
former being the term usually applied to them in the ecclesiastical
literature of the 2nd and 3rd centuries.
The origin of the Nazarenes or Ebionites as a distinct sect is
very obscure, but may be dated with much likelihood from the
edict of Hadrian which in 135 finally scattered the old church of
Jerusalem. While Christians of the type of Aristo of Pella and
Hegesippus, on the snapping of the old ties, were gradually
assimilated to the great church outside, the more conservative
section became more and more isolated and exclusive. " It may
have been then that they called themselves the Poor Men, prob-
ably as claiming to be the true representatives of those who had
been blessed in the Sermon on the Mount, but possibly adding
to the name other associations." Out of touch with the main
stream of the church they developed a new kind of pharisaism.
Doctrinally they stood not so much for a theology as for a refusal
of theology, and, rejecting the practical liberalism of Paul, became
the natural heirs of those early Judaizers who had caused the
apostle so much annoyance and trouble.
Though there is insufficient justification for dividing the
Ebionites into two separate and distinct communities, labelled
respectively Ebionites and Nazarenes, we have good evidence,
not only that there were grades of Christological thought among
them, but that a considerable section, at the end -of the 2nd
century and the beginning of the 3rd, exchanged their simple
Judaistic creed for a strange blend of Essenism and Christianity.
These are known as the Helxaites or Elchasaites, for they accepted
as a revelation the " book of Elchasai," and one Alcibiades of
Apamea undertook a mission to Rome about 220 to propagate
its teaching. It was claimed that Christ, as an angel 96 miles
high, accompanied by the Holy Spirit, as a female angel of the
same stature, had given the revelation to Elchasai in the 3rd year
of Trajan (A.D. 100), but the book was probably quite new in
Alcibiades' time. It taught that Christ was an angel born of
human parents, and had appeared both before (e.g. in Adam
and Moses) and after this birth in Judea. His coming did not
annul the Law, for he was merely a prophet and teacher; Paul
was wrong and circumcision still necessary. Baptism must be
repeated as a means of purification from sin, and proof against
disease; the sinner immerses himself " in the name of the mighty
1 So A. Harnack, Hist, of Dogma, i. 301, and F. J. A. Hort, Judaistic
Christianity, p. 199. Th. Zahn and J. B. Lightfoot (" St. Paul and
the Three," in Commentary on Galatians) maintain the distinction.
EBNER-ESCHENBACH EBRO
843
and most high God," invoking the " seven witnesses " (sky, water,
the holy spirits, the angels of prayer, oil, salt and earth), and
pledging himself to amendment. Abstinence from flesh was
also enjoined, and a good deal of astrological fancy was inter-
woven with the doctrinal and practical teaching. It is highly
probable, too, that from these Essene Ebionites there issued the
fantastical and widely read " Clementine " literature (Homilies
and Recognitions) of the 3rd century. Ebionite views lingered
especially in the country east of the Jordan until they were
absorbed by Islam in the 7th century.
In addition to the literature cited see R. C. Ottley, The Doctrine
' of the Incarnation, part iii. ii. ; W. Moeller, Hist, of the Christian
Church, i. 99 ; art. in Herzog - Hauck, Realencyklopadie, s.v.
" Ebioniten "; also CLEMENTINE LITERATURE.
EBNER-ESCHENBACH, MARIE, FREIFRAU VON (1830-
), Austrian novelist, was born at ZdislaviC in Moravia, on
the I3th of September 1830, the daughter of a Count Dubsky.
She lost her mother in early infancy, but received a careful
intellectual training from two stepmothers. In 1848 she married
the Austrian captain, and subsequent field-marshal, Moritz
von Ebner-Eschenbach, and resided first at Vienna, then at
Klosterbruck, where her husband had a military charge, and
after 1860 again at Vienna. The marriage was childless, and
the talented wife sought consolation in literary work. In her
endeavours she received assistance and encouragement from
Franz Grillparzer . and Freiherr von Miinch - Bellinghausen.
Her first essay was with the drama Maria Stuart in Schottland,
which Philipp Eduard Devrient produced at the Karlsruhe
theatre in 1860. After some other unsuccessful attempts in the
field of drama, she found her true sphere in narrative. Com-
mencing with Die Prinzessin von Banalien (1872), she graphic-
ally depicts in Bozena (Stuttgart, 1876, 4th ed. 1899) and Das
Gemeindekind (Berlin, 1887, 4th ed. 1900) the surroundings of her
Moravian home, and in Lotli, die Uhrmacherin (Berlin, 1883, 4th
ed. 1900), Zwei Comtessen (Berlin, 1885, sthed. 1898), Unsiihnbar
(1890, 5th ed. 1900) and Glaubenslos ? (1893) the life of the
Austrian aristocracy in town and country. She also published
Neue Erzahlungen (Berlin, 1881, 3rd ed. 1894), Aphorismen
(Berlin, 1880, 4th ed. 1895) and Parabeln, Marchen und Gedichte
(2nd ed., Berlin, 1892). Frau von Ebner-Eschenbach's elegance
of style, her incisive wit and masterly depiction of character
give her a foremost place among the German women- writers of
her time. On the occasion of her seventieth birthday the
university of Vienna conferred upon her the degree of doctor of
philosophy, honoris causa.
An edition of Marie von Ebner-Eschenbach's Gesammelte Schriften
began to appear in 1893 (Berlin). See A. Bettelheim, Marie von
Ebner-Eschenbach: biographische Blatter (Berlin, 1900), and M.
Necker, Marie von Ebner-Eschenbach, nach ihren Werken geschildert
(Berlin, 1900).
EBOLI (anc. Eburum), a town of Campania, Italy, in the
province of Salerno, from which it is 1 6 m. E. by rail, situated
470 ft. above sea-level, .on the S. edge of the hills overlooking
the valley of the Sele. Pop. (1901) 9642 (town), 12,423 (com-
mune). The sacristy of St Francesco contains two 14th-century
pictures, one by Roberto da Oderisio of Naples. The ancient
Eburum was a Lucanian city, mentioned only by Pliny and in
inscriptions, not far distant from the Campanian border. It
lay above the Via Popillia, which followed the line taken by the
modern railway. Some scanty remains of its ancient polygona
walls may still be seen. (T. As.)
EBONY (Gr. e/Sews), the wood of various species of trees o
the genus Diospyros (natural order Ebenaceae), widely distributee
in the tropical parts of the world. The best kinds are very
heavy, are of a deep black, and consist of heart-wood only
On account of its colour, durability, hardness and susceptibilitj
of polish, ebony is much used for cabinet work and inlaying
and for the manufacture of pianoforte-keys, knife-handles am
turned articles. The best Indian and Ceylon ebony is furnishet
by D. Ebenum, a native of southern India and Ceylon, which
grows in great abundance throughout the flat country west o
Trincomalee. The tree is distinguished from others by th
inferior width of its trunk, and its jet-black, charred-looking
bark, beneath which the wood is perfectly white until the heart
s reached. The wood is stated to excel that obtained from
3. reticulata of the Mauritius and all other varieties of ebony in
he fineness and intensity of its dark colour. Although the centre
>f the tree alone is employed, reduced logs i to 3 ft. in diameter
can readily be procured. Much of the East Indian ebony is
yielded by the species D. Melanoxylon (Coromandel ebony),
a large tree attaining a height of 60 to 80 ft., and 8 to to ft. in
circumference, with irregular rigid branches, and oblong or
oblong-lanceolate leaves. The bark of the tree is astringent,
and mixed with pepper is used in dysentery by the natives of
[ndia. The wood of D. tomentosa, a native of north Bengal, is
alack, hard and of great weight. D. montana, another Indian
species, produces a yellowish-grey soft but durable wood.
D. quaesita is the tree from which is obtained the wood known
in Ceylon by the name Calamander, derived by Pridham from
the Sinhalee kalumindrie, black-flowing. Its closeness of grain,
great hardness and fine hazel-brown colour, mottled and striped
with black, render it a valuable material for veneering and
furniture making. D. Dendo, a native of Angola, is a valuable
timber tree, 25 to 35 ft. high, with a trunk i to 2 ft. in diameter.
The heart-wood is very black and hard and is known as black
ebony, also as billet-wood, and Gabun, Lagos, Calabar or Niger
ebony. What is termed Jamaica or West Indian ebony, and
also the green ebony of commerce, are produced by Brya Ebenus,
a leguminous tree or shrub, having a trunk rarely more than
4 in. in diameter, flexible spiny branches, and orange-yellow,
sweet-scented flowers. The heart-wood is rich dark brown in
colour, heavier than water, exceedingly hard and capable of
receiving a high polish.
From the book of Ezekiel (xxvii. 15) we learn that ebony
was among the articles of merchandise brought to Tyre; and
Herodotus states (iii. 97) that the' Ethiopians every three years
sent a tribute of 200 logs of it to Persia. Ebony was known
to Virgil as a product of India (Georg. ii. 1 16), and was displayed
by Pompey the Great in his Mithradatic triumph at Rome.
By the ancients it was esteemed of equal value for durability
with the cypress and cedar (see Pliny, Nat. Hist. xii. 9, xvi. 79).
According to Solinus (Polyhistor, cap. Iv. p. 353, Paris, 1621),
it was employed by the kings of India for sceptres and images,
also, on account of its supposed antagonism to poison, for drink-
ing-cups. The hardness and black colour of the wood appear to
have given rise to the tradition related by Pausanias, and alluded
to by Southey in Thalaba, i. 22, that the ebony tree produced
neither leaves nor fruit, and was never seen exposed to the sun.
EBRARD, JOHANNES HEINRICH AUGUST (1818-1888),
German theologian, was born at Erlangen on the i8th of January
1818. He was educated in his native town and at Berlin,
and after teaching in a private family became Privatdocent at
Erlangen (1841) and then professor of theology at Zurich (1844).
In 1847 he was appointed professor of theology at Erlangen, a
chair which he resigned in 1861; in 1875 he became pastor of
the French reformed church in the same city. As a critic Ebrard
occupied a very moderate standpoint; -as a writer his chief
works were Chris ttiche Dogmatik (2 vols., 1851), Vorlesungen iiber
praklische Theologie (1864), Apologetik (1874-1875, Eng. trans.
1886). He also edited and completed H. Olshausen's com-
mentary, himself writing the volumes on the Epistle to the
Hebrews, the Johannine Epistles, and Revelation. In the
department of belles-lettres he wrote a good deal under such
pseudonyms as Christian Deutsch, Gottfried Flammberg and
Sigmund Sturm. He died at Erlangen on the 23rd of July 1888.
EBRO (anc. Iberus or Hiberus), the only one of the five great
rivers of the Iberian Peninsula (Tagus, Douro, Ebro, Guadal-
quivir, Guadiana) which flows into the Mediterranean. The
Ebro rises at Fuentibre, a hamlet among the Cantabrian Moun-
tains, in the province of Santander; at Reinosa, 4 m. east, it is
joined on the right by the Hijar, and thus gains considerably
in volume. It flows generally east by south through a tortuous
valley as far as Miranda de Ebro, passing through the celebrated
Roman bridge known as La Horadada (" the perforated "), near
Ona in Burgos. From Miranda it winds south-eastward through
EBRO'IN EGA DE QUEIROZ
the wide basin enclosed on the right by the highlands of Old
Castile and western Aragon, and on the left by the Pyrenees.
The chief cities on its banks are Logrono, Calahorra, Tudela,
Saragossa and Caspe. Near Mora in Catalonia it forces a way
through the coastal mountains, and, passing Tortosa, falls into
the Mediterranean about 80 m. south-west of Barcelona, after
forming by its delta a conspicuous projection on the otherwise
regular coast line. In its length, approximately 465 m., the Ebro
is inferior to the Tagus, Guadiana and Douro; it drains an area
of nearly 32,000 sq. m. Its principal tributaries are from the
right hand the Jalon with its affluent the Jiloca, the Huerva,
Aguas, Martin, Guadalope and Matarrana; from the left the
Ega, Aragon, Arba, Gallego, and the Segre with its intricate
system of confluent rivers. The Ebro and its tributaries have
been utilized for irrigation since the Moorish conquest; the
main stream becomes navigable by small boats about Tudela;
but its value as a means of communication is almost neutralized
by the obstacles in its channel, and seafaring vessels cannot
proceed farther up than Tortosa. The great Imperial Canal,
begun under the emperor Charles V. (1500-1558), proceeds along
the right bank of the river from a point about 3 m. below Tudela,
to El Burgo de Ebro, 5 m. below Saragossa; the irrigation canal
of Tauste skirts the opposite bank for a shorter distance; and the
San Carlos or New Canal affords direct communication between
Amposta at the head of the delta and the harbour of Los
Alfaques. From Miranda to Mora the Bilbao-Tarragona railway
follows the course of the Ebro along the right bank.
EBROIN (d. 681), Prankish " mayor of the palace," was a
Neustrian, and wished to impose the authority of Neustria over
Burgundy and Austrasia. In 656, at the moment of his accession
to power, Sigebert III., the king of Austrasia, had just died, and
the Austrasian mayor of the palace, Grimoald, was attempting
to usurp the authority. The great nobles, however, appealed to
the king of Neustria, Clovis II., and unity was re-established.
But in spite of a very firm policy Ebroin was unable to maintain
this unity, and while Clotaire III., son of Clovis II., reigned in
Neustria and Burgundy, he was obliged in 660 to give the
Austrasians a special king, Childeric II., brother of Clotaire III.,
and a special mayor of the palace, Wulfoald. He endeavoured
to maintain at any rate the union of Neustria and Burgundy,
but the great Burgundian nobles wished to remain independent,
and rose under St Leger (Leodegar), bishop of Autun, defeated
Ebroin, and interned him in the monastery of Luxeuil (670).
.A proclamation was then issued to the effect that each kingdom
should keep its own laws and customs, that there should be no
further interchange of functionaries between the kingdoms, and
that no one should again set up a tyranny like that of Ebroin.
Soon, however, Leger was defeated by Wulfoald and the Aus-
trasians, and was himself confined at Luxeuil in673. Inthesame
year, taking advantage of the general anarchy, Ebroin and Leger
left the cloister and soon found themselves once more face to face.
Each looked for support to a different Merovingian king, Ebroin
even proclaiming a false Merovingian as sovereign. In this
struggle Leger was vanquished; he was besieged in Autun, was
forced to surrender and had his eyes put out, and, on the i2th
of October 678, he was put to death after undergoing prolonged
tortures. The church honours him as a saint. After his death
Ebroin became sole and absolute ruler of the Franks, imposing
his authority over Burgundy and subduing the Austrasians,
whom he defeated in 678 at Bois-du-Fay, near Laon. His
triumph, however, was short-lived; he was assassinated in 68 1,
the victim of a combined attack of his numerous enemies. He
was a man of great energy, but all his actions seem to have been
dictated by no higher motives than ambition and lust of power.
See Liber historiae Francorum, edited by B Krusch, in Man.
Germ. hist, script, rer. Merov. vol. ii.; Vita sancti Leodegarii, by
Ursinus, a monk of St Maixent (Migne, Pair. Latina, vol. xcvi.) ;
" Vita metrica " in Poetae Latini aevi Carolini, vol. iii. (Man. Germ,
hist.); J. B. Pitra, Hisloire de Saint Leger (Paris, 1846); and
J. Friedrich, " Zur Gesch. des Hausmeiers Ebroin," in the Pro-
ceedings of the Academy of Munich (1887, pp. 42-61). (C. PF.)
EBURACUM, or EBORACUM (probably a later variant), the
Roman name of York (q.v.) in England. Established about A.D.
7 5-80 as fortress of the Ninth legion and garrisoned (after the anni-
hilation of that legion about A.D. 118) by the Sixth legion, it de-
veloped outside its walls a town of civil life, which later obtained
Roman municipal rank and in the 4th century was the seat of a
Christian bishop. The fortress and town were separated by the
Ouse. On the left bank, where the minster stands, was the fort-
ress, of which the walls can still be partly traced, and one corner
(the so-called Multangular Tower) survives. The municipality
occupied the right bank near the present railway station. The
place was important for its garrison and as an administrative
centre, and the town itself was prosperous, though probably
never very large. The name is preserved in the abbreviated
form Ebor in the official name of the archbishop of York, but the
philological connexion between Eboracum and the modern name
York is doubtful and has probably been complicated by Danish
influence. (F. J. H.)
EA DE QUEIROZ, JOSE MARIA (1843-1900), Portuguese
writer, was born at the northern fishing town of Povoa de
Varzim, his father being a retired judge. He went through the
university of Coimbra, and on taking his degree in law was
appointed Administrador de Concelho at Leiria, but soon tired
of the narrow mental atmosphere of the old cathedral town and
left it. He accompanied the Conde de Rezende to Egypt, where
he assisted at the opening of the Suez Canal, and to Palestine,
and on his return settled down to journalism in Lisbon and began
to evolve a style, at once magical and unique, which was to
renovate his country's prose. Though he spent much of his
days with the philosopher sonneteer Anthero de Quental, and
the critic Jayme Batalha Reis, afterwards consul-general in
London, he did not restrict his intimacy to men of letters, but
frequented all kinds of society, acquiring a complete acquaint-
ance with contemporary Portuguese life and manners. Entering
the consular service in 1872, he went to Havana, and, after a tour
in the United States, was transferred two years later to Newcastle-
on-Tyne and in 1876 to Bristol. In 1888 he became Portuguese
consul-general in Paris, and there died in 1900.
Queiroz made his literary debut in 1870 by a sensational story,
The Mystery of the Cintra Road, written in collaboration with the
art critic Ramalho Ortigao, but the first publication which
brought him fame was The Farpas, a series of satirical and
humorous sketches of various phases of social life, which, to quote
the poet Guerra Junqueiro, contain " the epilepsy of talent."
These essays, the joint production of the same partners, criticized
and ridiculed the faults and foibles of every class in turn, mainly
by a comparison with the French, for the education of Queiroz
had made him a Frenchman in ideas and sympathies. His
Brazilian friend, Eduardo Prado, bears witness that at this
period French literature, especially Hugo's verse, and even
French politics, interested Queiroz profoundly, while he alto-
gether ignored the belles-lettres of his own country and its public
affairs. This phase lasted for some years, and even when he
travelled in the East he was inclined to see it with the eyes of
Flaubert, though the publication of The Relic and that delightful
prose poem Sweet Miracle afterwards showed that he had been
directly impressed and deeply penetrated by its scenery, poetry
and mysticism. The Franco-German War of 1870, however, by
lowering the prestige of France, proved the herald of a national
Portuguese revival, and had a great influence on Queiroz, as
also had his friend Oliveira Martins (q.v.), the biographer of the
patriot kings of the Aviz dynasty. He founded the Portuguese
Realist-Naturalist school, of which he remained for the rest of
his life the chief exponent, by a powerful romance, The Crime
of Father Amaro, written in 1871 at Leiria but only issued in 1875.
Its appearance then led to a baseless charge that he had
plagiarized La Faute de I' Abbe Mouret, and ill-informed critics
began to name Queiroz the Portuguese Zola, though he clearly
occupied an altogether different plane in the domain of art.
During his stay in England he produced two masterpieces,
Cousin Basil and The Maias, but they show no traces of English
influence, nor again are they French in tone, for, living near to
France, his disillusionment progressed and was completed when
he went to Paris and had to live under the regime of the Third
ECARTE
845
Republic. Settling at Neuilly, the novelist became chronicler,
critic, and letter- writer as well, and in all these capacities
Queiroz displayed a spontaneity, power and artistic finish
unequalled in the literature of his country since the death of
Garrett. A bold draughtsman, he excelled in freshness of
imagination and careful choice and collocation of words, while
his warmth of colouring and brilliance of language speak of the
south. Many of his pages descriptive of natural scenery, such
for instance as the episode of the return to Tormes in The City
and the Mountains, have taken rank, as classic examples of
Portuguese prose, while as a creator of characters he stood
unsurpassed by any writer of his generation in the same field.
He particularly loved to draw and judge the middle class, and
he mocks at and chastises its hypocrisy and narrowness, its
veneer of religion and culture, its triumphant lying, its self-
satisfied propriety, its cruel egotism. But though he manifested
a predilection for middle-class types, his portrait gallery com-
prises men and women of all social conditions. The Maias,
his longest book, treats olfidalgos, while perhaps his most remark-
able character study is of a servant, Juliana, in Cousin Basil.
At least two of his books, this latter and The Crime of Father
Amaro, are chroniques acandaleuses in their plots and episodes;
these volumes, however, mark not only the high-water line of the
Realist-JNaturalist school in Portugal, but are in themselves, leav-
ing aside all accidentals, creative achievements of a high order.
Though Queiroz was a keen satirist of the ills of society, his
pages show hardly a trace of pessimism. The City and the
Mountains, and in part The Relic also, reveal the apostle of
Realism as an idealist and dreamer, a true representative of
that Celtic tradition which survives in the race and has permeated
the whole literature of Portugal. The Mandarin, a fantastic
variation on the old theme of a man self-sold to Satan, and The
Illustrious House of Ramires, are the only other writings of his
that require mention, except The Correspondence of Fradique
Mendes. In conjunction with Anthero de Quental and Jayme
Batalha Reis, Queiroz invented under that name a smart man
of the world who had something of himself and something of
Eduardo Prado, and made him correspond on all sorts of subjects
with imaginary friends and relatives to the delight of the public,
many of whom saw in him a mysterious new writer whose identity
they were eager to discover. These sparkling and humorous
letters are an especial favourite with admirers of Queiroz, because
they reveal so much of his very attractive personality, and
perhaps the cleverest of the number, that on Pacheco, has
received an English dress. In addition to his longer and more
important works, Queiroz wrote a number of short stories,
some of which have been printed in a volume under the title of
Cantos. The gems of this remarkable collection are perhaps
The Peculiarities of a Fair-haired Girl, A Lyric Poet, Jos6
Matthias, The Corpse, and Sweet Miracle.
Most of his books have gone through many editions, and they are
even more appreciated in the Brazils than in Portugal. It should be
mentioned that the fourth edition of Father ylmaroisentirelydifferent
in form and action from the first, the whole story having been re-
written. One of Queiroz's romances and two of his short stories
have been published in English. An unsatisfactory version of
Cousin Basil, under the title Dragon's Teeth, appeared at Boston,
U.S.A., in 1889, while Sweet Miracle has had three editions in England
and one in America, and there is also a translation of O Defunto (The
Corpse), under the name of Our Lady of the Pillar.
An admirable critical study of the work of Queiroz will be found
in A Gerafao Nova Os Noyellistas, by J. Pereira de Sampaio (Bruno),
(Oporto, 1886). The Revista moderna of the zoth of November 1897
was entirely devoted to him. Senhor Batalha Reis gives interesting
reminiscences of the novelist's early days in his preface to some
prose fragments edited by him and named Prosas Barbaras (Oporto,
1903). (E. PR.)
ECARTfi (Fr. for "separated," "discarded"), a game at
cards, of modern origin, probably first played in the Paris salons
in the first quarter of the igth century. It is a development of
a very old card game called la triomphe or French-ruff. Ecarte
is generally played by two persons, but a pool of three may be
formed, the player who is out taking the place of the loser, and
the winner of two consecutive games winning the pool. At
French ecart6 (but not at English) bystanders who are betting
may advise the players, but only by pointing to the cards they
desire them to play, and the loser of the game goes out, one of
the rentrants taking his place, unless the loser is playing la
chouette, i. e. playing single-handed against two, and taking
all bets.
The small cards (from the two to the six, both inclusive) are
removed from an ordinary pack. The players cut for deal, the
highest having the choice. The king is the highest card, the ace
ranking after the knave. The dealer gives five cards to his
adversary, and five to himself, by two at a time to each and by
three at a time to each, or vice versa. The eleventh card is
turned up for trumps. If it is a king, the dealer scores one, at
any time before the next deal. The non-dealer then looks at
his cards. If satisfied with them he plays, and there is no dis-
carding; if not satisfied he " proposes." The dealer may either
accept or refuse. If he accepts, each player discards face down-
wards as many cards as he thinks fit, and fresh ones are given
from the undealt cards or " stock," first to complete the non-
dealer's hand to five, then to complete the dealer's. To ask for
" a book " is to ask for five cards. Similarly a second proposal
may be made, and so on, until one player is satisfied with his
hand. If the dealer refuses, the hand is played without dis-
carding. If the non-dealer announces that he holds the king
of trumps, he scores one; and similarly, if the dealer holds the
king and announces it, he scores one. The announcement
must be made before playing one's first card, or if that card be
the king, on playing it. The non-dealer, being satisfied with
his hand, leads a card. The dealer plays a card to it, the two
cards thus played forming a trick. The winner of the trick leads
to the next, and so on. The second to play to a trick must follow
suit if able, and must win the trick if he can.
The scores are for the king and for the majority of tricks.
The player who wins three tricks scores one for the " point ";
if he wins all five tricks, he scores two for the " vole." If the
non-dealer plays without proposing, or the dealer refuses the
first proposal, and fails to win three tricks, the adversary scores
two, but no more even if he wins the vole. The game is five up.
The points are conveniently marked with a three-card and a
two-card, as at euchre. The three is put face upwards with the
two face downwards on the top of it. When one or two or three
points are scored the top card is moved so as to expose them.
At four, one pip of the two-card is put under the other card.
Games may be recorded similarly.
Hints to Players. The following hints may be of service to be-
ginners :
Shuffle thoroughly after every deal.
Do not announce the king until in the act of playing your first
card.
The hands which should be played without proposing, called
jeux de regie (standard hands), ought to be thoroughly known. They
are as follows :
1. All hands with three or more trumps, whatever the other cards.
2. Hands with two trumps which contain also
(a) Any three cards of one plain suit ;
(b) Two cards of one plain suit, one being as high as a queen ;
(c) Two small cards of one suit, the fifth card being a king
of another suit;
(d) Three high cards of different suits.
3. Hands with one trump, which contain also
(a) King, queen, knave of one suit, and a small card of another;
(b) Four cards of one suit headed by king;
(c) Three cards of one suit headed by queen, and queen of
another suit.
4. Hands with no trump, which contain three queens or cards of
equal value in different suits, e.g., four court cards.
5. Hands from which only two cards can be discarded without
throwing a king or a trump.
Holding cards which make the point certain, propose. If you
hold a jeu de regie, and one of the trumps is the king, propose, as
your adversary cannot then take in the king.
When discarding, throw out all cards except trumps and kings.
If your adversary proposes you should accept, unless you are
guarded in three suits (a queen being a sufficient guard), or in two
suits with a trump, or in one suit with two trumps. Hence the
rule not to discard two cards, unless holding the king of trumps,
applies to the dealer.
The hands with which to refuse are the same as those with which
to play without proposing, except as follows :
ECBATANA ECCELINO
1. Two trumps and three cards of one plain suit should not be
played unless the plain suit is headed by a court card.
2. One trump and a tierce major is too weak, unless the fifth
card is a court card. With similar hands weaker in the tierce major
suit, accept unless the fifth card is a queen.
t. One trump and four cards of a plain suit is too weak to play.
4! One trump and two queens is too weak, unless both queens are
singly guarded.
5. One trump, queen of one suit, and knave guarded of another
should not be played unless the queen is also guarded, or the card
of the fourth suit is a court card.
6. One trump, a king and a queen, both unguarded, should not
be played, unless the fourth suit contains a card as high as an ace.
7. Four court cards without a trump are tpo weak to play, unless
they are of three different suits.
Refuse with three queens, if two are singly guarded; otherwise,
accept.
Lead from your guarded suit, and lead the highest.
If the strong suit led is not trumped, persevere with it, unless with
king of trumps, or queen (king not having been announced) , or knave
ace, when lead a trump before continuing your suit.
You should not lead trumps at starting, unless you hold king or
queen, knave, or knave ace, with court cards out of trumps.
The score has to be considered. If the dealer is at four, and the
king is not in your hand nor turned up, play any cards without
proposing which give an even chance of three tricks, e.g. a queen,
a guarded knave, and a guarded ten. The same rule applies to the
dealer's refusal.
At the adverse score of four, and king not being in hand or turned
up, any hand with one trump should be played, unless the plain
cards are very small and of different suits.
If the non-dealer plays without proposing when he is four to
three, and the dealer holds the king he ought not to mark it. The
same rule applies to the non-dealer after a refusal, if the dealer is
four to three.
At the score of non-dealer three, dealer four, the dealer should
refuse on moderate cards, as the player proposing at this score must
have a very bad hand.
At four a forward game should not be played in trumps, as there
is no advantage in winning the vole.
Laws of Ecarte. The following laws are abridged from the revised
code adopted by the Turf Club : A cut must consist of at least two
cards. Card exposed in cutting, fresh cut. Order of distribution of
cards, whether by three and two, or vice versa, once selected, dealer
must not change it during game. Player announcing king when he
has not got it, and playing a card without declaring error, adversary
may correct score and have hand played over again. If offender
wins point or vole that hand, he scores one less than he wins. Pro-
posal, acceptance, or refusal made cannot be retracted. Cards dis-
carded must not be looked at. Cards exposed in giving cards to
non-dealer, he has option of taking them or of having next cards;
dealer exposing his own cards, no penalty. Dealer turning up top
card after giving cards, cannot refuse second discard. Dealer
accepting when too few cards in stock to supply both, non-dealer
may take cards, and dealer must play his hand. Card led in turn
cannot be taken up again. Card played to a lead can only be taken
up prior to another lead, to save revoke or to correct error of not
winning trick. Card led out of turn may be taken up prior to its
being played to. Player naming one suit and leading another,
adversary has option of requiring suit named to be led. If offender
has none, no penalty. Player abandoning hand, adversary is deemed
to win remaining tricks, and scores accordingly. If a player revokes
or does not win trick when he can do so, the adversary may correct
score and have hand replayed.
See Academic des jeux (various editions after the first quarter of
the iQth century) ; Hoyle's Games (various editions about the same
dates) ; Ch. Van-Tenac et Louis Delanoue, Traite du jeu de Vecarte
(Paris, 1845; translated in Bohn's Handbook of Games, London,
1850) ; " Cavendish," The Laws of Ecarte, adopted by the Turf Club,
with a Treatise on the Game (London, 1878) ; Pocket Guide to Ecarte
(" Cavendish," 1897) ; Foster's Encyclopaedia of Indoor Games
(1903).
ECBATANA (Agbatana in Aeschylus, Hangmatana in Old
Persian, written Agamtanu by Nabonidos, and Agamatanu at
Behistun, mod. Hamadan), the capital of Astyages (Istuvegu),
which was taken by Cyrus in the sixth year of Nabonidos
(549 B.C.). The Greeks supposed it to be the capital of Media,
confusing the Manda, of whom Astyages was king, with the Mada
or Medes of Media Atropatene, and ascribed its foundation to
Deioces (the Daiukku of the cuneiform inscriptions), who is said
to have surrounded his palace in it with seven concentric walls of
different colours. Under the Persian kings, Ecbatana, situated
at the foot of Mount Elvend, became a summer residence; and
was afterwards the capital of the Parthian kings. Sir H.
Rawlinson attempted to prove that there was a second and older
Ecbatana in Media Atropatene, on the site of the modern Takht-i-
Suleiman, midway between Hamadan and Tabriz (J.R.G.S.
x. 1841), but the cuneiform texts imply that there was only one
city of the name, and Takht-i-Suleiman is the Gazaca of classical
geography. The Ecbatana at which Cambyses is said by
Herodotus (iii. 64) to have died is probably a blunder for Hamath.
See Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in Persia (Eng. trans., 1892) ;
M. Dieulafoy, L'Art antiquede la Perse, pt. i. (1884); J. de Morgan,
Mission scientifique en Perse, ii. (1894). See HAMADAN and PERSIA:
Ancient History, v. 2. (A. H. S.)
ECCARD, JOHANN (1553-1611), German composer of church
music, was born at Muhlhausen on the Unstrut, Prussia, in 1553.
At the age of eighteen he went to Munich, where he became the
pupil of Orlando Lasso. In his company Eccard is said to have
visited Paris, but in 1574 we find him again at Miihlhausen,
where he resided for four years, and edited, together with Johann
von Burgk, his first master, a collection of sacred songs, called
Crepundia sacra Helmboldi (1577). Soon afterwards he obtained
an appointment as musician in the house of Jacob Fugger, the
Augsburg banker. In 1583 he became assistant conductor, and
in 1599 conductor, at Konigsberg, to Georg Friedrich, margrave
of Brandenburg-Anspach, the administrator of Prussia. In 1608
he was called by the elector Joachim Friedrich to Berlin as chief
conductor, but this post he held only for three years, owing to
his premature death at Konigsberg in 1611. Eccard's works
consist exclusively of vocal compositions, such as songs, sacred
cantatas and chorales for four or five, and sometimes ior seven,
eight, or even nine voices. Their polyphonic structure is a
marvel of art, and still excites the admiration of musicians. At
the same time his works are instinct with a spirit of true religious
feeling. His setting of the beautiful words " Ein' feste Burg ist
unser Gott " is still regarded by the Germans as their representa-
tive national hymn. Eccard and his school are inseparably con-
nected with the history of the Reformation.
Of Eccard's songs a great many collections are extant; see
K. G. A. von Winterfeld, Der Evangelische Kirchengesang (1843);
Doring (Choralkunde, p. 47).
ECCELINO [or EZZELINO] DA ROMANO (1194-1259), Ghibelline
leader, and supporter of the emperor Frederick II., was born on
the 25th of April 1 194. He belonged to a family descended from
a German knight named Eccelin, who followed the emperor
Conrad II. to Italy about 1036, and received the fief of Romano
near Padua. Eccelin's grandson was Eccelino III., surnamed
the Monk, who divided his lands between his two sons in 1223,
and died in 1235. The elder of these two sons was Eccelino,
who in early life began to take part in family and other feuds,
and in 1226, at the head of a band of Ghibellines, seized Verona
and became podesta of the city. He soon lost Verona, but re-
gained it in 1230; and about this time came into relations with
Frederick II., who in 1232 issued a charter confirming him in his
possessions. In 1236 when besieged in Verona he was saved by
the advance of the emperor, who in November of the same year
took Vicenza and entrusted its government to Eccelino. In
1237 he obtained authority over Padua and Treviso; and on the
27th of November in that year he shared in the victory gained
by the emperor over the Lombards at Cortenuova. In 1 238 he
married Frederick's natural daughter, Selvaggia; in 1239 was
appointed imperial vicar of the march of Treviso; but in the
same year was excommunicated by Pope Gregory IX. He was
constantly engaged in increasing his possessions; was present
at the siege of Parma in 1247, and after Frederick's death in
1250 he supported his son, the German king Conrad IV. His
cruelties had, however, aroused general disgust, and in 1254 he
was again excommunicated. In 1256 Pope Alexander IV.
proclaimed a crusade against him, and a powerful league was
soon formed under the leadership of Philip, archbishop of
Ravenna. Padua was taken from Eccelino, but on the ist of
September 1258 he defeated his enemies at Torricella. He then
made an attempt on Milan, and the rival forces met at Cassano
on the 27th of September 1259, when Eccelino was wounded and
taken prisoner. Enraged at his capture, he tore the bandages
from his wounds, refused to take nourishment, and died at
Soncino on the 7th of October 1259. In the following year his
brother Albert was put to death, and the Romano family became
ECCENTRIC ECCLESIA
847
extinct. Eccelino, who is sometimes called the tyrant, acquired
-a terrible reputation on account of his cruelties, a reputation
that won for him the immortality of inclusion in Dante's Inferno;
but his unswerving loyalty to Frederick II. forms a marked
contrast to the attitude of many of his contemporaries.
Eccelino is the subject of a novel by Cesare Cantu and of a
drama by J. Eichendorff.
See J. M. Gittermann, Ezzelino da Romano (Freiburg, 1890);
S. Mitis, Storia d' Ezzelino IV. da Romano (Maddaloni, 1896); and
F. Stieve, Ezzelino von Romano (Leipzig, 1909).
ECCENTRIC (from Gr. ec, out of, and tivrpov, centre), literally
" out from the centre," and thus used to connote generally any
deviation from the normal. In astronomy the word denotes a
circle round which a body revolves, but whose centre is displaced
from the visible centre of motion. In the ancient astronomy the
ellipses in which it is now known that the planets revolve around
the sun could not be distinguished from circles, but the unequal
angular motion due to ellipticity was observed. The theory of
the eccentric was that the centre of the epicycle of each planet
moved uniformly in a circle, the centre of which was displaced
from that of the earth by an amount double the eccentricity of
the actual ellipse, as the case is now understood. When measured
around this imaginary centre, which is so situated on the major
axis of the ellipse that the focus, or place of the real sun, is
midway between it and the centre of the ellipse, the motion is
approximately uniform. In engineering, an eccentric is a
mechanical device for converting rotary into reciprocating
motion (see STEAM-ENGINE). For eccentric angle see ELLIPSE.
ECCHELLEKSIS (or ECHELLENSIS), ABRAHAM (d. 1664), a
learned Maronite, whose surname is derived from Eckel in Syria,
where he was born towards the close of the i6th century. He
was educated at the Maronite college in Rome, and, after taking
his doctor's degree in theology and philosophy, returned for a
time to his native land. He then became professor of Arabic
and Syriac in the college of the Propaganda at Rome. Called to
Paris in 1640 to assist Le Jay in the preparation of his polyglot
Bible, he contributed to that work the Arabic and Latin versions
of the book of Ruth and the Arabic version of the third book of
Maccabees. In 1646 he was appointed professor of Syriac and
Arabic at the College de France. Being invited by the Congrega-
tion of the Propaganda to take part in the preparation of an
Arabic version of the Bible, Ecchellensis went again in 1652 or
1653 to Rome. He published several Latin translations of Arabic
works, of which the most important was the Chronicon Orientate
of Ibnar-Rahib (Paris, 1653), a history of the patriarchs of
Alexandria. He was engaged in an interesting controversy with
John Selden as to the historical grounds of episcopacy, in the
course of which he published his Eutychius vindicatus, sive
Responsio ad Seldeni Origines (Rome, 1661). Conjointly with
Giovanni Borelli he wrote a Latin translation of the sth, 6th
and 7th books of the Conies of Apollonius of Perga (1661). He
died at Rome in 1664.
ECCLES, a municipal borough in the Eccles parliamentary
division of Lancashire, England, 4 m. W. of Manchester, of which
it forms practically a suburb. Pop. (1901) 34,369. It is served
by the London & North- Western railway and by the Birkenhead
railway (North- Western and Great Western joint). The Man-
chester Ship Canal passes through. The church of St Mary is
believed to date from the i2th century, but has been enlarged
and wholly restored in modern times. There are several hand-
some modern churches and chapels, a town hall, and numerous
cotton mills, while silk-throwing and the manufacture of fustians
and ginghams are also among the industries, and there are also
large engine works. A peculiar form of cake is made here,
taking name from the town, and has a wide reputation. Eccles
was incorporated in 1892, and the corporation consists of a mayor,
6 aldermen and 18 councillors. The borough maintains the
tramway service, &c., but water and gas are supplied from
Manchester and Salford respectively. Area, 2057 acres.
Before the Reformation the monks of Whalley Abbey had a
grange here at what is still called Monks' Hall; and in 1864
many thousands of silver pennies of Henry III. and John of
England and William I. of Scotland were discovered near the
spot. Robert Ainsworth, the author of the Latin and English
dictionary so long familiar to English students, was born at Eccles
in 1660; and it was at the vicarage that William Huskisson
expired on the isth of September 1830 from injuries received at
the opening of the Liverpool & Manchester railway. From early
times " wakes " were held at Eccles, and bull-baiting, bear-
baiting and cock-fighting were carried on. Under Elizabeth
these festivals, which had become notoriously disorderly, were
abolished, but were revived under James I., and maintained
until late in the igth century on public ground. The cockpit
remained on the site of the present town hall. A celebration
on private property still recalls these wakes.
ECCLESFIELD, a township in the Hallamshire parliamentary
division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 5 m. N. of
Sheffield, on the Great Central and Midland railways. The
church of St Mary is Perpendicular, with a central tower, and con-
tains excellent woodwork. It formerly bore, and must have
deserved, the familiar title of the " Minster of the Moors."
Ecclesfield was the seat of a Benedictine priory, which passed to
the Carthusians in the I4th century. Cutlery and tools are
largely manufactured, and there are coal-mines, paper mills and
iron and fire-clay works. After the inclusion within the county
borough of Sheffield of part of the civil parish of Ecclesfield in
1901, the population was 18,324.
ECCLESHALL, a market town in the north-western parlia-
mentary division of Staffordshire, England; 7 m. N.W. from
Stafford, and 4 W. of Norton Bridge station on the London &
North- Western main line. Pop. (1901)3799. The church of the
Holy Trinity, one of the most noteworthy in Staffordshire, is
principally Early English, and has fine stained glass. Several
bishops of Lichfield are buried here, as Eccleshall Castle was the
episcopal residence from the I3th century until 1867. Of this the
ancient remains include a picturesque tower and bridge. To the
west on the borders of Shropshire is Blore Heath, the scene of a
defeat of the Lancastrians by the Yorkists in 1459.
ECCLESIA (Gr. ecKXijow, from IK, out, and Ka\eiv, to call), in
ancient Athens, the general assembly of all the freemen of the
state. In the primitive unorganized state the king was theoretic-
ally absolute, though his great nobles meeting in the Council
(see BOULE) were no doubt able to influence him considerably.
There is, however, no doubt that in the earliest times the free
people, i.e. the fighting force of the state, were called together to
ratify the decisions of the king, and that they were gradually able
to enforce their wishes against those of the nobles. In Athens,
as in Rome, where the Plebs succeeded in their demand for the
codification of the laws (the Twelve Tables), it was no doubt
owing to the growing power of the people meeting in the Agora
that Draco was entrusted with the task of publishing a code of
law and so putting an end to' the arbitrary judicature of the
aristocratic party. But there is no evidence that the Ecclesia
had more than a de facto existence before Solon's reforms.
The precise powers which Solon gave the people are not known.
It is clear that the executive power in the state (see AKCHON) was
still vested in the Eupatrid class. It is obvious, therefore, that a
moderate reformer would endeavour to give to the people some
control over the magistracy. Now in speaking of the Thetes
(the lowest of the four Solonian classes; see SOLON), Aristotle's
Constitution of Athens says that Solon gave them merely " a
share in the Ecclesia and the Law Courts," and in the Politics we
find that he gave them the right of electing the magistrates and
receiving their accounts at the end of the official year. Thus it
seems that the " mixed " character of Solon's constitution
consisted in the fact that though the officials of the state were
still necessarily Eupatrid, the Ecclesia elected those of the
Eupatrids whom they could trust, and further had the right of
criticizing their official actions. Secondly, all our accounts agree
that Solon admitted the Thetes to the Ecclesia, thus recognizing
them as citizens. Under Cleisthenes the Ecclesia remained the
sovereign power, but the Council seems to have become to
some extent a separate administrative body. The relation of
Boule and Ecclesia in the Cleisthenic democracy was of the
ECCLESIA
greatest importance. The Ecclesia alone, a heterogeneous body of
untrained citizens, could not have passed, nor even have drawn
up intelligible measures; all the preliminary drafting was done
by the small committee of the Boule which was in session at any
particular time. In the sth century the functions of the Ecclesia
and the popular courts of justice were vastly increased by the
exigencies of empire. At the beginning of the 4th century B.C.
the system of payment was introduced (see below). In 308 B.C.
Demetrius of Phalerum curtailed the power of the Ecclesia by the
institution of the Nomophylaces (Guardians of the Law), who
prevented the Ecclesia from voting on an illegal or injurious
motion. Under Roman rule the powers of the Ecclesia and the
popular courts were much diminished, and after 48 B.C. (the
franchise being frequently sold to any casual alien) the Demos
(people) was of no importance. They still assembled to pass
psephisms in the theatre and to elect strategi, and, under Hadrian,
had some small judicial duties, but as a governing body the
Ecclesia died when Athens became a civitas libera under Roman
protection.
Constitution and Functions. Throughout the period of
Athenian greatness the Ecclesia was the sovereign power, not only
in practice but also in theory. The assembly met in early times
near the sanctuary of Aphrodite Pandemus (i.e. south of the
Acropolis), but, in the sth and 4th centuries, the regular place of
meeting was the Pnyx. From the sth century it met sometimes
in the theatre, which in the 3rd century was the regular place.
From Demosthenes we learn that in his time special meetings
were held at Peiraeus, and, in the last centuries B. c., meetings
were held at Athens and Peiraeus alternately. Certain meetings,
however, for voting ostracism (q.v.) and on questions affecting
individual status took place in the Agora. Meetings were
(i) ordinary, (2) extraordinary, and (3) convened by special
messengers ((cupieu, crvyK\ttToi and KaT<XKX?jToi) , these last
being called when it was desirable that the country people should
attend. At ordinary meetings the attendance was practically
confined to Athenian residents. According to Aristotle there
were four regular meetings in each prytany (see BOULE); prob-
ably only the first of these was called iwpia. It is certain, how-
ever, that the four meetings did not fall on regular days, owing to
the occurrence of feast days on which no meeting could take place.
In the iwpia tKK\rio~ia. of each month took place the Epicheiro-
tonia (monthly inquiry) of the state officials, and if it proved
unsatisfactory a trial before the Heliaea was arranged; the
council reported on the general security and the corn-supply,
and read out lists of vacant inheritances and unmarried
heiresses. In the sixth prytany of each year at the Kupia eKK^tjaia
the question whether ostracism should take place that year was
put to the vote. For all meetings it was usual that the Prytaneis
should give five days' notice in the form of a programma (agenda) .
On occasions of sudden importance the herald of the council
summoned the people with a trumpet, and sometimes special
messengers were despatched to " bring in " the country people
(KOTOKClXefl').
After the archonship of Solon all Athenians over the age of
eighteen were eligible to attend the assembly, save those who
for some reason had suffered atimia (loss of civil rights). To
prevent the presence of any disqualified persons, six lexiarchs
with thirty assistants were present with the deme-rolls in their
hands. These officers superintended the payment in the
4th century and probably the toxotae (police) also, whose duty
it was before the introduction of pay to drive the people out
of the Agora into the Ecclesia with a rope steeped in red dye
which they stretched out and used as a draw net (see
Aristoph. Acharn. 22 and Eccles. 378). The introduction
of pay, which belongs to the early years of the 4th century
and by the Constitution (c. 41 ad fin.) is attributed to Agyrrhius,
a statesman of the restored democracy, was a device to secure
a larger attendance. The rate rose from one to two obols and
then to three obols (Aristoph. Eccles. 300 sqq.), while at the time
of Aristotle it was one and a half drachmas for the icvpla eKJcArjoia
and one drachma for other meetings. Probably those who were
late did not receive payment.
Procedure. The proceedings opened with formalities: the
purification by the peristiarchs, who carried round slain sucking
pigs; the curse against all who should deceive the people; the
appointment (in the 4th century) of the proedri and their
epistates (see BOULE); the report as to the weather-omens. The
assembly was always dismissed if there were thunder, rain or
an eclipse. These formalities over, the Prytaneis communicated
the probouleuma of the council, without which the Ecclesia could
not debate. This recommendation either submitted definite
proposals or merely brought the agenda before the assembly.
Its importance lay largely in the fact that it explained the busi-
ness in hand, which otherwise must often have been beyond the
grasp of a miscellaneous assembly. After the reading, a pre-
liminary vote was taken as to whether the council's report should
be accepted en bloc. If it was decided to discuss, the herald called
upon people to speak. Any person, without distinction of age
or position, might obtain leave to speak, but it seems probable
that the man who had moved the recommendation previously
in the council would advocate it in the assembly. The council
was, therefore, a check on the assembly, but its powers were to
some extent illusory, because any member of the assembly (i)
might propose an amendment, (2) might draw up a new resolu-
tion founded on the principal motion, (3) might move the rejection
of the motion and the substitution of another, (4) might bring
in a motion asking the council for a recommendation on a
particular matter, (5) might petition the council for leave to
speak on a given matter to the assembly. Voting usually was
by show of hands, but in special cases (ostracism, &c.) by ballot
(i.e. by casting pebbles into one of two urns). The decision of
the assembly was called a psephism and had absolute validity.
These decisions were deposited in the Metroon where state
documents were preserved; peculiarly important decrees were
inscribed also on a column (stele) erected on the Acropolis.
It has been shown that the power of the council was far from
sufficient. The real check on the vagaries of amateur legislators
was the Graphe Paranomon. Any man was at liberty to give
notice that he would proceed against the mover of a given
resolution either before or after the voting in the Ecclesia. A
trial in a Heliastic court was then arranged, and the plaintiff
had to prove that the resolution in question contravened an
existing law. If this contention were upheld by the court, when
the case was brought to it by the Thesmothetae, the resolution
was annulled, and the defendant had to appear in a new trial
for. the assessment of the penalty, which was usually a fine,
rarely death. Three convictions under this law, however, in-
volved a certain loss of rights; the loser could no longer move
a resolution in the Ecclesia. After the lapse of a year the mover
of a resolution could not be attacked. In the 4th century the
Graphe Paranomon took the place of Ostracism (q.ii.). In the
Sth century it was merely an arrangement whereby the people
sitting as sworn juries ratified or annulled their own first decision
in the Ecclesia.
Revision of Laws. In the 4th century, the assembly annually,
on the eleventh day of Hecatombaeon (the first day of the
official year), took a general vote on the laws, to decide whether
revision was necessary. If the decision was in favour of alteration,
it was open to any private citizen to put up notice of amendments.
The Nomothetae, a panel selected by the Prytaneis from the
Heliaea, heard arguments for and against the changes proposed
and voted accordingly. Against all new laws so passed, there
lay the Graphe Paranomon. Thus the Nomothetae, not the
Ecclesia, finally passed the law.
Judicial Functions. The Ecclesia heard cases of Probole
and Eisangelia (see GREEK LAW). The Probole was an action
against sycophants and persons who had not kept their promises
to the people, or had disturbed a public festival. The verdict
went by show of hands, but no legal consequences ensued; if
the plaintiff demanded punishment he had to go to the Heliaea
which were not at all bound by the previous vote in the Ecclesia.
Cases of Eisangelia in which the penalty exceeded the legal
competence of the council came before the Ecclesia in the form
of a probouleuma. To prevent vexatious accusations, it was
ECCLESIASTES
849
(at some date unknown) decided that the accuser who failed
to obtain one-fifth of the votes should be fined 1000 drachmas
(40). (For the procedure in case of Ostracism see that article.)
Summary. Thus it will be seen that the Ecclesia, with no
formal organization, had absolute power save for the Graphs
Paranomon (which, therefore, constituted the dicasteries in one
sense the sovereign power in the state) . It dealt with all matters
home and foreign. Every member could initiate legislation,
and, as has been shown, the power of the council was merely
formal. As against this it must be pointed out that it was
by no means a representative assembly in practice. The phrase
used to describe a very special assembly (/COTCUCXTJTOS tKKkrjala)
shows that ordinarily the country members did not attend
(fcara/caXei*' always involving the idea of motion from a distance
towards Athens), and Thucydides says that 5000 was the maxi-
mum attendance, though it must be remembered that he is
speaking of the time when the number of citizens had been much
reduced owing to the plague and the Sicilian expedition. From
this we understand the necessity of payment in the 4th century,
although in that period the Ecclesia was supreme (Constitution
of Athens, xli. 2). The functions of the Ecclesia thus differed
in two fundamental respects from those which are in modern
times associated with a popular assembly, (i) It did not exercise,
at least in the period as to which we are best instructed, the power
of law-making (vo/jodfaia.) in the strict sense. It must be
remembered, however, in qualification of this statement that it
possessed the power of passing psephismala which would in many
cases be regarded as law in the modern sense. (2) The Ecclesia
was principally concerned with the supervision of administration.
Much of what we regard as executive functions were discharged
by the Ecclesia.
With this article compare those on SOLON ; BOULE ; AREOPAGUS ;
GREEK LAW, and, for other ancient popular assemblies, APELLA;
COMITIA. See also A. H. J. Greenidge, Handbook of Greek Consti-
tutional History (1896); Gilbert, Greek Constitutional Antiquities
(trans. Brooks and Nicklin, 1895) ; Schomann, De comitiis Athenitn-
sium; L. Schmidt, " DC Atheniensis reipublicae indole democratica "
in Ind. Lect. (Marburg, 1865); J. W. Headlam, Election by Lot at
Athens (Cambridge, 1891). See also the histories of Greece by Meyer,
Busolt, Grote, Evelyn Abbott, and J. E. Sandys' edition of the Con-
stitution of Athens (1892) ; for a comparative study, E. A. Freeman,
Comparative Politics. (J. M. M.)
ECCLESIASTES (Heb. nfcrp, Kohelet, " Koheleth "; Sept.
kKX?7<nao-n7$ ; Jerome concionator) , one of the Wisdom Books
of the Old Testament (see WISDOM LITERATURE). The book, as
it stands, is a collection of the discourses, observations and
aphorisms of a sage called Koheleth, a term the precise meaning
of which is not certain. The Greek ecclesiastcs means one who
takes part in the deliberations of an assembly (ecclesm) , a debater
or speaker in an assembly (Plato, Gorgias, 452 E), and this is the
general sense of the Hebrew word. Its form (singular feminine)
has been supposed to be the adoption or imitation of the Arabic
employment of a fern. sing, as the designation of a high official
person, as is the case in the title caliph (whence the rendering
in the margin of the Revised Version, " Great orator ") ; but
the adoption of an Arabic idiom is not probable. This usage is
not Hebrew; it is not found either in the Old Testament or in
the later (Mishnaic) Hebrew. The form may have been suggested
by that of the Hebrew word for " wisdom." Koheleth, however,
is employed in the book not as a title of wisdom (for " wisdom "
is never the speaker), but as the independent name of the sage.
It is intended to represent him as a member of an assembly
(Kahal) not the Jewish congregation, but a body of students
or inquirers, such as is referred to in xii. 9-1 1, a sort of collegium,
of which he was the head; and as instructor of this body
he gives his criticism of life. The author begins, indeed,
with identifying his sage with King Solomon (i. i2-ii. n, 126);
but he soon abandons this literary device, and speaks in his
own name. The rendering " preacher " has a misleading
connotation.
In the book as we have it there is no orderly exposition of a
theory; it rather has the appearance of a collection of remarks
jotted down by a pupil (somewhat after the manner of Xe.no-
phon's Memorabilia] , or of extracts from a sage's notebook. It
is, however, characterized throughout (except in some scribal
additions) by a definite thought, and pervaded by a definite tone
of feeling. The keynote is given in the classic phrase with which
the discussion opens and with which it closes: " Vanity of
vanities (i.e. absolute vanity), all 1 is vanity ! " Life, says the
author, has nothing of permanent value to offer. His attitude
is one not of bitterness but of calm hopelessness, with an occa-
sional tinge of disgust or contempt. He fancies that he has tried
or observed everything in human experience, and his deliberate
conclusion is that nothing is worth doing. He believes in an all-
powerful but indifferent God, and is himself an observer of
society, standing aloof from its passions and ambitions, and
interested only in pointing out their emptiness.
This general view is set forth in a number of particular
observations.
1. His fundamental proposition is that there is a fixed,
unchangeable order_in the world, a reign of inflexible law (i. 4-11,
iii. i-n, 14, 15, vii. 13, viii. 5-9): natural phenomena, such as
sunrise and sunset, recur regularly; for everything in human
experience a time has been set; birth and death, building up
and destroying, laughing and weeping, silence and speech, love
and hate, war and peace, are to be regarded not as utterances
of a living, self -directing world, but as incidents in the work of a
vast machine that rolls on for ever; there is an endless repetition
nothing is new, nothing is lost; if one thinks he has found
something new, inquiry shows that it was in existence long ago;
God, the author of all, seeks out the past in order to make it once
more present ; it is impossible to add to or take from the content
of the world, impossible to change the nature of things, to effect
any radical betterment of life; the result is unspeakable weari-
ness -a depressing series of sights and sounds. No goal or
purpose is discoverable in this eternal round; if the sun rises
and goes on his journey through the sky, it is merely to come
back to the place where he rose; rivers flow for ever into the
sea without filling it. To what end was the world created ?
It is impossible to say. Such is Koheleth's view of life, and it is
obvious that such a conception of an aimless cosmos is thoroughly
non-Jewish, if we may judge Jewish thought by the great body
of the extant literature.
2. Further, says Koheleth, man is impelled to study the world,
but under the condition that he shall never comprehend it
(iii. n, vii. 23, 24, viii. 16, 17). As to the meaning of the
Hebrew term olam in iii. n, there are various opinions, but
" world " appears to be the rendering favoured by the con-
nexion: " God has made everything beautiful in its time, and
has put the olam into men's minds, yet so that they cannot under-
stand His work": the olam, the sum of phenomena, is God's
work. The word is not found in this senee elsewhere in the Old
Testament, but it so occurs in the Mishna (Pirke Abolh, iv. 7),
and the vocabulary of Ecclesiastes is admittedly similar to that
of the Mishna. Only here in the Old Testament does it stand
as a simple isolated noun; elsewhere it is the definition of a
noun (in " everlasting covenant," &c.), or it is preceded by a
preposition, in the phrases " for ever," " of old," or it stands
alone (sing, or plur.) in the same adverbial sense, " for ever."
The word means first a remote point in past or future, then a
future point without limit of time, then a period of history, and
finally the world considered as a mass of human experiences
(cf. aiuv). The renderings "eternity" and "future" in
the present passage are unsatisfactory; the former has an
inappropriate metaphysical connotation, and yields no distinct
sense; the latter does not suit the connexion, though there is
reference to the future elsewhere (ix. i). God, the text here
declares, has made the world an object of man's thought, yet
so that man can never find out the work that God has done
(iii. n). The reference seems to be not so much to the variety
and complexity of phenomena as to the impossibility of constru-
ing them rationally or in such a way that man may foresee and
provide for his future. Man is in the clutches of fate (ix. 1 1 , 12):
there is no observable relation between exertion and result in
life: the race is not to the swift nor the battle to the strong;
1 The Hebrew has the definite article, " the whole," r<J TTO.V.
850
ECCLESIASTES
success does not attend wisdom, knowledge and skill; men are
like fish taken in a net or birds caught in a snare.
3. Human life, Koheleth declares, is unsatisfying. He
inquired, he says, into everything that is done by men under
the sun (i. 12-16): God has inflicted on men a restless desire for
movement and work, 1 yet life is but a catalogue of fruitless
'struggles. He gives a number of illustrations. In his character
of king he tried all the bodily pleasures of life (ii. i-n): he had
houses, vineyards, gardens, parks, ponds, forests, servants,
flocks and herds, treasures of gold and silver, singers, wives;
all these he set himself to enjoy in a rational way indeed, he
found a certain pleasure in carrying out his designs, but, when all
was done, he surveyed it only to see that it was weary and un-
profitable. Dropping the r61e of Solomon and speaking as an
observer of life, the author declares (iv. 4) that the struggle for
success is the result of rivalry among men, which has no worthy
outcome. The securing of riches is a fallacious achievement,
for often wealth perishes by some accident (v. 13 f.), or its
possessor is unable to enjoy it (vi. 1-30), or he has no one to
whom to leave it, and he cannot keep it naked man comes into
the world, naked he goes out. He does not consider the possi-
bility of deriving enjoyment from wealth by helping the poor or
encouraging learning (this latter, indeed, he looks on as vanity),
and in general he recognizes no obligation on the part of a man
to his fellows. A noteworthy survival of an old belief is found
in vi. 3 : though a man have the great good fortune to live long
and to have many children, yet, if he have not proper burial
the blank darkness of an untimely birth is better than he: this
latter is merely the negation of existence; the former, it appears
to be held, is positive misfortune, the loss of a desirable place in
Sheol, though elsewhere (ix. 5) existence in Sheol is represented
as the negation of real life. It is not necessary to suppose that
the writer has here any particular case in mind.
If wealth be thus a vain thing, yet a sage might be supposed
to find satisfaction in wisdom, that is, practical good sense and
sagacity; but this also the author puts aside as bringing no
lasting advantage, since a wise man must finally give up the fruit
of his wisdom to someone else, who may be a fool, and in any
case the final result for both fools and wise men is the same
both are forgotten (ii. 1 2- 23) . A particular instance is mentioned
(ix. 13-15) of a beleagured city saved by a wise man; but the
man happened to be poor, and no one remembered him. The
whole constitution of society, in fact, seems to the sage a lament-
able thing: the poor are oppressed, the earth is full of their cries,
and there is no helper (iv. i); strange social upheavals may be
seen: the poor 2 set in high places, the rich cast down, slaves
on horseback, princes on foot (x. 5-7). He permits himself a
sweeping generalization (vii. 25-28): human beings as a rule are
bad: one may occasionally find a good man, never a good
woman woman is a snare and a curse. He (or an editor) adds
(vii. 29) that this condition of things is due to social development:
man was created upright (Gen. i. 27; Enoch Ixix. ii), but in the
course of history has introduced corrupting complications into
life.
4. The natural outcome of these experiences of the author is
that he cannot recognize a moral government of the world.
He finds, like Job, that there are good men who die prematurely
notwithstanding their goodness, and bad men who live long
notwithstanding their badness (vii. 15), though long life, it is
assumed, is one of the great blessings of man's lot; and in
general there is no moral discrimination in the fortunes of men
(viii. 14, ix. 2).
5. There is no sacredness or dignity in man or in human life:
man has no pre-eminence over beasts, seeing that he and they
have the same final fate, die and pass into the dust, and no one
knows what becomes of the spirit, whether in man's case it goes
up to heaven, and in the case of beasts goes down into Sheol
1 In fact, he suggests, a curse, as in Gen. iii. 17-19, though with
a wider sweep than that passage has in mind.
! The text has " folly," but the parallelism and v. 7 point to social,
not intellectual, conditions, and a slight change (poo for S=on) gives
the sense " poor."
death is practically the end-all; and so poor a thing is life that
the dead are to be considered more fortunate than the living,
and more to be envied than either class is he who never came
into existence (iv. 2, 3). It is a special grievance that the wicked
when they die are buried with pomp and ceremony, while men
who have acted well are forgotten 3 in the city (viii. 10).
6. That the author does not believe in a happy or active future
life appears in the passage (iv. 2, 3) quoted above. The old
Hebrew view of the future excluded from Sheol the common
activities of life and also the worship of the national god (Isa.
xxxviii. 1 8); he goes even beyond this in his conception of the
blankness of existence in the underworld. The living, he says,
at least know that they shall die, but the dead know nothing
the memory of them, their love, hate and envy, perishes, they
have no reward, no part in earthly life (ix. 5, 6); there is
absolutely no knowledge and no work in Sheol (ix. 10). His
conclusion is that men should do now with all their might what
they have to do; the future of man's vital part, the spirit, is
wholly uncertain.
7. His conception of God is in accord with these views.
God for him is the creator and ruler of the world, but hardly
more; he is the master of a vast machine that grinds out human
destinies without sympathy with man and without visible
regard for what man deems justice a being to be acknowledged
as lord, not one to be loved. There can thus be no social contact
between man and God, no communion of soul, no enthusiasm
of service. Moral conduct is to be regulated not by divine law
(of this nothing is said) but by human experience. The author's
theism is cold, spiritless, without influence on life.
If now the question be asked what purpose or aim a man can
have, seeing that there is nothing of permanent value in human
work, an answer is given which recurs, like a refrain, from the
beginning to the end of the book, and appears to be from the
hand of the original author: after every description of the vanity
of things comes the injunction to enjoy such pleasures as may fall
to one's lot (ii. 24, 25, iii. 12, 13, 22, v. 18, 19, viii. 15,
ix. 7-10, xi. 7~xii. 7). Elsewhere (ii.), it is true, it is said that
there is no lasting satisfaction in pleasure; but the sage may
mean to point out that, though there is no permanent outcome
to life, it. is the part of common-sense to enjoy what one has.
The opportunity and the power to enjoy are represented as being
the gift of God; but this statement is not out of accord with
the author's general position, which is distinctly theistic. All the
passages just cited, except the last (xi. 7-xii. 7), are simple and
plain, but the bearing of the last is obscured by interpolations.
Obviously the purpose of the paragraph is to point out the
wisdom of enjoying life in the time of youth while the physical
powers are fresh and strong, and the impotency of old age has
not yet crept in. Omitting xi. 8c, gb, lob, xii. la, the passage
will read: " Life is pleasant in the bright sunshine however
long a man may live, he must be cheerful always, only remember-
ing that dark days will come. Let the young man enjoy all the
pleasures of youth, putting away everything painful, before the
time comes when his bodily powers decay and he can enjoy
nothing." To relieve the apparent Epicureanism of this passage,
an editor has inserted reminders of the vanity of youthful
pleasures, and admonitions to remember God and His judgment.
The author, however, does not recommend dissipation, and does
not mean to introduce a religious motive he offers simply a
counsel of prudence. The exhortation to remember the Creator
in the days of youth, though it is to be retained in the margin
as a pious editorial addition, here interrupts the line of thought.
In xii. ia some critics propose to substitute for " remember thy
Creator " the expression of xi. 9, " let thy heart cheer thee ";
but the repetition is improbable. Others would read: " re-
member thy cistern " (Bickell), or " thy well " (Haupt), that
is, thy wife. The wife is so called in Prov. v. 1 5- 19 in an elaborate
poetical figure (the wife as a source of bodily pleasure), in which
the reference is clear from the context; but there is no authority,
in the Old Testament or in other literature of this period, for
3 The Septuagint has less well : " They (the wicked) are praised
in the city."
ECCLESIASTES
851
taking the term as a simple prose designation of a wife. Nor
would this reference to the wife be appropriate in the connexion,
since the writer's purpose is simply to urge men to enjoy life
while they can. The paragraph (and the original book) concludes
with a sustained and impressive figure, in which the failing body
of the old man is compared to a house falling into decay: first,
the bodily organs (xii. 3, 4.0.) : the keepers of the house (the arms
and hands) tremble, the strong men (the legs and perhaps the
backbone) are bent, the grinding women (the teeth) cease to
work, those that look out of the windows (the eyes) are darkened,
the street-doors are shut, the sound of the mill being low (ap-
parently a summary statement of the preceding details: com-
munication with the outer world through the senses is cut off,
the performance of bodily functions being feeble); the rest of
v. 4 may refer to the old man's inability to make or hear music:
in the house there is no sound of birds ' or of singers, there are
none of the artistic delights of a well-to-do household; further
(v. 50) the inmates of the house fear dangers from all powerful
things and persons (the old man is afraid of everything), the
almond tree blossoms (perhaps the hair turns white). The two
next clauses are obscure. 2 Then comes the end: man goes to his
everlasting home; the dust (the body) returns to the earth
whence it came (Gen. ii. 7), and the breath of life, breathed by
God into the body, returns to him who gave it. This last clause
does not affirm the immortality of the soul; it is simply an
explanation of what becomes of the vital principle (the " breath
of life " of Gen. ii. 7) ; its positive assertion is not in accord
with the doubt expressed in iii. 21 (" who knows whether the
spirit of man goes upward ?"), and it seems to be from another
hand than that of the author of the original book.
There are other sayings in the book that appear to be at
variance with its fundamental thought. Wisdom is praised in a
number of passages (iv. 13, vii. 5, ii, 12, 19, viii. i, ix. 16, 17,
x. 2, 3), though it is elsewhere denounced as worthless. It may
be said that the author, while denying that wisdom (practical
sagacity and level-headedness) can give permanent satisfaction,
yet admits its practical value in the conduct of life. This may
be so; but it would be strange if a writer who could say, " in
much wisdom is much grief," should deliberately laud wisdom.
The question is not of great importance and may be left un-
decided. It may be added that there are in the book a number
of aphorisms about fools (v. 3(4], vii. 5, 6, x. 1-3, 12-15) quite
in the style of the book of Proverbs, some of them contrasting
the wise man and the fool; these appear to be the insertions of
an editor. Further, it may be concluded with reasonable certainty
that the passages that affirm a moral government of the world are
additions by pious editors who wished to bring the book into
harmony with the orthodox thought of the time. Such asser-
tions as those of ii. 26 (God gives joy to him who pleases him,
amd makes the sinner toil to lay up for the latter), viii. 12 (it
shall be well with those that fear God, but not with the wicked),
xii. 13 f. (man's duty is simply to obey the commands of God,
for God will bring everything into judgment) are irreconcilable
with the oft-repeated statement that there is no difference in
the earthly lots of the righteous and the wicked, and no ethical
life after death.
Many practical admonitions and homely aphorisms are
scattered through the book : iv. 5, quiet is a blessing ; iv. 9-12,
two are better than one; iv. 17 (Eng. v. i), be reverent in visiting
the house of God (the temple and the connected buildings)
'The clause is obscure; literally "he (or, one) rises at (?) the
voice of the bird," usually understood to refer to the old man's
inability to sleep in the morning; but this is not a universal trait
of old age, and besides, a reference to affairs in the house is to be
expected ; the Hebrew construction also is of doubtful correctness.
A change of the Hebrew text seems necessary; possibly we should
read *? *>!x>\ " low is the voice," instead of ^ip? Q'P'. "he rises up at
the voice."
2 The second is perhaps to be read: " the caper-berry blooms "
(white hair); usually "the caper-berry loses its appetizing
power"; Eng. Auth. Vers. "desire shall fail." For the meaning
of the word abyona (" caper-berry," not " desire " or " poverty "),
see art. by G. F. Moore in Journ. of Bibl. Lit. x. I (Boston, Mass.,
1891).
to listen (to the service of song or the reading of Scripture)
is better than to offer a foolish (thoughtless) sacrifice; v. i
(2), be sparing of words in addressing God; v. 1-5 (2-6), pay
your vows do not say to the priest's messenger that you made
a mistake; vii. 2-4, sorrow is better than mirth; vii. 16-18,
be not over-righteous (over-attentive to details of ritual and
convention) or over-wicked (flagrantly neglectful of established
beliefs and customs) ; here " righteous " and " wicked " appear
to be technical terms designating two parties in the Jewish
world of the 2nd and ist centuries B.C., the observers and the
non-observers of the Jewish ritual law; these parties represent
in a general way the Pharisees and the Sadducees; viii. 2-4,
x. 20, it is well to obey kings and to be cautious in speaking
about them, for there are talebearers everywhere; vii. 20, no
man is free from sin; vii. 21, do not listen to all that you may
overhear, lest you hear yourself ill spoken of; ix. 4, a living
dog is better than a dead lion ; xi. 1-6, show prudence and
decision in business; do not set all your goods on one venture;
act promptly and hope for the best. At the close of the book
(xii. 9-12) there are two observations that appear to be editorial
recommendations and cautions. First, Koheleth is endorsed
as an industrious, discriminating and instructive writer.
Possibly this is in reply to objections that had been made to
what he had written. There follows an obscure passage (v. ii)
which seems to be meant as a commendation of the teaching
of the sages in general: their words are said to be like goads
(inciting to action) and like nails driven in a building (giving
firmness to character); they issue from masters of assemblies, 3
heads of academies (but not of the Sanhedrin). The succeeding
clause "they are given from one shepherd " may refer to a
collection or revision by one authoritative person, but its rele-
vancy is not obvious. The " shepherd " cannot be God (Gen.
xlix. 24; Ps. xxiii. i); the poetical use of the word would not be
appropriate here. The clause is possibly a gloss, a comment
on the preceding expression. A caution against certain books
is added (v. 12), probably works then considered harmful
(perhaps philosophic treatises), of which, however, nothing
further is known.
Composition of the Book. If the analysis given above is
correct, the book is not a unit; it contains passages mutually
contradictory and not harmonizable. , Various attempts have
been made to establish its unity. The hypothesis of " two
voices " is now generally abandoned; there is no indication of
a debate, of affirmations and responses. A more plausible
theory is that the author is an honest thinker, a keen observer
and critic of life, who sees that the world is full of miseries and
unsolved problems, regards as futile the attempts of his time
to demonstrate an ethically active future life, and, recognizing
a divine author of all, holds that the only wise course for men
is to abandon the attempt to get full satisfaction out of the
struggle for pleasure, riches and wisdom, and to content them-
selves with making the best of what they have. This conception
of him is largely true, as is pointed out above, but it does not
harmonize the contradictions of the book, the discrepancies
between the piety of some passages and the emotional indiffer-
ence toward God shown in others. Other of the Biblical Wisdom
books (Job, Proverbs) are compilations why not this? It is
not necessary to multiply authors, as is done, for example, by
Siegfried, who supposes four principal writers (a pessimistic
philosopher, an Epicurean glossator, a sage who upholds the
value of wisdom, and an orthodox editor) besides a number of
annotators; it is sufficient to assume that several conservative
scribes have made short additions to the original work. Nor is
it worth while to attempt a logical or symmetrical arrangement
of the material. It has been surmised (by Bickell) that the sheets
of the original codex became disarranged and were rearranged
incorrectly; 4 by other critics portions of the book are transferred
8 This is the Talmudic understanding of the Hebrew expression
(Terus. Sanhed. 10, 280, cf. Sanhed. 120; see Ecclus. xxxix. 2).
There is no good authority for the renderings " collectors of maxims, "
" collections of maxims.
* It is not certain that the codex form was in use in Palestine
or in Egypt as early as the 2nd or the 1st century B. c.
ECCLESIASTES
hither and thither; in all cases the critic is guided in these
changes by what he conceives to have been the original form of
the book. But it is more probable that we have it in the form
in which it grew up a series of observations by the original
author with interspersed editorial remarks; and it is better to
preserve the existing form as giving a record of the process
of growth.
Date. As to the date of the book, though there are still
differences of opinion among scholars, there is a gradual approach
to a consensus. The Solomonic authorship has long since been
given up: the historical setting of the work and its atmosphere
the silent assumption of monotheism and monogamy, the non-
national tone, the attitude towards kings and people, the picture
of a complicated social life, the strain of philosophic reflection
are wholly at variance with what is known of the loth century
B.C. and with the Hebrew literature down to the 5th or 4th
century B.C. The introduction of Solomon, the ideal of wisdom,
is a literary device of the later time, and probably deceived
nobody. The decisive considerations for the determination of
the date are the language, the historical background and the
thought. The language belongs to the post-classical period of
Hebrew. The numerous Aramaisms point to a time certainly
not earlier than the 4th century B.C., and probably (though the
history of the penetration of Aramaic into Hebrew speech is
not definitely known) not earlier than the 3rd century. More
than this, there are many resemblances between the dialect of
Koheleth and that of Mishna. Not only are new words employed,
and old words in new significations, but the grammatical
structure has a modern stamp some phrases have the appear-
ance of having been translated out of Aramaic into Hebrew.
By about the beginning of our era the Jews had given up Hebrew
and wrote in Aramaic; the process of expulsion had been going
on, doubtless, for some time; but comparison with the later
extant literature (Chronicles, the Hebrew Ecdesiasticus or
Ben-Sira, Esther) makes it improbable that such Hebrew as
that of Koheleth would have been written earlier than the
2nd century B.C. (for details see Driver's Introduction). The
general historical situation, also, presupposed or referred to, is
that of the period from the year 200 B.C. to the beginning of our
era; in particular, the familiar references to kings as a part of
the social system, and to social dislocations (servants and princes
changing places, x. 7), suggest the troublous time of the later
Greek and the Maccabean rulers, of which the history of Josephus
gives a good picture.
The conception of the world and of human life as controlled
by natural law, a naturalistic cosmos, is alien not only to the
prophetic and liturgical Hebrew literature but also to Hebrew
thought in general. Whether borrowed or not, it must be late;
and its resemblance to Greek ideas suggests Greek influence.
The supposition of such influence is favoured by some critics
(Tyler, Plumptre, Palm, Siegfried, Cheyne in his Jewish Religious
Life after the Exile, and others), rejected by some (Zeller, Renan,
Kleinert and others). This disagreement comes largely from
the attempts made to find definitely expressed Greek philo-
sophical dogmas in the book; such formulas it has not, but
the general air of Greek reflection seems unmistakable. The
the scepticism of Koheleth differs from that of Job in quality and
scope: it is deliberate and calm, not wrung out by personal
suffering; and it relates to the whole course and constitution
of nature, not merely to the injustices of fortune. Such a con-
ception has a Greek tinge, and would be found in Jewish circles,
probably, not before the 2nd century B.C.
A precise indication of date has been sought in certain supposed
references or allusions to historical facts. The mention of persons
who do not sacrifice or take oaths (ix. 2) is held by some to point
to the Essenes; if this be so, it is not chronologically precise,
since we have not the means of determining the beginning of
the movement of thought that issued in Essenism. So also the
coincidences of thought with Ben-Sira (Ecdesiasticus) are not
decisive: cf. iii. 14 with B.S. xviii. 6; v. 2-6 (3-7) with B.S.
xxxiv. 1-7; vii. IQ with B.S. xxxvii. 14; x. 8 with B.S. xxvii.
260; xi. 10 with B.S. xxx. 21; xii. 10, n with B.S. xxxix. 2 ff. ;
xii. 13 with B.S. xliii. 27; if there be borrowing in these passages,
it is not clear on which side it lies; and it is not certain that there
is borrowing the thoughts may have been taken independently
by the two authors from the same source. In any case, since
Ben-Sira belongs to about 180 B.C., the date of Koheleth, so
far as these coincidences indicate it, would not be far from
200 B.C. The contrast made in x. 16 f. between a king who is
a boy and one who is of noble birth may allude to historical
persons. The antithesis is not exact; we expect either " boy
and mature man " or " low-born and high-born." The " child "
might be Antiochus V. (164 B.C.), or Ptolemy V., Epiphanes
(204 B.C.), but the reference is too general to be decisive. The
text of the obscure passage iv. 13-16 is in bad condition, and
it is only by considerable changes that a clear meaning can be
got from it. The two personages the " old and foolish king "
and the " poor and wise youth " have been supposed (by
Winckler) to be Antiochus Epiphanes (175-164 B.C.) and
Demetrius (162-150 B.C.), or (by Haupt) Antiochus and the
impostor Alexander Balas (150-146 B.C.), or (by others)
Demetrius and Alexander; in favour of Alexander as the
" youth " it may be said that he was of obscure origin, was at
first popular, and was later abandoned by his friends. Such
identifications, however, do not fix the date of the book pre-
cisely; the author may have referred to events that happened
before his time. The reign of Herod, a period of despotism and
terror, and of strife between Jewish religious parties, is preferred
by some scholars (Gratz, Cheyne and others) as best answering
to the social situation depicted in the book, while still others
(as Renan) decide for the reign of Alexander Jannaeus (104-
78 B. C.). The data are not numerous and distinct enough to
settle the question beyond determining general limits: for
reasons given above the book can hardly have been composed
before about 200 B.C., and if, as is probable, a Septuagint trans-
lation of it was made (though the present Septuagint text
shows the influence of Aquila), it is to be put earlier than 50 B.C.
Probably also, its different parts are of different dates.
Of the author nothing is known beyond the obvious fact that
he was a man of wide observation and philosophic thought, of
the Sadducean type in religion, but non- Jewish in his attitude
toward life. He was, doubtless, a man of high standing, but
neither a king nor a high-priest, certainly not the apostate priest
Alcimus (i Mace. vii. ix.); nor was he necessarily a physician
there are no details in ch. xii. or elsewhere that any man of good
intelligence might not know. The book is written in prose, some
of which is rhythmical, with bits of verse here and there: thus
i. 2- 1 1 is balanced prose, 12-14 plain prose, 15 a couplet, i. io-ii.
25 simple prose, vii. contains a number of poetical aphorisms,
and so on. Some of the verses are apparently from the author,
some from editors.
The fortunes of the book are not known in detail, but it is clear
that its merciless criticism of life and its literary charm made it
popular, while its scepticism excited the apprehensions of pious
conservatives. Possibly the Wisdom of Solomon (c. 50 B.C.) was
written partly as a reply to it. The claim of sacredness made for
it was warmly contested by some Jewish scholars. In spite of
the relief afforded by orthodox additions, it was urged that
its Epicurean sentiments contradicted the Torah and favoured
heresy. Finally, by some process of reasoning not fully recorded,
the difficulties were set aside and the book was received into the
sacred canon; Jerome (on Eccl. xii. 13, 14) declares that the
decisive fact was the orthodox statement at the end of the
book: the one important thing is to fear God and keep His
commandments. The probability is that the book had received
the stamp of popular approbation before the end of the ist
century of our era, and the leading men did not dare to reject it.
It is not certain that it is quoted in the New Testament, but it
appears to be included in Josephus' list of sacred books.
LITERATURE. For the older works see Zockler (in Lange's Comm.) ;
for Jewish commentaries see Zedner, Cat. of Heb. books in Libry. of
Brit. Mus. (1867), and for the history of the interpretations, C. D.
Ginsburg, CoMeth (1861). Introductions of A. Kuenen, S. R. Driver,
Cornhill, Konig. Articles in Herzog-Hauck, Realencykl. (by P.
Kleinert) ; Hastings, Diet. Bible (by A. S. Peake) ; T. K. Cheyne,
ECCLESIASTICAL COMMISSIONERS
853
Encycl. Bibl.(by A. B. Davidson) ; Jew. Encycl. (by D. S. Margoliouth).
Commentaries: F. Hitzig (1847); C. D. Ginsburg (1861); H. Gratz
(1871); Tyler (1874); Delitzsch (1875); E. H. Plumptre (1881);
C. H. H. Wright (1883); Nowack, revision of Hitzig (1883); Volck
(in Strack u. Zockler's Kurzgef. Komm., 1889); Wildeboer (in
Marti's Kurzer Hand-Comm., 1898); C. Siegfried (in W. Nowack's
Handkomm., 1898); Oort (in De Oude Test., 1899). Other works:
C. Taylor, Dirge of Koh. (1874); Wiinsche, Midrash on Koh. (in
hisBMioth. rabbin., 1880); E. Renan, L'Ecclesiaste (1882); Bickell,
Der Prcdiger (1884) and Kohel.-Untersuchungen (1886; Engl. by
E. J. Dillon, Sceptics of Old Test., 1895) ; Schiffer, Das Buck Koh.
nach d. Ajffass. d. Weisen d. Talmuds, &c. (1884); A. Palm, Qoh. u.
d. nach-aristotel. Philosophic (1885) and Die Qoh.-Lit. (1886);
E. Pfleiderer, Die Phil. d. Heraklit, &c. (1886); Cheyne, Job and
Solomon (1887) and Jew. Relig. Life, &c. (1898); W. Euringer,
Der Masorahtext d. Koh. (1890) ; W. T. Davison, Wisdom-Lit, of Old
Test. (1894); H. Winckler, in his Altorient. Forschungen (1898);
J. F. Genung, Words of Koh. (Boston, Mass., 1904) ; P. Haupt,
Ecclesiastes (Baltimore, 1905). The rabbinical discussions of the
book are mentioned in Shabbath, y>b; Megilla, ja; Eduyoth, v. 3;
Mishna Yadaim, iii. 5, iv. 6; Midrash Koheleth (on xi. 9), Aboth
d' Rab. Nathan, i. (C. H. T.*)
ECCLESIASTICAL COMMISSIONERS, in England, a body
corporate, whose full title is " Ecclesiastical and Church Estates
Commissioners for England," invested with very important
powers, under the operation of which extensive changes have been
made in the distribution of the revenues of the Established
Church. Their appointment was one of the results of the vigorous
movements for the reform of public institutions which followed
the Reform Act of 1 83 2 . In 1 83 5 two commissions were appointed
" to consider the state of the several dioceses of England and
Wales, with reference to the amount of their revenues and the
more equal distribution of episcopal duties, and the prevention
of the necessity of attaching by commendam to bishoprics
certain benefices with cure of souls; and to consider also the
state of the several cathedral and collegiate churches in England
and Wales, with a view to the suggestion of such measures as
might render them conducive to the efficiency of the established
church, and to provide for the best mode of providing for the cure
of souls, with special reference to the residence of the clergy on
their respective benefices." And it was enacted by an act of
1835 that during the existence of the commission the profits of
dignities and benefices without cure of souls becoming vacant
should be paid over to the treasurer of Queen Anne's Bounty.
In consequence of the recommendation of these commissioners,
a permanent commission was appointed by the Ecclesiastical
Commissioners Act 1836 for the purpose of preparing and laying
before the king in council such schemes as should appear to them
to be best adapted for carrying into effect the alterations suggested
in the report of the original commission and recited in the act.
The new commission was constituted a corporation with power
to purchase and hold lands for the purposes of the act, notwith-
standing the statutes of mortmain. The first members of the
commission were the two archbishops and three bishops, the lord
chancellor and the principal officers of state, and three laymen
named in the act.
The constitution of the commission was amended by the
Ecclesiastical Commissioners Act 1840 and subsequent acts, and
now consists of the two archbishops, all the bishops, the deans of
Canterbury, St Paul's and Westminster, the lord chancellor, the
lord president of the council, the first lord of the treasury, the
chancellor of the exchequer, the home secretary, the lord chief
justice, the master of the rolls, two judges of the admiralty
division, and certain laymen appointed by the crown and by the
archbishop of Canterbury. The lay commissioners are required
to be " members of the Church of England, and to subscribe a
declaration to that effect." The crown also appoints two laymen
as church estates commissioners, and the archbishop of Canter-
bury one. These three are the joint treasurers of the commission,
and constitute, along with two members appointed by the com-
mission, the church estates committee, charged with all business
relating to the sale, purchase, exchange, letting or management
of any lands, tithes or hereditaments. The commission has
power to make inquiries and examine witnesses on oath. Five
commissioners are a quorum for the transaction of business,
provided two of them are church estates commissioners; two
ecclesiastical commissioners at least must be present at any
proceeding under the common seal, and if only two are present
they can demand its postponement to a subsequent meeting.
The schemes of the commission having, after due notice to
persons affected thereby, been laid before the king in council, may
be ratified by orders, specifying the times when they shall take
effect, and such orders when published in the London Gazelle
have the same force and effect as acts of parliament.
The recommendations of the commission recited in the act of
1836 are too numerous to be given here. They include an extensive
rearrangement of the dioceses, equalization of episcopal income,
providing residences, &c. By the act of 1 840 the fourth report of the
original commissioners, dealing chiefly with cathedral and collegiate
churches, was carried into effect, a large number of canaries being
suspended, and sinecure benefices and dignities suppressed.
The emoluments of these suppressed or suspended offices, and the
surplus income of the episcopal sees, constitute the fund at the
disposal of the commissioners. By an act of 1860, on the avoidance
of any bishopric or archbishopric, all the land and emoluments of
the see, except the patronage and lands attached to houses of
residence, become, by order in council, vested in the commissioners,
who may, however, reassign to the see so much of the land as may
be sufficient to secure the net annual income named for it by statute or
order. All the profits and emoluments of the suspended canonries, &c.,
pass over to the commissioners, as well as the separate estates of those
deaneries and canonries which are not suspended. Out of this fund
the expenses of the commission are to be paid, and the residue is to
be devoted to increasing the efficiency of the church by the augmen-
tation of the smaller bishoprics and of poor livings, the endowment
of new churches, and employment of additional ministers.
The substitution of one central corporation for the many local and
independent corporations of the church, so far at least as the manage-
ment of property is concerned, was a constitutional change of great
importance, and the effect of it undoubtedly was to correct the
anomalous distribution of ecclesiastical revenues by equalizing
incomes and abolishing sinecures. At the same time it was regarded
as having made a serious breach in the legal theory of ecclesiastical
property. " The important principle," says Cripps, " on which the
inviolability of the church establishment depends, that the church
generally possesses no property as a corporation, or which is applic-
able to general purposes, but that such particular ecclesiastical
corporation, whether aggregate or sole, has its property separate,
distinct and inalienable, according to the intention of the original
endowment, was given up without an effort to defend it " (Law
Relating to the Church and Clergy, p. 46).
ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION. This phrase in its pri-
mary sense imports not jurisdiction over ecclesiastics, but juris-
diction exercised by ecclesiastics over other ecclesiastics and over
the laity. " Jurisdiction " is a word borrowed from the jurists
which has acquired a wide extension in theology, wherein, for
example, it is frequently used in contradistinction to " order,"
to express the right to administer sacraments as something
superadded to the power to celebrate them. So it is used to
express the territorial or other limits of ecclesiastical, executive
or legislative authority. Here it is used, in the limited sense
defined by an American Court, as " the authority by which
judicial officers take cognizance of and decide causes."
Such authority in the minds of lay Roman lawyers who first
used this word " jurisdiction " was essentially temporal in its
origin and in its sphere. The Christian Church trans- origin of
ferred the notion to the spiritual domain as part of ecciesias-
the general idea of a Kingdom of God correlative, on ticaljuris-
the spiritual side of man upon earth, to the powers, dlcaoa -
also ordained of God, who had dominion over his tem-
poral estate (see CANON LAW). As the Church in the earliest
ages had executive and legislative power in its own spiritual
sphere, so also it had "judicial officers," " taking cognizance of
and deciding causes." Only before its union with the State, its
power in this direction, as in others, was merely over the spirits
of men. Coercive temporal authority over their bodies or estates
could only be given by concession from the temporal prince.
Moreover, even spiritual authority over members of the Church,
i.e. baptized persons, could not be exclusively claimed as of right
by the Church tribunals, if the subject matter of the cause were
purely temporal. On the other hand, it is clear that all the
faithful were subject to these courts (when acting within their
own sphere), and that, in the earliest times, no distinction was
made in this respect between clergy and laity.
The fundamental principle of ecclesiastical jurisdiction with its
8 54
ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION
" sanction " of excommunication will be found in Christ's words
in Matt, xviii. 15-18. A very early example of criminal spiritual
jurisdiction exercised by St Paul is found in the case of the in-
cestuous Corinthian (i Cor. v.). We find later the same apostle
exercising like jurisdiction in the cause of Hymenaeus and
Alexander (i Tim. i. 20). After the time of the Apostles, we
find this criminal jurisdiction exercised by the bishops individu-
ally over their respective " subjects " doubtless with the advice
of their presbyters according to the precept of St Ignatius
(c. no). As neighbouring dioceses coalesced into " provinces "
and provinces into larger districts (corresponding to the civil
" dioceses " of the later Roman Empire), the provincial synods of
bishops ariti the synods of the larger districts acquired a criminal
jurisdiction, still purely spiritual, of their own. At first this was
" original " and mainly (although not exclusively) over bishops
(of the province or larger district). The beginnings of an
appellate jurisdiction in the cases of clerics and laymen may be
traced before the conversion of the Empire. The bishop over
whom the synod of neighbouring bishops had exercised jurisdic-
tion had no formal right of appeal; but sometimes bishops in
other parts of the Church would refuse to acknowledge the local
synodical sentence and would communicate with a bishop whom
they deemed unjustly deposed. The theory, as expressed in
legal phrase by St Cyprian in the 3rd century, was that the
apostolic power of delegated sovereignty from the Lord, alike
legislative and judicial, was held in joint-tenancy by the whole
body of Catholic bishops. In both capacities, however, a certain
undefined pre-eminence was conceded to the occupants of
" Apostolic " sees, i.e. sees traditionally founded by Apostles, or
of sees with a special secular position.
Even before the edict of Milan, at least as early as the latter
half of the 3rd century, the spiritual sentences of deposition
from office had sometimes indirect temporal consequences
recognized by the secular courts. The classical example is the
case of Paul of Samosata, bishop of Antioch. It would seem
that, in the intervals of persecution, some rights of property
were recognized in the Christian Church and its officers; although
the Church was an illegal society. After some previous abortive
trials, Paul of Samosata was deposed and excommunicated, in
269, by a great synod of the Antiochene district. Paul, notwith-
standing his deposition, kept possession of the episcopal residence.
The local church sought recovery of it before the tribunals of
the Empire. The judicial authorities requested a rescript from
the emperor Aurelian for the decision of the cause. Aurelian
referred the matter to the bishop of Rome and the bishops of
Italy, who gave their award in favour of the Antiochene Church.
Side by side with this which we may call criminal jurisdiction
none the less real or coercive because its sanctions were purely
Temporal spiritual there grew up a quasi- jurisdiction in causes
jurisdic~ entirely temporal, based upon the free consent of the
P art i es to accept the arbitration of the bishop. This
system had also its roots in the New Testament (see
Matt, xviii. 15-17 and i Cor. vi. 1-8). In the matter of
criminal jurisdiction we paused for a moment at the edict of
Milan; but we may at once trace this second or civil branch of
episcopal judicature or quasi- judicature down as far as the reign
of Charlemagne, when it underwent a fundamental change, and
became, if either litigant once chose, no longer a matter of
consent but of right.
Constantine decreed that judgment in causes might be passed
by bishops when litigants preferred their adjudication to that
of the secular courts (see his epistle to the Numidian bishops and
Cod. Theodos. Tit. de Episcopis). The episcopal judgment was
to be equivalent to that of the emperor and irreversible, and the
civil authorities were to see to its execution. Saints Ambrose
and Augustine both spent days in deciding temporal causes.
Honorius, in the West, at the end of the 4th century, made a
constitution providing that if any desired to litigate before the
bishops they should not be forbidden, but that in civil matters
the prelates should render judgment in the manner of arbitrators
by consent (Cod. i,Tit.iv.). Where the faithful had had recourse
to the bishop, no appeal was to be allowed, and the judges were
to command execution of the episcopal decree. A quarter of a
century later, however, Valentinian III. in the West expressly
provided that bishops were not to be permitted to be judges
(that is, of course, in temporal causes), save by the consent of the
parties. This legislation was, substantially, adopted by Justinian.
On the revival of the Western Empire, however, Charlemagne,
in the beginning of the pth century, under the mistaken belief
that he was following the authority of Constantine I. and
Theodosius I., took a great step forward, by which the bishop
ceased to be a mere legally indicated arbitrator by consent in
secular causes, and became a real judge. By a capittilary he
provided that either litigant, without the consent of the other
party, and not only at the beginning of a suit but at any time
during its continuance, might take the cause from lay cognizance
and transfer it to the bishop's tribunal. He re-enacted the
prohibition of appeal.
It should be remembered that, from the latter part of the
3rd century, the leading bishops had generally been trained in
secular learning. St Cyprian, St Ambrose and St Augustine, St
Paulinus of Nola and St John Chrysostom had practised law
as teachers or advocates. St Ambrose and St Paulinus had even
held high administrative and judicial offices.
To return to the evolution of ecclesiastical jurisdiction from
the time of Constantine. With the " Nicene period " came a
great development on the criminal side. A system Roman
begins to be formed, and the secular arm supports empire
the decrees of the Church. The first trace of system irom c< ""
is in the limited right of appeal given by the first s
oecumenical council of Nicaea and its provision that episcopal
sentences or those of provincial synods on appeal were to be
recognized throughout the world. The fifth canon provides
that those, whether clerics or laymen, who are cut off from com-
munion in any particular province are not to be admitted
thereto elsewhere. Still examination must be had whether
persons have been expelled from the congregation by any
episcopal small-mindedness (fiiKpo^x'- -) , r contentious spirit,
or such-like harshness (drjSia). That this may be conveniently
inquired into, synods are to be held, three in every year, in each
province, and questions of this kind examined. There is to be no
" stay of execution "; the episcopal sentence is to prevail until
the provincial synod otherwise decide. It will be noticed that
as yet no provision is made for appeals by bishops from provincial
synods sitting in first instance.
The edicts of Milan had only admitted the Christian Church
among the number of lawful religions; but the tendency (except
in the time of Julian) was towards making it the only lawful
religion. Hence the practice, immediately after Nicaea I., of
superadding banishment by the emperor to synodical condemna-
tion. The dogmatic decrees of Nicaea I. were at once enforced
in this temporal manner. On the other hand, the Arian reaction
at court worked its objects (see Pusey, Councils of the Church)
by using the criminal spiritual jurisdiction of synods against the
Catholics often packing the synods for the purpose. The acts
of councils of this age are full of the trials of bishops not only for
heresy but for immorality and common law crimes. The accusa-
tions are frequently unfounded; but the trials are already
conducted in a certain regular forensic form. The secular
authorities follow the precedent of Nicaea I. and intervene to
supplement the spiritual sentence by administrative penalties.
Sometimes an imperial officer of high rank (as, e.g. a " count ")
is present at the synod, as an assessor to maintain order and
advise upon points of procedure. Leading examples may be
found in the various prosecutions of St Athanasius, in whose
case also there is the germ of an appeal, tanquam ab abusu. It
has been contended that, according to later and more formulated
jurisprudence, such an appeal would have lain, since the trial
at Tyre was not concerned with purely spiritual matters (see
the case in Hefele, Councils, in loc.).
The trial of St Athanasius led to extensions of the right of
appeal. This was favoured by the development of the greater
sees into positions of great administrative dignity, shortly to
be called " patriarchal." A synod was held at Rome, attended
ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION
855
by bishops from various regions, which reversed the original
judgment of the synod of Tyre which had condemned Athanasius.
A much larger synod at Antioch, gathered only from the East,
on the other hand, confirmed that judgment. This last synod
did something to systematize the criminal procedure of the
Church, and its legislation has been always received.
This legislation marks another step forward. Deposition of
a bishop by a synod, or of a priest or deacon by his bishop, is to
take effect even pending an appeal, and a cleric continuing his
functions after sentence in first instance is to lose all right of
appeal. The appeal given by Nicaea I. to clerics and laymen
from episcopal excommunications is extended. The synod may
restore them if convinced of the justice of their cause (and not
merely in cases of d?j5ia). A bishop may appeal to a great
assembly of bishops. Any bishop, priest or deacon " importun-
ing " the emperor, instead of exerting his right of appeal to
synods, is to lose all right of appeal and never to be restored or
pardoned. If a provincial synod be divided as to the guilt of a
bishop, the metropolitan is to convene bishops from the neigh-
bouring provinces to decide the cause jointly with the bishops of
the original province.
A few years later, in 347, the council of Sardica, a council of
practically the whole West save Africa, reversed Tyre and
acquitted St Athanasius after a full judicial inquiry. This
council endeavoured to set up a system of appeals in the case of
bishops, in which the see of Rome was made to play a great part.
" Out of honour to the memory of St Peter," a condemned
bishop may ask the intervention of Rome. If this be done, the
synod of first instance is to send letters to Julius, bishop of
Rome. If that prelate think the cause should be heard again,
he is to appoint judges; if otherwise, the original judgment
is to be confirmed. Pending appeal, the appellant's see is not
to be filled up. The judges appointed by the bishop of Rome
to hear the appeal are to be from the neighbouring provinces.
The appellant may, however, request that bishop to send priests
from his side to sit with the synod of appeal. If such priests are
sent, they are to preside in the court of appeal. These canons
were always repudiated in the East, and when, sixty years
afterwards, they were, for the first time, heard of in Africa, they
were repudiated there also.
A rescript of Gratian in 378 empowered the bishop of Rome
to judge bishops with the assistance of six or seven other bishops
or, in the case of a metropolitan, of fifteen comprovincial bishops.
A bishop refusing to come to Rome was to be brought there by
the civil power. The rescript, however, was not incorporated in
the Codes and perhaps was only a temporary measure.
The tendency to give pre-eminence to Rome appears again
in an imperial letter to St Flavian, who, in the judgment of the
East, was bishop of Antioch, but who was rejected by the West
and Egypt, summoning him to Rome to be there judged by the
bishops of the imperial city a summons which St Flavian did
not obey (Tillemont, Mlm. Ecc.). In Africa in the beginning of
the sth century Apiarius, a priest who had been deposed by the
bishop of Sicca for immorality, and whose deposition had been
affirmed by the " provincial synod," instead of further appealing
to a general synod of Africa, carried his appeal to Pope Zosimus.
The pope received the appeal, absolved him and restored him to
the rank of priest, and sent a bishop and two priests as legates
to Africa with instructions to them to hear the cause of Apiarius
anew and for execution of their sentence to crave the prefect's
aid; moreover, they were to summon the bishop of Sicca to
Rome and to excommunicate him, unless he should amend
those things which the legates deemed wrong. The upshot of a
long conflict was that the papal claim to entertain appeals from
Africa by priests and deacons was rejected by the African
bishops, who in th'eir final synodical epistle also repudiate in
terms any right of appeal by African bishops to " parts beyond
the seas " (see Hefele, Councils, bk. viii.).
The story of the administrative development of the Church in
the sth century is mainly the story of the final emergence and
constitution of the great " patriarchates," as authorities superior
to metropolitans and provincial synods. In consequence of the
occupants of the thrones of Constantinople and Alexandria
falling successively into opposite heresies, the question arose how
" patriarchs " were to be judged. In both cases, as it seems, an
attempt was made by the bishop of Rome to depose the erring
patriarch by his authority as primate of Christendom, acting in
concert with a Western synod. In both cases, apparently, an
oecumenical synod ignored the Roman deposition and judged the
alleged offences of the respective patriarchs in first and last
instance. The third and fourth oecumenical synods (Ephesus,
431; Chalcedon, 451) were primarily tribunals for the trials of
Nestorius and Dioscorus; it was secondarily that they became
organs of the universal episcopate for the definition of the faith,
or legislative assemblies for the enactment of canons. Nothing
is more remarkable than their minute care as to observance of
rules of procedure. In both cases, imperial assessors were
appointed. At Ephesus the Count Candidian was commissioned
to maintain order, but took little part in the proceedings. At
Chalcedon, on the other hand, the imperial commissioners decided
points of order, kept the synod to the question, took the votes
and adjourned the court. But the synod alone judged and
pronounced sentence. No oecumenical synod has tried a
patriarch of Old Rome while yet in the flesh. The fifth oecu-
menical council came nearest to so doing, in the case of Vigilius.
That pope, although in Constantinople, refused to attend the
sittings of the council. He was cited three times, in the canonical
manner, and upon not appearing was threatened in the third
session with anathema (Hefele, Councils, sect. 268 ad fin.). He
was not, however, charged with direct heresy, as were Nestorius
and Dioscorus, and the synod seems to have hesitated to deal
stringently with the primate of Christendom. In the seventh
session it accepted the suggestion of Justinian, merely to order
the name of Vigilius to be removed from the liturgical prayers,
at the same time expressing its desire to maintain unity with the
see of Old Rome (Hefele, sect. 273). After the council, Justinian
banished the pope to Egypt, and afterwards to an island, until
he accepted the council, which he ultimately did (ib. 276). The
sixth oecumenical synod decreed that the dead pope Honorius
should be " cast out from the holy Catholic Church of God "
and anathematized, a sentence approved by the reigning pope
Leo II. and affirmed by the seventh oecumenical synod in 787.
The constitution of the patriarchal system resulted in the
recognition of a certain right of appeal to Rome from the larger
part of the West. Britain remained outside that jurisdiction,
the Celtic churches of the British islands, after those islands
were abandoned by the Empire, pursuing a course of their own.
In the East, Constantinople, from its principality, acquired
special administrative pre-eminence, naturally followed, as in
the case of " old Rome," by judicial pre-eminence. An example
of this is found in the ninth canon of Chalcedon, which also
illustrates the enforcement upon a clerical plaintiff in dispute,
with a brother cleric of that recourse to the arbitration of their
ecclesiastical superior already mentioned. The canon provides
that any clerk having a complaint against another clerk must
not pass by his own bishop and turn to secular tribunals, but
first lay bare his cause before him, so that by the sentence of the
bishop himself the dispute may be settled by arbitrators accept-
able to both parties. Any one acting against these provisions
shall be subject to canonical penalties. If any clerk have a
complaint against his own bishop, he shall have his cause ad-
judicated upon by the synod of the province. But if a bishop
or clerk have a difference with the metropolitan of his province
let him bring it before the exarch of the " diocese " (i.e. the
larger district answering to the civil " diocese "), or before the
royal see of Constantinople, who shall do justice upon it. An
" exarch " means properly a superior metropolitan having several
provinces under him. In the next century Justinian (Nov. 123,
c. 22) put the other patriarchates on the same footing as Con-
stantinople. In c. 21 he gives either plaintiff or defendant an
appeal within ten days to the secular judge of the locality from
the bishop^s judgment. If there be no appeal, that judge is to
give execution to the episcopal award. The growth of a special
" original " jurisdiction at Constantinople, which perhaps
8 5 6
ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION
developed earlier than the corresponding institution at Rome,
may be traced to the fact that bishops from all parts were
constantly in Constantinople. The bishop of Constantinople,
even before he became properly " patriarch," would often
assemble a synod from these visiting bishops, which acquired
the technical name of avvodos ivdriftovaa, the synod of sojourners.
This synod frequently decided questions belonging to other
patriarchates.
The criminal jurisdiction thus exercised was generally speaking
unlimited. It must be remembered that the forum externum of
the ecclesiastical jurisdiction, in the sense in which we now use
the phrase, of a judge deciding causes, was not then clearly
marked off from the forum internum, or what afterwards came
to be called the " tribunal of penance " (see Van Espen, Jus ecc.
unin. pars iii. tit. iv. c. i). Ecclesiastical proceedings by way
of prosecution are called " criminal," but they are primarily
pro salute animae; whereas temporal criminal proceedings are
primarily for the protection of the state and its citizens. Hence
a Christian might be first punished in the civil courts and then
put to public penance by the ecclesiastical jurisdiction, or vice
versa: an apparently double system of punishment which the
medieval Church, when the forum externum had become quite
separated from the forum internum, sometimes repudiated (see
Maitland, English Canon Law, 138, 139, 144).
Theodosius began the system cf giving secular authority to
Church tribunals. Thus, in 376, L. 23 Cod. Theodos. de. Episcopis,
&c., subjected clerics for small offences pertaining to the obser-
vances of religion to bishops and synods. In 399, L. i Cod. de
Religione provides that, when it is a matter of religion, it beseems
the bishop to judge. A rescript of Constantius, in 355, inserted
in Cod. Theod. Ixii. de Epis. Ecc. et Cler., excluded bishops
from accusations before secular judges and commanded such
accusations to be speedily brought before the tribunal of other
bishops. This law was probably only intended to be of a
temporary character. Then comes the law of Gratian already
noticed. Then, in 399, a law of Honorius (Cod. Theod. L. i de
Religione) : " As often as it concerns religion, it is meet that the
bishops should judge, but other causes which belong to ordinary
jurisdiction or to public law are to be heard in the ordinary courts
(legibus oporlet audiri)." L. 3 de Epis. Jud., at the end of the
Theodosian Code, seems spurious (see the comment of Gotho-
fredus in loco). But a constitution of Honorius in 412 (Cod.
Theod. L. xli. de Epis. Ecc. et Cler.) provides that clerks are not
to be accused except before the bishop. Bishops, priests,
deacons, and every other " minister of the Christian law " of
inferior degree, are taken from secular jurisdiction in criminal
cases. The words are quite general; but it has been contended
that they apply only to crimes of an ecclesiastical character (see
Gothofredus in loc.; Van Espen, pars iii. tit. iii. c. i, 10). In
425 a constitution of Theodosius II. provides that a recent
decree of the usurper John should be disregarded and that clerks
whom he had brought before secular judges should be reserved
for the episcopal jurisdictions," since it is not lawful to subject
the ministers of the divine office to the arbitrament of temporal
powers." Justinian has a clearer perception of the demarcation
between the spheres of spiritual and temporal law. The 83rd
Novell provides that if the offence be ecclesiastical, needing
ecclesiastical correction, the bishop shall take cognizance of it.
The 1 23rd Novell (c. 21) provides that if a clerk be accused of
a secular crime he shall be accused before his bishop, who may
depose him from his office and order, and then the competent
judge may take him and deal with him according to the laws.
If the prosecutor have first brought him before the civil judge,
the evidence is to be sent to the bishop, and the latter, if he thinks
the crime has been committed, may deprive him of his office
and order, and the judge shall apply to him the proper legal
punishment. But if the bishop think the evidence insufficient,
the affair shall be referred to the emperor, by way of appeal both
from bishop and judge. If the cause be ecclesiastical, the civil
judges are to take no part in the inquiry. The law includes with
clerics, monks, deaconesses, nuns, ascetics; and the word
" clerics " covered persons in minor orders, down to doorkeepers.
Saxoa
courts.
It will be noticed that Justinian supposes that the prosecutor
may begin the proceedings before the civil judge. A constitution
of Alexius Comnenus I. seems to send him to the special forum of
the accused.
Certain enactments of later Saxon times in England have been
sometimes spoken of as though they united together the temporal
and spiritual jurisdictions into one mixed tribunal
deriving its authority from the State. In the latter
part of the loth century, laws of Edgar provided that
the bishop should be at the county court and also the
alderman, and that there each of them should put in use both
God's laws and the world's law (Johnson's English Canons, i.
411). This probably was, as Johnson suggests, that the bishop
might enforce secular laws by ecclesiastical censure and the
alderman ecclesiastical laws with secular punishment. But the
two jurisdictions were kept separate; for t>y another law of
Edgar (Leges Edg. c. v.) it was provided that " in the most
august assembly the bishop and alderman should be present, and
the one should interpret to the people the law of God, the other
the laws of men." Edgar, in a speech to St Dunstan and the
bishops in synod (in 969), said, " I hold in my hands the sword of
Constantine, you that of Peter. Let us join right hands and
unite sword to sword" (Hardouin, Cone. torn. vi. p. i, col. 675).
The juxtaposition of the judicatures may, however, have led to
some confusion between them.
As to appeals the mixed council of Cliff at Hoo (747)
said they should go to the synod of the province. The only
appeal to Rome in Saxon times was that of St Wilfrid,
bishop of York, who appealed from the division of his see and
his deposition for refusing to consent to it, and was heard
in a Roman synod under the presidency of Pope Agatho. The
synod found him unlawfully deposed and ordered his restoration.
Upon his return to England, the Roman judgment was refused
recognition and he was for a time imprisoned. Ten years later he
was recalled to York, but refusing to consent to the division of his
see was again deposed and again appealed to Rome. The appeal
was heard at great length, in a synod of 703 under John VI.,
deputies from the archbishop of Canterbury being present.
St Wilfrid was justified and was sent back to his see, with papal
letters to the kings of Northumbria and Mercia. The Roman
decree was again disregarded. At the council of " Nid " he was
reconciled to the other bishops of the province, but not restored.
In the end he was brought back to York, but not to the undivided
see. The details of the case will be found in Wilkins, Concilia,
in Mansi, Concilia, under the various councils named, and in
Haddan & Stubbs, Councils and Eccl. Documents, vol. iii.
The penalties which the spiritual court could inflict, in the
period between the edict of Milan and c. 854, were properly
excommunication whether generally or as exclusion penaKles
from the sacraments for a term of months or years or latiicted
till the day of death and (in the case of clerics) suspen- by ecciesi-
sion or deposition. Gradually, however, doubtless by astical
way of commutation of excommunication and of
penance, temporal penalties were added, as scourging, banish-
ment, seclusion in a monastery, fines. It is difficult to say how
far some, of these temporal penalties were penitential only or how
far they could be inflicted in invitos. But the secular arm, from
the time of Nicaea I., was in the habit of aiding spiritual decrees,
as by banishing deposed bishops, and gradually by other ways,
even with laymen. Scourging (although it had been a well-known
punishment of the synagogue) was at first forbidden. Can. 28
(26) of the Apostolic Canons imposes deposition on any bishop,
priest or deacon striking the delinquent faithful. In Africa,
however, a contrary practice early sprang up (see St Augustine,
Epist. clix. ad Marcellum al. cxxxiii.). The small council of
Vannes in Brittany in 465 made it an alternative punishment for
clerks convicted of drunkenness (Can. 13). Canon 13 of the first
council of Orleans, which has been cited in this matter, seems to
have no application. St Gregory the Great seems to assume that
scourging and seclusion in a monastery are in the discretion of
episcopal tribunals (see Epistles, lib. ii. ep. u, 40, 42, 44, 45; lib.
vii. ep. n, 67; lib. xii. ep. 31, c. 4). The i6th council of Toledo
ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION
857
(in 693) has been cited as if it visited certain very great sinners
with scourging as an ecclesiastical punishment. In fact, it only
approves the punishment as ordered by the Visigothic laws.
An alleged decree of a council of Autun in 670 is part of a code
of discipline for monasteries (see authorities cited by Hefele,
Councils, sect. 290, towards the end). Banishment does not
seem to have been inflicted by the spiritual court in inintum.
Seclusion in a monastery seems first to have been used by the
civil power in aid of the spiritual. The fifth canon of the council
of Macon, in 584, forbids clergy to dress like laymen and imposes
a penalty of thirty days' imprisonment on bread and water; but
this may be merely penitential. There is little evidence of the
imposition of fines as ecclesiastical penalties; but there are
references to the practice in the epistles of St Gregory the Great,
notably in his instructions to St Augustine. Gregory III. copies
from St Gregory I. Probably these also were by way of penance.
Isolated examples in the early middle ages of metropolitans deal-
ing with their suffragan bishops by imprisonment in chains were
extra-canonical abuses, connected with the perversion of Church
law which treated the metropolitan (who originally was merely
convener of the provincial synod and its representative during the
intervals of sessions) as the feudal " lord " of his comprovincials.
With the later pth century we enter upon a new epoch, and by
the time of Gregory VII., in the nth century, the tribunals have
fallen into the hands of a regular class of canonists who are in fact
professional church-lawyers in orders. The changes due to the
adoption of the False Decretals by Nicholas I. and the applica-
tion of their principles by Hildebrand (afterwards Gregory VII.)
are discussed in the article CANON LAW. The later medieval
system, thus inaugurated, may be considered (i) in its hierarchy,
(2) in the subject matter of its jurisdiction, (3) in its penalties,
i. (a) It is a system of courts. Much that had been done by
bishops, sine strepilu forensi et figura judicii, is now done in the
course of regular judicial procedure. Again, the court
ta kes the place of the synod. The diocesan synod
system. ceases to have judicial work. The court of the metro-
politan takes the place of the provincial synod, except
possibly for the trial of bishops, and even this becomes doubtful.
(b) At first the bishop was the only judge in the diocesan court
and he always remains a judge. But just as the king appoints
judges to hear placita coram rege ipso, and the feudal lord appoints
his seneschal or steward, so the bishop appoints his official.
(c) The archdeacon acquires a concurrent ordinary jurisdiction
with the bishop (see ARCHDEACON). For some time it was con-
sidered that he was a mere office-holder dependent on the will of
the bishop with a jurisdiction merely "vicarial"; but by the
i3th century it was settled that he held a " benefice " and that
his jurisdiction over causes was ordinary and independent of the
bishop (Van Espen, pars i. tit. xii. c. i ; Fournier, Les Officialites
au may en age, p. 134). It was partly in order to counterpoise the
power -of archdeacons that bishops created officials (Fournier,
p. 8). Archdeacons in course of time created officials who pre-
sided in court in their stead. The extent of jurisdiction of
archdeacons depended much upon local customs. In England the
custom was generally in their favour. Ordinarily, the appeal
from an archdeacon or his official lay to the court of the bishop;
but by custom the appeal might be to the court of the metro-
politan. The Constitutions of Clarendon, in 1 164, made the appeal
from the court of the archdeacon lie to the court of the bishop.
(d) The official of the bishop might be his official principal,
who was his alter ego, or a special officer for a particular locality
(officialis foraneus). The latter was treated as a mere delegate,
from whom an appeal could be made to the bishop. The former
had one consistory with the bishop, so that appeals from him
had to be made to the court of the metropolitan. How far the
official principal had jurisdiction in criminal matters by virtue
of his office, how far it was usual to add this jurisdiction by
special commission, and what were the respective limits of his
office and that of the vicar-general, are questions of some nicety.
The emphasis in Italy was on the vicar-general (Sext. de officio
Vicarii). In the Low Countries, France and England the
jurisdiction of the official principal was wider (Van Espen,
pars i. tit. xii. cc. 4, 5; Fournier, p. 21). But he could not try
criminal matters unless specially committed to him (Lyndwood,
Provinciale, lib. ii. tit. i). Later in Englnd it became usual
to appoint one man to the two offices and to call him chancellor,
a word perhaps borrowed from cathedral chapters, and not in use
for a diocesan officer till the time of Henry VIII. or later (see
CHANCELLOR). In Ireland the title, till the church was dis-
established, was vicar-general.
The importance of distinguishing the normal functions of an
official principal and a vicar-general lies in this: that it was
gradually established that as a king should not hear causes but
commit them to his judges, so a bishop should not hear causes
but appoint an official to hear them (see Ridley, View of the
Civil and Red. Law; Ayliffe, Parergon juris ecclesiaslici,
p. 161; Godolphin, Abridgement of the Laws Ecclesiastical, p. 8).
The " parlements " of France were constantly insisting on the
independence and irremovability of the official (Fournier, p. 219).
But jurisdiction which was not necessarily incident to the office
of the official principal, that is to say voluntary jurisdiction,
such as the granting of licences and institution to benefices,
and criminal jurisdiction over clerks (and probably over laymen),
the bishop could reserve to himself. Reservations of this nature
are made in many English patents of chancellors and were held
good in R. v. Tristram, 1902, i K.B. 816.
(e) The ecclesiastical and temporal courts are kept distinct.
The charter of William the Conqueror abrogated the laws of
Edgar. No bishop or archdeacon " shall any longer hold pleas
in the Hundred concerning episcopal law nor draw a cause
which concerns the rule of such to the judgment of men of the
world " (Stubbs, Select Charters, part iii.). In France, where
the bishop was a temporal baron, his feudal and his spiritual
courts were kept by distinct officers (Fournier, p. 2).
(/) From the bishop, or his official, appeal lay to the metro-
politan, who again could hear causes by his official. The Con-
stitutions of Clarendon recognize this appeal (c. viii.).
(g) An appeal lay from the court of the metropolitan to that
of the primate. There were many disputes as to the existence
of these primates (see Maitland, Canon Law in the Church of
England, p. 121). In England the dispute between Canterbury
and York was settled by making them both primates, giving
Canterbury the further honour of being primate of all England.
In France the primatial sees and the course of appeals to them
were well established (Fournier, p. 219).
(h) Several attempts were made by metropolitans and their
officials to take causes arising in the dioceses of their compro-
vincials in the first instance and not by way of appeal. The
officials of primates in their turn made similar attempts. After
long struggles this was hindered, in France by the bull Romana
(Fournier, p. 218), in England by the Bill of Citations, 23 Henry
VIII. c. 9, and Canon 94 of the Canons of 1603. The preamble
of the " Bill of Citations " is eloquent as to the mischief which
it is framed to prevent. There are, however, a few cases in which
the metropolitan is still allowed to cite in the first instance.
One of them was in cases of " perplexity." " Perplexity " arose
where the suffragans " could not owing to the geographical
limitations of their competence do full justice " (Maitland,
pp. 118-119). Such was the case of probate where notable goods
of the deceased lay in more than one diocese. Hence the origin
of the " prerogative court " of Canterbury (cf. Van Espen, pars i.
tit. xix.; and for Spain, Covarruvias, Pract. Quaest. c. 9).
(*') Gradually there grew up a mass of peculiar and exempt
jurisdictions (Ayliffe, pp. 417, 418; Phillimore, Eccl. Law, pp.
214, 927; de Maillane, Diet, du droit canonique, s.v. " Exemp-
tions "). Exempt jurisdictions began with the monasteries and
were matter of vehement discussion in the later middle ages.
There were no true exemptions before the nth century (Van
Espen, pars iii. tit. xii.). Peculiar or special jurisdiction, equal
to that of the bishop, was given to deans and chapters over the
cathedral precincts and in places where they had corporate
property (see Parham v. Templer, 3 Phil. Ecc. R. 22). Sometimes
it was given to deans alone or to prebendaries in the parishes
whence they derived their prebends. Where the archdeacon
858
ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION
had a jurisdiction co-ordinate with the bishop, it was called
a peculiar. The metropolitans had peculiars within the dioceses
of their comprovincials wherever they had residences or manors,
and some whose origin is uncertain, e.g. that of the fifteen parishes
in the deanery of the Arches. The official administering justice
for the metropolitan was usually called a dean. From a peculiar
jurisdiction ranking as episcopal the appeal lay to the court
of the metropolitan. As to metropolitan peculiars, the metro-
politan might give an appeal from the dean to his regular official
principal. Thus, in Canterbury there was an appeal from the
dean of Arches to the official principal of the Arches court.
When peculiars were abolished (vide infra) the dean of Arches
disappeared, and his title, in the ipth century, was erroneously
given to the official principal. On peculiars in Spain cf. Covar-
ruvias, Works, tit. i. p. 410. The French parlements, after the
middle ages, discouraged them. In exempt convents the head
of the monastery or priory exercised jurisdiction subject to
an appeal to the pope.
(j) It is said that originally a metropolitan had only one
official principal, who, like the metropolitan himself, acted both
for the diocese and province. Fournier (p. 219) says that in
France it was not till the i yth century that there grew up a custom
of having different officials for the metropolitan, one for him as
bishop, a second as metropolitan, and even a third as primate,
with an appeal from one to the other, and that it was an abuse
due to the parlements which strove to make the official inde-
pendent of the bishop. In England there has been, for a long time,
a separate diocesan court of Canterbury held before the " com-
missary." The word is significant as showing that there was
something special and restricted about the position. In York
there are two courts, one called the consistory for the diocese,
the other called the chancery for the province. But the same
person was often official of both courts.
(k) In England the Constitutions of Clarendon added a pro-
vision for appeal to the king, " and if the archbishop shall have
failed in doing justice recourse is to be had in the last resort
(postremo) to our lord the king, that by his writ the controversy
may be ended in the court of the archbishop; because there
must be no further process without the assent of our lord the
king." The last words were an attempt to limit further appeal
to Rome. It will be observed that the king does not hear the
cause or adjudicate upon it. He merely corrects slackness or
lack of doing justice (Si archiepiscopus defecerit in justitia
exhibenda) and by his writ (precepto) directs the controversy
to be determined in the metropolitan's court. As bishop
Stubbs says (Report of Eccl. Comm. vol. i. Hist. App. i.): " The
appeal to the king is merely a provision for a rehearing before
the archbishop, such failure to do justice being not so much
applicable to an unfair decision as to the delays or refusal to
proceed common at that time " (cf. Joyce, The Sword and the
Keys, 2nd ed. pp. 19-20). The recursus ad principem, in some
form or other of appeal or application to the sovereign or his lay
judges, was at the end of the middle ages well known over
western Europe. This recourse in England sometimes took the
form of the appeal to the king given by the Constitutions of
Clarendon, just mentioned, and later by the acts of Henry VIII.;
sometimes that of suing for writs of prohibition or mandamus,
which were granted by the king's judges, either to restrain excess
of jurisdiction, or to compel the spiritual judge to exercise
jurisdiction in cases where it seemed to the temporal court that
he was failing in his duty. The appellatio tanquam ab abusu
(appel comme d'abus) in France was an application of a like
nature. Such an appeal lay even hi cases where there was a
refusal to exercise voluntary jurisdiction (de Maillane, Dictionnaire
du droit canonique, tit. " Abus," cf . tit. " Appel "). This writer
traces their origin to the i4th century; but the procedure does
not seem to have become regularized or common till the reigns
of Louis XII. or Francis I. (cf. Diet, ecc/., Paris, 1765, titt. " Abus "
and " Appel comme d'abus ") . On the recursus ad principem and
the practice of " cassation " in Belgium, Germany and Spain,
cf. Van Espen's treatise under this title (Works, vol. iv.) and
Jus cedes, univ. pars iii. tit. x. c. 4. Louis XIV. forbad
the parlements to give judgment themselves in causes upon an
appel comme d'abus. They had to declare the proceedings null
and abusive and command the court Christian to render right
judgment (Edict of 1695, arts. 34, 36, cited in Gaudry, Trail6
de la legislation des cultes, Paris, 1854, torn. i. pp. 368, 369).
In Catalonia " Pragmatics," letters from the prince, issued
to restrain jurisdiction assumed by ecclesiastical judges contrary
to the customs of the principality. Thus in 1368 Peter III.
evoked to the royal court a prosecution for abduction pending
before the archbishop of Tarragona, declaring that the arch-
bishop and the official were incompetent to judge noblemen.
See this and other instances collected in Usages y demas derechos
de Cataluna, by Vives y Cebria (Barcelona, 1835), torn. iv. p. 137
et seq.
(/) Lastly there was the appeal to the patriarchs, i.e. in the
West to Rome. The distinguishing feature of this appeal was
that the rule of the other appeals did not apply to it. In the
regular course of those appeals an appellant could not leap the
intermediate stages; but he could at any stage go to this final
appeal, omisso media, as it was technically called (see de appell.
c. Dilect. iii. for general rule, and c. 3 de appell. in 6 for different
rule in case of the pope, and authorities cited in Van Espen,
pars iii. tit. x. c. 2, 5). Van Espen says: " The whole right of
appeal to the Roman pontiff omisso media had undoubtedly
its origin in this principle, that the Roman pontiff is ordinary of
ordinaries, or, in other words, has immediate episcopal authority
in all particular churches, and this principle had its own begin-
ning from the False Decretals."
Appeals to Rome lay from interlocutory as well as final
judgments. Causes could even be evoked to Rome before any
judgment and there heard in first instance (Van Espen, pars iii.
tit. x. c. i, 8).
There was an alleged original jurisdiction of the pope, which
he exercised sometimes by permanent legates, whom Gregory
VII. and his successors established in the chief countries of
Europe, and to whom were committed the legislative executive
and judicial powers of the spiritual " prince " in the districts
assigned to them. These Clement IV. likened to " pro-consuls "
and declared to have " ordinary " jurisdiction; because they
had jurisdiction over every kind of cause, without any special
delegation, in a certain defined area or province (c. ii. de
Officio Legati in 6). They were expressed to have not merely
appellate but original jurisdiction over causes (iii. c. i. de Officio
Legati). The occupants of certain sees by a kind of prescription
became legates without special appointment, legati nati, as in
the case of Canterbury. In the i3th century Archbishop Peck-
ham, says Maitland (p. 117), as archbishop " asserted for himself
and his official (i) a general right to entertain in the first instance
complaints made against his suffragans' subjects, and (2) a
general right to hear appeals omisso media." It was, for the
time, determined that the archbishop might himself, in -virtue
of his legatine authority, entertain complaints from other
dioceses in first instance, but that this legatine jurisdiction was
not included in the ordinary jurisdiction of his official principal,
even if the archbishop had so willed it in his commission. In
fact, however, the official did before the end of the later medieval
period get the same power as the archbishop (Maitland, pp. 118-
120; cf. Lyndwood, lib. v. tit. i), till it was taken from him
by the Bill of Citations.
After legates came special delegates appointed by the pope
to hear a particular cause. It was the general practice to appoint
two or three to sit together (Van Espen, pars iii. tit. v. c. 2, 37).
These might sub-delegate the whole cause or any part of it as
they pleased, ibid. 9-18. Dr Maitland (essay on " The Universal
Ordinary ") thinks, but without very much foundation, that great
numbers especially of the more important causes were tried
before these delegates ; although the records have largely perished,
since they were the records of courts which were dissolved as soon
as their single cause had been decided. These courts were con-
venient, since it was the custom to appoint delegates resident
in the neighbourhood, and the power of sub-delegation, general
or limited, simplified questions of distance. In Belgium causes
ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION
859
appealed to Rome had to be committed to local delegates (Van
Espen, pars iii. tit. v. c. 3, tit. x. c. 2).
There could be an appeal from these delegates to the pope and
from the pope himself to the pope " better informed " (Van
Espen, pars iii. tit. x. c. 2, 12, 13). So personal had the
system of jurisdiction become that even the trials of bishops
ceased to be necessarily conciliar. Generally they were reserved
to the pope (Van Espen, pars iii. tit. iii. c. 5, 17-19); but in
England the archbishop, either in synod, or with some of his
comprovincial bishops concurring, tried and deposed bishops
(see case of Bishop Peacock and the other cases cited in Read
v. Bishop of Lincoln, 14 P.D. 148, and Phillimore, Eccl. Law,
pp. 66 et seq.).
(m) The jurisdiction of a bishop sede vacante passed, by general
law, to the dean and chapter; but in England the metropolitans
became " guardians " of the spiritualities and exercised original
jurisdiction through the vacant diocese (Phillimore, pp. 62-63),
except in the case of Durham, and with a peculiar arrangement
as to Lincoln.
If the metropolitan see were vacant the jurisdiction was
exercised by the dean and chapter through an official (Rothery,
Return of Cases before Delegates, Nos. 4, 5). As to France see
Fournier, p. 294.
() Officials, even of bishops and metropolitans, need not be
in holy orders, though Bishop Stubbs in his paper in the Report
of the Commission on Ecclesiastical Courts seems to say so.
They had to be clerics, that is, to have received the tonsure.
Even papal delegates might be simple clerks (Van Espen, pars
iii. tit. v. c. 2, 20).
It came, however, to be the practice to impose some restrictions,
as on clerks twice married. Thus Archbishop Chichele provided
that no clerk married or bigamous (that is, having had two wives
insuccession) should .exercise spiritual jurisdiction (see Lyndwood,
lib. iii. tit. 3). Abroad unsuccessful attempts were made by
local councils to enact that officials and vicars-general should
be in holy orders (Hefele on Councils of Tortosa in 1429 and
Sixth of Milan in 1 582). These councils, as will be seen, are late.
(0) With or without the concurrence and goodwill of the
national Church, restrictions were imposed by the State on the
papal jurisdiction, whether original or appellate. In England
the Constitutions of Clarendon (by chap, viii.) prohibited appeals
to the pope; but after the murder of St Thomas of Canterbury
Henry II. had to promise not to enforce them. The statutes 38
Edw. III. st. 2, 13 Rich. II. st. 2, c. 2, and i6Rich. II. c. 5 forbid
such appeals; but it is suggested that notwithstanding the
generality of their language they refer only to cases of temporal
cognizance. Cases upon the execution of these statutes are
collected in Stillingfleet, On Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction, p. 189;
Gibson, Codex, 83. Obstacles were placed in the way of appeals
to the pope omisso media. Thus when a writ of significant
issued on the mandate of a bishop, an appeal to Rome availed
not to stay execution; but if there were an appeal to the arch-
bishop it was otherwise. It therefore became the custom to
lodge a double appeal: one to the archbishop " for defence,"
and the other to the pope as the real appeal (" Hostiensis,"
Super Decret. ii. fol. 169; cf. Owen, Institutes of Canon Law,
1884, pt. i. c. 19, 5).
There seems to have been no machinery for assisting the
original or appellate jurisdiction of the pope by secular process,
by significant or otherwise.
The matrimonial cause between Henry VIII. and Catharine of
Aragon was the most famous English cause tried by delegates
under the " original " jurisdiction of the pope, and was ultimately
" evoked " to Rome. The foreseen adverse termination of this
long-drawn cause led to Henry's legislation.
When the temporal courts interfered to prevent excess of
jurisdiction, they did so by prohibiting the ecclesiastical court
from trying and the suitor from suing in that court. The pope
could not be effectively prohibited, and no instance is recorded
of a prohibition to papal delegates. But suitors have been
prohibited from appealing to the pope (see per Willes, J., in Mayor
of London v. Cox, L.R. 2 H.L. 280). Whatever may have been
the law, it is certain that, notwithstanding the statutes of Edw.
III. and Rich. II., appeals to Rome and original trials by papal
delegates did go on, perhaps with the king's licence; for the
statute 24 Hen. VIII. c. 12 recites that the hearing of appeals was
an usurpation by the pope and a grievous abuse, and proceeds
to take away the appeal in matrimonial, testamentary and tithe
causes, and to hinder by forbidding citation and process from
Rome, all original hearings also. The statute 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19
follows this up by taking away appeals in all other subjects of
ecclesiastical jurisdiction.
In 1438 the council of Basel took away all papal original
jurisdiction (save in certain reserved cases of which infra),
evocation of causes to Rome, appeals to Rome omisso media, and
appeals to Rome altogether in many causes. Such appeals when
permissible, except the " greater," were to be tried by delegates
on the spot (3ist Session; Mansi, Concilia, in loco). These
proceedings at Basel were regarded at Rome as of no effect.
Nevertheless this decree and others were adopted by a French
national council at Bourges and promulgated by the king as a
" Pragmatic Sanction " (Migne, Diet, du droit canonique,
" Pragmatique Sanction "). The parlements registered the
Sanction and the effect was permanent in France. Louis XI.
and Charles VIII. sought to revoke it; but both parlements
and states-general refused to recognize the revoking decrees.
In 1499 Louis XII. ordered the Pragmatic to be inviolably
observed. The parlements thereupon condemned several private
persons for obtaining bulls from Rome. In 1516 a Concordat
between Leo X. and Francis I. settled all these questions in the
sense of the Pragmatic, substantially according to the Basei
canon. All causes, except the " greater," were to be terminated
in the country where the proper cognizance would lie (Migne,
op. cit. " Concordat "). By this Concordat, by an ordinance pf
Francis I. in 1539, by two or three other royal edicts, and (above
all) by the practice of the parlements, explanatory of this legisla-
tion, and their arrets, the conflict of secular and ecclesiastical
jurisdictions was settled until the Revolution (Migne, ubi sup.).
" Greater causes " came in France to be restricted to criminal
prosecutions of bishops. Even in these the original jurisdiction
of the pope was taken away. In first instance they were tried
by the provincial synod. Thence there was appeal to the pope
(de Maillane, op. cit. s.v. " Causes majeures "; Diet, eccl., Paris,
1765, s.v. " Cause "). The only original jurisdiction left to the
pope was in the case of the matrimonial causes of princes. But
they could only be heard on the spot by judges delegate.
Examples are the causes of Louis XII. and Jeanne of France in
1498, and of Henry IV. and Marguerite of Valoisin 1599 (Migne,
op. cit. s.v. " Causes "). The prohibition of papal interference
was enforced if necessary by the appel comme d'abus (vide supra).
Out of respect for the pope this appeal was not brought against
his decrees but against their execution (Diet, eccl., Paris, 1765,
s.v. "Abus").
Spain appears to have permitted and recognized appeals to
the pope. A royal writ of the i6th century cited by Covarruvias
(c. xxxv.) prohibits execution of the sentence of a Spanish court
Christian pending an appeal to the pope.
2. The subject matter over which the ecclesiastical courts had
jurisdiction was no longer purely " criminal " with a civil quasi-
jurisdiction by way of arbitration. In the later middle
ages these courts had jurisdiction over most questions, CMt
except indeed the then most important ones, those
relating to real property. This civil jurisdiction was
sometimes concurrent with that of the secular courts, sometimes
exclusive. For England it may be thus classified:
(a) Matrimonial. This arose naturally from the sacred
character of Christian marriage. This jurisdiction was exclusive.
From it followed the right of the courts Christian to pronounce
upon questions of legitimacy. Upon this right an inroad was
early made, in consequence of the question of legitimation by
subsequent marriage. In the i2th century the Church's rule,
that subsequent marriage did legitimize previous issue, was
settled (c. 6, x. 4, 17). The king's judges then began to ask the
ordinary the specific question whether A. B. was born before
dlc .
86o
ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION.
or after his parents' marriage. After the inconclusive proceed-
ings at the realm-council of Merton (1236), when spiritual and
temporal lords took opposite views, the king's judges went a step
further and thenceforward submitted this particular question
to a jury. All other questions of legitimacy arising in the
king's courts were still sent for trial to the bishop and concluded
by his certificate (see Pollock and Maitland, Hist. Eng. Law
before Edward I. vol. i. 105-106; Maitland, ubi supra, pp.
53-56).
(b) Testamentary and in regard to succession from intestates.
Real property was not the subject of will or testament in the
medieval period. But as to personal property, the jurisdiction
of the courts Christian became exclusive in England. The
Church, East and West, had long asserted a right to supervise
those legacies which were devoted to pious uses, a right recog-
nized by Justinian (Corf. 1.3.46). The bishop or, failing him, the
metropolitan, was to see such legacies properly paid and applied
and might appoint persons to administer the funds (Pollock and
Maitland, op. cit. ii. 330). This right and duty became a jurisdic-
tion in all testamentary causes. Intestacy was regarded with
the greatest horror, because of the danger to the intestate's soul
from a death without a fitting part given to pious uses (Maine,
Ancient Law, ed. 1906, note by Pollock, p. 230; cf. Pollock and
Maitland, op. cit. ii. 354). Hence came the jurisdiction of the
ordinary in intestacy, for the peace of the soul of the departed.
This head of ecclesiastical jurisdiction was in England not
transferred to the secular court till 1857.
(c) Church Lands. If undoubtedly held in frankalmoign or
" free alms," by a " spiritual " tenure only, the claim of juris-
diction for the ecclesiastical forum seems to have been at first
conceded. But the Constitutions of Clarendon (c. 9) reserved
the preliminary question, of " frankalmoign " or not, for a jury
in the king's court. Then, if the tenure were found free alms,
the plea was to be heard in the court Christian. From the i3th
century, however, inclusive, the king's courts insisted on their
exclusive jurisdiction in regard to all realty, temporal or
" spiritual " (Pollock and Maitland, op. cit. i. 106).
(d) Title to present to and possession of benefices. As to the
title to present to benefices, the courts Christian at one time had
concurrent jurisdiction with the temporal courts. "Advowsons"
were, however, looked upon as a species of " real " property in
England, and therefore the king's court early claimed exclusive
jurisdiction in disputes where the title to present was involved.
The Constitutions of Clarendon provided that these causes should
be heard only in the king's court (c. i). This rule was applied
even where both litigants were " spiritual." In the i3th century
abbots sue each other in the royal court for advowsons (Selden
Soc. Select Civil Pleas, i. pi. 245). In 1231, in such a suit, the
bishop of London accepts wager of battle (Pollock and Maitland,
op. cit. i. 105). In cases, however, where the title to present was
not in question, but the fitness of the clerk presented, or, in
cases of election to benefices, the validity of the election, there
was jurisdiction in the courts Christian.
(e) The recovery of tithes and church dues, including in
England church rates levied to repair or improve churches and
churchyards.
(/) Questions concerning fabrics, ornaments, ritual and cere-
monial of churches.
(g) Administration of pious gifts and revenues given to prelates
or convents. Their right application could be effectively enforced
only in the courts Christian; until the rise in England of the
equitable jurisdiction of the court of chancery and the develop-
ment of the doctrine of " uses " at the end of the middle
ages.
(h) Enforcement of contractual promises made by oath or pledge
of faith. The breaking of such a promissory oath was called
" perjury " (as in classical Latin and in Shakespeare), contrary
to modern usage which confines the word to false evidence
before a court of justice. In regard to the execution of these
promises, the jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical courts was possibly
traversed by c. 15 of the Constitutions of Clarendon; but
allowed by the statute 13 Edw. I. st. 4. As just intimated,
besides the enforcement of the promise, the " perjury " was
treated as an ecclesiastical crime.
The criminal jurisdiction of courts Christian over laymen
included, besides these " perjuries," (a) all sexual offences not
punishable on indictment; (b) Defamation of character (the
king's courts came in time to limit this to such defamation as
could not be made the subject of a temporal action) ; (c) Offences
by laymen against clerks (i.e. against all "tonsured" persons,
supra] ; (d) Offences in regard to holy places " brawling " and
such like; (e) Heresy, schism, apostasy, witchcraft.
In regard to " clerks," there was (i) all th'e criminal juris-
diction which existed over laymen, and (2) criminal jurisdiction
in regard to professional misconduct. Concerning " felonious "
clerks the great questions discussed were whether the courts
Christian had exclusive jurisdiction or the king's court, or
whether there was a concurrent jurisdiction. The subject was
dealt with in the Constitutions of Clarendon, formally revoked
after the murder of St Thomas of Canterbury. In the I3th
century it was recognized that a " clerk " for felony was subject
only to ecclesiastical trial and punishment; punishment which
might involve lifelong imprisonment. For " misdemeanours,"
as yet unimportant, he had no exemption from secular juris-
diction (Pollock and Maitland, op. cit. ch. iv.). At some indeter-
minate later period, the " clerk " was tried for felony by a jury
in the king's court and then "pleaded his clergy," after conviction
there, and was remitted to the ordinary for ecclesiastical punish-
ment. " Clerks " for the purpose of "benefit of clergy." included
not only persons in minor orders, but all " religious " persons,
i.e. monks, friars, nuns, &c. Later the custom arose of taking
" clerk " to include any " literate, " even if not in orders or
"religious" (cf. Stephen, Hist. Crim. Law, i. 461). The statute
4 Hen. VII. c. 13 took away benefit of clergy, if claimed a
second time, from persons not " within orders," in certain bad
cases. 4 Hen. VIII. c. 2 (a temporary act) took away "clergy,"
in certain heinous crimes, from all persons not in " holy "
orders. This statute was partly renewed by 22 Hen. VIII.
c. 13. Other changes were introduced by 23 Hen. VIII. c. i
and later acts. In time, " benefit of clergy " became entirely
diverted from its original objects.
In France, till 1329, there seems to have been no clear line of
demarcation between secular and ecclesiastical jurisdictions.
Beaumanoir (Coutume de Baulvoisis, ch. xi., cited Gaudry,
op. cit. i. 22) had laid down the principle that spiritual justice
should meddle only with spiritual things. In the year named
the secular courts complained to the king, Philip of Valois, of
the encroachments of the courts Christian. The " cause " was
solemnly argued before that monarch, who decided to leave
things as they were (Migne, Diet, du droit canon., s.v. " Officia-
lites "). In 1371 Charles V. forbade spiritual courts to take
cognizance of '' real " and "possessory" actions even in regard
to clerks (Migne, loc. cit.; cf. Gaudry, ubi sup.). From this
period the parlements began the procedure which, after the
Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VII., in 1438 took regular shape
as the appelcomme d' abus (supra; Migne, loc. cit.). Testamentary
causes at first were subject to the concurrent jurisdiction of the
spiritual and secular courts. After the I4th century, the latter
had exclusive jurisdiction (Van Espen, op. cit. lib. iii. tit. ii.
cc. 2, 15, 16). In regard to marriage the secular jurists distin-
guished between the civil contract and the sacrament, for
purposes of separating the jurisdiction (Diet, eccl., Paris, 1765,
s.v. "Mariage"). The voluntary jurisdiction as regards dis-
pensations was kept for the Church. The contentious jurisdiction
of the courts Christian was confined to promises of marriage,
nullity of marriage caused by " diriment " impediments only,
validity or invalidity of the sacrament, divorce a thoro (ibid.).
Questions in regard to the property in a benefice were for the
courts Christian; in regard to its possession, for the king's
courts. But if a " possessory " action had been brought in the
latter, a subsequent suit in the courts spiritual for the property
was deemed " abusive " and restrained (ib., s.v. " Petitoire ")
Breach of faith or of promise confirmed by oath was matter for
the court Christian (Fournier, pp. 95, 99, 109, 125). This
ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION
861
branch of jurisdiction was larger and more freely used than in
England (cf. Pollock and Maitland, op. cit., as to Normandy).
The only other remaining civil jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical
courts was in personal actions where clerks were defendants (Migne,
op. cit., s.v. " Officialites," Fournier, pp. 65-125); or, after
the 1 4th century, where both parties were clerks. In regard to
crimes delicts (delits) were divided into classes for purposes of
jurisdiction. Clerks were punishable only in the court Christian,
except in cases of grave crimes such as murder, mutilation
(Fournier, p. 72), and cases called " royal cases " (vide infra).
Laymen were punishable in the court Christian for the dtlits
following: injury to sacred or religious places, sacrilege, heresy
(except where it was a " royal case "), sorcery, magic, blasphemy
(also punishable in the secular court), adultery, simony, usury
and infractions of the truce of God (Fournier, pp. 90-93). What
were called "privileged delicts" were judged in the case of the
clergy conjointly by the spiritual judge and the king's judge.
Bishops had no exemption (Diet, ecc., s.v. "Delits," " Cas
privilegie," " Causes majeures "). " Royal cases " included
such crimes as touched the prince, as all forms of treason; or
the dignity of his officers; or the public safety. In this class
were also included such heresies as troubled the state, as by
forbidden assemblies, or by teaching prohibited doctrine.
Among these heresies were reckoned idolatry, atheism, Protes-
tantism, relapse (ib. et " Cas royaux," " Heresie "). These
were of exclusive royal jurisdiction as against both spiritual
courts and the courts of feudal lords. A similar claim was made
by Pombal for Portugal (vide infra).
The parlements, in order to have a ready means of enforcing
all these restrictions by appel comme d'abus, compelled the
bishops to appoint officials, Frenchmen, graduates, and (as it
seems) "seculars" (Diet, eccl., Paris, 1765, s.v. "Official").
This last qualification was disputed (see Fevret, Traite de I'abus).
3. Punishments. Ecclesiastical sanctions were divided into
punishments (poenae), either purely temporal in character or else
of a mixed spiritual and temporal character, and censures (cen-
surae), purely spiritual and remedial (see Van Espen, pars iii.
tit. xl. cc. i, 3; Phillimore, Ecclesiastical Law, p. 1064). In the
book last cited censurae and poenae are classed together as
" censures " (which is the modern use).
Poenae. (a) Fines sprang from the older custom of direct-
ing alms by way of penance in the internal forum (Van Espen,
ubi sup. c. i, 5-10). They were to be applied to pious uses.
(6) Reclusion in a monastery continued from former period,
and might be either temporary or perpetual (loc. cit. 17-19).
(c) Imprisonment, in the bishop's prison, might be in chains, or
on bread and water, and temporary or perpetual. In its severer
forms it was only inflicted for more atrocious crimes which the
secular law would have punished with death (loc. cit. 21-27).
The act 23 Henry VIII. c. 1 1 made special provision for convicted
clerks who broke out of the prisons of the ordinary, (d) Fustiga-
tion, as in former period, was hardly an ecclesiastical punishment.
If given, it was to be of a paternal character (loc. cit. 39-45).
Punishments of a mixed nature were: (e) Suspension either
from office alone or from office and benefice; (f) Deprivation of
benefice; (g) Deposition or Degradation (a more solemn and
ceremonial form) from the ministry; (h) Irregularity not always
a punishment a state of incapacity to be ordained, or, being
ordained, to execute the ministry; this might result from some
defect of mind and body, but was also incurred by some grave
offences.
Censures were as follows: (i) Suspension from attending
divine offices or ab ingressu ecclesiae, more appropriate for a
layman. A clerk in like case might be suspended from office.
(j) Interdict was another form of partial or total suspension from
the benefit of the rites and sacraments of the Church. An inter-
dict might be personal or local (see INTERDICT), (k) Excom-
munication was either greater or less. The greater separated
entirely from the Church. It might be pronounced under
anathema. The less deprived of participation in the sacraments,
and made a clerk incapable of taking a benefice.
On the European continent the courts Christian often carried
out their decrees by their own apparitors who could levy pecuniary
penalties on a defendant's goods (Van Espen, pars iii. tit. ix.
c. 4). They could arrest and imprison. In England, except in
the peculiar case of imprisonment pending trial for heresy, or in
the case of a clerk convicted of crime, these things could not be.
The sentence of the court Christian had in all other cases to be
enforced by the secular arm. Early in Henry II. 's time it had
become the custom of England for the court Christian'to "signify"
its sentence of excommunication to the king and to demand from
him a writ of significant to the sheriff, to imprison the person
excommunicated. The writ apparently issued for no court
inferior to the bishop's, unless upon the bishop's request. In
some sense the king's writ of significavit was discretionary; but
its issue could be enforced by excommunication or interdict.
In the cases of heresy, apostasy and sorcery, the spiritual
courts sought the aid of the secular jurisdiction to superadd the
punishment of death. Incorrigible offenders on these matters
were "left" to the secular power, to be corrected with due
" animadversion." This provision of the fourth Lateran Council
in 1215 was always interpreted to mean death (see Van Espen,
Observ. in Cone. Lot. I V. Canones, and the decree in the Sext. ut
inquisitionis negotium; and, as to English law and practice,
Maitland, op. cit., Essay vi., and pp. 161, 176; 2 Hen. IV. c. 15;
Fitzherbert, Natura brevium, 269; 2 Hen. V. st. i, c. 7). The
" capital " punishment was generally (always in England) by
burning. Burning was an English punishment for some secular
offences.
The Concordat with Francis I. by which the pope gave up the
right of hearing appeals from France was not many years before
the legislation of Henry VIII. in England. Both monarchs
proceeded on the same lines; but Francis I. got the pope's con-
sent: Henry VIII. acted in invitum, and in time went rather
further.
The Statute of Appeals (24 Hen. VIII. c. 12) takes away
appeals to Rome in causes testamentary and matrimonial and in
regard to right of tithes, oblations and obventions. Eccleslas-
A final appeal is given to the archbishop of the par- tical Juris-
ticular province; but in causes touching the king alctlonla
a final appeal is given to the Upper House of Con- Eagaa
vocation of the province. The statute is aimed at appeals;
but the words used in it concerning " citations and all other
processes " are wide enough to take away also the " original "
jurisdiction of the pope. No appeal was yet given to the crown.
Canterbury, York, Armagh, Dublin, Cashel and Tuam are put
in the place of Rome. The English and Irish provinces are
treated as self-contained. All ends there.
The "Act of Submission of the Clergy" (25 Hen. VIII. c. 19)
took away all appeals to Rome and gave a further appeal, " for
lack of justice," from the several courts of the archbishops to the
king in chancery. Thence a commission was to issue to persons
named therein to determine the appeal definitely. This was
copied from the then existent practice in admiralty appeals and
was the origin of the so-called court of delegates. It is a moot
question whether this statute took away the appeal to the Upper
Houses of the various convocations in causes wherein the king
was concerned (see Gorham v. Bishop of Exeter, 15 Q.B. 52; Ex
parte Bishop of Exeter, 10 C.B. 102; Re Gorham v. Bishop of
Exeter, 5 Exch. 630). 37 Hen. VIII. c. 17 provided that married
laymen might be judges of the courts Christian if they were
doctors of civil law, created in any university. This qualifica-
tion even was considered unnecessary in Charles I.'s time (Cro.
Car. 258). Canon 127 of 1603 provided that the judges must be
learned in the civil and ecclesiastical laws and at least masters
of arts or bachelors of laws. Canon Law as a study had been
practically prohibited at the universities since 1536 (Merriman,
Thomas Cromwell, i. 142-143; Cal. State Papers, vol. ix. p. xxix.
117; Owen, Institutes of Canon Law, viii.). The substitution
of "civilians," rather than common lawyers, for canonists
(civilians, hitherto, not an important body in England) had
important consequences (see Maitland, op. cit. 92 et seq.).
Henry VIII. had exercised his jurisdiction as Supreme
Head through a vicar-general. Edward VI. exercised original
862
ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION
jurisdiction in spiritual causes by delegated commissions (see
Archdeacon Hale, Precedents in Criminal Cases, p. xlviii.) . Unless
the king was to be regarded as an ecclesiastical person, they were
not properly ecclesiastical courts; although spiritual persons
might sit in them, for they sat only as royal commissioners. The
same point has been taken by large bodies of clergy and laity in
regard to the court of final appeal created by 25 Hen. VIII. c.ig
and its present successor the judicial committee of Privy Council
(infra: Rep. Com. Ecc. Discipline, pp. 9, 94 et seq.). At any rate
the " original " jurisdiction claimed for the monarch personally
and his delegates, under Henry VIII. and Edward VI., has not
permanently remained. In theory, Hooker's contentions have
been conceded that " kings cannot in their own proper persons
decide questions about matters of faith and Christian religion "
and that " they have not ordinary spiritual power " (Ecc. Pol.
vii. 8, i, 6; cf. XXXIX. Articles, Art. 37).
Under Henry VIII. a system began of making certain crimes,
which previously had been only of spiritual cognizance, felonies
(25 Hen. VIII. c. 6), excluding thereby spiritual jurisdiction
(Stephen, Hist. Crim. Law, ii. 429). Bigamy (in its modern
sense) was thus made felony (i Jac. I. c. n). In this reign and
the next, temporal courts were sometimes given jurisdiction
over purely spiritual offences. A trace of this remains in i Edw.
VI. c. i (still on the statute book; Stephen, Hist. Crim. Law,
ii. 439). Other traces occur in the Acts of Uniformity, which
make offences of depraving the Book of Common Prayer triable
at Assizes (between 23 Eliz. c. i and 7 & 8 Viet. c. 102 also at
Sessions) as well as in the courts Christian.
During Edward VI. 's time the courts Christian seem practically
to have ceased to exercise criminal jurisdiction (Hale, Precedents
in Criminal Cases, p. xlix.). But they sat again for this purpose
under Mary and Elizabeth and (save between 1640 and 1661)
continued regular criminal sessions till towards the end of the
1 7th century as continuously and constantly as the king's courts
(op. cit.).
The " ordinary " ecclesiastical tribunals of the later middle
ages still subsist in England, at least as regards the laity. This
is hardly the case elsewhere in the Western Church, though some
exceptions are noted below. Nevertheless, their exercise of
criminal jurisdiction over the laity is now in practice suspended;
although in law it subsists (see Stephen, Hist. Crim. Law; Ray v.
Sherwood, i Curt. R. 193; i Moore P.C.R. 363; the observations
of Kelly, C.B., in Mordaunt v. Moncrie/e, L.R. 2 Sc. & Div. 381,
and of Lord Coleridge in' Martin v. Mackonochie, L.R. 4 Q.B.D.
770, and, on the other hand, of Lord Penzance in PhUlimore v.
Machon, L.R. i P.D.48o). Theoretically still, in cases of sexual
immorality, penance may be imposed. Monitions to amend
may be decreed and be enforced by significant and writ de con-
tumace capiendo, or by excommunication with imprisonment not
to exceed six months (53 Geo. III. c. 127). The tribunals thus
subsisting are the courts of the bishop and archbishop, the latter
sometimes called the court of appeal of the province. Peculiar
jurisdictions have been gradually taken away under the operation
of the acts establishing the ecclesiastical commissioners. The
appeal given to delegates appointed by the crown has been
transferred, first by 2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 92 to the privy council,
and then by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 41 to the judicial committee of
the privy council. Bishops may now be summoned as assessors
by 39 & 40 Viet. c. 59.
There was in the time of Elizabeth, James I. and Charles I.
a " Court of High Commission " with jurisdiction over laity
and clergy, based on i Eliz. c. i. s. 15, which was reckoned as an
ecclesiastical judicature (5 R. i, Cawdrey's .case) concurrent with
the ordinary court Christian. It was created by virtue of the
royal supremacy, and was taken away by 16 Car. I. c. n. As
to its history see Stephen, Hist. Crim. Law, ii. 414-428.
In regard to clerical offences, 3 & 4 Viet. c. 86 (the " Church
Discipline Act ") creates new tribunals; and first a commission
of inquiry appointed by the bishop of five persons, of whom the
vicar-general, or an archdeacon, or a rural dean of the diocese
must be one. If they report a prima facie case, the bishop may
(with the consent of parties) proceed to sentence. In the absence
of such consent, the bishop may hear the cause with three
assessors, of whom one shall be a barrister of seven years'
standing and another the dean of the cathedral, or one of the
archdeacons, or the chancellor. This court is called the " con-
sistory " court, but is not the old consistory. Both these
tribunals are new. But the bishop may instead send the cause, in
first instance, to the old provincial court, to which appeal lies,
if it be not so sent.
The Public Worship Regulation Act (37 & 38 Viet. c. 85) gave
criminal jurisdiction over beneficed clerks (concurrent with
that of the tribunal under 3 & 4 Viet. c. 86) to the judge under
the act in matters of the fabric, ornaments, furniture and decora-
tions of churches, and the conduct of divine service, rites and
ceremonies. The " judge " under the act is to be a barrister of
ten years' standing, or an ex-judge of a superior secular court,
appointed by the archbishops of Canterbury and York, with the
approval of the crown, or, if they fail to appoint, by the crown.
Proceedings under this act are to be deemed to be taken in the
appropriate ancient ecclesiastical courts (Green v. Lord Penzance,
6 A. C. 657). The judge under this act became (upon vacancies
occurring) ex officio official principal of the arches court of
Canterbury and of the chancery court of York. This provision
caused grave doubts to be entertained as to the canonical
position of this statutory official principal.
Finally, the Clergy Discipline Act 1892 (55 & 56 Viet. c. 32)
creates yet a new court of first instance for the trial of clerical
offences against morality in the shape of a consistory court,
which is not the old court of that name, but is to comprehend
the chancellor and five assessors (three clergymen and two
laymen chosen from a prescribed list), with equal power with the
chancellor on questions of fact. In many instances the conviction
of a temporal court is made conclusive on the bishop without
further trial. In regard to moral offences, jurisdiction under this
act is exclusive. But it only applies to clerks holding prefer-
ment. Under all these three acts there is a final appeal to the
judicial committee of the privy council.
None of these acts applies to the trial of bishops, who are left
to the old jurisdictions, or whatever may be held to be the old
jurisdictions (with that of the Roman See eliminated). As to
suffragan bishops in the province of Canterbury, see Read v.
Bishop of Lincoln, 13 P.D. 221, 14 P.D. 88. (On general ques-
tions see PhUlimore, Ecc. Law, 65, 73.) Despite the bishop of
Lincoln's case, the law is in some uncertainty.
Dilapidations are now not made matters of suit before the
court, but of administrative action by the bishop.
The subject matter of ecclesiastical jurisdiction has been
gradually reduced in England, &c., by various causes, (i) The
taking away of all matrimonial, testamentary and ab intestate
jurisdiction by 20 & 21 Viet. c. 77 (testamentary, &c., England),
c. 79 (testamentary, &c., Ireland), c. 85 (matrimonial, England);
33 & 34 Viet. c. 1 10 (matrimonial, Ireland) . Matrimonial jurisdic-
tion was taken from the bishop of Sodor and Man in 1884. (2)
Since 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 71, tithe has become, except in a few
rare cases, tithe rent charge, and its recovery has been entirely
an operation of secular law. Most kinds of offerings are now
recoverable in secular courts. (3) Administration of pious gifts
has passed to the court of chancery. (4) The enforcement of
contractual promises has long been abandoned by the courts
Christian themselves. (5) Church rates can no longer be enforced
by suit (31 & 32 Viet. c. 109). (6) Defamation was taken away
in England by 18 & 19 Viet. c. 41, and in Ireland by 23 & 24
Viet. c. 32. (7) Laymen can no longer be tried in the spiritual
courts for offences against clerks. (8) The jurisdiction for
" brawling " in church, &c., is taken away by 23 & 24 Viet. c. 32
in the case of the laity. In the case of persons in holy orders there
is a concurrent jurisdiction of the two tribunals (Valancy v.
Fletcher, 1897,1 Q.B. 265). This was an offence very frequently
prosecuted in the courts Christian (see A. J. Stephens, Ecclesi-
astical Statutes, i. 336).
The existing ecclesiastical jurisdiction in England is therefore
now confined to the following points, (i) Discipline of the
clergy. (2) Discipline of the laity in respect of sexual offences
ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION
863
as already stated. (3) Control of lay office-bearers, church-
wardens, sidesmen, organists, parish clerks, . sextons. (4) Pro-
tection of the fabrics of churches, of churchyards, ornaments,
fittings, &c., sanctioning by licence or faculty any additions or
alterations, and preventing or punishing unauthorized dealings by
proceedings on the criminal side of the courts. (5) Claims by
individuals to particular seats in church or special places of
sepulture. (6) Rare cases of personal or special tithes, offerings
or pensions claimed by incumbents of benefices. In the Isle of
Man and the Channel Islands courts Christian have now jurisdic-
tion substantially as in England. In Jersey and in Guernsey
there are courts of first instance with appeal to the bishop of
Winchester. Ecclesiastical jurisdiction in Ireland was as in
England till the Irish Church was disestablished in 1869 by
32 & 33 Viet. c. 42.
The position of a disestablished or an unestablished Church
is comparatively modern, and has given rise to new jural con-
ceptions. These Churches are collegia licita and come
ticaJ/uris- within the liberty of association so freely conceded in
diction la modern times. The relations of their bishops, priests
non-estab- or other ministers and lay Qffice-bearers inter se and
churches. to tne * r ^ av ^^ depend upon contract; and these
contracts will be enforced by the ordinary courts of
law. A consensual ecclesiastical jurisdiction is thus created,
which has to this extent temporal sanction. In foro con-
scientiae spiritual censures canonically imposed are as binding
and ecclesiastical jurisdiction is as powerful as ever.
Into the British-settled colonies no bishops were sent till 1787;
and consequently there were no regular courts Christian. The
bishop of London was treated as the diocesan bishop of the
colonists in North America; and in order to provide for testa-
mentary and matrimonial jurisdiction it was usual in the letters
patent appointing the governor of a colony to name him ordinary.
In New York state there is still a court called the surrogates
court, surrogate being the regular name for a deputy ecclesi-
astical judge. In Lower Canada, by treaty, the Roman Catholic
Church remained established.
Throughout the United States, whatever may have been the
position in some of them before their independence, the Church
has now no position recognized by the State, but is just a body
of believers whose relations are governed by contract and with
whom ecclesiastical jurisdiction is consensual.
The position is the same now through all the British colonies
(except, as already mentioned, Lower Canada or Quebec). From
1787 onwards, colonial bishops and metropolitans were appointed
by letters patent which purported to give them jurisdiction for
disciplinary purposes. But a series of cases, of which the most
remarkable was that Re the Bishop of Natal (3 Moore P.C.
N.S. A.D. 1864), decided that in colonies possessing self-
governing legislatures such letters patent were of no value;
and soon after the crown ceased to issue them, even for crown
colonies.
In India the metropolitan of Calcutta and the bishops of
Madras and Bombay have some very limited jurisdiction which
is conferred by letters patent under the authority of the statutes
53 Geo. III. c. 155 and 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 85. But the other
Indian bishops have no position recognized by the State and no
jurisdiction, except consensual.
The Church had the same jurisdiction in Scotland, and
exercised it through similar courts to those which she had in
Bcciesias- England and France, till about 1570. As late as 1566
tkaiiiris- Archbishop Hamilton of Glasgow, upon his appoint-
dictionia men t, had restitution of his jurisdiction in the probate
of testaments and other matters (Keith, History of
the Scottish Bishops, Edinburgh, 1824, p. 38). There was an
interval of uncertainty, with at any rate titular bishops,
till 1592. Then parliament enacted a new system of Church
courts which, though to some extent in its turn superseded by
the revival of episcopacy under James VI., was revived or ratified
by the act of 1690, c. 7, and stands to this day. It is a Presby-
terian system, and the Scottish Episcopal Church is a dis-
established and voluntary body since 1690.
The Presbyterian courts thus created are arranged in ascend-
ing order:
(a) Kirk Session consists of the minister of the parish and the
" ruling elders " (who are elected by the session). It has cog-
nizance of scandalous offences by laymen and punishes them
by deprivation of religious privileges. It does not judge ministers
(Brodie-Innes, Comparative Principles of the Laws of England
and Scotland, 1903, p. 144).
(b) The Presbytery has jurisdiction, partly appellate and
partly original, over a number of parishes. There are now eighty-
four presbyteries. These courts consist of every parochial
minister or professor of divinity of any university within the
limits, and of an elder commissioned from every kirk session.
A minister is elected to preside as moderator. These courts
judge ministers in first instance for scandalous conduct. As
civil courts they judge in first instance all questions connected
with glebes and the erection and repair of churches and manses.
They regulate matters concerning public worship and ordinances,
and have appellate jurisdiction from the kirk session.
(c) The Provincial Synod consists of a union of three or more
presbyteries with the same members. There are now sixteen.
They meet twice a year to hear appeals from presbyteries. No
appeal can go direct to the General Assembly, omisso media,
unless the presbytery have so expressly directed, or unless there
be no meeting of synod after the decision of the presbytery
before the meeting of General Assembly.
(d) The General Assembly is the supreme ecclesiastical court
of this system. It meets annually. The king's " lord high
commissioner " attends the sittings; but does not intervene
or take part in the court's decisions. The court consists of
ministers and elders, elected from the presbyteries in specified
proportions, and of commissioners from the four universities,
the city of Edinburgh and the royal burghs. The Presbyterian
Church in India sends one minister and one elder. The whole
Assembly consists of 371 ministers and 333 elders. The juris-
diction is entirely appellate. The Assembly appoints a com-
mission to exercise some of its functions during the intervals of
its session. To this commission may be referred the cognizance
of particular matters. .
Questions of patronage now (by 37 & 38 Viet. c. 82) belong to
the Church courts; but not questions of lapse or stipend. Seats,
seat rents, pews, the union and disjunction of parishes and
formation of district parishes are of secular jurisdiction. Ques-
tions of tithes (or "teinds") and ministers' stipends were referred
to commissioners by acts of the Scots parliaments beginning in
1607. The commissioners of teinds became a species of ecclesi-
astical court. By Scots act of 1707, c. 9, their powers were
transferred to the judges of the court of session, who now con-
stitute a " teind court " (Brodie-Innes, op. oil. pp. 138, 139).
Matrimonial matters and those relating to wills and succession
(called in Scotland " consistorial " causes) were in 1563 taken
from the old bishops' courts and given to " commissaries "
appointed by the crown with an appeal to the court of session,
which by act 1609, c. 6, was declared the king's great consistory.
They have remained matters of secular jurisdiction.
The Scots ecclesiastical courts are entitled to the assistance of
the secular courts to carry out their jurisdiction by " due assist-
ance." Within the limits of their jurisdiction they are supreme.
But if a court go outside its jurisdiction, or refuse to exercise
powers conferred on it by law, the civil court may " reduce "
(i.e. set aside) the sentence and award damages to the party
aggrieved.
With the Reformation in the i6th century, Church courts
properly speaking disappeared from the non-episcopal
religious communities which were established in con a nen .
Holland, in the Protestant states of Switzerland and </ a/ro-
of Germany, and in the then non-episcopal countries P eaa
of Denmark and Norway.
Discipline over ministers and other office-bearers was exercised
by administrative methods in the form of trials before con-
sistories or synods. To this extent ecclesiastical jurisdiction is
still exercised in these countries. Consistories and synods have
86 4
ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION
exercised discipline of a penitential kind over their lay members ;
but in later times their censures have generally ceased to carry
temporal consequences. Ecclesiastical jurisdiction on the civil
side for the trial of causes soon disappeared. Heresy has been
treated as a crime to be tried in and punished by the ordinary
courts of the country, as in the cases of Servetus (q.v.) and
Grotius (q.v.).
For the episcopal churches of Sweden and Finland the first
constitution or " Church order " was formed in 1571. It pro-
vided for the visitation of the clergy by the bishop, and for the
power of the clergy to exclude their lay folk from the Holy
Communion, subject to appeal to the bishop. Both minor and
major excommunication had been in use, and for a long time
public penance was required. The procedure underwent great
modification in 1686; but public penance was not taken away
till 1855, and then confession to and absolution by the priest in
the presence of witnesses was still required. Civil jurisdiction in
causes appears to have been given up early (Cornelius, Svenska
Kirkaus Historic,, Upsala, 1875, pp. 146, 186, 189, 285).
Over the rest of western continental Europe and in the colonies
of Spain, Portugal and France, ecclesiastical jurisdiction remained
generally in the state which we have already described
Ca*fto/fc tiU near the end of the l8th centurv - The counc il f
countries. Trent took away the jurisdiction of archdeacons in
marriage questions. The testamentary jurisdiction
disappeared (as already stated) in France. Disputed cases of
contract were more often tried in the secular courts. Recourse
to the secular prince by way of appel comme d'abus, or otherwise,
became more frequent and met with greater encouragement.
Kings began to insist upon trying ecclesiastics for treason or
other political crimes in secular courts. So under the advice of
his minister (the marquis of Pombal), King Joseph of Portugal in
1759-1760 claimed that the pope should give him permission to
try in all cases clerics accused of treason, and was not content
with the limited permission given to try and execute, if guilty,
the Jesuits then accused of conspiring his death (Life of Pombal,
by Count da Carnota, 1871, pp. 128, 141). But there was no
sudden change in the position of the courts Christian till the
French Revolution.
In France a law of the Revolution (September 1 790) purported
to suppress all ecclesiastical jurisdictions. On the re-establishing
of the Catholic religion on the basis of the new Concordat,
promulgated 18 Germinal, year X. (April 8, 1802), no express
provision was made for ecclesiastical jurisdictions; but several
bishops did create new ecclesiastical tribunals, " officialises "
(Migne, Diet, de droit canon., s.v.). The government in some
cases recognized these tribunals as capable of judging ecclesi-
astical causes (Migne, ubi sup.). In 1810 the diocesan official of
Paris entertained the cause between Napoleon and Josephine,
and pronounced a decree of nullity (Migne, ubi sup. s.v.
" Causes ") . Such litigation as still continued before the spiritual
forum was, however, confined (save in the case of the matrimonial
questions of princes) to the professional conduct of the clergy.
Such neighbouring countries as were conquered by France or
revolutionized after her pattern took the same course of sup-
pressing their ecclesiastical jurisdictions. After 1814, some of
these jurisdictions were revived. But the matter is now deter-
mined for all countries which have adopted codes, whether after
the pattern of the Code Napoleon or otherwise. These countries
have created a hierarchy of temporal courts competent to deal
with every matter of which law takes cognizance, and a penal
code which embraces and deals with all crimes or delicts which
the state recognizes as offences. Hence, even in countries where
the Roman Church is established, such as Belgium, Italy, the
Catholic states of Germany and cantons of Switzerland, most
of the Latin republics of America, and the province of Quebec,
and a fortiori where this Church is not established, there is
now no discipline over the laity, except penitential, and no juris-
diction exercised in civil suits, except possibly the matrimonial
questions of princes (of which there was an example in the
case of the reigning prince of Monaco). In Spain causes of
nullity and divorce a thoro, in Portugal causes of nullity between
Catholics, are still for the court Christian. In Peru, the old
ecclesiastical matrimonial jurisdiction substantially remains
(Lehr, Le Manage dans les principaux pays, 1899, arts. 362, 797,
772, 781). Otherwise these three countries are Code countries.
In Austria, the ancient ecclesiastical jurisdiction was taken away
by various acts of legislation from 1781 to 1856; even voluntary
jurisdiction as to dispensations. The Concordat of 1856 and
consequent legislation restored matrimonial jurisdiction to the
courts Christian over marriages between Roman Catholics. In
1868 this was taken away. The Austrian bishops, however,
maintain their tribunals for spiritual purposes, and insist that
such things as divorce a vinculo must be granted by their authority
(Aichner, Compendium juris ecclesiastici, pp. 551-553).
By consent and submission of her members, the Roman Church
decides in foro conscientiae questions of marriage, betrothal and
legitimacy everywhere; but no temporal consequences follow
except in Spain, Portugal and Peru.
The position in France was the same as that in Belgium, Italy,
&c., till 1906, when the Church ceased to be established. The
only Latin countries in which conflict has not arisen appear to
be the principality of Andorra and the republic of San Marino
(Giron y Areas, Situacion juridica de la Iglesia Catdlica, Madrid,
JQc-S, P- J73 et seq.).
Even as to the discipline of the Roman clergy it is only in
certain limited cases that one can speak of ecclesiastical jurisdic-
tion. Bishops and beneficed incumbents (cures') must be regularly
tried; and where the Church is established the canonical courts
are recognized. But the majority of parishes are served by mere
dessenants or vicaires, who have no rights and can be recalled
and dismissed by mere administrative order without trial (Migne,
ubi sup. s.v. "Inamovibilite," "Desservants").
The Napoleonic legislation re-established the appel comme
d'abus ("Articles organiques," art. 6). The recourse was now to
the council of state (see Migne, ubi supra, " Officialite "). But
the revocation of a desservant, and the forbidding him the execu-
tion of his ministry in the diocese, was not a case in which the
council of state would interfere (Migne, ubi sup. " Appel comme
d'abus," "Conseil d'etat").
In those provinces of the Anglican communion where the
Church is not established by the state, the tendency is j urisd / c
not to attempt any external discipline over the laity; tioa in
but on the other hand to exercise consensual jurisdic- Anglican
tion over the clergy and office-bearers through courts ">"*-
nearly modelled on the old canonical patterns.
In the Roman communion, on the other hand, both where
the Church is established and where it is not, the tendency is
to reduce the status of cure to that of desservant, and to .
deal with all members of the priestly or lower orders jurisdic-
by administrative methods. This practice obtains in tion of
all missionary countries, e.g. Ireland and also in Caurcl ">t
Belgium (S. B. Smith, Elements of Ecclesiastical Law,
New York, i. 197 et seq.; p. 403 et seq.; Tauber, Manuale
juris canonici, Sabariae, 1904, p. 277). In the United States,
the 3rd plenary council of Baltimore in 1884 provided that one
rector out of ten should be irremovable (Smith, op. cit. i. 197,
419). In England there are few Roman "benefices" (E.
Taunton, Law of the Church, London, 1906, s.v. " Benefice ").
A desservant has an informal appeal, by way of recourse, to the
metropolitan and ultimately to the pope (Smith, op. cit. p. 201).
The bishop's " official " is now universally called his vicar-
general (except in France, where sometimes an official is appointed
eo nomine), and generally exercises both voluntary and con-
tentious jurisdiction (op. cit. i. 377). As of old, he must be at
least tonsured and without a wife living. At the Vatican
Council, a desire was expressed that he should be a priest (ib.).
He should be a doctor in theology or a licentiate in canon law
(ib. p. 378). Whether a bishop is bound to appoint a vicar-general
is still disputed (ib. p. 380; cf. supra; contra, Bouix, Inst. Juris
Canon. De Judic. i. 405). In 1831 the pope enacted that in
all the dioceses of the then Pontifical States, the court of first
instance for the criminal causes of ecclesiastics should consist of
the ordinary and four other judges. In the diocese of Rome,
ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION
865
the court of the cardinal vicar-general consists of such vicar-
general and four other prelates (Smith , ubi supra). In the
Roman communion in England and the United States, there
are commissions of investigation appointed to hear in first
instance the criminal causes of clerks. They consist of five, or at
least three, priests nominated by the bishop in and with the
advice of the diocesan synod. In the United States, since 1884,
the bishop presides on these commissions. They report their
opinions to the bishop, who passes final sentence (ib. ii. 129-131).
" Exemptions " now include all the regular religious orders,
i.e. those orders which have solemn vows. Over the members of
these orders their superiors have jurisdiction and not the bishop.
Otherwise if they live out of their monastery, or even within that
enclosure so notoriously offend as to cause scandal. In the first
case, they may be punished by the ordinary of the place, acting as
delegate of the pope without speical appointment (Cone. Trid.
Sess. vi. c. 3). In the second case, the bishop may require the
superior to punish within a certain time and to certify the
punishment to him; in default he himself may punish (Cone.
Trid. Sess. xxv. c. 14, cf. Smith, op. cit. i. 204-206). So,
regulars having cure of souls are subject to the jurisdiction of the
bishop in matters pertaining thereto (ib. p. 206). The exemp-
tion of regular religious orders may be extended to religious
societies without solemn vows by special concession of the pope,
as in the case of the Passionists and Redemptorists (ib. p. 205;
Sanguined, Juris ecc. inst., Rome, 1800, pp. 393, 394).
Appeal lies, in nearly all cases, to the metropolitan (Smith,
op. cit. pp. 210-223). Metropolitans usually now have a metro-
politan tribunal distinct from their diocesan court (ib. ii. 141),
but constructed on the same lines, with the metropolitan as judge
and his vicar-general as vice-judge. In some "missionary"
dioceses, the metropolitan, qua metropolitan, has a separate
commission of investigation, to try the criminal causes of
clerks, sentence being passed by himself 01 his vicar-general (ib.
p. 142).
The next step in the hierarchy, that of "primates" (supra),
has " in the present state of the Church " ceased to exist for our
purpose (Sanguineti, op. cit. p. 334), as a result of Tridentine legis-
lation. The only appellate jurisdiction from the metropolitans is
the Roman See. To it also lies a direct appeal from the court of
first instance, omisso media (Smith, op. cit. i. 224). The pope's
immediate and original jurisdiction in every diocese is now
expressly affirmed by the Vatican Council (ib. p. 239). That
original jurisdiction he reserves exclusively to himself in causis
majoribus (ib. pp. 249-250). These are (i) causes relating to
elections, translations and deprivations of, and criminal pro-
secutions against, bishops, and (2) the matrimonial cases of princes
(Taunton, op. cit. s.v. "Cause").
In the Eastern Church, the early system of ecclesiastical
judicature long continued. But a sacred character was ascribed
to the emperors. They are " anointed lords like the
bishops " (Balsamon, in Cone. Ancyr. Can. xii., repre-
senting the view of the i2th and i3th centuries).
Bishops were often deposed by administrative order of the
emperor; synods being expected afterwards to confirm, or rather
accept, such order. The germ of this dealing with a major causa
may be found in the practice of the Arian emperors in the 4th
century. The cause of Ignatius and Photius was dealt with in
the 9th century by various synods; those in the East agreeing
with the emperor's view for the time being, while those in the
West acted with the pope. (The details are in Mansi, Cone, in
locis, and in Hefele, Cone, in locis, more briefly. They are sum-
marized in Landon, Manual of Councils, s.v." Constantinople,"
" Rome," and in E. S. Foulkes, Manual of Ecclesiastical History,
s.v. " Century IX. ") Since these transactions patriarchs have been
deposed by the Byzantine emperors; and the Turkish sultans
since the isth century have assumed to exercise the same
prerogative.
The spiritual courts in the East have permanently acquired
jurisdiction in the matrimonial causes of baptized persons;
the Mahommedan governments allowing to Christians a personal
law of their own. The patriarch of Constantinople is enabled
vm. 28
to exercise an extensive criminal jurisdiction over Christians
(Neale, Hist, of the Eastern Church, i. 30, 31).
The empire of Russia has in the matter of ecclesiastical juris-
diction partly developed into other forms, partly systematized
4th century and later Byzantine rules. The provincial system
does not exist; or it may be said that all Russia is one province.
An exception should be made in the case of Georgia, which is
governed by an "exarch," with three suffragans under him.
In the remainder of the empire the titles of metropolitan, save
in the case of the metropolitan of all Russia, and of archbishop,
were and are purely honorary, and their holders have merely
a diocesan jurisdiction (see Mouravieff, History of the Russian
Church, translated Blackmore, 1842, translator's notes at pp. 370,
390, 416 et seq.). So in Egypt the bishop or " pope " (afterwards
patriarch) of Alexandria was the only true metropolitan (Neale,
History of the Eastern Church, Gen. Introd. vol. i. p. in). The
metropolitan of Russia from the time of the conversion (A.D. 988)
settled at Kiev, and his province was part of the patriarchate of
Constantinople, and appeals lay to Constantinople. Many such
appeals were taken, notably in the case of Leon, bishop of Rostov
(Mouravieff, op. cit. p. 38). The metropolitical see was for a
short time transferred to Vladimir and then finally to Moscow
(Mouravieff, chs. iv., v.). After the taking of Constantinople in
1452, the Russian metropolitans were always chosen and con-
secrated in Russia, appeals ceased, and Moscow became de facto
autocephalous (Joyce, ubi sup. p. 379; Mouravieff, op. cit.
p. '126). The tsar Theodore in 1587 exercised the power of the
Byzantine emperors by deposing the metropolitan, Dionysius
Grammaticus (Mouravieff, p. 125). In 1587 the see of Moscow
was raised to patriarchal rank with the consent of Constantinople,
and the subsequent concurrence of Alexandria, Antioch and
Jerusalem (ib. c. vi.). Moscow became the final court, in theory,
as it had long been in practice. Certain religious houses, however,
had their own final tribunals and were " peculiars," exempt from
any diocesan or patriarchal jurisdiction for at least all causes
relating to Church property (ib. p. 131).
\ The subject matter of ecclesiastical jurisdiction in Russia
during the whole patriarchal period included matrimonial and
testamentary causes, inheritance and sacrilege, and many questions
concerning the Church domains and Church property, as well as
spiritual offences of clergy and laity (ib.). The bishops had
consistorial courts; the patriarchs, chanceries and consistories
(ib.). Bishops were judged in synod (see, e.g. the case of the
archbishop of Polotsk in 1622, ib. p. 179) and only lawfully
judged in synod (ib. p. 215).
Clerks and the dependants of the metropolitan (afterwards
the patriarch) appear to have been immune from secular juris-
diction, except in the case of crimes against life, from the time of
Ivan the Terrible (ib. pp. 180-181). The tsar Michael, in the
earlier i7th century, confirmed these immunities in the case of
the clergy of the patriarch's own diocese, but provided that in
country places belonging to his diocese, monasteries, churches and
lands should be judged in secular matters by the Court of the
Great Palace, theoretically held before the tsar himself (ib. p. 181).
This tsar limited the " peculiar " monasteries to three, and gave
the patriarch jurisdiction over them (ib.). The next tsar, Alexis,
however, by his code instituted a " Monastery Court," which was
a secular tribunal composed of laymen, to judge in civil suits
against spiritual persons, and in matters arising out of their
manors and properties (ib. p. 193). This court was not in opera-
tion during the time when the patriarch Nikon was also in effect
first minister; but upon his decline exercised its full jurisdiction
(ib. p. 216). Nikon was himself tried for abdicating his see, causing
disorder in the realm, oppression and violence, first before a synod
of Moscow composed of his suffragans and some Greek bishops,
and afterwards before another synod in which sat the patriarchs
of Alexandria and Antioch, the metropolitans of Servia and
Georgia, the archbishops of Sinai and Wallachia, and the metro-
politans of Nice, Amasis, Iconium, Trebizond, Varna and Scio,
besides the Russian bishops. This synod in 1667 deposed Nikon,
degraded him from holy orders, and sentenced him to perpetual
penance in a monastery (ib. pp. 2 20- 23 2) . The next tsar, Theodore,
866
ECCLESIASTICAL LAW
suppressed the secular monastery court," and directed that all
suits against spiritual persons should proceed only in the patri-
archal " court of requests " (ib. p. 264). There was, however,
a species of appel comme d'abus. Causes could be evoked to the
tsar himself, " when any partiality of the judges in any affair in
which they themselves were interested was discovered " (ib.).
The old system was swept away by Peter the Great, who
settled ecclesiastical jurisdiction substantially on its present
basis. The patriarchate was abolished and its jurisdiction
transferred by a council at St Petersburg in 1721 to a Holy
Governing Synod. The change was approved by the four
patriarchs of the East in 1723 (ib. chs. xv.-xvii.). Peter per-
manently transferred to the secular forum the testamentary
jurisdiction and that concerning inheritance, as also questions of
" sacrilege " (ib. p. 264) . As the result of a long series of legislation,
beginning with him and ending with Catherine II., all church
property of every kind was transferred to secular administration,
allowances, according to fixed scales, being made for ministers,
monks and fabrics (op. tit. translator's appendix i. p. 413 et seq.).
There remain to the spiritual courts in Russia the purely ecclesi-
astical discipline of clerks and laity and matrimonial causes.
The court of first instance is the " consistorial court " of the
bishop. This consists of a small body of ecclesiastics. Its
decisions must be confirmed by the bishop (op. cit. translator's
appendix ii. pp. 422-423). In the more important causes, as
divorce (i.e. a vinculo), it only gives a provisional decision,
which is reported by the bishop, with his own opinion, for final
judgment, to the Most Holy Governing Synod.
The governing synod is the final court of appeal. It consists
of a small number of bishops and priests nominated by the tsar,
and is assisted by a " procurator," who is a layman, who explains
to it the limits of its jurisdiction and serves as the medium of
communication between it and the autocrat and secular
authorities. It deals with the secular crimes of spiritual persons,
if of importance and if not capital (these last being reserved
for the secular forum), and with heresy and schism. It is the
only court which can try bishops or decree divorce. The tsar
formally confirms its judgments; but sometimes reduces
penalties in the exercise of the prerogative of mercy (see Moura-
vieff, op. cit. ch. xvii. translator's app. ii.).
The governing synod now sits at St Petersburg, but appoints
delegated commissions, with a portion of its jurisdiction, in
Moscow and Georgia. The latter commission is presided over
by the " exarch " (supra).
Since the War of Independence, the kingdom of Greece has
been ecclesiastically organized after the model of Russia, as one
autocephalous " province," separated from its old patriarchate
of Constantinople, with an honorary metropolitan and honorary
archbishops (Neale, op. cit. Gen. Introd. vol. i.). The Holy
Synod possesses the metropolitical jurisdiction. It sits at
Athens. The metropolitan of Athens is president, and there are
four other members appointed by the government in annual
rotation from the senior bishops. There is attached to it a govern-
ment commissioner, with no vote, but affixing his signature to
the synodical judgments (Joyce, op. cit. p. 35).
The subject matter of the jurisdiction of Hellenic courts
Christian seems to be confined to strictly spiritual discipline,
mainly in regard to the professional misconduct of the clergy.
Imprisonment may be inflicted in these last cases (ib.). All
matrimonial causes are heard by the secular tribunals (Lehr,
op. cit. sec. 587).
The bishop's consistorial court, consisting of himself and four
priests, has a limited jurisdiction in first instance. Such a court
can only suspend for seven days unless with the sanction of the
Holy Synod (Joyce, op. cit.).
The Holy Synod can only inflict temporary suspension, or
imprisonment for fifteen days, unless with the sanction of the
King's ministry. Deprivation, or imprisonment for more than
two months, requires the approval of the king (ib.). The king
or the ministry do not, however, rehear the cause by way of
appeal, but merely restrain severity of sentence (ib.).
The Church of Cyprus has been autocephalous since at any rate
the oecumenical synod of Ephesus in 431. The episcopate now
consists of an archbishop and three suffragans (Hackett, Orthodox
Church in Cyprus, 1901, ch. v. et passim). The final court is
the island synod, which consists of the archbishop, his suffragans
and four dignified priests. It has original and exclusive cog-
nizance of causes of deposition of bishops (op. cit. pp. 260, 262).
Each bishop is assisted by at least two officers with judicial
or quasi-judicial powers, the " archimandrite " who adjudicates
upon causes of revenue and the archdeacon who adjudicates on
questions between deacons (op. cit. pp. 272-273). The " exarch "
of the archbishop, who is a dignitary but not a bishop, has a seat
in the provincial synod.
In the Balkan States, the system inherited from Byzantine
and Turkish times of ecclesiastical jurisdictions prevails, except
that they are now autocephalous,and independent of the patriarch
of Constantinople. Matrimonial causes in Servia are of ecclesi-
astical cognizance (Lehr, op. cit. sect. 901).
AUTHORITIES. St Augustine, Epistles; Codex Theodosianus,
edited by Th. Momrnsen and P. M. Meyer (1905) ; Code and Novell*
of Emperor Justinian, ed. J. Gothofredus (1665) ; T. Balsamon,
" In Cone. Ancyr." in the Corpus juris canonici (1879-1881);
" Hosticnsis " Super Decretum; W. Lyndwood, Provincial (Oxford,
1679); Sir A. Fitzherbert, Natura brevium (1534); Sir T. Ridley,
View of the Civile and Ecclesiastical Law (1607) ; J. Ayliffe, Parergon
juris ecclesiastici (1726); J. Godolphin, Abridgement of the Laws
Ecclesiastical (London, 1687) ; E. Gibson, Codex juris ecclesiastici
(Oxford, 1761); D. Covarruvias, Opera omnia (Antwerp, 1638);
jean Hardouin, Concilia (1715); J. D. Mansi, Concilia (1759-1798);
E. Stillingfleet, Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction (1704); L. S. le Nam de
Tillemont, Memoires pour servir d, I'histoire ecclesiastique (i 701-1 712);
P. T. Durand de Maillane, Dictionnaire du droit canonique (1761);
Dictionnaire ecclesiastique et canonique, par une societ6 de religieux
(Paris, 1765); Z. B. van Espen, Jus ecclesiasticum universum
(Lou vain, 1720), De recur su ad Principem, observations in Con-
cilium Lateranense iv.; L. Thomassin, Vetus et nova disciplines
ecc. (1705-1706); W. Beveridge, Synodicon (Oxford, 1672);
J. A. S. da Carnota, Life of Pombal (1843) ' J- P- Migne, Dictionnaire
de droit canon. (Paris, 1844); R. Keith, History of the Scottish
Bishops (Edinburgh, 1824); P. N. Vives y Cebria, usages y demas
derechos de Cataluna (1832); C. A. Cornelius, Svenska Kyrkaus
Historia (Upsala, 1875); Mouravieff, History of the Russian Church
(trans. Blackmore, 1842); Ffoulkes, Manual of Ecclesiastical History
(1851); E. H. Landon, Manual of Councils of the Church (1893);
W. H. Hale, Precedents in Criminal Cases (London, 1847); E. B.
Pusey, Councils of the Church (Oxford, 1857); C. J. von Hefele,
Conciliengeschichte (Freiburg, 1855-1890); M. Gaudry, Traite de
la legislation des cultes (Paris, 1854); W. Stubbs, Select Charters
(Oxford, 1895); A. W. Haddan and W. Stubbs, Councils and
Ecclesiastical Documents (Oxford, 1869); A. J. Stephens, Ecclesi-
astical Statutes (1845); H. C. Rothery, Return of Cases before Dele-
gates (1864); J. W. Joyce, The Sword and the Keys (2nd ed., 1881);
Report of ^ Ecclesiastical Courts Commission (1888); P. Fournier, Les
Officialitesaumoyendge (1880); S. B. Smith, Elements of Ecclesiastical
Law (New York, 1889-1890); S. Sanguineti, Juris ecc. inst. (Rome,
1890); J. F. Stephen, History of the Criminal Law of England
(London, 1883); Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law
before Edward /. (1898); F. W. Maitland, Roman Canon Law in
the Church of England (1898); R. Owen, Canon Law (1884); Sir
R. J. Phillimore, Ecclesiastical Law (2nd ed., 1895); J. W. Brodie-
Innes, Comparative Principles of the Laws of England and Scotland
(1903) ; R. B. Merriman, Life and Letters of Thomas Cromwell (1902) ;
S. Aichner, Compendium juris ecclesiast. (8th ed., Brixen, 1905,
especially in regard to Austro-Hungarian Empire); J. Hackett,
History of the Orthodox Church in Cyprus (1901); Tauber, Manuale
juris canonici (1906); E. L. Taunton, Law of the Church (London,
1006) ; Report of Royal Commission on Ecclesiastical Discipline
(f 9 o6). (W. G. F. P.)
ECCLESIASTICAL LAW, in its broadest sense, the sum of
the authoritative rules governing the Christian Church, whether
in its internal polity or in its relations with the secular power.
Since there are various churches, widely differing alike in their
principles and practice, it follows that a like difference exists
in their ecclesiastical law, which is the outcome of their corporate
consciousness as modified by their several relations to the
secular authority. At the outset a distinction must be made
between churches which are " established " and those that are
" free." The ecclesiastical laws of the latter are, like the rules
of a private society or club, the concern of the members of the
church only, and come under the purview of the state only in
so far as they come in conflict with the secular law (e.g. polygamy
among the Mormons, or violation of the trust-deeds under which
ECCLESIASTICAL LAW
867
the property of a church is held). In the case of " established "
Churches, on the other hand, whatever the varying principle
on which the system is based, or the difference in its practical
application, the essential conditions are that the ecclesiastical
law is also the law of the land, the decisions of the church courts
being enforced by the civil power. This holds good both of the
Roman Catholic Church, wherever this is recognized as the
" state religion," of the Oriental Churches, whether closely
identified with the state itself (as in Russia), or endowed with
powers over particular nationalities within the state (as in the
Ottoman empire), and of the various Protestant Churches
established in Great Britain and on the continent of Europe.
Writers on the theory of ecclesiastical law, moreover, draw
a fundamental distinction between that of the Church of Rome
and that of the Protestant national or territorial Churches.
This distinction is due to the claim of the Roman Catholic Church
to be the only Church, her laws being thus of universal obligation;
whereas the laws of the various established Protestant Churches
are valid at least so far as legal obligation is concerned only
within the limits of the countries in which they are established.
The practical effects of this distinction have been, and still are,
of enormous importance. The Roman Catholic Church, even
when recognized as the state religion, is nowhere " established "
in the sense of being identified with the state, but is rather an
imperium in imperio which negotiates on equal terms with the
state, the results being embodied in concordats (q.v.) between
the state and the pope as head of the Church. The concordats
are of the nature of truces in the perennial conflict between the
spiritual and secular powers, and imply in principle no surrender
of the claims of the one to those of the other. Where the Roman
Catholic Church is not recognized as a state religion, as in the
United States or in the British Islands, she is in the position of
a " free Church," her jurisdiction is only in foro conscientiae,
and her ecclesiastical laws have no validity from the point of
view of the state. On the other hand, the root principle of the
ecclesiastical law of the established Protestant Churches is the
rejection of alien jurisdiction and the assertion of the supremacy
of the state. The theory underlying this may vary. The
sovereign may be regarded, as in the case of the Russian emperor
or of the English kings from the Reformation to the Revolution,
as the vicar of God in all causes spiritual as well as temporal
within his realm. As the first fervent belief in the divine right
of kings faded, however, a new basis had to be discovered for
a relation between the spiritual and temporal powers against
which Rome had never ceased to protest. This was found in
the so-called " collegial " theory of Church government (Kollegial-
system), which assumed a sort of tacit concordat between the state
and the religious community, by which the latter vests in the
former the right to exercise a certain part of the jus in sacra
properly inherent in the Church (see PUFENDORF, SAMUEL).
This had great and lasting effects on the^development of the
theory of Protestant ecclesiastical law on the continent of
Europe. In England, on the other hand, owing to the peculiar
character of the Reformation there and of the Church that was
its outcome, no theory of the ecclesiastical law is conceivable
that would be satisfactory at once to lawyers and to all schools
of opinion within the Church. This has been abundantly proved
by the attitude of increasing opposition assumed by the clergy,
under the influence of the Tractarian movement, towards the
civil power in matters ecclesiastical, an attitude impossible to
justify on any accepted theory of the Establishment (see below).
Protestant ecclesiastical law, then, is distinguished from that
of the Roman Catholic Church (i) by being more limited in its
scope, (2) by having for its authoritative source, not the Church
only or even mainly, but the Church in more or less complete
union with or subordination to the State, the latter being con-
sidered, equally with the Church, as an organ of the will of God.
The ecclesiastical law of the Church of Rome, on the other hand,
whatever its origin, is now valid only in so far as it has the
sanction of the authority of the Holy See. And here it must
be noted that the " canon law " is not identical with the " ecclesi-
astical law " of the Roman Catholic Church. By the canon law
is meant, substantially, the contents of the Corpus juris canonici,
which have been largely superseded or added to by, e.g. the
canons of the council of Trent and the Vatican decrees. The
long projected codification of the whole of the ecclesiastical
law of the Church of Rome, a work of gigantic labour, was not
taken in hand until the pontificate of Pius X. (See also CANON
LAW and ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION.)
The ecclesiastical law of England is in complete dependence
upon the authority of the state. The Church of England cannot
be said, from a legal point of view, to have a corporate existence
or even a representative assembly. The Convocation of York and
the Convocation of Canterbury are provincial assemblies possess-
ing no legislative or judicial authority; even such purely
ecclesiastical questions as may be formally commended to their
attention by " letters of business " from the crown can only be
finally settled by act of parliament. The ecclesiastical courts are
for the most part officered by laymen, whose subordination to
the archbishops and bishops is purely formal, and the final court
of appeal is the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. In
like manner changes in the ecclesiastical law are made directly
by parliament in the ordinary course of legislation, and in point
of fact a veiy large portion of the existing ecclesiastical law
consists of acts of parliament.
The sources of the ecclesiastical law of England are thus
described by Dr. Richard Burn (The Ecclesiastical Law, Qth ed.,
1842): "The ecclesiastical law of England is compounded
of these four main ingredients the civil law, the canon law, the
common law, and the statute law. And from these, digested in
their proper rank and subordination, to draw out one uniform
law of the church is the purport of this book. When these laws
do interfere and cross each other, the order of preference is this:
'The civil law submitteth to the canon law; both of these to
the common law; and all three to the statute law. So that
from any one or more of these, without all of them together,
or from all of them together without attending to their com-
parative obligation, it is not possible to exhibit any distinct
prospect of the English ecclesiastical constitution.' Under the
head of statute law Burn includes ' the Thirty-nine Articles of
Religion, agreed upon in Convocation in the year 1562; and hi
like manner the Rubric of the Book of Common Prayer, which,
being both of them established by Acts of Parliament, are to be
esteemed as part of the statute law.' "
The first principle of the ecclesiastical law hi England is the
assertion of the supremacy of the crown, which in the present
state of the constitution means the same thing as the supremacy
of parliament. This principle has been maintained ever since
the Reformation. Before the Reformation the ecclesiastical
supremacy of the pope was recognized, with certain limitations,
in England, and the Church itself had some pretensions to
ecclesiastical freedom. The freedom of the Church is, hi fact,
one of the standing provisions of those charters on which the
English constitution was based. The first provision of Magna
Carta is quod ecclesia Anglicana libera sit. By the various enact-
ments of the period of the Reformation the whole constitutional
position of the Church, not merely with reference to the pope
but with reference to the state, was definitely fixed. The legis-
lative power of convocation was held to extend to the clergy
only, and even to that extent required the sanction and assent
of the crown. The common law courts controlled the jurisdiction
of the ecclesiastical courts, claiming to have " the exposition of
such statutes or acts of parliament as concern either the extent
of the jurisdiction of these courts or the matters depending
before them. And therefore if these courts either refuse to allow
these acts of parliament, or expound them in any other sense
than is truly and properly the exposition of them, the king's
great courts of common law may prohibit and control them."
The design of constructing a code of ecclesiastical laws was
entertained during the period of the Reformation, but never
carried into effect. It is alluded to in various statutes of the
reign of Henry VIII., who obtained power to appoint a com-
mission to examine the old ecclesiastical laws, with a view of
deciding which ought to be kept and which ought to be abolished;
868
ECCLESIASTICUS
and in the meantime it was enacted that " such canons,
institutions, ordinances, synodal or provincial or other ecclesi-
astical laws or jurisdictions spiritual as be yet accustomed and
used here in the Church of England, which necessarily and con-
veniently are requisite to be put in ure and execution for the
time, not being repugnant, contrarient, or derogatory to the laws
or statutes of the realm, nor to the prerogatives of the royal
crown of the same, or any of them, shall be occupied, exercised,
and put in ure for the time with this realm " (35 Henry VIII.
c. 16, 25 c. 19, 27 c. 8).
The work was actually undertaken and finished in the reign
of Edward VI. by a sub-committee of eight persons, under the
name of the Reformatio legum ecclesiasticarum, which, however,
never obtained the royal assent. Although the powers of the
25 Henry VIII. c. i were revived by the i Elizabeth c. i, the
scheme was never executed, and the ecclesiastical laws remained
on the footing assigned to them in that statute so much of the
old ecclesiastical laws might be used as had been actually in use,
and was not repugnant to the laws of the realm.
The statement is, indeed, made by Sir R. Phillimore (Ecclesi-
astical Law, 2nd ed., 1895) that the " Church of England has at
all times, before and since the Reformation, claimed the right
of an independent Church in an independent kingdom, to be
governed by the laws which she has deemed it expedient to
adopt." This position can only be accepted if it is confined, as the
authorities cited for it are confined, to the resistance of inter-
ference from abroad. If it mean that the Church, as distinguished
from the kingdom, has claimed to be governed by laws of her
own making, all that can be said is that the claim has been
singularly unsuccessful. From the time of the Reformation no
change has been made in the law of the Church which has not
been made by the king and parliament, sometimes indirectly, as
by confirming the resolutions of convocation, but for the most
part by statute. The list of statutes cited in Sir R. Phillimore's
Ecclesiastical Law fills eleven pages. It is only by a kind of legal
fiction akin to the " collegial " theory mentioned above, that the
Church can be said to have deemed it expedient to adopt these
laws.
The terms on which the Church Establishment of Ireland
wasabolished, by the Irish Council Act of 1869, may be mentioned.
By sect. 20 the present ecclesiastical law was made binding on
the members for the time being of the Church, " as if they had
mutually contracted and agreed to abide by and observe the
same "; and by section 21 it was enacted that the ecclesiastical
courts should cease after the ist of January 1871, and that the
ecclesiastical laws of Ireland, except so far as relates to matri-
monial causes and matters, should cease to exist as law. (See also
ENGLAND, CHURCH OF; ESTABLISHMENT; &c.)
AUTHORITIES. The number of works on ecclesiastical law is very
great, and it must suffice here to mention a few of the more conspicu-
ous modern ones: Ferdinand Walter, Lehrbuch des Kirchenrechts
otter christlichen Konfessionen (l4th ed., Bonn, 1871); G. Phillips,
Kirchenrecht, Bde. i.-vii. (Regensburg, 1845-1872) incomplete; the
text-book by Cardinal Hergenrcther (q.v.); P. Hinschius, Kirchen-
recht der Katholiken und Protestanten in DeutscUand, 6 Bde. (Berlin,
1869 sqq.), only the Catholic part, a masterly and detailed survey
of the ecclesiastical law, finished : Sir Robert Phillimore, Eccl. Law
of the Church of England (2nd ed., edited by Sir Walter Phillimore,
2 vols., London, 1895). For further references see CANON LAW, and
the article " Kirchenrecht " in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie
(ed. Leipzig, 1901).
ECCLESIASTICUS (abbreviated to Ecclus.}, the alternative
title given in the English Bible to the apocryphal book otherwise
called " The Wisdom of Jesus the son of Sirach." The Latin
word ecclesiasticus is, properly speaking, not a name, but an
epithet meaning " churchly," so that it would serve as a designa-
tion of any book which was read in church or received ecclesi-
astical sanction, but in practice Ecclesiasticus has become a
by-name for the Wisdom of Sirach. The true name of the book
appears in the authorities in a variety of forms, the variation
affecting both the author's name and the description of his book.
The writer's full name is given in 1. 27 (Heb. text) as " Simeon the
son of Jeshua (i.e. Jesus) the son of Eleazar the son of Sira.
In the Greek text this name appears as " Jesus son of Sirach
Eleazar " (probably a corruption of the Hebrew reading), and the
epithet " of Jerusalem " is added, the translator himself being
resident in Egypt. The whole name is shortened sometimes to
' Son of Sira," Ben Sira in Hebrew, Bar Sira in Aramaic, and
sometimes (as in the title prefixed in the Greek cod. B) to Sirach.
The work is variously described as the Words (Heb. text), the
Book (Talmud), the Proverbs (Jerome), or the Wisdom of the son
of Sira (or Sirach).
Of the date of the book we have only one certain indication.
[t was translated by a person who says that he " came into Egypt
in the 38th year of Euergetes the king " (Ptolemy VII.), i.e. in
132 B.C., and that he executed the work some time later. The
translator believed that the writer of the original was his own
grandfather (or ancestor, irainros). It is therefore reasonable to
suppose that the book was composed not later than the first half
of the 2nd century B.C., or (if we give the looser meaning to irdinros)
even before the beginning of the century. Arguments for a pre-
Maccabean date may be derived (a) from the fact that the book
contains apparently no reference to the Maccabean struggles,
(b) from the eulogy of the priestly house of Zadok which fell into
disrepute during these wars for independence.
In the Jewish Church Ecclesiasticus hovered on the border of
the canon; in the Christian Church it crossed and recrossed the
border. The book contains much which attracted and also
much which repelled Jewish feeling, and it appears that it was
necessary to pronounce against its canonicity. In the Talmud
(Sanhedrin 100 b) Rabbi Joseph says that it is forbidden to read
(i.e. in the synagogue) the book of ben Sira, and further that
if our masters had not hidden the book (i.e. declared it un-
canonical), we might interpret the good things which are in it "
(Schechter, /. Q. Review, iii. 691-692). In the Christian Church it
was largely used by Clement of Alexandria (c. A.D. 200) and by
St Augustine. The lists of the Hebrew canon, however, given by
Melito (c. A.D. 180) and by Origen (c. A.D. 230) rightly exclude
Ecclesiasticus, and Jerome(c. A.D. 390-400) writes :" Let the Church
read these two volumes (Wisdom of Solomon and Ecclesiasticus)
for the instruction of the people, not for establishing the authority
of the dogmas of the Church " (Praefatio in libros Salomonis).
In the chief MS. of the Septuagint, cod. B, Ecclesiasticus comes
between Wisdom and Esther, no distinction being drawn between
canonical and uncanonical. In the Vulgate it immediately
precedes Isaiah. The council of Trent declared this book and
the rest of the books reckoned in the Thirty-nine Articles as
apocryphal to be canonical.
The text of the book raises intricate problems which are still
far from solution. The original Hebrew (rediscovered in frag-
ments and published between 1896 and 1900) has come down
to us in a mutilated and corrupt form. The beginning as far as
iii. 7 is lost. There is a gap from xvi. 26 to xxx. n. There are
marginal readings which show that two different recensions
existed once in Hebrew. The Greek version exists in two forms
(a) that preserved in cod. B and in the other uncial MSS., (b)
that preserved in the cursive codex 248 (Holmes and Parsons).
The former has a somewhat briefer text, the latter agrees more
closely with the Hebrew text. The majority of Greek cursives
agree generally with the Latin Vulgate, and offer the fuller text
in a corrupt form. The Syriac (Peshitta) version is paraphrastic,
but on the whole it follows the Hebrew text. Owing to the
mutilation of the Hebrew by the accidents of time the Greek
version retains its place as the chief authority for the text, and
references by chapter and verse are usually made to it.
Bickell and D. S. Margoliouth have supposed that the Hebrew
text preservedon the fragments is not original, but a retranslation
from the Greek or the Syriac or both. This view has not com-
mended itself to the majority of scholars, but there is at least a
residuum of truth in it. The Hebrew text, as we have it, has a
history of progressive corruption behind it, and its readings
can often be emended from the Septuagint, e.g. xxxvii. 1 1 (read
hy KTDI for the meaningless SK TIDI). The Hebrew marginal
readings occasionally seem to be translations from the Greek
or Syriac, e.g. xxxviii. 4 (DW KIS for (Knatv Qapnana) . More
frequently, however, strange readings of the Greek and Syriac
ECGBERT
869
are to be explained as corruptions of our present Hebrew.
Substantially our Hebrew must be pronounced original.
The restoration of a satisfactory text is beyond our hopes.
Even before the Christian era the book existed in two recensions,
for we cannot doubt, after reading the Greek translator's preface,
that the translator amplified and paraphrased the text before
him. It is probable that at least one considerable omission must
be laid to his charge, for the hymn preserved in the Hebrew
text after ch. li. 1 2 is almost certainly original. Ancient translators
allowed themselves much liberty in their work, and Ecclesiasticus
possessed no reputation for canonicity in the 2nd century B.C.
to serve as a protection for its text. Much, however, may be
done towards improving two of the recensions which now lie
before us. The incomplete Hebrew text exists in four different
MSS., and the study of the peculiarities of these had already
proved fruitful. The Syriac text, made without doubt from the
Hebrew, though often paraphrastic is often suggestive. The
Greek translation, made within a century or half-century of the
writing of the book, must possess great value for the criticism
of the Hebrew text. The work of restoring true Hebrew readings
may proceed with more confidence now that we have considerable
portions of the Hebrew text to serve as a model. For the
restoration of the Greek text we have, besides many Greek MSS.,
uncial and cursive, the old Latin, the Syro-Hexaplar, the
Armenian, Sahidic and Ethiopic versions, as well as a consider-
able number of quotations in the Greek and Latin Fathers. Each
of the two recensions of the Greek must, however, be separately
studied, before any restoration of the original Greek text can be
attempted.
The uncertainty of the text has affected both English versions
unfavourably. The Authorized Version, following the corrupt
cursives, is often wrong. The Revised Version, on the other
hand, in following the uncial MSS. sometimes departs from the
Hebrew, while the Authorized Version with the cursives agrees
with it. Thus the Revised Version (with codd. *, A, B, C) omits
the whole of iii. 19, which the Authorized Version retains, but for
the clause, " Mysteriesarerevealeduntothemeek,"theAuthorized
Version has the support of the Hebrew, Syriac and cod. 248.
Sometimes both versions go astray in places in which the Hebrew
text recommends itself as original by its vigour; e.g. in vii. 26,
where the Hebrew is,
Hast thou a wife ? abominate her not.
Hast thou a hated wife ? trust not in her.
Again in ch. xxxviii. the Hebrew text in at least two interesting
passages shows its superiority over the text which underlies both
English versions.
Hebrew. Revised Version (similarly
Authorized Version).
ver. i. Acquaint thyself with a Honour a physician according
physician before ihou have to thy need of him with the
need of him. honours due unto him.
ver. 15. He that sinneth against He that sinneth before his
his Maker will behave Maker, let him fall into the hands
himself proudly against a of the physician,
physician.
In the second instance, while the Hebrew says that the man who
rebels against his Heavenly Benefactor will a fortiori rebel
against & human benefactor, the Greek text gives a cynical
turn to the verse, " Let the man who rebels against his true
benefactor be punished through the tender mercies of a quack."
The Hebrew text is probably superior also in xliv. i, the opening
words of the eulogy of the Fathers: " Let me now praise favoured
men," i.e. men in whom God's grace was shown. The Hebrew
phrase is " men of grace," as in v. 10. The Greek text of . i,
" famous men," seems to be nothing but a loose paraphrase,
suggested by v. 2, "The Lord manifested in them great
glory."
In character and contents Ecclesiasticus resembles the book of
Proverbs. It consists mainly of maxims which may be described
in turn as moral, utilitarian and secular. Occasionally the
author attacks prevalent religious opinions, e.g. the denial of
free-will (xv. 11-20), or the assertion of God's indifference towards
men's actions (xxxv. 12-19). Occasionally, again, Ben Sira
touches the highest themes, and speaks of the nature of God:
"He is All" (xliii. 27); "He is One from everlasting" (xlii. 21,
Heb. text) ; " The mercy of the Lord is upon all flesh " (xviii. 13).
Though the book is imitative and secondary in character it
contains several passages of force and beauty, e.g. ch. ii. (how to
fear the Lord); xv. 11-20 (on free-will); xxiv. 1-22 (the song of
wisdom); xlii. 15-25 (praise of the works of the Lord); xliv.
1-15 (the well-known praise of famous men). Many detached
sayings scattered throughout the book show a depth of insight,
or a practical shrewdness, or again a power of concise speech,
which stamps them on the memory. A few examples out of
many may be cited. " Call no man blessed before his death "
(xi. 28); "He that toucheth pitch shall be defiled" (xiii. i);
" He hath not given any man licence to sin " (xv. 20); " Man
cherisheth anger against man; and doth he seek healing from
the Lord ? " (xxviii. 3) ; " Mercy is seasonable ... as clouds of
rain " (xxxv. 20); " All things are double one against another:
and he hath made nothing imperfect " (xlii. 24, the motto of
Butler's Analogy); " Work your work before the time cometh,
and in his time he will give you your reward " (li. 30). In spite,
however, of the words just quoted it cannot be said that Ben
Sira preaches a hopeful religion. Though he prays, " Renew
thy signs, and repeat thy wonders . . . Fill Sion with thy
majesty and thy Temple with thy glory" (xxxvi. 6, 14 [19],
Heb. text), he does not look for a Messiah. Of the resurrection
of the dead or of the immortality of the soul there is no word,
not even in xli. 1-4, where the author exhorts men not to fear
death. Like the Psalmist (Ps. Ixxxviii. 10, n) he asks, " Who
shall give praise to the Most High in the grave ? " In his
maxims of life he shows a somewhat frigid and narrow mind.
He is a pessimist as regards women; " From a woman was the
beginning of sin; and because of her we all die " (xxv. 24). He
does not believe in home-spun wisdom; " How shall he become
wise that holdeth the plough ? " (xxxviii. 25). Artificers are not
expected to pray like the wise man; " In the handywork of
their craft is their prayer " (. 34). Merchants are expected
to cheat; " Sin will thrust itself in between buying and selling "
(xxvii. 2).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The literature of Ecclesiaticus has grown very
considerably since the discovery of the first Hebrew fragment in
1896. A useful summary of it is found at the end of Israel Levi's
article, " Sirach," in the Jewish Encyclopedia. Eberhard Nestle's
article in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible is important for its
bibliographical information as well as in other respects. A complete
edition of the Hebrew fragments in collotype facsimile was pub-
lished jointly by the Oxford and Cambridge Presses in 1901.
J. H. A. Hart's edition of cod. 248 throws much light on some of
the problems of this book. It contains a fresh collation of all the chief
authorities (Heb., Syr., Syr.-Hex., Lat. and Gr.) for the text, together
with a complete textual commentary.
The account given in the Synopsis attributed to Athanasius
(Migne, P.O., iv. 375-384) has an interest of its own. The beginning
is given in the Authorized Version as " A prologue made by an
uncertain author." (W. E. B.)
ECGBERT, or ECGBERHT (d. 839), king of the West Saxons,
succeeded to the throne in 802 on the death of Beorhtric. It
is said that at an earlier period in his life he had been driven out
for three years by Offa and Beorhtric. The accession of Ecgbert
seems to have brought about an invasion by jEthelmund, earl
of the Hwicce, who was defeated by Weoxtan, earl of Wiltshire.
In 815 Ecgbert ravaged the whole of the territories of the West
Welsh, which probably at this time did not include much more
than Cornwall. The next important occurrence in the reign
was the defeat of Beornwulf of Mercia at a place called Ellandun
in 825. After this victory Kent, Surrey, Sussex and Essex sub-
mitted to Wessex; while the East Anglians, who slew Beornwulf
shortly afterwards, acknowledged Ecgbert as overlord. In
829 the king conquered Mercia, and Northumbria accepted
him as overlord. In 830 he led a successful expedition against
the Welsh. In 836 he was defeated by the Danes, but in 838
he won a battle against them and their allies the West Welsh
at Kingston Down in Cornwall. Ecgbert died in 839, after a
reign of thirty-seven years, and was succeeded by his son ^Ethel-
wulf. A somewhat difficult question has arisen as to the
parentage of Ecgbert. Under the year 825 the Chronicle states
870
ECGBERT ECHEGARAY
that in his eastern conquests Ecgbert recovered what had been
the rightful property of his kin. The father of Ecgbert was
called Ealhmund, and we find an Ealhmund, king in Kent,
mentioned in a charter dated 784, who is identified with Ecgbert's
father in a late addition to the Chronicle under the date 784.
It is possible, however, that the Chronicle in 825 refers to some
claim through Ine of Wessex from whose brother Ingeld Ecgbert
was descended.
See Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, edited by Earle and Plummer (Oxford,
1899); W. de G. Birch, Cartularium Saxpnicum (London, 1885-
1833). Also a paper by Sir H. H. Howorth in Numismatic Chronicle,
third series, vol. xx. pp. 66-87 (reprinted separately, London, 1900),
where attention is called to the peculiar dating of several of Ecgbert's
charters, and the view is put forward that he remained abroad con-
siderably later than the date given by the Chronicle for his accession.
On the other hand a charter in Birch, Cart. Sax., purporting to date
from 799, contains the curious statement that peace was made
between Ccenwulf and Ecgbert in that year.
ECGBERT, or ECGBERHT (d. 766), archbishop of York, was
made bishop of that see in 734 by Ceolwulf, king of Northumbria,
succeeding Wilfrid II. on the latter's resignation. The pall was
sent him in 735 and he became the first northern archbishop
after Paulinus. He was the brother of Eadberht, who ruled
Northumbria 737-758. He was the recipient of the famous
letter of Bede, dealing with the evils arising from spurious
monasteries. Ecgberht himself wrote a Dialogus Ecclesiasticae
Instilulionis, a Penitentiale and a Pontificate. He was a corre-
spondent of St Boniface, who asks him to support his censure
of /Ethclbald of Mercia.
See Bede, Continuatio, sub. ann. 732, 735, 766, and Epistola ad
Ecgberctum (Plummer, Oxford, 1896) : Chronicle, sub ann. 734, 735,
738, 766 (Earle and Plummer, Oxford, 1899) ; Haddan and Stubbs,
Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents (Oxford, 1869-1878), iii.
403-431 ; Proceedings of Surlees Society (Durham, 1853).
ECG FRITH (d. 685), king of Northumbria, succeeded his
father Oswio in 671. He was married to jEthelthryth, daughter
of Anna of East Anglia, who, however, took the veil shortly after
Ecgfrith's accession, a step which possibly led to his long quarrel
with Wilfrid archbishop of York. Ecgfrith married a second wife,
Eormenburg, before 678, the year in which he expelled Wilfrid
from his kingdom. Early in his reign he defeated the Picts who
had risen in revolt. Between 671 and 675 Ecgfrith defeated
Wulfhere of Mercia and seized Lindsey. In 679, however, he
was defeated by ^Ethelred of Mercia, who had married his sister
Osthryth, on the river Trent. Ecgfrith's brother jElfwine was
killed in the battle, and the province of Lindsey was given up
when peace was restored at the intervention of Theodore of
Canterbury. In 684 Ecgfrith sent an expedition to Ireland
under his general Berht, which seems to have been unsuccessful.
In 685, against the advice of Cuthbert, he led a force against
the Picts under his cousin Burde, son of Bile, was lured by
a feigned flight into their mountain fastnesses, and slain at
Nechtanesmere (now Dunnichen) in Forfarshire. Bede dates
the beginning of the decline of Northumbria from his death.
He was succeeded by his brother Aldfrith.
See Eddius, Vita Wilfridi (Raine, Historians of Church of York,
Rolls, Series, London, 1879-1894), 19, 20, 24, 34, 39, 44; Bede,Hist.
Eccl. (Plummer, Oxford, 1896), iii. 24, iv. 5, 12, 13, 18, 19, 21, 26.
ECGONINE, in chemistry, C 9 Hi 6 N0 3 , a cycloheptane derivative
with a nitrogen bridge. It is obtained by hydrolysing cocaine
with acids or alkalis, and crystallizes with one molecule of water,
the crystals melting at 198 to 199 C. It is laevo-rotatory, and on
warming with alkalis gives iso-ecgonine, which is dextro-rotatory.
It is a tertiary base, and has also the properties of an acid and
an alcohol. When boiled with caustic baryta it gives methyl-
amine. It is the carboxylic acid corresponding to tropine, for it
yields the same products on oxidation, and by treatment with
phosphorus pentachloride is converted into anhydroecgonine,
CiHiiNOi, which, when heated to 280 C. with hydrochloric
acid, splits out carbon dioxide and yields tropidine, C 8 Hi 3 N.
Anhydroecgonine melts at 235 C., and has an acid and a basic
character. It is an unsaturated compound, and on oxidation
with potassium permanganate gives succinic acid. It is ap-
parently a tropidine monocarboxylic acid, for on exhaustive
methylation it yields cycloheptatriene-i-3-5-carboxylic acid-?.
JN'CHa CH-OH
Hz CH CH 2
Ecgonine
CHj CH CHCOOH
N'CH 3 CH a
CH.,- CH CH 2
Hydroecgonidine
Sodium in amyl alcohol solution reduces it to hydroecgonidine
C 9 Hi 6 N02, while moderate oxidation by potassium perman-
ganate converts it into norecgonine. The presence of the hepta-
methylene ring in these compounds is shown by the production
of suberone by the exhaustive methylation, &c., of hydroecgoni-
dine ethyl ester (see POLYMETHYLENES and TROPINE). The
above compounds may be represented as:
CHz-CH CHCOOH CH 2 CH CH'COOH
iN'CH 3 CH
Hz CH CH
Anhydroecgonine
ECHEGARAY Y EIZAGUIRRE, JOSfi (1833- ), Spanish
mathematician, statesman and dramatist, was born at Madrid
in March 1833, and was educated at the grammar school of
Murcia, whence he proceeded to the Escuela de Caminos at the
capital. His exemplary diligence and unusual mathematical
capacity were soon noticed. In 1853 he passed out at the head
of the list of engineers, and, after a brief practical experience at
Almeria and Granada, was appointed professor of pure and
applied mathematics in the school where he had lately been a
pupil. His Problemas de geometric, analitica (1865) and Teortas
modernas de la fisica unidad de las fuerzas materiales (1867) are
said to be esteemed by competent judges. He became a member
of the Society of Political Economy, helped to found La Revista,
and took a prominent part in propagating Free Trade doctrines
in the press and on the platform. He was clearly marked out
for office, and when the popular movement of 1868 overthrew the
monarchy, he resigned his post for a place in the revolutionary
cabinet. Between 1867 and 1874 he acted as minister of educa-
tion and of finance; upon the restoration of the Bourbon
dynasty he withdrew from politics, and won a new reputation as
a dramatist.
As early as 1867 he wrote La Hija natural, which was rejected,
and remained unknown till 1877, when it appeared with the title
of Para tal culpa tal pena. Another play, La tfltima Noche, also
written in 1867, was produced in 1875; but in the latter year
Echegaray was already accepted as the successful author of El
Libra talonario, played at the Teatro de Apolo on the i8th of
February 1874, under the transparent pseudonym of Jorge
Hayaseca. Later in the same year Echegaray won a popular
triumph with La Esposa del vengador, in which the good and bad
qualities the clever stagecraft and unbridled extravagance
of his later work are clearly noticeable. From 1874 onwards
he wrote, with varying success, a prodigious number of plays.
Among the most favourable specimens of his talent may be
mentioned En el purto de la espada (1875); O locura 6 santidad
(1877), which has been translated into Swedish and Italian;
En el seno de la muerle (1879), of which there exists an admirable
German version by Fastenrath. El gran Galeoto (1881), perhaps
the best of Echegaray's plays in conception and execution, has
been translated into several languages, and still holds the stage.
The humorous proverb, I Piensa mal y acerlaras ? exemplifies the
author's limitations, but the attempt is interesting as an instance
of ambitious versatility. His susceptibility to new ideas is
illustrated in such pieces as Mariana (1892), Mancha que limpia
(1895), El Hijo de Don Juan (1892), and El Loco Dies (1900):
these indicate a close study of Ibsen, and El Loco Dios more
especially might be taken for an unintentional parody of
Ibsen's symbolism.
Echegaray succeeded to the literary inheritance of L6pez de
Ayala and of Tamayo y Baus; and though he possesses neither
the poetic imagination of the first nor the instinctive tact of the
second, it is impossible to deny that he has reached a large-
audience than either. Not merely in Spain, but in every land
where Spanish is spoken, and in cities as remote from Madrid as
Munich and Stockholm, he has met with an appreciation in-
comparably beyond that accorded to any other Spanish dramatist
of recent years. But it would be more than usually rash to
prophesy that this exceptional popularity will endure. There
have been signs of a reaction in Spain itself, and Echegaray's
return to politics in 1905 was significant enough. He applies
ECHELON ECHINODERMA
871
his mathematics to the drama; no writer excels him in artful
construction, in the arrangement of dramatic scenes, in mere
theatrical technique, in the focusing of attention on his chief
personages. These are valuable gifts in their way, andEchegaray
has, moreover, a powerful, gloomy imagination, which is moment-
arily impressive. In the drawing of character, in the invention
of felicitous phrase, in the contrivance of verbal music, he is
deficient. He alternates between the use of verse and prose;
and his hesitancy in choosing a medium of expression is amply
justified, for the writer's prose is not more distinguished than his
verse. These serious shortcomings may explain the diminution
of his vogue in Spain; they will certainly tell against him in the
estimate of posterity. (J. F.-K.)
6CHELON (Fr. from echelle, ladder), in military tactics, a
formation of troops in which each body of troops is retired on,
but not behind, the flank of the next in front, the position of
the whole thus resembling the steps of a staircase. To form
echelon from line, the parts of the line move off, each direct to
its front, in succession, so that when the formation is completed
the rightmost body, for example, is farthest advanced, the one
originally next on its left is to the left rear, a third is to the left
rear of the second, and so on. The word is also used more loosely
to express successive lines, irrespective of distances and relative
positions, e.g. the " second echelon of ammunition supply,"
which is fully a day's march behind the first.
ECHIDNA, or PORCUPINE ANT-EATER (Echidna acideata),
one of the few species of Monotremata, the lowest subclass of
Mammalia, forming the family Echidnidae. It is a native of
Australia, where it chiefly abounds in New South Wales, inhabit-
ing rocky and mountainous districts, where it burrows among the
loose sand, or hides itself in crevices of rocks. In size and
appearance it bears a considerable resemblance to the hedgehog,
its upper surface being covered over with strong spines directed
backwards, and on the back inwards, so as to cross each other
on the middle line. The spines in the neighbourhood of the tail
form a tuft sufficient to hide that almost rudimentary organ.
The head is produced into a long tubular snout, covered with
skin for the greater part of its length. The opening of the mouth
is small, and from it the echidna puts forth its long slender
tongue, lubricated with a viscous secretion, by means of which it
seizes the ants and other insects on which it feeds. It has no
teeth. Its legs are short and strong, and form, with its broad
feet and large solid nails, powerful burrowing organs. In
common with the other monotremes, the male echidna has its
heel provided with a sharp hollow spur, connected with a secret-
ing gland, and with muscles capable of pressing the secretion from
the gland into the spur. It is a nocturnal or crepuscular animal,
generally sleeping during the day, but showing considerable
activity by night. When attacked it seeks to escape either by
rolling itself into a ball, its erect spines proving a formidable
barrier to its capture, or by burrowing into the sand, which its
powerful limbs enable it to do with great celerity. " The only
mode of carrying the creature," writes G. Bennett (Gatherings
of a Naturalist in Australasia), "is by one of the hind legs; its
powerful resistance and the sharpness of the spines will soon
oblige the captor, attempting to seize it by any other part of the
body, to relinquish his hold." In a younger stage of their
development, however, the young are carried in a temporary
abdominal pouch, to which they are transferred after hatching,
and into which open the mammary glands. The echidnas are
exceedingly restless in confinement, and constantly endeavour by
burrowing to effect their escape. From the quantity of sand and
mud always found in the alimentary canal of these animals,
it is supposed that these ingredients must be necessary to the
proper digestion of their insect food.
There are two varieties of this species, the Port Moresby
echidna and the hairy echidna. The last-mentioned is found in
south-eastern New Guinea, Australia and Tasmania. In all the
spines are mixed with hair; in the Tasmanian race they are
nearly hidden by the long harsh fur. Of the three-clawed
echidnas (Proechidna) confined to New Guinea there are two
species, Bruijn's echidna (P. bruijnii), discovered in 1877 in the
mountains on the north-east coast at an elevation of 3500 ft., and
the black-spined echidna (P. nigroaculeata) of larger size the
type specimen measuring 31 in., as against 24 in. with shorter
claws.
ECHINODERMA. 1 The kxt"68epfia, or "urchin-skinned"
animals, have long been a favourite subject of study with the
collectors of sea-animals or of fossils, since the lime deposited in
their skins forms hard tests or shells readily preserved in the
cabinet. These were described during the i8th and first half of
the i Qth centuries by many eminent naturalists, such as J. T.
Klein, J. H. Linck, C. Linnaeus, N. G. Leske, J. S. Miller, L. v.
Buch, E. Desor and L. Agassiz; but it was the researches of
Johannes Miiller (1840-1850) that formed the groundwork of
scientific conceptions of the group, proving it one of the great
phyla of the animal kingdom. The anatomists and embryo-
logists of the next quarter of a century confirmed rather than
expanded the views of Miiller. Thus, about 1875, the distinction
of Echinoderms from such radiate animals as jelly-fish and
corals (see COELENTERA), by their possession of a body-cavity
(" coelom ") distinct from the gut, was fully realized; while
their severance from the worms (especially Gephyrea), with
which some Echinoderms were long confused, had been necessi-
tated by the recognition in all of a radial symmetry, impressed on
the original bilateral symmetry of the larva through the growth
of a special division of the coelom, known as the " hydrocoel,"
and giving rise to a set of water-bearing canals the water-
vascular or ambulacral system. There was also sufficient com-
prehension of the differences between the main classes of
Echinoderms the sea-urchins or Echinoidea, the starfish or
Asteroidea, the brittle-stars and their allies known as Ophiuroidea,
the worm-like Holothurians, the feather-stars and sea-lilies
called Crinoidea, with their extinct relatives the sac-like Cystidea,
the bud-formed Blastoidea, and the flattened Edrioasteroidea
while within the larger of these classes, such as Echinoidea and
Crinoidea, fair working classifications had been established.
But the study that should elucidate the fundamental similarities
or homologies between the several classes, and should suggest
the relations of the Echinoderma to other phyla, had scarcely
begun. Indeed, the time was not ripe for such discussions,
still less for the tracing of lines of descent and their embodiment
in a genealogical classification. Since then exploring expeditions
have made known a host of new genera, often exhibiting un-
familiar types of structure.
Among these the abyssal starfish and holothurians described by
W. P. Sladen and H. Theel respectively, in the Report of the
" Challenger " Expedition, are most notable. The sea-urchins,
ophiuroids and crinoids also have yielded many important novelties
to A. Agassiz ("Challenger," ''Blake," and "Albatross" Ex-
peditions), T. Lyman (" Challenger *), Sladen (" Astrophiura.'Mnn.
Mag. Nat. Hist., 1879), F. 'J. Bell (numerous papers in Ann. Mag.
Nat. Hist, and in Proc. Zool. Soc.), E. Perrier ( Travailleur " and
" Talisman," Cape Horn and Monaco Expeditions), P. H. Carpenter
(" Challenger " Reports), and others. The anatomical researches
of these authors, as well as those of S. Loyen (" On Pourtalesia "
and " Echinologica," published by the Swedish Academy of Science),
H. Ludwig (Morphologische Studien, Leipzig, 1877-1882), O. Hgmann
(Histologie der Echinodermen, Jena, 1883-1889), L. Cu6not (" Etudes
morphologiques," Arch. Biol., 1891, and papers therein referred to),
P. M. Duncan (" Revision of the Echinoidea," Journ. Linn. Soc.,
1890), H. Prouho (" Sur Dorocidaris," Arch. Zool. Exper., 1888),
and many more, need only be mentioned to recall the great advance
that has been made. In physiology may be instanced W. B. Car-
penter's proof of the nervous nature of the chambered organ and
axial cords of crinoids (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1884), the researches of
H. Durham (Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., 1891) and others into the
wandering cells of the body-cavity, and the study of the deposition
of the skeletal substance (" stereom ") by Theel (in Festskrift for
Lilljeborg, 1896). Knowledge of the development has been enor-
mously extended by numerous embryologists, e.g. Ludwig (op. cit.),
E. W. MacBride (" Asterina gibbosa," Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.,
1896), H. Bury (Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., 1889, 1895), Seeliger (on
" Antedon," Zool. Jahrb., 1893), S. Goto (" Asterias pallida," Journ.
Coll. Sci. Japan, 1896), C. Grave (" Ophiura," Mem. Johns Hopkins
1 Sometimes called " Echinodermata," a Greek name meaning
" sea-urchin-skins," which was invented by J. T. Klein (1734) to
denote the tests of the Echini or sea-urchins; its later use for the
animals themselves, or for the whole phylum, was an error in both
history and etymology.
872
ECHINODERMA
Univ., 1899), Theel (" Echinocyamus," Nov. Act. Soc. Sci. Upsala,
1892), R. Semon (" Synapta," Jena. Zeitschr., 1888), and Love'n
(opp. citt.) ; and though the theories based thereon may have been
fantastic and contradictory, we are now near the time when the
results can be co-ordinated and some agreement reached. But the
scattered details of comparative anatomy are capable of manifold
arrangement, while the palimpsest of individual development is not
merely fragmentary, but often has the fragments misplaced. The
morphologist may propose classifications, and the embryologist
may erect genealogical trees, but all schemes which do not agree
with the direct evidence of fossils must be abandoned ; and it is.
this evidence, above all, that gained enormously in volume and
in value during the last quarter of the lath century. The Silurian
crinoids and cystids of Sweden have been illustrated in N. P. Angelin's
Iconographia crinoideorum (1878); the Palaeozoic crinoids and
cystids of Bohemia are dealt with in J. Barrande's Systeme silurien
(1887 and 1899); P. H. Carpenter published important papers on
fossil crinoids in the Journal of the Geological Society, on Cystidea
in that of the Linnean Society, 1891, and, together with R. Etheridge,
jun., compiled the large Catalogue of Blastoidea in tfie British Museum,
1886; O. Jaekel, in addition to valuable studies on crinoids and
cystids appearing in the Zeilschrift of the German Geological Society,
has published the first volume of Die Stammesgeschichte der Pelmato-
zoen (Berlin, 1899), a richly suggestive work; the Mesozoic Echino-
derms of France, Switzerland and Portugal have been made known
by P. de Loriol.G. H. Cotteau, I. Lambert, V. Gauthier and others
(see Paleontologie fran$aise. Mini. Soc. paleontol. de la Suisse,
Trabalhos Gomm. Ceol. Portugal, &c.) ; a beautiful and interesting
Devonian fauna from Bundenbach has been described by O. Foll-
mann, Jaekel, and especially B. Stttrtz (see Verhandl. nat. Vereins
preuss. Rheinlande, Palaont. A bhandl. , and Palaeonlographica) ;
while the multitude of North American palaeozoic crinoids has been
attacked by C. Wachsmuth and F. Springer in the Proceedings
(1879, 1881, 1885, 1886), of the Philadelphia Academy and the
Memoirs (1897) of the Harvard Museum.
The vast mass of material made known by these and many
other distinguished writers has to be included in our classification,
and that classification itself must be controlled by the story it
reveals. Thus it is that a change, characteristic of modern
systematic zoology, is affecting the subdivisions of the classes.
It is not long since the main lines of division corresponded
roughly to gaps in geological history: the orders were Palaeo-
crinoidea and Neocrinoidea, Palechinoidea and Euechinoidea,
Palaeasteroidea and Euasteroidea, and so forth. Or divisions
were based upon certain modifications of structure which,
as we now see, affected assemblages of diverse affinity: thus
both Blastoidea and Euechinoidea were divided into Regularia
and Irregularia; the Holothuroidea into Pneumophora and
Apneumona; and Crinoids were discussed under the heads
" stalked " and " unstalked." The barriers between these groups
may be regarded as horizontal planes cutting across the branches
of the ascending tree of life at levels determined chiefly by our
ignorance; as knowledge increases, and as the conception of a
genealogical classification gains acceptance, they are being
replaced by vertical partitions which separate branch from
branch. The changes may be appreciated by comparing the
systematic synopses at the end of this article with the classifica-
tion adopted in 1877 in the pth edition of the Ency. Brit. (vol. vii.) ,
or in any zoological text-book contemporary therewith. In the
present stage of our knowledge these minor divisions are the really
important ones. For, whereas to one brilliant suggestion of
far-reaching homology another can always be opposed, by the
detailed comparison of individual growth-stages in carefully
selected series of fossils, and by the minute application to these
of the principle that individual history repeats race history,
it actually is possible to unfold lines of descent that do not admit
of doubt. The gradual linking up of these will manifest the true
genealogy of each class, and reconstruct its ancestral forms by
proof instead of conjecture. The problem of the interrelations
of the classes will thus be reduced to its simplest terms, and even
questions as to the nature of the primitive Echinoderm and its
affinity to the ancestors of other phyla may become more than
exercises for the ingenuity of youth. Work has been and is being
done by the laborious methods here alluded to, and though the
diversity of opinion as to the broader groupings of classification
is still restricted only by the number of writers, we can point
to an ever-increasing body of assured knowledge on which all
are agreed. Unfortunately such allusion to these disconnected
certainties as alone might be introduced here would be too brief
for comprehension, and we are forced to select a few of the
broader hypotheses for a treatment that may seem dogmatic and
prejudiced.
Calycinal Theory. The theory which had most influence on the
conceptions of Echinoderms in the two concluding decades of the
I9th century was that of Lov6n, elaborated by P. H. Carpenter,
Sladen and others. This, which may be called the calycinal theory,
tor ma
(ftfca
scent.
rent.
FIG. i. Diagram of a simple form of Crinpid, with five arms,
each forking once ; the one nearest the observer is removed to expose
the tegmen of five orals. This crinoid has only two circlets of plates
in the cup, but the cup analysed in the adjoining diagram has in
addition infrabasals and a centrale C.
will be appreciated by comparing the structure of a simple crinoid
with that of some other types. A crinoid reduced to its simplest
elements consists of three principal portions (i.) a theca or test
enclosing the viscera ; (ii.) five arms stretching upwards or outwards
from the theca, sometimes single, sometimes branching; (iii.) a
stem stretching downwards from the theca and attaching it to the
sea-floor (see fig. i). That part of the theca below the origins of the
free arms is called the " dorsal cup "; the ventral part above the
origins of the arms, serving as cover to the cup, is known as the
" tegmen." All these parts are supported by plates or ossicles of
crystalline carbonate of lime. The cup, in
its simplest form, consists of two circlets of
five plates. Each plate of the upper circlet
supports an arm, and is called a " radial ";
the plates of the lower circlet, the " basals,"
rest on the stem and alternate with those
of the upper circlet, i.e. are interradial in
position. Some crinoids have yet another
circlet below these, the constituent plates
of which are called " infrabasals," and are
situated radially. The tegmen in most
primitive forms, as well as in the embryonic
stages of the living Antedon (fig. 2), con-
sists of five large triangular plates, alter-
nating with the radials, and called " orals,"
because they roof over the mouth. In
addition to these three or four circlets of stage" in ~the"deveTop J -
plates, two other elements were once sup- ment o f Antedon, show-
posed essential to the ideal crinoid: the ; n g the foot-plate or
dorso-central and the oro-central. The " dorso-central " fp at
former term was applied to a flattened plate the end of the stem
observed in the embryonic stage of a single co [ Some of the
genus (Antedon) at that end of the stem thecal plates, infra-
attached to the sea-floor, and comparable to basals / B, basals B,
the foot of a wine-glass (fig. 2). In some an( j ora i s Q are f orm l
crinoids which have no trace of a stem j n g around the body-
(e.g. Marsupites) a pentagonal plate is cav ities r.pc and l.pc;
found at the bottom of the cup, where the p ; s the water-pore,
stem would naturally have arisen (" cen- (After Seeliger.) X33
trale " in fig. i); and since it was believed diameters,
that the stem always grew by addition
of ossicles immediately below the infrabasals, it was inferred
that this pentagonal plate was the centro-dorsal in its primi-
tive position, as though the wine-glass had been evolved from
a tumbler by pulling the bottom out to form the foot. The oro-
central was, it must be admitted, a theoretical conception due
to a desire for symmetry, and was not confirmed by anything
ECHINODERMA
873
better than some erroneous observations on certain fossils, which
were supposed to show a plate at the oral pole between the five orals;
but this plate, so far as it exists at all, is now .known to be nothing
but an oral shifted in position. The theory was that all the plates
just described, and more particularly those of the cup, which were
termed " the calycinal system," could be traced, not merely in all
crinoids, but in all Echinoderms, whether fixed forms such as cystids
and blastoids, or free forms such as ophiuroids and echinoids, even
with the eye of faith in holothurians. It was admitted that these
elements might atrophy, or be displaced, or be otherwise obscured ;
but their complete and symmetrical disposition was regarded as
typical and original. Thus the genera exhibiting it were regarded
as primitive, and those orders and classes in which it was least
obscured were supposed to approach most nearly the ancestral
Echinoderm. Every one knows that an " apical system," composed
of two circlets known as " genitals " or basals and " oculars " or
radials, occurs round the aboral pole of echinoids (fig. 3, A), and
terminal
/crat witA
i /u/aferpors.
racfictf.
lfasa.1.-
S V
C D
FlG. 3. Supposed calycinal systems of free-moving Echinoderms.
A, regular sea-urchin (Cidaris); B, sea-urchin with a suranal plate
(Salenia); C, developing ophiurid (Amphiura) ; D, young starfish
{Zoroaster).
that a few genera (e.g. Salenia, fig. 3, B) possess a sub-central plate
(the " suranal "), which might be identified with the centro-dorsal.
It is also the case that many asterids (fig. 3, D) and ophiurids (fig. 3,
C) have a similar arrangement of plates on the dorsal (i.e. aboral)
surface of the disk. Accepting the homology of these apical systems
with the calycinal system, the theory would regard the aboral pole
of a sea-urchin or starfish as corresponding in everything, except its
relations to the sea-floor, with the aboral pole of a fixed echinoderm.
The theory has been vigorously opposed, notably by Semon
(op. cit.), who saw in the holothurians a nearer approach to the
ancestral form than was furnished by any calyculate echinoderm,
and by the Sarasins, who derived the echinoids from the holothurians
through forms with flexible tests (Echinothuridae, which, however,
are now known to_be specialized in this respect). The support that
appeared to be given to the theory by the presence of supposed
calycinal plates in the embryo of echinoids and asteroids has been,
in the opinion of many, undermined by E. W. MacBride (op. cit.),
who has insisted that in the fixed stage of the developing starfish,
Astertna, the relations of these plates to the stem are quite different
from those which they bear in the developing and adult crinoid.
But, however correct the observations and the homologies of
MacBride may be, they do not, as Bury (op. cit.) has well pointed
out, afford sufficient grounds for his inference that the abactinal
(i.e. aboral) poles of starfish and crinoids are not comparable with
one another, and that all conclusions based on the supposed homo-
logy of the dprso-central of echinoids and asteroids with that of
cnnoids are incorrect. Bury himself, however, has inflicted a
severe blow on the theory by his proof that the so-called oculars of
Echinoidea, which were supposed to represent the radials, are
homologous with the " terminals " (i.e. the plates at the tips of
the rays) in Asteroidea and Ophiuroidea, and therefore not homo-
logous with the radially disposed plates often seen around the aboral
pole of those animals. For, if these radial constituents of the sup-
posed apical system in an ophiurid have really some other origin,
why can we not say the same of the supposed basals? Indeed, Bury
is constrained to admit that the view of Semon and others may be
correct, and that these so-called calycinal systems may not be heir-
looms from a calyculate ancestor, but may have been independently
developed in the various classes owing to the action of similar
causes. That this view must be correct is urged by students of
fossils. Palaeontology lends no support to the idea that the dorso-
central is a primitive element ; it exists in none of the early echinoids,
and the suranal of Saleniidae arises from the minor plates around
the anus. There is no reason to suppose that the central apical plate
of certain free-swimming crinoids has any more to do with the distal
foot-plate of the larval Antedon stem than has the so-called centro-
dorsal oiAnledon itself, which is nothing but the compressed proximal
end of the stem. As for the supposed basals of Echinoidea, Aste-
roidea and Ophiuroidea, they are scarcely to be distinguished among
the ten or more small plates that surround the anus of Bothriocidaris,
which is the oldest and probably the most ancestral of fossil sea-
urchins (fig. 5). A calycinal system may be quite apparent in the
later Ophiuroidea and in a few Asteroidea, but there is no trace of
it in the older Palaeozoic types, unless we are to transfer the appella-
tion to the terminals. Those plates are perhaps constant throughout
sea-urchins and starfish (though it would puzzle any one to detect
them in certain Silurian echinoids), and they may be traced in
some of the fixed echinoderms; but there is no proof that they
represent the radials of a simple crinoid, and there are certainly
many cystids in which no such plates existed. Lovn and M.
Neumayr adduced the Triassic sea-urchin Tiarechinus, in which
the apical system forms half of the test, as an argument for the
origin of Echinoidea from an ancestor in which the apical system
was of great importance; but a genus appearing so late in time, in
an isolated sea, under conditions that dwarfed the other echinoid
dwellers therein, cannot seriously be thought to elucidate the origin
of pre-Silurian Echinoidea, and the recent discovery of an inter-
mediate form suggests that we have here nothing but degenerate
descendants of a well-known Palaeozoic family (Lepidocentridae).
But to pursue the tale of isolated instances would be wearisome.
The calycinal theory is not merely an assertion of certain homo-
logies, a few of which might be disputed without affecting the rest :
it governs our whole conception of the echinoderms, because it
implies their descent from a calyculate ancestor not a " crinoid-
phantom," that bogey of the Sarasins, but a form with definite
plates subject to a quinqueradiate arrangement, with which its
internal organs must likewise have been correlated. To this in-
genious and plausible theory the revelations of the rocks are more
and more believed to be opposed.
Pentactaea Theory. In opposition to the calycinal theory has
been the Pentactaea theory of R. Semon. There have always been
many zoologists prepared to ascribe an ancestral character to the
holothurians. The absence of an apical system of plates; the fact
that radial symmetry has not affected the generative organs, as it
has in all other recent classes; the well-
developed muscles of the body-wall, sup-
posed to be directly inherited from some
worm-like ancestor; the presence on the
inner walls of the body in the family
Synaptidae of ciliated funnels, which have
been rashly compared to the excretory
organs (nephridia) of many worms; the
outgrowth from the rectum in other genera
of caeca (Cuvierian organs and respiratory
trees), which recall the anal glands of the
Gephyrean worms; the absence of podia
(tube-feet) in many genera, and even of the r- T ,
radial water- vessels in Synaptidae; the . V?' 4 f
absence of that peculiar structure known tactula . Sta 8 e m th e
in other echinoderms by the names " axial development of
organ," "ovoid gland/' &c; the simpler
form of the larva all these features have,
for good reason or bad, been regarded as
primitive. Some of the more striking of
these features are confined to Synaptidae;
in that family too the absence of the radial
water-vessels from the adult is correlated
with continuity of the circular muscle-layer,
while the gut runs almost straight from the
anterior mouth to the posterior anus. Early
in the life-history of Synapta occurs a stage oc, Supposed oto-
with five tentacles around the mouth, and cysts. _
into these pass canals from the water-ring, *> Longitudinal
the radial canals to the body-wall making a muscles.
subsequent, and only temporary, appearance s ^> Calcareous spicules.
(fig. 4). Semon called this stage the Pen- st, Stomach.
tactula, and supposed that, in its early (After Semon.) x 24
history, the class had passed through a diameters.
similar stage, which he called the Pentactaea,
and regarded as the ancestor of all Echinoderms. It has since
been proved that the five tentacles with their canals are interradial,
so that one can scarcely look on the Penlactula as a primitive stage,
while the apparent simplicity of the Synaplidae, at least as compared
with other holothurians, is now believed to be the result of regressive
The five inter-
radial tentacles.
The water -pore,
leading by the
stone -canal stc
*? tne water-
ring, from which
hangs a Polian
vesicle pb.
8 7 4
ECHINODERMA
changes. The Penlactaea, at all events as it sprang from the brain
of Semon, must pass to the limbo of mythological ancestors.
Pelmatozoic Theory. The rejection of the calycinal and Pentactaea
theories need not scatter our conceptions of Echinoderm structure
back into the chaos from which they seemed to have emerged. The
idea of a calyculate ancestor, though by no means connoting fixation,
turned men's minds in the direction of the fixed forms, simply
because in them the calyx was best developed. The Pentactaea again
suggested a search for some primitive type in which quinqueradiate
symmetry was exhibited in circumoral appendages, but had not
affected the nervous, water-vascular, muscular or skeletal systems
to any great extent, and the generative organs not at all. Study of
the earnest larval stages has always led to the conclusion that the
Echinoderms must have descended from some freely-moving form
with a bilateral symmetry, and, connecting this with the ideas just
mentioned, we reach the conception that this supposed bilateral
ancestor (or Dipleurula) may have become fixed, and may have
gradually acquired a radial symmetry in consequence of its sedentary
mode of life. The different extent of quinqueradiate symmetry in the
different classes would thus depend on the period at which they
diverged from the sedentary stock. The tracing of this history, and
the explanation of the general characters of Echinoderms and of the
differentiating features of the classes in accordance therewith, con-
stitutes the Pelmatozoic theory.
The word " Pelmatozoa " literally means " stalked animals," but
the name is now used to denote all Cystidea, Blastoidea, Crinoidea
and Edrioasteroidea, as opposed to the other classes, which may be
called Eleutherozoa. Many Pelmatozoa have, it is true, no stalk,
while some are freely-moving, but all agree in the possession of certain
characters obviously connected with a fixed mode of life. Thus, the
mouth is central and turned away from the sea-floor; the animal
does not seize its food by tentacles, limbs or jaws, neither does it
move in search of it, but a series of ciliated grooves which radiate
from the mouth sweep along currents of water, in the eddies of which
minute food-particles are caught up and carried down into the gullet ;
the undigested food is driven out through an anus which is on the
upper or oral side of the theca, but as far distant as practicable from
the mouth and ciliated grooves. Such characters are found in any
primitive, sedentary group. More peculiarly Echinoderm features,
in which the Pelmatozoan nature is manifest, are the enclosing of the
viscera in a calcified and plated theca, for protection against those
enemies from which a fixed animal cannot flee; the development, at
the aboral pole of this theca, of a motor nerve-centre giving off
branches to the stroma connecting the various plates of the theca
and of its brachial, anal, and columnar extensions, and thus co-
ordinating the movements of the whole skeleton; the absence of
suckers from the podia, which, when present, are respiratory, not
locomotor, in function. There are other features of most, if not
all, Pelmatozoa that appear to be due to a fixed existence; but
those are also found in the Eleutherozoa. The Pelmatozoic theory
thus regards the Pelmatozoa as the more ancestral forms, and the
Pelmatozoan stage as one that must have been passed through by
all Echinoderms during their evolution from the Dipleurula. It
might be possible to prove the origin of all classes from Pelmatozoa,
without thereby explaining the origin of such fundamental features
as radial symmetry, the developmental metamorphosis, and the
torsion that affects both gut and body-cavities during fhat process;
but the acceptance of a Dipleurula as the common ancestor necessi-
tates an explanation of these features. Such explanation is an
integral part of the Pelmatozoic theory, but is provided by no other.
The evidence for the Pelmatozoic theory is supplied by palaeon-
tology, embryology, the comparative anatomy of the classes, and a
consideration of other phyla. Palaeontology, so far as it goes, is a
sure guide, but some of the oldest fossiliferous rocks yield remains
of distinctly differentiated crinoids, asteroids and echinoids, so
that the problem is not solved merely by collecting fossils. Two
lines of argument appear fruitful. First, a comparison of the
relative numbers of the representatives of the various classes at
different epochs; according to this they may be placed in the
following order, with the oldest first : Cystidea, Crinoidea, Blastoidea,
Asteroidea, Ophiuroidea, Echinoidea. As for Holothuroidea, the
fossil evidence allows us to say no more than that the class existed
in early Carboniferous times, if not before. The second method is to
work out by slow and sure steps the lines of descent of the different
families, orders, and classes, and so either to arrive at the ancestral
form of each class, or to plot out the curve of evolution, which may
then legitimately be projected into " the dark backward and abysm
of time." In this way the many highly modified orders of Cystidea
may be traced back to a simple, many-plated ancestor with little or
no radiate symmetry (see below). All the complicated structures of
Blastoidea are evolved from a fairly simple type, which in its turn
is linked on to one of the cystid orders. That the crinoids are all
deducible from some such simple form as that above described under
the head " calycinal theory," is now generally admitted. Although,
in the extreme correlation of the radial food-grooves, nerves, water-
vessels, and so forth, with a radiate symmetry of the theca, such a
type differs from the Cystidea, while in the possession of jointed
processes from the radial plates, bearing the grooves and the various
body-systems outwards from the theca, it differs from all other
Echinoderms, nevertheless ancient forms are known which, if they
are not themselves the actual links, suggest how the crinoid typt
may have been evolved from some of the more regular cystids.
The fourth class of Pelmatozoa the Edrioasteroidea differs from
the others in the structure of its ambulacra. As in all Pelmatozoa
these seem to have borne ciliated food-grooves protected by movable
covering-plates (fig. n). Beneath each food-groove was a radial
water-vessel and probably a nerve and blood-vessel, all which
structures passed either between certain regularly arranged thecal
plates, or along a furrow floored by those plates, which were then
in two alternating series. The important and distinctive feature
is the presence of pores between the flooring-plates, on either side
of the groove ; and these, we cannot doubt, served for the passage
of podia. Thus in a highly developed edrioasteroid, such as Earioaster
itself (fig. n), there was a true ambulacrum, apparently constructed
like that of a starfish, but differing in the possession of a ciliated
food-groove protected by covering-plates. The simpler forms of
Edrioasteroidea, with their more sac-like body and undifferentiated
plates, may well have been derived from early Cystidea of yet simpler
structure, and there seems no reason to follow Jaekel in regarding
the class as itself the more primitive. Turning to fossil Asteroidea,
we find the earlier ophiurids scarcely distinguishable from the asterids,
while in the alternation of the ambulacrals, which undoubtedly
correspond to the flooring-plates of Edrioaster, both groups approach
the Pelmatozoan type. These facts have been expressed by Stilrtz
in his names Encrinasteriae and Ophio-encrinasteriae. There is no
difficulty in deducing the highly differentiated asterids and ophiurids
of a later day from these simpler types. The evolution of the
modern Echinoidea from their Palaeozoic ancestors is also well
understood, but in this case the ancestral form to which the palaeon-
tologist is led does not at first sight present many resemblances
to the Pelmatozoa. It is, however, characterized by simplicity of
structure, and a short description of it will serve to clear the problem
from unnecessary difficulties. Bothriocidaris (fig. 5), a small echinoid
FIG. 5. Bothriocidaris globulus. A, from the side ; B, the plates
around the aboral pole. (After Jaekel.) The short spines which
were attached to the tubercles are not drawn.
from the Ordovician rocks of Esthonia, is in essential structure
just the form demanded by comparative palaeontology to make a
starting-point. It is spheroidal, with the mouth and anus at opposite
poles; there are five ambulacra, and the ambulacral plates are
large, simple and alternating, each being pierced by two podial
pores which lie in a small oval depression; the ambulacrals next
the mouth form a closed ring of ten plates; the interambulacrals
lie in single columns between the ambulacra, and are separated
from the mouth-area by the proximal ambulacrals just mentioned,
and sometimes by the second set of ambulacrals also; the ambulacra
end in the five oculars or terminals, which meet in a ring around
the anal area and have no podial pores, but one of them serves as
a madreporite; within this ring is a star-shaped area filled with
minute irregular plates, none of which can safely be selected as the
homologues of the so-called basals or genitals of later forms; within
the ring of ambulacrals around the mouth are five somewhat pointed
plates, which Jaekel regards as teeth, but which can scarcely be
homologous with the interradially placed teeth of later echinoids,
since they are radial in position ; small spines are present, especially
around the podial pores. The position of the pores near the centre of
the ambulacrals in Bothriocidaris need not be regarded as primitive,
since other early Palaeozoic genera, not to mention the young
of living forms, show that the podia originally passed out between
the plates, and were only gradually surrounded by their substance;
thus the original structure of the echinoid ambulacra differed from
that of the early asteroid in the position of the radial vessels and
nerves, which here lie beneath the plates instead of outside them.
To this point we shall recur; palaeontology, though it suggests a
clue, does not furnish an actual link either between Echinoidea and
Asteroidea, or between those classes and Pelmatozoa.
The argument from embryology leads further back. First, as
already mentioned, it outlines the general features of the Dipleurula ;
secondly, it indicates the way in which this free-moving form
became fixed, and how its internal organs were modified in conse-
quence; but when we seek, thirdly, for light on the relations of the
classes, we find the features of the adult coming in so rapidly that
such intermediate stages as may have existed are either squeezed out
or profoundly modified. The difficulty of rearing the larvae in an
ECHINODERMA
875
aquarium towards the close of the metamorphosis may account for
the slight information available concerning the stages that immedi-
ately follow the embryonic. Another difficulty is due to the fact
that the types studied, and especially the crinoid A ntedon, are highly
specialized, so that some of the embryonic features are not really
primitive as regards the class, but only as regards each particular
genus. Thus inferences from embryonic development need to be
checked by palaeontology, and supplemented by comparison of the
anatomy of other living genera.
Minute anatomical research has also aided to establish the Pelmato-
zoic theory by the gradual recognition in other classes of features
formerly supposed to be confined to Pelmatozoa. Thus the elements
of the Pelmatozoan ventral groove are now detected in so different
a structure as the echinoid ambulacrum, while an aboral nervous
system, the diminished representative of that in crinoids, has been
traced in all Eleutherozoa except Holothurians. The broader theories
of modern zoology might seem to have little bearing on the Echino-
derma, for it is not long since the study of these animals was com-
pared to a landlocked sea undisturbed by such storms as rage
around the origin of the Vertebrata. This, however, is no more the
case. The conception of the Dipleurula derives its chief weight
from the fact that it is comparable to the early larval forms of
other primitive coelomate animals, such as Balanoglossus, Phoronis,
Chaetpgnatha, Brachiopoda and Bryozoa. So too the explanation
of radial symmetry and torsion of organs as due to a Pefmatozoic
mode of life finds confirmation in many other phyla. Instead of
discussing all these questions separately, with the details necessary
for an adequate presentation of the argument, we shall now sketch
the history of the Echinoderms in accordance with the Pelmatozoic
theory. Such a sketch must pass lightly over debatable ground,
and must consist largely of suggestions still in need of confirmation ;
but if it serves as a frame into which more precise and more detailed
statements may be fitted as they come to the ken of the reader, its
object will be attained.
Evolution of the Echinoderms. It is reasonable to suppose that
the Coelomata animals in which the body-cavity is divided
into a gut passing from mouth to anus and a hollow (coelom)
surrounding it were derived from the simpler Coelentera, in
which the primitive body-cavity (archenteron) is not so divided,
and has only one aperture serving as both mouth and anus.
We may, with Sedgwick, suppose the coelom to have originated
by the enlargement and separation of pouches that pressed
outwards from the archenteron into the thickened body-wall
(such structures as the genital pouches of some Coelentera,
not yet shut off from the rest of the cavity), and they would
probably have been four in number and radially disposed about
the central cavity. The evolution of this cavity into a gut is
foreshadowed in some Coelentera by the elliptical shape of the
aperture, and by the development at its ends of a ciliated channel
along which food is swept; we have only to suppose the approxi-
mation of the sides of the ellipse and their eventual fusion, to
complete the transformation of the radially symmetrical Coelen-
terate into a bilaterally symmetrical Coelomate with mouth and
anus at opposite ends of the long axis. We further suppose that
of the four coelomic pouches one was in front of the mouth,
one behind the anus, and one on each side. Such an animal,
if it ever existed, probably lived near the surface of the sea, and
even here it may have changed its medusoid mode of locomotion
for one in the direction of its mouth. Thus the bilateral symmetry
would have been accentuated, and the organism shaped more
definitely into three segments, namely (i) a preoral segment
or lobe, containing the anterior coelomic cavity; (2) a middle
segment, containing the gut, and the two middle coelomic
cavities; (3) a posterior segment, containing the posterior
coelomic cavity, which, however, owing to the backward pro-
longation of the anus, became divided into two a right and left
posterior coelom. Each of these cavities presumably excreted
waste products to the exterior by a pore. There was probably
a nervous area, with a tuft of cilia, at the anterior end; while,
at all events in forms that remained pelagic, the ciliated nervous
tracts of the rest of the body may be supposed to have become
arranged in bands around the body-segments. Such a form as
this is roughly represented to-day by the Aclinotrocha larva
of Phoronis, the importance of which has been brought out
by Masterman. But only slight modifications are required to
produce the Tornaria larva of the Enteropneusta and other
larvae, including the special type that is inferred from the
Dipleurula larval stages of recent forms to have characterized
the ancestor of the Echinoderms. We cannot enter here into
all the details of comparison between these larval forms; amid
much that is hypothetical a few homologies are widely accepted,
and the preceding account will show the kind of relation that the
Echinoderms bear to other animals, including what are now
usually regarded as the ancestors of the Chordata (to which
back-boned animals belong), as well as the nature of the evidence
that their study has been, or may be, made to yield. How the
hypothetical Dipleurula became an Echinoderm, and how the
primitive Echinoderms diverged in structure so as to form the
various classes, are questions to which an answer is attempted
in the following paragraphs :
Confining our attention to that form of Dipleurula (fig. 6) which,
it is supposed, gave rise to the Echinoderma, we infer from embryo-
hyctropore
pre-orcU
lolff.
anterior coeCom mouth.. Vposlr coetom.
FIG. 6. Diagrammatic reconstruction of Dipleurula. The creature
is represented crawling on the sea-floor, but it may equally well have
been a floating animal. The ciliated bands are not drawn.
logical data that its special features were as follow: The anterior
coelomic cavity was wholly or partially divided, and from each half
a duct led to the exterior, opening at a pore near the middle line of
the back. The middle cavities were smaller, and the ducts from them
came to unite with those from the anterior cavities, and no longer
opened directly to the exterior; whether these cavities were already
specialized as water-sacs cannot be asserted, but they certainly had
become so at a slightly later stage. The posterior cavities were the
largest, but what had become of their original opening to the exterior
is uncertain. The genital products were derived from the lining of
the coelomic cavities, but it would not be safe to say that any
particular region was as yet specialized for generation. The epi-
thelium of the outer surface was probably ciliated, and a portion
of it in the preoral lobe differentiated as a sense-organ, with longer
cilia and underlying nerve-centre, from which two nerves ran back
below the ventral surface. Into the space between the walls of the
coelom and the outer body-wall, originally filled with jelly, definite
cells now wandered, chiefly derived from the coelomic walls. Some
of these cells produced muscles and connective tissue; others
absorbed and removed waste products, iron salts, calcium carbonate
and the like, and so were ready to be utilized for the deposition of
pigment or of skeletal substance. In some of these respects the
Dipleurula may have diverged from the ancestor of Enteropneusta
and of other animals, but it could not as yet have been recognized as
echinpdermal by a zoologist, for it presented none of the structural
peculiarities of the modern adult echinoderm.
Now ensued the great event that originated the phylum the
discovery of the sea-floor. This being apprehended by the sensory
sfone cana.1.
I nydropore.
( ffoaopore.
parietal
canal.
pn>-oral lobe.
remains of
nerve ganglion
posterior
coelom.
anterior
coelom.
FIG. 7. Diagrammatic reconstruction of primitive Pelmatozoon,
seen from the side. The plates of the test are not drawn; their
probable appearance may be gathered from fig. 8.
anterior end, it was by that end that the Dipleurula attached
itself; not, however, by the pole, since that would have interfered
at once with the sensory organ, but a little to one side, the right
8 7 6
ECHINODERMA
side being the one chosen for a reason we cannot now fathom; it
may be that fixation was facilitated by the presence of the pore on
that side, and by the utilization of the excretion from it as a cement.
The first result was that which is always seen to follow in such cases
the passage of the mouth towards the upper surface (fig. 7).
As it passed up along the left side, the gut caught hold of the left
water-sac and pulled it upwards, curving it in the process; this
being attached to the left duct from the anterior body-cavity, this
structure with its water-pore was also pulled up, and the pore came
to lie between mouth and anus. The forward portion of the anterior
coelom shared in the constriction and elongation of the preoral lobe ;
but its hinder portion was dragged up along with the water-pore
and formed a canal lying
along the outer wall (the
parietal canal). As the gut
coiled, it pressed inwards the
middle of the left posterior
coelom of the Dipleurula, and
drew the whole towards the
mouth, while the correspond-
ing cavity on the right was
pressed down by the stomach
towards the fixed end of the
animal and became involved
in the elongation of that
region. These changes, which
may still be traced in the
development of Antedon, re-
sulted in the primitive Pelma-
tozoon (fig. 7), represented in
the rocks by such a genus
narrow end. On the broad upper surface are four openings, that
nearest the centre being the mouth, which is slit-like, and that nearest
the periphery being the anus. The two other openings are minute,
and placed between those two; one close to the mouth is almost
certainly the water-pore, while that nearer the anus is regarded as a
genital aperture. Which of the coelomic cavities this last is connected
with is uncertain, for there is considerable doubt as to the origin of
the genital glands in the embryonic development of recent echino-
derms. It seems clear, however, that there was but a single duct and
a single bunch of reproductive cells, as in the holothurians, though
perhaps bifurcate, as in some of those animals. The line between
mouth and anus, along which these openings are situate, corresponds
with the plane of union between the two horns of the curved left
posterior coelom, the united walls of which form the " dorsal mesen-
tery." Since this must have, on our theory, enclosed the parietal
canal from the anterior coelom, it is possible that the genital products
were developed from the lining cells of that cavity, and that the
genital pore was nothing but its original pore not yet united with
that from the water-sac. The concrescence of these pores can be
traced in other cystids; but as the genital organs became affected
by radial symmetry the original function of the duct was lost, and
the reproductive elements escaped to the exterior in another way.
Aristocystis may have had ciliated
food-grooves leading to its mouth,
but these have left no traces on the
' structure of the test. Traces, how-
ever, are perceptible in genera believed
to be descended from such a simple
type, and the majority may be
grouped under two heads. One group
includes those in which the grooves
wander outwards from the mouth
over the thecal plates, which gradually
become arranged regularly on either
FIG. 9. Fungocystts rarts- s ;d e of the grooves, while further
sima, one of the Diploponta, extensions ascend from the grooves
in which the thecal plates on sma n jointed processes called
bordermgthefood-groovesare " brachioles " (fig. 9). In the other
not yet regularly arranged. g rou p the grooves do not tend so
The brachioles are not drawn. mucn to stretch over the theca as to
be raised away from it on relatively larger brachioles, arising close
around the mouth (fig. 10).
These two types are, in the main, correlated with two gradual
differentiations in the minute structure of the thecal plates. Origin-
ally the calcareous substance of the plates (stereom) was pierced
by irregular canals, more or less vertical, and containing strands
of the soft tissue (stroma) that deposited the stereom, as well as
spaces filled with fluid. In the former group (fig. 9) these canals
became connected in pairs (diplopores) still perpendicular to the
surface, and this structure, combined with that of the grooves,
characterizes the order Diploporita. In the latter group (fig. 10)
the canals, that is to say, the stroma-strands, came to lie parallel
to the surface and to cross the sutures between the plates, which
were thus more flexibly and more strongly united; since the canals
crossing each suture naturally occupy a rhombic area, the order is
called Rhombifera. At first the grooves were three, one proceeding
from each end of the mouth-slit, and the third in a direction opposed
to the anus; with reference to the Pelmatozoan structure, the anal
side may be termed posterior, and this groove anterior. Eventually
each lateral groove forked, so that there were five grooves. These
gradually impressed themselves on the theca and influenced the
arrangement of the internal organs: it is fairly safe to assume that
nerves, blood-vessels and branches from the water-sac stretched
out along with these grooves, each system starting from a ring
around the gullet. At last a quinqueradiate symmetry influenced
the plates of the theca, partly through the development of a plate
at the end of each groove (terminal), partly through plates at the
aboral pole of the theca (basals and infrabasals) arising in response
to mechanical pressure, but soon intimately connected with the cords
of an aboral nervous system. Before the latter plates arose, the
stem had developed by the elongation and constriction of the fixed
end of the theca, the gradual regularization of the plates involved,
and their coalescence into rings. The crinoid type was differentiated
by the extension of the food-grooves and associated organs along
radial outgrowths from the theca itself. These constituted the arms
(brachia), and five definite radial plates of the theca were specialized
for their support. These radials may be homologous with the
terminals already mentioned, but this is neither necessary nor certain.
In this development of brachial extensions of the theca the genital
organs were involved, and their ripe products formed at the ends
of the brachia or in the
branches therefrom. The
remains of the original
genital gland within the
theca became the " axial
organ " surrounded by the
" axial sinus" derived from
the anterior ccelom, and
this again by structures
derived from the right
posterior coelom, which,
as explained above, had
been depressed to the
aboral pole. These last
structures formed a nerv-
ous sheath around the
axial sinus with its blood-
vessels, and became
divided into five lobes
correlated with the five
basals (the " chambered
organ ") and forming the
aboral nerve-centre. Be-
fore these changes were
complete the Holothuri-
oidea must have diverged,
by the assumption of a
crawling existence. Thus
in them the mouth and
anus reverted to opposite
poles, and only the torsion
of the gut and coelom,
FIG. 10. Chirocrinm-alter, one of
stem.
c U arsyss s
to thefr pTlmatozoan thecal P lates - and the concentration of
ances^ Th? dilated the brachioles. (Adapted from Jaekel.)
grooves, no longer needed for the collection of food, closed over,
and are still traceable as ciliated canals overlying the radial nerves.
At the same time the thecal plates degenerated into spicules. The
Edrioasteroidea followed a different line from that of the cystids above
mentioned and their descendants. The theca became sessile, and in
its later developments much flattened (fig. n). Mouth, water-pore
and anus remained as in Aristocystis, but the five ciliated grooves
radiated from the mouth between the thecal plates rather than
over them, and were, as usual, protected by covering-plates. The
important feature was the extension of radial canals from the
water-sac along these grooves, with branches passing between the
flooring-plates of the grooves (fig. 12, A). The resemblance of the
flooring-plates to the ambulacral ossicles of a starfish is so exact
that one can explain it only by supposing similar relations of the
water-canals and their branches (podia). On the thinly plated under
surface of well-preserved specimens of Edrioaster are seen five
interradial swellings (fig. 11, B). These are likely to have been
produced by the ripe genital glands, which may have extruded
their products directly through the membranous integument of the
under side. No other way out for them is apparent, and it is clear
that Edrioaster was not permanently and solidly fixed to the sea-floor.
Now comes a great change, unfortunately difficult to follow
whether in the fossils or in the modern embryos. We suppose
some such form as Edrioaster, which appears to have lived near
the shore, to have been repeatedly overturned by waves. Those
that were able to accommodate themselves to this topsy-turvy
ECHINODERMA
877
existence, by taking food in directly through the mouth, survived,
and their podia gradually specialized as sucking feet. Such a form
as this, when once its covering-plates had atrophied, would be a
lobes offlejr.
title irUeff.
urnenl
flooring plates
covering plates
onus' hydnpore frame
A B
_FlG. II. Edrioaster. A, upper or oral surface of E. Bigsbyi,
with the covering-plates on the anterior and left posterior food-
grooves, but removed from the others, which show only the flooring-
plates, between which are pores; B, under surface of E. Buchianus,
with covering- plates on right posterior and right anterior food-grooves
(left hand in the drawing). The * denotes the position of the anal
interradius.
starfish without more ado (fig. 12, B); but the sea-urchins present
a more difficult problem, on which Bothriocidaris sheds no light.
An Upper Silurian echinoid, however, Palaeodiscus, is believed by
W. J. Sollas and W. K. Spencer to have had in its ambulacra an
inner as well as an outer series of plates. If this be correct, the only
change from Edrioaster, as regards the ambulacra, was that in
Palaeodiscus the covering-plates could no longer open, but closed
permanently over the whole groove, while the podia issued through
slits between them. In more typical echinoids the covering-plates
alone remained to form the ordinary ambulacral plates, while the
flooring-plates disappeared, the canals and other organs remaining
as before. In any case we have to admit a closure of the integument
over the ciliated groove (fig. 12, D, e) just as in holothurians, since
this is necessitated by anatomical evidence. The genital organs
in both Asteroidea and Echinoidea would retain the interradial
position they first assumed in Edrioaster; and in Echinoidea their
primitive temporary openings to the exterior were converted into
definite pores, correlated with five interradially placed plates at the
aboral pole. The anus also naturally moved to this superior and
pcd.iu.rn
plat,
etef/xrnerve
water vessel
coelcnt
A. Edrioasteroid.
podium
deeper -.
nerve'
water vessel!
coelcm
B. Asteroid.
ambulacra!
plate
outtr
nerve
deeper
fttnv
C. Crinoid.
coelom
D. Echinoid.
FIG. 12. Diagrammatic sections across the ambulacra of A, C,
PELMATOZOA, and B, D, ELEUTHEROZOA, placed in the same position
for comparison. S, Blood-spaces, of which the hemology is still
uncertain.
aboral position. In the Echinoidea the water-canals and associated
structures, ending in the terminal plates, stretched right up to these
genital plates; but in the Asteroidea they never reached the aboral
surface, so that the terminals have always been separated from the
aboral pole by a number of plates.
Analysis of Echinoderm Characters. Regarding the Echino-
derms as a whole in the light of the foregoing account, we may
give the following analytic summary of the characters that
distinguish them from other coelomate animals:
They live in salt or brackish water; a primitive bilateral sym-
metry is still manifest in the right and left divisions of the coelom ;
the middle coelomic cavities are primitively transformed into two
hydrocoels communicating with the exterior indirectly through a
duct or ducts of the anterior coelom ; stereom, composed of crystal-
line carbonate of lime, is, with few exceptions, deposited by special
amoebocytes in the meshes of a mesodermal stroma, chiefly in the
integument; reproductive cells are derived from the endothelium,
apparently of the anterior coelom ; total segmentation of the ovum
produces a coeloblastula and gastrula by invagination ; mesenchyme
is formed in the segmentation cavity by migration of cells, chiefly
from the hypoblast. Known Echmoderms show the following
features, imagined to be due to an ancestral pelmatozoic stage :
Increase in the coelomic cavities of the left side, and atrophy of
those on the right ; the dextral coil of the gut, recognizable in all
classes, though often obscured ; an incomplete secondary bilateral-
ism about the plane including the main axis and the water-pore
or its successor, the madreporite, often obscured by one or other of
various tertiary bilateralisms; the change of the hydrocoel into a
circumoral, arcuate or ring canal; development through a free-
swimming, bilaterally symmetrical, ciliated larva, of which in
many cases only a portion is transformed into the adult Echinoderm
(where care of the brood has secondarily arisen, this larva is not
developed). All living, and most extinct, Echinoderms show the
following features, almost certainly due to an ancestral pelmatozoic
stage : An incomplete radial symmetry, of which five is usually the
dominant number, is superimposed on the secondary bilateralism,
owing to the outgrowth from the mouth region of one unpaired and
two paired ciliated grooves; these have a floor of nervous epithelium,
and are accompanied by subjacent radial canals from the water-ring,
giving off lateral podia and thus forming ambulacra, and by a
perihaemal system of canals apparently growing out from coelomic
cavities. All living Echinoderms have a lacunar, haemal system
of diverse origin; this, the ambulacral system, and the coelomic
cavities, contain a fluid holding albumen in solution and carrying
numerous amoebocytes, which are developed in special lymph-glands
and are capable of wandering through all tissues. The Echinoderms
may be divided into seven classes, whose probable relations are
thus indicated :
rCystidea-
PELMATOZOA
-Edrioasteroidea
Holothurioideai
Blastoidea
LCrinoidea
LELEUTHEROZOA
Stelliformia
Echinoidea
Brief systematic accounts of these classes follow:
Grade A. PELMATOZOA. Echinoderma with the viscera en-
closed in a calcified and plated theca, of which the oral surface is
uppermost, and which is usually attached, either temporarily or
permanently, by the aboral surface. Food brought to the mouth
by a subvective system of ciliated grooves, radiating from the mouth
either between the plates of the theca (endothecal), or over the theca
(epithecal), or along processes from the theca (exothecal: arms,
pinnules, &c.), or, in part, and as a secondary development, below
the theca (hypothecal). Anus usually in the upper or oral half of
the theca, and never aboral. An aborally-placed motor nerve-centre
gives off branches to the stroma connecting the various plates of the
theca and of its brachial, anal and columnar extensions, and thus
co-ordinates the movements of the whole skeleton. The circum-
oesophageal water-ring communicates indirectly with the exterior;
the podia, when present, are respiratory, not locomotor, in function.
Class I. CYSTIDEA. Pelmatozoa in which radial polymeric
symmetry of the theca is developed either not at all or not in com-
plete correlation with the radial symmetry of the ambulacra (such
as obtains in Blastoidea and Cnnoidea); in which extensions of
the food-grooves are exothecal or epithecal or both combined, but
neither endothecal nor pierced by podia (as in some Edrioasteroidea).
All Palaeo'zoic.
This class shows much greater diversity of organization than any
other, and the classifications proposed by recent writers, such as
E. Haeckel, O. Jaekel and F. A. Bather, start from such different
points of view that no discussion of them can be attempted here.
Following the narrative given above, we recognize a primitive
group Amphoridea represented by Aristocystis (fig. 8). From
this are derived the orders Diplpporita (fig. 9) and Rhombifera (fig.
10) and the class Edrioasteroidea, all which have already been
described as steps in the evolution of the phylum. But there were
also side-branches leading nowhere, and therefore placed in separate
orders Aporita and Carpoidea.
Order I. Amphoridea. Radial symmetry has affected neither
Food-grooves nor thecal plates; nor, probably, nerves, ambulacral
vessels, nor gonads. Canals or folds when present in the stereom
are irregular. Families: Aristocystidae (fig. 8); Eocystidae.
878
ECHINODERMA
Order 2. Carpoidea. Theca compressed in the oro-anal plane
and a bilateral symmetry thus induced, affecting the food-grooves
and, usually, the thecal plates and stem. Food-grooves in part
epithecal and may be continued on one or two exothecal processes.
No pores or folds in the stereom. Families: Anomalocystidae,
Dendrocystidae. These correspond to Jaekel's Carpoidea Hetero-
stelea; he also includes, as Eustelea, our Comarocystidae and
Malocystidae.
Order 3. Rhombifera. Radial symmetry affects the food-grooves
and, in the more advanced families, the thecal plates; probably
also the nerves and ambulacral vessels, but not the gonads. The
food-grooves are exothecal, i.e. are stretched out from the theca on
jointed skeletal processes (brachioles). These either are close to the
mouth or are removed from it upon a series of ambulacral or sub-
ambulacral plates not derived immediately from thecal plates, or are
separated from the oral centre by hypothecal passages passing
beneath tegminal plates. The stereom and stroma become arranged
in folds and strands at right angles to the sutures of the thecal
plates; in higher forms the stereom-folds are in part specialized as
pectini-rhombs. Families: Echinosphaeridae ; Comarocystidae;
Macrocystellidae ; Tiaracrinidae ; Malocystidae; Glyptocystidae,
with sub-famm. Echinoencrininae, Callocystinae, Glyptocystinae, of
which examples are Cheirocrinus (fig. 10) and Cystoblastus from
which Jaekel deduces the blastoids; Caryocrinidae.
Order 4. Aporita. Pentamerous symmetry affects the food-
grooves and thecal plates ; probably also the nerves and ambulacral
vessels, but not the gonads. Food-grooves exothecal and circumoral.
The stereom shows no trace of canals, folds, rhombs or diplopores.
Family : Cryptocrinidae.
Order 5. Diploporita. Radial symmetry affects the food-grooves,
and by degrees the thecal plates connected therewith, but not the
interradial thecal plates; probably also the nerves and ambulacral
vessels, but not the gonads. The food-grooves are epithecal, i.e.
are extended over the thecal plates themselves without intermediate
flooring; they are also prolonged on exothecal brachioles, which line
the epithecal grooves. The stereom of the thecal plates may be
thrown into folds, but the mesostroma does not so much tend to lie
in strands traversing the sutures, nor are pectini-rhombs or pore-
rhombs developed; diplopores are always present in the meso-
stereom, but often restricted to definite tracts or plates, especially
in higher forms. Families: Sphaeronidae ; Glyptosphaeridae, e.g.
Fungocystis (fig. 9) ; Protocrinidae; Mesocystidae; Gomphocystidae.
The Protocrinidae lead up to Proteroblastus, in which the theca is
ovoid, sometimes prolonged into a stem, the plates differentiated
into (a) smooth, irregular, depressed interambulacrals, (b) trans-
versely elongate brachioliferous adambulacrals, to which the diplo-
pores, which lie at-right angles to the main food-groove, are confined.
This leads almost without a break to the Protoblastoidea.
Class II. BLASTOIDEA. Pelmatozoa in which five (by atrophy
four) epithecal ciliated grooves, lying on a lancet-shaped plate
(? always), radiate from a central peristome between five interradial
deltoid plates, and are edged by alternating side-plates bearing
brachioles, to which side-branches pass from the grooves. Grooves
and peristome protected by small plates, which can open over the
grooves. The generative organs and coelom probably did not send
extensions along the rays into the brachioles; but apparently nerves
from the aboral centre, after passing through the thecal plates, met
in a circumoral ring, from which branches passed into the plate
under each main food-groove, and thence supplied the brachioles.
The thecal plates, however irregular in some species, always show
defined basals and a distinct plate (" radial ") at the end of each
ambulacrum; they are in all cases so far affected by pentamerous
symmetry that their sutures never cross the ambulacra. All
Palaeozoic.
Division A. Protoblastoidea. Blastoidea without inter-
ambulacral groups of hydrospire-folds hanging into the thecal
cavity. Families: Asteroblastidae, Blastoidocrinidae. The former
might be pjaced with Diploporita, were it not for a greater intimacy
of correlation between ambulacral and thecal structures than is
found in Cystidea as here defined. They form a link between the
Protocrinidae and
Division B. Eublastoidea. Blastoidea in which the thecal
plates have assumed a definite number and position in 3 circlets,
as follows: 3 basals, 2 large and I small; 5 radials, often fork-
shaped, forming a closed circlet; 5 deltoids, inter-
radial in position, supported on the shoulders or
processes of the radials, and often surrounding the
peristome with their oral ends. The stereom of the
radials and deltoids on each side of the ambulacra is
thrown into folds, running across the radio-deltoid
FIG. 13. A suture, and hanging down into the thecal cavity as
Eublastoid, respiratory organs (hydrospires).
Pentremiles. These are the forms to which the name Blastoidea
is usually restricted. They have been divided into
Kegulares and Irregulares, but it seems possible to group them
according to three series or lines of descent, thus:
Series a. Codonoblastida. Families: Codasteridae.Pentremitidae
(fig. 13).
Series b. Troostoblastida. Families: Troostocrinidae, Eleuthero-
crinidae.
Nucleocrinidae, Orbitre-
Series c. Granatoblastida. Families:
mitidae, Pentephyllidae, Zygocrinidae.
Class III. CRINOIDEA. Pelmatozoa in which epithecal extensions
of the food-grooves, ambulacrals, superficial oral nervous system,
blood-vascular and water-vascular systems, coelom >and genital
system are continued exothecally upon jointed outgrowths of the
abactinal thecal plates (brachia), carrying with them extensions of
the abactinal nerve-system. The number of these processes is
primitively and normally five, but may become less by atrophy.
The brachia rise from a corresponding number of thecal plates,
" radials (RR). " Below these is always a circlet, or traces of a circlet,
of plates alternating with the radials, i.e. interradial, and called
" basals (BB)." Through all modifications, which are numerous
and vastly divergent, these elements persist. A circlet of radially
situate infrabasals (IBB) may also be present. Below BB or IBB
there follows a stem, which, however, may be atrophied or totally
lost (see fig. l).
The classification here adopted is that of F. A. Bather (1899),
which departs from that of Wachsmuth and Springer mainly in the
separation of forms with infrabasals or traces thereof from those in
which basals only are present. These two series also differ from
each other in the relations of the abactinal nerve-system. O. Jaekel
(1894) has divided the crinoids into the orders Cladocrinoidea and
Pentacrinoidea, the former being the Camerata of Wachsmuth and
Springer (Monocyclica Camerata, Adunata and Dicyclica Camerata
of the present classification), and the latter comprising all the rest,
in which the arms are either free or only loosely incorporated in the
dorsal cup. In minor points there is fair agreement between the
American, German and British authors. The families are extinct,
except when the contrary is stated.
Sub-class I. Monocyclica. Crinoidea in which the base consists
of BB only, the aboral prolongations of the chambered organ being
interradial ; new columnals are introduced at the extreme proximal
end of the stem.
Order i. Monocyclica Inadunata. Monocyclica in which the
dorsal cup is confined to the patina and occasional intercalated anals ;
such ambulacrals or interambulacrals as enter the tegmen remain
supra-tegminal and not rigidly united. Families: Hybocrinidae,
Stephanpcrinidae, Heterocrinidae, Calceocrinidae, Pisocrinidae,
Zophocrinidae, Haplocrinidae, Allagecrinidae, Symbathocrinidae,
Belemnocrinidae,Plicatocrinidae,Hyocrinidae(recent),Saccocomidae.
Order 2. Adunata. Monocyclica with dorsal cup primitively
confined to the patina and an occasional single anal ; tegmen solid ;
portions of the proximal brachials and their ambulacrals tend to be
rigidly incorporated in the theca. Arms fork once to thrice, and bear
pinnules on each or on every other brachial. BB fused to 3, 2 or I.
(Eucladocrinus and Acrocnnidae offer peculiar exceptions to this
diagnosis.) Families: Platycrinidae, Hexacrinidae, Acrocrinidae.
Order 3. Monocyclica Camerata. Monocyclica in which the first,
and often the succeeding, orders of brachials are incorporated by
interbrachials in the dorsal cup, while the corresponding ambulacrals
are either incorporated in, or pressed below, the tegmen by inter-
ambulacrals; all thecal plates united by suture, somewhat loose in
the earliest forms, but speedily becoming close, and producing a rigid
theca ; mouth and tegminal food-grooves closed ; arms pinnulate.
Sub-order i. Melocrinoidea. RR in contact all round ; first brachial
usually quadrangular. Families: Glyptocrinidae, Melocrinidae,
Patelliocrinidae, Clonocrinidae, Eucalyptocrinidae, Dolato-
crinidae.
Sub-order ii. Batocrinoidea. RR separated by a heptagonal anal ;
first brachial usually quadrangular. Families: Tanaocrinidae,
Xenocrinidae, Carpocrinidae, Barrandeocrinidae, Coelocrinidae,
Batocrinidae, Periechocrinidae.
Sub-order iii. Actinocrinoidea. RR separated by a hexagonal
anal; first brachial usually hexagonal. Families: Actino-
crinidae, Amphoracrinidae.
Sub-class II. Dicyclica. Crinoidea in which the base consists of
BB and IBB, the latter being liable to atrophy or fusion with the
proximale, but the aboral prolongations of the chambered organ
are-always radial ; new columnals may or may not be introduced at
the proximal end of the stem.
Order i. Dicyclica Inadunata. Dicyclica in which the dorsal cup
primitively is confined to the patina and occasional intercalated
anals, and no other plates ever occur between RR (Grade: Dis-
tincta) ; Br may be incorporated in the cup, with or without iBr,
but never rigidly, and their corresponding ambulacrals remain
supra-tegminal (Grade: Articulata); new columnals are introduced
at the extreme proximal end of the stem.
Sub-order i. Cyathocrinoidea. Tegmen stout with conspicuous
orals. Families: Carabocrinidae, Palaeocrinidae, Euspiro-
crinidae, Sphaerocrinidae, Cyathocrinidae, Petalocrimdae,
Crotalocrinidae, Codiacrinidae, Cupressocrinidae, Gastero-
comidae.
Sub-order ii. Dendrocrinoidea. Tegmen thin, flexible, with in-
conspicuous orals. Families: Dendrocrinidae, Botryocrinidae,
Lophocrinidae, Scaphiocrinidae, Scytalecrinidae, Graphio-
crinidae, Cromyocrinidae, Encrinidae (preceding families are
Distincta; the rest Articulata), Pentacrinidae, including the
recent Isocrinus (fig. 14), Uintacrinidae, Marsupitidae, Bathy-
crinidae (recent).
ECHINODERMA
879
Order 2. Flexibilia. Dicyclica in which proximal brachials are
incorporated in the dorsal cup, either by their own sides, or by
interbrachials, or by a finely plated skin, but never rigidly; plates
may occur between RR. Tegmen flexible, with distinct ambulacrals
and numerous small interambulacrals; mouth and food-grooves
remain supra-tegminal and open. Top columnal a persistent
proximale, often fusing with IBB, which are frequently atrophied
in the adult.
All the Palaeozoic representatives have npn-pinnulate arms,
while the Mesozoic and later forms have them pinnulate. There are
other points of difference, so that it is not certain whether the latter
really descended from the former. But assuming such a relationship
we arrange them in two grades.
Grade a, Impinnata. Families: Ichthyocrinidae, Sagenocrinidae,
and Taxpcrinidae, perhaps capable of further division.
Grade b. Pinnata. Families : Apiocrinidae with the recent Calamo-
crinus, Bpurgueticrinidae with recent Rhizocrinus, Antedonidae,
Atelecrinidae, Actinometridae, Thaumatocrinidae (these four
recent families include free-moving forms with atrophied stem,
probably derived from different ancestors), Eugeniacrinidae,
Holopodidae (recent), Eudesicrinidae.
Order 3. Dicyclica Camerata. Dicyclica in which the first, and
usually the second, orders of brachials are incorporated in the dorsal
cup by interbrachials, at
first loosely, but after-
wards by close suture.
IBB always the primi-
tive 5. An anal plate
always rests on the
posterior basal; mouth
and tegminal food-
grooves closed ; arms
pinnulate. Families :
Reteocrinidae, Dimero-
crinidae, Lamptero-
crinidae, Rhodocrinidae,
Cleiocrinidae.
Class IV. EDRIOAS-
TE ROIDEA. Pelmatozoa
in which the theca is
composed of an inde-
finite number of irregular
plates, some of which are
variously differentiated
in different genera; with
no subvective skeletal
appendages, but with
central mouth, from
which there radiate
through the theca five
unbranched ambulacra,
composed of a double
series of alternating
plates (covering-plates),
sometimes supported by
an outer series of larger
alternating plates (side-
plates or flooring-plates).
In some forms at least,
pores between (not
through) the ambulacral
elements, or between
them and the thecal
plates, seem to have
FIG. 14. A living Pentacrinid,7*omn permitted the passage
asteria; the first specimen found, after of extensions from the
Guettard's figure published in 1761. perradial water-vessels.
Anus in posterior inter-
radius, on oral surface, closed by valvular pyramid. Hydropore
(usually, if not always, present) between mouth and anus. Families:
Agelacrinidae, Cyathocystidae, Edrioasteridae, Steganoblastidae.
All Palaeozoic. The structure and importance of Edrioaster have
been discussed above (figs, n, 12).
Grade B. ELEUTHEROZOA. -Echinoderma in which the theca,
which may be but slightly or not at all calcified, is not attached by
any portion of its surface, but is usually placed with the oral surface
downwards or in the direction of forward locomotion. Food is not
conveyed by a subvective system of ciliated grooves, but is taken in
directly by the mouth. The anus when present is typically aboral,
and approaches the mouth only in a few specialized forms. The
aboral nervous system, if indeed it be present at all, is very slightly
developed. The circumoesophageal water-ring may lose its con-
nexion with the exterior medium; the podia (absent only in some
exceptional forms) may be locomotor, respiratory or sensory in
function, but usually are locomotor tube-feet.
The classes of the Eleutherozoa probably arose independently
from different branches of the Pelmatozoan stem. The precise
relation is not clear, but the order in which they are here placed is
believed to be from the more primitive to the more specialized.
Class I. HOLOTHURIOIDEA. Eleutherozoa normally elongate along
the oro-anal axis, which axis and the dorsal hydropore lie in the
sagittal plane of a secondary bilateral symmetry. The calcareous
skeleton, which may be entirely absent, is usually in the form of
minute spicules, sometimes of small irregular plates with no trace
of a calycinal or apical system; to these is added a ring of pieces
radiately arranged round the oesophagus. Ambulacral appendages
take the form of: (i) circumoral tentacles, (2) sucking-feet, (3)
papillae; of these (i) alone is always present. The gonads are not
radiately disposed.
The comparative anatomy of living forms, combined with the
evolutionary hypothesis sketched above, suggests that the early
holpthurians possessed the following characters: subvective grooves
entirely closed; 5 radial canals, proceeding from the water-ring,
gave off branches furnished with ampullae to the podia on each side
of them, the 10 anterior podia being changed into cylindrical ten-
tacles; the transverse muscles of the body-wall formed a circular
layer, probably interrupted at the radii (though Ludwig believes the
contrary); longitudinal muscles as paired radial bands, without
those special retractors for withdrawing the anterior part of the body
which occur in many recent forms; a hydropore connected with the
water-ring by a canal in the dorsal mesentery; a gonopore behind
the hydropore connected by a single duct with a bunch of genital
pouches on each side of the mesentery; gut dextrally coiled, with a
simple blood-vascular system, and with an enlargement at the anus
for respiration, this eventually producing branched caeca called
" respiratory trees"; skeleton reduced to a ring of 5 radial and
5 interradial plates round the gullet, and small plates, with a hex-
agonally meshed network, dispersed through the integument. Such
a form gave rise to descendants differing inter se as regards the
suppression of the radial canals and of the podia, the form of the
tentacles, and the development of respiratory trees. These ana-
tomical facts are represented in the following classification by
H. Ludwig:
Order I. Actinopoda. Radial canals supplying tentacles and
podia.
A. With respiratory trees.
/ i wi. A- r Fam. i, Holothuriidae.
(a) With podia . J Fam. 4, Cucumariidae.
(b) Without podia . *-Fam. 5, Molpadiidae.
B. Without respiratory trees.
(a) With podia . . Fam. 2, Elpidiidae.
(b) Without podia . Fam. 3, Pelagothuriidae.
Order 2. Paractinopoda. Neither radial canals nor podia.
Tentacles supplied from circular canal. Fam. Synaptidae.
It is admitted, however, that this scheme does not represent the
probable descent or relationship of the families. Consideration of
the views of Ludwig himself, of H.
Ostergren, and especially of R. Perrier,
suggests the following as a more natural
if less obvious arrangement.
Order i. Aspidochirota. Tentacles
more or less peltate; calcareous ring
when present simple and radially sym-
metrical; no retractors; stone-canal
often opens to exterior; genital tubes
sometimes restricted to left side in con-
sequence of altered position of gut (Fig.
15.) Families: Elpidiidae (deep-sea
forms, with sub-famm. Synallactinae,
Deimatinae, Elpidiinae, Psychro-
potinae), Holothuriidae (shallow water),
Pelagothuriidae (pelagic).
Order 2. Dendrochirola. Tentacles
simple or branched, never peltate;
calcareous ring well developed, often
bilaterally symmetrical ; retractor
muscles usually present; stone-canal
opens internally; genital tubes in right
and left tufts.
Sub-order i. Apoda. No tube-feet or
papillae, but tentacular ampullae
more or less developed. Mostly
burrowers. Families: Synaptidae
(sub-famm. Synaptinae, Chiro-
dptinae, Myriotrochinae), Molpa-
1 c diidae. _. FlG . i 5 ._An Aspido-
Sub-order 11. Eupoda Tube-feet chirote Holothurian of the
present, but tentacular ampullae f ami i y Holothuriidae, show-
rudimentary or absent. Families: ing tne mouth surround ed
Cucumariidae (climbers and by tentacles, the anus at
crawlers), Rhopalodimdae (bur- the other end of the bod
rowers) and three of the rows o{
Class II. STELLIFORMIA (=ASTER- pc .di a<
OIDEA se.nsu lato). Lleutherozoa with
a depressed stellate body composed of a central disk, whence
radiate five or more rays; this radiate symmetry affects all the
systems of organs, including the genital. The radial water-vessels
he in grooves on the ventral side of flooring-plates (usually called
"ambulacrals"); they and their podia are limited to the oral
surface of the body and their extremities are separated from the
88o
ECHINODERMA
apical plates by a stretch of dorsal integument containing skeletal
elements; the opening of the water- vascular system (madreporite)
is not connected with a definite apical plate or system of plates.
The starfish, brittle-stars and their allies (see STARFISH) have for
the last fifty years usually been divided into two classes Asteroidea
and Ophiuroidea, each equivalent to the Holothurioidea or Echinoi-
dea. Recently, however, some authors, e.g. Gregory, have attempted
to show that these classes cannot be distinguished. It is true that
some specialized forms, such as the Brisingidae among starfish,
AstrophiuraaadOphioteresisamong ophiurans, contravene the usual
diagnoses; but this neither obscures their systematic position, nor
does it alter the fact that since early Palaeozoic times these two
great groups of stellate echinoderms have evolved along separate
fines. If then we place these groups in a single class, it is not on
account of a few anomalous genera, but because the characters set
forth above sharply distinguish them from all other echinoderms,
and because we have good reason to believe that the ophiurans did
not arise independently but have descended from primitive starfish.
For that class Bell's name Stelliformia is selected since it avoids
both confusion and barbarism.
Subclass I. Asterida. Stelliformia in which the ambulacral
groove always remains open and the podia serve as tube-feet (fig. 12,
B) ; the rays as a rule pass gradually into the disk, and contain both
genital glands and caecal extensions of the digestive system; an
anus usually present; respiration is by tubular extensions from
the body-cavity (papulae); skeletal appendages, in addition to
small spines, are either small grasping organs _ (pedicellariae), or
clumped spines (paxillae), or branched spines bearing a membrane.
No existing classification of the Asterida is satisfactory even for
the recent forms, still less when the older fossils are considered.
A separation of the latter as Palasterida, because of their alternating
ambulacrals, from the recent Euasterida with opposite ambulacrals,
is now discarded and an attempt made to arrange the Palasterida
in divisions originally established for Euasterida. Those divisions
fall under three schemes. C. Viguier has divided the starfish into :
Asteries ambulacraires, with plates of ambulacral origin prominent
in the mouth-skeleton, pedicellariae stalked, and straight or crossed,
podial pores usually quadriserial ; Asteries adambtuacraires, with
adambulacrals prominent in the mouth-skeleton, pedicellariae sessile,
and forcipiform or valvular, podial pores usually biserial. Perrier,
at first laying greater stress on the nature of the pedicellariae and
afterwards on the form of the mouth-skeleton, has gradually perfected
a scheme of five orders: (i) Forcipulata, with pedicellariae stalked,
and straight or crossed ; (2) Spinulosa, with pedicellariae sessile and
forcipiform; (3) Velala, with membraniferous spines; (4) Paxillosa,
pedicellariae represented by an ossicle of the test and the spines
covering it, the whole forming a paxilla; (5) Valvata or Granulosa,
with pedicellariae sessile and valvular or salt-cellar shaped. A
more widely accepted scheme is that of W. P. Sladen, who divided
the Euasterida into two orders: (l) Phanerozonia, with marginals
large and highly developed, the supero-marginals and infero-
marginals contiguous, with papulae confined to the dorsal surface,
with ambulacrals well spaced and usually broad, adambulacrals
prominent in the mouth-skeleton, with pedicellariae sessile; (2)
Cryptozonia, with marginals inconspicuous and somewhat atrophied
in the adult, the supero-marginals separated from the infero-
marginals by intercalated plates, with papulae distributed over the
whole body, with ambulacrals crowded and narrow, either ambu-
lacrals or adambulacrals prominent in the mouth-skeleton, with
pedicellariae stalked or sessile.
We give here a list of the families separated into Sladen's
orders and grouped under Perrier's divisions, extinct families being
marked f.
I. Phanerozonia. Unclassed Famm., t Palaeasteridae, f Pal-
asterinidae, t Taeniasteridae, f Aspidosomatidae. Paxillosa,
Luidiidae, Astropectinidae
(fig. 1 6), Archasteridae restr.
Verrill, Porcellanasteridae,
Chaetasteridae. Valvata,
Benthopectinidae, Goniopec-
tinidae, Plutonasteridae,
Odontasteridae, Pentagon-
asteridae, Antheneidae, Pen-
tacerotidae, Gymnasteriidae.
Spimdosa, Poraniidae, Aster-
inidae.
2. Cryptozonia. Un-
classed Famm., f Sturtz-
asteridae ( = Palaeocomidae
Greg.), f Lepidasteridae,
t Tropidasteridae. Valvata,
Linckiidae restr. Perr.
Spinulom, Echinasteridae,
Solaste.-idae (fig. 17), Kore-
thrasteridae. Velata, t Pal-
asteriscidae, Pterasteridae,
Pythonasteridae, Myxaster-
idae. Forcipulata, Stich-
asteridae, Zoroasteridae (fig. 3, D), Heliasteridae, Pedicellasteridae,
Asteriidae, Brisingidae.
FIG. 16. Section across the arm-
skeleton of a Phanerozonate Asterid,
Astropeclen.
a, Ambulacral plates.
b, Adambulacral plates.
c and d. Inferior and superior lateral
plates.
, Dorsal plates with paxillae. Certain
supra- ambulacral plates, which
also exist, are not shown.
Subclass II. Ophiurida. Stelliformia in which the ambulacral
groove, though open in the oldest forms, soon becomes closed, while
the podia cease to serve as tube-feet; the rays as a rule spring
FIG. 17. A Cryptozonate Asterid, Solaster papposus, from the
upper or dorsal surface.
abruptly from the disk and contain neither genital glands nor diges-
tive caeca; no anus; respiration may be through clefts at the bases
of the rays, but not by papulae; skeletal appendages confined to
spines, usually of simple structure.
There is as yet no satisfactory classification of the Ophiurida
into orders expressing lines of descent ; even as regards families,
leading writers are at variance. The following scheme is based on
the attempts of E. Haeckel, F. J. Bell, J. W. Gregory, B. Sturtz,
J. O. E. Perrier, and A. E. Verrill. Extinct families marked t-
Grade A. Palophiurae. Ambulacrals not yet forming complete
vertebrae; plates of disk not yet specialized into mouth, radial or
genital shields.
Stagea.Allostichia ( = Lysophiurae). Ambulacralsalternatingand
unfused, groove uncovered by ventral arm-plates. Families:
t Protasteridae, t Protophiuridae.
Stage 6. Zygostichia. Ambulacrals opposite and, except in Ophi-
urinidae, fused; ventral arm-plates developed in some.
Families: t Ophiurinidae, f Lapworthuridae, t Furcasteridae,
t Palastropectinidae, f Eoluididae, | Palaeophiomyxidae.
Grade B. Colophiurae. Ambulacral pairs fused to form vertebrae
with definite articular surfaces; mouth, radial and genital shields
developed, though not all need be present in any one form.
Order I. Streptophiurae. Rays simple and capable of coiling,
since the vertebrae articulate by a ball-and-socket joint ; arm-plates
incompletely developed. Families: f Onych-
asteridae, Ophiohelidae, Ophioscolecidae, Ophio-
myxidae, Hemieuryalidae, Astrpphiuridae; un-
classified genera, e.g. Ophioteresis, Ophiosciasma,
Ophiogeron.
Order 2. Zygophiurae. Rays simple and pre-
vented from coiling by processes on the vertebral
joints (fig. 18) ; dorsal, ventral and lateral arm-
plates present.
Suborder i. Brachyophiurae. Spines short,
simple, pointing towards the end of the
arm. Families: Pectinuridae ( = Ophioder-
matidae), Ophiolepididae.
Suborder ii. Nectophiurue. Spines may be
variously elaborated and are set mere at ^',
right angles to the arm-axis. Families: Jg *
Amphiuridae, Ophiacanthidae, Ophio- ( fud
comidae, Ophiothrfchidae.
Order 3. Cladophiurae ( = Euryalae). Ravs
simple or branched, capable of coiling, since the -A, Proximaljomt-
vertebrae articulate by surfaces of hour-glass
shape; ventral arm-plates, and often the others, B
much reduced ; spines reduced or absent. Fami-
lies: Euryalidae, Gorgonocephalidae, Astro- c >
chelidae, Astroschemidae, Astronycidae.
The Silurian genera Eucladia and Euthemon
have the rays greatly reduced and merged in the
disk, so that the ambulacrals are unseen. There
are a few large dorsal, lateral and ventral arm-
plates, and at the angles of the latter emerge
huge podia with a granular or plated skin.
There are five prominent mouth-shields and a
separate madreporite on the ventral surface. These genera attained
the Colophiuran grade in respect of external plating, but it is unlikely
B
FIG. 18. A ver-
Distal joint-
face.
Ventral groove,
where lies the
water -vessel,
from which
branches pass
through the
ossicle, emerg-
ing as podia
at e and e.
ECHINODERMA
that they or their ancestors had acquired even the Streptophiuran
type of vertebra. Sollas has separated them as an order Ophiocistia.
Class III. ECHINOIDEA. Eleutherozoa with a test of roughly
circular, subpentagonal or elliptical outline, 'spheroidal, domed or
flattened, of primary pentameric symmetry affecting all systems of
organs except the gut. The radial water- vessels lie within the test
through which their podia pass (fig. 12, D) ; the ambulacra thus
formed are continuous from the peristome to the apical system of
plates; the hydropore is connected with a definite plate of that
system, and thus marks a secondary bilateral symmetry. An anus is
present either within the apica! system (endocyclic, fig. 3, A and B),
or outside it in an interradius (exocyclic, fig. 19, 7), thus initiating
yet another bilateral symmetry. Skeletal appendages are spines
(radicles), pedicellariae, and, in some forms, minute sense-organs
called sphaeridia.
The echinoids or sea-archins (see SEA-URCHIN) may be grouped
under the following orders, here named in the sequence of their
appearance in the rocks.
Order I. Bothriocidaroida. Ambulacrals simple, each with two
pores vertically superposed, 2 columns to each ambulacrum; inter-
ambulacrals multituberculate, in I column, none passing on to
or resorbed by the peristome; mouth central, jaws unknown, no
external gills or sphaeridia; anus aboral, endocyclic. Sole genus
Bothriocidaris (fig. 5), Ordovician.
Order 2. Jlfe/onitotda. Ambulacrals simple, each with two pores
horizontally juxtaposed, in 2 to 18 columns; interambulacrals granu-
late with occasional tubercles, in 3 to 1 1 columns, not more than one
row passing on to the peristome; mouth central, with jaws, no
external gills or sphaeridia; anus aboral, endocyclic. Families:
Palechinidae (fig. 19, l), Melonitidae and Lepidesthidae, Silurian to
Carboniferous.
Order 3. Cystocidaroida. Ambulacrals simple, each with one or
two pores, which sometimes pass between rather than through the
plates, in 2 columns; interambulacrals, uni- or multi-tuberculate, in
numerous (say ip or more) columns, none passing on to peristome;
mouth central with jaws, no external gills or sphaeridia; position of
anus doubtful, acyclic, i.e. no apical system so far as known. Include
only Echinocystis, Palaeodiscus and (?) Myriastiches, all Upper
Silurian.
Order 4. Cidaroida. Ambulacrals simple, each with two pores
horizontally juxtaposed, in 2 columns; interambulacrals uni-
tuberculate, in 2 to 1 1 columns, some rows may pass on to the peri-
stome; mouth central, with jaws, no external gills or sphaeridia;
anus aboral, endocyclic. Families: Lepidocentridae and Archaeo-
cidaridae (fig. 19,2), Devonian and Carboniferous ; Cidaridae (fig. 19,
3,4), Permian to present ; Diplocidaridae and Tiarechinidae, Mesozoic.
Order 5. Diademoida. Ambulacrals generally compound, with
two pores obliquely juxtaposed, in 2 columns as in all subsequent
orders; interambulacrals usually with large radicles surrounded by
smaller ones, as in Cidaroida, in 2 columns as in all subsequent
orders, only one plate resorbed; mouth central, with jaws and
external gills, sphaeridia present; anus aboral endocyclic. J. W.
Gregory divides this into four suborders, each representing a
distinct evolutionary series; i. Calycina, Saleniidae (fig. 19, 5) and
Acrosaleniidae ; ii. Arbacina, Hemicidaridae and Arbaciidae; iii.
Diademina, Orthopsidae, Diadematidae, Diplopodiidae, Pedinidae,
FIG. 19. Denuded tests of some fossil Echinoids.
1, Palaeechinus; Carboniferous. 6, Dysaster; Jurassic.
2, Aplateand radioleof Archaeo- 7, Enallaster; Cretaceous.
cidaris; Carboniferous. 8, Catopygus; Cretaceous. All
3, A radiole of Cidaris; Jurassic. except 2 and 3 are reduced in
4, Hemicidaris; Mid. Jurassic. size.
5, Salenia; Cretaceous.
Cyphosomatidae, and Echinothuridae ; iv. cAitwa,Temnopleuridae,
Triplechinidae, Strongylocentrotidae and Echinometridae. The
order is Triassic to Recent.
Order 6. Holectypoida. Ambulacrals sometimes compound, with
one or two pores to a plate, some dorsal podia begin to assume
respiratory function; interambulacrals multi-tuberculate, none
resorbed; mouth central, with jaws weak or wanting, with external
gills and sphaeridia; anus exocyclic. Families: Pygasteridae,
Discoidiidae, Galeritidae, Conoclypeidae ; Jurassic to Recent
Order 7. Spatangoida. Ambulacrals simple, with two pores
juxtaposed, dorsal podia respiratory; interambulacrals bearing
numerous small spines, none resorbed; mouth central or shifted
forwards, with no jaws or external gills, sphaeridia numerous; anus
exocyclic. As the mouth moves forward and the anus downward,
the posterior interambulacrals between them are enlarged and
strengthened so as to form a sternum. The order may therefore be
divided into: (i.) Asternata, Famm. Echinoneidae, Nucleolitidae
and Cassidulidae (fig. 19, 8) ; (ii.) Sternata, Famm. Collyritidae (fig.
19, 6), Echinocorytidae, Spatangidae (fig. 19, 7), Palaeostomidae,
and Pourtalesiidae ; Jurassic to Recent.
Order 8. Clypeastroida. Ambulacrals simple or compound, with
two pores juxtaposed, dorsal podia respiratory; interambulacrals
multi-tuberculate, none resorbed ; mouth central with flattened
unequal jaws, reduced external gills, and few sphaeridia; anus
exocyclic. Families: Fibulariidae, Laganidae, Scutellidae, Clype-
astridae ; Cretaceous to Recent.
Cambrian
Ordooician
BOTHRIOCIDAROIDA Ijavt miliin**)
Silurian MEuONiToiOA -
* t
Devonian
Carboniferous
Permian
Trias
Jurassic
Cretaceous
Tertiary
Recent
CYSTO-
CIDAR-
OIDA]
DIXOEMOIDA
ICLYPEASTROIDA
'SPATANOOIDA
jaiui lofty 1 jauit flat - reduced lost
- abranchiate IL branchiate J ^-lipobranchiate >
-no sphaeridia 1 1 i sphaeridia i
-endocyclic-
FlG. 20.
-exocyclle.
The probable relationship of these orders is shown in the annexed
table. Here the Cystocidaroida occupy an isolated position. It is,
however, quite possible that Echinocystis may some day be referred
to the Cidaroida, and Palaeodiscus to the Melonitoida. This would
leave the Echinoid scheme remarkably simple, with the Melonitoida
and Cidaroida as divergent branches from an ancestor like Bolhrio-
cidaris; but while the former branch soon decayed, the latter
continues to flourish at the present day. To take the Echinoidea
now living, and to divide them into Endocyclica and Exocyclica,
Branchiate and Abranchiate, Gnathostomata and Atelostomata, is
easy and convenient; or again to distinguish as Palechinoidea
those pre-Jurassic genera which do not conform to the fixed type of
twenty vertical columns found in the later Euechinoidea, is to
express an interesting fact; but all such divisions obscure the true
relationships, and the corresponding terms should be recognized as
descriptive rather than classificatory.
AUTHORITIES. In addition to the works referred to at the be-
ginning of the article, the following deal with the general subject:
Bather, Gregory and Goodrich, ' Echinoderma," in Lankester's
Treatise on Zoology (London, 1900); F. J. Bell, Catalogue of the
British Echinoderms in the British Museum (London, 1892); P. H.
Carpenter, " Notes on Echinoderm Morphology," Quart. Journ.
Micr. Set., 1878-1887: Y. Delage and E. H6rouard, Trails de
zoologie concrete, iii., Echinodermes (Paris, 1904); A. Lang, Text-
Book of Comparative Anatomy, transl., part ii. (London, 1896);
Ludwig and Hamann, " Echinodermen," in Bronn's Klassen und
Ordnungen des Tierreichs (Leipzig, 1889), in progress; M. Neumayr,
Die Stdmme des Tierreiches (Wien, 1889); P. B. and C. F. Sarasin,
" Uber die Anatomic der Echinothuriden und die Phylogenie der
Echinodermen," Ergebnisse naturw. Forsch. auf Ceylon, Bd. i Heft 3
(Wiesbaden, 1888) ; R. Semon, " Die Homologien innerhalb des
Echinodermenstammes," Morph. Jahrb. (1889); W. P. Sladen,
" Homologies of the Primary Larval Plates in the Test of Brachiate
Echinoderms," Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., 1884; K. A. v. Zittel,
Handbuch der . . . Palaozooloeie, i. pp. 308-560 (Munchen, 1879);
also Grundziige, translated and revised by C. R. Eastman as Text-
882
ECHINUS ECHIUROIDEA
Book of Palaeontology (New York and London, 1899). The larger
treatises here mentioned contain very full bibliographies, and a
complete analytical index to the annual literature of the Echino-
derma has for many years been published in the Zoological- Record
(London). (F. A. B.)
ECHINUS (Gr. for " hedge-hog " or " sea-urchin "), in archi-
tecture, the convex moulding which supports the abacus of the
Doric column. The term is sometimes given to the ovolo of the
Ionic capital, especially when curved with the egg-and-tongue
enrichment. The origin of this use of the word in architecture,
which conies down from ancient times, is uncertain.
ECHIUROIDEA (Gr. ?x, adder, and oupd, tail), the zoo-
logical name for a small group of marine animals which show
in their larval life-history a certain degree of segmentation, and
are therefore grouped by some authorities as Annelids. Formerly,
together with the Sipunculoidea and Priapuloidea, they made up
the class Gephyrea, but on the ground that they retain in the
adult a large preoral lobe (the proboscis), that they have anal
vesicles, that their anus is terminal, that setae are found, and
finally that they are segmented in the larval stage, they have
been removed from the class, which by the proposed further
separation of the Priapuloidea on account of their unique renal
and reproductive organs, has practically ceased to exist.
Echiuroids are animals of moderate size, varying roughly
from one to six or seven centimetres in length, exclusive of
the proboscis. This organ is capable of very considerable ex-
tension, and may attain a length in Bonellia viridis of about a
metre and a half (fig. i). It is grooved ventrally and ciliated.
At its attachment
to the body the
groove sinks into
the mouth. In
Bonellia the pro-
boscis is forked at
its free end, but in
the other genera it
is short and un-
forked. The body is
somewhat sausage-
shaped, with the
anus at the pos-
terior extremity,
surrounded in
Echiurus by a single
or double ring of
setae. The skin is
usually wrinkled,
and in B. viridis,
Thalassema lankes-
teri, Th. baronii,
Hamingia arctica,
and in the larva
of many species, is
of a lively green
FIG. i. A, Bonellia viridis, Rol., 9; B, B. colour. A pair of
fulieinosa. Both natural size, o, grooved curved bristles,
proboscis; 6, mouth; c, ventral hooks; d, formedin truesetal
tillUS. (
sacs as in Chaeto-
poda, project from the body a short distance behind the
mouth, and are moved by special muscles; they are of use in
helping the animal to move slowly about, and they take a large
share in the burrowing movements (C. B. Wilson, Biol. Bull.,
1900) , for some species tunnel in the mud and sand and form more
or less permanent burrows, the walls of which are strengthened
by mucus secreted from the skin. The openings of the burrows
become silted up, leaving, however, a small aperture through
which the proboscis is extruded. This organ carefully searches
the neighbourhood for particles of food. When these are found
the grooved proboscis folds its walls inwards, and the cilia pass
the particles down the tube thus formed to the mouth. Echiu-
roids also move by extending the proboscis, which takes hold of
some fixed object, and, then contracting, draws the body for-
wards. Recently it has been shown that Echiurus swims freely
B
at night-time, using for locomotion both the proboscis and the
contraction of the muscles of its body-wall. The motion is
described as " gyratory," and the anterior end is always carried
foremost. Those species which do not burrow usually conceal
themselves in crevices of the rocks or under stones, or at times in
empty Mollusc or Echinid shells. They are occasionally used by
fishermen for bait.
Anatomy (fig. 2). A thin cuticle covers the epidermis, which
contains mucus-secreting glands. Beneath the epidermis is a layer
FIG. 2. Female Bonellia viridis, Rol. Opened along the
left side. X2.
a, Proboscis cut short.
b, Bristle passing through
the mouth into the
pharynx.
c, Coiled intestine.
d, Anal tufts or vesicles.
e, Ventral nerve cord.
/, Ovary borne on ventral vessel
running parallel with e.
g. Position of anus. [nephridium.
h, Position of external opening of
', Nephridium the line points
towards, but does not reach,
the internal opening.
of circular muscles, then a layer of longitudinal, and finally in some
cases a layer of oblique muscle-fibres. The inner face of this muscular
skin is lined by a layer of epithelium. The coelomic body-cavity is
spacious. It does not extend into the proboscis, which is a solid
organ traversed by the nervous and vascular rings, but otherwise
largely built up of muscle fibres and connective tissue. Many sense-
cells he in the epidermis. The ciliated ventral groove of the proboscis
leads at its base into the simple mouth, which gives access to the
thin-walled alimentary canal. This is longer than the body, and to
tuck it away it is looped from side to side. The loops are supported
by strands of connective tissue, which in some species are united so
as to form a dorsal mesentery, whilst traces of a ventral mesentery
are met with anteriorly and posteriorly (H. L. Jameson, Zool. Jahrb.
Anat., 1899). The alimentary canal is divisible into fore-gut,
mid-gut and hind-gut, and the first-named can be further divided
into pharynx, oesophagus, gizzard and crop, mainly on histological
grounds. The mid-gut is characterized by the presence of a ciliated
groove, from which arises the collateral intestine or siphon, a second
tube which rejoins the alimentary canal lower down. Similar
collateral intestmesare familiar in the Echinids and certain Pplychaets
(Capitellidae). The rectum receives the openings of a pair of very
characteristic organs, the anal vesicles. Each consists of a branching
tube, the tips of whose twigs terminate in minute ciliated funnels.
ECHMIADZIN
883
The anal vesicles are thought to be excretory ; whether this be so or
not, they undoubtedly have some influence on the amount of fluid
found in the coelom. The coelomic fluid contains as a rule both
amoeboid and rounded corpuscles, and, when ripe, the products of
the gonads. A closed system of vessels, usually called the vascular
system, is present. There are, however, no capillaries connected
with this, and it is confined to certain portions of the body. It can
possess few of the functions usually associated with a vascular
system, and its main use is probably to assist in the expansion of the
proboscis. The system consists of the following parts : A dorsal
vessel applied to the alimentary canal is continued anteriorly into
a median vessel, which traverses the proboscis to its tip. Here the
vessel splits, and each
half returns along the
lateral edge of the pro-
boscis; they reunite
around the oesophagus
and form a single ventral
vessel, which lies above
the ventral nerve-cord.
The ventral vessel,
which ends solidly be-
hind, sends off a branch
which forms a ring
around the intestine
and opens into the
posterior extremity of
the dorsal vessel. In
Echiurus and Thalas-
sema the same vessel
forms a ring round a
stout muscle, which con-
nects the bases of the
two ventral setae before
passing to surround the
intestine. Amoeboid
corpuscles float in the
fluid contents. The
nephridia vary in num-
ber from a single one in
Bonellia to three pairs
in many species of
Thalassema. Their ex-
ternal openings are ven-
tral, and on the same
level as the ciliated
funnel-shaped nephro-
stomes. The posterior
wall of the organ is
produced into a Jong
blind-sac, which is lined
by secretory cells. The
nervous system is a single
ventral cord, which
starts from a circum-
oesophageal ring. This
ring is involved in the
FIG. 3. Adult male, Bonellia viridis, growth of the proboscis,
Rol. The original was 1-5 mm. long. The and is drawn out with
nervous system is not shown. (After it. Thus there is a
Selenka.) lateral nerve near each
o, Generative pore with spermatozoa et jg. e u of t he proboscis
coming out.
which
s __ M unites with its
b, Anterior* blind end of intestine attached fellow dorsatly above
to the parenchymatous tissue by tp e oesophagus at the
muscular strands.
c, Green wandering cells containing
chlorophyll.
d, Parenchymatous connective tissue.
e, Epidermis.
i, Intestine.
7, Vas deferens.
I, Internal opening of vas deferens.
m. The left anal vesicle.
n, Spermatozoa in the body-cavity.
tip of the proboscis,
and ventrally beneath
the oesophagus, where
they fuse to form the
ventral nerve-cord.
There are no specialized
ganglia, but ganglion-
cells are scattered uni-
formly along the nerve-
cords. The ventral cord
gives off rings, which
The reproductive cells
on the ventral vessel.
run into the skin at regular intervals,
are modified coelomic cells, which lie
They escape into the coelomic fluid and there develop. When
mature they leave the body through the nephridia. Bonellia and
Hamingia are very interesting examples of sexual dimorphism.
The female has the normal Echiuroid structure, but the male is
reduced to a minute, flattened, planarian-like organism, which
passes its life usually in the company of two or three others in a
special recess of the nephridia of the female. Its structure may be
gathered by a reference to fig. 3.
Larva. The larva is a typical trochosphere, which, although of a
temporary character, shows a distinct segmentation of the mesoblast,
of the nervous system, and of the ciliated and pigmented structures
in the skin, resembling that of Chaetopods. The preoral lobe persists
as the proboscis. The sexes of the larvae are not determinate in the
early stages, but when a certain growth has been reached in Bonellia
the males seek the proboscis of the adult females, and passing into
the mouth undergo there the transformation into the planarian-like
parasite which is the fully-formed male. This now creeps along the
body of the female and takes up its home in her nephridia.
Classification and Distribution. The Echiuroidea consists of
the following genera: (i) Bonellia (Rol.), with four species,
widely distributed, but inhabiting the temperate and warmer
waters of each hemisphere. (2) Echiurus (Guerin-M6neville),
with four species. This genus reaches from the Arctic waters
of both hemispheres into the cooler temperate regions. (3)
Hamingia (Kor. and Dan.), with one species, which has been
taken in the Arctic Sea and the Hardanger Fjord. (4) Saccosoma
(Kor. and Dan.) was described from a single specimen dredged
about half-way between Iceland and Norway. (5) Thalassema
(Gaertner, Lamarck), with twenty-one species. This genus is
in the main a denizen of the warmer waters of the globe. Sixteen
species are found only in tropical or subtropical seas, three
species are Mediterranean (Mt. Slat. Neapel, 1890), whilst three
species are from the eastern Atlantic, where the temperature
is modified by the Gulf Stream (Shipley; see Willey's Zoological
Results, part iii. 1899; Proc. Zool. Soc. Land., 1898, 1899; and
Cambridge Natural History, ii.). The following are found in the
British area: E. pallasii Guerin-Meneville), Th. neptuni
(Gaertner), and Th. lankesteri (Herdman, Q.J.M.S., 1898).
Affinities. The occurrence of trochosphere larva and the
temporary segmentation of the body have led to the belief that
the Echiuroids are more nearly allied to the Annelids than
to any other phylum. This view is strengthened by certain
anatomical and histological resemblances to the genus Slernaspis,
which in one species, 5. spinosa, is said to carry a bifid proboscis
resembling that of the Echiuroids. (A. E. S.)
ECHMIADZIN, or ITSMIADSIN, a monastery of Russian
Transcaucasia, in the government of Erivan, the seat of the
Catholicus or primate of the Armenian church. It is situated
close to the village of Vagarshapat, in the plain of the Aras,
2840 ft. above the sea, 12 m. W. of Erivan and 40 N. of Mount
Ararat. The monastery comprises a pretty extensive complex
of buildings, and is surrounded by brick walls 30 ft. high, which
with their loopholes and towers present the appearance of a
fortress. Its architectural character has been considerably
impaired by additions and alterations in modern Russian
style. On the western side of the quadrangle is the residence
of the primate, on the south the refectory (1730-1735), on the
east the lodgings for the monks, and on the north the cells. The
cathedral is a small but fine cruciform building with a Byzantine
cupola at the intersection. Its foundation is ascribed to St
Gregory the Illuminator in 302. Of special interest is the porch,
built of red porphyry, and profusely adorned with sculptured
designs somewhat of a Gothic character. The interior is
decorated with Persian frescoes of flowers, birds and scroll-work.
It is here that the Catholicus confers episcopal consecration by
the sacred hand (relic) of St Gregory; and here every seven
years he prepares with great solemnity the holy oil which is to
be used throughout the churches of the Armenian communion.
Outside of the main entrance are the alabaster tombs of the
primates Alexander I. ( 1 7 14) , Alexander II. ( 1 7 55) , Daniel (i 806)
and Narses (1857), and a white marble monument, erected by
the English East India Company to mark the resting-place of
Sir John Macdonald Kinneir, who died at Tabriz in 1830, while
on an embassy to the Persian court. The library of the monas-
tery is a rich storehouse of Armenian literature (see Brosset's
Catalogue de la bibliotheque d' Eichmiadzin, St Petersburg, 1840).
Among the more remarkable manuscripts are a copy of the
gospels dating from the loth or i ith century, and three bibles
of the I3th century. A type-foundry, a printing-press and a
bookbinding establishment are maintained by the monks who
supply religious and educational works for their co-religionists.
To the east of the monastery is a modern college and seminary.
Half a mile to the east stand the churches of St Ripsime and
St Gaiana, two of the early martyrs of Armenian Christianity;
the latter is the burial-place of those primates who are not
ECHO ECK
deemed worthy of interment beside the cathedral. From a
distance the three churches form a fairly striking group, and
accordingly the Turkish name for Echmiadzin is Uch-Kilissi,
or the Three Churches. The town of Vagarshapat dates from
the 6th century B.C.; it takes its name from King Vagarsh
(Vologaeses), who in the 2nd century A.D. chose it as his residence
and surrounded it with walls. Here the apostle of Armenia,
St Gregory the Illuminator, erected a church in 309 and with
it the primacy was associated. In 344 Vagarshapat ceased to
be the Armenian capital, and in the sth century the patriarchal
seat was removed to Dvin, and then to Ani. The monastery
was founded by Narses II., who ruled 524-533; and a restora-
tion was effected in 618. The present name of the monastery
was adopted instead of Vagarshapat in the loth century. At
length in 1441 the primate George brought back the see to the
original site. (P. A. K.; J.T. BE.)
ECHO (Gr. faw), in Greek mythology, one of the Oreades or
mountain nymphs, the personification of the acoustical pheno-
menon known by this name. She was beloved by Pan, but
rejected his advances. Thereupon the angry god drove the
shepherds of the district mad; they tore Echo in pieces, and
scattered her limbs broadcast, which still retained the gift of
song (Longus iii. 23). According to Ovid (Metam. iii. 356-401),
Echo by her incessant talking having prevented Juno from
surprising Jupiter with the Nymphs, Juno changed her into an
" echo " a being who could not speak till she was spoken to,
and then could only repeat the last words of the speaker. While
in this condition she fell in love with Narcissus, and in grief at
her unrequited affection wasted away until nothing remained
but her voice and bones, which were changed into rocks. The
legends of Echo are of late, probably Alexandrian, origin, and
she is first personified in Euripides.
In acoustics an " echo " is a return of sound from a reflecting
surface (see SOUND: Reflection).
See F. Wieseler, Die Nymphe Echo (1854), and Narkissos (1856);
P. Decharme in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquites,
ECHTERNACH, a town in the grand duchy of Luxemburg,
on the Sure, close to the Prussian frontier. Pop. (1905) 3484.
It is the oldest town in Luxemburg, and was the centre from
which the English Saint Willibrord converted the people to
Christianity in the 7th century. There are the Benedictine
abbey, the hospital almshouse, which is said to be the oldest
hospital in Europe except the H&tel-Dieu in Paris, and the
church of St Peter and St Paul. The Benedictine abbey has been
greatly shorn of its original dimensions, but the basilica remains
a fair monument of Romano-Gothic art. The church of St Peter
and St Paul stands on an isolated mound, and for the ascent
sixty steps have been built in the side, and these are well worn
by the tread of numerous pilgrims who come in each succeeding
year. The interior of the church is curious more than imposing,
and is specially noteworthy only for its gloom. Under the altar,
and below a white marble effigy of himself, lies Saint Willibrord.
Echternach is famous, however, in particular for the dancing
procession held on Whit-Tuesday every year. The origin of this
festival is uncertain, but it dates at least from the I3th century
and was probably instituted during on outbreak of cholera.
Nowadays it is an occasion of pilgrimage, among Germans and
Belgians as well as Luxemburgers, for all sick persons, but
especially for the epileptic and those suffering from St Vitus'
dance. The ceremony is interesting, and the Roman Catholic
Church lends all its ritual to make it more imposing. The
archbishop of Trier attends to represent Germany, and the
bishop of Luxemburg figures for the grand duchy. There is a
religious ceremony on the Prussian side of the bridge over the
Sure, and when it is over the congregation cross into the duchy
to join the procession, partly religious, partly popular, through
the streets of the town. The religious procession, carrying
cross and banners and attended by three hundred singers, comes
first, chanting St Willibrord's hymn. Next comes a band of
miscellaneous instruments playing as a rule the old German air
" Adam had seven sons," and then follow the dancers. Many
of these are young and full of life and health and dance for
amusement, but many others are old or feeble and dance in the
hope of recovery or of escaping from some .trouble, but on all
alike the conditions of the dance are incumbent. There are
three steps forward and two back; five steps are thus taken to
make one in advance. This becomes especially trying at the
flight of steps mounting to the little church where the procession
ends in front of the shrine of the great saint. There are sixty
steps, but it takes three hundred to reach the top for the final
time. It is said that those who fall from age or weariness have
to be dragged out of the way by onlookers or they would be
trampled to death by the succeeding waves of dancers. The
procession, although it covers a distance of less than a mile, is
said to take as much as five hours in its accomplishment. In
olden days the abbey was the goal of the procession, and King
William I. of the Netherlands great-grandfather of Queen
Wilhelmina changed the day from Tuesday to Sunday so that
a working day should not be lost. This reform did not answer,
and the ancient order was restored. Some critics see in the
dancing procession of Echternach merely the survival of the
spring dance of the heathen races, but at any rate it invests the
little town with an interest and importance that would otherwise
be lacking.
ECHUCA, a borough of the county of Rodney, Victoria,
Australia, 156 m. by rail N. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 4075.
It is situated on the river Murray, across which it is connected
by bridge with Moama, on the New South Wales side, whence
a railway runs to Deniliquin. The town is the terminus of the
Murray River railway and the entrepot of the overland inter-
colonial trade; it has large wool stores, saw-mills, coach factories,
breweries and soap-works. The rich agricultural district is
noted for its vineyards.
CIJA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Seville;
on the Cadiz-Cordova railway and the left bank of the river
Genii. Pop. (1900) 24,372. The river, thus far navigable, is
here crossed by a fine old bridge; and the antiquity of the town
betrays itself by the irregularity of its arrangement, by its walls
and gateways, and by its numerous inscriptions and other relics.
Its chief buildings include no fewer than twenty convents, mostly
secularized. The principal square is surrounded with pillared
porticoes, and has a fountain in the centre; and along the river
bank there runs & fine promenade, planted with poplar trees
and adorned with statues. From an early period the shoemakers
of Ecija have been in high repute throughout Spain; woollen
cloth, flannel, linen and silks are also manufactured. The
vicinity is fertile in corn and wine, and cotton is cultivated.
The heat is so great that the spot has acquired the sobriquet
of El Sarten, or the " Frying-pan " of Andalusia. Ecija, called
Estija by the Arabs, is the ancient Astigis, which was raised to the
rank of a Roman colony with the title of Augusta Firma. Ac-
cording to Pliny and Pomponius Mela, who both wrote in the ist
century A.D., it was the rival of Cordova and Seville. If local
tradition may be believed, it was visited by the apostle Paul,
who converted his hostess Santa Xantippa; and, according to
one version of his life, it was the see of the famous St Crispin
(q.v.) in the 3rd century.
ECK, JOHANN MAIER (1486-1543), German theologian,
the most indefatigable and important opponent of Martin
Luther, was born on the I3th of November 1486 at Eck in
Swabia, from which place he derived his additional surname,
which he himself, after 1505, always modified into Eckius or
Eccius, i.e. " of Eck." His father, Michael Maier, was a peasant
and bailiff (Amtmann) of the village. The boy's education was
undertaken by his uncle Martin Maier, parish priest at Rothen-
burg on the Neckar, who sent him at the age of twelve to the
university of Heidelberg, and subsequently to those of Tubingen,
Cologne and Freiburg in the Breisgau. His academic career
was so rapidly successful that at the age of twenty-four he
was already doctor and professor of theology. During this
period he was distinguished for his opposition to the scholastic
philosophy; and, though he did not go to all lengths with the
" modernists " (Modern^ of his day, his first work Logices
exercitamenta (i 507) was distinctly on their side. This attitude
ECKERMANN
885
brought him into conflict with the senate of the university,
a conflict which Eck's masterful temper, increased by an extreme
self-confidence perhaps natural in one so young and so success-
ful, did not serve to allay. His position in Freiburg becoming
intolerable, he accepted in 1510 an invitation from the duke
of Bavaria to fill the theological chair at Ingolstadt, where he
was destined for thirty years to exercise a profound influence
as teacher and vice-chancellor (Prokanzler) .
A ducal commission, appointed to find a means for ending the
interminable strife between the rival academic parties, entrusted
Eck with the preparation of fresh commentaries on Aristotle and
Petrus Hispanus. He had a marvellous capacity for work, and
between 1516 and 1520, in addition to all his other duties, he
published commentaries on the Summulae of Petrus Hispanus,
and on the Dialectics, Physics and lesser scientific works of
Aristotle, which became the text-books of the university.
During these early years Eck was still reckoned among the
" modernists," and his commentaries are inspired with much
of the scientific spirit of the New Learning. His aim, however,
had been to find a via media between the old and new; his
temper was essentially conservative, his imagination held captive
by the splendid traditions of the medieval church, and he had
no sympathy with the revolutionary attitude of the Reformers.
Personal ambition, too, a desire to be conspicuous in the great
world of affairs, may have helped to throw him into public
opposition to Luther. He had won laurels in a public disputation
at Augsburg in 1514, when he had defended the lawfulness
of putting out capital at interest; again at Bologna in 1515, on
the same subject and on the question of predestination; and these
triumphs had been repeated at Vienna in 1516. By these
successes he gained the patronage of the Fuggers, and found
himself fairly launched as the recognized apologist of the estab-
lished order in church and state. Distinguished humanists might
sneer at him as " a garrulous sophist "; but from this time his
ambition was not only to be the greatest scientific authority
in Germany but also the champion of the papacy and of the
traditional church order. The first-fruits of this new resolve
were a quite gratuitous attack on his old friend, the distinguished
humanist and jurist Ulrich Zasius (1461-1536), for a doctrine
proclaimed ten years before, and a simultaneous assault on
Erasmus's Annotationes in Novum Teslamentum.
It is, however, by his controversy with Luther and the other
reformers that Eck is best remembered. Luther, who had some
personal acquaintance with Eck, sent him in 1517 copies of his
celebrated 95 theses. Eck made no public reply; but in 1518
he circulated, privately at first, his Obelisci, in which Luther
was branded as a Hussite. Luther entrusted his defence to
Carlstadt, who, besides answering the insinuations of Eck in 400
distinct theses, declared his readiness to meet him in a public
disputation. The challenge was accepted, and the disputation
took place at Leipzig in June and July 1519. On June 27 and
28 and on July i and 3 Eck disputed with Carlstadt on the
subjects of grace, free will and good works, ably defending
the Roman Semipelagian standpoint. From July 4 to 14 he
engaged with Luther on the absolute supremacy of the papacy,
purgatory, penance, &c., showing a brilliant display of patristic
and conciliar learning against the reformer's appeals to Scripture.
The arbitrators declined to give a verdict, but the general im-
pression was that victory rested with Eck. He did, indeed, succeed
in making Luther admit that there was some truth in the Hussite
opinions and declare himself against the pope, but this success
only embittered his animosity against his opponents, and from
that time his whole efforts were devoted to Luther's overthrow.
He induced the universities of Cologne and Louvain to condemn
the reformer's writings, but failed to enlist the German princes,
and in January 1520 went to Rome to obtain strict regulations
against those whom he called " Lutherans." He was created a
protonotary apostolic, and in July returned to Germany, as
papal nuncio, with the celebrated bull Exsurge Domine directed
against Luther's writings. He now believed himself in a position
to crush not only the Lutheran heretics, but also his humanist
critics. The effect of the publication of the bull, however,
soon undeceived him. Bishops, universities and humanists were
at one in denunciation of the outrage; and as for the attitude
of the people, Eck was glad to escape from Saxony with a whole
skin. In his wrath he appealed to force, and his Epislola ad
Carolum V. (February 18, 1521) called on the emperor to take
measures against Luther, a demand soon to be responded to in
the edict of Worms. In 1521 and 1522 Eck was again in Rome,
reporting on the results of his nunciature. On his return from
his second visit he was the prime mover in the promulgation
of the Bavarian religious edict of 1522, which practically
established the senate of the university of Ingolstadt as a
tribunal of the Inquisition, and led to years of persecution. In
return for this action of the duke, who had at first been opposed
to the policy of repression, Eck obtained for him, during a third
visit to Rome in 1 523, valuable ecclesiastical concessions. Mean-
while he continued unabated in his zeal against the reformers,
publishing eight considerable works between 1522 and 1526.
His controversial ardour was, indeed, somewhat damped by
Luther's refusal to answer his arguments, and with a view to
earning fresh laurels he turned his attention to Switzerland
and the Zwinglians. At Baden-in-Aargau in May and June 1526
a public disputation on the doctrine of transubstantiation was
held, in which Eck and Thomas Murner were pitted against
Johann Oecolampadius. Though Eck claimed the victory in
argument, the only result was to strengthen the Swiss in their
memorial view of the Lord's Supper, and so to diverge them
further from Luther. At the Augsburg diet in 1530 Eck was
charged by Charles V. to draw up, in concert with twenty other
theologians, the refutation of the Protestant Confession, but
was obliged to rewrite it five times before it suited the emperor.
He was at the colloquy of Worms in 1540 and at the diet of
Regensburg (Ratisbon) in 1541. At Worms he showed some
signs of a willingness to compromise, but at Regensburg his old
violence reasserted itself in opposing all efforts at reconciliation
and persuading the Catholic princes to reject the Interim.
Eck died at Ingolstadt on the toth of February 1543, fighting
to the last and worn out before his time. He was undoubtedly
the most conspicuous champion produced by the old religion in
the age of the Reformation, but his great gifts were marred by
greater faults. His vast learning was the result of a powerful
memory and unwearied industry, and he lacked the creative
imagination necessary to mould this material into new forms.
He was a powerful debater, but his victories were those of a
dialectician rather than a convincing reasoner, and in him depth
of insight and conviction were ill replaced by the controversial
violence characteristic of the age. Moreover, even after dis-
counting the bias of his enemies, there is evidence to prove that
his championship of the Church was not the outcome of his zeal
for Christianity; for he was notoriously drunken, unchaste,
avaricious and almost insanely ambitious. His chief work was
De primatu Pelri (1519); his Enchiridion locorum communium
adversus Lutherum ran through 46 editions between 1525 and
1576. In 1530-1535 he published a collection of his writings
against Luther, Opera contra Ludderum, in 4 vols.
See T. Wiedemann, Dr Johann Eck (Regensburg, 1865).
ECKERMANN, JOHANN PETER (1792-1854), German poet
and author, best known owing to his association with Goethe,
was born at Winsen in Hanover on the 2ist of September 1792, of
humble parentage, and was brought up in penury and privation.
After serving as a volunteer in the War of Liberation (1813-
1814), he obtained a secretarial appointment under the war
department at Hanover. In 1817, although twenty-five years of
age, he was enabled to attend the gymnasium of Hanover and
afterwardsjthe university of Gottingen, which, however, after one
year's residence as a student of law, he left in 1822. Hisacquaint-
ance with Goethe began in the following year, when he sent to him
the manuscript of his Beitriige zur Poesie (1823). Soon afterwards
he went to Weimar, where he supported himself as a private
tutor. For several years he also instructed the son of the grand
duke. In 1830 he travelled in Italy with Goethe's son. In 1838
he was given the title of grand-ducal councillor and appointed
librarian to the grand-duchess. Eckermann is chiefly remembered
886
ECKERNFORDE ECKHEL
for his important contributions to the knowledge of the great poet
contained in his Conversations with Goethe (1836-1848). To
Eckermann Goethe entrusted the publication of his Nachgelassene
Schriften (posthumous works) (1832-1833). He was also joint-
editor with Friedrich Wilhelm Riemer (1774-1845) of the com-
plete edition of Goethe's works in 40 vols. (1830-1840). He died
at Weimar on the 3rd of December 1854.
Eckermann's Gesprdche mil Goethe (yols. i. and ii. 1836; vol. iii.
1848; 7th ed., Leipzig, 1899; best edition by L. Geiger, Leipzig,
1902) have been translated into almost all the European languages,
not excepting Turkish. (English translations by Margaret Fuller,
Boston, 1839, and John Oxenford, London, 1850.) Besides this
work and the Beitrdge zur Poesie, Eckermann published a volume of
poems (Gedichte, 1838), which are of little value. See /. P. Ecker-
manns Nachlass, herausgegeben von F. Tewes, vol. i. (1905), and an
article by R. M. Meyer in the Goethe- Jahrbuch, xvii. (1896).
ECKERNFORDE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Schleswig-Holstein, on a fjord of the Baltic, 20 m. by rail N.W.
from Kiel. Pop. (1905) 7088. It has a good harbour, fishing,
trade in agricultural products, and manufactures of tobacco, salt
and iron goods. There are a technical school of building and
a Protestant teachers' seminary. Eckernforde is mentioned as
far back as 1197. It was taken by Christian IV. of Denmark in
1628 from the Imperial troops. In 1813 the Danes were defeated
here, while in 1849 the harbour was the scene of the blowing up
of the Danish line-of-battle ship " Christian VIII." and of the
surrender of the frigate " Gefion " after an engagement with the
German shore batteries. The place lost most of its trade after
the union with Germany in 1864, and suffered severely from
a sea-flood in 1872. In the immediate neighbourhood is the
village of Borby, much frequented for sea-bathing.
ECKERSBERG, KRISTOFFER (1783-1853), Danish painter,
was born in south Jutland. He became successively the pupil of
Nikolaj Abildgaard and of J. L. David. From i8iotoi8i3he
lived at Paris under the direction of the latter, and then pro-
ceeded, as an independent artist, to Rome, where he worked until
1816 in close fellowship with Thorwaldsen. His paintings from
this period " The Spartan Boy," " Bacchus and Ariadne " and
" Ulysses " testify to the influence of the great sculptor over the
art of Eckersberg. Returning to Copenhagen, he found himself
easily able to take the first place among the Danish painters of
his time, and his portraits especially were in extreme popularity.
It is claimed for Eckersberg by the native critics that " he created
a Danish colour," that is to say, he was the first painter who threw
off conventional tones and the pseudo-classical landscape, in
exchange for the clear atmosphere and natural outlines of Danish
scenery. But Denmark has no heroic landscape, and Eckersberg
in losing the golden commonplaces scarcely succeeds hi being
delightful. His landscapes, however, are pure and true, while in
his figure-pieces he is almost invariably conventional and old-
fashioned. He was president of the Danish Academy of Fine Arts
in Charlottenburg.
ECKHART, 1 JOHANNES [" Meister Eckhart "] (? 1260-? 1327),
German philosopher, the first of the great speculative mystics.
Extremely little is known of his life; the date and place of his
birth are equally uncertain. According to some accounts, he was
a native of Strassburg, with which he was afterwards closely
connected; according to others, he was born in Saxony, or at
Hochheim near Gotha. Trithemius, one of the best authorities,
speaks of him merely as " Teutonicus." 1260 has frequently
been given as the date of his birth; it was in all probability some
years earlier, for we know that he was advanced in age at the time
of his death, about 1327. He appears to have entered the
Dominican order, and to have acted for some time as professor at
one of the colleges in Paris. His reputation for learning was very
high, and in 1302 he was summoned to Rome by Boniface VIII.,
to assist in the controversy then being carried on with Philip of
France. From Boniface he received the degree of doctor. In
1304 he became provincial of his order for Saxony, and in 1307
was vicar-general for Bohemia. In both provinces he was
distinguished for his practical reforms and for his power in preach-
ing. Towards 1325 we hear of him as preaching with great effect
1 The name is variously spelled : Eckehart, Eckart, Eckhard.
at Cologne, where he gathered round him a numerous band of
followers. Before this time, and in all probability at Strassburg,
where he appears to have been for some years, he had come hi
contact with the Beghards (see BEGUINES) and Brethren of the
Free Spirit, whose fundamental notions he may, indeed, be said to
have systematized and expounded in the highest form to which
they could attain. In 1327 the opponents of the Beghards laid
hold of certain propositions contained in Eckhart's works, and he
was summoned before the Inquisition at Cologne. The history of
this accusation is by no means clear. Eckhart appears, however,
to have made a conditional recantation that is, he professed to
disavow whatever in his writings could be shown to be erroneous.
Further appeal, perhaps at his own request, was made to
Pope John XXII., and in 1329 a bill was published condemning
certain propositions extracted from Eckhart's works. But before
its publication Eckhart was dead. The exact date of his death
is unknown. Of his writings, several of which are enumerated by
Trithemius, there remain only the sermons and a few tractates.
Till the middle of the i9th century the majority of these were
attributed to Johann Tauler, and it is only from Pfeiffer's careful
edition (Deutsche Mystiker d. XIV. Jahrhunderts, vol. ii., 1857)
that one has been able to gather a true idea of Eckhart's activity.
From his works it is evident that he was deeply learned in all the
philosophy of the time. He was a thorough Aristotelian, but by
preference appears to have been drawn towards the mystical
writings of the Neoplatonists and the pseudo-Dionysius. His
style is unsystematic, brief and abounding in symbolical ex-
pression. His manner of thinking is clear, calm and logical, and
he has certainly given the most complete exposition of what may
be called Christian pantheism.
Eckhart has been called the first of the speculative mystics.
In his theories the element of mystical speculation for the first
time comes to the front as all-important. By its means the church
doctrines are made intelligible to the many, and from it the church
dogmas receive their true significance. It was but natural that
he should diverge more and more widely from the traditional
doctrine, so that at length the relation between his teaching and
that of the church appeared to be one of opposition rather than of
reconciliation. Eckhart is in truth the first who attempted with
perfect freedom and logical consistency to give a speculative
basis to religious doctrines. The two most important points in
his, as in all mystical theories, are first, his doctrine of the divine
nature, and second, his explanation of the relation between God
and human thought. (See MYSTICISM.)
For the German writings of Eckhart see F. Pfeiffer, Deutsche
Mystiker, vol. ii. (Leipzig, 1857), and F. Jostes, Meister Eckhart und
seine Jiinger (Freiburg, 1895); for the Latin works, H. Denifle in
Archiv f. Litt- und Kirchengeschichte d. Mittelalters, ii. (1886), pp.
417-652, and v. (1889), PP- 349-3.64; German translations by
G. Landauer, Meister Eckarts mystische Schriften (Berlin, 1903),
and Biittner (Leipzig, 1903 foil.). See also A. Lasson, Meister
Eckhart der Mystiker (1868); H. L. Martensen, Meister Eckhart
(1842); J. Bach, Meister Eckhart der Vater der deutschen Speculation
(1864); C. Ullmann, Reformatoren tor der Reformation (1842);
W. Preger, Geschichte d. deutschen Mystik, i. (1874) ; and " Ein neuer
Traktat M. Eckharts und d. Grundziige der Eckhartischen Theo-
sophie " in Zeitschr. f. hist. Phil. (1864), pp. 163 foil.; A. Bullinger,
Das Christenthum im Lichte der deutschen Philos. (Dillingen, 1895) ;
H. Delacroix, Le Mysticisme speculatif en Allemagne au XIV' sticle
(Paris, 1900) ; E. Kramm, Meister Eckhart im Lichte der Denifleschen
Funde (Bonn, 1889) ; R. Langenberg, Uber die Verhdltnisse Meister
Eckharts zur niederdeutschen Mystik (Gottingen, 1896); W. Schopff,
Meister Eckhart (Leipzig, 1889); A. Jundt, Hist, du pantheisme
populaire au moyen age (Paris, 1875) ; art. in Herzog-Hauck, Real-
encyklopddie (S. M. Deutsch) ; R. M. Jones, Mystical Religion (1909).
ECKHEL, JOSEPH HILARIUS (1737-1798), Austrian numis-
matist, was born at Enzersfeld in lower Austria, 1737. His
father was farm-steward to Count Zinzendorf, and he received
his early education at the Jesuits' College, Vienna, where at the
age of fourteen he was admitted into the order. He devoted
himself to antiquities and numismatics. After being engaged as
professor of poetry and rhetoric, first at Steyer and afterwards at
Vienna, he was appointed in 1772 keeper of the cabinet of coins
at the Jesuits' College, and in the same year he went to Italy for
the purpose of personal inspection and study of antiquities and
coins. At Florence he was employed to arrange the collection of
ECKMUHL ECLIPSE
887
the grand duke of Tuscany ; and the first-fruits of his study of this
and other collections appeared in his Numi veteres anecdoti, pub-
lished in 1775. On the dissolution of the order of Jesuits in 1773,
Eckhel was appointed by the empress Maria Theresa professor of
antiquities and numismatics at the university of Vienna, and this
post he held for twenty-four years. He was in the following year
made keeper of the imperial cabinet of coins, and in 1 7 79 appeared
his Catalogus Vindobonensis numorum veterum. Eckhel's great
work is the Doctrina numorum veterum, in 8 vols., the first of
which was published in 1792, and the last in 1798. The author's
rich learning, comprehensive grasp of his subject, admirable order
and precision of statement in this masterpiece drew from Heyne
enthusiastic praise, and the acknowledgment that Eckhel, as the
Coryphaeus of numismatists, had, out of the mass of previously
loose and confused facts, constituted a true science. A volume of
Addenda, prepared by SteinbUchel from Eckhel's papers after his
death, was published in 1826. Among his other works are
Choix de pierres gravies du Cabinet Imperial des Antiques (1788),
a useful school-book on coins entitled Kurzgefasste Anfangsgrunde
zur alien Numismatik (1787), of which a French version enlarged
by Jacob appeared in 1825, &c. Eckhel died at Vienna on the
1 6th of May 1798.
ECKMUHL, or EGGMUHL, a village of Germany, in the kingdom
of Bavaria, on the Grosse Laaber, 13 m. S.E. of Regensburg by
the railway to Munich. It is famous as the scene of a battle
fought here on the 22nd of April 1809, between the French,
Bavarians and Wiirttembergers under Napoleon, and the
Austrians under the Archduke Charles, which resulted in the
defeat of the latter. Napoleon, in recognition of Marshal
Davout's great share in the victory, conferred on him the title
of prince of Eckmuhl. For an account of this action and those
of Abensberg and Landshut see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS.
ECLECTICISM (from Gr. &Xeyw, I select), a term used specially
in philosophy and theology for a composite system of thought
made up of views borrowed from various other systems. Where
the characteristic doctrines of a philosophy are not thus merely
adopted, but are the modified products of a blending of the
systems from which it takes its rise, the philosophy is not
properly eclectic. Eclecticism always tends to spring up after
a period of vigorous constructive speculation, especially in the
later stages of a controversy between thinkers of pre-eminent
ability. Their respective followers, and more especially cultured
laymen, lacking the capacity for original work, seeking for a
solution in some kind of compromise, and possibly failing to
grasp the essentials of the controversy, take refuge in a com-
bination of those elements in the opposing systems which seem
to afford a sound practical theory. Since these combinations
have often been as illogical as facile, " eclecticism " has generally
acquired a somewhat contemptuous significance. At the same
time, the essence of eclecticism is the refusal to follow blindly
one set of formulae and conventions, coupled with a determina-
tion to recognize and select from all sources those elements which
are good or true in the abstract, or in practical affairs most useful
ad hoc. Theoretically, therefore, eclecticism is a perfectly sound
method, and the contemptuous significance which the word
has acquired is due partly to the fact that many eclectics have
been intellectual trimmers, sceptics or dilettanti, and partly to
mere partisanship. On the other hand, eclecticism in the sphere
of abstract thought is open to this main objection that, in so
far as every philosophic system is, at least in theory, an integral
whole, the combination of principles from hostile theories must
result in an incoherent patchwork. Thus it might be argued
that there can be no logical combination of elements from
Christian ethics, with its divine sanction, and purely intuitional
or evolutionary ethical theories, where the sanction is essentially
different in quality. It is in practical affairs that the eclectic
or undogmatic spirit 'is most valuable, and also least dangerous.
In the 2nd century B.C. a remarkable tendency toward
eclecticism began to manifest itself. The longing to arrive at
the one explanation of all things, which had inspired the older
philosophers, became less earnest; the belief, indeed, that any
such explanation was attainable began to fail. Thus men came
to adopt from all systems the doctrines which best pleased them.
In Panaetius we find one of the earliest examples of the modifica-
tion of Stoicism by the eclectic spirit; about the same time
the same spirit displayed itself among the Peripatetics. In
Rome philosophy never became more than a secondary pursuit;
naturally, therefore, the Roman thinkers were for the most part
eclectic. Of this tendency Cicero is the most striking illustration
his philosophical works consisting of an aggregation, with
little or no blending, of doctrines borrowed from Stoicism, Peri-
pateticism, and the scepticism of the Middle Academy.
In the last stage of Greek philosophy the eclectic spirit pro-
duced remarkable results outside the philosophies of those
properly called eclectics. Thinkers chose their doctrines from
many sources from the venerated teaching of Aristotle and
Plato, from that of the Pythagoreans and of the Stoics, from
the old Greek mythology, and from the Jewish and other Oriental
systems. Yet it must be observed that Neoplatonism, Gnosti-
cism, and the other systems which are grouped under the name
Alexandrian, were not truly eclectic, consisting, as they did,
not of a mere syncretism of Greek and Oriental thought, but of a
mutual modification of the two. It is true that several of the
Neoplatonists professed to accept all the teaching both of Plato
and of Aristotle, whereas, in fact, they arbitrarily interpreted
Aristotle so as to make him agree with Plato, and Plato so as to
make his teachings consistent with the Oriental doctrines which
they had adopted, in the same manner as the schoolmen
attempted to reconcile Aristotle with the doctrines of the
church. Among the early Christians, Clement of Alexandria,
Origen and Synesius were eclectics in philosophy.
The eclectics of modern philosophy are too numerous to name.
Of Italian philosophers the eclectics fftrm a large proportion.
Among the German we may mention Wolf and his followers,
as well as Mendelssohn, J. A. Eberhard, Ernst Plainer, and to
some extent Schelling, whom, however, it would be incorrect
to describe as merely an eclectic. In the first place, his specula-
tions were largely original; and in the second place, it is not so
much that his views of any time were borrowed from a number
of philosophers, as that his thinking was influenced first by one
philosopher, then by another.
In the igth century the term " eclectic " came to be applied
specially to a number of French philosophers who differed
considerably from one another. Of these the earliest were Pierre
Paul Royer-Collard, who was mainly a follower of Thomas Reid,
and Maine de Biran; but the name is still more appropriately
given to the school of which the most distinguished members are
Victor Cousin, Theodore Jouffroy, J. P. Damiron, Barthelemy
St Hilaire, C. F. M. de Remusat, Adolphe Garnier and
Ravaisson-Mollien. Cousin, whose views varied considerably
at different periods of his life, not only adopted freely what
pleased him in the doctrines of Pierre Laromiguiere, Royer-
Collard and Maine de Biran, of Kant, Schelling and Hegel, and
of the ancient philosophies, but expressly maintained that the
eclectic is the only method now open to the philosopher, whose
function thus resolves itself into critical selection and nothing
more. " Each system," he asserted, " is not false, but incomplete,
and in reuniting all imcomplete systems, we should have a com-
plete philosophy, adequate to the totality of consciousness."
This assumes that every philosophical truth is already contained
somewhere in the existing systems. If, however, as it would
surely be rash to deny, there still remains philosophical truth
undiscovered, but discoverable by human intelligence, it is
evident that eclecticism is not the only philosophy. Eclecticism
gained great popularity, and, partly owing to Cousin's position
as minister of public instruction, became the authorized system
in the chief seats of learning in France, where it has given a most
remarkable impulse to the study of the history of philosophy.
ECLIPSE (Gr. acXeti^is, falling out of place, failing), the
complete or partial obscuration of one heavenly body by the
shadow of another, or of the disk of the sun by the inter-
position of the moon; then called an eclipse of the sun.
Eclipses are of three classes: those of the sun, as just defined;
those of the moon, produced by its passage through the
888
ECLIPSE
shadow of the earth, and those of the satellites of other planets,
produced by their passage through the shadow of their primary.
Jupiter (q.v.) is the only planet of whose satellites the eclipses
can be observed, unless under very rare circumstances.
The geometrical conditions of an eclipse of the sun or moon are
shown in fig. i, which represents the earth E as casting its shadow
towards C, and the moon M between the earth and sun as throwing
FIG. i.
its shadow towards some part of the earth and eclipsing the sun.
The dark conical regions are those within which the sun is entirely
hidden from sight. This portion of the shadow is called the
umbra. Around the umbra is an enveloping shaded cone with its
vertices directly towards the sun. To an observer within this
region the sun is partly hidden from view. As the apparent path
of the moon may pass to the north or south of the line joining the
earth and sun, the axis of its shadow may pass to the north or
south of the earth, and not meet it at all. An eclipse of the sun
is called central when the shadow axis strikes any part of the
earth; partial when only the penumbra falls upon the earth.
It is evident that an eclipse can be seen as central only at those
points of the earth's surface over which the axis of the shadow
passes.
A central eclipse is total when the umbra actually reaches the
earth; annular when it does not. These two cases are shown in
figs. 2 and 3. In the first of these the sun is entirely hidden
FIG. 3.
within the region '. In fig. 3 within the region aa' the
apparent diameter of the sun is slightly greater than that of the
moon, and at the moment of greatest eclipse a narrow ring of
sunlight is seen surrounding the dark body of the moon.
We shall treat the subject in the following sections:
I. Phenomena of Eclipses of the Sun and conclusions derived
from their observation.
II. Eclipses of the Moon.
III. The Laws and Cycles of recurrences of Eclipses of the Sun
and Moon.
IV. Chronological list of remarkable eclipses of the Sun, past
and future, to the end of the 2Oth century.
V. Description of the methods of computing eclipses.
I. Phenomena of Eclipses of the Sun.
While an eclipse of the sun, whether partial, annular or total,
is in progress, no striking phenomena are to be noted until, in the
case of total eclipses, the moment of the total phase approaches.
It will, however, be noticed that as the moon advances on the
solar disk the sharply defined and ragged edge of the moon's
disk contrasts strongly with the soft and uniform outline of the
sun's limb. As the total phase approaches, the phenomenon
known as shadow bands may sometimes be seen. These consist
of seeming vague and rapidly moving wave-like alternations of
light and shade flitting over any white surface illuminated by the
sun's rays immediately before and after the total phase. They
are probably due to a flickering of the light from the thin crescent,
produced by the undulations of the air, in the same way that the
twinkling of the stars is produced. The rapid progressive motion
sometimes assigned to them may be regarded as the natural
result of an optical illusion. A few seconds before the commence-
ment of the total phase the red light of the chromosphere becomes
visible, and will be seen most distinctly as continuations of the
solar crescent at its two ends. Owing to the inequalities of the
lunar surface, the diminution of the solar crescent does not go on
with perfect uniformity, but, just before the last moment, what
remains of it is generally broken up into separate portions of light,
which, magnified and diffused by the irradiation of the telescope,
present the phenomenon
long celebrated under the
name of "Baily's beads."
These were so called
because minutely and
vividly described by
Francis Baily as he observed them during the annular eclipse
of May 15, 1836, when he compared them to a string of
bright beads, irregular in size and distance from each other.
The disappearance of the last bead is commonly taken as the
beginning of totality. An arc of the chromosphere will then
be visible for a few seconds at and on each side of the point of
disappearance, the length and duration of which will depend on
the apparent diameter of the moon as compared with that of the
sun, being greater in length and longer seen as the excess of
diameter of the moon is less. The red prominences may now
generally be seen here and there around the whole disk of the
moon, while the effulgence of soft light called the corona surrounds
it on all sides. Before the invention of the spectroscope, observers
of total eclipses could do little more than describe in detail the
varying phenomena presented by the prominences and the
corona. Drawings of the latter showed it to have the appearance
of rays surrounding the dark disk of the moon, quite similar to the
glory depicted by the old painters around the
head of a saint. The discrepancies between the
outlines as thus pictured, not only at different
times, but by different observers at the same time
and place, are such as to show that little reliance
can be placed on the details represented by hand
drawings.
During the eclipse of July 8, 1842, the shadow of
the moon passed from Perpignan, France, through
Milan and Vienna, over Russia and Central Asia, to
the Pacific Ocean. Very detailed physical observa-
tions were made, but none which need be specially men-
tioned in the present connexion.
The eclipse of July 28, 1851, was total in Scandinavia and
Russia. It was observed in the former region by many astro-
nomers, among them Sir George B. Airy and W. R. Dawes. It
was specially noteworthy for the first attempt to photograph
such a phenomenon. A daguerreotype clearly showing the
protuberances was taken by Berkowski at the Observatory of
Konigsberg. An attempt by G. A. Majocchi to daguerreotype
the corona was a failure. Photographs of the eclipse of July 18,
1860, were taken by Padre AngeloSecchi and Warren De La Rue,
which showed the prominences well, and proved that they were
progressively obscured by the edge of the advancing moon. It
was thus shown that they were solar appendages, and did not
belong to the moon, as had sometimes been supposed. The corona
was barely visible on De La Rue's plates, but those of Secchi
showed it, with its rifts and the bases of the tall coronal wings, to
about 15' from the sun's limb. The sketches taken at this
eclipse proved that the corona extended in some regions i from
the sun's limb. As the sensitiveness of photographic plates has
increased, they have gradually been wholly relied upon for
information respecting the corona, so that at the present time
naked-eye descriptions are regarded as of little or no scientific
value. Owing to the great contrast between the brilliancy of the
coronal light at its base and its increasing faintness as it extends
farther from the sun, no one photograph will bring out all the
corona. An exposure of one or two seconds is ample to show the
details of inner corona to the best advantage, while longer ex-
posures give greater extent of the brighter portions. The most
extended streamers are very little brighter than the sky, and must
be photographed with long exposures.
ECLIPSE
The first application of the spectroscope to the phenomenon
was made during the total solar eclipse of August 18, 1868,
by P. J. C. Janssen and other observers in India. By them was
made the capital discovery that the red solar prominences give
a spectrum of bright lines, and are therefore immense masses
of incandescent gases, chiefly hydrogen and the vapours of calcium
and helium. Janssen also found that this bright-line spectrum
could be followed after the eclipse was over, and, in fact, could
be observed at any time when the air was sufficiently transparent.
By one of those remarkable coincidences which frequently occur
in the history of science, this last discovery was made inde-
pendently by Sir Norman Lockyer in England before the news of
Janssen's success had reached him. It was afterwards found
that, by giving great dispersing power to the spectroscope, the
prominences could be observed in a wide slit, in their true form.
At this eclipse the spectrum of the corona was also observed,
and was supposed to be continuous, while polariscopic observa-
tion by Lieutenant Campbell showed it polarized in planes
passing through the sun's centre. The conclusion from these
two observations was that the light was composed, at least in
great part, of reflected sunlight.
At the total eclipse of August 7, 1869, it was independently
found by Professors C. A. Young of Princeton and W. Harkness
of Washington that the continuous spectrum of the corona was
crossed by a bright line in the green, which was long supposed
to be coincident with 1474 of Kirchhoff's scale. This coincidence
is, however, now found not to be real, and the line cannot be
identified with that of any terrestrial substance. The name
" coronium " has therefore been given to the supposed gas
which forms it. It is now known that 1474 is a double line,
one component of which is produced by iron, while the other
is of unknown origin. The wave-length of the principal com-
ponent is 5317, while that of the coronal line was found at the
eclipses of 1896 and 1898 to be 5303.
The eclipse of December 28, 1870, passed over the south-
western corner of Spain, Gibraltar, Oran and Sicily. It is
memorable for the discovery by Young of the " reversing layer "
of the solar atmosphere. This term is now applied to a shallow
stratum resting immediately upon the photosphere, the absorp-
tion of which produces the principal dark lines of the solar
spectrum, but which, being incandescent, gives a spectrum of
bright lines by its own light when the light of the sun is cut off.
This layer is much thinner than the chromosphere, and may
be considered to form the base of the latter. Owing to its thin-
ness, the phenomenon of the reversed bright lines is almost
instantaneous in its nature, and can be observed for a period
exceeding one or two seconds only near the edge of the shadow-
path, where the moon advances but little beyond the solar limb.
Near the central line it is little more than a flash, thus giving rise
to the term " flash-spectrum." Young also at this eclipse saw
bright hydrogen lines when his spectroscope was directed to
the centre of the dark disk of the moon. This can only be attri-
buted to the reflection of the light of the prominences and
chromosphere from the atmosphere between us and the moon.
The coronal light as observed in the spectroscope may thus be
regarded as a mixture of true coronal light with chromospheric
light reflected from the air, and it is therefore probable that the
H and K (calcium) lines of the coronal spectrum are not true
coronal lines, but chromospheric.
At the eclipse of December 12, 1871, visible in India and
Australia, Janssen observed, as he supposed, some of the dark
lines of the solar spectrum in the continuous spectrum of the
corona, especially D, b and G. This would show that an im-
portant part of the coronal light is due to reflected sunshine.
This feature of the spectrum, however, is doubtful in the most
recent photographs under the best conditions. At this eclipse
the remarkable observation was also made by Colonel John
Herschel and Colonel J. F. Tennant that the characteristic line
of the coronal spectrum is as bright in the dark rifts of the corona
as elsewhere. This would show that the gas coronium does not
form the streamers of the corona, but is spherical in form and
distributed uniformly about the sun. Photographs were also
taken on wet plates by a party in Java and by the parties of
Lord Lindsay (at Baikul, India) and of Colonel Tennant (at
Dodabetta). The Baikul and Dodabetta photographs were of
small size (moon's diameter =^ in.), but of excellent definition.
A searching study was made of them by A. C. Ranyard and
W. H. Wesley (Memoirs R.A.S. vol. xli., 1879), and for the first
time a satisfactory representation of the corona was obtained.
The drawings in the volume quoted show its polar rays, wings,
interlacing filaments and rifts as they are now known to be, as
well as the forms and details of the prominences.
The eclipse of April 16, 1874, was observed in South Africa
by E. J. Stone, H.M. astronomer at the Cape, who traced the
coronal line about 30' (430,000 m.) from the sun's h'mb. The
visual corona was seen to extend in places some 90' from the
h'mb.
The eclipse of April 6, 1875, was observed in Siam by Sir
J. Norman Lockyer and Professor Arthur Schuster. Their
photographs showed the calcium and hydrogen lines in the
prominence spectrum.
The eclipse of July 29, 1878, was observed by many astronomers
in the United States along a line extending from Wyoming to
Texas. A number of the stations were at high altitudes (up to
14,000 ft.), and the sky was generally very clear. The visible
corona extended on both sides of the sun along the ecliptic for
immense distances at least twelve lunar diameters, about eleven
million miles. Photographs taken by the parties of Professors
A. Hall and W. Harkness gave the details of the inner corona
and of the polar rays, showing the filamentous character of the
corona, especially at its base in the polar regions. A photograph
taken by the party of Professor E. S. Holden showed the outer
corona to a distance of 50' from the moon's limb. The bright-
line spectrum of the corona was excessively faint and, as the solar
activity (measured by sun-spot frequency) was near a minimum,
it was concluded that the brilliancy of the coronium line varied
in the sun-spot period, a conclusion which subsequent eclipse
observations seem to have verified. It is not yet certain that
the other coronal spectrum lines vary in the same way.
The eclipse of May 17, 1882, was observed in Egypt. On the
photographs of the corona the image of a bright comet was found,
the first instance of the sort. (A faint comet was found on the
plates of the Lick Observatory eclipse expedition to Chile in
1 893 . ) The slitless spectroscope showed the green line (coronium)
and Ds (helium) in the coronal spectrum.
The eclipse of May 6, 1883, was observed from a small coral
atoll in the South Pacific Ocean by parties from America, England,
France, Austria and Italy. A thorough search was made by
Holden (with a 6 in. telescope) for an intra-Mercurial planet,
without success, during an unusually long totality (5 m. 23 s.).
J. Palisa also searched for such a planet. Janssen again reported
the presence of dark lines in the coronal spectrum. " White "
prominences were seen by P. Tacchini.
The eclipse of August 29, 1886, was observed in the West
Indies. The English photographs of the corona, taken with a
slitless spectroscope, show the hydrogen lines as well as K and/.
Tacchini devoted his attention to the spectra of the prominences,
and showed that their upper portions contained no hydrogen
lines, but only the H and K lines of calcium. He also observed a
very extensive " white " prominence. It was shown on the photo-
graphs of the corona, but could not be seen in the Ha line with
the spectroscope. It has been suggested by Professor G. E. Hale
that the colour of a " white " prominence may be due to the fact
that the H and K lines (calcium) are of their normal intensity,
while the less refrangible prominence lines are, from some un-
known cause, comparatively faint. It is known that the intensity
of such lines does, in fact, vary, though it is not yet certain that
the " white " prominences are produced in this way. The subject
is one demanding further observation. High prominences are
generally " white " at their summits, " red " at their bases.
The Harvard College Observatory photographs show the corona
out to 90' from the moon's limb, though no detail is visible
beyond 60'. W. H. Pickering made a series of photographic
photometric measures of the corona, some of which are given
890
ECLIPSE
below, together with results deduced by Holden from the eclipses
of January and December 1889:
August
1886.
January
1889.
December
1889.
Intrinsic actinic brilliancy of the
brightest parts of the corona .
Do. of the polar rays .
Do. of the sky near the sun
Ratio of intrinsic brilliancy of the
brightest parts of the corona to
that of the sky (actinic) .
Magnitude of the faintest star
shown on the eclipse negatives
0-031
0-0007
44 to i
0-079
0-053
0-0050
16 to i
2-3
0-029
0-016
0-0009
32 to i
The results in the first and third columns are derived from plates
taken in a very humid climate, and are not very different.
The eclipse of August 19, 1887, was total in Japan and Russia,
but cloudy weather prevented successful observations except in
Siberia and eastern Russia.
The eclipse of January i, 1889, was observed in California and
Nevada by many American astronomers. The photographs of
the corona, especially those by Charoppin and E. E. Barnard,
show a wealth of detail. Those of Barnard, of the Lick Ob-
servatory party, were studied by Holden, and exhibited the fact
that rays, like the " polar-rays," extended all round the sun,
instead of being confined to the polar regions only. The outer
corona was registered out to 100' from the moon's limb on
Charoppin's negatives, to 130' on those of Lowden and Ireland.
On other plates the outline of the moon is visible projected on the
corona before totality began. The spectrum of the corona showed
few bright lines besides those of coronium and hydrogen.
The eclipse of December 22, 1889, was observed in Cayenne,
S. America, by a party from the Lick Observatory under rather
unfavourable conditions. Expeditions sent to Africa were baffled
by cloudy weather. Father Stephen Joseph Perry observed at
Salute Islands, French Guiana, and obtained some photographs
of value. The effort cost him his life, for he died of malarial fever
five days after the eclipse.
The eclipse of April 16, 1893, was observed by British and
French parties in Africa and Brazil, and by Professor J. M.
Schaeberle of the Lick Observatory in Chile. The Chile photo-
graphs of the corona were taken with a lens of 40 ft. focus, and are
extremely fine. They show a faint comet near the sun. No great
extensions to the corona were shown on any of the negatives, or
seen visually, though they were specially looked for by British
parties. The neighbourhood of the sun was carefully examined
by G. Bigourdan without finding any planet. The spectrum of
the corona was the usual one. The following lines were photo-
graphed in slitless spectroscopes, and undoubtedly belong to the
corona: W. L. 3987; 4086; 4217; 4231; 4240; 4280; 4486;
5303 (the last number is the wave-length of the green coronium
line). All of these have been seen in slit spectroscopes also. It is
possible that two lines observed by Young in 1869, namely, W. L.
(Angstrom) 5450 and 5570, should be added to the list of un-
doubted coronal lines. It is not likely that helium or hydrogen
or calcium vapour forms part of the corona. The wave-lengths
of some 700 lines belonging to the chromosphere and prominences
were determined by the British parties.
The eclipse of August 9, 1896, was total in Norway, Novaya
Zemlya and Japan. The day was very unfavourable as to
weather, but good photographs of the corona were obtained by
Russian parties in Siberia and Lapland. Shackelton, in Novaya
Zemlya, with a prismatic camera obtained a photograph of the
reversing-layer at the beginning of totality. This photograph
completely confirms Young's discovery, and shows the promi-
nent Fraunhofer lines bright, the bright lines of the chromosphere
spectrum being especially conspicuous.
At the solar eclipse of January 22, 1898, the shadow of the
moon traversed India from the western coast to the Himalaya.
The duration of totality was about 2 m. The eclipse was very
fully observed, more than 100 negatives of the corona being
secured. The equatorial extension of the visible corona was short
and faint, and the invisible (spectroscopic) corona was also very
faint. The spectrum of the reversing-layer was successfully
photographed; one set of negatives shows the polarization of one
of the longest streamers of the corona, and proves the presence of
dust particles reflecting solar light. The bright-line spectrum of
hydrogen in the chromosphere was followed to the thirtieth point
of the series, and the wave-lengths were shown to agree closely
with Balmer's formula (see SPECTROSCOPY). The wave-length of
coronium was found to be 3303 (not 5317 as previously supposed),
and the brightness of the corona was measured. E. W. Maunder
made the curious observation of coronal matter enveloping a
prominence in the form of a hood.
Observations of the eclipse of May 28, 1900, were favoured in a
remarkable degree by the absence of clouds. The photographs of
the corona obtained by W. W. Campbell extended four diameters
of the sun on the west side. The sun's edge was photographed
with an objective-prism spectrograph composed of two 60
prisms in front of a telescope of 2 in. aperture and 60 in. focus.
A fine photograph, 6 in. long, of the bright- and dark -line spectra
of the sun's edge at the end of totality was thus obtained. It
shows 600 bright lines sharply in focus besides the dark-line
spectrum, to which the bright lines gave way as the sun re-
appeared. The coronal material radiating the green light was
found to be markedly heaped up in the sun-spot regions. No
dark lines were found in the spectrum of the inner corona. G. E.
Hale and E. B. Frost also photographed the combined bright-
and dark-line spectra of the solar cusps at the instants before and
after totality. On one photograph showing no dark lines 70
bright lines could be measured between 4070 and 4340. On
another were 70 bright lines between Hb and Us. On a third
were 266 bright lines between 4026 and 4381, and some dark
lines. These lines show a marked dissimilarity from the solar
spectrum. (S. N.)
The eclipse of May 18, 1901, was observable in Mauritius with
35 minutes of totality, and in Sumatra with 65 minutes. Un-
fortunately there was cloudy weather in Sumatra, which at some
stations prevented observations entirely and at others neutralized
the advantages promised by the long duration of totality. Thus
spectroscopic observations for the detection of motion of the
corona, for which the long totality gave a special opportunity,
failed owing to cloud; and the search for intra-Mercurial planets
had only a negative result, though stars down to magnitude 8-8
were photographed on the plates. But though no particular step
in advance was taken, successful records of the eclipse were
obtained, which will enable comparison to be made with other
eclipses and will contribute their share to the discussion of the
whole series. These include photographs of the corona, showing
that it was of the sun-spot minimum type, and available for
measures of its brightness; photographs of the spectra of the
chromosphere and corona which are of the same general character
as those obtained at previous eclipses; photographs showing the
polarization of the corona, available for quantitative measures of
polarization at different points. Photographs of the spectrum
of the outer corona taken by the Lick Observatory party show a
strong Fraunhofer dark-line spectrum, consistent with the view
that the light is reflected sunlight. At Mauritius there was no
cloud, but the definition was poor. Successful photographs of
the corona were obtained for comparison with those taken in
Sumatra one and a half hours later, but nothing of great interest
was revealed by the comparison.
The eclipse of August 30, 1905, offered a duration of 35 minutes
in Spain, the track running from Labrador through Spain to
North Africa, and affording excellent opportunities for observers,
who flocked to the central line in great numbers. Unfortunately
it was cloudy in Labrador, so that the special advantages of the
long line of possible stations were lost. Exceptionally good
weather conditions were enjoyed in Algeria and Tunisia, and full
advantage was taken of them by H. F. Newall, C. Trepied and
others at Guelma, by the party from Greenwich and G. Bigourdan
at Sfax. That G. Newall's spectroscopic photographs for rotation
of the corona again gave no result is a clear indication of the
faintness of the corona at 3' from the limb; but F. W. Dyson at
Sfax obtained two new lines at 5536 and 5117 in the spectrum
ECLIPSE
891
of the corona; and a very large number of photographs of the
corona (including many in polarized light on several different
plans), of its spectrum, and of the spectrum of the chromosphere,
were obtained by the various parties, which will afford copious
material for discussion. Newall also obtained a polarized
spectrum of the corona. Altogether no less than eighty stations
were occupied. There were English, American, Russian and
German observers in Egypt; English and French in Algeria and
Tunisia; English in Majorca; observers of almost all nation-
alities in Spain; and English and American in Labrador. In
Egypt the weather was bright, though the sun was low; in
Majorca and Spain there were local clouds. Consequently many
observations, in addition to those in Labrador, were lost, notably
the special spectroscopic observations undertaken by Evershed
on the northern limit of totality, and the observations of radia-
tion undertaken by H. L. Callendar. A search for intra-Mercurial
planets was conducted on an elaborate plan, with similar batteries
of telescopes, in Egypt, Spain and Labrador, by three parties
from the Lick Observatory, but the examination of the plates
showed nothing noteworthy. Pending discussion of the greater
part of the material, some interesting preliminary results were
published in 1906 by the French observers. C. E. H. Bourget
and Montangerand conclude that there is a marked division of
the chromosphere into two regions or shells, a lower or "reversing-
layer," extending only i" from the limb, and a chromospheric
layer extending to 3" or 4"; and that the coronal light contains
less blue and violet, but more green and yellow, than sunlight;
while Fabry, by visual methods, obtained measures of the total
and intrinsic intensity of the light from the corona closely con-
firming recent photographic observations, finding the total
brightness about equal to that of the full moon, and the intrinsic
brightness at 5' from the limb about one quarter of that of the
full moon. (H. H. T.)
II. Eclipses of the Moon.
The physical phenomena attending eclipses of the moon are no
longer of a high order of interest either to the layman or scientific
observer. A brief statement of them and their causes will there-
fore be sufficient. An observer watching such an eclipse from
the moon would see the earth, which has nearly four times the
apparent diameter of the sun, impinging on the sun's disk and
slowly hiding it. The phenomenon would be quite similar to
that of an eclipse of the sun seen from the earth, until the sun was
completely covered. During the progress of this partial eclipse
the moon would be passing into the earth's penumbra. As the
moment of total obscuration approached, a red band of light
would rapidly form in the neighbourhood of the disappearing
limb of the sun, and gradually extend around the earth. This
would arise from the refraction of the sun's light by the earth's
atmosphere, and the absorption of its blue rays. When the light
of the sun was completely hidden, a reddish ring of great brilliancy
would, owing to this cause, surround the entire dark body of the
earth during the period of the total eclipse.
The aspect of the moon, as seen from the earth, corresponds to
this view from the moon. The fading of the moon's light, due to
its entrance into the penumbra, is scarcely noticeable without
direct photometric determination until near the beginning of the
total phase. Then, as the limb of the moon approaches the
earth's shadow, it begins to darken. When only a small portion
has entered into the shadow, that portion is completely hidden.
But, as the total phase approaches, the part of the moon's disk
immersed in the penumbra becomes visible by a reddish coppery
light that of the sun refracted through the lower parts of the
earth's atmosphere. The brightness of this illumination is
different in different eclipses, a circumstance which may be
attributed to the greater or less degree of cloudiness in those
regions of the earth's atmosphere through which the light of the
sun passes in order to reach the moon . Its colour is due to absorp-
tion in passing through the earth's atmosphere.
III. Laws and Cycles of Recurrences of Eclipses of the Sun
and Moon.
It has been known since remote antiquity that eclipses occur
Sun
FIG.
in cycles. These cycles are known now to be determined
principally by the motion of the moon's node and the relations
between the revolutions of the earth round the sun and the moon
round the earth.
Owing to the inclination of the moon's orbit to the plane of the
ecliptic, an eclipse of the sun can occur only when the con-
junction of the sun and moon takes place within about
16 of one of the nodes of the moon's orbit. The
eclipse can be total only within about 11 of the node.
An eclipse of the moon can occur only when the line sun-moon-
earth makes an angle less than about 11 with the line of nodes;
and the eclipse can be total only within about 8 of the node,
the average limiting distances varying i or 2 according to the
circumstances. These conditions being understood, the cycles
of recurrence of eclipses of either kind can be worked out geo-
metrically from the mean motions of the sun, moon, node and
perigee by the aid of geometric conceptions shown in their
simplest form in fig. 4. Here E is the earth, at the centre of
a circle representing the mean orbit of the moon around it.
MN is the line of nodes which is
moving in the retrograde direction
from N towards Si, at a rate of
about 19-3 in a year, making a
complete revolution in 18-6 years.
Let the sun at the moment of
some new moon be in the line
ESi, continued. If the angle
NESi is less than 16 there will
probably be an eclipse of the sun,
which may be central if the angle is less than 1 1". Let the next
new moon take place in the line ESz a month later. The mean
value of the angle SiES2 is about 29; but as the node N has
moved towards Si about 1-4 during the interval, the sum of the
angles NESi and NESz will be somewhat greater than SiES 2
by about 1-6. The result is that if these two angles are nearly
equal there may be two small partial eclipses of the sun, after
which no more can occur until, by the annual revolution of the
earth, the direction of the sun approaches the opposite line of
nodes EM, nearly six months later. The result is that there
are in the course of any one year two " eclipse seasons " each of
about one month in duration, in which at least one eclipse of
the sun, or possibly two small partial eclipses, may occur. One
eclipse of the moon will generally, but not always, occur during
a season.
Owing to the retrograde motion of the node the direction ES
of the sun returns to the node at the end of about 347 days,
so that a third eclipse season may commence before the end of a
year. In this way there is a possible but very rare maximum
of five eclipses of the sun in a year. Owing to the motion of the
line of nodes each eclipse season occurs about 19 days earlier in
the year than it did the year before. Another conclusion from
the greater eclipse limit for the sun than for the moon is that in
the long run eclipses of the sun, as regards the earth generally,
occur oftener than those of the moon. But as any eclipse of the
sun is visible only from a limited region of the earth's surface,
while one of the moon may be seen from an entire hemisphere, more
eclipses of the moon are visible at any one place than of the sun.
If, starting with a conjunction along some line ESi, we mark
by radial lines from E the successive conjunctions year after
year, we shall find that at the end of 18 years and about n days
the 223rd conjunction will fall once more very near the line ESi,
the angle NESi being'about 24' greater than before. Successive
eclipses will then occur very nearly in the same order as they
did 1 8 years and n days before. This period of recurrence
has been known from remote antiquity and is called the Saros.
What is most remarkable in this period is that in addition to
the distance from the node being nearly the same as before,
the longitude of the sun increases by only 11 and the distance
of the moon from its perigee has changed less than 3. The result
of this approach to coincidence is that the recurring eclipse will
generally be of the same kind total, annular or partial
through a number of successive periods.
8 9 2
ECLIPSE
To see the law of recurrence of corresponding eclipses in the
successive periods let us suppose the line of conjunction ESi to
be that at which there is a very small eclipse, visible only in high
northern or southern latitudes. At the end of 18 years n days
a second eclipse will occur along a line nearly half a degree nearer
EN, the line of nodes. The successive eclipses will occur at the
same interval through about ten periods, or 180 years, when the
line of conjunction will pass within n of EN. Then the eclipse
will be central, whether annular or total depending on circum-
stances: in the first one the central lines will pass only over
the polar regions; but in successive eclipses of the series it will
pass nearer and nearer to the equator until the conjunction line
coincides with the node. The path of centrality will then cross
in the equatorial region. During 22 or 23 more recurrences the
path will continually approach to the opposite pole and finally
leave the earth entirely. The entire number of central eclipses
in any one series will generally be about forty-five. Then a
series of continually diminishing partial eclipses will go on for
about ten periods more. The whole series of eclipses will there-
fore extend through about sixty-five periods; and interval of
time of about twelve hundred years.
Another remarkable eclipse period recurs at the end of 358
lunations. At the end of this period the line of mean conjunction
ESi falls so near its former position relative to the node that we
find each central eclipse visible in our time to be one of an
unbroken series extending from the earliest historic times to
the present, at intervals equal to the length of the period. The
recurring eclipses in this period do not, however, have the
remarkable similarity of those belonging to the Saros, but may
differ to any extent, owing to the different positions of the line
of conjunction with respect to the moon's perigee. Moreover,
they recur alternately at the ascending and descending node.
The length of the period is 10,571-95 days, or 29 Julian years
less 20-3 days. Hence 18 periods make 521 years, so that at the
end of this time each eclipse recurs on or about the same day of
the year. As an example of this series, starting from the eclipse
of Nineveh, June 15, 763 B.C., recorded on the Assyrian tablets,
we find eclipses on May 27, 734 B.C., May 7, 705 B.C., and so on
in an unbroken series to 1843, 1872 and 1901, the last being the
93rd of the series. Those at the ends of the 52i-year intervals
occurred on June 15, O.S., of each of the years 763, 242 B.C.,
A.D. 280, 801, 1322 and 1843. As the lunar perigee moves
through 242-4 in a period, the eclipses will vary from total to
annular, but at the end of 3 periods the perigee is only 7-1
in advance of its original position relative to the node. Hence
in a series including every third eclipse the eclipses will be of the
same character through a thousand years or more. Thus the
eclipses of 1467, 1554, 1640, 1727, 1814, 1901, 1988, &c., are total.
IV. Chronological Lists of Eclipses of the Sun.
The following is a brief chronological enumeration of those
total eclipses of the sun which are of interest, either from their
Notable h' stor k celebrity or the nature of the conclusions
eclipses. derived from them. In numbering the years before
the Christian era the astronomical nomenclature is
used, in which the number of the year is one less than that used
by the chronologists. The Chinese eclipses are passed over,
owing to the generally doubtful character of the records per-
taining to them.
-1069 June 20 and -1062 July 31; total eclipses recorded at
Babylon.
762, June 14; a total eclipse recorded at Nineveh. Computa-
tion from the modern tables shows that the path of totality passed
about loo m. or more north of Nineveh.
647, April 6; total eclipse at or near Thasos, mentioned by
Archilochus.
-584, May 28 ; the celebrated eclipse of Thales. For an account
of this eclipse see THALES.
55 6 . May 19, the eclipse of Larissa. The modern tables show
that the eclipse was not total at Larissa, and the connexion of the
classical record with the eclipse is doubtful.
430, August 3; eclipse mentioned by Thucydides, but not total
by the tables.
399. June 21 ; eclipse of Ennius. Totality occurred immediately
after sunset at Rome. The identity of this eclipse is doubtful.
309, August 14; eclipse of Agathocles. This eclipse would be
one of the most valuable for testing the tables of the moon, but for
an uncertainty as to the location of Agathocles, who, at the time of
the occurrence, was at sea on a voyage from Syracuse to Carthage.
F. K. Ginzel (Spezieller Kanon der Finsternisse) has collected a
great number of passages from classical authors supposed to refer to
eclipses of the sun or moon, but the difficulty of identifying the
phenomenon is frequently such as to justify great doubt as to the
conclusions. In a few cases no eclipse corresponding to the descrip-
tion can be found by our modern table to have occurred, and in
others the latitude of interpretation and the uncertainty of the date
are so wide that the eclipse cannot be identified.
Of medieval eclipses we mention only the dates of those visible in
England, referring for details to the works mentioned in the biblio-
graphy. The letter C following a date shows that the eclipse is
mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles. The dates in question
are:
A.D. 538, February 15, C. (partial).
540, June 12, C. (partial).
594, July 23.
603, August 12.
639, September 3.
664, May i, C.
733, August 14 (annular).
764, June 4 (annular).
A.D. 878, October 29, C.
885, Tune 15.
3, Ja
1023, January 24.
1133, August I, C.
1140, March 20, C.
1185, May I, C.
1191, June 23, C. (annular).
. . _ 1330, July 16.
Besides these, the tables show that the shadow of the moon
passed over some part of the British Islands on 1424, June 26;
1433, June 17; 1598, March 6; 1652, April 8; 1715, May 2j
1724, May 22. Of these the eclipse of 1715 is notable for the careful
observations made in England, and published by Halley in the
Philosophical Transactions. The next dates are 1927, June 29, when
a barely total eclipse will be seen soon after sunrise in the northern
counties near the Scottish border, and 1999, August II, when the
moon's shadow will graze England at Land's End.
We give below, in tabular form, a list of the principal total
eclipses during the I9th and 2oth centuries, omitting a few visible
only in the extreme polar regions, and some others of which the
duration is very short. The first column gives the civil date of the
point on the earth's surface at which the eclipse is central at noon.
The next two columns give the position of this point to the nearest
degree. The fourth column shows the Greenwich astronomical
time of conjunction in longitude. The next column gives the
duration of the total phase at the noon-point; this is sometimes
o-i' less than the absolutely greatest duration at any point.
Next is given the node near which the eclipse occurs; and then
the number in the Saros. Corresponding eclipses at intervals
of 1 8 y. ii d. have the same number, and occur near the same
node of the noon, which is indicated in the next column.
Point where
Greenwich
Duration
Date at
Noon-Point.
Central at
Noon.
M.T. of con-
junction in
Longitude.
of
Totality.
Node.
Series.
Regions Swept by Shadow.
Lat.
Long.
d. h. m.
m.
1803, Feb. 21
ii S.
136 W.
21 9 20
4-2
Asc.
I
Pacific Ocean, Mexico.
1804, Aug. 5
38 S.
66 W.
54
1-2
Desc.
2
Pacific Ocean, Chile, Argentina.
1806, June 16
42 N.
66 W.
16 4 22
4-6
Desc.
3
New England, Atlantic, Africa.
1807, Nov. 29
ii N.
2E.
28 23 48
1-4
Asc.
4
Central Africa, Areolia.
1810, April 4
12 N.
154 E.
3 13 4 1
Ann.
Desc.
5
Pacific Ocean, Borneo.
1811, Mar. 24
39 S.
26 W.
24 2 19
3'4
Desc.
6
South Atlantic to and across South Africa.
1814, July 17
31 N.
84 E.
16 18 33
6-6
Asc.
7
Africa, Central Asia, China.
1815, July 6
88 N.
175 W.
6 ii 52
3'2
Asc.
8
Polar Regions, Western Siberia.
1816, Nov. 19
43 N.
30 E.
18 22 9
1-8
Desc.
9
Eastern Europe, Central Asia.
1817, Nov. 9
78.
149 E.
8 13 53
4-7
Desc.
10
Burma. Pacific Ocean.
ECLIPSE
893
Date at
Noon-Point
Point where
Central at
Noon.
M.T. of con-
junction in
Longitude.
Duration
of
Totality.
Node.
Series.
Regions Swept by Shadow.
Lat.
Long.
d. h. m.
m.
1821, Mar. 4
8 S.
96 E.
3 17 5
4'3
Asc.
i
Indian and Pacific Oceans.
1822, Aug. it
368.
I76W.
in II 22
1-4
Desc.
2
Australia, Pacific Ocean.
1824, June 26
47 N.
I75W.
26 II 43
4.4
Desc.
3
Pacific Ocean, Japan, China.
1825, Dec. 9
9N.
127 W.
9 8 27
Asc.
4
Pacific Ocean, Mexico.
1828, April 14
18 N.
39 E.
13 21 18
0-3
Desc.
5
Northern Africa, India.
1829, April 3
328.
149 W.
3 10 24
4-1
Desc.
6
South Pacific Ocean.
1832, July 27
24 N.
28 W.
27 2 2
6-8
Asc.
7
West Indies and across Central Africa.
1833. July 17
78 N.
76 E.
16 19 16
3-5
Asc.
8
North-eastern Asia and Polar Regions.
1834, Nov. 30
40 N.
101 W.
30 6 48
1-9
Desc.
9
Southern and Western United States.
1835, Nov. 20
10 S.
20 E.
19 22 31
4-6
Desc.
10
Central Africa, Madagascar.
1839, Mar. 15
68.
31 W.
15 2 14
4.4
Asc.
i
South America, Africa, Egypt.
1840, Aug. 27
348.
72 E.
26 18 45
1-6
Desc.
2
Africa, Madagascar, Indian Ocean.
1842, July 8
51 N.
77 E.
7 19 2
4-1
Desc.
3
Spain, France, Russia to China, and Pacific Ocean.
1843, Dec. 21
8 N.
102 E.
20 17 10
1-6
Asc.
4
Indian and North Pacific Oceans and India.
1846, April 25
25 N.
75 W.
2 5 4 49
0-9
Desc.
5
Mexico, West Indies, Africa.
1847, April 15
248.
90 E.
14 iS 22
4-7
Desc.
6
Indian Ocean, Australia.
1850, Aug. 7
i8N.
142 W.
7 9 34
6-8
Asc.
7
Pacific Ocean.
1851, July 28
70 N.
34 W.
28 2 41
37
Asc.
8
Scandinavia, Russia and North America.
1852, Dec. II
37 N.
127 E.
10 15 32
2-O
Desc.
9
China, Pacific Ocean.
1857, Mar. 25
48.
155 W.
25 10 30
4'5
Asc.
i
Pacific Ocean, Mexico.
1858, Sept. 7
338.
41 W.
7 2 16
1-7
Desc.
2
Peru, South Brazil, Uruguay.
1860, July 18
56
31 W.
18 2 21
37
Desc.
3
British America, France, Egypt.
1861, Dec. 31
9 N.
29 W.
31 i 55
1-8
Asc.
4
Caribbean Sea to North Africa.
1864, May 6
32 N.
173 E.
5 12 14
1-4
Desc.
5
Pacific Ocean.
1865, April 25
168.
30 W.
25 2 13
5'3
Desc.
6
Brazil to Central Africa.
1868, Aug. 18
10 N.
103 E.
17 17 12
6-8
Asc.
7
India to Pacific Ocean.
1869, Aug. 7
61 N.
145 W.
7 10 8
3-8
Asc.
8
United States and Alaska.
1870, Dec. 22
36 N.
5W.
22 O 19
2-1
Desc.
9
Gibraltar, Northern Africa, Sicily.
1871, Dec. 12
12 S.
118 E.
II 16 2
4.4
Desc.
10
Southern India, Northern Australia.
1875, April 6
2S.
l6W
5 18 36
47
Asc.
i
Indian Ocean, Siam, Pacific.
1876, Sept. 17
338.
17 9 54
1-8
Desc.
2
Pacific Ocean.
1878, July 29
1880, Jan. ii
60 N.
10 N.
139 w!
i6oW.
29 9 4
ii 10 40
3-2
2-1
Desc.
Asc.
3
4
United States and Canada.
Pacific Ocean, California.
1882, May 17
39 N.
63 E.
16 19 34
1-8
Desc.
5
Egypt, Central Asia, China.
1883, May 6
08.
147 W.
6 9 58
6-0
Desc.
6
Pacific Ocean, Caroline Islands.
1886, Aug. 29
3 N.
14 W.
29 o 54
6-6
Asc.
7
South America, Central Africa.
1887, Aug. 19
53 N.
102 E.
18 17 39
3-8
Asc.
8
Northern Europe, Siberia, Japan.
1889, Jan. i
37 N.
138 W.
I 9 8
2-2
Desc.
9
California, Oregon, British America.
1889, Dec. 22
128.
13 W.
22 o 52
4' 2
Desc.
10
Central Africa and South America.
1893, April 16
I S.
37 W.
'6 2 35
4-8
Asc.
i
Venezuela to West Africa.
1894, Sept. 29
348.
86 E.
28 17 43
1-8
Desc.
2
East Africa, Indian Ocean.
1896, Aug. 9
65 N.
112 E.
8 17 2
2-7
Desc.
3
North Europe, Siberia, Japan.
1898, Jan. 22
13 N.
69 E.
21 19 24
2-3
Asc.
4
East Africa, India, China.
1900, May 28
45 N.
45 W.
28 2 50
2-1
Desc.
5
United States, Spain, North Africa.
1901, May 18
28.
97 E.
I? 17 38
6-5
Desc.
6
Sumatra, Borneo.
1904, Sept. 9
58.
133 W.
9 8 43
6-4
Asc.
7
Pacific Ocean.
1905, Aug. 30
45 N.
12 W.
30 i 13
3-8
Asc.
8
Canada, Spain, North Africa.
1907, Jan. 14
39 N.
89 E.
13 17 57
2-3
Desc.
9
Russia, Central Asia.
1908, Jan. 3
12 S.
145 W.
3 9 44
Desc.
10
Pacific Ocean.
1911, April 28
I S.
155 W.
28 10 26
5-0
Asc.
i
Australia, Polynesia.
1912, Oct. 10
358.
33 W.
10 I 41
1-8
Desc.
2
Colombia, Ecuador, Brazil.
1914, Aug. 21
71 N.
2E.
21 o 27
2-1
Desc.
3
Scandinavia, Russia, Asia Minor.
1916, Feb. 3
i6N.
62 W.
346
2-5
Asc.
4
Pacific Ocean, Venezuela, West Indies.
1918, June 8
51 N.
I52W.
8 10 3
2-4
Desc.
5
British Columbia, United States.
1919, May 29
4 N.
i8W.
29 I 12
6-9
Desc.
6
Peru, Brazil, Central Africa.
1922, Sept. 21
128.
106 E.
20 16 38
6-1
Asc.
7
East Africa, Australia.
1923, Sept. 10
38 N.
128 W.
10 8 53
3-6
Asc.
8
California, Mexico, Central America.
1925, Jan. 24
42 N.
44 W.
24 2 46
2-4
Desc.
9
United States.
1926, Jan. 14
10 S.
82 E.
13 18 35
4-2
Desc.
10
East Africa, Sumatra, Philippines.
1927, June 29
78 N.
84 E.
28 18 32
0-7
Asc.
ii
England, Scotland, Scandinavia.
1929, May 9
i S.
89 E.
8 18 8
5-1
Asc.
i
Sumatra, Malacca, Philippines.
1930, Oct. 21
36S.
I55W.
21 9 47
1-9
Desc.
2
Pacific Ocean, Patagonia.
1932, Aug. 31
78 N.
109 W.
31 7 55
Desc.
3
Canada.
1934, Feb. 14
19 N.
1 68 E.
13 12 44
2-7
Asc.
4
Borneo, Celebes.
1936, June 19
56 N.
101 E.
18 17 15
2-5
Desc.
5
Greece to Central Asia and Japan.
1937, June 8
10 N.
131 W.
8 8 43
7-1
Desc.
6
Pacific Ocean, Peru.
1940, Oct. I
198.
i6W.
I o 42
57
Asc.
7
Colombia, Brazil, South Africa.
1941, Sept. 21
30 N.
114 E.
20 16 39
3'3
Asc.
8
Central Asia, China, Pacific Ocean.
1943, Feb. 4
47 N.
I76W.
4 ii 31
2-5
Desc.
9
China, Alaska.
1947, May 20
28.
25 W.
20 I 44
5-2
Asc.
i
Argentina, Paraguay, Central Africa.
1948, Nov. i
378.
82 E.
31 18 3
1-9
Desc.
2
Central Africa, Congo.
1952, Feb. 25
22 N.
39 E.
24 21 17
3-o
Asc.
4
Nubia, Persia, Siberia.
1954. June 30
62 N.
5W.
30 o 27
2-5
Desc.
5
Canada, Scandinavia, Russia, Persia.
1955- June 20
15 N.
117 E.
19 HI 12
7-2
Desc.
6
Ceylon, Siam, Philippines.
1958, Oct. 12
268.
I39W.
12 8 52
Asc.
7
Chile, Argentina.
1959. Oct. 2
23 N.
6W.
2 32
3-0
Asc.
8
Canaries, Central Africa.
1961, Feb. 15
53 N.
53 E.
14 20 II
2-6
Desc.
9
France, Italy, Austria, Siberia.
1962, Feb. 5
48.
179 E.
4 12 II
4-1
Desc.
10
New Guinea.
1963, July 20
62 N.
I26W.
20 8 43
Asc.
ii
Alaska, Hudson's Bay Territory.
1965, May 30
48.
137 W.
30 9 H
5-3
Asc.
i
Pacific Ocean.
1966, Nov. 12
388.
43 W.
12 2 27
1-9
Desc.
2
Bolivia, Argentina, Brazil.
1970, Mar. 7
25 N.
88 W.
7 5 43
3'3
Asc.
4
Mexico, Georgia, f Florida.
894
ECLIPSE
Point where
Greenwich
MT* nt x*x*n
Duration
Date at
Noon-Point.
Central at
Noon.
. 1 . ol con-
junction in
Longitude.
of
Totality.
Node.
Series.
Regions Swept by Shadow.
Lat.
Long.
d. h. m.
m.
1972, July 10
1973, June 30
1974, June 20
1976, Oct. 23
67 N.
19 N.
32 S.
31 S.
in W.
6E.
107 E.
95 E.
10 7 40
29 23 39
19 16 56
22 17 IO
2-7
7-2
5-3
4.9
Desc.
Desc.
Desc.
Asc.
5
6
12
7
North-EastAsia, North-EastAmericaandAtlanticOcean.
South America, Africa and Atlantic Ocean.
South-West Australia and Indian Ocean.
Africa, Australia, Indian and Pacific Oceans.
1977, Oct. 12
i6N.
127 W.
12 8 31
2-8
Asc.
8
Venezuela, Pacific Ocean.
1979, Feb. 26
61 N.
77 W.
26 4 47
2-7
Desc.
9
United States, British America, Pacific Ocean, N. Polar Sea
1980, Feb. 16
i N.
48 E.
15 20 52
4'3
Desc.
IO
Africa, Atlantic and Indian Oceans, and India.
1981, July 31
54 N.
127 E.
30 15 53
2-2
Asc.
ii
Pacific Ocean, Asia.
1983, June ii
in E.
IO 16 38
5'4
Asc.
i
Java, Atlantic Ocean.
1984, Nov. 22
39 s!
170 W.
22 10 58
2-1
Desc.
2
Pacific Ocean, Patagonia.
1987, Mar. 29
17 S.
6W.
29 o 45
0-3
Asc.
13
Atlantic, Equatorial Africa.
1988, Mar. 18
28 N.
146 E.
17 14 3
4-0
Asc.
4
Indian and Pacific Oceans, Sumatra.
1990, July 22
72 N.
142 E.
21 14 54
2-6
Desc.
5
Finland, North Atlantic.
1991, July ii
1992, June 30
22 N.
26 S.
105 W.
5W.
1176
30 o 19
5'4
Desc.
Desc.
6
12
Pacific Ocean, Hawaii, Central America.
South Atlantic.
1994, Nov. 3
36 S.
31 W.
f
3 i 36
4-6
Asc.
7
Pacific Ocean, South America.
1995, Oct. 24
10 N.
noE.
f
23 16 37
2-4
Asc.
g
Pacific and Indian Oceans.
1997, Mar. 9
71 N.
154 E.
8 13 16
2-8
Desc.
9
North-East Asia, Arctic Sea.
1998, Feb. 26
6N.
8iW.
26 5 27
4.4
Desc.
10
Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, Central America.
1999, Aug. 1 1
46 N.
IS E.
10 23 8
2-6
Asc.
ii
Central and Southern Europe touching England.
Recurrence oj Remarkable Eclipses.
From the property of the Saros it follows that eclipses remark-
able for their duration, or other circumstances depending on the
relative positions of the sun and moon, occur at intervals of one
saros(i8y. nd.). Of interest in this connexion is the recurrence
of total eclipses remarkable for their duration. The absolute
maximum duration of a total eclipse is about 7' 30"; but no
actual eclipse can be expected to reach this duration. Those
which will come nearest to the maximum during the next 500
years belong to the series numbered 4 and 6 and in the list which
precedes. These occurring in the years 1937, 1955, &c., will
ultimately fall little more than 20" below the maximum. But
the series 4, though not now remarkable in this respect, will
become so in the future, reaching in the eclipse of June 25, 2150,
a duration of about f 15" and on July 5, 2168, a duration of
f 28", the longest in human history. The first of these will pass
over the Pacific Ocean; the second over the southern part of the
Indian Ocean near Madras.
All the national annual Ephemerides contain elements of the
eclipses of the sun occurring during the year. Those of England,
America and France also give maps showing the path of the
central line, if any, over the earth's surface; the lines of eclipse
beginning and ending at sunrise, &c., and the outlines of the
shadow from hour to hour. By the aid of the latter the time
at which an eclipse begins or ends at any point can be determined
by inspection or measurement within a few minutes.
V. Methods of computing Eclipses of the Sun.
The complete computation of the circumstances of an eclipse ab
initio requires three distinct processes. The geocentric positions
of the sun and moon have first to be computed from
otecttpses. tne tables of the motions of those bodies. The second
step is to compute certain elements of the eclipse from
these geocentric positions. The third step is from these elements
to compute the circumstances of the eclipse for the earth generally
or for any given place on its surface. The national Astronomical
Ephemerides, or " Nautical Almanacs," give in full the geocentric
positions of the sun and moon from at least the early part of the
i9th century to an epoch three ye'ars in advance of the dat" of
publication. It is therefore unnecessary to undertake the first
part of the computation except for dates outside the limits of the
published ephemerides, and for many years to come even this
computation will be unnecessary, because tables giving the
elements of eclipses from the earliest historic periods up to the
22nd century have been published by T. Ritter von Oppolzer
and by Simon Newcomb. We shall therefore confine ourselves
to a statement of the eclipse problem and of the principles on
which such tables rest.
Two systems of eclipse elements are now adopted in the
ephemerides and tables; the one, that of F. W. Bessel, is used
in the English, American and French ephemerides, the other
P. A. Hansen's in the German and in the eclipse tables of
T. Ritter von Oppolzer. The two have in common certain
geometric constructions. The fundamental axis of reference
in both systems is the line passing through the centres of, the sun
and moon; this is the common axis of the shadow cones, which
envelop simultaneously the sun and moon as shown in figs, i, 2, 3.
The surface of one of these cones, that of the umbra, is tangent
to both bodies externally. This cone comes to a point at a
distance from the moon nearly equal to that of the earth. Within
it the sun is wholly hidden by the moon. Outside the umbral
cone is that of the penumbra, within which the sun is partially
hidden by the moon. The geometric condition that the two
bodies shall appear in contact, or that the eclipse shah 1 begin or
end at a certain moment, is that the surface of one of these
cones shall pass through the place of the observer at that moment.
Let a plane, which we call the fundamental plane, pass through
the centre of the earth perpendicular to the shadow axis. On
this plane the centre of the earth is taken as an origin of rect-
angular co-ordinates. The axis of Z is perpendicular to the
plane, and therefore parallel to the shadow axis; that of Y and X
lie in the plane. In these fundamental constructions the two
methods coincide. They differ in the direction of the axis of Y
and X in the fundamental plane. In Bessel's method, which
we shall first describe, the intersection of the plane of the earth's
equator with the fundamental plane is taken as the axis of X.
The axis of Y is perpendicular to it, the positive direction being
towards the north. The Besselian elements of an eclipse are
then: x, y, the co-ordinates of the shadow axis on the funda-
mental plane; d, the declination of that point in which the
shadow axis intersects the celestial sphere; /i, the Greenwich
hour angle of this point; /, the radius of the circle, in which the
penumbra! or outer cone intersects the fundamental plane;
and /', the radius of the circle, in which the inner or umbral cone
intersects this plane, taken positively when the vertex of the
cone does not reach the plane, so that the axis must be produced,
and negatively when the vertex is beyond the plane.
Hansen's method differs from that of Bessel in that the
ech'ptic is taken as the fundamental plane instead of the equator.
The axis of X on the fundamental plane is parallel to the plane
of the ecliptic ; that of Y perpendicular to it. The other elements
are nearly the same in the two theories. As to their relative
advantages, it may be remarked that Hansen's co-ordinates
follow most simply from the data of the tables, and are necessarily
used in eclipse tables, but that the subsequent computation is
simpler by Bessel's method.
Several problems are involved in the complete computation
ECLIPTIC ECLOGITE
895
of an eclipse from the elements. First, from the values of the
latter at a given moment to determine the point, if any, at which
the shadow-axis intersects the surface of. the earth, and the
respective outlines of the umbra and penumbra on that surface.
Within the umbral curve the eclipse is annular or total; outside
of it and within the penumbral curve the eclipse is partial at
the given moment. The penumbral line is marked from hour to
hour on the maps given annually in the American Ephemeris.
Second, a series of positions of the central point through the
course of an eclipse gives us the path of the central point along
the surface of the earth, and the envelopes of the penumbral and
umbral curves just described are boundaries within which a
total, annular or partial eclipse will be visible. In particular,
we have a certain definite point on the earth's surface on which
the edge of the shadow first impinges; this impingement
necessarily takes place at sunrise. Then passing from this point,
we have a series of points on the surface at which the elements
of the shadow-cone are in succession tangent to the earth's
surface. At all these points the eclipse begins at sunrise until a
certain limit is reached, after which, following the successive
elements, it ends at sunrise. At the limiting point the rim of
the moon merely grazes that of the sun at sunrise, so that we
may say that the eclipse both begins and ends at that time.
Of course the points we have described are also found at the
ending of the eclipse. There is a certain moment at which the
shadow-axis leaves the earth at a certain point, and a series of
moments when, the elements of the penumbral cone being tangent
to the earth's surface, the eclipse is ending at sunset. Three
cases may arise in studying the passage of the outlines of the
shadow over the earth. It may be that all the elements of the
penumbral cone intersect the earth. In this case we shall have
both a northern and a southern limit of partial eclipse. In the
second case there will be no limit on the one side except that of
the eclipse beginning or ending at sunrise or sunset. Or it may
happen, as the third case, that the shadow-axis does not intersect
the earth at all; the eclipse will then not be central at any
point, but at most only partial.
The third problem is, from the same data, to find the circum-
stances of an eclipse at a given place especially the times of
beginning and ending, or the relative positions of the sun and
moon at a given moment. Reference to the formulae for all
these problems will be given in the bibliography of the subject.
AUTHORITIES. The richest mine of information respecting eclipses
of the sun and moon is T. R. von Oppolzer's " Kanon der Finster-
nisse," published by the Vienna Academy of Sciences in the 52nd
volume of its Denkschriften (Vienna, 1887). It contains elements of
all eclipses both of the sun and moon, from 1207 B.C. to A.D. 2161, a
period of more than thirty centuries. Appended to the tables is
a series of charts showing the paths of all central eclipses visible
in the northern hemisphere during the period covered by the table.
The points of the path at which the eclipse occurs, at sunrise, noon
and sunset, are laid down with precision, but the intermediate
points are frequently in error by several hundred miles, as they
were not calculated, but projected simply by drawing a circle
through the three points just mentioned. For this reason we cannot
infer from them that an eclipse was total at any given place. The
correct path can, however, be readily computed from the tables
given in the work. Eduard Mahler's memoir, " Die centralen
Sonnenfinsternisse des 20. Jahrhunderts " (Denkschriften, Vienna
Academy, vol. xlix.), gives more exact paths of the central eclipses
of the 2Oth century, but no maps. General tables for computing
eclipses are Oppolzer's " Syzygientafeln fur den Mond" (Publications
of the A stronpmische Gesellschaft, xvi. ) , and Newcomb's, in Publications
of the American Ephemeris, vol. i. part i. Of these, Oppolzer's are
constructed with greater numerical accuracy and detail, while New-
comb's are founded on more recent astronomical data, and are prefer-
able for computing ancient eclipses. F. K. Ginzel 's Spezieller Kanon
der Sonnen- und Mondfinsternisse (Berlin, 1809) contains, besides
the historical researches already mentioned, maps of the paths of
central eclipses visible in the lands of classical antiquity from 900
B.C. to A.D. 500, but computed with imperfect astronomical data.
Maguire, " Monthly Notices," R.A.S. xlv. and xlvi., has mapped the
total solar eclipses visible in the British Islands from 878 to 1724.
General papers of interest on the same subject have been published
by Rev. S. J. Johnson. A resume of all the observations on the
physical phenomena of total solar eclipses up to 1878, by A. C.
Ranyard, is to be found iri Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical
Society, vol. xli. A very copious development of the computation
of eclipses by Bessel's method is found in W. Chauvenet's Spherical
and Practical Astronomy, vol. i. The Theory of Eclipses, by R.
Buchanan (Philadelphia, 1904), treats the subject yet more fully.
Hansen's method is developed in the Abhandlungen of the Leipzig
Academy of Sciences, vol. vi. (Math.-Phys. Classe, vol. iv.). The
formulae of computation by this method are found in the introduc-
tions to Oppolzer's two works cited above. (S. N.)
ECLIPTIC, in astronomy. The plane of the ecliptic is that
plane in or near which the centre of gravity of the earth and moon
revolves round the sun. The ecliptic itself is the great circle in
which this plane meets the celestial sphere. It is also defined,
but not with absolute rigour, as the apparent path described by
the sun around the celestial sphere as the earth performs its
annual revolution. Owing to the action of the moon on the earth,
as it performs its monthly revolution in an orbit slightly inclined
to the ecliptic, the centre of the earth itself deviates from the plane
of the ecliptic in a period equal to that of the nodal revolution
of the moon. The deviation is extremely slight, its maximum
amount ranging between 0-5" and 0-6". Owing to the action of
the planets, especially Venus and Jupiter, on the earth, the
centre of gravity of the earth and moon deviates by a yet minuter
amount, generally one or two tenths of a second, from the plane
of the ecliptic proper. Owing to the action of the planets, the
position of the ecliptic is subject to a slow secular variation
amounting, during our time, to nearly 47" per century. The rate
of this motion is slowly diminishing.
The obliquity of the ecliptic is the angle which its plane makes
with that of the equator. Its mean value is now about 23 27'.
The motion of the ecliptic produces a secular variation in the
obliquity which is now diminishing by an amount nearly equal
to the entire motion of the ecliptic itself. The laws of motion of
the ecliptic and equator are stated in the article PRECESSION OF
THE EQUINOXES.
Attempts have been made by Laplace and his successors to fix
certain limits within which the obliquity of the ecliptic shall
always be confined. The results thus derived are, however,
based on imperfect formulae. When the problem is considered
in a rigorous form, it is found that no absolute limits can be set.
It can, however, be shown that the obliquity cannot vary more
than two or three degrees within a million of years of our epoch.
The formula for the obliquity of the ecliptic, as derived from the
laws of motion of it and of the equator, may be developed in a series
proceeding according to the ascending powers of the time as follows:
we put T, the time from 1900, reckoned in solar centuries as a unit.
Then,
Obliquity = 23 27' 3i-68'-46-837* T-o-ooSs" p+o-ooi?' T.
From this expression is derived the value of the obliquity at various
epochs given in the following table. The left-hand portion of this
table gives the values for intervals of 500 years from 2000 B.C. to
A.D. 2500 as computed from modern data. For dates more than
three or four centuries before or after 1850 the result is necessarily
uncertain by one or more tenths of a minute, and is therefore only
given to o-l'.
B.C. 2000 ;obl.= 23 55-5'
1500
= 23
52-3
IOOO
= 23
48-9
500
= 23
45-4
o
= 23
41-7
A.D. 5OO
= 23
38-0
IOOO
= 23
34-1
1500
= 23
3-3
2OOO
= 23
26-4
2500
= 23
22-5
A.D. 1700; obi. =23 28'
4I-9I r
1750
= 23
28
I8-5I
1800
= 23
27
55-10
1850
= 23
27
31-68
1900
= 23
27
8-26
1950
= 23
26
44-84
2OOO
= 23
26
21-41
2050
= 23
25
57-99
2IOO
= 33
25
34-56
(S. N.)
ECLOGITE (from Gr. exXo-yi;, a selection), in petrology, a
typical member of a small group of metamorphic rocks of special
interest on account of the variety of minerals they contain and
their microscopic structures and geological relationships. Typic-
ally they consist of pale green or nearly colourless augite (ompha-
cite), green hornblende and pink garnet. Quartz also is usually
present in these rocks, but felspar is rare. The augite is mostly
a variety of diopside and is only occasionally idiomorphic. The
garnet sometimes forms good dodecahedra, but may occur as
rounded grains, and encloses quartz, rutile, kyanite, and other
minerals very frequently. The hornblende is usually pale green
and feebly dichroic, but, in some eclogites which are allied to
garnet-amphibolites, it is of dark brown colour. Among the
commoner accessory minerals are kyanite (of blue or greyish-blue
tints), rutile, biotite, epidote and zoisite, sphene, iron oxides, and
896
ECLOGUE ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY
pyrites. The rutile is invariably in small brown prisms; the
kyanite forms bladed crystals, with perfect cleavage; felspar, if
present, belongs to basic varieties rich in lime. Other minerals
which have been found in eclogites are bronzite, olivine and
glaucophane. The last mentioned is a bright blue variety of
hornblende with striking pleochroism. The eclogites in their
chemical composition show close affinities to gabbros; they often
exhibit relationships in the field which show that they were
primarily intrusive rocks of igneous origin, and occasionally con-
tact alteration can be traced in the adjacent schists. Examples
are known in Saxony, Bavaria, Carinthia, Austria, Norway. A
few eclogites also occur in the north-west highlands of Scotland.
Glaucophane-eclogites have been met with in Italy and the
Pennine Alps. Specimens of rock allied to eclogite have been
found in the diamantiferous peridotite breccias of South Africa
(the so-called " blue ground "), and this has given rise to the
theory that these are the parent masses from which the Kimberley
diamonds have come. (J. S. F.)
ECLOGUE, a short pastoral dialogue in verse. The word is
conjectured to be derived from the Greek verb eK\fjeiv, to choose.
An eclogue, perhaps, in its primary signification was a selected
piece. Another more fantastic derivation traces it to cu, goat,
and X6705, speech, and makes it a conversation of shepherds.
The idea of dialogue, however, is not necessary for an eclogue,
which is often not to be distinguished from the idyll. The
grammarians, in giving this title to Virgil's pastoral conversations
(Bucolica), tended to make the term " eclogue " apply exclusively
to dialogue, and this has in fact been the result of the success
of Virgil's work. Latin eclogues were also written by Calpurnius
Siculus and by Nemesianus. In modern literature the term has
lost any distinctive character which it may have possessed among
the Romans; it is merged in the general notion of pastoral
poetry. The French " Eglogues " of J. R. de Segrais (1624-
1701) were long famous, and those of the Spanish poet Garcilasso
de La Vega (1503-1536) are still admired.
See also BUCOLICS; PASTORAL.
ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY, the name given to the study of
insects based on their relation to man, his domestic animals and
his crops, and, in the case of those that are injurious, of the prac-
tical methods by which they can be prevented from doing harm,
or be destroyed when present. In Great Britain little attention
is paid to this important branch of agricultural science, but in
America and the British colonies the case is different. Nearly
every state in America has its official economic entomologists,
and nearly every one of the British crown colonies is provided
with one or more able men who help the agricultural community
to battle against the insect pests. Most, if not all, of the im-
portant knowledge of remedies comes from America, where this
subject reaches the highest perfection; even the life-histories of
some of the British pests have been traced out in the United
States and British colonies more completely than at home, from
the creatures that have been introduced from Europe.
Some idea of the importance of this subject may be gained
from the following figures. The estimated loss by the vine
Phylloxera in the Gironde alone was 32,000,000; for all the
French wine districts 100,000,000 would not cover the damage.
It has been stated on good evidence that a loss of 7,000,000 per
annum was caused by the attack of the ox warble fly on cattle in
England alone. In a single season Aberdeenshire suffered nearly
90,000 worth of damage owing to the ravages of the diamond
back moth on the root crops; in New York state the codling
moth caused a loss of $3,000,000 to apple-growers. Yet these
figures are nothing compared to the losses due to scale insects,
locusts and other pests.
The most able exponent of this subject in Great Britain was John
Curtis, whose treatise on Farm Insects, published in 1860, is still
the standard British work dealing with the insect foes of corn,
roots, grass and stored corn. The most important works dealing
with fruit and other pests come from the pens of Saunders, Lintner,
Kiley, Slmgerland and others in America and Canada, from Taschen-
berg, Lampa, Reuter and Kollar in Europe, and from French,
! roggatt and Tryon in Australia. It was not until the last quarter
of the igth century that any real advance was made in the study of
economic entomology. Among the early writings, besides the book
of Curtis, there may also be mentioned a still useful little publication
by Pohl and Kollar, entitled Insects Injurious to Gardeners, Foresters
and Farmers, published in 1837, and Taschenberg's Praktische
Insecktenkunde. American literature began as far back as 1788,
when a report on the Hessian fly was issued by Sir Joseph Banks'
in 1817 Say began his writings; while in 1856 Asa Fitch started his
report on the " Noxious Insects of New York." Since that date the
literature has largely increased. Among the most important reports,
&c., may be mentioned those of C. V. Riley, published by the U s'
Department of Agriculture, extending from 1878 to his death, iii
which is embodied an enormous amount of valuable matter. At' his
death the work fell to Professor L. O. Howard, who constantly issues
brochures of equal value in the form of Bulletins of the U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture. The chief writings of J. A. Lintner extend
from 1882 to 1898, in yearly parts, under the title of Reports on
the Injurious Insects of the State of New York. Another author
whose writings rank high on this subject is M. V. Slingerland,
whose investigations are published by Cornell University. Among
other Americans who have largely increased the literature and
knowledge must be mentioned F. M. Webster and E. P. Felt In
1883 appeared a work on fruit pests by William Saunders, which
mainly applies to the American continent ; and another small book
on the same subject was published in 1808 by Miss Ormerod,
dealing with the British pests. In Australia Tryon published a
work on the Insect and Fungus Enemies of Queensland in 1889
Many other papers and reports are being issued from Australia
notably by Froggatt in New South Wales. At the Cape excellent
works and papers are prepared and issued by the government
entomologist, Dr Lounsbury, under the auspices of the Agricultural
Department; while from India we have Cotes's Notes on Economic
Entomology, published by the Indian Museum in 1888, and other
works, especially on tea pests.
Injurious insects occur among the following orders: Coleoptera,
Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera, Hemiptera (both heleroptera
and homoptera), Orthoptera, Neuroptera and Thysanoptera. The
order Aptera also contains a few injurious species.
Among the Coleoptera or bettles there is a group of world-wide
pests, the Elateridae or click beetles, the adults of the various
" wireworms." The insects in the larval or wireworm stage
attack the roots of plants, eating them away below the ground.
The eggs deposited by the beetle in the ground develop into
yellowish-brown wire-like grubs with six legs on the first three
segments and a ventral prominence on the anal segment. The
life of these subterranean pests differs in the various species;
some undoubtedly (Agriotes lineatum) live for three or four years,
during the greater part of which time they gnaw away at the
roots of plants, carrying wholesale destruction before them.
When mature they pass deep into the ground and pupate, appear-
ing after a few months as the click beetles (fig. i). Most crops are
B
FIG. I. A, Wireworm; B, pupa of Click Beetle; C, adult Click
Beetle (Agriotes lineatum).
attacked by them, but they are particularly destructive to wheat
and other cereals. With such subterranean pests little can be
done beyond rolling the land to keep it firm, and thus preventing
them from moving rapidly from plant to plant. A few crops,
such as mustard, seem deleterious to them. By growing mustard
and ploughing it in green the ground is made obnoxious to the
wireworms, and may even be cleared of them. For root-feeders,
bisulphide of carbon injected into the soil is of particular value.
One ounce injected about 2 ft. from an apple tree on two sides has
been found to destroy all the ground form of the woolly aphis,
[n garden cultivation it is most useful for wireworm, used at the
rate of i ounce to every 4 sq. yds. It kills all root pests.
ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY
897
In Great Britain the flea beetles (Halticidae) are one of the
most serious enemies; one of these, the turnip flea (Pkyllotreta
nemorum), has in some years, notably 1 88 1, caused more than
500,000 loss in England and Scotland alone by eating the young
seedling turnips, cabbage and other Cruciferae. In some years
three or four sowings have to be made before a "plant" is
produced, enormous loss in labour and cost of seed alone being
thus involved. These beetles, characterized by their skipping
movements and enlarged hind femora, also attack the hop
(Haltica concinnd), the vine in America (Graptodera chalybea,
Illig.), and numerous other species of plants, being specially
harmful to seedlings and young growth. Soaking the seed in
strong-smelling substances, such as paraffin and turpentine, has
been found efficacious, and in some districts paraffin sprayed
over the seedlings has been practised with decided success. This
oil generally acts as an excellent preventive of this and other
insect attacks.
In all climates fruit and forest trees suffer from weevils or
Curculionidae. The plum curculio (Conolrachelus nenuphar,
Herbst) in America causes endless harm in plum orchards;
curculios in Australia ravage the vines and fruit trees (Orthor-
rhinus klugii, Schon, and Leptops hopei, Bohm, &c.). In Europe
a number of " long-snouted " beetles, such as the raspberry
weevils (Otiorhynchus picipes), the apple blossom weevil (Antho-
nomus pomorum), attack fruit; others, as the "corn weevils"
(Calandra oryzae and C. granaria), attack stored rice and corn;
while others produce swollen patches on roots (Ceutorhynchus
sulcicollis) , &c. All these Curculionidae are very timid creatures,
falling to the ground at the least shock. This habit can be used
as a means of killing them, by placing boards or sacks covered
with tar below the trees, which are then gently shaken. As many
of these beetles are nocturnal, this trapping should take place
at night. Larval " weevils " mostly feed on the roots of plants,
but some, such as the nut weevil (Balaninus nucum), live as
larvae inside fruit. Seeds of various plants are also attacked
by weevils of the family Bruchidae, especially beans and peas.
These seed-feeders may be killed in the seeds by subjecting them
to the fumes of bisulphide of carbon. The corn weevils (Calandra
granaria and C. oryzae) are now found all over the world, in many
cases rendering whole cargoes of corn useless.
The most important Hymenopterous pests are the sawflies or
Tenthredinidae, which in their larval stage attack almost all
vegetation. The larvae of these are usually spoken of as " false
caterpillars," on account of their resemblance to the larvae of a
moth. They are most ravenous feeders, stripping bushes and
trees completely of their foliage, and even fruit. Sawfly larvae
can at once be recognized by the curious positions they assume,
and by the number of pro-legs, which exceeds ten. The female
lays her eggs in a slit made by means of her " saw-like " ovipositor
in the leaf or fruit of a tree. The pupae in most of these pests
are found in an earthen cocoon beneath the ground, or in some
cases above ground (Lophyrus pint). One species, the slugworm
(Eriocampa limacina), is common to Europe and America; the
larva is a curious slug-like creature, found on the upper surface
of the leaves of the pear and cherry, which secretes a slimy coating
from its skin. Currant and gooseberry are also attacked by
sawfly larvae (Nematus ribesii and N. ventricosus) both in Europe
and America. Other species attack the stalks of grasses and corn
(Cephus pygmaeus). Forest trees also suffer from their ravages,
especially the conifers (Lophyrus pint). Another group of
Hymenoptera occasionally causes much harm in fir plantations,
namely, the Siricidae or wood-wasps, whose larvae burrow into
the trunks of the trees and thus kill them. For all exposed
sawfly larvae hellebore washes are most fatal, but they must not
be used over ripe or ripening fruit, as the hellebore is poisonous.
The order Diptera contains a host of serious pests. These
two-winged insects attack all kinds of plants, and also animals
in their larval stage. Many of the adults are bloodsuckers
(Tabanidae, Culicidae, &c.); others are parasitic in their larval
stage (Oestridae, &c.). The best-known dipterous pests are the
Hessian fly (Cecidomyia destructor), the pear midge (Diplosis
pyrivora), the fruit flies (Tephritis Tyroni of Queensland and
vni. 29
H alter ophora capitata or the Mediterranean fruit fly), the onion
fly (Phorbia cepelorum), and numerous corn pests, such as the
gout fly (Chloropstaeniopus) and the frit fly (Oscinis frit).
Animals suffer from the ravages of bot flies (Oestridae) and gad
flies (Tabanidae); while the tsetse disease is due to the tsetse
fly (Glossina morsitans), carrying the protozoa that cause the
disease from one horse to another. Other flies act as disease-
carriers, including the mosquitoes (Anopheles), which not only
carry malarial germs, but also form a secondary host for these
parasites. Hundreds of acres of wheat are lost annually in
America by the ravages of the Hessian fly; the fruit flies of
Australia and South Africa cause much loss to orange and
citron growers, often making it necessary to cover the trees in
muslin tents for protection. Of animal pests the ox warbles
(Hypoderma lineata and H. bovis) are the most important (see
fig. 2). The "bots" or larvae of these flies live under the skin
of cattle, producing large swollen lumps " warbles " in which
the "bots" mature (fig. 2). These parasites damage the hide,
FIG. 2. A, Ox Bot Maggot; B, puparium; C, Ox Warble Fly
(Hypoderma bovis).
set up inflammation, and cause immense loss to farmers, herds-
men and butchers. The universal attack that has been made
upon this pest has, however, largely decreased its numbers. In
America cattle suffer much from the horn fly (Haematobia
serrata). The dipterous garden pests, such as the onion fly,
carrot fly and celery fly, can best be kept in check by the use
of paraffin emulsions and the treatment of the soil with gas-lime
after the crop is lifted. Cereal pests can only be treated by
general cleanliness and good farming, and of course they are
largely kept down by the rotation of crops.
Lepidopterous enemies are numerous all over the world.
Fruit suffers much from the larvae of the Geometridae, the so-
called " looper-larvae " or " canker-worms." Of these geometers
the winter moth (Cheimatobiabrumata) is one of the chief culprits
in Europe (fig. 3). The females in this moth and in others allied
to it are wingless. These insects pass the pupal stage in the
ground, and reach the boughs to lay their eggs by crawling up
the trunks of the trees. To check them, " grease-banding "
round the trees has been adopted; but as
many other pests eat the leafage, it is best to
kill all at once by spraying with arsenical
poisons. Among other notable Lepidopterous
pests are the " surface larvae " or cutworms
(A gratis spp.), the caterpillars of various
Noctuae; the codling moth (Carpocapsa
pomonetta), which causes the maggot in
apples, has now become a universal pest,
having spread from Europe to America and
to most of the British Colonies. In many FIG. 3. Looper-
years quite half the apple crop is lost in larva of Winter
England owing to the larvae destroying the Moth (Cheimatobia
fruit. Sugar-canes suffer from the sugar- Drumata >-
cane borer (Diatioca sacchari) in the West Indies; tobacco
from the larvae of hawk moths (Sphingidae) in America; corn
and grass from various Lepidopterous pests all over the world.
Nor are stored goods exempt, for much loss annually takes
5
ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY
place in corn and flour from the presence of the larvae of the
Mediterranean flour moth (Ephestia kuniella); while furs and
clothes are often ruined by the clothes moth (Tinea trapezella).
By far the most destructive insects in warm climates belong
to the Hemiptera, especially to the Coccidae or scale insects.
All fruit and forest trees suffer from these curious- insects, which
in the female sex always remain apterous and apodal and
live attached to the bark, leaf and fruit, hidden beneath
variously formed scale-like coverings. The male scales
differ in form from the female; the adult male is winged,
and is rarely seen. The female lays her eggs beneath
the scaly covering, from which hatch out little active
six-legged larvae, which wander about and soon begin to
form a new scale. The Coccidae can, and mainly do,
breed asexually (parthenogenetically). One of the most
important is the San Jose scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus),
which in warm climates attacks all fruit and many other
trees, which, if unmolested, it will soon kill (fig. 4).
These scales breed very rapidly; Howard states one
may give rise to a progeny of 3,216,080,400 in one
year. Other scale insects of note are the cosmopolitan
mussel scale (Mytilaspis pomorum) and the Australian
leery a purchasi. The former attacks apple and pear;
the latter, which selects orange and citron, was in traduced
into America from Australia, and carried ruin before it
in some orange districts until its natural enemy, the
lady-bird beetle, Vedalia cardinalis, was also imported.
After the Coccidae the next most important insects male; C
economically are the plant lice or A phididae. These breed P um>
with great rapidity under favourable conditions : one by the end of
the year will be accountable, according to Linnaeus, for the enor-
mous number of a quintillion of its species. Aphides are born, as
a rule, alive, and the young soon commence to reproduce again.
Their food consists mainly of the sap obtained from the leaves
and blossom of plants, but some also live on the roots of plants
(Phylloxera vastatrix and Schizoneura lanigera). Aphides often
ruin whole crops of fruit, corn, hops, &c., by sucking out the sap,
and not only check growth, but may even entail the death of the
plant. Reproduction is mainly asexual, the females producing
living young without the agency of a male. Males in nearly all
species appear once a year, when the last female generation, the
ovigerous generation, is fertilized, and a few large ova are pro-
duced to carry on the continuity of the species over the winter.
Some aphides live only on one species of plant, others on two or
more plants. An example of the latter is seen in the hop aphis
in patches from old apple trees, where the insects live in the
rough bark and form cankered growths both above and below
ground. Aphides are provided with a mealy skin, which does
not allow water to be attached to it, and thus insecticides for
destroying them contain soft soap, which fixes the solution
to the skin; paraffin is added to corrode the skin, and the
B
FIG. 4. San Jose 1 Scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus). A, Male scale insect
B, female; C, larva; D, female scale; E, male scale.
(Phorodon humuli), which passes the winter and lives on the
sloe and damson in the egg stage until the middle of May or later,
and then flies off to the hops, where it causes endless harm all
the summer (fig. 5) ; it flies back to the prunes to lay its eggs
when the hops are ripe. Another aphis of importance is the
woolly aphis (Schizoneura lanigera) of the apple and pear: it
secretes tufts of white flocculent wool often to be seen hanging
The Hop Aphis (Phorodon humuli). A, Winged female; B, winged
ovigerous wingless female; D, viviparous wingless female from
pupal stage.
soft soap blocks up the breathing pores and so produces
asphyxiation.
Amongst Orthoptera we find many noxious insects, notably
the locusts, which travel in vast cloud-like armies, clearing the
whole country before them of all vegetable life. The most
destructive locust is the migratory locust (Locusta migratoria),
which causes wholesale destruction in the East. Large pits are
dug across the line of advance of these great insect armies to
stop them when in the larval or wingless stage, and even huge
bonfires are lighted to check their flight when adult. So dense are
these " locust clouds " that they sometimes quite darken the
air. The commonest and most widely distributed migratory
locust is Pachytylus dnerascens. The mole cricket (Cryllolalpa
vulgaris) and various cockroaches (Blattidae) are also amongst
the pests found in this order.
Of Neuroptera there are but few injurious species, and
many, such as the lace wing flies (Hemerobiidae), are
beneficial.
The Treatment of Insect Pests. One of the most im-
portant ways of keeping insect pests in check is by
spraying" or " washing." This method has made great
advances in recent years. All the pioneer work has been
done in America ; in fact, until the South-Eastern
Agricultural College undertook the elucidation of this
subject, little was known of it in England except by a
few growers. The results and history of this essential
method of treatment are embodied in Professor Lode-
mann's work on the Spraying of Plants, 1896. In this
treatment we have to bear in mind what the entomo-
logist teaches us, that is, the nature, habits and structure
of the pest.
For insects provided with a biting mouth, which take
nourishment from the whole leaf, shoot or fruit, the
poisonous washes used are chiefly arsenical. The two most
useful arsenical sprays are Paris green and arsenate of lead.
To make the former, mix I oz. of the Paris green with 15
gallons of soft water, and add 2 oz. of lime and a small
quantity of agricultural treacle; the latter is prepared by dis-
solving 3 oz. of acetate of lead in a little water, then I oz. of
arsenate of soda in water and mixing the two well together, and
adding the whole to 16 gallons of soft water; to this is added a small
quantity of coarse treacle. For piercing-mouthed pests like Aphides
no wash is of use unless it contains a basis of soft soap. This soft-
soap wash kills by contact, and may be prepared in the following
way: Dissolve 6 to 8 Ib of the best soft soap in boiling soft water
and while still hot (but of course taken off the fire) add I gallon of
ECONOMICS
899
paraffin oil and churn well together with a force-pump; the whole
may then be mixed with 100 gallons of soft water. The oil readily
separates from the water, and thus a perfect emulsion is not obtained :
this difficulty has been solved by Mr Cousin's paraffin naphthalene
wash, which is patented, but can be made for private use. It is
prepared as follows: Soft soap, 6 Ib dissolved in i quart of water;
naphthalene, 10 oz. mixed with ij pint of paraffin; the whole is
mixed together. When required for use, I ft) of the compound is
dissolved in 5 to 10 gallons of warm water.
These two washes are essential to the well-being of every orchard
jn all climates. Not only can we now destroy larval and adult
insects, but we can also attack them in the egg stage by the use of
a caustic alkali wash during the winter; besides destroying the
eggs of such pests as the Psyllidae, red spider, and some aphides,
this also removes the vegetal encumbrances which shelter numerous
other insect pests during the cold part of the year. Caustic alkali
wash is prepared by dissolving I Ib of crude potash and I ft of
caustic soda in soft water, mixing the two solutions together, adding
to them } ft of soft soap, and diluting with 10 gallons of soft water
when required for use. Another approved insecticide for scale
insects is resin wash, which acts in two ways: first, corroding the
soft scales, and second, fixing the harder scales to stop the egress of
the hexapod larvae. It is prepared as follows: First crush 8 ft of
resin in a sack, and then place the resin in warm water and boil in a
cauldron until thoroughly dissolved; then melt 10 ft of caustic soda
in enough warm water to keep it liquid, and mix with the dissolved
resin ; keep stirring until the mixture assumes a clear coffee-colour,
and for ten minutes afterwards ; then add enough warm water to
bring the whole up to 25 gallons, and well stir. Bottle this off, and
when required for use dilute with three times its bulk of warm soft
water, and spray over the trees in the early spring just before the
buds burst. For mites (4 car i) sulphur is the essential ingredient of a
spray. Liver of sulphur has been found to be the best form, especi-
ally when mixed with a paraffin emulsion. Bud mites (Phytoptidae,
fig. 6) are of course not affected. Sulphur wash is made by adding to
every 10 gallons of warm paraffin emulsion or paraffin-naphthalene-
emulsion 7 oz. of liver of sulphur, and stirring until the sulphur is
well mixed. This is applied as an ordinary spray. Nursery stock
should always be treated, to kill scale, aphis and other pests which
it may carry, by the gas treatment, particularly in the case of stock
imported from a foreign climate. This treatment, both out of doors
and under glass, is carried out as follows : Cover the plants in bulk
with a light gas-tight cloth, or put them in a special fumigating
house, and then place i oz. of cyanide of potassium in lumps in a dish
with water beneath the covering, and then pour I oz. of sulphuric
acid over it (being careful not to inhale the poisonous fumes) for
every 1000 cub. ft. of space beneath the cover. The gas generated,
prussic acid, should be left to work for at least an hour before the
stock is removed, when all forms of animal life will be destroyed.
For spraying, proper instruments must be used, by means of
which the liquid is sent out over the plants in as fine a mist as
possible. Numerous pumps and nozzles are now made by which
this end is attained. Both horse and hand machines are employed,
the former for hops and large orchards, the latter for bush fruit
and gardens. In America, where trees in parks as well as orchards
and gardens are treated, steam-power is sometimes used. Among
the most important sprayers are the Strawson horse sprayers and
FIG. 6. Bud Mites (Phytoptidae). A, Currant Bud Mite (Phytoplus
ribis); B, Nut Bud Mite (P. avettanae).
the smaller Eclair and Notus knapsack pumps, carried on the back
(fig. 7). The nozzles for " mistifying " the wash most in use are
known as the Vermorel and Riley's, which can be fitted to any
length of tubing, so as to reach any height, and can be turned in
any direction. The pumps in the machine keep the insecticide
constantly mixed, and at the same time force the wash with great
strength through the nozzle, and so to the exterior, as a fine mist;
every part of the plant is thus affected.
Beneficial Insects have also to be considered in economic
entomology. They are of two kinds (i) those that help to
keep down an excess of other insects by acting either as parasites
FIG. 7 Knapsack Sprayer for Liquid Insecticides,
or by being insectivorous in habit; and (2) insects of economic
value, such as the bee and silkworm. Amongst the most im-
portant friends to the farmer and gardener are the Hymenop-
terous families of ichneumon flies (Ichneumonidae and
Braconidae) ; the Dipterous families Syrphidae and Tachinidae',
the Coleopterous families Coccinellidae and Carabidae; and the
Neuropterous Hemerobiidae, or lace-wing flies. Ichneumon flies
lay their eggs either in the larvae or ova of other insects, and the
parasites destroy their host. In this way the Hessian fly is
doubtless kept in check in Europe, and the aphides meet with
serious hindrance to their increase. If a number of plant-lice
are examined, a few will be found looking like little pearls;
these are the dried skins of those that have been killed by
Ichneumonidae. The Syrphidae, or hover flies, are almost
exclusively aphis-feeders in their larval stage. Tachina flies
attack lepidopterous larvae. One of the most notable examples
of the use of insect allies is the case of the Australian lady-bird,
Vedalia cardinalis, which, in common with all lady-birds, feeds
off Aphidae and Coccidae. The Icerya scale (leery a purchasi)
imported into America ruined the orange groves, but its enemy,
the Vedalia, was also imported from Australia, and counteracted
its abnormal increase with such great results that the crippled
orange groves are now once more profitable. (F. V. T.)
ECONOMICS (from the Gr. oiKovoiuKrj, sc. rex^, from
OIKOJ, a house, and v6/ioj, rule, the " art of household
management "), the general term, with its synonym " poli-
tical economy," for the science or study of wealth (welfare)
and its production, applicable either to the individual, the
family, the State, or in the widest sense, the world. How far
the same considerations apply to all these spheres is one of the
problems of economic thought in its widest sense. The term
" economy " (q.v.) by itself, which should strictly mean the art
of applying money (or wealth) wisely, has commonly come to
mean the art of saving money, or spending as little as possible.
In practice the study of " political " economy is mainly devoted
to the sphere of the State; the welfare of the individual as a
member of the State, and of the State in its relation to the world,
being internal aspects of the prosperity of the State itself.
Economics thus includes the discussion of all the numerous
factors which make life profitable, whether to the nation or to
the business, or to the individual man. It may be conceived
either as an historical science (What principles have in fact paid ?) ,
or as an abstract science (What are the true principles which
must pay, presupposing an ideal?). Economists at different
times have studied both aspects, according to their lights, and
influenced by historical conditions of philosophic thought. A
text-book on economics necessarily deals, therefore, with the
whole subject in a manner which need not here be followed,
since separate articles are devoted in this work to the biographies
of writers on economics, and also to the principal economic
goo
ECONOMICS
questions involved, under their own headings. In this article
we propose therefore to confine ourselves to discussing the
character and subject-matter of the science, indicating its
relation to other sciences, and explaining the methods by which
economists reach their conclusions.
We understand by economics the science which investigates
the manner in which nations or other larger or smaller com-
munities, and their individual members, obtain food, clothing,
shelter and whatever else is considered desirable or necessary
for the maintenance and improvement of the conditions of life.
It is thus the study of the life of communities with special
reference to one side of their activity. It necessarily involves the
scientific examination of the structure and organization of the
community or communities in question; their history, their
customs, laws and institutions; and the relations between
their members, in so far as they affect or are affected by this
department of their activity.
At the* root of all economic investigation lies the conception
of the standard of life of the community. By this expression
we do not mean an ideal mode of living, but the habits and
requirements of life generally current in a community or grade
of society at a given period. The standard of life of the ordinary
well-to-do middle class in England, for example, includes not
only food, clothing and shelter of a kind different in many
respects from that of a similar class in other countries and of
other classes in England, but a highly complicated mechanism,
both public and private, for ministering to these primary needs,
habits of social intercourse, educational and sanitary organization,
recreative arrangements and many other elements. Many
influences operating for a long period of time on the character
and the environment of a class go to determine its standard of
life. In a modern industrial community it is possible to express
this standard fairly accurately for the purposes of economic
investigation in terms of money (q.v.). But it is doubtful whether
the most complete investigation would ever enable us to include
all the elements of the standard of life in a money estimate. The
character, tastes and capacity for management of different
individuals and groups differ so widely that equal incomes do
not necessarily imply identity of standard. In the investigation
of past times, the incommensurate elements of well-being are so
numerous that merely money estimates are frequently misleading.
The conception of the standard of life involves also some estimate
of the efforts and sacrifices people are prepared to make to
obtain it; of their ideals and character; of the relative strength
of the different motives which usually determine their conduct.
But no carefully devised calculus can take the place of insight,
observation and experience. The economist should be a man
of wide sympathies and practical sagacity, in close touch with
men of different grades, and, if possible, experienced in affairs.
It is evident that no permanent classification is possible of
what is or is not of economic significance. No general rules,
_-. applicable to all times, can be laid down as to what
ot "abject- phenomena must be examined or what may be neglected
matter. in economic inquiry. The different departments of
human activity are organically connected, and all
facts relating to the life of a community have a near or remote
economic significance. For short historical periods, indeed,
many phenomena are so remotely connected with the ordinary
business of life that we may ignore them. But at any moment
special causes may bring into the field of economic inquiry
whole departments of life which have hitherto been legitimately
ignored. In times past, biblical exegesis, religious ideals, and
ecclesiastical organization, the purely political aims of statesmen,
chance combinations of party politics and the intrigues of
diplomatists, class prejudice, social conventions, apparently
sudden changes of economic policy, capricious changes of fashion
all these causes and many others have exerted a direct and
immediate influence on the economic life of the community.
In our own day we have had many illustrations of the manner
in which special circumstances may at once bring an almost
unnoticed series of scientific investigations into direct and vital
relation with the business world. The economist must, therefore,
not only be prepared to take account of the physical features of
the world, the general structure and organization of the industry
and commerce of different states, the character of their administra-
tion and other important causes of economic change. He must be
in touch with the actual life of the community he is studying,
and cultivate " that openness and alertness of the mind, that
sensitiveness of the judgment, which can rapidly grasp the
significance of at first sight unrelated discoveries or events."
Some people are of opinion that the factors to be taken account
of in economic investigation are so numerous that progress on
these lines is impossible. It would certainly be impossible if we
had to begin de now to construct the whole fabric of economic
science. But, as we shall see, it is no more necessary to do this
in the world of science than it is in the world of business or politics.
There is in existence a vast store of accumulated knowledge, and
few, if any, departments of economics have been left quite un-
illuminated by the researches of former generations. Progress is
the result of adaptation rather than reconstruction. It must be
remembered also that economic work in modern times is carried
on by consciously or unconsciously associated effort, and although
it must always require high qualities of judgment, capacity and
energy, many of the difficulties which at first sight appear so
insuperable give way when they are attacked. In some ways
also the study of highly developed organizations like the modern
industrial state is simpler than that of earlier forms of society.
In the earliest times for which we have abundant material
the economic life of England had already reached in certain
directions a high degree of complexity. Even in the rural
districts, manorial records reveal the existence of a great variety
of classes and groups of persons engaged in the performance of
economic functions. The lord of the manor with his officials
and retainers, the peasantry bound to him by ties of personal
dependence and mutual rights and obligations, constituted a
little world, in which we can watch the play of motives and
passions not so dissimilar as we are sometimes led to believe
from those of the great modern world. In many a
country district the gradations of social rank were fad"
more continuous, the opportunities of intercourse modem
more frequent, and the capacity for organization condition*
greater than in modern times. The manorial accounts Eaghunt
were kept with precision and detail, and we are told
that a skilled official could estimate to the utmost farthing the
value of the services due from the villein to his lord. The manor
was indeed self-sufficient and independent in the sense that it
could furnish everything required by the majority of the in-
habitants, and that over the greater part of rural England
production was not carried on with a view to a distant market.
But in the earliest times the manor was subjected to external
influences of great importance. Vast areas of the country were
in fact under the single control of a territorial lord or an ecclesi-
astical foundation. Every manor composing these great fiefs
was likely to be affected by the policy or the character of the
administration of the feudal lord, and he, again, by the policy
or the difficulties, the strength or the weakness, of the central
government. Foreign trade and foreign intercourse were
undeveloped, but their influence was in historical times never
entirely absent, while the influence of Roman law and the
Christian Church constantly tended to modify the manorial
organization. In the towns the division of labour had proceeded
much further than in the rural districts, and there were in
existence organized bodies, such as the Gild Merchant and the
crafts, whose functions were primarily economic. But one of
the most striking characteristics of town life in the middle ages
was the manner in which municipal and industrial privileges
and responsibilities were interwoven. In modern times the
artisan, however well trained, efficient and painstaking he may
be, does not, in virtue of these qualities, enjoy any municipal
or political privileges. By means of his trade union, co-operative
society or club he may gain some experience in the management
of men and business, and in so far as the want of a sufficient
income does not constitute an insuperable difficulty, he may
share in the public life of the country. But in his character as
ECONOMICS
901
artisan he enjoys no municipal or political privileges. In the
middle ages this differentiation of the industrial, municipal and
political life had not taken place, and in order to understand the
working of at first sight purely economic regulations it is
necessary to make a close study of the functions of local govern-
ment. But this, after all, does not carry us very far. From the
very nature of the records in which we study the town life of
the middle ages, it follows that we obtain from them only a one-
sided view. No one knows what proportion of the industrial
population was included in the organized gilds, or how complete
was the control exercised by these bodies over their members.
Elaborate regulations were in force, but no one knows how elastic
they were in practice. Medieval Englishmen were particularly
apt to put their aspirations into a legal form, and then rest
satisfied with their achievement. The number of regulations is
scarcely to be regarded as a test of their administrative success.
Further, as the country became more consolidated and the
central government extended its authority over economic affairs,
new regulations came into force, new organs of government
appeared, which were sometimes in conflict, sometimes in har-
mony, with the existing system, and it becomes for a time far
more difficult to obtain a clear view of the actual working of
economic institutions. Thus the study of the economic life of
the middle ages is one of the most complicated subjects which
can engage the attention of man. It is impossible to carry the
process of isolation very far. The different threads of social
activity are so closely interwoven that we cannot follow any one
for very long without forming wrong impressions, and it becomes
necessary to turn back and study others which seemed at first
sight unrelated to the subject of our investigations. Under an
apparently uniform and stable system of social regulation there
was much variation and movement, the significance of which
it is impossible to estimate. Materials for forming such an
estimate no doubt exist, but before doing so we have to study in
infinite detail a vast number of separate manors, municipalities
or other separate economic areas. This involves great industry
on the part of many scientific workers. Meanwhile we can
illustrate the economic life of the middle ages, describe its main
features, indicate the more important measures of public policy
and draw attention to some of the main lines of development.
It is only as we approach more modern times that the con-
ditions of economic study are realized and economic science,
Conditions as we understand it, becomes possible. Those condi-
o/ tions are: (i.) the life of the state or other community
economic or communities we are studying must be so differen-
tiated that we can isolate those functions which are
wholly or predominantly economic. The " separation of employ-
ments " is not only a condition of economic efficiency; it was
necessary before we could have an economic science, (ii.) We
must be in a position so far to understand and estimate the
character and motives of different classes and groups in these
communities that we can rightly interpret their action. This
condition cannot be realized without great difficulty, for
" economic motives " are very different in different periods,
nations and classes, and even for short periods of time in the
same country are modified by the influence of other motives of
an entirely different order. In studying the economic history
of the 1 8th century, for example, it is not enough to assume with
Defoe that " gain is the design of merchandise." We have to be
saturated, as it were, with iSth-century influences, so that we
can realize the conditions in which industry and trade were
carried on, before we can rightly explain the course of develop-
ment. In our own day labour disputes, to take another example,
can scarcely ever be resolved into a question of merely pecuniary
gain or loss. The significance of the amount of money involved
varies greatly for different trades, and can only be understood
by reference to the character and habits of the people concerned.
But questions of sentiment, shop-feeling and trade customs
invariably play an important part, (iii.) Economics can never
lead to anything but hypothetical results unless we not only
realize that we must " take account of " other than the purely
economic factors, but also give due weight and significance to
these factors. No explanation of the industrial situation in
Germany, for example, would be intelligible or satisfactory even
from the economic point of view which ignored the significance
of the political conditions which Germans have to deal with.
So, again, it is impossible to make a useful comparative estimate
of the advantages and disadvantages of the transport systems
of England, the United States and Germany, unless we keep
constantly in view the very different geographical, military and
political conditions which these systems have to satisfy, (iv.)
Sufficient information must be available to enable us to test
the validity of our hypotheses and conclusions. Whatever
" method " of economic investigation we employ, we must at
every stage see how far our reasoning is borne out by the actual
experience of life. This obvious condition of scientific inquiry is
very far from being completely realized even at the present time.
It implies the existence of a well-trained class engaged in the
work of collecting information, and much organization both by
the state and private bodies. These four conditions can be
reduced to two. The community we are studying must have
reached such a stage of development that its economic functions
and those immediately cognate to them form a well-defined
group, and adequate means must be available so that we can, as
it were, watch the performance of these functions and test our
hypotheses and conclusions by observation and experience. ,
It is easy to understand, therefore, why we trace the beginnings
of economics, so far as England is concerned, in the i6th century,
and why the application of strict scientific tests in this subject
of human study has become possible only in comparatively
recent times. Medieval economics was little more than a
casuistical system of elaborate and somewhat artificial rules of
conduct. From the close of the middle ages until the middle of
the 1 8th century thousands of pamphlets and other works on
economic questions were published, but the vast majority of
the writers have little or no scientific importance. Their works
frequently contain information given nowhere else, and throw
much light on the state of opinion in the age in which they wrote;
It is also possible to find in them many anticipations of the views
of the economists of later times; but such statements were as
a rule generated merely by the heat of controversy on some
measure or event of practical importance, and when the con-
troversy died down were seldom regarded or incorporated in a
scientific system. Trade bias, personal impressions and guess^
work took the place of scientific method. This was inevitable
in the absence of trustworthy information on an adequate scale,
and from the immediately practical aims of the writers. But
from the end of the i7th century economics has been definitely
recognized as a subject of scientific study.
In modern times the conditions which have made economic
science possible have also made it necessary. While it is im-
possible to give a strictly economic interpretation necessity
of the earlier history of nations, economic interests /
so govern the life and determine the policy of modern ec o" < " Dfc
states that other forces, like those of religion and
politics, seem to play only a subsidiary part, modifying here and
there the view which is taken of particular questions, but not
changing in any important degree the general course of their
development. This may be, in the historical sense, merely a
passing phase of human progress, due to the rapid extension of
the industrial revolution to all the civilized and many of the
uncivilized nations of the world, bringing in its train the con-
solidation of large areas, a similarity of conditions within them,
and amongst peoples and governments a great increase in the
strength of economic motives. When the world has settled
down to the new conditions, if it ever does so, we may be con-
fronted with problems similar to those which our forefathers
had to solve. But, for the time, if we know the economic interests
of nations, classes and individuals, we can tell with more
accuracy than ever before how in the long run they will act.
Public policy therefore requires the closest possible study of the
economic forces which are moulding the destinies of the great
nations of the world. In most civilized countries except England
this is recognized, and adequate provision is made for the study
902
ECONOMICS
of economic science. But the subject is not only of immediate
concern to the state in its corporate and public capacity. The
neglect of it in the domain of private business can now only lead
to disastrous results. To quote from a useful work (National
Education: a Symposium, 1901), " the commercial supremacy
of England was due to a variety of causes, of which superior
intelligence, in the ordinary business sense, was not the most
important. Her insular position, continuity of political develop-
ment and freedom from domestic broils played an important
part in bringing about a steady and continuous growth of industry
and manufactures for several generations before the modern era.
The great wars of the i8th and the beginning of the ipth century,
which arrested the growth of continental nations, gave England
the control of the markets of the world. When peace was restored,
England enjoyed something in the nature of a monopoly. The
competition of France ceased for a time to be an important
factor. What is now the German empire was a mere congeries
of small states, waging perpetual tariff wars upon each other.
In the old Prussian provinces alone there were fifty-three different
customs frontiers, and German manufactures could not develop
until the growth of the Zollverein brought with it commercial
consolidation, internal freedom and greater homogeneity of
economic conditions. The industries of the United States were
in Jheir infancy. Thus the productive power of England was
unrivalled, and her manufactures and business men, under a
r6gime rapidly approximating to complete freedom of trade,
could reap the full advantages to be derived from the possession
of great national resources and production by machinery.
Commercial supremacy required not so much highly trained
intelligence amongst manufacturers and merchants as keen
business instinct and a certain rude energy. In the last genera-
tion all that has changed, and the change is of a permanent
character. The struggle of the future must inevitably be
between a number of great nations, more or less equally well
equipped, carrying on production by the same general methods,
each one trying to strengthen its industrial and commercial
position by the adoption of the most highly developed machinery,
and all the methods suggested by scientific research, policy or
experience. Under these conditions, it is no longer possible for
the individual merchant, or for small groups of merchants, to
acquaint themselves, by personal experience alone, with more
than a fractional part of the causes which affect the business in
which they are engaged. The spread of the modern industrial
system has brought with it the modem state, with its millions
of consumers, its vast area, its innumerable activities, its com-
plicated code of industrial and commercial law. At the same
time, the revolution in the means of transport and communication
has destroyed, or is tending to destroy, local markets, and closely
interwoven all the business of the world. Events in the most
distant countries, industrial and commercial movements at
first sight unrelated to the concerns of the individual merchant,
now exert a direct and immediate influence upon his interests.
The technical training of the factory or the office, the experience
of business, the discharge of practical duties, necessary as they
are, do not infallibly open the mind to the large issues of the
modern business world, and can never confer the detailed
acquaintance with facts and principles which lie outside the
daily routine of the individual, but are none the less of vital
importance." Economics, therefore, under modern conditions,
is not only a subject which may usefully occupy the attention
of a leisured class of scientific men. It should form part of the
training of educated men of all classes, on grounds of public
policy and administrative and business efficiency.
The relations between economics and other sciences cannot
be stated in a very general form. They vary for different
Relations P er ids, and are not the same for all branches of
between economics. There is no subject of human study which
economics may not be at some time or other of economic signifi-
cfenroT cance > an d anything which affects the character, the
ideals or the environment of man may make it
necessary to modify our assumptions and our reasoning with
regard to his conduct in economic affairs. But if the economist,
while studying one side of man's activities, must also cultivate
all other branches of human learning, it is obvious that no
substantial progress can be made. The economist frankly
assumes the reality of the existing world and takes men as they
are, or as they have been if he is studying past times. His
assumptions are based upon ordinary observation and experience,
and are usually accurate in proportion to his practical shrewdness
and sagacity, so that he is not interested in the speculative
flights of philosophy, except in so far as they influence or have
influenced conduct. In times past, and to a less extent in our
own day, philosophical conceptions have formed the basis of
great systems of politics and economics. The historical relations
between philosophy and economics are of great importance in
tracing the development of the latter, and have done much to
determine its present form. But the modern conception of
society or the state owes more to biology than philosophy, and
actual research has destroyed more frequently than it has
justified the assumptions of the older philosophical school.
Experimental psychology may in course of time have an important
bearing on economics, but the older science cannot be said to
be of much significance except in its historical aspects. Ethics
is in much the same position. That is, it is possible to conceive
of an ethical science which would extend considerably our
knowledge of economic affairs, but no important new principle
or original discovery, relevant to economic investigation, has
come from that quarter in recent years, and at present ethics
has more to learn from economics than the latter has from ethics.
It is in the adaptation of biological conceptions and methods,
in the positive contributions of jurisprudence, law and history,
in the rigorous application, where possible, of quantitative tests-,
that the explanation of the present position of economics is
to be found. Mathematics has influenced the form and the
terminology of the science, and has sometimes been useful
in analysis; but mathematical methods of reasoning, in their
application to economics, while possessing a certain fascination,
are of very doubtful utility. ,
There is no method of investigation which is peculiarly
economic or of which economics has the monopoly. In every
age economists have applied the methods ordinarily method of
in use amongst scientific men. There would probably economic
have been no controversy at all on this subject but for invcsO*
the fact that economics was elaborated into systematic 8 a " oa '
form, and made the basis of practical measures of the greatest
importance, long before the remarkable development in the igth
"century of historical research, experimental science and biology.
The application of the a priori method in economics was an
accident, due to its association with other subjects and the
general backwardness of other sciences rather thanany exceptional
and peculiar character in the subject-matter of the science itself.
The methods applied to economics in the i8th and the early part
of the igth century were no more invented with a special view
to that subject than the principles of early railway legislation,
in the domain of practical policy, were devised with a special
view to what was then a new means of transport. As a matter
of fact, discussions of method and the criticism of hypotheses
and assumptions are very rarely found in early economic works.
It is only by reference to the prevailing ideas in philosophy and
politics that we can discover what was in the minds of their
authors. The growth of a science is much like the growth of a
constitution. It proceeds by adaptation and precedent. The
scientific and historical movement of the igth century was
revolutionary in character. When it began to affect economics,
many people were afraid that the whole fabric of science
would be destroyed and the practical gains it had achieved,
jeopardized. These fears were justified, in so far as those who
entertained them shut their eyes to everything new and assumed
an attitude of no compromise. Where the newer methods were
assimilated, the position of economics was strengthened and
its practical utility increased. General discussion of method,
however, is rarely profitable. In all branches of economics,
even in what is called the pure theory, there is an implied reference
to certain historical or existing conditions of a more or less
ECONOMICS
93
definite character; to the established order of an organized
state or other community, at a stage of development which in
its main features can be recognized. In all economic investigation
assumptions must be made, but we must see that they are
legitimate in view of the actual life and character of the community
or communities which are the subject of investigation. In
common with other sciences, economics makes use of " abstrac-
tions"; but if for some problems we employ symbolic processes
of reasoning, we must keep clearly in view the limits of their
significance, and neither endow the symbols with attributes
they can never possess, nor lose sight of the realities behind them.
Every hypothesis must be tested by an appeal to tne tacts of life,
and modified or abandoned if it will not bear examination, unless
we are convinced on genuine evidence that it may for a time be
employed as a useful approximation, without prejudice to the
later stages of the investigation we are conducting.
We shall best illustrate the character and method of economic
reasoning by examples, and for that purpose let us take first of
Aa Was- al * a purely historical problem, namely, the effect on
traiion of the wage-earners of the wages clauses of the Statute of
economic Apprenticeship (1563). It is at once obvious that we
are dealing not with an abstract scheme of regulation
in a hypothetical world, but with an act of parliament nominally
in force for two hundred and fifty years, and applicable to a
great variety of trades whose organization and history can be
ascertained. The conclusions we reach may or may not modify
any opinions we have formed as to the manner in which wages
are determined under modern conditions. For the time being
such opinions are irrelevant to the question we are investigating,
and the less they are in our minds the better. There is no reason
why we should apply to this particular act a different method of
inquiry from that we should apply to any other of the numerous
acts, of more or less economic importance, passed in the same
session of parliament. The first step is to see whether there is a
prima facie case for inquiry, for many acts of parliament have
been passed which have never come into operation at all, or have
been administered only for a short time on too limited a scale to
have important or lasting results. The justices were authorized
to fix wages at the Easter quarter sessions. Did they exercise
their powers? To answer this question we must collect the
wages assessments sanctioned by the magistrates. This is a
perfectly simple and straightforward operation, involving nothing
more than familiarity with records and industry in going through
them. Without having recourse to any elaborate process of
economic reasoning, by confining our attention to one simple
question, namely, what happened, we can establish conclusions
of the greatest interest to economic historians and, further,
define the problem we have to investigate. We can show, for
example: (i) that the Statute of Apprenticeship did not stand
alone; it was one of a long series of similar measures, beginning
more than two centuries before, which hi their turn join on to
the municipal and gild regulations of the middle ages; one of an
important group of statutes, more or less closely interwoven
throughout their history, administered by local authorities
whose functions had grown largely in connexion with this
kgislation and the gradual differentiation of the trades and
callings to which it related. (2) That wages were regulated with
much greater frequency during the reigns of Elizabeth, James I.
and Charles I. than at any later period. (3) That they were
regulated in some counties and not in others. (4) That in the
counties and towns where they were regulated the action of the
magistrates was in general spasmodic, and rarely continuous
for a long series of years. (5) That the magistrates used their
powers sometimes to raise wages, sometimes to force them down.
(6) That the local variations of wages and prices were what we
should call excessive, so that the standard of comfort in one
district was very different from that of others. (7) That the
wages assessments group themselves round certain short periods,
coincident in many instances with high prices, increase of poverty,
and other causes of exceptional action. (8) That what we may
call, with the above limitations, the effective period of the act
terminates with the outbreak of the Civil War. (9) That
subsequent to that period organic changes in the industries
affected, coupled with the incompetence of parliament to adapt
the old legislation to new conditions, and the growing acceptance
of the doctrine of laissez faire, brought about a general disuse of
the statute, though isolated attempts to enforce it were made
and new acts applicable to certain trades were passed in the i8th
century. (10) For more than one hundred years before the
repeal of the act, trade unions and other forms of voluntary
association amongst wage-earners, combinations amongst em-
ployers, collective agreements, customary regulations, were
established in many of the important trades of the country.
But these conclusions, after all, suggest more difficulties than
they remove, for they show that our inquiry, instead of presenting
certain well-marked features which can be readily dealt with,
has to be split up into a number of highly specialized studies:
the investigation of rates of wages, prices and the standard
of comfort in different localities, bye-industries, regularity of
employment, the organization of particular trades, the economic
functions of local authorities, apprenticeship and a host of
other subjects. Moreover, all these subjects hang together, so
that it seems impossible to come to a decision about one of them
without knowing all about the others.
It is a comparatively simple thing to state the question to
which we want an answer, but extremely difficult to define the
exact nature of .the evidence which will constitute a good answer;
easy enough to say we must try hypothesis after hypothesis, and
test each one by an appeal to the facts, but a man may easily
spend his life in this sort of thing and still leave to his descendants
nothing more than a legacy of rejected hypotheses. Every
volume of records we look through contains a mass of detailed
information on the economic life of England in the period we
are studying. How much of it is relevant to the subject of
inquiry? What is to be the principle of selection? How shall
we determine the relative weight and importance of different
kinds of relevant evidence? As in modern problems, so in those
of past times, a man requires for success qualities quite distinct
from those conferred by merely academic training and the use
of scientific methods. A correct sense of proportion and the
faculty of seizing upon the dominant factors hi an historical
problem are the result partly of the possession of certain natural
gifts in which many individuals and some nations are con-
spicuously wanting, partly of general knowledge of the working
of the economic and political institutions of the period we are
studying, partly of what takes the place of practical experience
in relation to modern problems, namely, detailed acquaintance
with different kinds of original sources and the historical imagina-
tion by which we can realize the life and the ideals of past
generations. These qualities are required all the more because,
in order to make any further progress with such an inquiry as
we have ' suggested, we have deliberately to make use of
abstraction as an instrument of investigation.
Let us see how this will work out. Suppose we have selected
one of the numerous subsidiary problems suggested by the
general inquiry, and obtained such full and complete The plan
information about one particular industry that we of a
can tabulate the wages of the workers for a long series geaeral
of years. We may do the same for other industries,
some of them coming under the Statute of Apprenticeship, others
not. If all the industries belong to one economic area over which,
so far as we can tell from general statistics of wages and prices,
and other information, fairly homogeneous conditions prevailed,
we may be able to reach some useful conclusions as to the
operation of the act. But it would be absurd to suppose that
we could reach those conclusions by simple reference to the trades
themselves. We cannot assume that the fluctuations in wages
were due to the action or inaction of magistrates without the
most careful examination of the other influences affecting the
trades. In economic affairs the argument post hoc propter hoc
never leads to the whole truth, and is frequently quite misleading.
We cannot suppose that the policy of the Merchant Adventurers'
Company had nothing to do with the woollen industry; that the
export trade in woollen cloth was quite independent of the
ECONOMICS
foreign exchanges and international trade relations in those
times; that the effect on wages of the state of the currency,
the influx of new silver, the character of the harvests, and many
other influences can be conveniently ignored. In studying,
therefore, such an apparently simple question as the effect of an
act of parliament on wages in a small group of trades we want a
general theory which we can use as a kind of index of the factors
we have to consider.
Assuming that we have in our minds this safeguard against
loose thinking and neglect of important factors, the investigation
Dim- * t ' le s P ec * a ' problems arising out of the general
cutties due inquiry resolves itself into a careful definition of each
to want of problem we wish to deal with, and the collection,
evidence, tabulation and interpretation of the evidence. In
most cases the interpretation of the facts is far from obvious,
and we have to try several hypotheses before we reach one
which will bear the strain of a critical examination in the light
of further evidence. But at this stage in historical investiga-
tion it is generally the want of evidence of a sufficiently complete
and continuous character, rather than difficulties of method,
which forces us to leave the problem unsolved. It is, for instance,
practically impossible to obtain reliable evidence as to the
regularity of employment in any industry in the lyth century,
and the best approximations and devices we can invent are very
poor substitutes for what we really want. For this reason guess-
work must continue to play an important part in economic
history. But every genuine attempt to overcome its difficulties
brings us into closer touch with the period we are examining;
and though we may not be able to throw our conclusions into
the form of large generalizations, we shall get to know something
of the operation of the forces which determined the economic
future of England; understand more clearly than our fore-
fathers did, for we have more information than they could
command, and a fuller appreciation of the issues, the broad
features of English development, and be in a position to judge
fairly well of the measures they adopted in their time. By
comparing England with other countries we may be able in the
distant future to reach conclusions of some generality as to the
laws of growth, maturity and decay of industrial nations. But
like the early statisticians of the 1 7th century, economic historians
are the " beginners of an art not yet polished, which tune may
bring to more perfection."
When we come to exclusively modern questions, there is no
reason or necessity for a fundamental change of method. We
The laves- cann t suppose that there occurred, at or about the
tigatieaot commencement of the igth century, a breach of
modem historical continuity of such a character that in-
questioas. s titutions, customs, laws and social conventions were
suddenly swept away, the bonds of society loosened, and the
state and people of England dissolved into an aggregate of
competing individuals. The adoption of machinery gradually
revolutionized the methods of production; but in the first
instance only certain industries were affected, and those not at
the same time or in the same degree; old laws grown obsolete
were repealed, but other laws affecting wage-earners and em-
ployers took their place, more complicated and elaborate than
the Elizabethan code. Trade unions, so far from disappearing,
.were legalized, gathered strength from the changes in industrial
organization, and nowhere became so powerful as in the most
progressive industries; while other forms of combination
appeared, incomparably stronger, for good or evil, than those
of earlier times. But while we recognize these facts, we must
not suppose that we have to study the action of men as though
they were all enrolled in organized associations, or covered by
stringent laws which were always obeyed. There has never
been in the history of English industry such licence as we find
in certain directions in the earlier part of the igth century.
It is not in the decay of combination and monopoly or in the
growth of competition that we must look for the distinctive
characteristics of modern problems. A 17th-century mono-
poly was a very weak and ineffective instrument compared
with a modern syndicate; the Statute of Apprenticeship was
certainly not so widely enforced as the " common rules " of trade
unions; and many of the regulations of past times, which look
so complicated to modern eyes, were conditions of free _.
enterprise rather than restraints upon it. It is due aistiacUve
to the influence of the laisser faire doctrine that we feature* of
regard law and regulation as a restraint on liberty. m dera
As a maxim for guidance in public affairs, laisser faire pnbletna -
was genuinely relevant at the end of the i8th and the beginning
of the i pth century, when the Statute Book was cumbered with
vexatious and obsolete laws. As an explanation of what has
taken plarp in later years, or of the actual economic life of the
present day, it is ludicrously inadequate. Competition, in the
sense in which the word is still used in many economic works,
is merely a special case of the struggle for survival, and, from its
limitation, does not go far towards explaining the actual working
of modern institutions. To buy in the cheapest market and sell
in the dearest; to secure cheapness by lowering the expenses
of production; to adopt the less expensive rather than the more
expensive method of obtaining a given result these and other
maxims are as old as human society. Competition, in the
Darwinian sense, is characteristic not only of modern industrial
states, but of all living organisms; and in the narrower sense
of the " higgling of the market " is found on the Stock Exchange,
in the markets of old towns, in medieval fairs and Oriental
bazaars. In modern countries it takes myriads of forms, from
the sweating of parasitic trades to the organization of scientific
research. Economic motives, again, are as varied as the forms
of competition, and their development is coeval with that of
human society. They have to be interpreted in every age in
relation to the state of society, the other motives or ideals with
which they are associated, the kind of action they inspire, and
the means through which they operate. Apparently the same
economic motives have led in the same age and in the same
nation to monopoly and individual enterprise, protection and
free trade, law and anarchy. In our own time they have inspired
both the formation of trade combinations and attempts to break
them up, hostility to all forms of state interference and a belief
in collectivism.
The conditions which are peculiar to the modern world
are the large numbers we have to deal with, the vast and fairly
homogeneous areas in which justice is administered and property
secured, and the enormously increased facilities for transport
and communication. These conditions are of course not
independent of each other, and they have brought in their train
many consequences, some good and some bad. But they supply
the bases for that general theory which, as we have seen, is
indispensable in economic investigation. From the standpoint
of general theory economic movements assume an impersonal
character and economic forces operate like the forces of nature.
Although economic motives have become more complex, they
have just as much and no more to do with general economic
reasoning and analysis than the causes of death with the normal
expectation of life, or domestic ideals with the birth-rate. So
far as we have anything to do with psychology at all, it is the
psychology of crowds and not of individuals which we have to
consider. If we study the economy of a village, the idiosyn-
crasies of every individual in it are of importance. If the village
is ^replaced by a large area, inhabited by millions, with modern
facilities of communication, it is a matter of observation and
experience that for the purposes of general reasoning the idiosyn-
crasies of individuals may be neglected. Whether such large
numbers have the character of the " economic man " of the
early economists matters very little. All the assumptions we
require are furnished by observation of people in the mass and the
larger generalizations of statistics. Thus we can construct a
kind of envelope of theory, which, by careful testing as we pro-
ceed, can be made to indicate in a general manner the reactions
of one part of the activities of the economic world upon the others,
and the interdependence of the several parts. From its very
nature this general theory can never correspond strictly to the
actual life and movement of any given state. It is useful and
necessary, and plays somewhat the same part in economic
ECONOMICS
905
investigation as ton-mile statistics do in the administration of a
railway. To express in any language or to illustrate by any
images, from a purely objective standpoint* the infinitely com-
plicated movements of the actual world, is a task far beyond
human capacity.
With the aid of this general theory the methods we have
sketched in relation to historical problems apply with greater
Applies- f rce to the special problems of modern times, and are
Hoe to rewarded with results more accurate, more fruitful,
modem more relevant to difficulties which all civilized nations
problems, na ve to f ace> tnan tnose of historical research. To
many minds the interest and usefulness of economics depend
entirely on the apph'cation of these methods, for it is the actual
working of economic institutions about which the statesman,
the publicist, the business man and the artisan wish to know.
Under the conditions we have described, many of the most
interesting problems of our own time, when they are once
defined, resolve themselves into statistical inquiries. But in
most cases such an inquiry cannot be successfully carried out
by a mere statistician. Definite economic problems can very
rarely be dealt with by merely quantitative methods. In the
tabulation and interpretation of statistical evidence, as in its
collection, it is scarcely possible to overrate the importance of
wide knowledge and experience. There is another very important
instrument of investigation which can be used in our own time,
but cannot be employed in historical research. Historical
documents, however detailed, rarely show all the factors we have
to deal with or fully explain a given situation. No sane person
would suppose that the minutes of a modern legislative body
explain the steps by which legislation has been passed, or the
issues really involved. The ostensible cause of a modern labour
dispute is frequently not the real or the most important cause.
In modern problems we can watch the economic machine actually
at work, cross-examine our witnesses, see that delicate interplay
of passions and interests which cannot be set down or described
in a document, and acquire a certain sense of touch in relation to
the questions at issue which manuscripts and records cannot
impart. We can therefore substitute sound diagnosis for guess-
work more frequently in modern than in historical problems.
What then, it may be asked, becomes of the " old Political
Economy" ? Of what possible use are the works of the so-called
classical writers, except in relation to the history of economics
and the practical influence of theory in past times ? If we take
the mere popular view of what is meant by the " old Political
Economy," that is, that a generation or so ago economics was
comprised in a neatly rounded set of general propositions,
universally accepted, which could be set forth in a
po/ftfco) text-book and learnt like the multiplication table, it
economy." is not incumbent on the present generation to define
its attitude at all. In this sense of the words, there
was no faith deh'vered to our fathers which we are under any
obligation to guard or even explain. If by the " old Political
Economy " we mean the methods and conclusions of certain
great writers, who stood head and shoulders above their con-
temporaries and determined the general character of economic
science, we are still under no obligation to define the attitude
of the present generation with regard to them. The fact that
Adam Smith, with the meagre materials of the i8th century
at his disposal, saw his way to important generalizations which
later research has established on a firm basis, may enhance
greatly the reputation of Adam Smith, but does not strengthen
the generalizations. They stand or fall by the strength of the
evidence for or against them. In the history of economics or
the biography of Ricardo it is of interest to show that he antici-
pated later writers, or that his analysis bears the test of modern
criticism; but no economist is under any obligation to defend
Ricardo's reputation, nor is the fact that a doctrine is included
in his works to be taken as a demonstration of its truth. The
appeal to authority cannot be permitted in economics any more
than in chemistry, physics or astronomy. But the cases stated
above suggest more or less false issues. There has been no
revolution in economic science, and is not likely to be any. The
question we have really to determine is how we can make the
best use of the accumulated knowledge of past generations, and
to do that we must look more closely into the economic science of
the igth century.
Any one who has taken the trouble to trace the history of one
of the modern schools of economists, or of any branch of economic
science, knows how difficult it is to say when it began. " Antici-
pations " of method and doctrine can generally be found by the
diligent investigator in the economic literature of his own or a
foreign country. So that cross-sections of the stream of economic
thought will reveal the existence, at different times, in varying
proportions and at different stages of development, of most of
the modern " schools." Again, the classification of an economic
bibliography at once shows how varied has been the character
of economic investigation, ranging from the most abstract
speculation on the one hand to almost technical studies of
particular trades on the other. Of the great army of writers who
flourished in the first half of the igth century some were
closely identified with the utilitarian school, and the majority
were influenced in a greater or less degree by the prevailing
ideas of that school. Others, however, were hostile to it. In
many works, such as those of a statistical or historical character,
there are frequently to be found passages which could have been
written in no other period, but are only of the nature of ejacula-
tions and do not affect the argument. In stating the position of
economics during this time we cannot ignore all writers, except
those who belonged to one group, however eminent that group
may have been, simply because they did not represent the
dominant ideas of the period, and exercised no immediate and
direct influence on the movement of economic thought. We
must include the pioneers of the historical school, the economic
historians, the socialists, the statisticians, and others whose
contributions to economics are now appreciated, and without
whose labours the science as we know it now would have been
impossible. If we take this broadly historical view of the progress
of economics, it is obvious that even in England there was no
general agreement, during the io.th century, as to the methods
most appropriate to economic investigation.
Suppose, now, we ignore the writers who were inaugurating
new methods, investigating special problems or laboriously
collecting facts, and concentrate attention on the dominant
school, with its long series of writers from Adam Smith to John
Stuart Mill. It is the work of these writers which people have
in mind when they speak of the " old Political Economy." There
are several quite distinct questions we can ask with regard to
them. That they must be studied closely by every one who
wishes to follow the history of economics goes without saying.
That they must be studied by the economic historian is equally
clear, owing to their practical influence and the fact that they
furnished the theoretical bases of much of the economic policy
of the i Qth century. This is true whether their method is good
or bad, whether their conclusions are true or false. It is not so
easy to determine their relevance and usefulness in' relation to
distinctively modern problems, or to indicate within what limits
their work is of permanent value, and we can only deal with these
questions in their more general aspects.
It must be clear to every observer that the economists of the
classical period, with the one exception of Adam Smith, will
speedily share the fate of nearly all scientific writers. They will
be forgotten, and their books will not be read. Adams Smith's
Wealth of Nations, if it has ever been, has long ceased to be a
scientific text-book. Whether a modern economist accepts his
views or not is of no importance. There is probably not a single
chapter in the Wealth of Nations which would be thoroughly
endorsed by any living economist. But the reputation of the
book and its author is quite independent of considerations of this
kind. The Wealth of Nations is one of the great books of the
world, many of the sayings of which are likely to be more fre-
quently quoted in the future than they have been in the ipth
century. Malthus is already an author whose name is probably
more widely known than that of any other economist, but whose
works are rarely read, and studied only by a small proportion of
ECONOMICS
the few people who write books on the history of economic
theory. Of economic students, many are unaware of the fact
that he wrote any other book than the Essay on the Principle
of Population, and what is of permanent importance in that work
is contained in the generalization which it suggested to Darwin.
Moreover, modern economists, while accepting in the main the
general tenor of Malthus's theory of population, would not agree
with his statement of it. Like Malthus, Ricardo owes his reputa-
tion very largely to the theory associated with his name, though
it has long ceased to be stated precisely in the terms he employed.
But there are very few people in the world who have made a
careful study of his works; and although his theory of rent has
a wide and increasing application in economics, it is not compar-
able in general scientific importance with Malthus's theory of
population. It is already impossible to take J. S. Mill's Principles
of Political Economy as a text-book. Important as it was for
thirty or forty years, it will soon be as little read as M'Culloch's
Principles. For the rest of the economists of this period, it is
difficult to see how they can escape oblivion. When the generation
whose economic training was based upon J. S. Mill has died out,
the relevance of the " old Political Economy " is not likely to
be a question of any interest to ordinary educated men and
women, or even to the great mass of economic students.
The explanation of this decay of interest does not lie upon the
surface. It is frequently supposed that the influence of the " old
Political Economy " . has been gradually undermined by the
attacks of the historical school. But great as the achievements
of this school have been, it has not developed any scientific
machinery which can take the place of theory in economic
investigation. If our view is correct that, broadly speaking,
the two ways of regarding economic questions are complementary
rather than mutually exclusive, there does not seem to be any
reason why the growth of the historical school should have been
destructive of the " old Political Economy " if it had been well
founded. The use of the historical method has, in fact, raised
more reputations than it has destroyed, because by keeping
carefully in view the conditions in which economic works have
been written, it has shown that many theories hastily condemned
as unsound by a priori critics had much to be said for them at the
time when they were propounded. This observation is true not
only of old-world writers like the Mercantilists, but also of
Ricardian economics. No one is concerned to prove that the
Ricardian economics applies to the manorial system, and it is
generally supposed at any rate that the world has been approxi-
mating more and more nearly during the last century to the
conditions assumed in most of the reasoning of that school. On
the principles we have explained, therefore, the Ricardian
economics should supply just that body of general theory which
is required in the investigation of modern economic problems,
and the reputation of at any rate the leading writers should be
as great as ever. It would be of immense advantage from a
scientific point of view if this could be taken for granted, if for
a time the work of the classical economists could be considered
final so far as it goes, and for the purposes of investigation re-
garded as the theoretical counterpart of the modern industrial
system. This assumption, however, has been made quite im-
possible, not by the historical school, but by the criticism and
analysis of economists in the direct line of the Ricardian succession.
Modern economic criticism and analysis has destroyed the
authority of the " old Political Economy " as a scientific system.
The assumptions, the definitions, the reasoning, the conclusions
of the classical writers have been ruthlessly overhauled. Defects
in their arguments have been exposed to view by those who are
most concerned to defend their reputation. Writers with none
of the prejudices of the historical school, but with the cold and
remorseless regard for logic of the purely objective critic, have
pointed out serious inconsistencies here, the omission of important
factors there, until very little of the " old Political Economy "
is left unscathed. In fact, there never was a scientific system
at all. What was mistaken for it was fashioned in the heat of
controversy by men whose interests were practical rather than
scientific, who could not write correct English, and revealed in
their reasoning the usual fallacies of the merely practical man"
So the " old Political Economy " lies shattered. It is useless
to suppose that this destructive criticism from within can be
neutralized by generously sprinkling the pages of the classical
writers with interpretation clauses. This may serve to show
that the ideals of our youth were not without justification; but
the younger generation, which does not care about our ideals,
and looks to the future rather than the past, will not read
annotated editions of old books, however eminent their authors.
If the Ricardian school of economists had been merely philo-
sophers, or even a group like the French physiocrats, this
state of things might be regarded with equanimity. We might
assume that criticism and analysis had separated the wheat from
the chaff in their writings, that everything of permanent value
had probably been preserved and incorporated in the works of
later economists. But the character of much of their work
makes this assumption impossible. It is, in fact, quite true that
many of them were more interested in practical aims than in the
advancement of economic science. We may talk of
the assumptions implicitly involved in Ricardo's
works. In reality we do not know what those assump-
tions were; we only know what assumptions we should
make in order to reach the same conclusions, and they may be
very different from " the mind of Ricardo." Ricardo's works,
in fact, do not explain a theoretical system, but contain the
matured reflections, more or less closely reasoned, of a man of
great mental power looking out on the world as it appeared to a
business man experienced in affairs. The conclusions of such a
work are of wider significance than the assumptions we attribute
to the author would warrant. They are not expressed in terms
which satisfy our canons of scientific accuracy. Dissected
sentence by sentence, the book may be shown to be a mass of
inconsistencies. If it has the misfortune to be systematized by
an enthusiastic but dull and incompetent disciple, it may appear
even absurd. But after all the misinterpretation of contempor-
aries and the destructive criticism of later times, the book as
a whole leaves upon us an impression of peculiar strength and
charm, and imparts a sense of the relations of things truer,
because less mechanical, than the laboured reasoning of smaller
men. Such is the character of much of the work of Ricardo and
some of his contemporaries. We think that the decay of interest
in these writers involves a real loss, and that students of modern
problems may do worse than read Ricardo and his school. Some
of the criticism of their works, necessary and useful as it has been,
will probably be corrected later on by that breadth of view and
sense of proportion which has enabled us to appreciate justly
the achievements of lesser men in more remote times. But
rehabilitation in accordance with the canons cf historical justice
will not restore the lost influence of the Ricardian school. Their
achievements in the ipth century will be fully acknowledged,
but the relevance of their work to the problems of the aoth
century will be admitted less than at the present time.
In a subject like economics it must always be very difficult
to decide how far a departure from the traditional form and
expression of its main doctrines is necessary or de- Economic
sirable. No one who is really experienced in economic a coo-
investigation cares to emphasize the originality, still servativt
less the revolutionary character of his own work. It scleace -
is much more likely than not that some principle which for the
moment seems new, some distinction which we may flatter our-
selves has not been observed before, has been pointed out over
and over again by previous writers, although, owing to special
circumstances, it may not have received the notice it deserved.
Economics is therefore, on the whole, an intensely conservative
science, in which new truths are cautiously admitted or incorpor-
ated merely as extensions or qualifications of those enunciated
by previous writers. This procedure has its advantages, but it
may easily become dangerous by destroying the influence of the
science it is meant to preserve. It is not unlike the procedure
of the canonists and casuists of the middle ages with regard to
the doctrine of usury, by which the doctrine was to all appear-
ances preserved intact while in reality it was stripped of all its
ECONOMICS
907
original meaning by innumerable distinctions " over-curious
and precise." In the same way the doctrines of the classical
economists may be adapted by interpretation clauses and
qualifications the exact force of which cannot be tested or ex-
plained, so that we do not know whether the original proposition
is to be considered substantially correct or not. The result will
be that while the doctrines are apparently being brought into
closer correspondence with the facts of life, they will in reality
be made quite useless for practical purposes or economic in-
vestigation. It is easier to point out the danger than to suggest
how it should be met. The position we have described is no
doubt partly due to the unsettlement of economic opinion
and the hostile criticism of old-established doctrines which
has characterized the last generation. Or it may be the
result of economic agnosticism, combined with unwillingness
to cut adrift from old moorings. Whatever the cause, the com-
plete restatement of economic theory, which some heroic persons
demand, is clearly impossible, except on conditions not likely
to be realized in the immediate future. The span of life is limited ;
the work requires an extensive knowledge of the economic
literature of several countries and the general features of all the
important departments of modern economic activity. In general
theory special studies by other men cannot play the same part
as they do in historical and statistical work. In historical and
statistical investigation, or in special studies of particular sub-
jects, it is possible, given the pecuniary means, to organize a
whole army of skilled assistants, and with ordinary care to
combine the results of their separate efforts. In general theory
the inverse rule seems to prevail. There the unity of conception
and aim, the firm grip of all the different lines of argument and
their relation to each other, which are required, can only be
given by a single brain. But no one individual can do original
work over the whole field. He is lucky if he can throw new light
on a few old propositions. For the rest, he can only, with the
utmost caution, adopt the suggestions of other minds as qualifica-
tions of old doctrines, never feeling quite sure that he is right in
doing so. A complete restatement could only be undertaken
by a group of men, trained in much the same conditions, accus-
tomed to think and work together, each one engaged on a special
department, but all acting under the control of one master-mind.
This is largely a question of the organization of economic studies,
and it is of the greatest importance that, if possible, such an effort
should be made to present in a connected form the best results
of modern criticism and analysis.
Economics is unlike many other sciences in the fact that its
claim to recognition must be based upon its practical utility,
on its relevance to the actual life of the economic
world, on its ability to unravel the social and 'economic
develop- difficulties of each generation, and to contribute to the
meats of progress of nations. The very effectiveness of modern
criticism and analysis, which has brought great gains in
almost all branches of economic theory, has made the
science more difficult as a subject of ordinary study. The
extensions, the changes or the qualifications, of old doctrines,
which at any rate in the works of .responsible writers are rarely
made without good if not always sufficient reason, have modified
very considerably the whole science, and weakened the confidence
of ordinary educated men in its conclusions. In the case of many
subjects this would matter very little, but in that of economics,
which touches the ordinary life of the community at so many
points, it is of great importance, especially at a time like the
present, when economic questions determine the policy of great
nations. The " economic man " of the earh'er writers, with his
aversion from labour and his desire of the present enjoyment
of costly indulgences, has been abandoned by their successors,
with the result that in the opinion of many good people altruistic
sentiment may be allowed to run wild over the whole domain
of economics. The " economic man " has, on the other hand,
been succeeded by another creation almost as monstrous, if his
lineaments are to be supposed to be those of the ordinary
individual a man, that is, who regulates his life in accordance
with Gossen's Law of Satiety, and whose main passion is to
economic
theory.
discover a money measure of his motives. It is extremely im-
portant to consider how far the economic conceptions based upon
this view of the action of men in the ordinary business of life
such, for example, as the doctrine of marginal utility depend
for their truth and relevance on the fact that in economics we
are dealing with large aggregates. The earlier writers generally
assumed perfect mobility of labour and capital. No economist
would deliberately make that assumption now unless he were
dealing with some purely theoretical problem, for the solution
of which it was legitimate at some stage in the reasoning. Many
of the questions of the greatest practical importance at the present
time, such as the competition between old and new methods
of manufacturing commodities substantially the same in kind,
and equally useful to the great body of consumers, arise largely
from the immobility of capital or labour, or both of them. But
it is obvious that if the assumption of perfect mobility is invalid,
there is scarcely any economic doctrine identified with the
earlier writers which may not require modification, in what
degree it is impossible to say without very careful investigation.
Much suggestive work on this subject of a general character is
incorporated in economic books of the present day, but there is
room for a whole series of careful monographs on a question of
such fundamental importance. The same may be said of another
subject, too frequently neglected by earlier writers, to which
due significance has been given in the best recent work, namely,
time in relation to value. It would perhaps be too much to say
that the full consideration of this point has revolutionized the
theory of value, but it has certainly created what seems almost
a new science in close contact with the actual life of the modern
world.
Some doctrines of the earlier economists, such as the Wages
Fund Theory, are now practically abandoned, though it may be
said that they contained a certain amount of truth. Others,
which were considered of fundamental importance, owe their
position in modern economics and the form in which they are
stated to the " tradition of the elders." If they could, by some
happy chance, have been left for discovery by modern economists,
they would without doubt have received different treatment,
to the great advantage of economic science. Such a doctrine
is the so-called Law of Diminishing Returns, which Mill con-
sidered " the most important proposition in Political Economy."
" Unless this one matter," he says, " be thoroughly understood,
it is to no purpose proceeding any further in our inquiry."
" Were the law different, nearly all the phenomena of the pro-
duction and distribution of wealth would be other than they are."
On the other hand, Thorold Rogers, not to speak of earlier
objectors, described the law as a " dismal and absurd theorem."
The opinions of present-day economists appear to fluctuate
between these two extremes. The law may apparently be " a
general rule " or " a tendency " which is liable to be " checked,"
or a particular case of the law of the conservation of energy.
If we go to Mill to discover what it is, we find that " it is not
pretended that the law of diminishing return was operative from
the beginning of society; and though some poh'tical economists
may have believed it to come into operation earlier than it does,
it begins quite early enough to support the conclusions they
founded on it." " It comes into operation at a certain and not
very advanced stage in the progress of agriculture." But this
very important stage in the history of a nation is not defined or
clearly illustrated. We are told that we can see " the law at
work underneath the more superficial agencies on which attention
fixes itself "; it " undergoes temporary suspension," which may
last indefinitely; and " there is another agency, in habitual
antagonism " to it, namely, " the progress of civilization,"
which may include every kind of human improvement. Mill
apparently is not content with the confusion between " law "
and " agency " or " force," but opposes the one to the other.
He is constantly speaking in terms which imply the conquering
of one law by another, a habit from which his successors have not
freed themselves; and the theory of natural processes which
appears to have satisfied him, was that when two forces come into
operation there is a partial or complete suspension of one by the
908
ECONOMICS
other. In modern economics " fertility " has no very definite
meaning. It may mean what is ordinarily understood by the
word climate, rainfall, railway rates or anything else except
" indestructible powers of the soil." To speak of " additional
labour and capital " without reference to the kind and quality
of the labour and capital, and the manner in which they are
employed, organized and directed, throws very little light on
agriculture. Every improvement involves, from a quantitative
point of view, more or less of capital or of labour, so that it is the
" antagonizing " influences, which are nearly all qualitative,
which appear to be really important. It is therefore extraordi-
narily difficult at present to know what happens, or rather what
would happen if it were not prevented, when a country reaches
" the stage of diminishing returns "; what precisely it is which
comes into operation, for obviously the diminishing returns are
the results, not the cause; or how commodities " obey " a law
which is always " suspended." Possibly the present generation
of English industrial history will furnish many illustrations of
the law of diminishing returns. We can only say that it requires
investigation and restatement.
Closely related to the law of diminishing returns is the Theory
of Rent. No economic doctrine so well illustrates the achieve-
ments and the defects of modern economic analysis. JRicardo's
statement of the theory left upon the world an impression, not
wholly just, of singular clearness. He employed the theory
with wonderful success in 'unravelling the problems of his time.
Its importance has not been seriously, or at any rate successfully,
called in question. Treated at first as a doctrine peculiarly
applicable to land, with a certain controverted relevance to other
natural agents, it has been so extended that there is scarcely
any subject of economic study in which we may not expect to
find adaptations or analogies, so that Ricardo seemed to have
discovered the key of economic knowledge. But it was discovered
that there were no "indestructible powers of the soil"; that
the fertility of land in a country like England .is almost entirely
the result of improvement at some time or other; that " advan-
tage of situation " includes very much more than the words in
their literal sense imply; that both " fertility " and " advantage
of situation " include many kinds of differential advantage;
that in some circumstances rent does not enter into the price
of agricultural and other produce, and that in others it does.
Moreover, the study of the theory of rent has had a very great
influence on all branches of economics by destroying the notion
that it is possible to draw sharp lines of distinction, or deal with
economic conceptions as though they were entirely independent
categories. That modern economic analysis is incomparably
more accurate than that of earlier times there can be no question.
But the net result of the development of the doctrine of rent is
that all problems in which this factor appears, and they embrace
the whole range of economic theory, must apparently be treated
on their merits. In its modern form the doctrine is far too
general to be serviceable without the closest scrutiny of all the
facts relating to the particular case to which it is applied. To
deal adequately with the numerous extensions or qualifications
of these and other doctrines in the hands of modern economists
would involve us in an attempt to do what we have already said
is impossible except on conditions not at present realized. It is
clear that in the interests of general economic theory we require
a vast number of special studies before an adequate restatement
can be undertaken.
It must be clearly recognized that the functions of economic
science in the present requirements of the world cannot possibly
' be discharged by treatises on economic theory. The
between* relations between general theory and special studies
grnerai conducted on the lines we have indicated have com-
economics pletely changed. General theory never has been, and
"pfdai *" ^ nature of things never can be, the actual reflex
studies. of the life and movement of the economic world. It
never has been, and never can be, more than an indica-
tion of the kind of thing which might be expected in a purely
hypothetical world. When the aim of the man of affairs and the
hypothesis of the economist was unrestricted competition, and
measures were being adopted to realize it, general theory such as
the classical economists provided was perhaps a sufficiently
trustworthy guide for practical statesmen and men of business.
If only people can be got to believe in them, a few abstract
principles are quite enough to destroy an institution which it has
taken centuries to create. But a new institution cannot be
made on the same terms. The modern industrial system has
brought with it an immense variety of practical problems which
nations must solve on pain of industrial and commercial ruin.
For these problems we want, not a few old-established general
principles which no one seriously calls in question, but genuine
constructive and organizing capacity, aided by scientific and
detailed knowledge of particular institutions, industries and
classes. Just as the historical school grew up along with the
greatest constructive achievement of the ipth century, namely,
the consolidation of Germany, so the application to modern
problems of the methods of that school has been called forth by
the constructive needs of the present generation. We have
already shown how these methods, in their turn, require the aid
of general theory, but not of a general theory which tries to do
their work. In fact, every attempt to make it do so must in-
evitably fail. How can such a huge mass of general propositions
as are necessarily included in a system of economics ever be
thoroughly tested by an appeal to facts ? If they are not so tested,
the general theory will remain a general theory, of no practical
use in itself, until the end of time. It they are to be tested, an
indefinitely large number of special studies must be made, for
which the original materials must be collected and examined.
That is, original investigation of special problems has to be
carried out on a more gigantic scale than any economist of the
historical school ever dreamt of or the world requires, with the
certain knowledge that at the end of it all the general theory will
not correspond with the facts of life. For there is all the differ-
ence in the world between using a body of general theory as an
indication of the factors to be considered in the study of a special
prbblem, and undertaking special studies with a view to testing
the general theory. If the necessary limitations of general
economic theory are recognized, most of the difficulties we have
noticed disappear. Now that the " industrial revolution " has
extended practically all over the world, so that we have several
countries carrying on production by modern methods, it is easily
possible to sketch the main features of industrial and commercial
organization at the present time, to describe the banking and
currency systems of the principal nations, their means of trans-
port and communication, their systems of commercial law and
finance, and their commercial policy. It is true that at present
very little work of this kind has been done in England, but
innumerable books, many of them about England, have been
written by thoroughly competent economists, in French, German
and other languages. So that no great amount of original work
is required for a reliable account of those general features of the
modern system which should form the introduction to economics.
The general theory which we require should be sketched in firm
and clear outline, leaving the detailed qualifications of broad
principles to special studies, where they can be dealt with if it is
necessary or desirable, and examined by statistical and other
tests. For such a general theory there is ample material in the
economic literature of all civilized countries. It is of the utmost
importance that the economic terms, which are also, though in
many cases with an entirely different meaning, the terms of
business and commerce, should as far as possible be used in their
common and ordinary English sense: that they should corre-
spond in meaning with the same words when used in description,
in law, accountancy and ordinary business. This is no doubt
a difficult matter. But some change in this direction is necessary
both in the interests of the science itself and of its practical
utility. All the materials for investigation, all the facts and
figures from which illustrations are drawn, all methods of keeping
accounts in England, assume the ordinary English tongue.
There are few if any conceptions in economics which cannot be
expressed in it without depleting the ordinary vocabulary. At
present the language of economics is for the ordinary Englishman
ECONOMICS
909
like a foreign language of exceptional difficulty, because he is
constantly meeting with words which suggest to his mind a whole
world of associations quite different form those with which
economic theory has clothed them. The refinements of economic
analysis, as distinguished from its broader achievements, should
be reserved for special studies, in which a technical scientific
terminology, specially devised, can be used without danger of
misconception. But in a subject like economics obscurity and
an awkward terminology are not marks of scientific merit.
Economic studies should be as relevant to existing needs as
those of engineering and other applied sciences. The scientific
study of practical problems and difficulties is (generally speaking,
and with honourable exceptions) far more advanced in almost
every civilized country than it is in England, where the limited
scale upon which such work is carried on, the indifference of
statesmen, officials and business men, and the incapacity of the
public to understand the close relation between scientific study
and practical success, contrast very unfavourably with the state
of affairs in Germany or the United States. The backwardness
of economic science has been an index of the danger threatening
the industrial and commercial supremacy of the United Kingdom.
There are very few questions of public or commercial importance
upon which the best and most recent investigations are to be
found amongst English works. This would matter very little,
perhaps, if Englishmen had a firm belief, established by actual
experience, in the soundness of their policy, the present security
of their position, and the sufficiency of their methods to strengthen
or maintain it. But this is very far from being the case. If we
take, for example, the corner-stone of the British commercial
system in the igth century, namely, the policy of "free trade "
(?..) , the public do not now read the economic works which
supplied the theoretical basis of that policy, and, indeed, would
Economic not be convinced by them. The great men of the period,
problem* Cobden and Bright, are merely historical figures.
Srfcai/a' Long before his death, Blight's references in public
speeches to the achievements of the Anti-Corn Law
League were received with respectful impatience, and Peel's
famous speech on the repeal of the corn laws would not convince
the German Reichstag or a modern House of Commons. The
result is that free trade had become by the end of the igth century
in the main an old habit, for which the ordinary English manu-
facturer could give no very reasonable explanation, whatever may
be its influence in commerce and public affairs. The doctrine of
free trade only prevailed in so far as it could be restated in terms
which had a direct relevance to the existing position of England
and existing conditions of international trade. And it was
directly challenged by the representatives of Mr Chamberlain's
school of Imperialist thought (see CHAMBERLAIN, JOSEPH). It
thus became the work of economic science ruthlessly to analyse the
existing situation, explain the issues involved in the commercial
policy of different countries, and point out the alternative methods
of dealing with present difficulties, with their probable results.
The commercial policy of a state is merely the reflex of its
system of public finance (see e.g.ENGLiSH FINANCE) . The absence
of conviction in regard to British commercial policy naturally had
its counterpart in the attitude of many men to the financial
system of the country. The eulogies showered upon it in the
past were no longer considered adequate. The great increase in
recent years in British military and naval expenditure, made
necessary by the exceptional demands of a state of war and the
great development of foreign powers, was partly responsible for
the new difficulties; partly it was due to the great extension of
the functions of the state during the latter part of the igth
century. The former causes may be considered partly permanent,
partly temporary; but those of a permanent character are likely
to increase in force, and those of a temporary character will leave
a deposit in the shape of an addition to the normal
and * expenditure of the central government. The extension
finance. of government functions appeared much more likely
to continue than to be checked. Normal expenditure
might therefore be calculated to rise rather than fall. In spite
of the vast increase in national wealth, it was found a matter of
increasing difficulty to meet a comparatively slight strain with-
out recourse to measures of a highly controversial character; and
the search for new sources of revenue (as in 1909) at once raised,
in an acute form, questions of national commercial policy and
the relations between the United Kingdom and the colonies.
The development of the powers of the central government has
been less than that of the functions of local governing authorities.
This, again, is a movement much more likely to extend than to be
checked. Local governing authorities now discharge economic
functions of enormous importance and complexity, involving
sums of money larger than sufficed to run important states a
generation ago. The scientific study of the economics of local
administration is, however, in its infancy, and requires to be
taken up in earnest by economists. These questions of com-
mercial policy and local government are closely bound up with
the scientific study of the transport system. Although the
British Empire contains within itself every known species of
railway enterprise, the study of railways and other means of
transport, and their relation to the business, the commerce and
the social life of the country, is deplorably backward. It is
obvious that no inquiry into commercial policy, or into such
social questions as the housing of the poor, can be effective unless
this deficiency is remedied.
The whole social and political fabric of the British Empire
depends upon the efficiency of its industrial system. On this
subject many monographs and larger works have been pub-
lished in recent years, but dealing rather with such questions
as trade unionism, co-operation and factory legislation, than the
structure and organization of particular industries, or the causes
and the results of the formation of the great combinations,
peculiarly characteristic of the United States, but not wanting
in England, which are amongst the most striking economic
phenomena of modern times.
These are some of the questions which must absorb the energies
of the rising generation of economists. The claim of economics
for recognition as a science and as a subject of study must be
based on its relevance to the actual life of the economic world,
on its ability to unravel the practical difficulties of each genera-
tion, and so contribute to the progress of nations.
LITERATURE. See also FREE TRADE; PROTECTION; TARIFF;
COMMERCIAL TREATIES; TRUSTS; MONEY; FINANCE; &c. The
bibliography of economics as a whole would include a history of all
the writers on the subject, and is beyond our scope here; see the
numerous articles on economic subjects throughout this work.
The article by Dr J. K. Ingram in the ninth edition of the Encyclo-
paedia Britannica is still a valuable historical account. It is only
possible to mention here a few of the more recent text-books. The
most important general work published in English is Marshall's
Principles of Economics, vol. i. (ist edition, 1890; 4th edition, 1898).
J. Shield Nicholson's Principles of Political Economy (3 vols.) not
only gives a survey of economic principles since Mill's time, but
contains much suggestive and original work. The writer of this
article is much indebted to the works of Schmoller, particularly his
Grundris der allgemeinen Volkswirtschaftslehre (1900), and Adolph
Wagner, particularly his Grundlegung der politischen Okonomie.
On the history of economic theory, Cannan's History of the Theories
of Production and Distribution (1776-1848) is an admirable criticism,
from a purely objective standpoint, of the works of the English
classical writers. The most important English works published in
recent years on general English economic history are W. Cunning-
ham's Growth of Industry and Commerce, and W. J. Ashley's Economic
History, while Vinogradoff's Villenage in England and The Growth of
the Manor, as well as Maitland's Domesday Studies, are of great
importance to the student of early economic institutions. D'Avenel's
Histoire economique de la propriete, &c. (1200-1800), is a monu-
mental work on the history of prices in France. Other books dealing
with special subjects are likely to take a very high place in economic
literature. We may mention particularly Charles Booth's Life and
Labour of the People in London, B. S. Rowntree's Poverty, Sidney
and Beatrice Webb's History of Trade Unionism and Industrial
Democracy, and Dr Arthur Shadwell's Industrial Efficiency (1906).
These books are generally regarded as typical of the best English
work of recent years in economic investigation. We may also
mention Schloss's Methods of Industrial Remuneration, a most im-
portant contribution to the study of the wages question; C. F.
Bastable's works on International Trade and Public Finance; George
Clare on the Money Market and the Foreign Exchanges; and A. T.
Hadley's Economics: An Account of the Relations between Private
Property and Public Welfare (1896). Studies of particular questions,
both concrete and theoretical, in foreign languages are too numerous
910
ECONOMY ECUADOR
to specify, and much of the best modern work is to be found in
economic periodicals. (W. A. S. H.)
ECONOMY, a township and a village of Beaver county,
Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Ohio river, 17 m.
N.W. of Pittsburg. Pop. of township (i goo) 1062; (1910) 860.
The village is served by the Pennsylvania system. It was owned
until 1904, when it was sold to a land company, by the Harmony
Society (see COMMUNISM), commonly called the Economites,
Harmonists or Rappists. The founder, George Rapp, after
living with his would-be primitive Christian followers at Harmony,
Butler county, Pennsylvania, in 1803-1814, and in 1815-1824 in
New Harmony (<?..), Indiana, which he then sold to Robert
Owen, settled here in 1824 and rapidly built up a village, in which
each family received a house and garden. The culture of silk,
flax, grapes (for wine-making) and fruits and cereals in general,
and the manufacture of flour and of woollen, flannel and cotton
fabrics, were carried on under a rule requiring every adult to
labour 12 or 14 hours each day in field or mill. Celibacy had
been adopted in 1807 as the rule of the community. New
members were received after a half-year's probation, and
members Wiio left received their original investment. Three
hundred thus separated from Rapp in 1833, with $105,000 as
their share of the communal property, to build the millennial
kingdom of New Jerusalem at Phillipsburg (now Monaca),
Beaver county, Pennsylvania, under the lead of Bernhard
Miiller, who had come to Economy in 1831 as a fellow religionist,
and was called Count Maximilian de Leon (or Proli); in 1833
Leon went, with his followers, to Louisiana, and established a
religious colony 6 m. from Natchitoches. After his death his
wife until 1871 was head of a similar community at Germantown
in Webster parish. The Harmonists at Economy flourished
under the rule of a tradesman, R. L. Baker, or Romelius
Langenbacher, after the death of Rapp in 1847, and during the
Civil War had about $500,000 buried away. Their numbers
were for a time kept up by the addition of fresh converts, but the
employes who were not Harmonists soon greatly outnumbered
the members of the community, the basis of which was
always religious. Baker died in 1868, and his successor, John
Henrici, in 1892, when John S. Duss became first trustee. In
1907 there were only two or three members in the society. In
1851 the township of Harmony was set apart from Economy.
See Morris Hillquit, History of Socialism in the United States
(New York, 1903!; William A. Hinds, American Communities
(revised edition, Chicago, 1902); John L. Bole, The Harmony
Society (Philadelphia, 1904); Charles Nordhoff, The Communistic
Societies of the United States (New York, 1875); and among several
excellent monographs in German, Karl Knortz, Die christlich-
kommunistische Kolonie der Rappisten (Leipzig, 1892), and J. Hanno
Deiler, Eine vergessene deutsche Colonie: eine Stimme zur Ver-
teidigung des Grafen de Leon (New Orleans, 1900).
ECONOMY, a word ranging in application from the careful
thrift of an individual to the systematic arrangement of an
organization. It is derived from the Gr. dKovofiia, the manage-
ment (vknuv, to control) of an ohos or house, extended in
meaning to the administration of a state. Of its original sense,
the art or science of managing a household, the expression
" domestic economy " survives, but the principal use in this
sense is confined to the thrifty management of the financial
resources of a household or of an individual. It is thus used as
equivalent to " saving," not only of money, but of time, labour
or effort, and, generally, of the least expenditure of means to
attain a required end. It is on the principle of " economy "
that many phonetic changes occur in the development of
languages, and, in aesthetics, the name has been applied to a
principle or law that effects are pleasant in proportion to the
smallness of the effort made, and of the means taken to produce
the result. The phrase " economy of truth " is due to an in-
vidious application of the use, in patristic theology, of the word
oUovonia for the careful presentation of such doctrine as would
be applicable to the hearer (see J. H. Newman, History of the
Arians of the 4th Century). " Economy " is also used in theology
in such expressions as " Mosaic " or " Christian economy " as a
synonym of " dispensation," for the administration of the world
by God at particular times or for particular races. From the
meaning of organization or administration of a house or state the
word is applied more widely to the ordered arrangement of any
organized body, and is equivalent almost to " system "; thus
the " economy " of nature or of animal or plant life may be
spoken of. The most common use, however, of the word is that
of " political economy," the science dealing with the production,
distribution and consumption of wealth (see ECONOMICS).
ECSTASY (Gr. tKvraaa, from eio-nrnu, put out of its place,
alter), a term applied to a morbid mental condition, in which
the mind is entirely absorbed in the contemplation of one
dominant idea or object, and loses for the time its normal self-
control. With this there is commonly associated the prevalence
of some strong emotion, which manifests itself in various ways,
and with varying degrees of intensity. This state resembles in
many points that of catalepsy (<?..), but differs from it sufficiently
to constitute it a separate affection. The patient in ecstasy may
lie in a fixed position like the cataleptic, apparently quite un-
conscious, yet, on awaking, there is a distinct recollection of
visions perceived during this period. More frequently there is
violent emotional excitement which may find expression in
impassioned utterances, and in extravagant bodily movements
and gesticulations. Ecstasy usually presents itself as a kind of
temporary religious insanity, and has frequently appeared as an
epidemic. It is well illustrated in the celebrated examples of the
dancing epidemics of Germany and Italy in the middle ages, and
the Convulsionnaires of St Medard at the grave of the Abbe Paris
in the early part of the i8th century, and in more recent times
has been witnessed during periods of religious revivalism. (See
also INSANITY and NZUROPATHOLOGY.)
ECTOSPORA, a homogeneous and natural division of Protozoan
parasites included under the Sporozoa; they comprise the three
orders, Gregarines, Coccidia and Haemosporidia. The defining
character of the Ectospora is that the spore-mother-cells (sporo-
blasts) are formed at the periphery of the parent-individual
(sporont) ; we may, however, go further, and say that the forma-
tion of all the different reproductive elements is uniformly
peripheral or exogenous. Two other very general features are (a)
that the individual trophozoite is uninuclear, and (b) that growth
and trophic activity are finished before the multiplicative or
reproductive phase sets in.
There is now little doubt that the Ectospora possess a flagellate
ancestry. The principal facts in favour of this view are as follows :
the actual ontogenetic connexion known to exist between
certain Haemoflagellates and certain Haemosporidia (see TRY-
PANOSOMES); the possession by many Coccidia of biflagellar
microgametes (male elements), whose general structure greatly
resembles that of a Heteromastigine Flagellate; the possession
by various parasitic Flagellates (e.g. Herpetomonas) of an attached,
resting phase, when the parasites become gregariniform, which
strongly suggests the attached phase of many young, growing
Gregarines; the typical gregarinoid and euglenoid movements
of Gregarines and of the germs or other stages of Coccidia and
Haemosporidia, which are quite comparable with the contractile
and metabolic movements of Flagellates; and, lastly, the
exogenous type of reproduction, which is easily derivable from
the multiple division of certain Haemoflagellates, and this, in
turn, from the typical binary longitudinal fission of a Flagellate.
ECUADOR (officially La Republica del Ecuador), a republic of
South America, bounded N. and N.E. by Colombia, S.E. and S.
by Peru, and W. by the Pacific Ocean. Its boundary
lines with Colombia and Peru were in 1909 still un-
settled, large areas of territory being claimed by all
three republics. Under an agreement of the isth of December
1894, the disputes were to be decided by the Spanish sovereign
as arbitrator, but nothing was accomplished. On the sth of
November 1904, Colombia and Ecuador agreed to submit their
dispute to the German emperor, and a convention of the 1 2th of
September 1905 between Colombia and Peru established a
modus vivendi for the settlement of their conflicting claims, in
which Ecuador is likewise interested. The maps of Ecuador,
which are very defective, usually describe its territory as,
Bound-
aries.
ECUADOR
911
extending eastward to the Brazilian frontier, but as Peru is in
actual occupation of the region east of Huiririma-chico, on the
Napo river, 3! degrees west of that frontier, those maps cannot
be considered correct. The Trans-Andine territory occupied by
Ecuador is a wedge-shaped area between the Coca and Napo,
So'
76'
D
74
ECUADOR
Scale. 1:8.000.000
English Miles
Gulf *"o
- Qf Pvna
Guayaquil
Cum
80" BLongHudcW. 7 8 ofGreenwichC 76
the provisional boundary line with Colombia, and a line running
nearly west-south-west from Huiririma-chico (about lat. 2 50'
S., long. 73 20' W.) to a point on the Santiago river in about
lat. 4 1 2' S., long. 78 W., which forms the provisional boundary
with Peru. The eastern part of this territory is also claimed by
Peru, which would have the effect, if allowed, of restricting
Ecuador to a comparatively small area covered by the Andes
and western Cordillera and the narrow plain on the Pacific coast.
From the Santiago river, a western affluent of the Marafion, the
boundary line runs south-west and west across the Andes to the
head waters of the Macara, down that stream to the Chira, or
Achira.whose channel marks the frontier down to about 80 1 7' W.,
where a small stream (the Rio Alamo) enters from the north.
The line then runs almost due north to the south shore of the
Gulf of Guayaquil, following the western water parting of the
lower Tumbez valley. A small district in the valley of the Chira
is claimed by Peru. The northern boundary line is described
elsewhere (see COLOMBIA). A small section of this line terminat-
ing on the Pacific coast is also in dispute, Ecuador claiming the
main channel of the Mira as the dividing line, and Colombia
claiming a small district south of that channel, the line running
due west from the mouth of the most southern outlet of the Mira
opening into Panguapi Bay, to a point of intersection with
that river.
Physical Geography. The surface of Ecuador may be divided into
three distinct regions: the Cis-Andine lying between the Western
Cordillera and the coast ; the Inter-Andine, which includes the two
great mountain chains crossing the republic with the elevated plateau
lying between; and the Trans-Andine, lying east of the Andes in
the great Amazon valley. The first part consists of an alluvial,
low-lying plain formed in great part by the detritus brought down
by the mountain streams. It is irregular in form and is broken by
isolated elevations and spurs from the Cordillera. Large areas are
still subject to annual inundations in the rainy season, and the lower
river courses are bordered with swamps. This is the most fertile
and productive part of Ecuador, especially on the higher lands near
the Cordillera. The Trans-Andine region is similar to the neighbour-
ing territories of the upper Amazon basin occupied by Colombia,
Brazil and Peru a great forest-covered plain descending gently
toward the east, broken on its western margin by short spurs from
the Andes enclosing highly fertile valleys, and by low, isolated
ranges between the larger river courses, and traversed by large
rivers flowing into the Napo and Marafion. This region has been
only partially explored, and but little is known of the large areas
lying between the navigable rivers.
The Inter-Andine or plateau region lies in and between the two
great mountain chains which cross the
greater part of the republic
between and almost parallel
with the 78th and 79th
meridians. The eastern chain is known
as the Andes of Ecuador, or the Cor-
dillera Oriental, and the western as
the Cordillera Occidental (Western Cor-
dillera). Starting from the confused
grouping on the southern frontier of
the two great chains and some trans-
verse ranges, they run nearly north by
east to the Colombian frontier where
another "knot " or junction occurs.
The summits of the western range form
a line of noteworthy regularity, but
those of the eastern form a broken
irregular line of varying distances from
the first. The elevated plateau be-
tween the two great chains, which is
about 300 m. long and 20 to 30 m.
wide, is divided into three great shallow
basins or plains by the transverse ridges
or paramos of Tiupullo and Azuay.
These are known as the Quito, Ambato
and Cuenca basins. South of the latter
is the irregular and deeply broken Loja
basin, which can hardly be considered
a part of the great Ecuador plateau.
The three great basins, which are broken
and subdivided by mountainous spurs
and ridges, descend gradually toward
the south, the Quito plain having an
average elevation of 9500 ft. above the
sea, Ambato 8500, and Cuenca 7800.
They are also characterized by the in-
creasing aridity of the plateau from
north to south, the Quito plain being
fertile and well covered with vegetation, and the Ambato and Cuenca
plains being barren and desolate except in some favoured localities.
The volcanic character of the region is likewise responsible for large
areas of barren surfaces. Rising from this elevated plateau, along
its eastern and western margins, are the Cordilleras with their
principal summits culminating far above the line of perpetual snow,
which in this region is about 15,750 ft. above the sea. These summits
are remarkable, not only for their great height, but also for their
apparent symmetrical arrangement in parallel lines, sometimes in
pairs facing each other across this cyclopean passage. Nowhere in
the world can there be found another such assemblage of snow-clad
peaks, several of which are active volcanoes. There are 22 of them
grouped around these central plains almost within sight of each other.
The western chain has the distinction of having the highest summit,
the eastern the greatest number of high summits and the highest
average elevation. From the time of Humboldt's visit to this re-
markable region down to the present time there have been many
diverse calculations of the height of these peaks, but with a con-
siderable variation. It is estimated that there was a considerable
decrease in the elevation of this part of the Andes during the past
century, Quito having sunk 26 ft. in 122 years, Pichincha 218 ft.
in the same time, and the farm of Antisana, where Humboldt
resided for a time, 165 ft. in 64 years. At the same time Cotopaxi
and Sangay, the two active volcanoes, have actually increased in
elevation since the measurement of La Condamine in 1742. These
changes in elevation, if correct, are due to seismic disturbances, a
cause that may be partially responsible for the varying computations
of the heights of these well-known peaks. Among modern investi-
gatorsare W. Reissand A. Stiibel (1871-1873), and Edward Whymper
(1880), whose measurements of the principal summits were:
.74*
Eastern Cordillera.
Western Cordillera.
Ft.
Ft.
Cayambe . (W.)
Sara-Urcu .
Antisana . ,,
Sincholagua . (R. & S.)
Ruminagui .
Cotopaxi . (W.)
Tunguragua . (R. & S.)
Altar (Capac-
Urcu) .
Sangay . .
19,186
I5.5 2
19.335
16,365
15,607
19,613
16,690
17,730
17.464
Cotocachi . (W.)
Moianda . (R. & S.)
Pichincha . (W.)
Atacatzo . (R. & S.)
El Corazon
(Chamalari). (W.)
Iliniza . . (R. & S.)
Carahuairazo. (W.)
Chimborazo . ,,
16,301
14,088
I5,9i8
14,892
15.871
17,405
16,515
20,498
912
ECUADOR
The Imbabura volcano, celebrated for its destructive eruptions of
mud and water, stands midway between the two ranges at the
northern end of the plateau, and belongs to the transverse ridge of
knot (nudo) which unites them. It is the most northern of the higher
peaks of Ecuador, with the exception of Cotocachi, and possibly
of Chiles on the Colombian frontier, and reaches the elevation of
15. O 33 ft- Ibarra on the northern flanks of the volcano has suffered
severely from its eruptions. The name is derived from imba, fish,
and bura, mother, and is said to have originated from the quantities
of a fish called " prenadilla " (Pimelodus cyclopum) discharged from
its crater during one of its eruptions a phenomenon which, after a
searching investigation, was discredited by Wagner. Cayambe, or
Cayembi, the second highest peak of the Ecuadorean Andes, has the
noteworthy distinction of standing very nearly on the equator.
Its base covers a large area, and its square top, rising far above the
snow-line, is one of the sights of Quito. Antisana is crowned with
a double dome, and is described as an extinct volcano, though
Humboldt saw smoke issuing from it in 1802. On its western side
is the famous hacienda (farm) of Antisana, 13,306 ft. above the sea,
where Humboldt resided for several months in 1802. Sara-Urcu
stands south-east of Antisana in a densely forested region, drenched
with rain and only slightly explored. Smcholagua and Ruminagui
are the next two peaks, going southward, and then the unrivalled
cone of Cotopaxi (?..) the highest active volcano in the world
from whose summit smoke curls upward unceasingly.
Llangana ti or Cerro Hermoso is chiefly known through the tradition
that the treasures of the Incas were buried in a lake on its slopes.
It consists of a group of summits, the highest being credited with
17,843 ft. Tunguragua, or Tungurahua, has a cone-shaped summit
like that of Cotopaxi, with a slope of 38. It rises from a plain
somewhat lower than the neighbouring central plateau and stands
free from the surrounding elevations, except on the south, which give
it an exceptionally imposing appearance. Among its characteristic
features is a cataract fed by melting snows, which descends 1500 ft.
in three leaps, and an enormous basaltic lava-stream, which crosses
the face of the mountain in a north-easterly direction. Its most
notable eruption was in 1777. It has been sometimes classed
among the extinct volcanoes, but smoke has been seen issuing from
it at different dates, and a violent eruption occurred on January 12,
1886. The fertile cultivated valley of Banos, with its thermal
springs, lies at the base of Tunguragua, which F. Hassaurek describes
as " the most beautiful of all the snow peaks in the country." The
next in line is El Altar, which the natives call Capac-Urcu (" king
mountain "), whose broken cone and impressive outlines make it one
of the most attractive mountains of Ecuador. Its summit comprises
a group of eight snow-clad peaks, and its crater is surrounded by a
steep and jagged wall of rocks. There is a tradition that this moun-
tain was once higher than Chimborazo, but a series of eruptions
caused the cone to fall in and reduced its summit to its present
altitude and broken appearance. Altar has shown no signs of activity
since the discovery of America. Sangay, or Sangai, the next and
last large volcano to the south, is in a state of frequent eruption,
however, and is known as one of the most restless_ volcanoes of the
world. Since the Spanish conquest it has been in a state of un-
interrupted activity, but no damage has been done, because there are
no civilized settlements in its immediate vicinity. Though of great
interest to scientific investigators because of this unceasing activity,
and of its peculiar position in the Andean system, and because of the
difficult and dangerous country by which it is surrounded, Sangay
has been but rarely visited by European travellers. Its eruptions
are not on a grand scale, but small outbursts of lava and explosions
of steam occur at frequent intervals, and at longer intervals more
violent explosions in which the molten rock is thrown 2000 ft.
above its summit, and ashes are carried away as far as the streets of
Guayaquil.
Turning to the Cordillera Occidental and taking the principal
peaks in order from south to north, the first to claim attention is
Chimborazo (from Chimpu-raza, " mountain of snow "), the highest
summit of Ecuador, and once believed to be the culminating point
of the Andes. Humboldt, who unsuccessfully attempted its ascent
in 1802, gives its elevation as 21,425 ft., Reiss and Stiibel as 20,703,
and Whymper as 20,498. It stands 76 m. north-east of Guayaquil,
and, according to Spruce, rises majestically from the valley of the
Guayas, on the west, without a " positive break from the summit
down to the plain." This, however, is erroneous, for Whymper
located a detached range running parallel with the Cordillera on the
west, for a distance of 65 m. whn the Chimbo valley between them.
The magnificence of its mass is imposing from almost any point of
view, but it can be most fully appreciated from its western or
Pacific side, where its base is covered with forest up to the snow-line,
above which its pure white cone rises another 5000 ft. An un-
obstructed view of the great mountain is rarely obtained, however,
because of the mists and clouds which cover its cone. Its summits
were_ reached for the first time in 1880 by Edward Whymper, all
previous attempts having failed. It is considered to be an extinct
volcano because it makes the plumb-line deviate only 7* to 8',
from which it is deduced that the mountain is hollow. Moreover, the
calcined matter resembling white sand which covers its sides below
the snow-line, extensive beds of lava, and the issue of streams of hot
water from its northern side, seem to confirm the deduction that
Chimborazo is an extinct volcano. Immediately north of Chimbo-
razo, and separated from it by only a narrow valley, are the lower
triple summits of Carahuairazo, or Carguairazo (which the natives
call Chimborazo-embra, " Chimborazo's wife "), whose hollow cone
collapsed in 1698 during a great earthquake, and left the jagged rim
which adds so much to its present picturesque appearance. Mr
Whymper's measurement is for the middle peak. Quirotoa, still
farther north, is supposed to have suffered a similar catastrophe.
Its hollow summit, 13,510 ft. above sea-level, now contains a large
lake. Iliniza, which stands west by north of Cotopaxi, has two
pyramidal peaks, and is one of the most interesting mountains of
the Ecuadorean group. It stands at the western end of the Tiupullo
ridge, and overlooks the Quito basin to the north-east. The French
academician Bouger, who was chief of the scientific commission
sent to Ecuador in 1736 to measure a degree of the meridian on the
equator, made a trigonometrical measurement of Iliniza, and Wagner
ascended to within 800 ft. of its summit in 1859. The geological
structure of the mountain furnishes no evidence of volcanic activity.
Chamalari, which the Spaniards called El Corazon from its heart-
shaped appearance, is similarly destitute of a crater. It overlooks
the Quito basin and has been ascended many times. Among the
earlier explorers to reach its summit were Bouger and La Condamine,
Humboldt and Bonpland, and Josd Caldas, the Granadian naturalist.
Atacatzo is an extinct volcano, with nothing noteworthy in its
appearance and history. Pichincha, its famous neighbour, is
apparently of later origin, according to Wagner, and of slightly
lower elevation. Perhaps no Ecuadorean volcano is better known
than Pichincha, the " boiling mountain," because of its destructive
eruptions and its proximity to the city of Quito. Its summit com-
prises three groups of rocky peaks, of which the most westerly,
Rucu-Pichincha (Old Pichincha), contains the crater, a funnel-
shaped basin 2460 ft. deep and about 1500 ft. wide at the bottom,
whose walls in places rise perpendicularly and in others at an angle
of 20. The exterior of the cone has an angle of 30. Bouger and
La Condamine were the first to reach its brink in 1742, after which
Humboldt made the ascent in 1802, Boussingault and Hall in 1831,
Garcia Moreno and Sebastian Wisse in 1844 and 1845 (descending
into the crater for the first time), Garcia Moreno and Jameson in
1857, Farrand and Hassaurek in 1862, Orton in 1867, and Whymper
in 1880. Farrand spent more than a week in the crater trying to
get some good photographic views, and Orton has given a graphic
description of his experiences in the same place. He found that the
real cone of eruption was an irregular heap 250 ft. in height and
800 ft. in diameter, containing about 70 vents. The temperature
of the vapour within the fumarole was 184, and water boiled at
189". There have been five eruptions of Pichincha since the Spanish
conquest in 1539, 1566, 1575, 1587 and 1660. The second covered
Quito 3 ft. deep with ashes and stones, but the last three were con-
sidered as the most destructive to that city. The last happily broke
down the western side of the crater, which, it is believed, will ensure
the city against harm in any subsequent eruption. Since the earth-
quake of August 1867 Pichincha has sent forth dense masses of
black smoke and great quantities of fine sand. Cotocachi is a double-
peaked mountain, rising from an extremejy rough country. It was
ascended by Whymper in 1880. All the higher summits of Ecuador
have true glaciers, the largest being found on Antisana, Cayambe
and Chimborazo. Whymper located and named no less than eleven
on Chimborazo, and counted twelve on Cayambe.
There are two distinct hydrographic systems in Ecuador the
streams that flow south-eastward to the Maranon, or Amazon, and
those which flow westward to the Pacific. The southern Riven
part of the great central plateau is arid and has a very
light rainfall; it has no streams, therefore, except from melting
snows, and the higher elevations which receive the impact of the
easterly winds. Farther north the rainfall becomes heavier, the
plateau is covered with vegetation, and a considerable number of
small rivers flow westward through the Cordillera to the Pacific.
The Eastern Cordillera, or Andes, forms the water-parting between
the two systems. The largest of the eastward-flowing rivers is the
Napo, which rises in the eastern defiles of Cotopaxi and Sincholagua
the principal source being the Rio del Valle, which traverses the
Valle yicioso. It at first flows south by east, and at the village of
Napo is 1450 ft. above sea-level, at the mouth of the Coca 858 ft.,
at the mouth of the Aguarico 586 ft., 500 at the mouth of the
Curaray, and 385 at its junction with the Maranon. Orton estimates
its current at Napo in the month of November as 6 m. an hour;
in the next 80 m. the river falls 350 ft. and produces^ a fine series of
rapids; and from Santa Rosa downwards the rate is not less than
4 m. an hour. Its breadth at Napo is only 120 ft., but at Coca it has
widened to 1500 ft., and at its mouth to nearly I m. Like most of
the large Amazon tributaries, its discharge _ into the Marafion is
through several distinct channels. The Napo is navigable for steam-
boats for some distance above the mouth of the Coca, and thence for
canoes as far as the Cando cataract, 3332 ft. above the sea. Its total
length is 920 m. The principal tributaries of the Napo are the Coca
and Aguarico from the north, and the Curaray from the south.
The Coca rises on the eastern slopes of the Andes near Cayambe
and the Guamani range, and flows eastward near the equator to
San Rafael (about 76 30' W. long.), where it turns sharply southward
to a junction with the Napo in about lat. i S., long. 76 W. The
ECUADOR
Coca forms the provisional boundary line between Ecuador and
Colombia from its source to the Napo. The Aguarico also rises on
the eastern slopes of the Andes north of Cayambe and flows south-
eastward to a junction with the Napo in about long. 75 W., its
length being roughly estimated at ^20 m. Little is known of its
course, or of the country through which it flows, which is provision-
ally occupied by Colombia. The Curaray has its sources in the
denies of the Cerros de Llanganati, and flows south-eastward to the
Napo, its length being estimated at 490 m. Its lower course is
sluggish, where its waters are made unpalatable by a reddish slime.
The Napo and its tributaries are celebrated in the early history of
South America as the route by which Gonzalo Pizarro and Orellana
first reached the Amazon, and it was afterwards the principal route
by which the early expeditions across the continent at this point
connected the Andean Plateau with the Amazon. The other rivers
which flow through the Oriente territory of Ecuador into the Maranon
are the Tigre, Pastaza, Morona and Santiago. The Tigre, of which
little was known until a recent date, is formed by the confluence of
the Cunambo and Huiviyacu, whose sources are on the eastern
slopes of the Andes near those of the Curaray. Its length below this
confluence is 416 m., into which are received 109 tributaries, the
largest of which are the Pucacuro and Corrientes. The Tigre is
navigable at all stages up to the Cunambo confluence, and promises
to afford one of the most valuable river routes in Ecuador. It enters
the Maranon very near the 74th meridian. The Pastaza, or Pastassa,
unlike the rivers already described, has its source on the central
plateau west of the principal chain of the Andes, within the shadow
of Cotopaxi, and breaks through the Cordillera to the north of
Tunguragua. After flowing southward along the base of the high
Andes for a short distance and receiving a number of torrents from
the snowclad heights, it turns south-eastward across the plain and
enters the Maranon about 70 m. above the mouth of the Huallaga.
The stream is known as the Patate down to its junction with the
Chambo, near Banos, and is not called Pastaza until the Agoyan
falls are passed. It was navigated by Don Pedro Maldonado as
early as 1741, and is navigable for steamboats of 2 to 4 ft. draft
up to the mouth of the Huasaga (about 124 m.) in times of high
water, and for canoes nearly 200 m. farther. The Pastaza, however,
is subject to irresistible floods caused by the sudden rising of the
mountain torrents on its upper course, especially the Toro, which
sweep down with such fury that navigation on the river is practically
impossible. The shallowness of the lower stream, where the current
is sluggish, is probably due to the great quantities of silt brought
down by these floods. Many of the rivers of eastern Ecuador are
subject to similar floods from the Andean slopes, which have cut
away broad, deep channels, through the adjacent plains, leaving
long, narrow ridges between their courses which the natives call
cuckillas. The Morona is formed by the confluence of the Manhuasisa
and Cangaima about 310 m. above its mouth, and is freely navigable
for small steamboats to that point. The two confluents just men-
tioned have their sources in the Andes, and flow for some distance
across the plain before uniting to form the Morona. Both are
navigable for considerable distances. The Morona follows a very
tortuous course before entering the Maranon, at long. 70" W., and
receives a large number of affluents, one of which serves as the
outlet for Lake Rimachuma, in Peruvian territory. Very little is
definitely known of the affluents of the Morona, Pastaza and Tigre,
as the territory through which they run has been but slightly ex-
plored. The Santiago, which enters the Maranon near the Pongo de
Manseriche, is formed by the confluence of the Paute, which rises
in the province of Azuay, and the Zamora, which has its source
among the mountains of Loja. According to Alexander Garland
(Peru in 1906), the rivers of eastern Ecuador are navigable at low
water for steamers of 2 to 4 ft. draft for an aggregate distance of
1503 m., as follows:
Miles.
Napo, to the mouth of the Aguarico .... 559
Curaray, up to Canonaco 286
Tigre, up to Cunambo-Huiviyacu confluence . . 416
Pastaza 3'
Morona, up to the Rarayacu 211
These same rivers are navigable at high water for steamers of
I9i ft. draft for an aggregate distance of 1330 m., including 68 m.
of the Aguarico, and for steamers of 2 to 4 ft. draft for an additional
733 m. The last aggregate includes an extension of 93 m. on the
Pastaza, 99 on the Morona, 186 on the Napo, and the balance on
the Manhuasisa, Cangaima, Pucacuro, Corrientes, Cunambo and
Huiviyacu.
On the western versant of the Andes of Ecuador there are three
river systems of considerable size the Mira, the Esmeraldas and
the Guayas. The sources of the first the Rioblanco, Pisco and
Puntal are to be found on the northern slopes of the transverse
ridge which culminates in the Imbabura volcano. Its course is
north and north-west to the Colombian frontier, thence westward
and north-west to the Pacific, breaking through the Western Cor-
dillera on its way. It forms the boundary line for some distance
between Ecuador and Colombia, but near its mouth where the river
turns northward Colombia has taken possession of the left bank
and all the territory covered by its large delta. Its principal tribu-
taries on the left are the San Pedro/Paramba, Cachiyacu, Chachavi
and Canumbi, and on the right the' San Juan, Caiquer and Nulpe.
The delta channels of the Mira are navigable, being tributary to the
Colombian port of Tumaco. The Esmeraldas drains all that part
of the central plateau lying between the transverse ridge of Tiupullo
on the south, and the Imbabura ridge on the north, together with
the western slopes of the Cordillera between Iliniza and Cotocachi,
and a considerable part of the lower plain. It is formed by the
confluence of the Quininde and Toachi with the Guaillabamba
between 40 and 50 m. above its mouth, and discharges into the
Pacific in lat. 1 N., long. 79 40' W., through a narrow and pre-
cipitous gorge. The volume and current of the river is sufficient to
freshen the sea 2 m. from the coast. The Guaillabamba is the larger
and more important tributary, and should be considered the main
stream. It rises in the Chillo valley in the vicinity of Cayambe,
and flows across the northern end of the central plateau, breaking
through the Western Cordillera between Cotocachi and Pichincha.
One of its plateau tributaries, Rio Pedregal, rises on the slopes of
Cotopaxi and is celebrated for its three beautiful cascades, the highest
of which is about 220 ft. The Toachi and Quininde have their
sources on the western slopes of the Cordillera. The Guayas or
Guayaquil river is in part an estuary extending northward from the
Gulf of Guayaquil, bordered by mangrove swamps and mud banks
formed by the silt brought down from the neighbouring mountains.
All the bordering country on both sides is of the same description,
and for a long distance inland extensive areas of swampy country
are submerged during the rainy season. Above the mouth of the
Daule the river is known as the Bodegas, which in turn is formed by
the confluence of the Babahoyo and the Vinces. The Guayas also
receives a large tributary from the east called the Yaguachi. All
these streams are navigable on their lower courses, regular steamboat
communication being maintained on the Guayas and Bodegas to a
river port of the latter name, 80 m. above Guayaquil, and for 40 m.
on the Daule. The navigable channels of all the rivers are computed
at 200 m. The drainage basin of the Guayas, according to Theodor
Wolf, covers an area of 14,000 sq. m., and includes the greater part
of the lower plain and the western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental
as far north as Iliniza. The Babahoyo, which is the main stream,
has its sources on the slopes of Chimborazo, the Daule on the Sandomo
ridge in the latitude of Pichincha, the Yaguachi on the south-eastern
slopes of Chimborazo, whence it flows southward for a considerable
distance before breaking through the Cordillera to the western plain.
The Guayas is one of the most interesting and varied of the South
American river systems, and is of great economic importance to
Ecuador. In addition to these three river systems, there are a large
number of short streams on the coast flowing into the Pacific and
Gulf of Guayaquil, only two of which have any special importance
in the present undeveloped state of the country. These are the
Santiago, which drains several fertile valleys in northern Esmeraldas
and western Carchi, and whose outlet is connected with some
navigable tide-water channels, including the Pailon basin. and the
Caraquez, or Caracas, on which is located the village of Bahia de
Caraquez (lat. o 3-).' S.), the nearest port to the city of Quito.
There are a considerable number of small lakes in Ecuador, but
no large ones. These are of two classes those of the bowl-like
valleys and extinct craters of the mountainous region, /.*.
and the reservoir lakes of the lowland plains caused by
the annual overflow of the rivers. It is impossible to say how many
of the latter there may be, for much of the territory where they
are found is unexplored. They are usually shallow and malarial.
Among; the upland lakes, there are some of special interest because
of their position and historical association. The Yaguar-cocha
(" lake of blood "). in the province of Imbabura, near Ibarra, which
is only ii m. in circumference, is celebrated for the tradition that
Huayna-Capac, one of the great conquerors of the Inca dynasty,
defeated an army of rebellious Carranquis on its shores, and threw
so many of their bleeding corpses into it as to turn its waters to the
colour of blood. On the south-east skirt of Cotocachi, 10,200 ft.
above the sea, is the beautiful little Cuy-cocha, which originated,
it is believed, through the falling in of the mountain's sides. There
are two others of apparently the same origin on the north-west slopes
of the Mojanda volcano, but they are less attractive because of their
gloomy surroundings. In the deep valley between the mountains of
Imbabura and Mojanda is the lake of San Pablo, 8848 ft. above the
sea. It is one of the largest of its class, being about 5 m. in cir-
cumference, and is situated in an exceptionally fertile region. It
drains through the Peguchi into the Rio Blanco, a tributary of the
Mira. Other well-known lakes of the plateau region are Quirotoa,
about 4600 ft. in diameter; Colta, east of Riobamba, and Colay,
south of the same place. Among the many thermal springs through-
out the Andean districts, the best known are at Belermos and San
Pedro del Tingo, north-east of Quito ; at Cachillacta, in the district
of Nanegal; at Timbugpoyo, near Latacunga; at Banos (5906 ft.
elevation), near the foot of Tunguragua; and on the slopes of
Ruminagui and Chimborazo.
The coast of Ecuador extends from about lat. i" 20' N. to the
vicinity of the Boca Jambeli on the southern shore of the Gulf of
Guayaquil, in lat. 3 14' S., and has an outward curve. coast
Its more prominent headlands are Punta Galera, Cabo
Pasado, Cabo de San Lorenzo and La Puntilla, or Santa Elena
914
ECUADOR
Point. The bays on this coast are commonly broad indentations,
and the rivers discharging into them are generally obstructed by
bars. The small ports along the coast, therefore, do not afford
much protection to shipping. The most northern of these bays is
the Ancon de Sardinas, lying south of the Mira delta. The head of
the bay is fringed with islands and reefs, behind which is the mouth
of the Santiago river, Poza Harbour, San Lorenzo Bay, Pailon basin
and a network of navigable channels, all of which are difficult of
access. The small ports of La Tola and Pailon are located on these
waters. The port of Esmeraldas, near the mouth of the Esmeraldas
river, is located near the southern entrance to this bay. As the
mouth of the river is obstructed by a bar and its current is swift,
the anchorage is outside in an open roadstead, only slightly protected
on the south. Farther south is the broad Bay of Manta, with a small
port of the same name at its southern extremity. The most fre-
quented port on this part of the coast is that of Bahia de Caraquez, at
the mouth of the Caraquez, or Caracas river, which is also obstructed
by a bar. There is a fertile, productive country back of this port,
and it is the objective point of a road from Quito. Immediately north
of the Gulf of Guayaquil is the Bay of Santa Elena, with a small port
of the same name, which has a good, well-sheltered anchorage and is
the landing-place of the West Coast cable. The Gulf of Guayaquil,
which lies between the Ecuadorean and Peruvian coasts, is the
largest gulf on the Pacific coast of South America between Panama
and Chiloe. Its mouth is 140 m. wide between La Puntilla on the
north and Cabo Blanco on the south, and it penetrates the land
eastward, with a slight curve northward at its head, for a distance
of about loo m., terminating in the Guayas estuary or river, on
which is located the port of Guayaquil. The upper end of the bay
and its northern shores are fringed with swamps through which
numerous estuaries penetrate for some distance inland. Immediately
west of the Guayas river the Estero Salado, which comprises a great
many shallow tide-water channels, or bayous, penetrates as far
inland as Guayaquil, but is used only by canoes. The upper end
of the gulf is filling up with the silt brought down from the Cordillera.
It is divided midway by the large island of Puna, at the eastern
end of which is the anchorage for steamers too large to ascend the
Guayas. The steamship channel passes between this island and the
Peruvian coast, and is known as the Jambeli channel. The passage
north of Puna Island is known as the Morro channel, but its entrance
is obstructed by shoals and it is considered dangerous for shipping.
A small port in the Jambeli channel, on the south-east shore of the
gulf, is that of Puerto Bolivar, or Puerto Huaila, the shipping port
for the town of Machala and the Zaruma mining region.
There are few islands off the coast of Ecuador, and only one of any
considerable size that of Puna in the Gulf of Guayaquil, which
.. . is 29 m. long from north-east to south-west and 8 to 14 m.
wide. It lies in the north-east part of the gulf, and is
separated from the Ecuadorean mainland by the Morro channel,
and from the southern mainland by the wider and deeper Jambeli
channel. There is a low, mountainous ridge, called the Zampo Palo,
running through it, and its eastern shores have some moderately
high bluffs, otherwise the island is low and swampy, and its shores,
except the eastern end, are fringed with mud banks. The island is
densely wooded (in marked contrast with the opposite Peruvian
shore), and is considered unhealthy throughout the greater part.
It has a population of 200, chiefly centred in the village of Puna,
at its north-east extremity, which is a shipping port and health
resort for the city of Guayaquil. Puna island is celebrated for its
connexion with Pizarro's invasion of Peru in 1531. It is said that it
had a considerable population at that time, and that the natives
resisted the invaders so vigorously that it cost six months to reduce
them. Midway in the outer part of the Gulf of Guayaquil is Amorta-
jada or Santa Clara island, whose resemblance to a shrouded corpse
suggested the name which it bears. It lies 12 m. south-west of Puna
island and 80 m. from Guayaquil. It rises to a considerable elevation,
and carries a light 256 ft. above sea-level. There are some low,
swampy islands, or mud flats, covered with mangrove thickets, in
the lower Guayas river, but they are uninhabited and of no import-
ance. North of the Gulf of Guayaquil there are only two small
islands on the coast of more than local interest. The first of these
is Salango, in lat. 1 25' S., which is 2 m. in circumference and rises
to a height of 524 ft. It is richly wooded, and has a well-sheltered
anchorage much frequented by whalers in search of water and fresh
provisions. The next is La Plata, in lat. i 16' S., which rises to a
height of 790 ft., and has a deep anchorage on its eastern side where
Drake is said to have anchored in 1579 to divide the spoils of the
Spanish treasure ship " Cacafuego." The Galapagos Islands (q.v.)
belong to the republic of Ecuador, and form a part of the province
of Guayas.
Geology. 1 The great longitudinal depression which lies between
the eastern and the western branches of the Andes is also the
boundary between the ancient rocks of the east and the Mesozoic
Reisenotizen aus Ecuador,"
. 195-227, pi. vii.);
. - - y o f ..)licada par orden del
Supremo Gobierno de la Republica (Leipzig, 1892) ; W. Reiss and
A. Stiibel, Reisen in Sud- America. Das Hochgebirge der Republik
Ecuador (Berlin, 1892-1902).
beds which form the greater part of the west of the country. The
Eastern Cordillera is composed of gneiss, mica and chlorite schist
and other crystalline rocks of ancient date; the Western Cordillera,
on the other hand, is formed of porphyritic eruptive rocks of Mesozoic
age, together with sedimentary deposits containing Cretaceous
fossils. Most of the country between the Andes and the sea is
covered by Tertiary and Quaternary beds; but the range of hills
which runs north-west from Guayaquil is formed of Cretaceous and
porphyritic rocks similar to those of the Andes. In the intra-andine
depression, between the East and West Cordilleras, recent deposits
with plant remains occur near Loja, and to the north-east of Cuenca
is a sandstone containing mercury ores, somewhat similar to that of
Peru. Farther north nearly the whole of the depression is filled
with lavas, tuffs and agglomerates, derived from the Tertiary and
recent volcanoes which form the most striking feature of the Andes
of Ecuador. These volcanoes are most numerous in the northern
half of the country, and they stand indifferently upon the folded
Mesozoic beds of the Western Cordillera (e.g. Chimborazo, Iliniza,
Pichincha), the ancient rocks of the Eastern Cordillera (Altar,
Tunguragua, Cotopaxi, Antisana), or the floor of the great de-
pression between. The lavas and ashes are for the most part
andesitic.
Climate. Climatic conditions in Ecuador are very largely con-
tingent on altitude, and the transition from one climate to another
is a matter of only a few hours' journey; Although the equator
crosses the northern part of the republic, only 15 m. north of the city
of Quito, a very considerable part of its area has the temperature of
the temperate zone, and snow-crowned summits are to be seen
every day in the year from its great central plateau. In addition
to the climatic changes due to altitude, there are others caused by
local arid conditions, by volcanic influences and by the influence of
mountain ranges on the temperature and rainfall of certain districts.
These influences are not general; on the contrary, they often affect
very limited areas. For instance, Guayaquil has a hot humid climate
and mangrove swamps line the shores of Guayas down to the gulf;
at Santa Elena, about 60 m. due west, arid conditions prevail and
vegetation is scanty and dwarfed ; at Salango island, 50 m. north of
Santa Elena, there is an abundance of moisture and vegetation is
luxuriant; 33 m. farther north, at Manta, the country is a desert;
and at Atacames bay, 135 m. north of Manta, the rainfall and
vegetation are again favourable. On the plateau similar conditions
prevail. There is no great display of arboreal vegetation anywhere
except in the valleys and lower passes where the rainfall is abundant,
but in general terms it may be said that the rainfall and vegetation
which characterize the Quito basin soon disappear as one proceeds
southward, and are substituted by arid conditions. Even here there
are local modifications, as at Ambato, where a shallow depression,
surrounded by barren, dust-covered ridges exposed to cold winds,
is celebrated for its warm, equable climate and its fruit. It is to be
noted that the Gulf of Guayaquil separates the humid, forest-
covered coastal plain of Ecuador from the arid, barren coast of
Peru, the two regions being widely dissimilar. The mean annual
temperature, on this plain, according to an official publication, is
82-4 F., and the range is from 66 to 95. The heat is modified at
many points on the coast, however, by the cold Humboldt current
which sweeps up the west coast of South America from the Antarctic
seas. The year is divided into a wet and dry season the former
running from December to June, and the latter from July to De-
cember. The rainy season, or invierno, is broken by a short period
of dry weather, called the veranillo (little summer) , shortly after the
December solstice; otherwise it rains every day, the streams over-
flow, land traffic is suspended, and the air is drenched with moisture
and becomes oppressive and pestiferous. The dry season, which is
called the verano, or summer, is also broken by a short rainy spell
called the imiiernillo (little winter) or " cordonazo de San Francisco,' 1
which follows the September equinox. Apart from these the two
seasons are sometimes broken by cloudless skies in winter, and a
drizzling mist, called the gariia, in summer. In the inter-andine
region the variations in temperature are frequent and the averages
comparatively low. An official estimate gives the mean annual
temperature as 64 to 68 between 6000 and 1 1 ,000 ft. In Quito the
mean annual temperature is 58-8, the diurnal variation 10, the
annual maximum 70, and the annual minimum 45. Other returns
give the mean annual temperature at 55. It is said that pulmonary
tuberculosis is unknown in these altitudes, though it is common
in the coast districts. Catarrhal complaints are common, however,
and leprosy is widely prevalent, it being necessary to maintain three
large hospitals for lepers. In the higher altitudes there are wide
variations in the snow-fall and intensity of the cold even on the
same mountain. The line of permanent snow is much higher on the
plateau side in both ranges, the precipitation being greater on the
outer sides those facing the forested lowlands and the terrestrial
radiation being greater from the barren surfaces of the plateau. In
some instances the difference in the elevation of the snow-line has
been found to be fully 1000 ft- Moreover, no two summits seem to
retain the snow permanently at the same altitude. For instance, in
1880 Whymper found permanent snow on Cotocachi at 14,500 ft.,
while near by Imbabura was bare to its summit (15,033 ft.) ; Antisana
was permanently covered at 16,000 ft., and near by Sara-Urcu,
which is drenched with rains and mists from the Amazon valley
ECUADOR
9*5
all the year round, at 14,000 ft.; Sincholagua had large beds of
permanent snow at 15,300 ft., Cotopaxi was permanently covered at
15,500 ft. on its western side, Corazon had daily snowstorms down
to 14,500 ft., but no permanent beds of snow onits east side (elevation
15,871 ft.); and Chimborazo had deep snow at 15,600 ft. on its
north-east and south sides in June-July. The eastern range was
found to receive the heaviest snowfall. The elevation at which
human residence is possible seems to be unusually high in Ecuador.
Many of the towns and villages of central Ecuador Tie at altitudes
ranging from 8606 ft. (Ambato) to 9839 ft. (Machachi). The capital
city of Quito is 9343 ft. above the sea, and is celebrated for its
agreeable temperature, and also for its healthiness in spite of prevail-
ing unsanitary conditions. Above these towns are a number of
farms and herdsmen's habitations, where men live the whole or a
part of the year with less discomfort from low temperature than is
experienced in northern Europe and northern United States.
According to Whymper, the tambo of Chuquipoquio, at the foot
of Chimborazo, is 11,704 ft., and the hacienda of Pedregal, near
Iliniza, 11,629 ft-> both being permanently occupied. The hacienda
of Antisana, 13,306 ft., and the herdsmen's hut of Cunayaco on
Chimborazo, 13,396 ft., are occupied only for a part of the year.
The highest elevations are generally covered with ice and snow,
and glaciers, according to Whymper, are to be found upon no less
than nine of the culminating peaks, and possibly upon two or three
more. These serve to modify the temperatures of the plateau,
which is swept by cold winds at all seasons of the year. The pre-
vailing wind is that of the north-east and south-east trade winds,
broken and modified on the plateau and western lowlands by
mountain barriers. Westerly and north-west winds are sometimes
experienced, but are not permanent.
Flora. The flora of the Quito basin has been well studied by
various European botanists, more especially by Dr William Jameson
(1796-1873) of the university of Quito, who began the preparation
of a synopsis of the Ecuadorean flora in 1864-1865 (Synopsis plan-
tarum Ouitensium, 2 vols., Quito, 1865). The flora of the forested
lowlands on both sides of the Andes has not been studied and
described so fully. From the Pacific coast upward to a height of
about 3000 to 4000 ft. the vegetation is distinctively tropical,
including among its economic products cacao, cotton, sugar, tobacco,
rice, maize, yucca (also known as cassava and mandioca), peanuts,
bananas, sweet potatoes, yams, arracacha (Conium moschatum,
H. B. K., or Arracacha esculenta), indigo, rubber (Casttiloa), ivory-
nuts, cinchona and bread-fruit. Most of these become rare at 3000
ft., but a few, like sugar-cane, are cultivated as high as 8000 ft. The
alluvial valley of the Guayas, above Guayaquil, is celebrated for
the richness of its vegetation, which, in fruit alone, includes cacao,
coffee, coco-nuts, pine-apples, oranges, lemons, guayavas (Psidium
pomiferum), guavas (Inga spectabtiis), shaddocks (or grape-fruit),
pomegranates, apricots, chirimoyas (Anona Chirimolia), granadillas
(Passiflora quadrangularis), paltas (Per sea gratissima, otherwise
known as " alligator pears "), tunas (Cactus), mangoes (Mangifera
Indica), pacays (Prosopis dulcis), aji (Chile pepper), and many
others of less importance. Besides rubber, the forests produce a
great variety of cabinet and construction woods, ivory-nuts (from
the " tagua " palm, Phytelephas macrocarpa) , " toquilla " fibre
(Carludovica palmata) for the manufacture of so-called Panama hats,
cabbage palms, several species of cinchona, vanilla and dyewoods.
Among the large trees which are valued for their timber are red-
wood (Humiria balsamifera) , Brazil-wood, algarrobo, palo de cruz
(Jacquinea ruscifolia), guaiacum or holy wood, rosewood, cedar and
walnut. From 6000 to 10,000 ft. above the sea, the indigenous
species include the potato, maize, oca (Oxalis tuberosa), and quinua
(Chenopodium quinoa), and the exotic species, wheat, barley, oats,
alfalfa (Medicago saliva), and most of the fruits and vegetables of the
northern temperate zone. Wheat does not form a head below
4500 ft., nor ripen above 10,500. The larger forest trees are rarely
seen above 10,000 ft., and even there only on the outer slopes of the
Cordilleras. The Escallonia myrtalloides, however, is found at an
elevation of 13,000 ft., and the shrubby Be/arias 400 or 500 ft. higher.
A characteristic growth of the open plateau and upland valleys is the
cabulla, cabaya or maguey (Agave americana), whose fibre is much
used by the natives in the manufacture of cordage, sandals (alpar-
gatas) and other useful articles. In the treeless region lying between
11,600 and 13,800, or in other places between 12,000 and 14,000 ft.,
the similarity of the vegetation to that of the corresponding European
region, according to Wagner, is especially striking. On the paramos
of Chimborazo, Pichincha, Iliniza, &c., the relation of characteristic
genera to those identical with genera in the Alpine flora of Europe
is as 5 to 4; and the botanist might almost suppose himself in the
Upper Engadine. Of the flora of the highest Andes, Whymper found
42 species, of various orders, above 16,000 ft., almost all of which
were from Antisana and Chimborazo; 12 genera of mosses were
found above 15,000 ft., and 59 species of flowering plants above
14,000 ft., of which 35 species came from above 15,000 and 20
species from above 16,000 ft. The highest specimen obtained was a
lichen (Lecanora subfusca, L.) on the south side of Chimborazo,
18,400 ft. above sea-level. Mosses (Grimmia) were found on Chim-
borazo at 16,660 ft., ferns (Polypodium pycnoltpis, Kze.) at 14,900,
and specimens of Gentiana rupicola, H. B. K., Achyrophorus quitensis,
Sz. Bip., Culcitium nivale, H. B. K., at 16,300; Phyllactis inconspicua,
Wedd., at 16,600, Astragalus geminiflorus, H. B. K., at 14-15,000,
Geranium diffusum, H. B. K., at 16,000, Malvaslrum phyllanthos,
Asa Gray, at 16,500, Draba obovata, Benth., at 16,660, and Ranun-
culus praemorsus, Kth., at 16,500 all on Chimborazo. Fuchsia
loxensis, H. B. K., WAS found on the slope of Sara-Urcu at 12,779 ft.,
and currant bushes (Ribes glandulosum, R. & P.), on Chimborazo, at
14,000. On the eastern slopes of the Andes, where the rainfall is
continuous throughout the year and the atmosphere is surcharged
with moisture, the forest growth is phenomenal. It is similar to
that of the Colombian and Peruvian montanas, modified, if at all,
by the excessive humidity which prevails in this region.
Fauna. The fauna of Ecuador is comparatively poor in mammalia,
but the birds and still more the insects are very numerous. The
Quadrumana are represented by a large number of species, the eastern
forests being very much like the other parts of the great Amazonian
basin in this respect. The Carnivora include the puma (Felis
concolor), jaguar (F. onca), ocelot (F. grisea), bear (Ursus ornatus),
fox, weasel and otter. A small deer and, in southern Ecuador,
the llama (Auchenia) with its allied species, the alpaca, guanaco and
vicuna, represent the ruminants. The rodents are numerous and
include most, if not all, of the Amazonian species the capybara
(Hydrochoerus capybara), cavia (C. aperea), paca (Coelogenys paca)
and cutia (Dasyprocta aguti), all amphibious and having an extensive
range. Tapirs are to be found in the eastern forests, the peccary
in more open woodlands, and the opossum in nearly every part of the
country. Cattle, horses, asses, sheep and swine were introduced by
the Spaniards, and thrive well in some of the provinces. Excellent
horses are reared in the uplands, as well as mules and cattle, the
pasturage on the mountain slopes being good, and alfalfa being grown
in abundance in many districts. The Reptilia indude countless
numbers of alligators in the Guayas and its tributaries and in the
tide- water channels of many of the smaller rivers; many species of
lizards, of which Mr Whymper found three in the Quito basin;
snakes of every description from the huge anaconda of the Amazon
region down to the beautifully marked coral snake; and a great
variety of frogs and toads. Bats also are very numerous, especially
in the eastern forest region, where the vampire bat is a serious
obstacle to permanent settlement. The avifauna of Ecuador is
distinguished for the great variety of its genera and species, among
which are many peculiar to the Amazon valley, and others to the
colder uplands. Among the Amazon species may be mentioned the
parrot, macaw (Macrocercus), toucan (Ramphastos) , curassow (Crax),
penelope, trogon, and horned screamer (Palamedea cornuta). There
are also herons, ibises, storks and cranes, including the great black-
headed white crane, Mycteria americana, which ranges from northern
Argentina to Colombia. One species of ibis, the Theristicus caudatus,
is to be found, it is said, only on the slopes of Antisana. Species of
the pheasant and partridge are not uncommon, and the " guacharo "
(Steatorms caripensis), once believed to inhabit Venezuela only, is
found in Ecuador also. The Raptores are well represented by a
large number of genera and species, which include the condor, eagle,
vulture, falcon, hawk and owl. The condor (Sarcorhamphus
gryphus) is commonly found between the elevations of 6000 and
16,000 ft., rarely, if ever, descending to the lowland plains or rising
above the lower peaks. It preys upon the smaller animals and inflicts
much loss upon stock farmers through the destruction of calves,
lambs, &c., but it very rarely ventures to attack man or any of the
larger animals. The eagle common to Ecuador is the Morphnus
taeniatus, and possibly the M. guaianensis on the eastern slopes
of the Andes. The harrier-eagle (Herpetotheres cachinnans) is also to
be found throughout this part of the continent. An eagle with
buzzard-like habits, the Leucopternis plumbea, is likewise common in
Ecuador. Among the vultures the turkey-buzzard group (Rhino-
gryphus or Cathartes), including the R. aurus, burrovianus and
perniger, is common everywhere. The carrion crow, or black
vulture (Catharista atrata), is also common to every part of the
country, and is the general scavenger. The carrion hawks are
represented by the Polyborus tharus, popularly called the " cara-
cara," and the Phalcobaenus carunculatus; the falcons by the
Aesalon columbarius; and the kites by the Gampsonyx swainsoni.
The Ecuadorean owl is the Bubo nigrescens. An interesting species
of the song birds is popularly known as the " flautero " (flute-bird),
which inhabits the eastern forests. Its notes are marvellous imita-
tions of " the most mellow, sweet-sounding flute," but the singer
itself, according to Mr Simson, is " a very insignificant-looking
little, greyish-coloured bird," which " always dies in captivity." The
most interesting group of the smaller birds is that of the humming-
birds, of which the number and variety is astonishing. Some of
these have a very wide range, while others are apparently limited
to a small district, or to a certain altitude. The best-known fish of
Ecuador is the insignificant Pimelodus cyclopum, the only fish found
in the streams and lakes of the plateau region. Its fame rests on
Humboldt's publication of the tradition that great numbers of this
tiny fish had been thrown out during the eruptions of Imbabura and
other volcanoes. Mr Whymper's explanation of the phenomenon
is that the fish are scattered over the land by the sudden overflow
during volcanic eruptions of the rivers and lakes which they inhabit.
The rivers of the eastern plains are probably stocked with the fish
found in the Amazon. On the coast, the Ancon de Sardinas bay is so
named from the multitude of small fish (sardinas) which inhabit its
916
ECUADOR
waters. Elsewhere there are no fisheries of importance, except those
of the Galapagos Islands.
The insect inhabitants of Ecuador, like the birds, include a large
number of genera and species, but no complete entomological survey
of the country has ever been made, and our knowledge in this respecl
is insufficient to warrant a detailed description. In one ascent oi
Pichincha in 1880, Mr Whymper collected 21 species of beetles, all
new to science, between 12,000 and 15,600 ft. elevation. On
Cotopaxi, at elevations of 13,000 to 15,800 ft., 18 species of the genus
Colpodes were collected, of which 16 were new. This may be con-
sidered a fair illustration of the situation in Ecuador so far as natural
history exploration is concerned. Of the Machachi basin, near
Quito, which he calls a " zoologist's paradise," Mr Whymper writes
(Travels amongst the Great Andes of the Equator) : " Butterflies above,
below and around ; now here, now there, by many turns and twists
displaying the brilliant tessellation of their under-sides. . . May-
flies and dragon-flies danced in the sunlight; lizards darted across
the paths; and legions of spiders pervaded the grass, many very
beautiful frosted silver backs, or curious, like the saltigrades,
who took a few steps and then gave a leap. There were crickets in
infinite numbers; and flies innumerable, from slim daddy-long-legs
to ponderous, black, hairy fellows known to science as Dejeaniae;
hymenopterous insects in profusion, including our old friend the
bishop of Ambato (possibly Dielis), in company with another
formidable stinger, with chrome antennae, called by the natives
1 the Devil ' ; and occasional Phasmas (caballo de palo) crawling
painfully about, like animated twigs." This description refers to a
fertile sub-tropical oasis on the partially barren plateau; below in
the forested lowlands, where tropical conditions prevail, the numbers
and varieties are many times greater. The Coleoptera are especially
numerous; Mr Whymper took home with him 206 species which
had been identified and described up to 1892, most of them from the
uplands and most of them new to science. The total number of
species in Ecuador is roughly estimated to be 8000. The Hymen-
optera are also numerous, but less so than the Lepidoptera, with
which the mountain slopes and sunny, open spaces seem to be
literally covered. Of moths alone MrWhympertookaway with him
specimens representing no less than 23 genera, with a probable
addition of 13 genera more among his undescribed specimens, the
largest of which (an Erebus odora) was 7J in. across the wings.
Among the Diptera, which includes a very wide range of genera and
species, are some of a highly troublesome character, though on the
whole, Mr Whymper did not find the flies and mosquitoes so. His
explorations, however, did not extend to the eastern region, where
the mosquitoes are usually described by travellers as extremely
troublesome. Sand-flies are common, and in the eastern forests the
tiny pium fly (Trombidium, sp.?) is a veritable pest. Of the insects
which infest dwellings and prey upon their human inmates, such
as fleas, bed-bugs, roaches, &c., Ecuador has more than a bountiful
supply. Lice-eating is a widely prevalent habit among the Indians
and mestizos, and demonstrates how numerous these parasites are
among the people. A good illustration of the prevalence of house-
infesting animals and insects is given by Mr Whymper (op. cit.
P- 39 1 ), who made a collection of 50 different specimens of the
vermin which infested his bedroom in Guayaquil.
Population. The indigenous population of Ecuador was
originally composed of two distinct races the Quitus and Caras,
the former being the older, and the latter presumably of Quichua
origin. The Caras, according to tradition, entered the country
from the coast, and had thoroughly established themselves there
long before the conquest by the Inca rulers Tupac- Yupanqui and
his son Huayna-Capac. This conquest was comparatively easy
because the Caras spoke a dialect of the same language, and were
not greatly unlike their conquerors in manners and customs.
The present Indian population of Ecuador, excepting those of
the trans-Andean region, may be considered as descendants of
these two races. They are subjected to incredible abuses under
Spanish colonial rule, their numbers being reduced to a fraction
of the former population, and even yet they are subjected to a
kind of debt-bondage which is slavery in all but the name.
Notwithstanding all this they still represent from two-thirds to
three-fourths of the actual population of Ecuador. East of the
Andes the forests are inhabited by tribes of what are termed
" aucas " or " infieles " (infidels) Indians who are independent
of both church and political control. Missions have been estab-
lished among some of the tribes, but their influence reaches only
a small part of the wild inhabitants of this extensive region.
The principal tribes are the Quijos or Canelos, who are settled
about the headwaters of the Napo, on the eastern slopes of the
Andes, and are in great part grouped about the missions; the
Jivaros who inhabit the valley of the Pastaza; the Zaparos
who occupy the forest region between the Pastaza and
Napo; the Piojes of the middle Napo, and eastward to the
Putumayo; and the Iquitos and Maza-nes of the lower Napo and
Tigre, chiefly in territory occupied by Peru. The Jivaros are the
best known of these tribes because of their successful resistance
to the Spanish invaders. They are still independent of political
control, live in permanent settlements, till the soil (producing
Indian corn, beans, yucca and plantains), and have developed
some rude manufactures. The Zaparos are less homogeneous,
some of their hordes li ving in a state of complete savagery. They
are classified with the Guaranis of Brazil, whom they resemble
in many particulars. The Piojes live in permanent communities
and cultivate the soil. The total number of " aucas " or un-
civilized Indians in the repubh'c has been estimated at about
200,000, but this estimate covered a larger area than Ecuador
actually occupies and is evidently too high. Their settlements
are usually small and very much scattered, and their aggregate
number is evidently much under the earlier estimates. An
official estimate given to Mr Whymper in 1880, however, places
the population of Oriente (the eastern territory) at 80,000, which
is probably more nearly correct.
No general census has ever been taken in Ecuador, and
estimates are little better than vague conjectures. One of these
estimates, that published by P. F. Cevallos for 1889, which has
been generally accepted, gave the total population as 1,272, 161,
and these figures have been used with but slight changes for
various later estimates. A later official estimate appeared in
1900 in La Ripublique de I'Eqitateur et so. participation a I' Ex-
position Universette de IQOO, which gives for the provinces
practically the same figures as those of Cevallos, and at the same
time assumes the total for the whole republic to be 1,500,000.
The white population is estimated at 100,000 to 120,000, which
probably includes many of mixed ancestry, and the mixed bloods
at 300,000 to 450,000. The tendency is for the mestizo who
dwells in Indian communities to revert to the Indian type, and
it is probable that the larger estimate is nearer the truth. On
the other hand mestizos who live among the whites and form new
alliances with them eventually class themselves as whites wher-
ever their social condition has been improved. As a rule, the
mestizos of Ecuador are ignorant, indolent and non-progressive.
As in Colombia they are the artizans and small traders and the
Indians are the farm labourers. The land is held by a few pro-
prietors, and caste sentiment is strong among those who claim
unmixed European descent; consequently the mestizos have
limited opportunities to improve their condition.
The whites form an exclusive governing caste, as in Chile.
The territory of the republic is divided among a very few of
them, and its government is in their hands.
In the hot seaboard districts there are a small number of
negroes, and a somewhat larger number of their crosses with the
otlwr two races. The majority of these are to be found in the
northern provinces. There are comparatively few negroes and
mulattoes on the colder plateaus. Villavicencio estimated their
numbers at 7831 pure negroes and 36,592 mixed bloods, which is
probably not far from the correct totals.
The foreign population is small, the total being estimated at
about 6000, of which 5000 are natives of the neighbouring Latin
republics, 700 Europeans and Americans, and 300 Chinese.
Territorial Divisions and Towns. The repubh'c is divided into
15 provinces and one territory. The Galapagos Islands were
declared a dependency of the province of Guayas in 1885, but are
practically independent and constitute a second territory under
the administration of a jefe territorial appointed by the national
executive.
The official estimate (La Republic/us de I'Equateur et sa participation
a I' Exposition Universelle de IQOO) gives the data for the provinces
and their capitals, which are shown on the next page.
These population figures are very nearly the same as those given
>y Cevallos for 1889. If the population of the Oriente be taken as
io.ooo, the aggretate is very nearly the same. The population of
he provincial capitals is in some cases over-estimated, especially
or Guayaquil and Quito, neither of which could have had 50,000 at
:he date of this estimate. The population of Quito in May 1906 was
50,841, of which 1365 were foreigners. As for the areas of the
>rovinces the figures need not be questioned except those for the
)riente territory, which are much too large for the region actually
ECUADOR
917
Provinces.
Area.
Population.
Capital.
Population.
Carchi . . .
sq. m.
1495
40,000
Tulcan
5,000
Imbabura .
2416
68,000
Ibarra
5,000
Pichincha .
6219
205,000
Quito
80,000
Leon
2595
109,600
Latacunga
12,000
Tunguragua
1686
103,000
Ambato
8,000
Chimborazo
2990
. 122,000
Riobamba
12,000
Bolivar .
1260
43,000
Guaranda
6.OOO
Canar .
1519
64,000
Azogues
4,000
Azuay .
3874
132,400
Cuenca
30,000
Loja
377
66,000
Loja
10,000
El Oro . . .
2340
32,600
Machala
3,200
Guayas .
8216
98,100
Guayaquil
60,000
Los Kios
2296
32,800
Babahoyo
3,000
Manabi .
7893
64,100
Portoviejo
5,000
Esmeraldas
5465
14,600
Esmeraldas
6,000
Oriente (ter.) .
unknown
Galapagos Is. .
2865
2,000
occupied by Ecuador, and for the Galapagos Islands which are
described by competent authorities as 2400 sq. m. The population
of these islands was 400 (principally convicts) on Chatham Island
in 1901, about 115 on Albemarle and 3 on Charles Island in 1903.
Besides the provincial capitals already noted, there are no large
and important towns in the country. The largest of the smaller
towns is probably Jipijapa, in the province of Manabi, which is
the centre of the Panama hat industry and had in 1900 an estimated
population of 6000, nearly all Indians.
Communications. The first railway to be completed in Ecuador
was the line between Guayaquil and Quito, 290 m. in length, the
last section of which was formally opened at Quito on the 25th of
June 1908. It belongs to an American company, and had been under
construction for many years. Lines from Puerto Boll var to Machala,
province of El Oro, and another from Bahia de Caraquez to Chone,
were under construction in 1908. Several lines were also projected,
two to penetrate the Ecuadorean montana. There is only one
highway in the country on which vehicles can be used, the paved
road extending southward from Quito 115 m. on the Guayaquil
route, which was begun by Garcia Moreno but has been allowed to
fall into neglect. Other roads have been projected to the coast
and one to the eastern territory. The ordinary roads are rough mule-
tracks. These are difficult at all times, and in the rainy season are
quite impassable. On the Pacific lowlands the rivers Guayas, Daule,
Vinces and Yaguachi have about 200 m. of navigable channels in
the rainy season, and are used for the transportation of produce and
merchandise. There are also several short river channels along
the coast which are used by planters for the same purpose. A great
part of the country, however, is still compelled to use the most
primitive means of communication mule paths, fords in the smaller
streams in the dry season, and rude suspension bridges across deep
gorges and swift mountain torrents. The latter are usually con-
structed from the tough fibre of the Agave americana and consist
of one or more cables. When of one cable, called the taravita, the
passenger and his luggage are drawn across in a rude kind of basket
suspended from it; but when two or more cables are used, transverse
sticks of bamboo and reeds are laid upon them, forming a rude
prototype of the regular suspension bridge. Such a bridge is called
a chimba-chaca, and is very hazardous for an unpractised foot. In
1907 there were 2564 m. of telegraph lines in operation, connecting
Quito with all the principal towns. The national capital is connected
with the submarine cable at Santa Elena (via Guayaquil) and at
Tumaco, in Colombia. Guayaquil is provided with tramway and
telephone lines. These public services are under the general super-
vision of the Minister of Public Instruction, Posts and Telegraphs.
Commerce. Ecuador has no merchant marine beyond a few small
vessels engaged in the coastwise traffic, some eighteen or twenty river
steamers on the Guayas and its tributaries, and a number of steam
launches, towboats and various descriptions of barges engaged in
the transportation of produce and goods on the rivers. The ocean-
going foreign trade of the country is carried wholly in foreign vessels,
for the regular lines of which Guayaquil is a principal port of call.
Less frequent calls are made at Esmeraldas and some of the other
small ports on the coast, of which there are nine in all. Most of these
are difficult of access and their trade is unimportant. The total trade
of the republic in 1905, according to returns published by the
Guayaquil Chamber of Commerce, amounted to only 3,429,955, of
which i. 573.389 (15,733,891 sucres) were credited to imports, and
1.856,566 (18,565,668 sucres) to exports. Of these totals, all but
127,532 of the imports and 441,679 of the exports passed through
the port of Guayaquil. The great poverty of the people has been a
serious obstacle to the development of a larger commerce.
Agriculture. The agricultural industries on which the export
trade depends are almost wholly restricted to the western lowlands,
and include cacao, coffee, cotton, sugar, tobacco, rice, yucca and
sweet potatoes. The Guayas basin and the district about Machala
are celebrated for their cacao, and produce about one-third of the
world's supply. It is the staple product of the country. Coffee
produced on the lower slopes of the Cordilleras and is of excellent
quality. The production is small, but would be increased at re-
munerative prices. During the American civil war the planters of
Ecuador entered largely into the production of cotton, which at
that time yielded large profits, but the industry has declined to very
insignificant proportions since then because of inability to compete
with the lower cost of production in the United States. The output
of sugar and tobacco is small, but could be largely increased, as the
conditions of soil and climate are favourable. Much of the sugar-cane
produced is turned into rum, which is consumed in the country.
The tobacco grown is of excellent quality. Efforts have been made
to promote the cultivation of indigo, but without much success.
On the uplands, wheat, Indian corn, oats, barley, potatoes and
vegetables of many kinds are successfully cultivated, but wholly for
home consumption. The vine is successfully grown in the warm
upland valleys, both for its fruit and for the production of wine.
The staple foods for the common people are potatoes on the plateau
(which are chiefly consumed in the form of hero, or potato-soup)
and yucca- or cassava-meal in the warmer regions. Although cattle
and horses were not known before the Spanish conquest, they have
become since then important products of the country. The best
grazing lands are on the lower elevations west of the Cordilleras in
certain districts of the plateau and on the slopes of some of the
higher Andes, as on Chimborazo and Antisana. Horses and mules
are reared for export on a small scale, and sheep for their wool,
which is used in home manufactures.
Forest Products. The forest and other natural products include
rubber, cinchona bark, ivory-nuts, mocora and toquilla fibre for
the manufacture of hats, hammocks, &c., cabaya fibre for shoes
and cordage, vegetable wool (Bombax ceiba), sarsaparilla, vanilla,
cochineal, cabinet woods, fruit, resins, &c. The original source of
the Peruvian bark of commerce, the Cinchona calisaya, is completely
exhausted, and the " red bark " derived from C. succirubra, is now
the principal source of supply from Ecuador. Guaranda is the centre
of the industry, but bark gatherers are to be found everywhere in the
forest regions. The rubber-gathering industry is comparatively new.
The product is derived from the CastUloa elastica, the Heveas not
being found west of the Andes.
Minerals. The mineral resources are much inferior to those of
Colombia and Peru. Gold is found in the province of El Oro, where
the great Zaruma and other companies have opened a number of
mines. It is also found in the provinces of Loja, Esmeraldas, and in
the river-beds along the eastern slopes of the Andes. Quicksilver
has been mined at Azogues, in the province of Canar, and is also to
be found in Azuay. Iron ores and lead are credited tc several
provinces, and platinum has been found in Esmeraldas, where
emerald mines have been worked ever since the Spanish conquest.
Coal of good quality has been found in Azuay and at other points,
and petroleum is known to exist in several localities. Salt springs
near Riobamba and at Salinas, in Imbabura, have long been used
by the natives in the manufacture of salt.
Manufactures. The manufacturing industries are chiefly of a
primitive character and have been developed to meet local necessities.
There are some cotton factories and sugar mills provided with modern
machinery, but the cotton and woollen cloths of the country are
commonly coarse and manufactured in the most primitive manner.
Some of these goods are sent into southern Colombia, but they are
chiefly made for the local market. Hats and hammocks are made
from the fibres of the mocora and toquilla palms, and sandals from
the fibre of the Agave americana. The hats are an article of export,
and are known abroad as Panama hats. Hand-made laces of
admirable workmanship are made in some localities, especially on
the plateau about Quito. Among other manufactories, all for the
home market, may be mentioned : flour-mills, sugar refineries, rum
distilleries, breweries, chocolate factories, a candle factory, saw-
mills and tanneries.
Government. Constitutionally, the government of Ecuador is
that of a centralized republic, whose powers are defined by a
written constitution and whose chief organs are an executive
consisting of a president and vice-president, and a national
congress consisting of two houses, a senate and a chamber of
deputies. Revolutionary changes, however, have been very
frequent in Ecuador, and no less than eleven constitutions were
adopted between 1830 and 1909.
The constitution adopted in 1906 succeeded that of 1884 (amended
in 1887 and 1897), and its terms may be given here, subject to what
may be regarded as the extra-constitutional powers vested in the
executive. Executive power is vested in a president and vice-
president elected for periods of four years by a direct vote of the
people. (Under the constitution of 1884 the official terms of these
two officers were not wholly synchronous, the vice-ipresident's term
beginning with the president's third year.) These officials cannot be
re-elected to succeed themselves. The president, whose salary is
12,000 sucres per annum, has a limited veto power, and may convene
extraordinary sessions of Congress for a specified purpose, but he
has no further authority over that body. He appoints the diplomatic
and consular representatives of the republic and the governors of the
provinces, exercises a limited control over the administration of
918
ECUADOR
justice and public instruction through the appointment of officials,
and is chief of the small military force maintained by the republic.
The construction of railways with public funds and under government
supervision also places him at the head of a very important public
service. The president is assisted by a cabinet of five ministers:
foreign relations and justice; interior and public works; finance;
war; public instruction, posts and telegraphs all of whom may be
impeached by congress. The executive authority is also partially
exercised by a council of state composed of 15 members, including
the five cabinet ministers, of which the vice-president is ex-officio
president. The council has important advisory functions, and must
be consulted by the president on every important measure or
appointment. The provinces are administered by governors chosen
by the national executive; the departments by jefes politico!
(political chiefs); and the municipalities by tenientes politico!
(political lieutenants). The Galapagos Islands are under a jefe
territorial (territorial chief), Chatham Island being a penal colony
and governed by special laws.
The congressional organization is similar to that of the majority
of South American states. The senate is composed of 32 members
(2 from each province) elected for two years, one-half the number
being renewed each two years. The chamber is composed of 42
deputies, who are elected by the provinces for a period of two
years, on a basis of one representative for each 30,000 inhabitants
and one supplementary representative for an additional 15,000. A
senator must be at least 35 years of age, and a deputy .25.
The elections are direct, and members of both houses may be re-
elected. The immunities of legislators begin 30 days before the
opening session of congress, and terminate 30 days after its dis-
solution. Congress meets at Quito on the loth of August, and
remains in session for a period of 60 days, but its sessions may be
extended or extraordinary sessions called for specified purposes.
The right of suffrage is restricted to literate male adults.
The judicial branch of the government is composed of a supreme
court, located at Quito, consisting of 5 judges and a fiscal (public
prosecutor) appointed by the executive; six superior courts (in
Quito, Guayaquil, Cuenca, Riobamba, Loja and Portoviejo) with a
total of 9 judges; a Tribunal de Cuentas of seven members at
Quito; and various municipal courts, or alcaldes, in the chief towns
of the departments. There are civil courts of first and second
instance in the larger towns, and consular courts in Quito, Guayaquil
and Cuenca with jurisdiction in commercial cases. There are also
police commissaries in the departments and justices of the peace
in the municipalities, the latter having jurisdiction in civil cases
where the amount involved does not exceed 200 sucres. The laws of
Ecuador are based on the old Spanish laws and procedure, and include
civil, criminal and commercial codes.
Army. The army, according to an official report of 1900, consisted
of A battalions of infantry (about 3690 strong), 3 brigades of artillery
(1362), and 2 regiments of cavalry (468), in all, about 5520 men,
rank and file. In 1908 this force was reported to comprise 4350 men.
The national guard is composed of three classes: actives all en-
rolled citizens of 20 to 38 years; auxiliaries enrolled citizens of
38 to 44 years; and passives enrolled citizens of 44 to 50 years.
These were estimated at 95,329 men. There is a military school
at Quito and a naval school at Guayaquil.
Education. Although primary instruction is free, and is obligatory
for children of 6 to 12 years, a considerable part of the population
is unprovided with schools and is indifferent in regard to them.
An official report for 1900 gives the number of primary schools as
1297, and the number of pupils in attendance as about 80,000.
The secondary schools numbered 37, with 371 teachers and about
4500 pupils. Higher instruction includes the technical and professional
schools with the three universities of Quito, Guayaquil and Cuenca,
and 6 schools of " trades and professions " (artes y oncios) in as many
provinces. The old University of Quito has a staff of 32 professors
divided into 5 faculties: Philosophy and Belles-Lettres, Law,
Medicine, Physical and Natural Sciences and Mathematics. There
are also in Quito a school of agriculture, astronomical observatory,
botanical garden, museum and national printing office, all
apparently under the supervision of the University.
Church. According to the constitution of 1884, " the religion
of the Republic is the Roman Catholic Apostolic, and all others
are excluded." The only opposition which the Church has ever had
to encounter has been from the " liberal " element within itself,
and thus has arisen, seemingly from political motives, a desire to
restrict clerical influence in political affairs. This influence has been
exercised to an extreme in Ecuador, so much so, in fact, that its
government at times was more nearly a theocracy than a republic.
The growth of liberalism finally began to produce results. In 1889
the tithes from which the Church revenues had been derived were
abolished, and a tax of 3 per mil. on real estate was substituted.
In 1902 a signal victory was won in a law permitting civil marriage,
but in 1904 a social revolution was effected by legislation, which
placed the Church under State control, forbade the foundation of
new religious orders and admission into the country of new religious
communities, and provided that the members of the episcopate must
be citizens of Ecuador. The higher dignitaries of the Church are an
archbishop at Quito, and six suffragan bishops at Cuenca, Loja,
Ibarra, Riobamba, Guayaquil and Manabi.
Finance. The revenues of the republic are derived from import
and export duties, liquor, tobacco and stamp taxes, inheritance
tax, salt, gunpowder and playing cards monopolies, consular charges,
and sundry miscellaneous receipts, including those from posts,
telegraphs and railways. Up 1 1907 the customs duties were
increased by surtaxes amounting at that time to 100%. The
minister of finance proposed to abolish these surtaxes and double
all the rates of duties involved. On exports, however, all the duties
were to be abolished except those on cacao, coffee, hides, rubber,
tagua (ivory nuts), hat fibre, hammock fibre and tobacco. For 1907
the revenues were 1,424,770 and the expenditures 1,383,122.
On the loth of October 1906, when the report of the provisional
government created by the revolution of the preceding January
presented its financial report to a national assembly, the total
obligations of the country were stated to be:
Sucres.
Railway bonds, 12,282,000 sucres gold at
107% premium 25,423,740
Banco del Ecuador, advances . . . 3,000,000
Banco Comercial y Agricola, idem . . 2,400,000
Internal debt . 739,575
Condor bonds . 757,000
French Finance Corporation . . . 887,000
Total . . . 33.207.315
In sterling at 10 sucres per . . 3,320,731
The foreign debt of the republic, which in 1898 stood at 693,160 in
bonds, was assumed by the Guayaquil & Quito Railway Co. under
contracts of 1897, 1898, 1899 and 1900, the government guaranteeing
interest on the sum of 2,520,000 railway mortgage bonds for 33
years and recognizing the external debt at 35% of its face value.
This debt originated in 1830, when Ecuador seceded from the Colom-
bian confederacy and was charged with 21 i% of the indebtedness
of the three states. In 1855 the amount was fixed at 1,824,000,
and in 1892 it was converted into a new consolidated debt of 750,000.
Payments of interest and amortization had been very irregular, and
its transfer to a foreign company as the price of a railway concession
put an end to a transaction which had been a serious discredit to
the country. The amount outstanding on the 3 1st of December
1907 was 10,808,000 sucres (1,080,800). It should be said that the
difficulties in regard to this debt arose from a feeling in Ecuador that
the part assigned to it in 1830 was much too large, and that it was
contracted almost wholly for the benefit of the two northern
republics, Colombia and Venezuela.
Money and Measures. Under the law of 1898, which came into
effect on the 4th of June 1900, gold is made the monetary standard
in Ecuador, the legal tender of silver being limited to 10 sucres,
and banks of issue being required to hold at least one-half their
metallic reserves in gold coin. Previously there had been much
confusion in the circulating medium because of the depreciated
value of the Quito currency in comparison with that of Guayaquil,
but the new law has corrected the anomaly and has given a simple
and uniform medium for the whole country. The coinage under
the law of 1898 consists of the gold condor, of 10 sucres, which weighs
8-136 grams, contains 7-3224 grams of fine gold, and is equal to the
Englisn pound sterling in value; the silver sucre, of 100 centavos,
equivalent to 24d. in value; and smaller coins of silver, nickel and
copper, the denominations being decimal parts of the sucre. The
sucre received its name from the portrait of General Sucr engraved
on the coin, and is legal tender up to 10 sucres. The paper money
circulation consists of the issues of two Guayaquil banks the
Banco del Ecuador, and the Banco Comercial y Agricola, whose
united issues on June 3Oth, 1906, amounted to 7,414,140 sucres
(741,414). The Bank of Quito at one time issued notes which,
according to Whymper, were not current at and south of Rio-
bamba, but it does not appear that this bank is authorized co issue
its notes under the new law. The metallic money nominally in
circulation on the 3Oth of June 1906, amounted to 2,587,667 sucres
gold and 2,522,802 sucres silver. Although the metric system was
adopted in 1856, the old Spanish weights and measures the quintal,
libra, vara and fanega are still in use, the quintal being equivalent
to about 101 !b.
Antiquities. Throughout Ecuador there are still considerable
remains of the architectural and artistic skill of the ante-European
period. At Canar, to the north-east of Cuenca, stands the Incapirca,
a circular rampart of finely hewn stone, enclosing an open area with
a roofless but well-preserved building in the centre; not far off is the
Inca-chungana, a very much smaller enclosure, probably the remains
of a pavilion ; and in the same neighbourhood the image of the sun
and a small cabinet are carved on the face of a rock called Inti-
huaicu. On one of the hills running from Pichincha to the Esmeraldas
there are remains at Paltatamba of a temple and a conical tower,
the buttresses of a bridge composed of stone and bitumen, portions
of a great causeway, and numerous tombs from which mummies
and plates of silver have been obtained. At Hantuntaqui similar
sepulchral mounds, called tolas, may be seen, as well as traces of
military structures. On the plain of Callo, near Cotopaxi, at a
height of 8658 ft., the ruins of an Incarial palace, Pachusala, are
utilized by the hacienda ; and a conical hill at its side is supposed to
ECUADOR
919
be of artificial construction. The remains of another fortress and
palace are preserved at Pomallacta, and in the neighbouring
pueblo of Achupallas an ancient temple of the sun now serves as
parish church. In many localities, especially in Imbabura, pottery
and various objects are found belonging to the pre-CoIombian
period, among which five and six rayed stars (casse-tetes) are very
(A. J. L.)
numerous.
History. The territory of the republic of Ecuador, when first
it becomes dimly visible in the grey dawn of American history,
appears to be inhabited by upwards of fifty independent tribes,
among which the Quitus seem to hold the most important
position. About A.D. 280 a foreign tribe is said to have forced
their way inland up the valley of the Esmeraldas; and the
kingdom which they founded at Quito lasted for about 1200
years, and was gradually extended, both by war and alliance,
over many of the neighbouring dominions. In 1460, during the
reign of the fourteenth Caran Shyri, or king of the Cara nation,
Hualcopo Duchisela, the conquest of Quito was undertaken by
Tupac Yupanqui, the Inca of Peru; and his ambitious schemes
were, not long after his death, successfully carried out by his son
Huayna-Capac, who inflicted a decisive defeat on the Quitonians
in the battle of Hatuntaqui, and secured his position by marrying
Pacha, the daughter of the late Shyri. By his will the conqueror
left the kingdom of Quito to Atahuallpa, his son by this alliance;
while the Peruvian throne was assigned to Huascar, an elder son
by his Peruvian consort. War soon broke out between the two
kingdoms, owing to Huascar's pretensions to supremacy over his
brother; but it ended in the defeat and imprisonment of the
usurper, and the establishment of Atahuallpa as master both of
Quito and Cuzco. The fortunate monarch, however, had not
long to enjoy his success; for Pizarro and his Spaniards were
already at the door, and by 1533 the fate of the country was
sealed. As soon as the confusions and rivalries of the first
occupation were suppressed, the recent kingdom of Quito was
made a presidency of the Spanish viceroyalty of Peru, and no
change of importance took place till 1710. In that year it was
attached to the viceroyalty of Santa Fe; but it was restored to
Peru in 1722. When, towards the close of the century, the desire
for independence began to manifest itself throughout the Spanish
colonies of South America, Quito did not remain altogether
indifferent. The Quitonian doctor Eugenio Espejo, and his
fellow-citizen Don Juan Pio Montufar, entered into hearty co-
operation with Narifio and Zea, the leaders of the revolutionary
movement at Santa Fe; and it was at Espejo's suggestion that
the political association called the Escuela de Concordia was
instituted at Quito. It was not till 1809, however, that the
Quitonians made a real attempt to throw off the Spanish yoke;
and both on that occasion and in 1812 the royal general succeeded
in crushing the insurrection. In 1820 the people of Guayaquil
took up the cry of liberty; and in spite of several defeats they
continued the contest, till at length, under Antonio Jose de
Sucre, who had been sent to their assistance by Bolivar, and
reinforced by a Peruvian contingent under Andres de Santa
Cruz, they gained a complete victory on May 22, 1822, in a battle
fought on the side of Mount Pichincha, at a height of 10,200 ft.
above the sea. Two days after, the Spanish president of Quito,
Don Melchor de Aymeric, capitulated, and the independence of
the country was secured. A political union was at once effected
with New Granada and Venezuela on the basis of the republican
constitution instituted at Cucuta in July 1821 the triple con-
federation taking the name of Colombia.
A disagreement with Peru in 1828 resulted in the invasion of
Ecuador and the temporary occupation of Cuenca and Guayaquil
by Peruvian forces; but peace was restored in the following
year after the Ecuadorian victory at Tarqui. In the early part of
1830 a separation was effected from the Colombian federation,
and the country was proclaimed an independent republic.
General Juan Jose Flores was the first president, and in spite of
many difficulties, both domestic and foreign, he managed to
maintain a powerful position in the state for about 15 years.
Succeeded in 1835 by Vicente Rocafuerte, he regained the pre-
sidency in 1839, and was elected for the third time in 1843; but
shortly afterwards he accepted the title of generalissimo and a
sum of 20,000 pesos, and left the country to his rivals. One ol
the most important measures of his second presidency was the
establishment of peace and friendship with Spain. Roca, who
next attained to power, effected a temporary settlement with
Colombia, concluded a convention with England against the
slave trade, and made a commercial treaty with Belgium. Diego
Noboa, elected in 1850 after a period of great confusion, recalled
the Jesuits, produced a rupture with New Granada by receiving
conservative refugees, and thus brought about his own deposition
and exile. The democratic Urbina now became practically
dictator, and as the attempt of Flores to reinstate Noboa proved
a total failure, he was quickly succeeded in 1856 by General
Francisco Robles, who, among other progressive measures,
secured the adoption of the French system of coinage, weights
and measures. He abdicated in 1859 and left the country, after
refusing to ratify the treaty with Peru, by which the defender
of Guayaquil had obtained the raising of the siege. Dr Gabriel
Garcia Moreno, professor of chemistry, the recognized leader
of the conservative party at Quito, was ultimately elected by the
national convention of 1 86 1 . Distrust in his policy, however, was
excited by the publication of some of his private correspondence,
in which he spoke favourably of a French protectorate, and the
army which he sent under Flores to resist the encroachments of
Mosquera, the president of New Granada, was completely routed.
His first resignation in 1864 was refused; but the despotic acts
by which he sought to establish a dictatorship only embittered
his opponents, and in September 1865 he retired from office.
While he had endeavoured to develop the material resources of
the country, he had at the same time introduced retrograde
measures in regard to religion and education. The principal
event in the short presidency of his successor, Ger6nimo Carrion
(May i86s-Nov. 1867), was the alliance with Chile and Peru
against Spain, and the banishment of all Spanish subjects.
Several important changes were made by congress in the period
between his resignation and the election of Xavier Espinosa,
January 1868: the power of the president to imprison persons
regarded as dangerous to public order was annulled; and the
immediate naturalization of Bolivians, Chilians, Peruvians and
Colombians was authorized. Espinosa had hardly entered on his
office when, in August 1868, the country was visited by an earth-
quake, in which 30,000 people are said to have perished through-
out South America. The public buildings of Quito were laid in
ruins; and Ibarra, Otavalo, Cotacachi and several other towns
were completely destroyed. Next year a revolution at Quito,
under Moreno, brought Espinosa's presidency to a close; and
though the national convention appointed Carvajal to the vacant
office, Moreno succeeded in securing his own election in 1870 for
a term of six years. His policy had undergone no alteration since
1865: the same persistent endeavour was made to establish a
religious despotism, in which the supremacy of the president
should be subordinate only to the higher supremacy of the clergy.
President Moreno was eventually assassinated at Quito, in
August 1875, and Dr Borrero was elected to the presidency, but
his tenure of power was short. A revolution headed by General
Veintemilla, the Radical leader, then military commandant at
Guayaquil, broke out in 1876, and on the i4th of December of
that year the government forces under General Aparicio were
completely routed at Galte. Veintemilla was proclaimed presi-
dent, and in 1877 was duly elected by the cortes. He altered
the constitution in a more Liberal direction, and struck various
blows at the Clerical party, among other things abolishing the
concordat with Rome. In 1878 Veintemilla caused himself to be
declared elected as president for a term of four years. At the
expiration of this period the president assumed dictatorial powers
and remained in office as chief of the executive. This action on
the part of General Veintemilla led to a union between the
Clericals and Moderate Liberals, and resulted in a popular rising
throughout the republic, ending in his defeat and overthrow.
His power was first restricted to Guayaquil and Esmeraldas, and
finally General Rinaldo Flores drove him from Guayaquil, and
Veintemilla fled (July 1883) to Peru. Dr Placido Caamano was
then called upon to take charge temporarily, and on the 1 7th of
920
ECZEMA
February 1884 was definitely elected for the presidential period
terminating in 1888. Several revolutionary outbreaks occurred
during the Caamafio administration, but were successfully
suppressed. In 1888 Dr Antonio Flores succeeded Caamano, the
four years following being passed in peaceful conditions. In
1892 Dr Luis Cordero was elected, his administration again
plunging the country into an epoch of internal disturbance.
The cause of the troubles under President Cordero was the
assistance lent by Ecuador to Chile in the matter of the sale of the
cruiser Esmeralda to the Japanese government in 1894, in the
middle of the Japanese-Chinese War. The government of Chile
arranged the sale of the Esmeralda, but wished to be free from all
danger of international complications in the affair. To this end
the transfer of the vessel was made to Ecuador, and she proceeded
to Ecuadorian waters. On arriving at the Galapagos Islands the
flag of Ecuador was replaced by that of Japan and the vessel
handed over to the representatives of that nation sent for the
purpose. When the part played by President Cordero in this
transaction became known, an outburst of popular indignation
occurred. An insurrection, headed by General Eloy Alfaro,
followed; and after desultory skirmishing extending over a
period of nearly a year the government forces were finally
routed, President Cordero abandoning his office and escaping
from the country.
General Alfaro then assumed dictatorial powers as supreme
chief of the nation, continuing in this capacity until the 6th of
February 1897, on which date he was declared to be elected
president of the republic. A series of revolutionary movements
against the administration of President Alfaro occurred in the
course of the next few years. Many of these risings were due to
the intrigues of the Church party, and in view of these circum-
stances President Alfaro curtailed the influence of the clergy in
several directions. On the 3ist of August 1901 General Alfaro
peacefully handed over the presidency to his elected successor,
General Leonidas Plaza.
General Plaza continued the anticlerical policy of his pre-
decessor. Civil marriage and divorce were introduced, and in
1904 all religions were placed on a position of equality in the eye
of the law, and the foundation of new monasteries and convents
was forbidden. The final year of Plaza's tenure of office was
marked by a still stronger measure, all the property of the church
being declared to be national property, and let to the highest
bidders. In 1 905 the Opposition made an effort to effect a change
of policy, and were successful in obtaining the election of Lizaro
Garcia, a well-to-do merchant and a director of the Banco com-
mercial y Agricola. General Alfaro, however, appealed to arms,
ejected Garcia from office, and made himself ruler with practically
dictatorial powers.
The more recent history of Ecuador would not be complete
without a reference to the work of Mr Archer Harman (b. 1860),
an American railway builder and financier whose connexion with
the construction of the Guayaquil and Quito railway began in
1897. To his personal energy and enterprise, as manager of the
railway company, was largely due the continued prosecution of
this difficult engineering undertaking, in connexion with which
he was responsible for a thorough reconstruction of Ecuador
finance. He thus came to exercise a powerful influence on the
internal progress of the country.
See C. E. Akers, History of South America, 1854-1904 (London,
1904); H. W. Bates, Central and South America (London, 1882);
Pedro F. Cevallos, Resumen de la historia del Ecuador (Guayaquil,
1886) ; Hans Meyer, In den Hoch-Anden von Ecuador (Berlin 1907) ;
A. H. Keane, Stanford's Compendium, vol. i. (1904); W. Reiss and
A. Stiibel, Das Hochgebirge der Republik Ecuador (Berlin, 1892-
1898); Edward Whymper, Travels amongst the Great Andes of the
Equator (London, 1892) ; T. Wolf, Geografia y geologia del Ecuador
(Leipzig, 1892) ; A. Stiibel, Skizzen aus Ecuador (Berlin, 1886) ; Die
Vulkanberge von Ecuador (Berlin, 1897); Handbook of Ecuador
(Bureau of the American Republics, Washington, 1892); The
World's Work, vol. ii. pp. 1271-1277; Engineering News (New York),
vol. 52, pp. 117-119; Bulletin of Internal. Bureau of American
Republics for July 1900, p. 26, and for August 1908, pp. 280-282;
Thirty-fifth Annual Report of the Council of Foreign Bondholders,
pp. 115, "7-
ECZEMA (Gr. f/xa, a cutaneous eruption), one of the most
common and important of all skin diseases, consisting of a
catarrhal inflammation of the skin originating without visible
external irritation, and characterized in some stage of its
evolution by a serous exudation. This definition excludes all
those forms of inflammation of the skin (dermatitis) , which though
they may be identical in course and manifestation are yet caused
by chemical or mechanical irritants. For an attack of eczema
two conditions are necessary: a predisposition or special irrita-
bility of the skin, and a directly exciting cause. The first of these
conditions is usually inherited or depends on some underlying
constitutional state. Thus any organic lesion which may produce
oedema and malnutrition of the cutis and epidermis as in kidney
diseases, any condition of imperfect metabolism as in dyspepsia
or malnutrition, or seborrhoea, may be the predisposing cause.
Another influence that has received increasing attention from
skin specialists is that of any nervous shock or prolonged mental
strain. A " chill " is followed in most people by an ordinary
cold, but in some by an attack of eczema. Again, it may be caused
by reflex nervous irritation from the uterus, stomach, &c. In
some women it always accompanies menstruation, and in others
pregnancy. It is of common occurrence in infancy, being
attributed by some specialists to dentition, but by others to
seborrhoea. Also there is an undoubted relationship between
eczema and certain forms of functional neurosis, of which perhaps
asthma is the most striking illustration, some physicians con-
sidering the latter trouble to be eczema of the bronchial tubes.
Sufferers from rheumatism and gout are also specially prone to
eczema, though the exact relationship is a much disputed point.
There are yet other cases that are undoubtedly microbic, but the
micro-organism cannot produce the lesion unless the soil is
suitable. As a rule it is not contagious, though when complicated
by micro-organisms it may be auto-inoculable, or more rarely
inoculable from one patient to another. Except between the
ages of ten and twenty years when menstruation is becoming
established, and again at the menopause, males are more liable
to be attacked than females. In old age the sex influence is lost.
An attack of eczema is usually described as acute or chronic,
but the only distinction lies in the greater or less intensity of the
inflammation at the time of description: it has nothing to do
with the length of time that the disease has lasted. The illness
usually begins with a feeling of itching and burning at the site of
the lesion. The skin becomes covered with an erythematous blush,
on which numerous tiny vesicles form. Swelling, heat, redness
and tension are all present. The vesicles grow larger, run
together, and either burst or are broken by the patient's scratch-
ing, a clear fluid exuding which stiffens linen. The discharge
does not dry up at once, but continues to exude hence the name
of " weeping eczema " when this is a prominent symptom. In
mild cases the symptoms begin to subside in a few days, the
exudation growing less and scales and scabs forming, under
which new skin is formed. But where the attack is more acute
fresh crops of vesicles spring up and the process repeats itself.
In some cases papules are the predominant lesions, but in others,
especially when the face is attacked, the erythematous condition
is more marked. A severe attack of eczema is usually
accompanied by some slight constitutional disturbance, but the
general health seldom suffers appreciably, unless, as occasionally,
the itching is so bad as to make sleep impossible. The irritation
and local heat may be out of all proportion to visible changes in
the skin, and in neurotic patients the nervous excitement may
be extreme. The attack may centre itself on any part of the
body, but there are certain places where it more usually begins,
such as the bends of the elbows, the backs of the knees and the
groins; the groove behind the ears, the scalp, the palms or the
soles, and the breasts of women. According to its position the
form of the eczema is somewhat modified. On the front of
the legs and arms, from the uniform redness it exhibits in these
positions, it is known as eczema rubrum. On the scalp it is
generally of the seborrhoeic type, and in children, especially
when pediculi are present, it will become pustular from microbic
infection. On the palms and soles it brings about a thickening
EDAM EDDA
921
of the epidermis which leads to the formation of cracks, and is
hence called eczema rimosum.
The disease can best be treated by a combination of internal and
external remedies. Internally, when the inflammation is acute,
nothing is so good as antimony, since this relieves the arterial
tension and thus reduces the local inflammation. But this must
never be given when the patient is suffering from depression.
In other cases, especially for babies and children, small doses of
calomel are very beneficial; strychnine, phosphorus and ergot
are all useful at times. When nervous excitement is marked it
must be treated with sedatives. Arsenic and iron are both contra-
indicated in this disease, since they increase blood formation and
hence stimulate the eczematous process. Internal treatment is
always best when combined with local treatment, but as a
preliminary to this all crusts and scales must first be removed to
allow the remedy free access to the disease. Locally the aim is
(i) to overcome any source of irritation, (2) to protect the inflamed
surface from the air and from microbic infection, and (3) to relieve
the itching. The diet should be simple but nourishing, and all
hygienic precautions must be taken.
EDAM, a town of Holland in the province of North Holland,
close to the Zuider Zee, about 13 m. N.N.E. of Amsterdam by
steam tramway. It is connected with the Zuider Zee by a fine
canal protected by a large sea-lock (1828), and has regular
steam-boat communication in various directions. Pop. (1900)
6444. The many quaint old brick houses form the chief feature
of interest in the town. The facades are frequently adorned
with carvings and inscriptions, one of which records the
legend of the capture of a siren in 1403, who lived for some
time among the people of Edam, but escaped again to the sea.
The Great Church of St Nicholas, probably founded in the i4th
century, was largely rebuilt after a fire in 1602, which, originating
in the church, destroyed nearly the whole town. It contains
some fine stained glass and carved woodwork of this period.
The Little Church (isth century) was demolished in 1883,
except for a portion of the nave and the old tower and steeple,
from which the bells curiously project. The town hall dates
from 1737, and there is a museum founded in 1895. Edam has
some trade in timber, while shipbuilding, rope-spinning and
salt-boiling are also carried on. It gives its name to the descrip-
tion of " sweet-milk cheese " (zoetemelks kaas) made throughout
North Holland, which is familiar on account of its round shape
and red rind.
Edam took its name and origin from the dam built on the
little river Ye which joined the great Purmer lake close by.
Free access to the Zuider Zee was obtained by the construction
of a new dock in 1357, in which year the town also received civic
rights from William V. of Bavaria, count of Holland. Owing
to the danger of the extension of the Purmer and Beemster lakes,
Philip II. of Spain caused a sluice to be built into the dock in
1567. In the next century Edam was a great shipbuilding centre,
and nearly the whole of Admiral de Ruyter's fleet was built here;
but in the same century the harbour began to get blocked up, and
the importance and industrial activity of the city slowly waned.
EDDA, the title given to two very remarkable collections of
old Icelandic literature. Of these only one bears that title from
antiquity; the other is called Edda by a comparatively modern
misnomer. The word is unknown to any ancient northern
language, and is first met with in Rigspula, a fragmentary poem
at the end of Codex Wormianus, dated about 1200, where it is
introduced as the name or title of a great-grandmother. From
the I4th to the i7th century, this word but no one has formed
a reasonable conjecture why was used to signify the technical
laws of Icelandic court metre, Eddu regla, and " Never to have
seen Edda " was a modest apology for ignorance of the highest
poetic art. The only work known by this name to the ancients
' was the miscellaneous group of writings put together by Snorri
Sturlason (?..; 1178-1241), the greatest name in old Scandi-
navian literature. It is believed that the Edda, as he left it,
was completed about 1222. Whether he gave this name to the
work is doubtful; the title first occurs in the Upsala Codex,
transcribed about fifty years after his death. The collection
of Snorri is now known as the Prose or Younger Edda, the title
of the Elder Edda being given to a book of ancient mythological
poems, discovered by the Icelandic bishop of Skalaholt, Brynjulf
Sveinsson, in 1643, and erroneously named by him the Edda of
Saemund.
1. The Prose Edda, properly known as Edda Snorra Stwrlu-
sonar, was arranged and modified by Snorri, but actually com-
posed, as has been conjectured, between the years 1 140 and 1 160.
It is divided into five parts, the Preface or Formdli, Gylfaginning,
Bragaraeftur, Skdldskaparmdl and Hdttatal. The preface bears
a very modern character, and simply gives a history of the world
from Adam and Eve, in accordance with the Christian tradition.
Gylfaginning, or the Delusion of Gylfi, on the other hand, is the
most precious compendium which we possess of the mythological
system of the ancient inhabitants of Scandinavia. Commencing
with the adventures of a mythical king Gylfi and the giantess
Gefion, and the miraculous formation of the island of Zealand,
it tells us that the Aesir, led by Odin, invaded Svithjod or Sweden,
the land of Gylfi, and settled there. It is from the Ynglingasaga
and from the Gylfaginning that we gain all the information we
possess about the conquering deities or heroes who set their
stamp upon the religion of the North. Advancing from the
Black Sea northwards through Russia, and westward through
Esthonia, the Aesir seem to have overrun the south lands of
Scandinavia, not as a horde but as an immigrant aristocracy.
The Eddaic version, however, of the history of the gods is not so
circumstantial as that in the Ynglingasaga; it is, on the other
hand, distinguished by an exquisite simplicity and archaic force
of style, which give an entirely classical character to its mythical
legends of Odin and of Loki. The Gylfaginning is written in
prose, with brief poetic insertions. The Bragarae&ur, or sayings
of Bragi, are further legends of the deities, attributed to Bragi,
the god of poetry, or to a poet of the same name. The Skdldska-
parmdl, or Art of Poetry, commonly called Skalda, contains the
instructions given by Bragi to Aegir, and consists of the rules
and theories of ancient verse, exemplified in copious extracts
from Eyvindr Skaldaspillir and other eminent Icelandic poets.
The word Skaldskapr refers to the form rather than the substance
of verse, and this treatise is almost solely technical in character.
It is by far the largest of the sections of the Edda of Snorri, and
comprises not only extracts but some long poems, notably the
Thorsdrapa of Eilif r GuSrunarson and the Haustlaungoi ThjoSolf r.
The fifth section of the Edda, the Hdttatal, or Number of Metres,
is a running technical commentary on the text of Snorri 's three
poems written in honour of Haakon, king of Norway. Affixed
to some MS. of the Younger Edda are a list of poets, and a number
of philological treatises and grammatical studies. These belong,
however, to a later period than the life of Snorri Sturlason.
The three oldest MSS. of the prose Edda all belong to the beginning
of the I4th century. The Wurm MS. was sent to pie Wurm in
1628; the Codex Regius was discovered by the indefatigable bishop
Brynjulf Sveinsson in 1640. The most important, however, of these
MSS. is the Upsala Codex, an octavo volume written probably about
the year 1300. There have been several good editions of the'Edda
Snorra Sturlusonar, of which perhaps the best is that published by
the Arne-Magnaean Society in Copenhagen in 1848-1852, in two vols.,
edited by a group of scholars under the direction of Jon Sigurdsson.
There are English translations by T. Percy, Northern Antiquities,
from the French by P. H. Mallet (1770); by G. Webbe Dasent
(Stockholm, 1842); by R. B. Anderson (Chicago, 1880).
2. The Elder Edda, Poetic Edda or Saemundar Edda hins
froSa was entirely unknown until about 1643, when it came into
the hands of Brynjulf Sveinsson, who, puzzled to classify it,
gave it the title of Edda Saemundi multiscii. Saemund Sigf usson,
who was thus credited with the collection of these poems, was a
scion of the royal house of Norway, and lived from about 1055
to 1 13 2 in Iceland. The poems themselves date in all probability
from the loth and nth centuries, and are many of them only
fragments of longer heroic chants now otherwise entirely lost.
They treat of mythical and religious legends of an early Scandi-
navian civilization, and are composed in the simplest and most
archaic forms of Icelandic verse. The author of no one of them
is mentioned. It is evident that they were collected from oral
tradition; and the fact that the same story is occasionally
922
EDDA
repeated, in varied form, and that some of the poems themselves
bear internal evidence of being more ancient than others, proves
that the present collection is only a gathering made early in the
middle ages, long after the composition of the pieces, and in
no critical spirit. Sophus Bugge, indeed, one of the greatest
authorities, absolutely rejects the name of Saemund, and is of
opinion that the poetic Edda, as we at present hold it, dates
from about 1240. There is no doubt that it was collected in
Iceland, and by an Icelander.
The most remarkable and the most ancient of the poems in this
priceless collection is that with which it commences, the Voluspd,
or prophecy of the Volva or Sibyl. In this chant we listen to an
inspired prophetess, " seated on her high seat, and addressing
Odin, while the gods listen to her words."
She sings of the world before the gods were made, of the
coming and the meeting of the Aesir, of the origin of the giants,
dwarfs and men, of the happy beginning of all things, and the
sad ending that shall be in the chaos of Ragnarok. The latter
part of the poem is understood to be a kind of necromancy
according to Vigfusson, " the raising of a dead volva "; but
the mystical language of the whole, its abrupt transitions and
terse condensations, and above all the extinct and mysterious
cosmology, an acquaintance with which it presupposes, make
the exact interpretation of the Voluspd extremely difficult.
The charm and solemn beauty of the style, however, are irresist-
ible, and we are constrained to listen and revere as if we were
the auditors of some fugual music devised in honour of a primal
and long-buried deity. The melodies of this earliest Icelandic
verse, elaborate in their extreme and severe simplicity, are
wholly rhythmical and alliterative, and return upon themselves
like a solemn incantation. Hdvamdl, the Lesson of the High
One, or Odin, follows next; this contains proverbs and wise
saws, and a series of stories, some of them comical, told by Odin
against himself. The VafpruSnismdl, or Lesson of VafpruSnir,
is written in the same mystical vein as Voluspd; in it the giant
who gives his name to the poem is visited by Odin in disguise,
and is questioned by him about the cosmogony and chronology
of the Norse religion. Grimnismdl, or the Sayings of The
Hooded One, which is partly in prose, is a story of Odin's im-
prisonment and torture by King Geirrod. For Skirnis, or the
Journey of Skirnir, HarbarSsliSft, or the Lay of Hoarbeard,
HymiskviSa, or the Song of Hymir, and Aegisdrekka, or the
Brewing of Aegir, are poems, frequently composed as dialogue,
containing legends of the gods, some of which are so ludicrous
that it has been suggested that they were intentionally burlesque.
ThrymskviSa, or the Song of Thrym, possesses far more poetic
interest; it recounts in language of singular force and directness
how Thor lost his hammer, stolen by Thrym the giant, how the
latter refused to give it up unless the goddess Freyia was given
him in marriage, and how Thor, dressed in women's raiment,
personated Freyia, and, slaying Thrym, recovered his hammer.
Alvfssmdl, or the Wisdom of Allwise, is actually a philological
exercise under the semblance of a dialogue between Thor and
Alvis the dwarf. In VegtamskviSa, or the Song of Vegtam,
Odin questions a volva with regard to the meaning of the sinister
dreams of Balder. Rlgsmdl, or more properly Rigspula, records
how the god Heimdall, disguised as a man called Rig, wandered
by the sea-shore, where he met the original dwarf pair, Ai and
Edda, to whom he gave the power of child-bearing, and thence
sprung the whole race of thralls; then he went on and met with
Afi and Amma, and made them the parents of the race of churls;
then he proceeded until he came to Faoir and MoSir, to whom
he gave Jarl, the first of free men, whom he himself brought up,
teaching him to shoot and snare, and to use the sword and runes.
It is much to be lamented that of this most characteristic and
picturesque poem we possess only a fragment. In HyndluljdS,
the Lay of Hyndla, the goddess Freyia rides to question the
volva Hyndla with regard to the ancestry of her young paramour
Ottar; a very fine quarrel ensues between the prophetess and
her visitor. With this poem, the first or wholly mythological
portion of the collection closes. What follows is heroic and
pseudo-historic. The VolundarkviSa, or Song of Volundr, is
engaged with the adventures of Volundr, the smith-king,
during his stay with Nidud, king of Sweden. Volundr, identical
with the Anglo-Saxon Weland and the German Wieland (O.H.G.
Wiolant), is sometimes confused with Odin, the master-smith. This
poem contains the beautiful figure of Svanhvit, the swan-maiden,
who stays seven winters with Volundr, and then, yearning for
her fatherland, flies away home through the dark forest. Helga-
kviSa, Hiorvarfis sonar, the Song of Helgi, the Son of HiorvarS,
which is largely in prose, celebrates the wooing by Helgi of
Svava, who, like Atalanta, ends by loving the man with whom
she has fought in battle. Two Songs of Helgi the Hunding's
Bane, Helgakvifta Hundingsbana, open the long and very im-
portant series of lays relating to the two heroic families of the
Volsungs and the Niblungs. Including the poems just men-
tioned, there are about twenty distinct pieces in the poetic Edda
which deal more or less directly with this chain of stories. It
is hardly necessary to give the titles of these poems here in detail,
especially as they are, in their present form, manifestly omy
fragments of a great poetic saga, possibly the earliest coherent
form of the story so universal among the Teutonic peoples.
We happily possess a somewhat later prose version of this lost
poem in the Volsungasaga, where the story is completely worked
out. In many places the prose of the Volsungasaga follows
the verse of the Eddaic fragments with the greatest precision,
often making use of the very same expressions. At the same
time there are poems in the Edda which the author of the saga
does not seem to have seen. But if we compare the central
portions of the myth, namely Sigurd's conversation with Fafnir,
the death of Regin, the speech of the birds and the meeting with
the Valkyrje, we are struck with the extreme fidelity of the prose
romancer to his poetic precursors in the SigurfiarkmSa Fa/nis-
bana;in passing on to the death of Sigurd, we perceive that the
version in the Volsungasaga must be based upon a poem now
entirely lost. Of the origin of the myth and its independent
development in medieval Germany, this is not the place for dis-
cussion (see NIBELUNGENLIED) . Suffice to say that in no modern-
ized or Germanized form does the legend attain such an exquisite
colouring of heroic poetry as in these earliest fragments of Ice-
landic song. A very curious poem, in some MSS. attributed
directly to Saemund, is the Song of the Sun, SdlarlitiS, which
forms a kind of appendix to the poetic Edda. In this the spirit
of a dead father addresses his living son, and exhorts him, with
maxims that resemble those of Hdvamdl, to righteousness of
life. The tone of the poem is strangely confused between
Christianity and Paganism, and it has been assumed to be the
composition of a writer in the act of transition between the old
creed and the new. It may, however, not impossibly, be alto-
gether spurious as a poem of great antiquity, and may merely
be the production of some Icelandic monk, anxious to imitate the
Eddaic form and spirit. Finally Forspjallsljd'5, or the Preamble,
formerly known as the Song of Odin's Raven, is an extremely
obscure fragment, of which little is understood, although infinite
scholarship has been expended on it. With this the poetic
Edda closes.
The principal MS. of this Edda is the Codex Regius in the royal
library at Copenhagen, written continuously, without regard to
prose or verse, on 45 vellum leaves. This is that found by Bishop
Brynjulf. Another valuable fragment exists in the Arne-Magnaean
collection in the University of Copenhagen, consisting of four sheets,
22 leaves in all. These are the only MSS. older than the 1 7th century
which contain a collection of the ancient mythico-heroic lays, but
fragments occur in various other works, and especially in the Edda
ofSnorri. Itis believed to have been written between 1260 and 1280.
The poetic Edda was translated into English verse by Amos Cottle
in 1707; the poet Gray produced a version of the Vegtamskvifta;
but the first good translation of the whole was that published by
Benjamin Thorpe in 1866. An excellent edition of the Icelandic
text has been prepared by Th. Mobius, but the standard of the
original orthography will be found in the admirable edition of
Sophus Bugge, Norroen FornkvaeSi, published at Christiania in 1867.
The Eddaic poems were rearranged, on a system of their own
which differs entirely from that of the early MSS., by Gudbrand
Vigfusson and F. York Powell, in their Corpus poeticum boreale
(Oxford, 1883). This is a collection, not of Edda only but of all
existing fragments of the vast lyrical literature of ancient Iceland.
It supplies a prose translation. (E. G.)
EDDIUS EDEN
923
EDDIUS (AEDDi), a Kentish choirmaster, summoned by
Wilfrid (c. 634-709), bishop of York, to help in organizing church
services in Northumbria. He wrote the Life of his patron, and
this biography of St Wilfrid is the earliest extant historical work
compiled by an Anglo-Saxon author. He is a strong partisan
and very credulous, but the Vita Wilfridi is nevertheless invalu-
able for the period it treats. Its date is little after the first
decade of the 8th century, and it was used by Bede in compiling
his Historia.
See Eddius, Vita Wilfridi (Raine, Historians of Church of York,
London, 1879-1894), 14; Bede, Hist. Eccl. (Plummer, Oxford, 1896),
iii. 2.
EDELINCK, GERARD (1640-1707), Flemish copper-plate
engraver, was born at Antwerp. The rudiments of the art,
which he was to carry to a higher pitch of excellence than it had
previously reached, he acquired in his native town under the
engraver Cornelisz Galle. But he was not long in reaching the
limits of his master's attainments; and then he went to Paris
to improve himself under the teaching of De Poilly. This master
likewise had soon done all he could to help him onwards, and
Edelinck ultimately took the first rank among line engravers.
His excellence was generally acknowledged; and having become
known to Louis XIV. he was appointed, on the recommendation
of Le Brun, teacher at the academy established at the Gobelins
for the training of workers in tapestry. He was also entrusted
with the execution of several important works. In 1677 he was
admitted member of the Paris Academy of Painting and Sculp-
ture. The work of this great engraver constitutes an epoch in the
art. His prints number more than four hundred.
Edelinck stands above and apart from his predecessors and
contemporaries in that he excelled, not in some one respect, but
in all respects, that while one engraver attained excellence
in correct form, and another in rendering light and shade, and
others in giving colour to their prints and the texture of surfaces,
he, as supreme master of the burin, possessed and displayed all
these separate qualities, in so complete a harmony that the eye
is not attracted by any one of them in particular, but rests in
the satisfying whole. Edelinck was the first to break through
the custom of making prints square, and to execute them in
the lozenge shape. Among his most famous works are a " Holy
Family," after Raphael; a " Penitent Magdalene," after
Charles le Brun; " Alexander at the Tent of Darius," after
Le Brun; a " Combat of Four Knights," after Leonardo da
Vinci; " Christ surrounded with Angels "; " St Louis praying ";
and " St Charles Borromeo before a crucifix," the last three
after Le Brun. Edelinck was especially good as an engraver
of portraits, and executed prints of many of the most eminent
persons of his time. Among these are those of Le Brun, Rigaud,
Philippe de Champagne (which the engraver thought his best),
Santeuil, La Fontaine, Colbert, John Dryden, Descartes, &c.
He died at Paris in 1707. His younger brother John, and his
son Nicholas, were also engravers, but did not attain to his
excellence.
EDELWEISS, known botanically as Leontopodium alpinum,
a member of the family Compositae, a native of the Alps of
Central Europe. It is a small herb reaching about 6 in. high,
with narrow white woolly leaves, and terminal flower-heads
enveloped in woolly bracts. The woolly covering enables the
plant to thrive in the exposed situations in which it is found,
by protecting it from cold and from drying up through
excessive loss of moisture. It is grown in Britain as a rock-
plant.
EDEN, SIR ASHLEY (1831-1887), Anglo-Indian official and
diplomatist, third son of Robert John Eden, third'Lord Auckland
and bishop of Bath and Wells, was born on the I3th of November
1831, and was educated at Rugby, Winchester and the East
India Company's college at Haileybury, entering the Indian
civil service in 1852. In 1855 he gained distinction as assistant
to the special commissioner for the suppression of the Santal
rising, and in 1860 was appointed secretary to the Bengal
government with an ex officio seat on the legislative council, a
position he held for eleven years. In 1861 he negotiated, as
political agent, a treaty with the raja of Sikkim. His success
led to his being sent on a similar mission to Bhutan in 1863;
but, being unaccompanied by any armed force, his demands
were rejected and he was forced under circumstances of personal
insult to come to an arrangement highly favourable to the
Bhutias. The result was the repudiation of the treaty by the
Indian government and the declaration of war against Bhutan.
In 1871 Eden became the first civilian governor of British
Burma, which post he held until his appointment in 1877 as
lieutenant-governor of Bengal. In 1878 he was made a K. C.S.I.,
and in 1882 resigned the lieutenant-governorship and returned
to England on his appointment to the council of the secretary
of state for India, of which he remained a member till his death
on the 8th of July 1887. The success of his administration of
Bengal was attested by the statue erected in his honour at
Calcutta after his retirement.
EDEN, the name of the region in which, according to the
Hebrew paradise-tradition in its present form, God planted a
garden (or park), wherein he put the man whom he had formed
(Gen. ii. 8). Research into primitive beliefs, guided by the
comparative method, leads to the view that the " garden " was
originally a celestial locality (see PARADISE), and we cannot
therefore be surprised if, now that paradise has "been brought
down to earth, the geographical details given in the Bible are
rather difficult to work into a consistent picture. The fantastic
geography of the (Indian) Vishnu Purana and the (Iranian)
Bundahish will, in this case, be a striking parallel.
Let us now take the details of Eden as they occur. In Gen. ii.
8 we read that the garden lay " in Eden eastward," where
" eastward " is generally taken to mean "in the east of the earth."
This, however, seems inconsistent with Isa. xiv. 13, where the
" mountain of God," which corresponds (see Ezek. xxviii.
13,14 and the article ADAM) to the " garden in Eden," is said
to have been " in the uttermost parts of the north " (so R.V.).
The former statement (" eastward ") suits Babylonia, where
Friedrich Delitzsch 1 places Eden; the latter does not. We are
further told (v. 10) that " a river went out from Eden to water
the garden," and that "from thence it parted itself (?), and
became four heads (?)," which is commonly understood to mean
that the river was so large that, soon after leaving the garden
(" from thence " is all that the text says), it could still supply
four considerable streams (the text says, not "streams," but
" heads," i.e. perhaps " beginnings " or " starting-points ").
In w. 11-14 the names of four rivers are given, but in spite of
the descriptive supplements attached to three of them, only
that one which has no supplement can be identified with much
probability. In fact, P6rath may without any obvious difficulty
be " Euphrates," except in Jer. xiii., where a more southerly
stream seems indicated, but to the identification of " Hiddekel "
with " Tigris " (Babylonian Diglat) the presence of the initial
Hi in the Hebrew is an objection. Now as to " Pishon " and
" Gihon." If a moderately early tradition may be trusted,
the " Gihon " is another name for the " Shihor," which was
either in or beside " Mizraim " ( = Egypt) or Mizrim ( = the
North Arabian Muri), and indeed according to most scholars
means the Nile in Jer. ii. 18, where the Septuagint substitutes
for it Geon, i.e. Gihon. For " Pishon " few plausible suggestions
have been made; it is not, however, a hopeless problem from
the point of view which recognizes Eden in Arabia.
For details of the interesting descriptive supplements of the
names Pishon, Gihon, and Hiddekel, on which there is much
difference of opinion, it must suffice to refer to the Encyclopaedia
Biblica and Basting's Dictionary of the Bible. We must, however,
mention a widely held explanation of the name Eden. Plausible
as it is to interpret this name as "delight" indeed, the Septuagint
translates in Gen. iii. 23 f. 6 irapdSeuros rijs rpvQfjs this cannot
have been the original meaning. Hence Delitzsch (Wo lag das
Parodies ? p. 79) suggested that " Eden " might be a Hebraized
form of the Babylonian edinu, " field, plain, desert." But
whereas Delitzsch takes " Eden " to be the entire plain of
1 Wo lag das Parodies? p. 66. A Sumerian name of Babylon
was Tin-ter, " dwelling of life." Cf. Babilu, Babfli, " gate of God."
924
EDENBRIDGE EDENTATA
Babylonia, Hommel thinks that it is rather the plain about the
sacred city of Eridu. It is the latter scholar to whom the
" Arabian theory" of Paradise in its best-known form is due.
The rivers (apart from PSrath, " Euphrates ") he locates in
northern and central Arabia, the " Cush " and " Asshur " of
Genesis being, according to him, central Arabia and Edom
respectively (Ancient Hebrew Traditions, pp. 314-316; Aufsatze
u. Abhandlungen, iii. 281-284, 335-339). These rivers, in short,
become Arabian wadis, on which see Hast. D.B. i. i32a (foot).
Cheyne, on the other hand, rejects the Babylonian explanation
of Eden as = " field, plain," on the ground that " Eden " was
originally regarded as a mountainous tract.
See further Driver, Book of Genesis (1904), pp. 57-60; Ency. Bib.
" Paradise "; and the commentaries of Gunkel (and ed., 1902), and
Cheyne (1907). (T. K. C.)
EDENBRIDGE, a market town in the south-western parlia-
mentary division of Kent, England, 26 m. S.S.E. of London,
on the South-Eastern & Chatham, and the London, Brighton
& South Coast railways. Pop. (1901) 2546. It is pleasantly
situated on the river Eden, an affluent of the Medway, in a
valley between the Ragstone Hills and the Forest Ridges. The
church of St Peter and St Paul is principally Perpendicular. The
town, which has considerable agricultural trade, possesses a
chalybeate spring, but this is little used. Two miles from the
town is Hever Castle, a beautiful moated mansion dating from
the isth and i6th centuries, but occupying the site of an earlier
structure. This was rebuilt by Sir Geoffrey Boleyn, whose
grandson, Sir Thomas, was father of Anne, second wife of
Henry VIII., who here spent much of her life before her marriage,
and was visited several times by the king. There is a chapel of
her family in the fine parish church of Hever. Not far distant
is the modern Chiddingstone Castle, on an ancient site. A block
of sandstone in the park is called the " chiding stone," tradition
asserting it to be a prehistoric seat of judgment.
EDEN HALL, LUCK OF, an old painted drinking goblet pre-
served at Eden Hall,Cumberland, the seat of the Musgrave family.
It is of enamelled or painted glass and is believed to date from
the loth century. It is of fair size and has the letters I.H.S.
on the top. Round the vase is the famous verse given below.
A legend involving the fortunes of the Musgraves attaches to
this cup. In the grounds of Eden Hall is a spring called St
Cuthbert's Well, and the story is that one of the earliest of the
Musgraves surprised the fairies feasting and making merry round
the well. He snatched at the goblet from which the Fairy King
was drinking and made off with it. The fairies pursued him
to his castle, but failed to catch him. The Fairy King acknow-
ledged his defeat and gave the cup as a prize to Musgrave, but
warned him that the gift carried with it a condition:
" When this cup shall break or fall,
Farewell the luck of Eden Hall."
There are variants of this legend, but substantially they agree.
Possessed of the lucky cup the knight of Musgrave is said to have
at once prospered in a love-suit which had till then gone against
him. There is a curious poem on the cup called " The Drinking
Match at Eden Hall," by Philip, duke of Wharton, a parody on
the ballad of Chevy Chase. This is reprinted in full in Edward
Walford's Tales of Great Families (1877, vol. n), under the
heading, " The witty Duke of Wharton." In Longfellow's
famous poem the goblet is represented as having been broken.
EDENKOBEN, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian Palatinate,
6 m. N. from Landau, on the railway to Weissenburg. Pop.
5300. It has a Roman Catholic and a Protestant church, several
high-grade schools and a sulphur-spring. Its industries com-
prise linen- and damask-weaving, ironworks, and the manu-
facture of machinery, furniture and cigars. It has also a
considerable trade in wine.
EDENTATA, the name assigned by Cuvier to an order of
placental mammals apparently typified by the South American
anteater, but likewise including the sloths and armadillos of the
same country, and the Old World aard-varks and pangolins.
Only the anteaters and pangolins are absolutely without teeth
(Lat. e, out, dens, tooth), and the name is strictly applicable
only to those two groups; but in all the existing representatives
of the order teeth are absent from the front of the jaws, while
the cheek-teeth are devoid of roots and of enamel, and only very
exceptionally have deciduous predecessors. Practically this is
all the definition that can be given to the assemblage, which is
possibly an artificial one. It may be mentioned, however, that
there is not unfrequenlly a separate coracoid bone.
Edentates may be divided into three distinct sections or
suborders, firstly the Xenarthra, or Edentata Vera, of America,
secondly the Tubulidenta, represented by the African aard-varks,
and thirdly the Pholidota, which includes only the pangolins
common to Africa and Asia. The Xenarthra are essentially
a South and Central American group, some of the members of
which have effected an entrance into North America. The three
families by which they are now represented are widely sundered,
both as regards habits and structure; but two of them the
sloths and the anteaters are intimately connected by means of
the extinct ground-sloths. As regards the presumed relationship
of the Old World to the New World types, it is noteworthy that
in the early Tertiary deposits of France and Germany are found
certain fossil remains apparently referable to armadillos, aard-
varks and pangolins, some of the armadillos coming very close
to South American forms. This assemblage of three groups of
edentates in the countries fringing northern Africa is suggestive
that the latter continent may have been the original home of
the group, which reached South America by means of a direct
land connexion.
Xenarthra. The typical American edentates, or Xenarthra,
are characterized by the circumstance that the last dorsal and
all the lumbar vertebrae carry additional articular facets, or
abnormal articulations (xenarthral). Teeth may be absent or
present, and when developed either all similar (homaeodont)
or to some extent differentiated. The bodily covering may take
the form either of coarse hairs, or of bony plates, with a larger
or smaller intermixture of hairs.
Of the three existing families of this group, the first is that of
the Bradypodidae, or sloths, characterized by the presence of
five pairs of upper and four of lower teeth, the normally-formed
tongue and the rudimentary tail. The species are arboreal and
feed on leaves; all being confined to the forests of tropical
America. Externally sloths are clothed with long coarse, crisp
hair; the head is short and rounded, and the external ears
inconspicuous. The teeth are subcylindrical, of persistent
FIG. i. Skull of Unau or Two-toed Sloth (Choloepus didactylus).
growth, consisting of a central axis of vasodentine, with a thin
investment of hard dentine, and a thick outer coating of cement;
without any succession. Fore-limbs greatly longer than the
hind-limbs; the extremities terminating in narrow, curved feet;
with the digits never exceeding three in number, and encased
for nearly their whole length in a common integument, and
armed with long, strong claws. Stomach complex. No caecum.
Placenta deciduate and dome-like, composed of an aggregation of
numerous discoidal lobes.
A remarkable feature connected with sloths is the development
of a green colour in their hair, due to the growth of an alga.
EDENTATA
925
According to Dr W. G. Ridewood, in the three-toed sloth the
hair is invested with a thick extra-cortical layer. " The hair
has a tendency to crack in a transverse direction, and in the
cracks there come to lodge unicellular algae, to which Kiihn
has given the name Pleurococcus bradypi. The moisture of the
climate in which Bradypus lives enables the alga to live and
propagate in this curious position, and the sloth acquires a
general green tint which must render it very difficult to distinguish
as it hangs among the green foliage." In the two-toed sloth,
on the other hand, the bulk of the hair is composed of an outer
coat, or cortex, which is longitudinally fluted or grooved, the
grooves being filled with strands of extra-cortex in which
flourishes an alga (Pleurococcus choloepi) distinct from the one
infesting the hairs of the three-toed species. Of quite a different
type are the hairs of the extinct ground-sloths (see MYLODON),
which are smooth and solid, Dr Ridewood rejecting the idea that
they were originally coated with a cortex that has disappeared.
The typical genus Bradypus is represented by the various
species of ai, or three-toed sloth, in which none of the teeth
project greatly beyond the others; the first in the upper jaw
is much smaller than any of the others, while the first in the
lower jaw is broad and compressed, and the grinding surfaces of
all are much cupped. Vertebrae: C 9, D and L 20 (of which
15 to 17 bear ribs), S 6, Ca n. All the species present the
peculiarity of possessing nine cervical vertebrae; but the ninth,
and sometimes the eighth, bears a pair of short movable ribs.
The fore-limbs are considerably longer than the hind-legs, and
the bones of the fore-arm are complete, free and capable of
pronation and supination. The fore-feet are long, very narrow,
habitually curved and terminate in three pointed curved claws,
in close apposition to each other; they are, in fact, incapable
of being divaricated, so that the foot is reduced to the condition
of a triple hook, fit only for the function of suspension from the
boughs of trees. The hind-foot closely resembles the fore-foot
in general structure and mode of use, and has the sole habitually
turned inwards so that it cannot be applied to the ground in
walking. The tongue is short and soft, and the stomach large
and complex, bearing some resemblance to that of ruminants.
The windpipe or trachea has the remarkable peculiarity not
unfrequent among birds and reptiles of being folded on itself
before it reaches the lungs. The two teats are pectoral in
position. The premaxilla is rudimentary and loosely attached
to the maxilla. Except in B. torquatus, there is no perforation
in the lower end of the humerus. Some of the species are covered
uniformly with a grey or greyish-brown coat; others have a
dark collar of elongated hairs around the shoulders (B. torquatus) ;
some have the hair of the face shorter than that of the rest of
the head and neck; and others have a remarkable-looking patch
of soft, short hair on the back between the shoulders, consisting,
when best marked, of a median stripe of glossy black, bordered
on each side by bright orange, yellow or white. There are also
structural differences in the skulls, as in the amount of inflation
of the pterygoid bones. The habits of all are apparently alike.
They are natives of Guiana, Brazil and Peru, and two species
(B. infuscatus and B. castaneiceps) extend north of the Isthmus
of Panama as far as Nicaragua. Of the former of these a specimen
in captivity uttered a shrill sound like a monkey when forcibly
pulled away from the tree to which it was holding.
In the species of unau, or two-toed sloths, Choloepus, the front
tooth in both jaws is separated by an interval from the others,
and is large and caniniform, wearing to a sharp bevelled edge
against the opposing tooth, the upper shutting in front of the
lower when the mouth is closed, unlike true canines. Vertebrae:
C 6 or 7, D 23-24, L 3, S 7-8, Ca 4-6. One species (C. didactylus)
has the ordinary number of vertebrae in the neck; but an other-
wise closely allied form (C. hofmanni) has but six. The tail is
very rudimentary. The fore-feet generally resemble those of
Bradypus, but there are only two functional digits, with claws;
these answering to the second and third of the typical five-toed
limb. The structure of the hind-limb generally resembles that
of Bradypus, the appellation " two-toed " referring only to the
anterior limb, for in the foot the three middle toes are functionally
developed and of nearly equal size. The premaxilla is well
developed, and firmly attached to the maxilla; and there is
always a perforation, or foramen, on the inner side of the lower
end of the humerus. C. didactylus, which has been longest known,
and is commonly called by the native name of unau, inhabits
the forests of Brazil. C. hoffmanni has a more northern
geographical range, extending from Ecuador through Panama
to Costa Rica. Its voice, which is seldom heard, is like the bleat
of a sheep, and if the animal is seized it snorts violently. Both
species are very variable in external coloration (see SLOTH).
The second family is that of the anteaters, Myrmecophagidae,
distinguished from the last by the absence of teeth, the elongated
tongue and the long tail. The long and slender head has a
tubular mouth, with a small terminal aperture through which
the worm-like tongue, covered with the sticky secretion of the
enormous submaxillary salivary glands, is rapidly protruded in
feeding, and withdrawn again with the adhering particles of
food which are then sucked into the gullet. In the foot the third
toe is greatly developed, and has a long sickle-like claw; the
others are reduced or suppressed. The hind-foot has four or five
subequal digits with claws. The long tail is sometimes pre-
hensile. Placenta dome-like or discoidal. Externally the body
is covered with hair. Anteaters feed exclusively on animal
substances, mostly insects. One species is terrestrial, the others
arboreal; none burrow in the ground. They are all inhabitants
of tropical America. In the typical genus Myrmecophaga the
skull is remarkably elongated and narrow, with its upper surface
smooth and cylindriform. Anteriorly the face is produced into
a long tubular rostrum, rounded above and flattened below,
with terminal nostrils, and composed of the mesethmoid (ossified
for more than half its length), the vomer, the maxillae, and the
long and narrow nasal bones, the premaxillae being extremely
short and confined to the margin of the nostrils. The zygomatic
arch is incomplete, the rod-like jugal only articulating with the
maxilla in front, and not reaching the short zygomatic process
of the squamosal. The lachrymal foramen is in front of the
margin of the orbit. There are no post-orbital processes to the
frontals or any other demarcation between the orbits and the
temporal fossae. Palate extremely elongated, and produced
backwards as far as the level of the external auditory meatus
by the meeting in the middle line of the largely developed
pterygoids. The glenoid fossa for the lower jaw, a shallow oval
facet, with its long diameter from before backwards. Lower
jaw long and slender, with an exceedingly short symphysis, no
distinct coronoid process, and a slightly elevated, elongated,
flattened, condylar articular surface. Vertebrae: C 7, D 15-16,
L 3-2, S 6, Ca 31. Clavicles rudimentary. In the fore-foot the
first digit is very slender, the second also slender, with compressed
phalanges of nearly equal length, but the third is immensely
developed, though its first phalanx is extremely short, while
the terminal one is so long that the entire length of the
digit exceeds that of the second. The fourth has a long and
rather slender metacarpal, and three phalanges diminishing in
size, the terminal phalange being very small. The fifth has the
metacarpal nearly as long, but not so stout as the fourth, and
followed by two small phalanges, the last rudimentary and
conical. Claws are developed upon all but the fifth. In walking
the toes are kept bent, with their points turned upwards and
inwards, the weight being supported on a pad over the end of the
fifth digit, and the upper surfaces of the third and fourth digits.
The hind feet are short and rather broad, with five subequal
claws, the fourth rather, longest, the first shortest; the whole
sole is placed on the ground in walking. Body rather compressed,
clothed with long, coarse hair. Tail about as long as the body,
and covered with very long hair; not prehensile. Ears small,
oval, erect. Eyes very small. Stomach consisting of a sub-
globular, thin-walled, cardiac portion, and a muscular pyloric
gizzard with dense epithelial lining. No ileocolic valve; but a
short, wide, ill-defined caecum. The two teats are pectoral.
The tamandua anteaters (Tamandua, or Uroleptes), of which
several species (or races) are now recognized, are smaller animals
than the last, in which the head is much less elongated, the fur
926
EDENTATA
short and bristly, and the tail, tapering, prehensile, with the under
side throughout, and the whole of the terminal portion naked
and scaly. The stomach is similar to that of Myrmecophaga,
FIG. 2. Tamandua Anteater (Tamandua letradactyla).
but with the muscular pyloric gizzard less strongly developed.
There is a distinct ileocolic valve and short globular caecum.
The fore-foot has a very large claw on the third toe, moderate-
sized claws on the second and fourth, a minute one on the first,
and none on the fifth, which is entirely concealed within the
skin. The hind-foot has five subequal claws. Vertebrae: C 7,
D 17, L 2, S 5, Ca 37. There are very rudimentary clavicles.
The last representative of the family is the tiny golden-haired
pigmy or two-toed anteater, Cyclopes (or Cycloturus) didactylus,
in which the skull is much shorter even than in the preceding
genus, and arched considerably in the longitudinal direction.
It differs from that of the other members of the family mainly in
the long canal for the posterior nostrils not being closed by bone
below, as the greater part of the palatines and the pterygoids
do not meet in the middle line. The lower jaw has a prominent,
narrow, recurved coronoid, and a well-developed angular process,
and is strongly decurved in front. Vertebrae: C 7, D 16, L 2,
S 4, Ca 40. Ribs remarkably broad and flat. Clavicles well
developed. Fore-foot remarkably modified, having the third
digit greatly developed at the expense of all the others; it has
a short stout metacarpal and but two phalanges, of which the
terminal one is large, compressed, pointed and much curved,
with a strong hook-like claw. The second digit has the same
number of phalanges, and bears a. claw, but is much more
slender than the third. The fourth is represented only by the
metacarpal, and one nailless phalange, the first and fifth only
by rudimentary metacarpals. The hind-foot is also modified
into a climbing organ, the first toe being rudimentary and con-
sisting of a metatarsal and one phalange concealed beneath
the skin, but the other four toes subequal and much curved,
with long, pointed, compressed claws. The tuberosity of the heel-
bone or calcaneum is directed towards the sole, and parallel
with it and extending to about double its length is a greatly
elongated sesamoid ossicle. These together support a prominent
cushion to which the nails are opposed in climbing. Stomach
pyriform, with muscular walls, but no distinct gizzard-like
portion. The commencement of the colon provided with two
small caeca, narrow at the base, but rather dilated at their
terminal blind ends, and communicating with the general cavity
by very minute apertures. Tail longer than the body, tapering,
bare on the under surface and prehensile. Fur soft and silky.
The third and last existing family of the Xenarthra is that
of the armadillos, or Dasypodidae, in which there are at least
seven pairs of teeth in each jaw, while the tongue is normal,
the tail generally long, and the body covered with an armour of
bony plates overlain by horny scales. All the species are terres-
trial, and insectivorous or more or less omnivorous.
The union of the numerous polygonal bony shields on the
back and sides forms a hard shield, usually consisting of an
anterior (scapular) and posterior (pelvic) solid portion (which
overhang on each side the parts of the body they respectively
cover, forming chambers into which the limbs are withdrawn),
and a variable number of rings between, connected by soft
flexible skin so as to allow of curvature of the body. The top of
the head has also a similar shield, and the tail is usually encased
in. bony rings or plates. The outer or exposed surfaces of the
limbs are protected by irregular bony plates, not united at their
margins; but the skin of the inner surface of the limbs and under
side of the body is soft and more or less clothed with hair. Hairs
also in many species project through apertures between the
bony plates of the back. The bony plates are covered by a
layer of horny epidermis. Teeth numerous, simple, of persistent
growth and usually without milk predecessors. Zygomatic
arch of skull complete. Cervical vertebrae with extremely short,
broad and depressed bodies; the first free, but the second and
third, and often several of the others united together both by
their bodies and arches. Clavicles well developed. A third
trochanter on the femur. Tibia and fibula united at their lower
extremities. Fore-feet with strongly developed, curved claws,
adapted for digging and scratching, three, four or five in number.
Hind-feet plantigrade, with five toes, all provided with nails.
Tongue long, pointed and extensile, though to a less degree
than in the anteaters. Submaxillary glands largely developed.
Stomach simple. Placenta discoidal and deciduate.
The typical genus Dasypus, with several others, represents
the subfamily Dasypodinae, which usually have all five toes
developed and with nails, though the first and fifth may be sup-
pressed. The first and second are long and slender, with the
normal number and relative length of phalanges, the others stout,
with short broad metacarpals, and the phalanges reduced in
length and generally in number by coalescence; the terminal
phalange of the third being large, that of the others gradually
diminishing to the fifth. Dasypus has the most normal form
of fore-foot, but the modifications developed in all the others
(culminating in Tolypeutes) are foreshadowed. Ears wide apart.
Teats, one pair, pectoral. In Dasypus the teeth are ^ or f ,
of which the first in the upper jaw is usually implanted in the
premaxillary bone. The series extends posteriorly some distance
behind the anterior root of the zygoma, almost level with the
hind edge of the palate. The teeth are large, subcylindrical,
slightly compressed, diminishing in size towards each end of the
series; the anterior two in the lower jaw smaller and more
compressed than the others. Cranial portion of the skull broad
and depressed, facial portion triangular, broad in front and
depressed. Auditory bulla completely ossified, perforated on
the inner side by the carotid canal, and continued externally
into an elongated bony meatus auditorius, with its aperture
directed upwards and backwards. (In all the other genera of
Dasypodinae the tympanic bone is a mere half-ring, loosely
attached to the cranium.) Lower jaw with a high ascending
branch, broad transversely placed condyle, and high slender
coronoid process. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11-12, L 3, S 8, Ca 17-18.
Head broad and flat above, with the muzzle obtusely pointed.
Ears of moderate size or rather small, placed laterally far apart.
Body broad and depressed. Armour with six or seven movable
bands between the scapular and pelvic shields. Tail shorter
than the body, tapering, covered with plates forming distinct
rings near the base. Fore-feet with five toes; the first much
more slender than the others, and with a smaller ungual phalange
and nail; the second, though the longest, also slender. The third,
fourth and fifth gradually diminishing in length, all armed with
strong, slightly curved compressed claws, sloping from an elevated,
rounded inner border to a sharp, outer and inferior edge. The
hind-foot is rather short, and has all five toes armed with stout,
compressed, slightly curved, obtusely pointed claws the third
the longest, the second nearly equal to it, the fourth the next,
the first and fifth shorter and nearly equal.
To this genus belongs one of the best-known species of the
group, the six-banded armadillo or encoubert (D. sexcinctus)
of Brazil and Paraguay; a very similar species, D. villosus,
the hairy armadillo, replacing it south of the Rio Plata. There
are also two small species, D. -uellerosus and D. minutus, from the
Argentine Republic and North Patagonia; the latter, which
differs from the other three in having no tooth implanted in the
EDENTATA
927
premaxillary bone and is often referred to a genus apart, as
Zaedius.
In Tatoua (Cabassous or Lysiurus) the teeth are f or f , of
moderate size and subcylindrical: the most posterior placed a
little way behind the anterior root of the zygoma, but far from
the hinder margin of the palate. Skull somewhat elongated,
much constricted behind the orbits, and immediately in front of
the constriction considerably dilated. Lower jaw slender, with
the coronoid process small and sharp pointed, sometimes obsolete.
Vertebrae: C 7, D 12-13, L 5, S 10, Ca 18. Head broad behind.
Ears rather large and rounded, wide apart. Movable bands of
armour 12-13. Tail considerably shorter than the body, and
slender, covered with nearly naked skin, with a few small,
scattered, bony plates, chiefly on the under surface and near the
apex. On the fore-feet the first and second toes are long and
slender, with small claws and the normal number of phalanges.
The other toes have but two phalanges; the third has an immense
sickle-like claw; the fourth and fifth similar but smaller claws.
The hind-feet are comparatively small, with five toes, and small,
triangular, blunt nails; the third longest, the first shortest.
The best-known species of this genus, the tatouay or cabassou,
T. unicinctus, is, after Priodon gigas, the largest of the group.
It is found, though not abundantly, in Surinam, Brazil and
Paraguay. Others, such as T^. hispidus and T. lugubris, have
been described.
In the giant armadillo (Priodon gigas) the teeth are variable
in number, and generally differ on the two sides of each jaw,
being usually from 20 to 25 on each side above and below, so
that as many as a hundred may be present altogether; but as
life advances the anterior teeth fall out, and all traces of their
sockets disappear. The series extends as far back as the hinder
edge of the anterior root of the zygoma. They are all very small,
in the anterior half of each series strongly compressed, with flat
sides and a straight free edge, but posteriorly more cylindrical,
with flat, truncated, free surfaces. Vertebrae: C 7, D 12, L 3,
S 10, Ca 23. Head small, elongated, conical. Ears moderate,
ovate. Armour with 12-13 movable bands. Tail nearly equal
to the body in length, gradually tapering, closely covered with
quadrangular scales, arranged in a quincunx pattern. Fore-feet
with five toes, formed on the same plan as those of Tatoua, but
with the claw of the third of still greater size, and that of the
others, especially the fifth, proportionally reduced. Hind-foot
short and rounded, with five very short toes, and short, broad,
flat obtuse nails. The giant armadillo is by far the largest
existing member of the family, measuring rather more than 3 ft.
from the tip of the nose to the root of the tail, the tail being
about 20 in. long. It inhabits the forest of Surinam and Brazil.
The powerful claws of its fore-feet enable it to dig with great
facility; and its food consists chiefly of termites and other
insects, although it is said to attack and uproot newly-made
graves for the purpose of devouring the flesh of the bodies
contained in them.
The apar (Tolypeutes tricinctus) typifies a genus in which the
teeth are | or f , and are rather large in proportion to the size
of the skull, with the hinder end of the series reaching nearly to
the posterior margin of the palate. Vertebrae: C7,Du,L3,Si2,
Ca 13. Ears placed low on the sides of the head, rather large,
broadly ovate. Armour with its scapular and pelvic shields
very free at the sides of the body, forming large chambers into
which the limbs can be readily withdrawn, and only three
movable bands. Tail short, conical, covered with large bony
tubercles. The fore-feet formed on the same type as in the last
genus, but the peculiarities carried to a still greater extent. The
claw of the third toe is very long, while those of the first and
fifth are greatly reduced and sometimes wanting. On the hind-
foot the three middle toes have broad, flat, subequal nails,
forming together a kind of tripartite hoof; the first and fifth
much shorter, with more compressed nails.
The armadillos of this genus have the power of rolling them-
selves up into a ball, the shield on the top of the head and the
tuberculated dorsal surface of the tail exactly fitting into and
filling up the apertures left by the notches at either end of the
body-armour. This appears to be their usual means of defence
when frightened or surprised, as they do not burrow like the
other species. They run very quickly, with a very peculiar
gait, only the tips of the claws of the fore-feet touching the
ground. In addition to the apar, there are the Argentine and
Bolivian T. conurus, and T. muriei from Argentina or Patagonia.
The last group of existing armadillos forms the genus Talusia
and the subfamily Tatusiinae; the subfamily rank being based
on the fact that of the seven or eight pairs of small subcylindrical
teeth, all but the last, which is considerably smaller than the
rest, are preceded by milk-teeth not changed until the animal
has nearly attained full size. Vertebrae: Cj, 09-11,1,5, S8,
Ca 20-27. Head narrow, with a long, narrow, subcylindrical
obliquely truncated snout. Ears rather large, ovate and erect,
placed close together on the occiput. Armour with seven to nine
distinct movable bands. Body generally elongated and narrow.
Tail moderate, or long, gradually tapering; its plates forming
distinct rings for the greater part of its length. Fore-feet with
four visible toes, and a concealed clawless rudiment of the fifth;
the claws long, slightly curved, and slender, the third and fourth
subequal and alike, the first and fourth much shorter. Hind-
feet with five toes, armed with strong, slightly curved, conical,
obtusely pointed nails, and the third longest, then the second
and fourth, and the first and fifth much shorter than the others.
This genus differs from all the other armadillos in having a pair
of inguinal teats hi addition to the usual pectoral pair, and in
producing a large number (4 to 10) of young at a birth, all the
others having usually but one or two. The peba armadillo,
T. septemcincta, is a well-known species, having an extensive
range from Texas to Paraguay. It is replaced in the more
southern regions of South America by a smaller species, with
shorter tail, the mulita ( T. hybrida) so called from the resemblance
of its head and ears to those of a mule. T. kappleri is a large
species from Guiana.
Finally we have the pichiciago, or fairy armadillo, Chlamydo-
phorus truncatus, typifying the subfamily Chlamydophorinae.
In most anatomical characters, especially the structure of the
fore-foot, this group resembles the Dasypodinae, but it differs
remarkably from aU other known armadillos, living or extinct,
in the peculiar modification of the armour.
The teeth, which number g^r, are subcylindrical, somewhat
compressed, moderate in size, and smaller at each end (especially
in front) than at the middle of the series. Skull broad and
rounded behind, pointed in front. Muzzle subcylindrical and
depressed. A conspicuous rounded rough prominence on the
frontal bone, just before each orbit. Tympanic prolonged into a
tubular auditory meatus, curving upwards round the base of the
zygoma. Vertebrae: C 7, D n, 1,3, S 10, Ca 15. Upper part of
head and trunk covered with four-sided horny plates (with small
thin ossifications beneath), forming a shield, free and overhanging
the sides of the trunk, and attached only along the middle line
of the back. The plates are arranged in a series of distinct
transverse bands, about twenty in number between the occiput
and the posterior truncated end, and not divided into solid
scapular and pelvic shields with movable bands between. The
hinder end of the body is abruptly truncated and covered by a
vertically placed, strong, solid, bony shield, of an oval (trans-
versely extended) form, covered by thin horny plates. This
shield is firmly welded by five bony processes to the hinder part
of the pelvis. Through a notch in the middle of its lower border
the tail passes out. The latter is rather short, cylindrical in its
proximal half, and expanded and depressed or spatulate in its
terminal portion, and covered with horny plates. The dorsal
surfaces of the fore and hind-feet are also covered with horny
plates. The remainder of the limbs and under surface and sides
of the body beneath the overlapping lateral parts of the back
shield are clothed with rather long, soft silky hair. Eyes and
ears very small, and concealed by the hair. Extremities short.
Feet large, each with five well-developed claws, those on the
fore-feet very long, stout and subcompressed, the structure
of the digits being essentially the same as those of Tatoua
and Priodon. Teats two, pectoral. Visceral anatomy closely
928
EDENTATA
resembling that of Dasypus, the caecum being broad, short and
bifid. The pichiciago, a burrowing animal, about 5 in. long,
inhabits the sandy plains of western Argentina, especially the
vicinity of Mendoza. Its horny covering is pinkish, and its silky
hair white. A second species, C. retusus, from Bolivia is rather
larger and has the dorsal shield attached to the skin of the back
as far as its edge, instead of only along the median line. (See
ARMADILLO.)
Tubvlidentata. The second suborder of edentates, namely
the Tubulidentata, is represented at the present day only by
the aard-varks, or ant-bears, of Africa, constituting the family
Orycteropodidae and the genus Orycteropus. Together with the
following group, they differ from the Xenarthra in the absence
of additional articular facets to the lumbar vertebrae; for
which reason the term Nomarthra has been proposed for the
Tubulidentata and Pholidota as collectively distinct from the
Xenarthra. In the present group the external surface is scantily
covered with bristle-like hairs. The teeth are numerous, and
traversed by a number of parallel vertical pulp-canals. Femur
with a third trochanter. Fore-feet without the first toe, but all
the other digits well developed, with strong moderate-sized nails,
suited to digging, the plantar surfaces of which rest on the ground
in walking. Hind-feet with five subequal toes. Placenta
broadly zonular. The brain is very like that of the Ungulata;
and there are two pairs of teats, one abdominal, and the other
inguinal. Aard-varks feed on animal substances; and are
terrestrial and fossorial in habits. The total number of teeth
is from eight to ten in each side of the upper, and eight in the
lower jaw; but they are never all in place at one time, as the
small anterior ones are shed before the series is completed behind.
In the adult they number usually five on each side above and
below, of which the first two are simple and compressed, the next
two larger and longitudinally grooved at the sides, the most
posterior simple and cylindrical. Their summits are rounded
before they are worn; their bases do not taper to a root, but are
evenly truncated and continually growing. Each tooth is made
up of an aggregation of parallel dental systems, having a slender
pulp cavity in the centre, from which the dentinal tubes radiate
outwards, and being closely packed together each system assumes
a polygonal outline as seen in transverse section. A series of
milk-teeth is developed. Skull moderately elongated with the
facial portion subcylindrical and slightly tapering, and the
zygoma complete and slender. The palate ends posteriorly in
the thickened transverse border of the palatines, and is not
continued back by the pterygoids. The tympanic is annular,
and not welded to the surrounding bones. The lower jaw is
slender anteriorly, but rises high posteriorly, with a slender
recurved coronoid, and an ascending pointed process on the
hinder edge below the condyle, which is small, oval, and looks
forward as much as upwards. Vertebrae: C 7, D 13, L 8, S 6,
Ca 25. The large number of lumbar vertebrae is peculiar among
Edentates. The tongue is less worm-like than in Myrmecophaga,
being thick and fleshy at the base and gradually tapering to the
apex. The salivary apparatus is developed much in the same
manner as in that genus, but the duct of the submaxillary gland
has no reservoir. The stomach consists of a large subglobular
cardaic portion, with a thick, soft, and corrugated lining mem-
brane, and a smaller muscular, pyloric part, with a compara-
tively thin and smooth lining. There is a distinct ileocaecal valve
and a considerable sized caecum; also a gall-bladder. Head
elongated, with a tubular snout, terminal nostrils and small
mouth-opening. Ears large, pointed, erect. Tail nearly as
long as the body, cylindrical, thick at the base, tapering to the
extremity.
According to the researches of Dr E. Lonnberg, the teeth of
the aard-varks correspond only to the roots of those of other
mammals, the crowns being unrepresented, except to a very
small degree when the teeth first cut the gum. This explanation
renders the peculiar internal structure of these teeth much less
difficult to understand than if they represented both crown and
root. In Dr Lonnberg's opinion, the teeth indicate the descent
of the aard-vark from an ungulate stock, a view in harmony
with the evidence of the brain. If this idea prove well.founded,
and if the aard-varks are rightly classed with the Edentata, the
whole order must apparently be regarded as an offshoot from
primitive Ungulata. The fact of the frequent distinctness of the
coracoid bone requires, however, explanation in connexion with
such a descent (see AARD-VARK).
Pholidota. The Pholidota, constituting the third and. last
group of the Edentata, are represented by the pangolins, or
scaly anteaters, of Asia and Africa, all of which are included
in the family Manidae and the genus Manis. Pangolins differ
from all other mammals by the armour of overlapping horny
scales (often with hairs growing between them) which invests
the whole animal, with the exception of the under surface of
the body, and sometimes a small patch near the tip of the under
side of the tail. There are no teeth; and although the tongue is
long and worm-like, it is not extensile. The scaphoid and lunar
bones of the carpus are united. The uterus is bicornuate, and
the placenta diffused and non-deciduate. The skull has some-
what the form of an elongated cone, with the small end turned
forwards, and is smooth and free from crests and ridges. No
distinction between the orbits and temporal fossae. The zygo-
matic arch usually incomplete, owing to the absence of the jugal
bone; no distinct lacrymal bone; and the palate long and
narrow. The pterygoids extend backwards as far as the tym-
panics, but do not meet in the middle line below. Tympanic
welded to the surrounding bones, and more or less bladder-like,
but not produced into a tubular auditory meatus. Two halves
of lower jaw very slender and straight, without any angle or
coronoid process, on the anterior extremity of the upper edge a
sharp, conical, tooth-like process projecting upwards and out-
wards. No clavicles. No third trochanter to the femur. Ter-
minal phalanges cleft at the tip. Caudal vertebrae with very
long transverse processes and numerous chevron-bones. Stomach
with thick muscular walls and lining membrane, and a special
gland near the middle of the great curvature, consisting of a
mass of complex secreting follicles, the ducts of which terminate
in a common orifice. No caecum, but a gall-bladder. Head
small, depressed, narrow, and pointed in front, with a very
small mouth-opening. Eyes and ears very small. Body elongated,
narrow. Tail more or less elongated, convex above, flat under-
neath. Limbs short, and in walking the surface and outer
sides of the phalanges of the two outer digits of the front feet
alone rest on the ground, with the points of the nails turning
upwards and inwards. The third toe the longest, with a powerful
compressed curved claw, the second and fourth with similar
but smaller claws, but that of the first toe often almost rudi-
mentary. Hind-feet plantigrade with the first toe very short,
and the four other toes subequal, and carrying moderate, curved,
compressed nails. Pangolins are of small or moderate size,
terrestrial and burrowing, and feed mainly on termites or white
ants; some of the species being more or less arboreal. They
can roll themselves up in a ball when in danger. Their peculiar
elongated form, short limbs, long tapering tail, and scaly covering
give them on a superficial inspection more the appearance of
reptiles than of mammals. The species are not numerous and
may be divided into two sections, one comprising the Asiatic
species, such as M. jammed, M. aurita of China, and the Indian
M. pentadactyla, and the other the African, as represented by
the large M. gigantea, M. lemminchi, the long-tailed M. macrura,
and the small arboreal M. tricuspis. In the Asiatic group the
middle series of scales continues to the tip of the tail; but in
the African forms this row splits into two a few inches from the
tail-tip. The latter have also no hairs between the scales and
no external ears. The climbing species have a small bare patch
on the under side of the tail near the tip (see PANGOLIN).
Extinct Edentates.
Beyond remains of species closely allied to or identical with
the existing forms, the sloths and anteaters appear to be unknown
in a fossil state. On the other hand the extinct family of ground
sloths, or Megatheriidae, which includes the largest of all edentates,
is an exceedingly large one, and extends in South America from
EDENTON EDESSA
929
the Miocene to the Pleistocene, and was also represented during
the latter epoch in North America. It serves to connect the
Bradypodidae with Myrmecophagidae. The alleged occurrence
of an allied form in Madagascar is somewhat doubtful (see
MEGATHERIUM and MYLODON).
Of Dasypodidae numerous representatives occur in the South
American Tertiaries. From the higher beds many of the species
are referable to existing genera, such as Dasypus and Tatusia,
although some are much larger than any living forms, the skull
in one case being nearly a foot in length. In other instances,
when lower formations are reached, the genera are also distinct,
Eutatus having the whole armour divided into movable bands,
and the allied Stegotheriwm representing the group in the Santa
Cruz formation of Patagonia. Even in the Argentine Pleistocene
there is an extinct genus, Chlamydotherium, represented by a
species of the size of a rhinoceros, with grooved teeth approximat-
ing to those of the glyptodonts. The latter represent a family
(Glyptodontidae) by themselves, and typically may be described
as giant solid-shelled armadillos, although some of their smaller
Santa Cruz representatives (Propalaeohoplophorus) approximate
in some degree to true armadillos (see GLYPTODON).
A very remarkable Santa Cruz armadillo, Peltephilus, has an
altogether peculiar type of head-shield, developed into horns
in front of the eyes; and, what is still more noteworthy, teeth
in the front of the jaws, thereby rendering the ordinary definition
of the order Edentata incorrect. It has ben made the type" of
a distinct family, Peltephilidae.
The past history of the armadillo group does not, however,
by any means end here. True armadillos, it should be observed,
are known in North America as far north as Texas, from
the Pleistocene onwards; but in formations of middle Tertiary
age are unrepresented. Recent discoveries apparently indicate,
however, the occurrence of armadillos of a primitive type in the
lower Tertiary or Eocene formations of Wyoming. The first
evidence of these Eocene armadillos was afforded by portions
of the jaws, which, together with a leg-bone of a totally different
animal, were believed to indicate creatures nearly allied to the
aye-aye (Chiromys) of Madagascar, and for which the name
tfetachircmys was consequently proposed. According to modern
usage, this name, in spite of its inappropriate nature, is retained
for the armadillos, although in the writer's opinion it ought to be
replaced. According to Professor H. F. Osborn, by whom their
remains have been described, the North American fossil arma-
dillos were closely related to the existing members of the group,
from which they differ chiefly by the armour, or shield, having
probably been formed of tough leathery skin instead of bony
plates, by the presence of a single pair of large enamel-capped
tusk-like teeth in each jaw, and by the degeneration of the other
teeth. If these determinations are trustworthy, the question
arises whether we should regard the armadillos of South America
as the descendants of North American forms which migrated
southwards before that separation of the two continents was
established, which lasted for a large portion of the Tertiary
period, or whether a migration took place at the same early epoch
in the opposite direction.
More interesting still is the occurrence of remains of reputed
armadillos (Necrodasypus) from the Oligocene of France and
Germany. In the opinion of Dr F. Ameghino these Oligocene
armadillos, which had bony shields on both the head and body,
were near akin to some of the modern South American forms.
Passing on to the aard-varks (Orycteropodidae) , we find these
represented by a species closely allied to the existing ones in the
Lower Pliocene formations of Spain, France, Hungary, Samos
and Asia Minor. A single tibia from the French Oligocene is
identified by Dr Ameghino with the present family, and the genus
Archaeorycteropus established for its reception; this genus, in
its founder's opinion, being also represented in the Santa Cruz
beds of Patagonia. As regards the pangolins, the only fossils
referred to this group (apart from a few discovered in a cave in
India) appear to be certain limb-bones from the Oligocene of
France and Germany, for which the names Necromanis and
Teutomanis have been proposed. The occurrence of the character-
istic cleft terminal toe-bones among these remains seems to
leave little doubt as to the correctness of the determination.
The alleged occurrence of remains of giant pangolins in the
upper Tertiary of Europe is due to misidentification (see
ANCYLOPODA). By some authorities the Eocene group of
Ganodonta has been affiliated to the Edentata, but this reference
is not accepted by Prof. W. B. Scott.
AUTHORITIES. The above article is to some extent based on the
articles by Sir W. H. Flower in the gth edition of this work. See
also O. Thomas, " A Milk-dentition in Orycteropus," Proc. Royal Soc.
vol. xlvii. (1890) ; R. Lydekker, " The Extinct Edentates of Argen-
tina," Palaeont. Argentina, vol. iii., An. Mus. (La Plata, 1894) ;
C. W. Andrews, " On a Skull of Orycteropus gaudryi from Samos,"
Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1896) ; G. E. Smith, " The Brain in the
Edentata," Trans. Linn. Soc. London, vol. vii. (1899); W. B. Scott,
" Mammalia of the Santa Cruz Beds Dasypoda," Rep. Princeton
Exped. to Patagonia, vol. v. (1903); H. F. Osborn, " An Armadillo
from the Middle Eocene of North America," Bull. Amer. Mus. vol.
xx. art. 12 (1904) ; J. A. Allen, " The Tamandua Anteaters," T.C.,
art. 33 (1904) ; F. Ameghino, " Les Edentes fossiles de
France et d'Allemagne," Ann. Mus. Buenos Aires, vol. xiii. (1905) ;
E. Lonnberg, " On a new Orycteropus," and " Remarks on the
dentition of the Tubulidentata," Archiv fur Zoologie, vol. iii.
No. 3 (1906). (R. L.*)
EDENTON, a town and the county-seat of Chowan county,
North Carolina, U.S.A., on Edenton Bay, an estuary of Albemarle
sound, near the mouth of Chowan river, in the N.E. part of
the state. Pop. (1890) 2205; (1900) 3046 (2090 negroes) ; (1910)
2789. It is served by the Norfolk & Southern railway, and
by the Albemarle Steam Navigation Co. In 1907 the former
projected a great bridge across Albemarle sound near the city.
Edenton is an old and interesting town, has a number of fine
old homesteads, and has broad and well-shaded streets. Lumber-
ing and the shad and herring fisheries are the most important
industrial interests, and the town is a shipping point for fish,
truck and other farm products, cotton and peanuts. There is a
Fish Cultural Station here, established by the Federal government
The court-house was built about 1750.
Edenton was settled about 1658, and was for some time known
as the " Towne on Queen Anne's Creek " or the " Port of
Roanoke "; in 1722 the present name was adopted in honour
of Governor Charles Eden (1673-1722), whose grave is in St
Paul's churchyard here. Throughout the i8th century Edenton
was a place of considerable social and political importance; the
legislative assembly of North Carolina met here occasionally,
and here lived the royal governors and various well-known
citizens of the province, among them: Joseph Hewes (i73Cr-
1779), a signer of the Declaration of Independence; James
Iredell, Sri (1750-1799), a Federalist leader and after 1790 a
justice of the United States Supreme Court, and his son James
Iredell, Jr. (1788-1833), a prominent lawyer, for many years a
member of the state legislature, governor of North Carolina in
1827-1828, and a member of the United States Senate in 1828-
1831. Near Edenton lived Samuel Johnston (1733-1816), a
prominent leader of the American Whigs preceding and during
the War of American Independence, a member of the Continental
Congress in 1780-1782, governor of North Carolina in 1787-1789,
and a Federalist member of the United States Senate in 1790-
1793. In 1907 the Hewes, Iredell and Johnston homesteads
were still standing. In a house facing the court-house green the
famous " Edenton Tea Party " of fifty-one ladies met on the
24th of October 1774 and signed resolutions that they would
not conform " to that Pernicious Custom of Drinking Tea " and
would not "promote the wear of any manufacture from England"
until the tax on tea should be repealed. Near Edenton the
Confederate ram " Albemarle," on emerging from the Roanoke
river, was met by the Union " double-enders," " Sassacus,"
" Mattabesett," and " Miami," on the sth of May 1864; the
battle, which resulted in favour of the Confederates, was a duel
between the Confederate ironclad and the Union wooden side-
wheeler, the " Sassacus," which rammed the " Albemarle " and
had her bows, fitted with a three-ton bronze beak, twisted off
and carried away.
EDESSA (mod. Vodena), the ancient capital of Macedonia,
previously known as Aegae, situated 46 m. W. of Thessalonica
930
EDESSA
on the banks of a beautiful stream in the very centre of the
kingdom, and at the head of a defile commanding the approaches
from the coast to the interior. It was the original residence of
the Macedonian kings; and even after the seat of government
was removed by Philip II. to the more accessible Pella, it
continued to be the burial-place of the royal family. At the
celebration of his daughter's marriage here, Philip II. was
murdered by Pausanias in 336 B.C. His son Alexander was
buried at Memphis through the contrivance of Ptolemy; but
the bodies of his granddaughter Eurydice and her husband
Arrhidaeus were removed by Cassander to the ancestral sepulchre.
On the occupation of the town by Pyrrhus the royal tombs were
plundered by the Gallic mercenaries. Owing to its position
commanding the Via Egnatia, the town retained its importance
during the Roman and Byzantine periods. For its present
condition, see VODENA.
EDESSA, the Greek name of an ancient city of N.W. Meso-
potamia (in 37 21' N. lat. and 39 6' E. long.), suggested perhaps
by a comparison of its site, or its water supply, 1 with that of its
Macedonian namesake. It still bears its earlier name, modified
since the isth century (by the Turks?) to Urfa.
The oldest certain form is the Aramaic Urhai (" Western "
pronunciation Urhoi), which appears in Greek as an adjective as
'Oppoijwi, 1 -vol* (perhaps also as a fortress with spring, as 'Oppi), 4
and in Latin as Orr(h)ei, 6 and (in the inscription on Abgar's grave)
Orrhenoru(m). s The Syriac Chronicle ascribed to Dionysius of
Tell-maljre derives the name from a first king Urhai, son of Hewya,
whom Procopius (De bello persico, i. 17) calls Osroes (cf. below),
connected by Bayer 7 with Chosroes,* from which G. Hoffmann
would also derive the Syriac Urhai (Z.D.M.G. xxxii. 742). The Syriac
town name has, however, the form of an ethnic, and we may there-
fore with Duval leave it unexplained (Hist. 22). The fact that the
Arabic name is Ruha supports the hint of the Graeco-Latin forms
that there was a vowel between the R and the H. There is little
plausibility in the suggestion of Assemani and others that Ruha
comes from /MI; of Callirrhoe. A gentilic of the form Ru-u-ai occurs
in a letter (of an Assyrian king?) to chiefs in a (Babylonian?) town
as the designation of three captives (Harper, Ass. and Bab. Letters,
No. 287 [ = K 94], line 6; cf. Be/old, Die Achdmenideninschriften,
p. xii.), who have Semitic names; and Ru-'-u-a is the name of
an Aramaic people mentionec" with other Aramaeans by Tiglath-
pileser IV., Sargon and Sennacherib. It is not impossible that some
such people may have settled at Urhai and given it their name,
although the Ru-'-u-a are always mentioned in connexions that
imply seats near the Persian Gulf.' The district name Osroene for
'Op'/Soijn?, is Greek, perhaps due to analogy of Chosroes. It occurs
but rarely in Syriac (Uzro'ina); e.g. Chronicle of Edessa, 35 ; 10
elsewhere Beth-Urhaye (e.g. Cureton, Spicileg. Syr. 20). In the
time of Tiglath-pileser I. (c. noo B.C.) the name seems to have been
" District of (not Edessa, but) Harran " (Annals, vi. 71). The Arabs
pronounced the name er-Ruha (see above), and that form prevailed
till it gave place to Urfa in the isth century.
The Greek name Edessa appears in the Jerusalem Targum to
Gen. x. 10 as Hildas (DI.I, myrtle) ; it has been proposed (cf. Duval,
Hist. d'Edesse, 23) to derive Edessa from Aram, mn, as though
= Carthage, New Town; but Syriac writers, when they occasion-
ally" use the name (Edessa, KDIK; so Yaqut, Adasa), show no
suspicion of its being Semitic. According to Pliny, v. 86, Edessa
was also called Antioch, and coins of Antiochus IV. Epiphanes with
the legend " Antiocb on the Callirrhoe " may imply that he rebuilt
and renamed the place (so Ed. Meyer in Pauly-Wissowa, Real-
encydopadie, col. 1933, 66; otherwise Duyal, Hist. 23; cf. art.
OSROENE). Pliny indeed seems to call the city itself Callirrhoe, and
S. Funk finds it so named in the Talmud (Bab. Mez., 180 KJID YIB-
mni DDT Sin: Die Juden in Babylonien 200-500, ii. 148; 1908);
but K. Reeling (Klio, i. 459 n. i) may be right in his emendation
which applies the title in Pliny to the sacred spring.
History: Pre-Hellenistic. Until excavation gives us more
definite data we can only infer from its position on one of the
So Appian, Syr. 57; cp. Steph. Byz., s.v. Efccnra: 8i4 T^I> TUV
wSiraj^ pv)j.Tiv.
1 Steph. Byz., s.v. Barvat. * Dio, passim.
4 Isidore Charac. I (Muller, Geog. Gr. Min., i. 246).
Several times in Pliny, Nat. Hist. CIL. vi. 1797.
7 Hist. Osrhoena et Edessena, p. 33.
Written 'OopArp in Dio Cassius, Excerpta, Ixviii. 22.
See the reff. collected by M. Streck, M.V.G., 1906. The name
occurs in the same company in the fragmentary tablet K. 1904.
The mountain Ru-u-[a], mentioned thrice by Tiglath-pileser IV.,
is placed by Billerbeck near Hamadan (Sandschak Suleimania, 82,
86, and map, 1898).
u See further Payne Smith, Thesaurus no b.
u In translating from the Greek; also in Ephraim (Duval, Hist.
22, n. 4) and the Acts of Shartnl (Cureton, Anc. Syr. Doc. 41).
main thoroughfares between the Mediterranean and the East
(see MESOPOTAMIA) that Urhai-Edessa, possibly bearing some
other name, was already a town of some importance in the early
Babylonian-Assyrian age. Whatever may have been the
ethnographical type of the early inhabitants, it must by the
beginning of the second last millennium B.C. have included
Hittites in the large sense of the term, probably Aryans, and
certainly Semites of some of the types characteristic of early
Assyrian history. Most probably its people belonged to the
domain of the then more famous Harran-Carrhae, between
which and Samosata (on the Euphrates) Urhai lies midway
(some 25-30 m. distant from each) in the district watered by the
Balih. Although at Edessa itself no cuneiform documents have
yet been found, a little more than four hours journey eastwards,
at Anaz ( = Gullab?) = Dur of Tiglath-pileser IV. was found in
1901 a slab with a bas-relief and an inscription; and 15-20 min.
W. of Eski-Harran, in 1906 a very interesting 6th-century
Assyrian inscription (see MESOPOTAMIA).
In. the later Assyrian empire the population was largely
Aramaic-speaking; but S. Schiffer's theory (Beiheft I. zur
Orientalistischen Litteratur-Zeitung) finds contemporary evidence
of Israelites settled in the neighbourhood of Edessa in the second
half of the 7th century B.C. At the fall of Nineveh many towns in
Mesopotamia suffered severely at the hands of the Medes. The
period remains dark, notwithstanding the obscure light that has
been thrown on it lately (Pognon, Inscriptions). When Aramaic
began to take the place of Assyrian in written documents is not
known; but just across the Euphrates the change had occurred
as early as the 8th century B.C. (Zenglrli, Hamath; see also
Pognon). Certain it is that the earliest documents that have
survived in Syriac, or Edessene Aramaic, do not represent an
experimental stage. Moreover, although the Syriac of the
Story of Ahlqar is of a late type, the sources of the story, traces
of which are to be found in the Hebrew Tobit (q.v.), go back to
the pre-Hellenistic period.
Graeco- Roman Times. According to a credible tradition
found in Eusebius (Excerpta, 179), the Syriac Chronicle ascribed
to Dionysius of Tell-mahre (TuUberg, 61), and elsewhere, Urhai
was renovated, like other Mesopotamian sites, in 304 B.C. by
Seleucus I. Nicator, who gave it its Greek name. 12 It would share
in the Hellenistic culture of Syria, although the language of the
common people would continue to be Aramaic (E. R. Bevan,
House of Seleucus, i. 227 f. with reff.). With the decay of the
Seleucid power, weakened by Rome and Parthia, the old influx
from the desert would recommence, and an Arabic element
begin to show. Von Gutschmid (Untersuch., cf. Duval, ch. iii.
end) argues plausibly that it was in 132 B.C., in the reign of
Antiochus VII. Sidetes, that Edessa became the seat of a dynasty
of some thirty local kings, whose succession has been preserved
in native sources. The name of the first king, however, appears
in different forms (cf. above), and one (Osroes-Orhai) is so
like that of the town that Ed. Meyer suspects the historicity
of the first reign, of five years. The names of the other kings
Abgar, Ma'nu, Bekr, &c. are for the most part Arabic, as the
people (in whose inscriptions the same mixture of names occurs)
are called by classical authors; but the rulers, among whom
an occasional Iranian name betrays the influence of the dominant
Parthians, 13 would hardly maintain their distinctness from the
Aramaic populace. This state which lasted for three centuries
and a half, naturally varied in extent. 14 Bounded on the W. and
the N. by the Euphrates, it reached at its widest as far as the
Tigris. At such times, therefore, it included such towns as
Uarran (Carrhae), Nisibis, Sarug, Zeugma-Birejik, Resaena,
Singara, Tigranocerta, Samosata, Melitene. Its position " on
the dangerous verge of two contending empires," Parthia and
11 On a possible restoration under the name of " Antioch on the
Callirrhoe ' see above.
13 The Edessans used to call their town " the city," or " the
daughter," " of the Parthians " (Cureton, Anc. Syr. Doc., 41 ult.,
97 1. 7; 106 1. 12).
14 The portion of the Mesopotamian steppe under Osrhoenic
influence was, according to Noldeke (Zeitsch. Ass. xxi. 153, 1908),
called 'Arabh in Syriac.
EDESSA
Rome, determined its changeful fortunes. Parthian pre-
dominance yielded for a time to Armenian (Tigranes, 88-86 B.C.).
Then, at the time of the expeditions of Lucullus, Pompey and
Crassus, Edessa was an ally of Rome, though Abgar II. Ariamnes
(68-53) played an ambiguous part. In A.D. 114 Abgar VII.
entertained Trajan on his way back to Syria (Dio Cass. xviii. 21);
but in 1 1 6, in consequence of a general rising, his consul L.
Quietus sacked the city, Abgar perhaps dying in the flames,
and made the state tributary. Hadrian, however, abandoning
Trajan's forward policy in favour of a Euphrates boundary,
restored it as a dependency of Rome. When L. Verus (163-165)
recovered Mesopotamia from Parthia, it was not Edessa but
Harran that was chosen as the site of a Roman colony, and
made the metropolis by Marcus Aurelius (172).
To one of the native kings doubtless is to be ascribed the
Syriac inscription 1 on one of the pair of pillars, 50 ft. high,
which stood, no doubt, in front of a temple connected with some
local cult. Trustworthy data for determining its nature are
lacking. One or both of the pools below the citadel containing
sacred fish may have been sacred to Atargatis (q.v.), an Ishtar-
Venus deity; and according to the Doctrine of Addai, alongside
of Venus were worshipped the sun and the moon. 2 Nergal and
Sin were known as " twins," and connected with the sign Gemini,
under the name ellamme, " the youths " (cf. Zimmern, K.A.T.
363). This makes more plausible than it otherwise would be
the suggestion of J. Rendel Harris that the great twin pillars
were connected with the cult of the Dioscuri, and that in the
Acts of Thomas is to be seen a later attempt to substitute other
" twins," viz. Jesus and Judas-Thomas (Addai), whom legend
buried " in Britio Edessenorum " (explained by Harnack as
the Edessan citadel: Aram, birtfta). 3
Whether it was at Edessa that a Jewish translation of the
Old Testament into Syriac was made, 4 under the encouragement
perhaps of the favour of the royal house of Adiabene (Josephus,
Bell. Jud. ii. 19. 4), or whether that work was done in Adiabene, 6
cannot be discussed here. That the translation did not share
the fate of the other non-Christian Syriac writings, which did
not survive the i3th century (see SYRIAC LITERATURE), is
due to the fact that it was adopted (after being revised) by
the Christians, and thus rescued. Although the beginnings of
Christianity at Edessa are enshrouded in the mists f legend,
and the first mention of Christian communities in Osrhoene and
the towns there is connected with the part they played in the
paschal controversy (c. A.D. 192), it has been reasonably urged
that the legends imply a fact, namely that Christianity began
in the Jewish colony, perhaps by the middle of the 2nd century,
although the earliest seat of the Syrian church may have been
farther east, in Adiabene. 6 Parts of the New Testament were
certainly translated into Syriac in the 2nd century, although
whether the " Old Syriac " (so e.g. Hjelt) or the Diatessaron (so
Burkitt) came first is uncertain. About the end of the 2nd
century Edessene Christianity seems to have made a fresh
beginning: the ordination of Palut by Serapion of Antioch may
mean that things ecclesiastical took a westward trend, and it
is possible (so Burkitt) that the " Old Syriac " New Testament
version was now introduced. A strong man offered himself in
Bardaisan (q.v.; Bardesanes), to whom perhaps we owe the finest
Syriac poem extant, the " Hymn of the Soul," though orthodoxy
rejected him. He was a contemporary of Abgar IX., at whose
court Julius Africanus stayed for a while. A Syrian official
record from this reign, preserved in the Edessene Chronicle,
gives a somewhat detailed account of a violent flood (autumn,
201) of the Daisan river which did much damage, destroying
1 The Inscription, which is difficult to read, connects the structure
with Shalmat the queen, daughter of Ma'nu, who cannot be identified
with certainty, and refers to some image(s), which probably excited
the pious vandalism of the Arabs.
J Nebo and Bel (Doctr. Addai, 31) may come from the Old Testa-
ment (Burkitt).
S.B.A.W., 1904, 910 ff.
4 So, e.g. F. C. Burkitt, Early Eastern Christianity, 72.
' Marquart, Ostasiat. und osteurop. Streittuge, 292 ff.
Marquart, op. cit.
amongst other things " the palace of Abgar the Great," rebuilt
as a summer palace by Abgar IX., and " the temple of the church
of the Christians." The form of this last statement shows that
at the time of writing (206) the rulers had not adopted Christianity
themselves. Abgar IX. is now commonly supposed to be the
ruler to whom the famous legend was first attached (see ABGAR) ;
but though he visited Rome there is no proof that he ever became
a Christian (Gomperz, in Archiiologisch-epigraphische Mitteilungen
arts Osterreich-Ungarn, xix. 154-157). It was at Edessa that
Caracalla, who made it a military colony under the style of
Colonia Marcia Edessenorum, spent the winter of 216-217, arj d
near there that he was murdered. The religious philosophical
treatise preserved under the title of Book of the Laws of the Lands
was probably produced at this time by a pupil of Bardesanes,
and the Acts of Thomas in its original form may have followed
not long after.
Sassanian Period. In 226 the Parthian empire gave place
to the new kingdom of the Sassanidae, whose claim to the ancient
Achaemenian empire led to constant struggle with Rome in
which Edessa naturally suffered. The native state was restored
by Gordian in 242; but in 244 it became again directly subject
to Rome. The Edessan martyrs Sharbel and Barsamya, whose
" Acts " in legendary form have come down to us, may have
perished in the Decian persecution. In 260 the city was be-
sieged by the Persians under Shapur I., and Valerian was
defeated and made prisoner by its gates. Odaenathus of Palmyra
(d. 267), however, wrested Mesopotamia from the Persians;
but Aureh'an defeated his successor Zenobia at Emesa (273),
and Carus, who died in 283 in an expedition against the Persians,
and Galerius (297) carried the frontier again to the Tigris.
Diocletian's persecution secured the martyr's crown for the
Edessenes Shamona, Guria (297), and IJabblb (309), and shortly
thereafter Lucian " the martyr," who though born at Samosata
received his training at Edessa; but the bishop Qona, who laid
the foundations of " the great church " by the sacred pool,
somehow escaped. Edessa can claim no share in " the Persian
Sage" Aphrahat or Afrahat (Aphraates); but Ephraem, after
bewailing in Nisibis the sufferings of the great Persian war under
Constantius and Julian, when Jovian in 363 ceded most of
Mesopotamia to Shapur II., the persecutor of the Christians,
settled in Edessa, which as the seat of his famous school (called
" the Persian ") grew greatly in importance, and attracted
scholars from all directions. He taught and wrote vigorously
against the Arians and other heretics, and although just after his
death (373) the emperor Valens banished the orthodox from
Edessa, they returned on the emperor's death in 378. Under
Zenobius, disciple of Ephraem, studied the voluminous writer,
Isaac of Antioch (d. circ. 460). Rabbula perhaps owed his
elevation to the see of Edessa (411-435), in the year which pro-
duced the oldest dated Syriac MS., to his asceticism, and it
was to his time that the sojourn there of the " Man of God "
(Alexis) was assigned; but he won from the Nestorians the
title of the Tyrant of Edessa. In particular he exerted himself
to stamp out the use of the Diatessaron in favour of the four
Gospels, the Syriac version of which probably now took the form
known as the Peshitta. When the popular Nestorianism of the
Syrians was condemned at Ephesus (431) it began to gravitate
eastwards, Nisibis becoming its eventual headquarters; but
Edessa and the western Syrians refused to bow to the Council
of Chalcedon (451) when it condemned Monophysitism. In
and around Edessa the theological strife raged hotly. 7 When,
however, Zeno's edict (489) ordered the closing of the school of
the Persians at Edessa, East and West drifted apart more and
more; the ecclesiastical writer Narsai, " the Harp of the Holy
Spirit," fled to Nisibis about 489. Till about this time Syriac
influence was strong in Armenia, and some Syriac works have
survived only in Armenian translations. In the opening years
of the 6th century the Persian-Roman War (502-506) found a
chronicler in the anonymous Edessene history known till recently
as the Chronicle of Joshua Stylites. Whether Edessa received
7 Some one found time, however, to produce the oldest dated MS.
of a portion of the Bible in any language.
932
EDESSA
from the emperor Justin I. the additional name of Justinopolis
may be uncertain (see Hallier, op. oil. p. 128); but it seems to
have been renewed and fortified after the " fourth " flood in
525 (Procop. Pers. ii. 27; De aedific. ii. 7). About this time,
according to Noldeke, an anonymous Edessene wrote the
Romance of Julian the Apostate, which so many Arab writers
use as a history. Chosroes I. AnushirwSn succeeded in 540,
according to the last entry in the Edessene Chronicle, in exacting
a large tribute from Edessa; but in 544 he besieged it in vain.
A few years later Jacob Baradaeus, with Edessa as centre of
his bishopric, was carrying on the propaganda of Monophysitism
which won for the adherents of that creed the name of Jacobites
(q.v.). The valuable Syriac Chronicle just referred to probably
was compiled in the latter half of this century.
Islam. In the first decade of the next century Edessa was
taken by Chosroes II., and a large part of the population trans-
ported to eastern Persia. Within a score of years it was recovered
by the emperor Heraclius, who reviewed a large army under
its walls. The prophet of Islam was now, however, building up
his power in Arabia, and although Heraclius paid no heed to
the letter demanding his adhesion which he received from
Medina (628), and the deputation of fifteen Rahawiyin who
paid homage in 630 were not Edessenes but South Arabians,
a few years later (636 ? ) Heraclius's attempts, from Edessa
as a centre, to effect an organized opposition to the victorious
Arabs were defeated by Sa'd, and he fell back on Samosata.
The terms on which Edessa definitely passed into the hands of the
Moslems (638) under Riyad are not certain (Baladhuri). As it
now ceased to be a frontier city it lost in importance. In 668
occurred another destructive flood (Theophanes, p. 537), an( i
in 678 an earthquake which destroyed part of the " old church,"
which the caliph Mo'awiya I. is said to have repaired. To the
latter part of the century belongs the activity of Edessa's bishop
Jacob, whose chronicle is unfortunately lost. It may have been
the impulse given by the final supremacy of the caliphate to
the long process which eventually substituted a new branch
of Semitic speech for the Aramaic (which had now prevailed
for a millennium and a half) , that led Jacob to adopt the Greek
vowel signs for use in Syriac. A century later Theophilus of
Edessa (d. 785), author of a lost history, translated into Syriac
" the two books of the poet Homer on the Conquest of the city
of liion." When the Bagdad caliphs lost control of their
dominions, Edessa shared the fortunes of western Mesopotamia,
changing with the rise and fall of Egyptian dynasties and Arab
chieftains. In the loth century al-Mas'udi, writing in the very
year in which it happened, tells how the Mahommedan ruler
of Edessa, with the permission of the caliph, purchased peace
of the emperor Romanus Lecapenus by surrendering to him the
napkin of Jesus of Nazareth, wherewith he had dried himself after
his baptism. The translation of the Holy Icon of Christ from
Edessa is commemorated on the i6th of August (Cal. Byzant).
A few years later Ibn Haukal (978) estimates the number of
churches hi the city at more than 300, and al-Mokaddasi (985)
describes its cathedra 1 , with vaulted ceiling covered with mosaics,
as one of the four wonders of the world. In 1031 the emperor
recovered Edessa; but in 1040 it fell into the hands of the
Seljuks, whose progress had added a large element of Armenian
refugees to the population of Osrhoene. There is no reason,
therefore, to discredit Maqrizi's statement that it was three
brother architects from Edessa that the Armenian minister
Badr al-Gamali employed to build three of the fine city gates of
Cairo (1087-1091). The empire soon recovered Edessa, but the
resident made himself independent. Thoros applied for help
to Baldwin, brother and successor of Godfrey of Bouillon in the
First Crusade, who in 1098 took possession of the town and
made it the capital of a Burgundian countship, which included
Samosata and Saru^, and was for half a century the eastern
bulwark of the kingdom of Jerusalem. 1 The local Armenian
historian, however, Matthew of Edessa, tells of oppression,
decrease of population, ruin of churches, neglect of agriculture.
'The counts were: Baldwin I. (1098). Baldwin II. (lioo),
Joscelin I. (1119), Joscelin II. (1131-1147).
With the campaign of Maudud in mo fortune began to favour
the Moslems. Edessa had to endure siege after siege. Finally,
in 1144 it was stormed, Matthew being among the slain, by
'Imad ud-Dm ZengT, ruler of Mosul, under Joscelin II., an
achievement celebrated as " the conquest of conquests," for
laying the responsibility of which not on God but on the absence
of the Prankish troops, an Edessan monk, John, bishop of
IJarran (d. 1165), brought down upon himself the whole bench
of bishops. Edessa suffered still more in 1146 after an attempt
to recover it. Churches were now turned into mosques. The
consternation produced in Europe by the news of its fate led
to "the Second Crusade." In 1182 it fell to Saladin, whose
nephew recovered it when it had temporarily passed (1234)
to the sultan of Rum; but the " Eye of Mesopotamia " never
recovered the brilliance of earlier days. The names it con-
tributed to Arabic literature are unimportant. By timely sur-
render (1268) it escaped the sufferings inflicted by Hulaku and
his Monguls on Sarug (Barhebraeus, Chron. Arab., Beirut ed.,
486). MostaufI describes a great cupola of finely worked stone
still standing by a court over a hundred yards square (1340).
Ali b. Yazd in his account of the campaigns of Timur, who
reduced Mesopotamia in 1393, still calls the city (1425) Ruha.
In 1637, when Amurath IV. conquered Bagdad and annexed
Mesopotamia, it passed finally into the hands of the Turks, by
whom it is called Urfa.
The Modern Town. Urfa lies north-east of the Nimrud Dagh.
It is surrounded by a wall, strengthened by square towers at
distances of 18-20 steps, probably dating in its present condition
from medieval Mahommedan times. On a height in a corner
towards the west, overtopping the town by 100-200 ft., are the
remains of the old citadel, and the two famous Corinthian
columns 1 known as " the Throne of Nimrud." In the hollow
between this height and the town rise two springs which form
ponds, the farther removed of which from the citadel is known
as Birket al-Khalil, doubtless the Callirrhoe of the classical
writers, and contains the sacred fish, estimated by J. S. Bucking-
ham at 20,000, and the nearer as 'Ain Zalkha (i.e. Zuleikha, the
wife of Potiphar). On the north edge of the Birket al-Khalil
(see plan in Sachau, p. 197) is the great mosque of Abraham,
the interior of which is described by J. S. Buckingham (Travels,
pp. 108-1*0). Diagonally opposite the mosque is a house with a
square tower, which is locally believed to occupy the place of the
famous ancient school. The waters of the two pools make their
way hi a single stream southwards out of the town. The once
dangerous stream Daisan (S/cipros) no longer flows southwards
through the town, but encircles it on the north and east in the
channel of the old moat. This stream, now called Kara Kuyun,
and the other are exhausted in the irrigation of the gardens
lying south-east of the town, except when fuller than usual,
when they reach the Ballh. Not far east of the sacred pool is
the largest building in the town, the recent Armenian Gregorian
cathedral, whose American bells were first heard during Sachau's
visit in 1879. About the middle of the town is the largest mosque,
Ulu Garni (parts of it probably pre-Islamic), which probably
occupies the site of the Christian church reckoned by the early
Mahommedan writers as one of the wonders of the world. In
the bazaar, which lies between the chief mosque and the sacred
pool, and contains several streets, are displayed not only the
native woollen stuffs, pottery and silver work, but also a consider-
able variety of European goods, especially cloth stuffs. The
principal manufactures are fine cotton stuffs and yellow leather.
The streets are of course narrow and winding; but the houses
are well built of stone. The outskirts are occupied by melon
gardens, vineyards and mulberry plantations. The fertile plain
south of the town is noted for its wheat and fine pasture. The
climate is healthy except in summer; the " Aleppo button "
(see BAGDAD, vilayet), a painful boil, is common. The rocky
heights south and west of the town, whence the building material
is largely obtained, are full of natural and artificial caverns, once
used as dwellings, cloisters and graves, where are most of the
pictures in Burkitt, Early East. Christ., frontispiece; P.S.B.A.
xxviii. 151 f. ; J. R. Harris, The Heavenly Twins.
EDFU EDGAR THE ^THELING
933
inscriptions published by Sachau, who also visited and describes
(pp. 204-206) the Der Ya'qflb, nearly two hours distant.
Urfa is the capital of a sanjak of the same name, in the vilayet
of Aleppo. The population was estimated by Olivier in 1796
at 20,000 to 24,000, by Buckingham at 50,000, by Chernik in
1873 at 40,000, by Sachau in 1879 at 50,000, in Baedeker's
Handbook in 1906 at 30,000. Vice-Consul Fitzmaurice said
that before December 1895 it was close on 65,000, of whom about
20,000 were Armenian, 3000 or 4000 Jacobites, Syrian-Catholic,
Greek-Catholic, Maronites and Jews, and the remaining 40,000
Turkish, Kurdian and Arab Mahommedans. Two barbarous
massacres occurred on the 28th and 29th of October and the
zSth and 29th of December 1895; 126 Armenian families were
absolutely wiped out. He believes that 8000 Armenians perished
in the second massacre. The Deutsche Orient-Mission has its
chief seat in Urfa, and there have for years been American and
French missions. The Germans have an orphanage with 300
Armenian children, a carpet factory and a medical station. The
American school had some years ago 250 pupils.
AUTHORITIES. Inscriptional : H. Pognon, Inscriptions semitiques
de la Syrie, de la Mesopotamie et de la region do Mossoul (1907, 1908) ;
Sachau, " Edessenische Inschriften," in Z.D.M.G. xxxvi. 142-167;
F. C. Burkitt, " The Throne of Nimrod," in P.S.B.A. xxviii. 149-
155 (1906); J. Rendel Harris, Th, '
Noldeke, " Syrische Inschriften
(1908). Literary: Ludwig Halli
senische Chronik mit dem Syrischen Text (1892) ; F. Nau, Analyse des
parties inedites de la chronique attribute a Denys de Tellmahre (1898) ;
J.-B. Chabot, Chronique de Denys de Tell-Mahre, quatrieme partie
(1895) ; W. Wright, The Chronicle of Joshua the Stylile (1882) ; Bayer,
Historia Osrhoena et Edessena (St Petersburg, 1 784) , collects the refer-
ences in classical authors ; for the coinage see references in von Gut-
schmid (see below). Discussions: A. von Gutschmid, " Untersuch-
ungen uber die Geschichte des Konigreichs Osroene " (in Memoires
de lacad. imper. des sciences de St-Petersb. yii. ser. tome 35, No. I,
1887); L.-J. Tixeront, Les Origines de I'eglise d'Edesse et la legende
d'Abgar (1888); R. A. Lipsius, Die Edessenische Abgarsage kritisch
untersucht (1880); K. C. A. Matthes, Die Edess. Abgarsage auf ihre
Fortbildung untersucht (1882); F. Nau, Une Biographie inediie de
Bardesane I'astrologue (1897); Bardesane I'astrologue: le livre des
Lois des Pays (1899); A. Hilgenfeld, Bardesanes, der letzte Gnostiker
(1864) ; A. A. Bevan, " The Hymn of the Soul " (in Texts and Studies,
1897); F. C. Burkitt, Early Eastern Christianity (1904); J. R.
Harris, The Dioscuri in Christian Legend (1903), and The Cult of the
Heavenly Twins (1906); the histories of Rome, Persia, Crusades,
Mongols, &c.; Rubens Duval, Histoire politique, religieuse et
htteraire d'Edesse jusqu'd la premiere croisade (1892), a useful com-
pilation reprinted from the Journ. As.; the excellent article by E.
Meyer in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopddie, 1933-1938. Topo-
graphy: J. S. Buckingham, Travels in Mesopotamia (1827); E.
Sachau, Reise in Syrien u. Mesopotamien (1883), 189-210; cf. Duval,
op. tit. chap. i. ; C. Ritter, Erdkunde, xi. 315-356. Map of town in
Niebuhr, Voyage en Arabie, reproduced with modifications in Wright,
Chron. Josh. Styl. ; also a map in Reclus, Univ. Geog. ix. 232. Four
pictures of the town in Burkitt, Early East. Christ. (H. W. H.)
EDFU, in Coptic Atbo, a town of Upper Egypt, 484 m. S.S.E.
of Cairo by rail, on the W. bank of the Nile, the railway station
being on the opposite side of the river. Pop. (1907) 19,262.
The inhabitants manufacture earthenware, which finds ready
sale all through Egypt. The ancient Atbo (Apollinopolis Magna)
was capital of the second nome of Upper Egypt. The great
sandstone temple is practically complete (see ARCHITECTURE:
Egypt). It was built on the site of an earlier structure entirely
in the time of the Ptolemies. The central part of the building,
begun by Ptolemy III. Euergetes in 237 B.C., was finished by
his successor in 212; the portico, court, pylons and surrounding
wall were added by Ptolemy Euergetes II., Soter II. and
Alexander I.; but the decoration was not finished till 57 B.C.
in the reign of Ptolemy XIII. Neos Dionysus. The god of Atbo
was a form of Horus (Apollo) as the sun-god; his most char-
acteristic representation is as the disk of the sun with outspread
wings, so often seen over the doors of shrines, at the top of
stelae, &c. In the temple, where he is often figured as a falcon-
headed man, he is associated with Hathor of Dendera and the
child Harsemteus.
See Baedeker's Egypt ; Ed. Naville, Textes relatifs au mytke d' Horus
recuetllis dans le temple d'Edfou. (F. LL. G.)
EDGAR (EADGAR), king of the English (944-975), was the
younger son of Edmund the Magnificent and jElfgifu. As early
as 955 he signed a charter of his uncle Eadred, and in 957 the
Mercian nobles, discontented with the rule of his elder brother
Eadwig, made him king of England north of the Thames. On
the death of his brother in October 959 Edgar became king of
a united England. Immediately on his accession to the throne
of Mercia Edgar recalled St Dunstan from exile and bestowed
on him first the bishopric of Worcester, and then that of
London. In 961 Dunstan was translated to Canterbury, and
throughout Edgar's reign he was his chief adviser, and to
him must be attributed much of the peace and prosperity of
this time.
The reign of Edgar was somewhat uneventful, but two things
stand out clearly: his ecclesiastical policy and his imperial
position in Britain. Edgar and Dunstan were alike determined
to reform the great monastic houses, and to secure that they
should be restored once more to their true owners and not remain
in the hands of the secular priests or canonici, whose life and
discipline alike seem to have been extremely lax. In this reform
Edgar was helped not only by St Dunstan but also by Oswald
of Worcester and ^Ethelwold of Winchester. The priests of the
old and new monasteries at Winchester, at Chertsey and at
Milton Abbas were replaced by monks, and in monastic discipline
the old rule of St Benedict was restored in all its strictness.
The coronation of Edgar was, for some unexplained reason,
delayed till the Whitsunday of 973. It took place with much
ceremony at Bath, and was followed shortly after by a general
submission to Edgar at Chester. Six, or (according to later
chroniclers) eight kings, including the kings of Scotland and
Strathclyde, plighted their faith that they would be the king's
fellow-workers on sea and land. The historical truth of this
story has been much questioned; there seems to be little doubt
that it is true in its main outlines, though we need not accept
the details about Edgar's having been rowed on the Dee by
eight kings.
Two isolated and unexplained incidents are also recorded in
the chronicle: first, the ravaging of Westmorland by the
Scandinavian Thored, son of Gunnere, in 967; and second, the
ravaging of Thanet by Edgar's own command in 970.
Edgar's death took place in the year 975, and he was buried at
Glastonbury. By his vigorous rule and his statesmanlike policy
Edgar won the approval of his people, and hi the Saxon chronicle
we have poems commemorating his coronation and death, and
describing his general character. The only fault ascribed to him
is a too great love for foreigners and for foreign customs. Edgar
strengthened the hands of the provincial administration, and to
him has been attributed the reorganization of the English fleet.
The characteristic feature of his rule was his love of peace, and
by efficient administration he secured it.
Edgar formed an irregular union in 961 with Wulfthryth, an
inmate of the convent at Wilton, who bore him a daughter
Eadgyth. He next married ^Ethelflasd, " the white duck,"
daughter of Earl Ordmaer, who bore him a son, afterwards
known as Edward the Martyr. Finally he was united to
JEUthryth, daughter of Earl Ordgar, who became the mother
of the ^Etheling Edmund (d. 971) and of .(Ethelred the
Unready.
AUTHORITIES. Saxon Chronicle (ed. Plummerand Earle, Oxford),
sub. ann. ; Vita Sancti Oswaldi (Historians of the Church of York, ed.
Raine, Rolls Series); William of Malmesbury, Gesta regum (ed.
Stubbs, Rolls Series); Birch, Cartularium Saxonicum, vol. iii. Nos.
1047-1319; F. Liebermann, A.-S. Laws, i. 192-216; " Florence of
Worcester " (Man. Hist. Brit.); E. W. Robertson, Historical Essays,
pp. 189-215. (A. Mw.)
EDGAR, or EADGAR (c. 1050-^. 1130), called the ^Etheling,
was the son of Edward, a son of the English king Edmund
Ironside, by his wife Agatha, a kinswoman of the emperor
Henry II., and was born probably in Hungary some time before
1057, the year of his father's death. After the death of Harold
in 1066, Archbishop Aldred and the citizens of London desired
to make him king, but on the advance of William, Edgar and
tiis supporters made their submission. In 1068, after the failure
of the first rising of the north, Edgar retired to Scotland, when
his sister Margaret married the Scottish king, Malcolm Canmore.
934
EDGECUMBE EDGEWORTH, MARIA
Next year he returned to take part in the second rising, but,
this proving no more successful than the first, he again took
refuge in Scotland. In 1074 he went to Normandy and made
peace with William. In the struggle between Henry I. and
Robert of Normandy, Edgar sided with the latter. He was
taken prisoner at the battle of Tinchebrai in 1106, but was
subsequently released. The date of his death is uncertain, but
he was certainly alive about 1125.
EDGECUMBE, or EDGECOMBE, the name of a celebrated west
of England family, taken from the manor of Edgecumbe in
Cornwall. One of its earlier members was Sir Richard Edgecumbe
(d. 1489), who was descended from a Richard Edgecumbe who
flourished during the reign of Edward I. Richard was a member
of parliament in 1467; afterwards he joined Henry, earl of Rich-
mond, in Brittany, returned with the earl to England, and fought
at Bosworth, where he was knighted. He received rich rewards
from Henry, now King Henry VII., who also sent him on errands
to Scotland, to Ireland and to Brittany, and he died at Morlaix
on the 8th of September 1489. His son and successor, Sir Piers
Edgecumbe, went to France with Henry VIII. in 1513, and when
he died on the i4th of August 1539 he left with other issue a son,
Sir Richard Edgecumbe (1490-1562), a cultured and hospitable
man, who is celebrated through Richard Carew's Friendly
Remembrance of Sir Richard Edgecumbe. Sir Richard's eldest
son, Piers or Peter Edgecumbe (1536-1607), was a member of
parliament under Elizabeth for about thirty years.
Another famous member of this family was Richard, ist baron
Edgecumbe (1680-1758), a son of Sir Richard Edgecumbe.
Educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, he was successively
member of parliament for St Germans, Plympton and Lostwithiel
from 1701 to 1742; on two occasions he served as a lord of the
treasury; and fron 1724 to 1742 he was paymaster-general for
Ireland, becoming chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster in 1743.
Edgecumbe was a faithful follower of Sir Robert Walpole, in
whose interests he managed the elections for the Cornish
boroughs, and his elevation to the peerage, which took place in
1742, was designed to prevent him from giving evidence about
Walpole's expenditure of the secret service money. He died on
the 22nd of November 1758. His son and successor, Richard,
the 2nd baron (1716-1761), was comptroller of the royal house-
hold, a member of parliament, and a major-general in the army.
A wit, a writer of verse, a gambler and an intimate friend of
Horace Walpole, " Dick Edgecumbe " died unmarried on the
loth of May 1761.
Edgecumbe's brother, George, ist earl of Mount Edgecumbe
(1721-1795), was a naval officer who saw a great deal of service
during the Seven Years' War. Succeeding to the barony on the
ist baron's death in 1761 he became an admiral and treasurer
of the royal household; he was created Viscount Mount-Edge-
cumbe in 1781 and earl of Mount-Edgecumbe in 1789. He died
on the 4th of February 1795, his only son being his successor,
Richard, the 2nd earl (1764-1839), the ancestor of the present
earl and the author of Musical Reminiscences of an Old Amateur.
He died on the 26th of September 1839. His son, Ernest
Augustus, the 3rd earl (1797-1861), wrote Extracts from Journals
kept during the Revolutions at Rome and Palermo.
EDGE HILL, an elevated ridge in Warwickshire, England,
near the border of Oxfordshire. The north-western face is an
abrupt escarpment of the lias, and the summit of the ridge is
almost level for nearly 2 m., at a height somewhat exceeding
700 ft. The escarpment overlooks a rich lowland watered by
streams tributary to the Avon; the gentle eastern slope sends
its waters to the Cherwell, and the ridge thus forms part of the
divide between the basins of the Severn and the Thames. Edge
Hill gave name to the first battle of the Great Rebellion (q.v.),
fought on the 23rd of October 1642. Charles I., marching on
London from the north-west, was here met by the parliamentary
forces under Robert Devereux, earl of Essex. The royalists
were posted on the hill while the enemy was in the plain before
Kineton. But the rash advice of Prince Rupert determined the
king to give up the advantage of position; he descended to the
attack, and though Rupert himself was successful against the
opposing cavalry, he was checked by the arrival of a regiment
with artillery under Hampden, and, in the meantime, the
royalist infantry was driven back. The parliamentarians,
however, lost the more heavily, and though both sides claimed
the advantage, the king was able to advance and occupy
Banbury.
EDGEWORTH, MARIA (1767-1849), Irish novelist, second
child and eldest daughter of Richard Lovell Edgeworth (q.v.)
and his first wife, Anna Maria Elers, was born in the house of
her maternal grandparents at Black Bourton, Oxfordshire, on
the ist of January 1767. Her early efforts in fiction were of a
sufficiently melodramatic character; for she recollected one of
her schoolgirl compositions, in which the hero wore a mask made
of the dried skin taken from a dead man's face. Her holidays
were often spent in the house of the eccentric Thomas Day, for
whom she entertained a genuine respect. She had ample
opportunities for society among her father's neighbours in
Ireland, among whom were the second Lord Longford, whose
daughter, " Kitty " Pakenham, became later duchess of
Wellington, Lady Moira at Castle Forbes, and Maria's aunt,
Margaret Ruxton, at Black Castle. She gained a first-hand
experience of the Irish peasantry by acting as her father's
assistant in the management of the estate. The Edgeworths
were in Ireland from 1793 onwards through that dangerous
period, and Maria's letters, always gay and natural, make very
light of their anxieties and their real perils.
Mr Edgeworth encouraged his daughter's literary instincts.
It has been the fashion to regard his influence over Maria's
work as altogether deplorable, but against the disadvantages
arising from his interference must be weighed the stimulus she
undoubtedly derived from his powerful mind. Her first publica-
tion was a plea for female education, Letters to Literary Ladies
(1795), and in 1796 appeared the collection of stories known as
The Parent's Assistant (2nded., 6 vols., 1800), an unpromising
title which was not chosen by the author. The stories had been
submitted as they were written to the juvenile critics of the
Edgeworth nursery. They were therefore children's stories
for children, even though the morals were Mr Edgeworth's.
In 1798 Mr Edgeworth's fourth marriage threatened the family
harmony, but Maria soon became a close friend of her step-
mother. Practical Education (2 vols., 1798) was written in con-
junction with her father, who also collaborated with her in the
Essay on Irish Bulls (1802). Miss Edgeworth's first novel,
Castle Rackrent, an Hibernian Tale taken from Facts, and from
the Manners of the Irish Squires before the year 1782, was written
without her father's supervision, and appeared anonymously
in 1800. It is the story of an Irish estate and its owners, the
Rackrents, as told by Thady, the steward. Its success was
immediate, and a second edition soon appeared with the author's
name. Perhaps because of the absence of Richard Lovell
Edgeworth's co-operation, the book is the most natural and
vigorous of her novels. The course of the story is not altered
to suit any moral, and the personages appear to be drawn
immediately from the natives of Edgeworthstown, though
Miss Edgeworth asserts that only Thady himself was an actual
portrait. In her realistic pictures of Irish peasant life she
opened up a new vein in fiction, and even if the unquestionable
excellences of Castle Rackrent were less, it would still be a note-
worthy book. In the " General Preface " to the 1829 edition of
his novels Sir Walter Scott, writing of the publication of Waverley,
says: " I felt that something might be attempted for my own
country, of the same kind with that which Miss Edgeworth so
fortunately achieved for Ireland," and in the " Postscript,
which should have been a preface," in the original edition of
Waverley, he describes his aim as being " in some distant degree to
emulate the admirable Irish portraits of Miss Edgeworth, so
different from the ' Teagues ' and ' dear joys ' who so long,
with the most perfect family resemblance to each other, occupied
the drama and the novel." Belinda (1801) is a society novel,
and one of her best books. Mr Saintsbury thinks that Miss
Austen's heroines owe something of their naturalness to Belinda,
who was one of the earliest to break with the tradition of fainting
EDGEWORTH, R. L.
935
and blushing. Moral Tales for Young People (5 vols.) and
Early Lessons, which included" Harry and Lucy," "Rosamond"
and " Frank," appeared in 1801.
In 1802 the Edgeworths went abroad, first to Brussels and
then to Paris. They had already connexions in Paris through
their kinsman, the abbe Henri Allen Edgeworth de Firmont,
who was, however, then in exile. They met all the notabilities
in Paris, and Maria refused an offer of marriage from a Swedish
count named Edelcrantz. Although Leonora, not published
until four years later, is said to have been written to meet his
taste, she apparently remained then and always heart-whole; but
her stepmother thought otherwise, and maintained that she
suffered severely for her decision (Memoir, i. 144). Returning
to Edgeworthstown, Miss Edgeworth resumed her writing,
which was always done in the rooms commonly used by the whole
family. Popular Tales was published in 1804, and The Modern
Griselda in the same year; Leonora in 1806; and in 1809 the
first series of Tales of Fashionable Life, three volumes containing
" Ennui," " Madame de Fleury," " Almeria," " The Dun " and
" Manoeuvring " ; the second series (3 vols., 1812) included
" The Absentee," one of her best tales, which was originally
designed as a play, " Vivian " and " Emilie de Coulanges."
In 1813 Maria and her parents spent a considerable time in
London, and her society was much sought after. When Waverley
was published, Miss Edgeworth received a copy from the pub-
lishers, and at once recognized the authorship. She wrote a
long letter of appreciation (23rd of October 1814) to " the author
of Waverley" which she began with the phrase aut Scotus, aut
diabolus, but the letter was merely acknowledged by the pub-
Ushers. Patronage (4 vols., 1814), the longest of her novels,
and Harrington, a tale, and Ormond, a tale (3 vols., 1817) complete
the list of the works which received what her father called his
imprimatur.
After his death in 1817 Miss Edgeworth occupied herself with
completing his Memoirs, which were published in 1820. The
book was the excuse for an attack on Mr Edgeworth's reputation
in the July number of the Quarterly Review, which Miss Edge-
worth had the courage to leave unread. Her life at Edgeworths-
town was varied by visits to London, to Lord Lansdowne at
Bowood, Wiltshire, to the Misses Sneyd in Staffordshire, and to
many other friends. In 1820 she was again in Paris, and in 1823
she spent a happy fortnight with the Scotts at Abbotsford.
In 1825 Scott went to Edgeworthstown, and their relations were
always cordial.
Miss Edgeworth's production was less after her father's
death. Sequels to " Rosamond," " Frank," " Harry and Lucy "
in the Early Lessons were published in 1822-1825. Comic
Dramas appeared in 1817, and Helen in 1834. She worked to
the last, and in 1846 laboured strenuously for the relief of the
famine-stricken Irish peasants. She died on the 22nd of May
1849.
Miss Edgeworth's novels are distinguished by good sense,
humour and an easy flowing style. As the construction of a
plot is not her strong point, she is generally more successful
in tales than in lengthy novels. The vivacity of her dialogues
is extraordinary; and in them her characters reveal themselves
in the most natural way possible. Her books are character-
studies rather than intensely interesting narratives. Sobriety
of judgment is seen throughout; and passion, romance and
poetry rarely, if ever, shed their lustre on her pages. Three
of her aims were to paint national manners, to enforce morality,
and to teach fashionable society by satirizing the lives of the
idle and worldly. She expressly calls some of her stories " Moral
Tales "; but they all fall under this category. In her pages
the heroic virtues give place to prudence, industry, kindness
and sweetness of temper. There are few instances of over-
whelming emotions or tumultuous passions in her works; and
it is remarkable how little the love of nature appears. She never
uses material which does not yield some direct moral lesson.
But the freshness of her stories, her insight into character,
lively dialogues, originality of invention, and delightfully clear
style render it quite possible to read her works in succession
without any sense of weariness. Among the many sweet
memories her unsullied pages have bequeathed to the world,
not the least precious is her own noble character, which ever
responded to all that is best and most enduring in human nature.
See A Memoir of Maria Edgeworth, with a Selection from her Letters
(1867), by her stepmother, F. A. Edgeworth, privately printed. A
selection from this was made by Augustus J. C. Hare, and printed
under the title of The Life and Letters of Maria Edgeworth (2 vols.,
1894). See also Maria Edgeworth (1883), by Helen Zimmern, in the
" Eminent Women " series; Grace A. Oliver, A Study of Maria
Edgeworth . . . (3rd ed., Boston, U.S.A., 1882); and Maria Edge-
worth (1904), by the Hon. Emily Lawless in the " English _ Men of
Letters " series. Among the numerous shorter articles dealing with
Maria Edgeworth and the family circle at Edgeworthstown may be
mentioned a friendly appreciation of Miss Edgeworth's novels by
George Saintsbury in MacmiUan's Magazine (July 1895), and a
charming description of her family circle and surroundings in the
preface supplied by Lady Thackeray Ritchie to Macmillan s edition
of the novels (1895).
EDGEWORTH, RICHARD LOVELL (1744-1817), British
writer, was born at Bath on the 3ist of May 1744. The greater
part of his life, however, was spent at Edgeworthtown, or
Edgeworthstown, in the county of Longford, Ireland, where the
Edgeworth family had been settled for upwards of 150 years.
He was of gentle blood his father being the son of Colonel
Francis Edgeworth, and his mother, Jane Lovell, being the
daughter of Samuel Lovell, a Welsh judge. Richard's mother
taught him to read at a very early age; and from childhood he
had a strong love for mechanical science. The Rev. Patrick
Hughes initiated him in Lilye's Latin Grammar an office he
also performed for Goldsmith, who was born on the property
of the Edgeworths and his public education began, in August
1752, in a school at Warwick. He subsequently attended
Drogheda school, then reputed the best in Ireland; and, after
spending two years at a school in Longford, entered Trinity
College, Dublin, in* 'April 1761, but was transferred to Corpus
Christi College, Oxford, in October of the same year. While
still at college, he made a runaway match, marrying at Gretna
Green, Anna Maria, one of the daughters of Paul Elers of Black
Bourton, Oxfordshire, an old friend of his father. His eldest
son was born before Edgeworth reached his twentieth birthday,
and his daughter Maria in 1767.
Shortly after the birth of his son, he and his wife went to
Edgeworthstown, but in 1765 they took a house at Hare Hatch,
near Maidenhead. Edgeworth devoted much time to scientific
reading and experiments; and he made an attempt to establish
telegraphic communication (Memoirs, 2nd edition, i. 144). He
also invented a turnip-cutter, a one-wheeled chaise and other
contrivances. In the pursuit of his mechanical inventions he
visited Erasmus Darwin at Lichfield, where he met Anna Seward,
and her cousin, Honora Sneyd. His home was now at Hare
Hatch, in Berkshire, where he endeavoured to educate his son
according to the method explained in Rousseau's mile. In
later life, however, the ill-success of this experiment led him to
doubt many of Rousseau's views (Memoirs, ii. 374). At the
same time he kept terms at the Temple, and formed the greatest
friendship of his life with Thomas Day, the author of Sandford
and Merton, which was written at Edgeworth's suggestion. In
1 769, on the death of his father, he gave up the idea of being a
barrister; but, instead of immediately settling on his Irish
estate, he spent a considerable time in England and France,
mainly in Day's company. In Lyons, where he resided for about
two years, he took an active part in the management of public
works intended to turn the course of the Rhone. He was
summoned to England by the death of his wife (March 1773),
with whom he was far from happy. Edgeworth hurried to
Lichfield, to Dr Erasmus Darwin's, and at once declared his
passion for Honora Sneyd, which had been the'cause of his flight
to France two years before. Miss Sneyd had been the object
of attention from Thomas Day, but her views on marriage were
not submissive enough to please him. She had other suitors,
among them the unfortunate Major Andre. She married
Edgeworth (July 1773), and after residing at Edgeworthstown
for three years, they settled at Northchurch, in Hertfordshire.
After six years of domestic happiness, Honora Edgeworth died
93 6 EDGE WORTH DE FIRMONT EDGREN-LEFFLER
CApril 1780), recommending her husband to marry her sister
Elizabeth; and they were actually married on Christmas Day,
1780.
In 1782 Edgeworth returned to Ireland, determined to improve
his estate, educate his seven children, and ameliorate the
condition of the tenants. Up to this point Edgeworth has told
his own story in his Memoirs. The rest of his life is written by
his daughter, who opens with a lengthy panegyric on her father
as a model landlord (Memoirs, ii. 12-36). In 1785 he was
associated with others in founding the Royal Irish Academy;
and, during the two succeeding years, mechanics and agriculture
occupied most of his time. In October 1789 his friend Day was
killed by a fall from his horse, and this trial was soon followed
by the loss of his daughter Honora, who had just reached her
fifteenth year. In 1792 the health of one of Edgeworth's sons
took him to Clifton, where he remained with his family for about
two years, returning in 1704 to Edgeworthstown. Ireland was,
at that time, harassed by internal disturbances, and threats of a
French invasion, and Edgeworth offered to establish telegraphic
communication of his own invention throughout the country.
This offer was declined. A full account of the matter is given in
Edgeworth's Letter to Lord Ckarlemont on the Telegraph; and his
apparatus is explained in an " Essay on the art of Conveying
Swift and Secret Intelligence," published in the sixth volume
of the Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy. In the autumn
of 1797 the third Mrs Edgeworth died.
Practical Education (1798) was written in collaboration with
his daughter Maria, and embodied the experience of the authors
in dealing with children. " So commenced," says Miss Edge-
worth, " that literary partnership which, for so many years, was
the pride and joy of my life " (Memoirs, ii. 170). This book,
generally regarded as old-fashioned, has a real value in the history
of education. Mr Edgeworth's interest in the subject had been
inspired by the study of Rousseau and by his friendship with
Thomas Day. But he went beyond Rousseau, who developed
his theories from his own ingenious mind and related an imaginary
process. The Edgeworths brought a scientific method to their
work. The second Mrs Edgeworth (Honora Sneyd) began the
collection of actual examples of conversations between the
children and their elders. This was continued patiently by the
writers of the book; and their reasonings were thus founded
on an accurate record of childish methods of thought. They
deprecated especially any measures that interrupted the child's
own chain of reasoning. The chapters on special subjects of
study, chronology, geometry, &c., were written by Richard
Lovell Edgeworth; those on toys, on rewards and punishments,
on temper, &c., by his daughter. 1
In 1798 Edgeworth married Miss Beaufort, and was elected
M.P. for the borough of St John's Town, Longford. The same
year, too, saw a hostile landing of the French and a formidable
rebellion; and for a short time the Edgeworths took refuge in
Longford. The winter of 1802 they spent in Paris. In 1804
the government accepted his telegraphic apparatus, but the
installation was left incomplete when the fear of invasion was
past. In 1 802 appeared the Essay on Irish Bulls by Mr and Miss
Edgeworth; and in 1806 Edgeworth was elected a member of
the board of commissioners to inquire into Irish education. From
1807 till 1809 much of his time was spent on mechanical experi
ments and in writing the story of his life. In 1808 appeared
Professional Education, and in 1813 his Essay on the Construction
of Roads and Carnages. He died on the I3th of June 1817
and was buried in the family vault in Edgeworthstown church
yard.
Many of Edgeworth's works were suggested by his zeal for th<
education of his own children. Such were Poetry Explained for
Young People (1802), Readings in Poetry (1816), A Rationa
Primer (unpublished), and the parts of Early Lessons contributed
by him. His speeches in the Irish parliament have also been
published; and numerous essays, mostly on scientific subjects
1 For an appreciation of the two Edgeworths from the teacher's
point of view, see Prof. L. C. Miall in the Journal of Education
(August i, 1894).
lave appeared in the Philosophical Transactions, the Transactions
?/ the Royal Irish Academy, the Monthly Magazine and Nicholson's
Journal. The story of his early life, told by himself, is fully as
intertaining as the continuation by Maria, as it contains less
dissertation and more incident. One of his daughters by his
irst marriage, Anna Maria, married Dr Beddoes and became
,he mother of T. L. Beddoes, the poet.
See Memoirs of Richard Lovell Edgeworth, Esq., begun by himself
and concluded by his daughter, Maria Edgeworth (2 vols., 1820.
3rd and revised ed. 1844). A selection from this, giving an opti-
mistic view of him, Richard Lovell Edgeworth (1896), was edited bv
Mrs Lionel Tollemache.
EDGEWORTH DE FIRMONT, HENRY ESSEX (1745-1807),
ast confessor to Louis XVI., was the son of Robert Edgeworth,
rector of Edgeworthstown in Ireland, his mother being a grand-
daughter of Archbishop Ussher. When he was three years old
iis father became a Roman Catholic, resigned his living and
emigrated to Toulouse, where the boy was brought up by the
Jesuits. In 1769, after his father's death, he went to Paris to be
trained for the priesthood. On taking orders he assumed the
additional surname of de Firmont, from the family estate of
Firmount near Edgeworthstown. Though originally studying
with a view to becoming a missionary, he decided to remain
in Paris, devoting himself especially to the Irish and English
Roman Catholics. In 1791 he became confessor to the princess
Elizabeth, sister of Louis XVI., and earned the respect even of the
sans-culottes by his courage and devotion. By Madame Elizabeth
he was recommended to the king when his trial was impending;
and after Louis' condemnation to death he was able to obtain
permission to celebrate mass for him and attend him on the
scaffold, where he recommended the king to allow his hands
to be tied, with the words: " Sire, in this new outrage I see only
the last trait of resemblance between your Majesty and the God
who will be your reward." It is said that at the moment of the
execution, the confessor uttered the celebrated words: " Son
of St Louis, ascend to heaven." But it is certain that the
phrase was never spoken. The abbe himself does not quote it,
either in his memoirs or in a letter written in 1796 to his brother,
in which he describes the death of the king. Moreover,
Edgeworth declared to several persons who asked him about
it, that the words were not his. In spite of the danger
he now ran, Edgeworth refused to leave France so long as he
could be of any service to Madame Elizabeth, with whom he
still managed to correspond. At length, in 1795, his mother
having meanwhile died in prison, where his sister was also
confined, he succeeded in escaping to England, carrying with him
Elizabeth's last message to her brother, the future King Charles X.
whom he found in Edinburgh. He afterwards went with some
papers to Monsieur (Louis X VIII.) at Blankenburg in Brunswick,
by whom he was induced to accompany him to Mittau, where,
on the 22nd of May 1807, he died of a fever contracted while
attending some French prisoners.
Edgeworth's Memories, edited by C. S. Edgeworth, were first
published in English (London, 1815), and a French translation (really
the letters and some miscellaneous notes, &c.) was published in
Parisin 1816. A translation of the Lettres del' abbe Edgeworth avecdes
mtmoires sur sa vie was published by Madame Elizabeth de Bow in
Paris in 1818, and Letters from the Abbe Edgeworth to his Friends, with
Memoirs of his Life, edited by T. B. England, in London in 1818.
See T. B. A. Hanet-Clery, Journal de ce qui s'est pass&, &c. (Paris,
1825); A. H. du D. de Beauchesne, Vie de Madame Elisabeth (Paris,
1869); J. C. D. de Lacretelle, Precis historigue de la Revolution
frangaise (Paris, 1801-1806).
EDGREN-LEFFLER, ANNE CHARLOTTE, duchess of
Cajanello (1849-1892), Swedish author, daughter of the mathe-
matician Prof. C. O. Leffler, was born on the ist of October 1849.
Her first volume of stories appeared in 1869, but the first to which
she attached her name was Ur Lifvet (" From Life," 1882), a
series of realistic sketches of the upper circles of Swedish society,
followed by three other collections with the same title. Her
earliest plays, SMdespderskan (" The Actress," 1873), and its
successors, were produced anonymously in Stockholm, but i
1883 her reputation was established by the success of Sanna
Kvinnor (" True Women "), and En Raddande engel (" An Angel
EDHEM PASHA EDINBURGH
937
of Deliverance ") Sanna Kvinnor is directed against false
femininity, and was well received in Germany as well as in
Sweden. Anne Leffler had married in 1872 G. Edgren, but about
1884 she was separated from her husband, who did not share her
advanced views. She spent some time in England, and in 1885
produced her Hur man gor godt (" How men do good "), followed
in 1888 by Kampenfor lyckan (" The Struggle for Happiness "),
in which she had the help of Sophie Kovalevsky. Another
volume of the Ur Li/vet series appeared in 1889; and Famil-
jelycka (" Domestic Happiness," 1891) was produced in the year
after her second marriage, with the Italian mathematician,
Pasquale del Pezzo, duca di Cajanello. She died at Naples on
the 2ist of October 1892. Her dramatic method forms a con-
necting link between Ibsen and Strindberg, and its masculine
directness, freedom from prejudice, and frankness gave her work
a high estimation in Sweden. Her last book was a biography
(1892) of her friend Sophie (Sonya) Kovalevsky, by way of
introduction to Sonya's autobiography. An English translation
(1895) by A. de Furnhjelm and A. M. Clive Bayley contains a
biographical note on Fru Edgren-Leffler by Lily Wolffsohn,
based on private sources.
See also Ellen Key, Anne Charlotte Leffler (Stockholm, 1893).
EDHEM PASHA (c. 1815-1890), Turkish statesman, was of
Greek origin, and is said to have been taken into a Turkish
household at the time of the Chio massacre in 1822, and to have
been brought up as a Mussulman. He entered the Turkish
government service and rose to high office, being successively
minister of public works, grand vizier for eleven months (1878),
ambassador at Vienna (1879) and minister of the interior. He
was quick-tempered, but of kindly disposition, intelligent and
patriotic, and he left a reputation of unblemished honesty and
uprightness.
EDICT (Lat. edictum, from e, out, and dicere, to say, speak),
an order or proclamation issued under authority and having the
force of law. The word is especially used of the promulgations
of the Roman praetor (q.v.), of the Roman emperors, and also
of the kings of France (see also ROMAN LAW).
EDINBURGH, a city and royal burgh, and county of itself,
the capital of Scotland, and county town of Edinburghshire or
Midlothian, situated to the south of the Firth of Forth, 396 m.
by rail N. of London. The old Royal Observatory on Gallon
Hill stands in 55 57' 23" N. and 12 43' 05* W. Edinburgh
occupies a group of hills of moderate height and the valleys
between. In the centre is a bold rock, crowned by the castle,
between which and the new town lies a ravine that once contained
the Nor' Loch, but is now covered with the gardens of Princes
Street. To the east rises Calton Hill (355 ft.) with several con-
spicuous monuments, the city prison and the Calton cemetery.
On the south-east, beyond the Canongate limits, stands the hill
of Arthur's Seat (822 ft.). Towards the north the site of the
city slopes gently to the Firth of Forth and the port of Leith;
while to the south, Liberton Hill, Blackford Hill, Braid Hills
and Craiglockhart Hills roughly mark the city bounds, as
Corstorphine Hill and the Water of Leith do the western limits.
The views of the city and environs from the castle or any of
the hills are very beautiful, and it is undoubtedly one of the most
picturesque capitals in the world. Its situation, general plan
and literary associations suggested a comparison that gave
Edinburgh the name of " the modern Athens "; but it has a
homelier nickname of " Auld Reekie," from the cloud of smoke
(reek) which often hangs over the low-lying quarters.
Chief Buildings. Of the castle, the oldest building is. St
Margaret's chapel, believed to be the chapel where Queen
Margaret, wife of Malcolm Canmore, worshipped, and belonging
at latest to the reign of her youngest son, David I. (1124-1153).
Near it is the parliament and banqueting hall, restored (1889-
1892) by the generosity of William Nelson (1817-1887) the
publisher, which contains a fine collection of Scottish armour,
weapons and regimental colours, while, emblazoned on the
windows, are the heraldic bearings of royal and other figures
distinguished in national history. Other buildings in the
Palace Yard include the apartments occupied by the regent,
Mary of Guise, and her daughter Mary, queen of Scots, and the
room in which James VI. was born. Here also are deposited
the Scottish regalia (" The Honours of Scotland "), with the
sword of state presented to James IV. by Pope Julius II., and
the jewels restored to Scotland on the death (1807) of Cardinal
York, the last of the Stuarts. The arsenal, a modern building
on the west side of the rock, is capable of storing 30,000 stand
of arms. In the armoury is a collection of arms of various dates;
and on the Argyll battery stands a huge piece of ancient artillery,
called Mons Meg, of which repeated mention is made in Scottish
history. Argyll Tower, in which Archibald, 9th earl of Argyll,
spent his last days (1685), was also restored in 1892 by Mr
William Nelson.
Holyrood Palace was originally an abbey of canons regular
of the rule of St Augustine, founded by David I. in 1128, and
the ruined nave of the abbey church still shows parts of the
original structure. Connected with this is a part of the royal
palace erected by James IV. and James V., including the apart-
ments occupied by Queen Mary, the scene of the murder of
Rizzio in 1566. The abbey suffered repeatedly in invasions.
It was sacked and burnt by the English under the earl of Hertford
in 1544, and again in 1547. In a map of 1544, preserved among
the Cotton MSS. in the British Museum, the present north-west
tower of the palace is shown standing apart, and only joined
to the abbey by a low cloister. Beyond this is an irregular group
of buildings, which were replaced at a later date by additions
more in accordance with a royal residence. But the whole of this
latter structure was destroyed by fire in 1650 while in occupation
by the soldiers of Cromwell; and the more modern parts were
begun during the Protectorate, and completed in the reign of
Charles II. by Robert Milne, after the designs of Sir William
Bruce of Kinross. They include the picture gallery, 150 ft. in
length, with 106 mythical portraits of Scottish kings, and a
triptych (c. 1484) containing portraits of James III. and his
queen, which is believed to have formed the altar-piece of the
collegiate church of the Holy Trinity, founded by the widowed
queen of James II. in 1462, demolished in 1848, and afterwards
rebuilt, stone for stone, in Jeffrey Street. The picture gallery is
associated with the festive scenes that occurred during the
short residence of Prince Charles in 1745; and in it the election
of representative peers for Scotland takes place. Escaping
from France at the revolution of 1789, the comte d'Artois,
afterwards Charles X. of France, had apartments granted for
the use of himself and the emigrant nobles of his suite, who
continued to reside in the palace till August 1799. When driven
from the French throne by the revolution of 1830, Charles once
more found a home in the ancient palace of the Stuarts. George
IV. was received there in 1822, and Queen Victoria and the prince
consort occupied the palace for brief periods on several occasions,
and in 1903 Edward VII., during residence at Dalkeith Palace,
held his court within its walls. A fountain, after the original
design of that in the quadrangle of Linlithgow Palace, was
erected in front of the entrance by the prince consort. The royal
vault in the Chapel Royal, which had fallen into a dilapidated
condition, has been put in order; Clockmill House and grounds
have been added to the area of the parade ground, and the
abbey precincts generally and the approaches to the King's
Park have been improved. With the abolition of imprison-
ment for debt in 1881 the privileges of sanctuary came to
an end.
Parliament House, begun in 1632 and completed in 1640,
in which the later assemblies of the Scottish estates took place
until the dissolution of the parliament by the Act of Union of
1707, has since been set apart as the meeting-place of the supreme
courts of law. The great hall, with its fine open-timbered oak
roof, is adorned with a splendid stained-glass window and several
statues of notable men, including one (by Louis Francois Rou-
biliac) of Duncan Forbes of Culloden, lord president of the court
of session (1685-1747), and now forms the ante-room for lawyers
and their clients. The surrounding buildings, including the court-
rooms, the Advocates' and the Signet libraries, are all modern
additions. The Advocates' library is the finest in Scotland.
93
EDINBURGH
Founded in 1682, at the instance of Sir George Mackenzie, king's
advocate under Charles II., and then dean of the faculty, it is
regarded as the national library, and is one of the five entitled
by the Copyright Act to receive a copy of every work published
in Great Britain.
The General Register House for Scotland, begun in 1774 from
EDINBURGH
and Environs.
; Scale. 1:87.000
t. Castle
*. Holt/rood Palace
3. St. Giles' Cathedral
4. St. Mary's Cathedral
5. Catholic Apostolic Church
0. Parliament House.
7. University A Museum
8. National Portrait Galleiy
Q. Mationai Gallery
10 University Medical College
it. Donaldson'* Hospital
la. Heriot'f Hospital
ij. Oillespie School
14. George Watson's College
15- Royal Inf.rmary /
16. Post Office <
17. St. Bernard's Welt
S& Waverlev Station \.
19. Caledonian Station >
o. Register Office
designs by Robert Adam, stands at the east end of Princes
Street. It contains, in addition to the ancient national records,
adequate accommodation, in fireproof chambers, for all Scottish
title-deeds, entails, contracts and mortgages, and for general
statistics, including those of births, deaths and marriages.
The Royal institution, in the Doric style, surmounted by a
colossal stone statue of Queen Victoria by Sir John Steell,
formerly furnished official accommodation for the Board of
Trustees for Manufactures and the Board of Fishery, and also
for the school of art, and the libraries and public meetings of
the Royal Society (founded in 1783), and the Society of Anti-
quaries of Scotland(founded in 1780). In 1910 it was renamed and
appropriated to the uses of the Royal Scottish Academy of Paint-
ing, Sculpture and Architecture, which was instituted in 1826,
and incorporated by royal charter in 1838, on the model of the
Royal Academy in London. It is situated on the Mound close
to the National Gallery, of which the prince consort laid the
foundation stone in 1850. These collections, especially rich in
Raeburn's works, include also Alexander Nasmyth's portrait of
Robert Burns, Gainsborough's ",The Hon. Mrs. Graham " (see
PAINTING, Plate VI. fig. 20), Sir Noel Paton's " Quarrel "
and " Reconciliation of Oberon and Titania," several works by
William Etty, Robert Scott Lauder and Sam Bough, Sir Edwin
Landseer's " Rent Day in the Wilderness," and the diploma
pictures of the academicians, besides many specimens of the
modern Scottish school. The National Portrait Gallery and
Antiquarian Museum are housed in Queen Street, in a building
designed by Sir Rowand Anderson and constructed at the ex-
pense of J. R. Findlay of Aberlour (1824-1898), the government
providing the site.
Churches. In conformity with the motto of the city, Nisi
Dominus frustra, there are numerous handsome places of public
worship. St Giles's church, which was effectively restored
(1879-1883) by the liberality of Dr William Chambers the
publisher, has interesting historical and literary associations.
The regent Moray, the marquess of Montrose, and Napier of
Merchiston were buried within its walls and are commemorated
by monuments, and among the memorial tablets is one to R. L.
Stevenson by Augustus St Gaudens. The choir (restored in
1873 by public subscription) is a fine example of isth-century
architecture, and the Gothic crown surmounting
the central tower forms one of the most charac-
teristic features in every view of the city. Just
outside the church in Parliament Square, the
supposed grave of John Knox is indicated by a
stone set in the pavement bearing his initials, and
in the pavement to the west a heart indicates the
site of the old Tolbooth, 1 which figures promi-
nently in Scott's Heart of Midlothian. Other
churches having historical associations are the
two Greyfriars churches, which occupy the two
halves of one building; Tron church, the scene
of midnight hilarity at the new year; St Cuthbert's
church; St Andrew's church in George Street,
whence set out, on a memorable day in 1843,
that long procession of ministers and elders to
Tanfield Hall which ended in the founding of the
Free Church; St George's church in Charlotte
Square, a good example of the work of Robert
Adam. The United Free Church claims no build-
ings of much historic interest, but St George's Free
was the scene of the ministrations of Dr Robert S.
Candlish (1806-1873), Dr Oswald Dykes (b. 1835),
Dr Alexander Whyte (b. 1837), a man of great
mark and influence in the city, and his successor
Hugh Black (b. 1868). Preachers like Robert
Candlish, Thomas Guthrie (1803-1873), Marcus
Dods (b. 1834), occupied many pulpits, besides
those of the particular congregations whom each
served. The most imposing structure belonging
to the Scottish Episcopal Church is St Mary's
cathedral, built on ground and chiefly from funds
left by the Misses Walker of Coates, and opened for wor-
ship in 1879. It is in the Early Pointed style, by Sir
Gilbert Scott, is 278 ft. long, and is surmounted by a
spire 275 ft. high. The old-fashioned mansion of East Coates,
dating from the I7th century, still stands in the close, and is
occupied by functionaries of the cathedral. St John's Episcopal
church at the west end of Princes Street was the scene of the
ministrations of Dean Ramsay, and St Paul's Episcopal church
of the Rev. Archibald Alison, father of the historian. The
Catholic Apostolic church at the foot of B rough ton Street is
architecturally noticeable, and one of its features is a set of mural
paintingsexecutedbyMrsTraquair. TheCentralHallatTollcross
testifies to Methodist energy. John Knox's house at the east
end of High Street is kept in excellent repair, and contains several
articles of furniture that belonged to the reformer. The Canon-
gate Tolbooth adjoins the parish church, in the burial-ground of
which is the tombstone raised by Burns to the memory of Robert
Fergusson, and where Dugald Stewart, Adam Smith and other
men of note were buried. Almost opposite to it stands Moray
House, from the balcony of which the 8th earl of Argyll watched
Montrose led to execution (1650). The city gaol, a castellated
structure on the black rock of Calton Hill, forms one of the
most striking groups of buildings in the town. In the Music Hall
in George Street, Carlyle, as lord rector of the university,
delivered his stimulating address on books to the students, and
Gladstone addressed the electors in his Midlothian campaigns.
St Bernard's Well, on the Water of Leith, was embellished
and restored (1888) at the cost of Mr William Nelson. A
sum of 100,000 was bequeathed by Mr Andrew Usher (1826-
1898) for a hall to be called the Usher Hall and to supplement
1 The original Tolbooth was completed in 1501, but a new one
took its place in 1563-1564, and was subsequently altered. At first
occupied by the parliament and courts of justice, it served later as a
prison, and was removed in 1817.
EDINBURGH
939
the municipal buildings. The library of the solicitors to the
supreme courts presents to the Cowgate a lofty elevation in red
sandstone. The Sheriff Court Buildings stand on George IV.
Bridge, and facing them is Mr Andrew Carnegie's free library
(1887-1889). At the corner of High Street and George IV. Bridge
stand the County buildings. The Scotsman newspaper is housed
in an ornate structure in North Bridge Street, the building of
which necessitated the demolition of many old alleys and wynds,
such as Fleshmarket Close and Milne Square. Ramsay Gardens,
a students' quarter fostered by Prof. Patrick Geddes (b. 1854),
grew out of the " goose-pie " house where Allan Ramsay lived,
and with its red-tiled roof and effective lines adds warmth to the
view of the Old Town from Princes Street. Not the least interest-
ing structure is the old City Cross (restored at the cost of W. E.
Gladstone), which stands in High Street, adjoining St Giles's.
Several of the quaint groups of buildings of Auld Reekie have
been carefully restored, such as the White Horse Close in the
Canongate; the mass of alleys on the north side of the Lawn-
market, from Paterson's Close to James's Court have been
connected, and here Lord Rosebery acquired and restored the
17th-century dwelling which figures in the legend of My Aunt
Margaret's Mirror. Another model restoration of a historic
close is found in Riddle's Close, which contains a students'
settlement. If these and other improvements have led to the
disappearance of such old-world picturesque buildings as Allan
Ramsay's shop " at the sign of the Mercury, opposite Niddry
Wynd," Cardinal Beaton's palace, the old Cunzie House, or mint,
the beautiful timber-fronted " land " that stood at the head of
the West Bow, and even such " howffs " as Clerihugh's tavern,
where Mr Counsellor Pleydell and the rest played the " high
jinks " described in Guy Mannering, it must be conceded that
the changes in the Old Town (many of a drastic nature) have
been carried out with due regard to the character of their
environment.
Monuments. Edinburgh is particularly rich in monuments
of every description and quality. Of these by far the most
remarkable is the Scott monument in East Princes Street
Gardens, designed by George Meikle Kemp (1795-1844); it is
in the form of a spiral Gothic cross with a central canopy beneath
which is a seated statue of Scott with his dog " Maida " at his
side, by Sir John Steell, the niches being occupied by characters
in Sir Walter's writings. A column, 136 ft. high, surmounted
by a colossal figure of Viscount Melville, Pitt's first lord of the
Admiralty, rises from the centre of St Andrew Square. At the
west end of George Street, in the centre of Charlotte Square,
stands the Albert Memorial, an equestrian statue of the prince
consort, with groups at each of the four angles of the base.
Burns's monument, in the style of a Greek temple, occupies a
prominent position on the Regent Road, on the southern brow
of the lower terrace of Calton Hill. It was originally intended to
form a shrine for Flaxman's marble statue of the poet (now in the
National Portrait Gallery), but it proved to be too confined
to afford a satisfactory view of the sculptor's work and was at
length converted into a museum of Burnsiana (afterwards re-
moved to the municipal buildings) . On Calton Hill are a number
of finely placed monuments. The stateliest is the national
monument to commemorate the victory of Waterloo, originally
intended to be a reproduction of the Parthenon. The plan was
abandoned for lack of funds, after twelve out of the twenty-four
Greek pillars had been erected, but it is perhaps more effective
in its unfinished state than if it had been completed. The
Nelson monument, an elongated turreted structure, stands
on the highest cliff of the hill. Close by is the monument to
Dugald Stewart, a copy of the choragic monument of Lysicrates.
Sir John Steell's equestrian statue of the duke of Wellington
stands in front of the Register House, and in Princes Street
Gardens are statues of Livingstone, Christopher North, Allan
Ramsay, Adam Black and Sir J. Y. Simpson. In George Street
are Chan trey's figures of Pitt and George IV., and a statue of
Dr Chalmers; the sth duke of Buccleuch stands beside. St
Giles's. Charles II. surveys the spot where Knox was buried;
the reformer himself is in the quadrangle of New College: Sir
David Brewster adorns the quadrangle of the university; Dr
William Chambers is in Chambers Street, and Frederick, duke
of York (1763-1827), and the 4th earl of Hopetoun are also
commemorated.
Cemeteries. Obviously the churchyards surrounding the
older and more important parish churches such as Greyfriars',
St Cuthbert's and the Canongate, contain the greatest number
of memorials of the illustrious dead. In Greyfriars' churchyard
the Solemn League and Covenant was signed, and among its
many monuments are the Martyrs' monument, recording the
merits of the murdered covenanters, and the tomb of " Bluidy "
Mackenzie. To the three named should be added the Calton
burying-ground, with its Roman tomb of David Hume, and the
obelisk raised in 1844 to the memory of Maurice Margarot,
Thomas Muir (1765-1798), Thomas Fyshe Palmer (1747-1802),
William Skirving and Joseph Gerrald (1765-1796), the political
martyrs transported towards the end of the i8th century for
advocating parliamentary reform. The Scottish dead in the
American Civil War are commemorated in a monument bearing
a life-sized figure of Abraham Lincoln and a freed skve. The
cemeteries are all modern. In Warriston cemetery (opened in
1843) in the New Town, were buried Sir James Young Simpson,
Alexander Smith the poet, Horatio McCulloch, R.S.A., the
landscape painter, the Rev. James Millar, the last Presbyterian
chaplain of the castle, and the Rev. James Peddie, the pastor
of Bristo Street church. In Dean cemetery, partly laid out on
the banks of the Water of Leith, and considered the most beauti-
ful in the city (opened 1845), were interred Lords Cockburn,
Jeffrey and Rutherford; " Christopher North," Professor
Aytoun, Edward Forbes the naturalist, John Goodsir the
anatomist; Sir William Allan, Sam Bough, George Paul
Chalmers, the painters; George Combe, the phrenologist;
Playfair, the architect; Alexander Russel, editor of the Scots-
man; Sir Archibald Alison, the historian; Captain John Grant,
the last survivor of the old Peninsular Gordon Highlanders;
Captain Charles Gray, of the Royal Marines, writer of Scottish
songs; Lieutenant John Irving, of the Franklin expedition,
whose remains were sent home many years after his death by
Lieut. Frederick Schwatka, U.S. navy; and Sir Hector Mac-
donald, " Fighting Mac " of Omdurman. In the south side are
theGrange,NewingtonorEchobank,andMorningsidecemeteries.
In the Grange repose the ashes of Chalmers, Guthrie and Lee,
Sir Thomas Dick Lauder, Sir Hope Grant, Hugh Miller and the
2nd Lord Dunfermline.
Parks and Open Spaces. Edinburgh is exceptionally well
provided with parks and open spaces. The older are Princes
Street Gardens, covering the old Nor' Loch, Calton Hill, the
Meadows and the Bruntsfield Links. The municipal golf links
are on the Braid Hills. On the southern side Blackford Hill
has been set apart for public use. Here stands the Royal
Observatory, hi which the great Dunecht telescope was erected
in 1896. Harrison Park is a breathing spot for the congested
district of Fountainbridge, and the park at Saughton Hall,
opened in 1905, for the western district of the city. To the north
of the Water of Leith lie Inverleith Park, the Arboretum and
the Royal Botanical Garden. This institution has undergone
four changes of site since its foundation hi 1670 by Sir Andrew
Balfour and Sir Robert Sibbald, and now occupies an area of
34 acres hi Inverleith Row. It includes a herbarium and palm
house, with an extensive range of hot-houses, a museum of
economic botany, a lecture-room and other requisites for the
study of botany. The most important open spaces, however,
surround Arthur's Seat (822 ft.). This basaltic hill, the name
of which is believed to commemorat" the British king Arthur,
who from its height is said to have watched the defeat of the
Picts by his followers, is shaped like a lion couchant, with head
towards the north. It is separated from the narrow valley, in
which lie the Canongate and Holyrood Palace, by Salisbury
Crags, named after Edward III.'s general William Montacute,
ist earl of Salisbury (1301-1344). At their base is the Queen's
Drive (3$ m. long), named by Queen Victoria. Adjoining
Holyrood Palace is the King's Park, used as a parade ground.
940
EDINBURGH
Facing the crags on the south-west are the spots familiar to
readers of The Heart of Midlothian, where stood Jeanie Deans's
cottage, and between the crags and Arthur's Seat lies Hunter's
Bog, used as a shooting range. Near here too are three small
lakes, Duddingston, Dunsappie and St Margaret's, the last
overlooked by the ruins of St Anthony's chapel.
Environs. In several directions many places once to be
described among the environs have practically become suburbs
of Edinburgh. Newhaven (population of parish, 7636) , so called
from the harbour constructed in the reign of James IV., had a
shipbuilding yard of some repute in former times. The village
has always been a fishing-place of importance, the " fishwives "
in their picturesque garb being, till recently, conspicuous figures
in the streets of the capital. It used to be a popular resort for
fish dinners, and it plays a prominent part in Charles Reade's
novel of Christie Johnstone. To the west lies Granton (pop. 1728),
where the $th duke of Buccleuch constructed a magnificent
harbour. Before the building of the Forth Bridge the customary
approach to Fifeshire and the north-east of Scotland was by
means of a steam ferry from Granton to Burntisland, which is
still used to some extent. There is regular communication with
Iceland, the continental ports and London. A marine station
here was established by Sir John Murray, but has been dis-
continued. Still farther west lies the village of Cramond (pop.
of parish, 3815), at the mouth of the river Almond, where Roman
remains have often been found. It was the birthplace of several
well-known persons, among others of John Law (1671-1729),
originator of the Mississippi scheme, Lauriston Castle being
situated in the parish. Cramond Brig was the scene of one of the
" roving " adventures of James V., when the life of the " Gude-
man of Ballengeich " was saved by Jock Howieson of the
Braehead. Corstorphine (pop. 2725), once noted for its cream
and also as a spa, is now to all intents and purposes a western
suburb of the capital. The parish church contains the tombs
of the Forresters, of old the leading family of the district, with
full-length sculptured figures, and at the base of Corstorphine
Hill from one point of which (" Rest and be Thankful ")
is to be had one of the best views of Edinburgh are the seats of
several well-known families. Among these are Craigcrook Castle
(where Lord Jeffrey spent many happy years, and the gardens
of which are said to have given Scott a hint for Tullyveolan in
Waverley), and Ravelston House, the home of the Keiths. To
the south of the metropolis are Colinton (pop. 5499), on the Water
of Leith, with several mansions that once belonged to famous
men, such as Dreghorn Castle and Bonally Tower; and Currie
(pop. 2513), which was a Roman station and near which are
Curriehill Castle (held by the rebels against Queen Mary), the
ruins of Lennox Tower, and Riccarton, the seat of the Gibson-
Craigs, one of the best-known Midlothian families. At Dal-
mahoy Castle, near Ratho (pop. 1946), the seat of the earl of
Morton, are preserved the only extant copy of the bible of the
Scottish parliament and the original warrant for committing
Queen Mary to Lochleven Castle in Kinross-shire. Craigmillar,
though situated in the parish of Liberton, is really a part of
Edinburgh. Its picturesque castle, at least the oldest portion
of it, probably dates from the I2th century. Its principal
owners were first the Prestons and latterly the Gilmours. After
playing a varied r61e in local and national story, now as banquet-
ing-house and now as prison, it fell gradually into disrepair.
It was advertised as to let in 1761, and early in the I9th
century, along with the chapel adjoining, was in ruins, but has
been restored by Colonel Gordon-Gilmour. It was a favourite
residence of Mary Stuart, and its associations with the hapless
queen give it a romantic interest. Duddingston (pop. 2023),
once a quiet village, has become a centre of the distilling and
brewing industries. The parish church, effectively situated on
an eminence by the side of the lake, was the scene of the ministra-
tionof the Rev. John Thomson (1778-1 840) , the landscape painter,
who numbered Sir Walter Scott among his elders. Duddingston
House is a seat of the duke of Abercorn. Liberton (pop. of parish,
7233), a name that recalls the previous existence of a leper's
hospital, is prominently situated on the rising ground to the south
of Edinburgh, the parish church being a conspicuous landmark.
Adjoining is the village of Gilmerton (pop. 1482), which used
to supply Edinburgh with yellow sand, when sanded floors were
a feature in the humbler class of houses. Portobello (pop. 9180),
being within 3 m. of the capital, must always enjoy a large share
of public patronage, though it is not in such favour as a watering-
place as it once was. Its beautiful stretch of sands is flanked
by a promenade extending all the way to Joppa. The beach
was at one time used for the purpose of reviews of the yeomanry.
The town dates from the middle of the i8th century, when a
cottage was built by a sailor and named Portobello in com-
memoration of Admiral Vernon's victory in 1739. The place
does a considerable trade in the making of bricks, bottles,
earthenware, pottery, tiles and paper. Joppa, which adjoins
it, has salt works, but is chiefly a residential neighbourhood.
Inveresk (pop. 2939), finely situated on the Esk some 6 m. from
Edinburgh, is a quaint village with several old-fashioned mansions
and beautiful gardens. Alexander Carlyle, the famous divine
( 1 7 7 2-1 805 ), whose Memorials of his Timesstill affords fascinating
reading, ministered for fifty-five years in the parish church, in
the graveyard of which lies David Macbeth Moir (1798-1851),
who under the pen-name of " Delta " wrote Mansie Wauch, a
masterpiece of Scots humour and pathos. Lasswade (pop. of
parish, 9708), partly in the Pentlands, famous for its oatmeal,
was often the summer resort of Edinburgh worthies. Here
Sir Walter Scott lived for six years and De Quincey for nineteen,
and William Tennant (i 784-1848) , author of Anster Fair, was the
parish dominie. Many interesting mansions were and are in the
vicinity, amongst them Melville Castle, the seat of the Dundas
Melvilles, and Auchendinny, where Henry Mackenzie, author
of The Man of Feeling, resided. The two most celebrated
resorts, however, amongst the environs of Edinburgh are Roslin
(pop. 1805) and Hawthornden. Roslin Castle is romantically
situated on the beautifully wooded precipitous banks of the
Esk. It dates from the izth century and is a plain, massive
ruin, architecturally insignificant. Partially destroyed by fire in
1447 and afterwards rebuilt, it was sacked in 1650 and again in
1688, and then gradually fell into decay. The chapel, higher
up the bank, a relic of great beauty, was founded in 1446 by
William St Clair, 3rd earl of Orkney. It is believed to be the
chancel of what was intended to be a large church. Although it
suffered at the hands of revolutionary fanatics in 1688, the
damage was confined mainly to the external ornament, and the
chapel, owing to restoration in judicious taste, is now in perfect
condition. The Gothic details are wonderful examples of the
carver's skill, the wreathed " Prentice's pillar " being the subject
of a well-known legend. The walk to Hawthornden, about i^ m.
distant, through the lovely glen by the river-side, leads to the
mansion of the Drummonds, perched high on a lofty cliff falling
sheer to the stream. The caverns in the sides of the precipice
are said to have afforded Wallace and other heroes (or outlaws)
refuge in time of trouble, but the old house is most memorable
as the home of the poet William Drummond, who here welcomed
Ben Jonson; the tree beneath which the two poets sat still
stands. Near Swanston, on the slopes of the Pentlands, where
R. L. Stevenson when a boy used to make holiday occasionally,
is a golf-course which was laid out by the Lothianburn Club.
The Pentland range contains many points of interest and beauty,
but these are mostly accessible only to the pedestrian, although
the hills are crossed by roads, of which the chief are those by
Glencorse burn and the Cauld Stane Slap. Habbie's Howe, the
scene of Allan Ramsay's pastoral The Gentle Shepherd, is some
2 m. from Carlops, and Rullion Green is noted as the field on
which the Covenanters were defeated in 1666. At Penicuik
(pop. 5097), where the Clerks were long the ruling family, S. R.
Crockett was minister until he formally devoted himself to
fiction. The town is, industrially, remarkable for its paper mills
and mines of coal and other minerals.
Communications. The two trunk railways serving Edinburgh
are .the North British and the Caledonian. The North British
station is Waverley, to which the trains of the Great Northern,
North Eastern and the Midland systems run from England. The
EDINBURGH
941
Caledonian station is Princes Street, where the through trains from
the London & North-Western system of England arrive. Leith,
Granton and Grangemouth serve as the chief passenger seaports
for Edinburgh. Tramways connect the different parts of the city
with Leith, Newhaven, Portobello and Joppa; and the Suburban
railway, starting from Waverley station, returns by way of
Restalrig,Portobello,Duddingston,MorningsideandHaymarket.
In summer, steamers ply between Leith and Aberdour and other
pleasure resorts; and there is also a service to Alloa and Stirling.
In the season brakes constantly run to Queensferry (for the
Forth Bridge) and to Roslin, and coaches to Dalkeith, Loanhead
and some Pentland villages.
Population. In 1801 the number of inhabitants was
66,544; in 1851 it was 160,302; in 1881 it was 234,402; and
in 1901 it was 316,479. In 1900 the birth-rate was 26-90 per
thousand, 7-8% of the births being illegitimate; the death-
rate was 19-40 per thousand, and the marriage-rate 10 per
thousand.
The area of the city has been enlarged by successive extensions
of its municipal boundaries, especially towards the west and
south. An important accession of territory was gained in 1896,
when portions of the parishes of Liberton and Duddingston and
the police burgh of Portobello were incorporated. Under the
Edinburgh Corporation Act 1900, a further addition of nearly
1800 acres was made. This embraced portions of South Leith
parish (landward) and of Duddingston parish, including the
village of Restalrig and the ground lying on both sides of the main
road from Edinburgh to Portobello; and also part of Cramond
parish, in which is contained the village and harbour of Granton.
The total area of the city is 10,5975 acres. The increase in wealth
may best be measured by the rise in assessed valuation. In 1880
the city rental was 1,727,740, in 1890 it was 2,106,395, and m
1900-1901 2,807,122.
Government. By the Redistribution Act of 1885 the city was
divided for parliamentary purposes into East, West, Central and
South Edinburgh, each returning one member; the parliament-
ary and municipal boundaries are almost identical. The town
council, which has its headquarters in the Municipal Buildings
in the Royal Exchange, consists of fifty members, a lord
provost, seven bailies, a dean of guild, a treasurer, a convener
of trades, seven judges of police, and thirty-two councillors.
The corporation has acquired the gas-works, the cable tram-
ways (leased to a company), the electric lighting of the
streets, and the water-supply from the Pentlands (reinforced
by additional sources in the Moorfoot Hills and Talla Water).
Among other duties, the corporation has a share in the
management of the university, and maintains the Calton Hill
observatory.
May Meetings. During the establishment of Episcopacy in
Scotland, Edinburgh was the seat of a bishop, and the ancient
collegiate church of St Giles rose to the dignity of a cathedral.
But the annual meeting of the General Assembly of the Church of
Scotland at Edinburgh is now the public manifestation of the
predominance of Presbyterianism as the national church. In
May each year the sovereign appoints a representative as lord
high commissioner to the General Assembly of the Established
Church, who takes up his abode usually in the palace of Holyrood,
and thence proceeds to the High Church, and so to the assembly
hall on the Castle Hill. The lord provost and magistrates offer to
him the keys of the city, and levees, receptions and state dinners
revive in some degree the ancient glories of Holyrood. The
General Assembly of the United Free Church is usually held at
the same time.
University. The university of Edinburgh, the youngest of the
Scottish universities, was founded in 1583 by a royal charter
granted by James IV., and its rights, immunities and privileges
have been remodelled, ratified and extended at various periods.
In 1621 an act of the Scottish parliament accorded to the
university all rights and privileges enjoyed by other universities
in the kingdom, and these were renewed under fresh guarantees
in the treaty of union between England and Scotland, and in
the Act of Security. Important changes were made in the con-
stitution by acts passed in 1858 and 1889. It was one of the first
universities to admit women students to its classes and degrees,
and its alumni are brought into close bonds of sympathy and
activity by a students' union. The number of students averages
nearly three thousand a year. As a corporation it consists of a
chancellor, vice-chancellor, lord rector (elected by the students
every three years), principal, professors, registered graduates and
matriculated students. The chancellor is elected for life by the
general council, of which he is head; and the rights of the city as
the original founder have been recognized by giving to the town
council the election of four of the seven curators, with whom rest
the appointment of the principal, the patronage of seventeen of
the chairs, and a share in other appointments. Along with that
of St Andrews, the university sends one member to parliament.
While the college, as such, bears the name of the College of King
James, or King's college, and James VI. is spoken of as its founder,
it really originated in the liberality of the citizens ot Edinburgh.
William Little of Craigmillar, and his brother Clement Little,
advocate, along with James Lawson, the colleague and successor
of John Knox, may justly be regarded as true founders. In
1580 Clement Little gave all his books, three hundred volumes,
for the beginning of a library, and this was augmented by other
valuable benefactions, one of the most interesting of which was the
libraryof Drummondof Hawthornden. Thelibrarynowcontains
upwards of 220,000 volumes, and more than 7000 MSS. The
buildings of the university occupy the site of the ancient collegiate
church of St. Mary in the Field (the "Kirk of Field") , the scene of
the murder of Darnley. The present structure, the foundation-
stone of which was laid in 1789, is a classical building, enclosing an
extensive quadrangle. The older parts of it, including the east
front, are from the design of Robert Adam, his plans being
revised and modified by W. H. Playfair (1789-1857), but it was
not till 1883 that the building was completed by the dome,
crowned by the bronze figure of Youth bearing the torch of
Knowledge, on the facade in South Bridge Street. This edifice
affords accommodation for the lecture rooms in the faculties of
arts, law and theology, and for the museums and library. The
opening up of the wide thoroughfare of Chambers Street, on the
site of College Wynd and Brown and Argyll Squares, cleared the
precincts of unsightly obstructions and unsavoury neighbours.
The Royal Scottish Museum, structurally united to the university,
contains collections illustrative of industry, art, science and
natural history; and Minto House college and Heriot-Watt
college are practically adjuncts of the university. The library hall
was restored and decorated, largely through the generosity of Sir
William Priestley (1829-1900), formerly M.P. for the university;
while munificent additions to the academic funds and resources
were made by the isth earl of Moray (1840-1901), Sir William
Fraser (1816-1898), and others. The university benefits also,
like the other Scottish universities, from Mr Andrew Carnegie's
endowment fund. The medical school stands in Teviot Row,
adjoining George Square and the Meadows. To this spacious and
well-equipped group of buildings the faculty of medicine was
removed from the college. The medical school is in the Italian
Renaissance style from the designs of Sir Rowand Anderson.
The magnificent hall used for academic and public functions was
the gift of William M'Ewan, some time M.P. for the Central
division of Edinburgh. Closely associated with the medical
school, and separated from it by the Middle Meadow Walk, is the
Royal Infirmary, designed by David Bryce, R.S.A. (1803-1876),
removed hither from Infirmary Street. Its wards, in which
nearly ten thousand patients receive treatment annually, are
lodged in a series of turreted pavilions, and cover a large space of
ground on the margin of the Meadows, from which, to make room
for it, George Watson's College the most important of the
Merchant Company schools was removed to a site farther west,
while the Sick Children's hospital was moved to the southern side
of the Meadows.
Scientific Institutions. The old Observatory is a quaint
structure on Calton Hill, overlooking the district at the head
of Leith Walk. The City Observatory stands close by, and on
Blackford Hill is the newer building of the Royal Observatory.
942
EDINBURGH
The Astronomer-Royal for Scotland also holds the chair of
practical astronomy.
The museum and lecture-rooms of the Royal College of
Surgeons occupy a handsome classical building in Nicolson
Street. The college is an ancient corporate body, with a charter
of the year 1 505, and exercises the powers of instructing in surgery
and of giving degrees. Its graduates also give lectures on the
various branches of medicine and science requisite for the degree
of doctor of medicine, and those extra-academical courses are
recognized, under certain restrictions, by the University Court,
as qualifying for the degree. The museum contains a valuable
collection of anatomical and surgical preparations.
The Royal College of Physicians is another learned body
organized, with special privileges, by a charter of incorporation
granted by Charles II. in 1681. In their hall in Queen Street
are a valuable library and a museum of materia medica. But the
college as such takes no part in the educational work of the
university.
Educational Institutions. After the Disruption in 1843, and
the formation of the Free Church, New College was founded
in connexion with it for training students in theology. Since
the amalgamation of the United Presbyterian and the Free
Churches, under the designation of the United Free Church of
Scotland, New College is utilized by both bodies. New College
buildings, designed in the Pointed style of the i6th century,
and erected on the site of the palace of Mary of Guise, occupy a
prominent position at the head of the Mound.
Edinburgh has always possessed exceptional educational
facilities. The Royal high school, the burgh school par excellence,
dates from the i6th century, but the beautiful Grecian buildings
on the southern face of Calton Hill, opened in 1829, are its third
habitation. It wasnot until 1825, when the Edinburgh Academy
was opened, that it encountered serious rivalry. Fettes College,
an imposing structure hi a 16th-century semi-Gothic style,
designed by David Bryce and called after its founder Sir William
Fettes (17 50-1836) , is organized on the model of the great English
public schools. Merchiston Academy, housed in the old castle
of Napier, the inventor of logarithms, is another institution
conducted on English public school lines. For many generations
the charitable foundations for the teaching and training of youth
were a conspicuous feature in the economy of the city. Foremost
among them was the hospital founded by George Heriot the
" Jingling Geordie " of Scott's Fortunes of Nigel the goldsmith
and banker of James VI. At his death in 1624 Heriot left his
estate in trust to the magistrates and ministers of Edinburgh
for the maintenance and teaching of poor fatherless sons of
freemen. The quadrangular edifice in Lauriston, sometimes
ascribed to Inigo Jones, is one of the noblest buildings in the city.
Even earlier than Heriot's hospital was the Merchant Maiden
hospital, dating from 1605, which gave to the daughters of
merchants similar advantages to those whicli Heriot's secured
for burgesses' sons. In 1738 George Watson's hospital for boys
was founded; then followed the Trades' Maiden hospital for
burgesses' daughters, John Watson's, Daniel Stewart's, the
Orphans', Gillespie's, 1 Donaldson's 2 hospitals, and other institu-
tions founded by successful merchants of the city, in which poor
children of various classes were lodged, boarded and educated.
Nearly all these buildings are characterized by remarkable
distinction and beauty of design. This is especially true of
Donaldson's hospital at the Haymarket, which has accommoda-
tion for three hundred children. As the New Town expanded,
the Heriot Trust whose revenues were greatly benefited thereby
erected day-schools in different districts, in which thousands
of infants and older children received a free education, and, in
'James Gillespie (1726-1797) was a tobacco and snuff manu-
facturer, and when he set up his carriage Henry Erskine suggested
as a motto the homely couplet :
" Wha wad hae thocht it,
That noses wad bocht it? "
James Donaldson (1751-1830) was a printer who bequeathed
nearly the whole of his large fortune for the purposes of a hospital
for poor boys and girls, and the trustees have usually selected half
of the children admitted from the ranks of the deaf and dumb.
cases of extreme poverty, a money grant towards maintenance.
Public opinion as to the " hospital " system of board and
education, however, underwent a revolutionary change after
the Education Act of 1872 introduced school boards, and the
Merchant Company acting as governors for most of the insti-
tutions determined to board out the children on the founda-
tion with families in the town, and convert the buildings
into adequately equipped primary and secondary day-schools.
This root-and-branch policy proved enormously successful, and
George Watson's college, Stewart's college, Queen Street ladies'
college, George Square ladies' college, Gillespie's school, and
others, rapidly took a high place among the educational institu-
tions of the city. Nor did the Heriot Trust neglect the claims
of technical and higher education. The Heriot-Watt college
is subsidized by the Trust, and Heriot's hospital is occupied as
a technical school. Concurrently with this activity in higher
branches, the school board provided a large number of handsome
buildings in healthy surroundings. The Church of Scotland and
the United Free Church have training colleges.
Charities. Besides the Royal Infirmary there are a consider-
able number of more or less specialized institutions, two of
the most important being situated at Craiglockhart. On the
Easter Hill stands the Royal Edinburgh asylum for the insane,
which formerly occupied a site in Morningside, while the City
infectious diseases hospital is situated at Colinton Mains. The
Royal blind asylum at Powburn in its earlier days tenanted
humbler quarters in Nicolson Street. Chalmers's hospital in
Lauriston was founded in 1836 by George Chalmers for the
reception of the sick and injured. The home for incurables is
situated in Salisbury Place. The infirmary convalescents are
sent to the convalescent house in Corstorphine. Other institu-
tions are the Royal hospital for sick children, the home for
crippled children, the Royal maternity hospital, and the deaf
and dumb asylum. Though Trinity hospital no longer exists
as a hospital with resident pensioners, the trustees disburse
annually pensions to certain poor burgesses and their wives and
children; and the trust controlling the benevolent branch of
the Gillespie hospital endowment is similarly administered.
Industries. Although Edinburgh is a residential rather than
a manufacturing or commercial centre, the industries which it
has are important and flourishing. From 1507, when Walter
Chapman, the Scottish Caxton, set up the first press, to the
present day, printing has enjoyed a career of almost continuous
vitality, and the great houses of R. & R. Clark, T. & A. Constable,
the Ballantyne Press, Morrison & Gibb, Turnbull & Spears, and
others, admirably maintain the traditional reputation of the
Edinburgh press. Publishing, on the other hand, has drifted
away, only a few leading houses such as those of Blackwood,
Chambers and Nelson still making the Scottish capital their
headquarters. Mapmakers, typefounders, bookbinders and
lithographers all contribute their share to the prosperity of the
city. Brewing is an industry of exceptional vigour, Edinburgh
ale being proverbially good. The brewers and distillers, such as
M'Ewan, Usher and Ure, have been amongst the most generous
benefactors of the city. The arts and crafts associated with
furniture work, paper-making and coach-building may also be
specified, whilst tanneries, glassworks, india-rubber and vulcanite
factories, brass-founding, machinery works, the making of
biscuits, tea-bread and confectionery are all prominent. In
consequence of the large influx of tourists every year the North
British and Caledonian railway companies give employment to
an enormous staff. Building and the allied trades are chronic-
ally brisk, owing to the constant development of the city. Fine
white freestone abounds in the immediate vicinity (as at Craig-
leith, from the vast quarry of which, now passing into disuse,
the stone for much of the New Town was obtained) and furnishes
excellent building material; while the hard trap rock, with
which the stratified sandstones of the Coal formation have been
extensively broken up and overlaid, supplies good materials for
paving and road-making. On this account quarrying is another
industry which is seldom dormant. Owing to the great changes
effected during the latter part of the I9th century, some of the
EDINBURGH
943
old markets were demolished and the system of centralizing
trade was not wholly revived. The Waverley Market for
vegetables and fruit presents a busy scene in the early morning,
and is used for monster meetings and promenade and popular
concerts. Slaughter-houses, cattle markets and grain markets
have been erected at Gorgie, thus obviating the driving of
flocks and herds through the streets, which was constantly
objected to. An infantry regiment is always stationed in
the castle, and there are in addition the barracks at Piers-
hill (or " Jock's Lodge "), half-way between Edinburgh and
Portobello.
Social Life. Edinburgh society still retains a certain old-
fashioned Scottish exclusiveness. It has been said that the
city is " east-windy " and the folk " west-endy." But this
criticism needs judicious qualification. The local patriotism
and good taste of the citizens have regulated recreation and
have also preserved in pristine vigour many peculiarly Scottish
customs and pastimes. Classical concerts and concerts of the
better sort, chiefly held in the M'Ewan and Music Halls, are well
attended, and lectures are patronized to a degree unknown in
most towns. In theatrical matters in the old days of stock
companies the verdict of an Edinburgh audience was held to
make or mar an actor or a play. This is no longer the case, but
the Lyceum theatre in Grindlay Street and the Theatre Royal
at the head of Leith Walk give good performances. Variety
entertainments are also in vogue, and in Nicolson Street and
elsewhere there are good music halls. Outdoor recreations
have always been pursued with zest. The public golf-course on
Braid Hills and the private courses of the Lothianburn club
at Swanston and the Barnton club at Barnton are usually full
on Saturdays and holidays. The numerous bowling-greens
are regularly frequented and are among the best in Scotland
the first Australian team of bowlers that visited the mother
country (in 1901) pronouncing the green in Lutton Place the
finest on which they had played. Cricket is played by the uni-
versity students, at the schools, and by private clubs, of which
the Grange is the oldest and best. In whiter the game of curling
is played on Duddingston Loch, and Dunsappie, St Margaret's
Loch, Lochend and other sheets of water are covered with
skaters. Rugby football is in high favour, Edinburgh being
commonly the scene of the international matches when the
venue falls to Scotknd. Hockey claims many votaries, there
usually being on New Year's day a match at shinty, or camanachd,
between opposing teams of Highlanders resident in the city.
The central public baths in Infirmary Street, with branch
establishments in other parts of the town, including Portobello,
are largely resorted to, and the proximity of the Firth of Forth
induces the keener swimmers to visit Granton every morning.
Facilities for boating are limited (excepting on the Forth), but
rowing clubs find opportunity for practice and races on the
Union Canal, where, however, sailing is scarcely possible. Edin-
burgh maintains few newspapers, but the Scotsman, which may
be said to reign alone, has enjoyed a career of almost uninter-
rupted prosperity, largely in consequence of a succession of able
editors, like Charles Maclarr.n, Alexander Russel, Robert Wallace
and Charles Cooper. The Edinburgh Evening News and the
Evening Dispatch are popular sheets. In the past the Edinburgh
Evening Courant, the chief organ of the Tory party, of which
James Hannay was editor for a few years, had a high reputation.
The Witness, edited by Hugh Miller, the Daily Review, edited
first by J. B. Manson and afterwards by Henry Kingsley, and
the Scottish Leader, were conducted more or less as Liberal
organs with a distinct bias hi favour of the then Free Church,
but none of these was long-lived. Volunteering has always
attracted the younger men, and the highest awards at Wimbledon
and Bisley have been won by the Queen's Edinburgh
History. In remote times the seaboard from the Tyne to
the Forth was occupied by the Ottadeni, a Welsh tribe of the
Brigantes, the territory immediately to the west of it being
peopled by the Gadeni. It is probable that the Ottadeni built
a fort or camp on the rock on which Edinburgh Castle now
stands, which was thus the nucleus around which, in course of
time, grew a considerable village. Under the protection of the
hill-fort, a native settlement was established on the ridge running
down to the valley at the foot of Salisbury Crags, and another
hamlet, according to William Maitland (1693-1757), the earliest
historian of Edinburgh, was founded in the area at the north-
western base of the rock, a district that afterwards became
the parish of St Cuthbert, the oldest in the city. The Romans
occupied the country for more than three hundred years, as is
evidenced by various remains; [but James Grant (1822-1887),
in Old and New Edinburgh, doubts whether they ever built on
the castle rock. When they withdrew, the British tribes re-
asserted their sway, and some authorities go so far as to suggest
that Arthur was one of their kings. The southern Picts ulti-
mately subdued the Britons, and the castle became their chief
stronghold until they were overthrown in 617 (or 629) by the
Saxons under Edwin, king of Northumbria, from whom the name
of Edinburgh is derived. Symeon of Durham (854) calls it
Edwinesburch, and includes the church of St Cuthbert within
the bishopric of Lindisfarne. Its Gaelic name was Dunedin.
This name is probably a translation of the Saxon name. James
Grant's view that it may have been the earlier name of the
castle, from dun (" the fort "), and edin (" on .the slope "),
conflicts with the more generally received opinion that the
Britons knew the fortress as Castelh Mynedh Agnedh (" the hill
of the plain "), a designation once wrongly interpreted as the
" castle of the maidens " (castrum puellarum), in allusion to
the supposed fact that the Pictish princesses were lodged within
it during their education. In the i6th century the latinized
form Edina was invented and has been used chiefly by poets,
once notably by Burns, whose "Address" begins "Edina!
Scotia's darling seat." Long after Edwin's conquest the lowland
continued to be debatable territory held by uncertain tenure, but
at length it was to a large extent settled anew by Anglo-Saxon
and Norman colonists under Malcolm Canmore and his sons.
In the reign of Malcolm Canmore the castle included the
king's palace. There his pious queen, Margaret, the grand-niece
of Edward the Confessor, died in 1093. It continued to be a royal
residence during the reigns of her three sons, and hence the first
rapid growth of the upper town may be referred to the i2th
century. The parish church of St Giles is believed to have been
erected in the reign of Alexander I., about mo, and the huge
Norman keep of the castle, built by his younger brother,
David I., continued to be known as David's Tower till its destruc-
tion in the siege of 1572. Soon after his accession to the Scottish
throne David I. founded the abbey of Holyrood (1128), which
from an early date received the court as its guests. But notwith-
standing the attractions of the abbey and the neighbouring chase,
the royal palace continued for centuries to be within the fortress,
and there both the Celtic and Stuart kings frequently resided.
Edinburgh was long an exposed frontier town within a territory
only ceded to Malcolm II. about 1020 ; and even under the
earlier Stuart kings it was still regarded as a border stronghold.
Hence, though the village of Canongate grew up beside the abbey
of David I., and Edinburgh was a place of sufficient importance
to be reckoned one of the four principal burghs as a judicatory
for all commercial matters, nevertheless, even so late as 1450,
when it became for the first time a walled town, it did not extend
beyond the upper part of the ridge which slopes eastwards from
the castle. So long, however, as its walls formed the boundary,
and space therefore was limited, the citizens had to provide
house-room by building dwellings of many storeys. These tall
tenements on both sides of what is now High Street and Canon-
gate are still a prominent characteristic of the Old Town. The
streets were mostly very narrow, the main street from the castle
to Holyrood Palace and the Cowgate alone permitting the passage
of wheeled carriages. In the narrow " wynds " the nobility and
gentry paid their visits in sedan chairs, and proceeded in full
dress to the assemblies and balls, which were conducted with
aristocratic exclusiveness in an alley on the south side of High
Street, called the Assembly Close, and in the assembly rooms
in the West Bow. Beyond the walls lay the burghs of Calton,
Easter and Wester Portsburgh, the villages of St Cuthbert's,
944
EDINBURGHSHIRE
Moutrie'sHill,Broughton,CanonrmUls,SilvermillsandDeanhaugh
all successively swallowed up in the extension of the modern
city. The seaport of Leith, though a distinct burgh, governed
by its own magistrates, and electing its own representative to
parliament, has also on its southern side become practically
united to its great neighbour.
The other three royal burghs associated with Edinburgh were
Stirling, Roxburgh and Berwick; and their enactments form
the earliest existing collected body of Scots law. The determina-
tion of Edinburgh as the national capital, and as the most fre-
quent scene of parliamentary assemblies, dates from the death of
James I. in 1436. Of the thirteen parliaments summoned by
that sovereign, only one, the last, was held at Edinburgh, but his
assassination in the Blackfriars' monastery at Perth led to the
abrupt transfer of the court and capital from the Tay to the
Forth. The coronation of James II. was celebrated in Holyrood
Abbey instead of at Scone, and the widowed queen took up
her residence, with the young king, in the castle. Of fourteen
parliaments summoned during this reign, only one was held at
Perth, five met at Stirling and the rest at Edinburgh; and,
notwithstanding the favour shown for Stirling as a royal residence
in the following reign, every one of the parliaments of James III.
was held at Edinburgh. James II. conferred on the city various
privileges relating to the holding of fairs and markets, and the
levying of customs; and by a royal charter of 1452 he gave it
pre-eminence over the other burghs. Further immunities and
privileges were granted by James III.; and by a precept of
1482, known as the Golden Charter, he bestowed on the provost
and magistrates the hereditary office of sheriff, with power to
hold courts, to levy fines, and to impose duties on all merchandise
landed at the port of Leith. Those privileges were renewed
and extended by various sovereigns, and especially by a general
charter granted by James VI. in 1603.
James III. was a great builder, and, in the prosperous era
which followed his son's accession to the throne, the town reached
the open valley to the south, with the Cowgate as its chief
thoroughfare. But the death of James IV. in 1513, along with
other disastrous results of the battle of Flodden, brought this
era of prosperity to an abrupt dose. The citizens hastened to
construct a second line of wall, enclosing the Cowgate and the
heights beyond, since occupied by Greyfriars churches and
Heriot's hospital, but still excluding the Canongate, as pertaining
to the abbey of Holyrood. In the i6th century the movements
connected with John Knox and Mary, queen of Scots, made
Edinburgh a castle of much activity. With the departure,
however, of the sixth James to fill the English throne in 1603,
the town lost for a long period its influence and prestige. Matters
were not bettered by the Act of Union signed in a cellar in High
Street in 1707, amidst the execrations of the people, and it was
not till the hopes of the Jacobites were blasted at Culloden (1746)
that the townsfolk began to accept the inevitable. This epoch,
when grass grew even in High Street, long lingered in the popular
memory as the " dark age."
By the accession of George III. (1760), Edinburgh showed
signs of revived enterprise. In 1763 the first North Bridge, con-
necting the Old Town with the sloping ground on which after-
wards stood the Register House and the theatre in Shakespeare
Square, was opened; a little later the Nor' Loch was partially
drained, and the bridging of the Cowgate in 1785 encouraged
expansion southwards. Towards the end of the i8th century
the New Town began to take shape on the grand, if formal,
lines which had been planned by James Craig (d. 1795), the
architect, nephew of the poet Thomson, and the erection of
Regent Bridge in Waterloo Place (formally opened in 1819 on
the occasion of the visit of Prince Leopold, afterwards king of
the Belgians) gave access to Calton Hill. The creation of Princes
Street, one of the most beautiful thoroughfares in the world,
led to further improvement. The earth and debris from the
excavation of the sites for the houses in this and adjoining
streets had been " dumped " in the centre of the drained Nor'
Loch. This unsightly mass of rubbish lay for a while as an eye-
sore, until the happy thought arose of converting it into a broad
way joining the new road at Hanover Street with the Old Town
at the Lawnmarket. Upon this street, which divides Princes
Street and its gardens into east and west, and which received
the title of the Mound, were erected the National Gallery and
the Royal Institution. Speaking generally, the New Town was
resorted to by professional men lawyers, doctors and artists,
and in its principal streets will be found the head offices of the
leading banks and insurance offices, all lodged in buildings of
remarkable architectural pretensions. The Commercial, the
Union and the Clydesdale banks are in George Street, the
National Bank of Scotland, the Royal Bank of Scotland, and
the British Linen Company's Bank are in St Andrew Square,
the Bank of Scotland is at the head of the Mound. The extensive
building operations engaged in by the town council in the ea-rly
part of the ipth century resulted in the insolvency of the city
in 1833. The property of the corporation was valued at 271,638
against a debt of 425,195, which was compounded for by the
issue of 3 % annuity bonds the loss to the creditors amounting
to 25 % of their claims.
Meanwhile the progress of letters, science and learning
manifested the recovery of the city. The names of Knox
(d. 1572), Buchanan (1582), Alexander Montgomery (1605),
Drummond of Hawthornden (1649), Allan Ramsay (1757),
Smollett (1771), Fergusson (1774), and Burns (1796), carried on
the literary associations of the Scottish capital nearly to the
close of the i8th century, when various causes combined to give
them new significance and value. The university was served by
a body of teachers and investigators who won for it a prominent
position among European schools. Then succeeded the era of
Scott's Marmion and The Lady of the Lake, followed by the
Waverley novels and the foundation of Black-wood's Magazine
and the Edinburgh Review.
Modern conditions have changed the character of Edinburgh
society. In Scott's early days a journey to London was beset
with difficulties and even dangers; but railways have now
brought it within a few hours' distance, and Scottish artists and
literary men are tempted to seek a wider field. Nevertheless,
the influence of the past survives in many ways. Edinburgh
is not markedly a manufacturing city, but preserves its character
as the Scottish capital.
AUTHORITIES. James Grant, Old and New Edinburgh (London,
1880 et seq.); W. Maitland, History of Edinburgh (1753); Hugo
Arnot, History of Edinburgh (1789): B. Chambers, Traditions of
Edinburgh (1824); D. Wilson, Memorials of Edinburgh in the Olden
Time (1846-1848); O. Smeaton, Edinburgh and its Story (1904).
The Municipal Buildings of Edinburgh, by Robert Miller, Lord Dean
of Guild, printed by order of the town council (Edinburgh, 1895);
Royal Edinburgh, by Mrs Oliphant, illustrations by Sir George Reid,
R.S.A. (London, 1890).
EDINBURGHSHIRE, or MIDLOTHIAN, a county of Scotland,
bounded N. by the Firth of Forth, E. by the shires of Haddington,
or East Lothian, and Berwick, S.E. by Roxburghshire, S. by
Selkirkshire, Peeblesshire and Lanarkshire, S.W. by Lanarkshire,
and W. by Linlithgowshire or West Lothian. Its area is 234,339
acres or 3662 sq. m. The island of Crarnond belongs to the
county. There are no mountains, but the Pentland Hills
advance boldly from the south-west to within 5 m. of the sea.
The loftiest summits are Scald Law (1898 ft.), Carnethy (1881),
West and East Cairn Hill (1844 and 1839), and West Kip (1806).
They are generally of rounded form, and covered with heath or
grass. The Moorfoot Hills, in the south-east, are a continuation
of the Lammermuirs, and attain in Blackhope Scar a height of
2136 ft. Of more or less isolated eminences there are the Braid
Hills (698 ft.), Blackford Hill (500), Arthur's Seat (822), Cor-
storphine Hill (500) all practically within Edinburgh and
Dalmahoy Craig (800), 7 m. south-west of the city. Of the
rivers the Gala rises on the south-east of the Moorfoot Hills and
flows south to join the Tweed, and the Tyne after a course of
7 m. passes into Haddingtonshire. All the others flow into the
Firth of Forth. Of these the Esk, which is the longest, drains
the district between the Pentlands and the Moorfoot Hills, and
empties into the sea at Musselburgh. The southern branch has
its source near Blackhope Scar, receives on its right Gore Water
EDINBURGHSHIRE
945
and, on its left, Dalhousie Burn, and flows past Newbattle Abbey;
the northern rises in the Pentlands, and proceeds through much
picturesque scenery past Penicuik, Roslin, Hawthornden and
Lasswade; the two streams uniting within the grounds of
Dalkeith Palace. Braid Burn from Capelaw Hill passes between
the Braid Hills and Blackford Hill, and reaches the sea at Porto-
bello. The Water of Leith, with its head streams on the western
slope of the Pentlands, flows past Balerno, Currie, Juniper Green,
Colinton, Edinburgh and Leith. The Almond, rising in Lanark-
shire, and its right-hand tributary, Breich Water, form the
boundary between Midlothian and Linlithgowshire. Several
of these streams, especially the Esk and the Water of Leith,
furnish much water power. The only loch is that at Duddingston,
but there are several large reservoirs connected with the water
supply of Edinburgh. Cobbinshaw reservoir, situated at the
head of Bog Burn, a tributary of the Almond, is used for the
supply of the Union Canal connecting the Forth with the Clyde.
Geology. The southern portion of the county, embracing the
Moorfoot Hills and a large part of the catchment basin of the Gala
Water, lies within the Silurian tableland of the south of Scotland.
From Bowland northwards to Crookston in the Gala valley the
Silurian strata are mainly of Tarannon age and consist of greywackes,
grits, flags and shales, with thin dark seams which yield graptolites
sparingly. To the north of this area, older sediments, comprising
Arenig cherts, black shales, greywackes and grits of Llandeilo and
Caradoc age, rise from underneath the Taraanon strata and spread
over the hills north to the margin of the tableland. In some of the
folds of Arenig cherts diabase lavas appear, which occupy small
lenticular areas. All the Silurian strata are repeated by folds
striking north-east and south-west and frequently dipping in one
direction, to the north-west as in the Gala valley. North of the
Silurian tableland and within the area occupied by_ the _ younger
palaeozoic rocks of the Pentland Hills, there are various inliers of
Upper Silurian strata. These isolated patches occur (i) in the" North
Esk section, (2) at Loganlee reservoir, (3) near Bavelaw Castle, and
(4) in Bavelaw Burn. The section in the North Esk is by far the
most complete, as the strata embrace Wenlock, Ludlow and Down-
tonian rocks with a north-east strike similar to that of the beds in the
Silurian tableland. The Wenlock rocks have yielded a rich suite of
organic remains. In the Pentland Hills the folded and denuded
Silurian strata are covered unconformably by Lower Old Red
Sandstone rocks, comprising conglomerates and red sandstones,
which are succeeded by a great volcanic series, the latter extending
from the West Kip Hill to the Braid Hills. The pebbles of the basal
conglomerates are derived chiefly from the underlying platform of
greywackes and shales and from the Radiolarian cherts and volcanic
rocks in the tableland to the south. The contemporaneous igneous
rocks include olivine basalts, andesites, trachytes, rhyolites and tuffs,
which are pierced by the microgranite of the Black Hill and by
several vents filled with agglomerate, as near Swanston.
The Upper Old Red Sandstone rests unconformably on all older
formations. The red sandstones and cornstones of this division form
the Cairn Hills, and are traceable north-eastwards along the north-
west slope of the Pentland Hills towards the Clubbiedean reservoir,
where they are overlapped by Carboniferous strata. They occupy
the south part of the city of Edinburgh, they occur in the lower slope
of Salisbury Crags, and south by Craigmilfar and Liberton towards
Mortonhall. Recently the horizon of these beds has been proved
by the discovery of fish remains (Holoptychius) , a zonal form of the
Upper Old Red Sandstone. The remainder of the county embracing
the fertile low ground west of the city of Edinburgh and along the
basin of the Esk is occupied by Carboniferous strata and various
igneous rocks associated with that formation. The Pentland Hills,
formed of older Palaeozoic deposits, appear as a prominent ridge,
throwing off the Carboniferous beds to the north-west and south-
east. In the former direction only the Calciferous Sandstone series
is represented, and in the latter all the Carboniferous divisions are
well developed. The lowest subdivision of the Calciferous Sandstone
series, consisting of sandstones, red and green shales, marls and
cement-stones, appears in the ridge of the old part of the city between
the Castle and Holyrood, in the Hunter's Bog and on the north-west
side of the Pentland Hills. Intercalated in this series near the top,
there are interbedded volcanic rocks, comprising olivine basalts,
mugearites, tuffs and agglomerates, which form conspicuous features
on Arthur's Seat, on Calton Hill, at Craiglockhart and Corston Hill
south of Mid Calder. Next in order come the Granton sandstones
and Wardie shales, which are best seen on the shore at Granton,
and extend up the Water of Leith in the direction of Colinton, where
they are succeeded by the Hailes sandstone. The upper portion of
the Calciferous Sandstone series, overlying the Hailes sandstone,
embraces the valuable oil-shales, which give rise to one of the chief
industries of the Lothians. Recently, however, it has been proved
that some of the bands in the Wardie shales give a low yield of oil
and sulphate of ammonia. The oil-shale-fields in the county lie
partly along its west margin from Mid Calder south to Breich and
also on the south-east side of the Pentland Hills between Straiton
and Carlops along the west side of the Midlothian basin. From an
economic point ofyiew the Midlothian coalfield is of special import-
ance, the strata being arranged in a syncline, the long axis of which
trends north-north-east and south-south-west. In the centre of the
basin lie the Coal-Measures covered by the barren red sandstone of
Dalkeith, probably on the same horizon as the red sandstones of
Wemyss in Fife (Middle Coal-Measures). The underlying Millstone
Grit and Carboniferous Limestone series with its middle-coal-bearing
group rise from underneath the Coal- Measures, forming parallel bands
curving round the basin. Along the west side of the syncline, the
strata dip at high angles to the south-east, are sometimes vertical
and even in some cases inverted, while in the centre they become
flat and rise at gentle angles towards the east. The Coal Measures
and the coal-bearing group of the Carboniferous Limestone series
contain numerous valuable coals and ironstones, and there still
remains a large field for development. The intrusive igneous rocks
forming prominent features in the county are divisible into two
main groups, which are separated from each other by a considerable
interval of time. The coarse agglomerate filling the old volcano on
the top of Arthur's Seat is associated with the eruption of the volcanic
rocks of Calciferous Sandstone age near Edinburgh. The fine grained
basalt appearing as a plug on the Castle Rock closely resembles the
basalt on the top of Arthur's Seat, and is likewise of the same age.
The intrusive sheets of Salisbury Crags and Corstorphine Hill com-
posed of olivine-dolerite belong to the same general period. But the
quartz-dolerites represented by the Ratho sill are in all probability
of late Carboniferous age.
Climate and Agriculture. In the hill country the average
rainfall is 37.4 in., but on the coast only 28.4 in. The average
temperature ranges from 38 F. in January to S9.5 in July,
the mean for the year being 47.7. The north-east and easterly
winds prevailing in spring are, especially in Edinburgh and its
vicinity, remarkable for their cold and blighting character.
Excepting in the uplands, snow seldom lies long, but frosts
sometimes occur at night as late as the beginning of June, and
severe enough to destroy the young shoots of seedling trees in
nurseries. But the winter is often astonishingly mild. The
common snowdrop (Galanthus nivalis) blossoms as early as the
25th of January, the kidney liverleaf (Hepatica triloba) by the
3ist of January and the rhododendron (R. nobleanum) by the
25th of February. On the shores of the Forth along the Almond
and the Esk, and on some of the richer flats, grain crops ripen
early; 2 m. nearer the hills and 200 ft. higher the harvest is
ten days later; and at 600 ft. still another'week later. High
farming is the rule in the three Lothians. All the area on which
wheat can be profitably grown is so occupied; oats, however,
is the predominant grain crop, though barley is also raised.
Turnips and potatoes are the chief roots, and beans are grown
to a limited extent. A large area is occupied by pasture and
sown grasses, fallow land having practically disappeared. Near
Edinburgh sewage farming has been largely developed. There
are 200 acres at Craigentinny between Restalrig and the Forth,
besides smaller tracts under similar treatment at Lochend, Dairy
and the Grange. The produce consists principally of natural
grasses. Sheep and cattle raising is an important pursuit. In
the neighbourhood of the capital dairy farming is conducted
on an extensive scale. Horse breeding flourishes, several of the
studs being of excellent character, Clydesdales predominating.
Pig-keeping has grown considerably and poultry-farming is
carried on near Edinburgh. The nursery gardens are extensive,
and, besides market gardening, which prospers near the capital,
there are many orchards.
Other Industries. Though as a whole not a mining county,
Midlothian possesses some mineral wealth. Coal is extensively
mined at various points on the North Esk, like Penicuik,
Loanhead, Bonnyrigg, Eskbank and at Gorebridge, Newbattle,
Newbigging, Niddrie, Gilmerton, Mid and West Calder. Iron-
stone is obtained chiefly at Lasswade and Penicuik and fire-clay
occurs at various points. In the vicinity of West Calder there
is a large amount of valuable oil-bearing shale. Limestone is of
frequent occurrence at Esperston, Cousland, Crichton near
Dalkeith, Burdiehouse, Gilmerton near Edinburgh, the Camps
in Kirknewton parish, and at Muirieston and Leven Seat in the
south-west. Freestone is quarried at Craigleith, Hailes, Redhall
and Craigmillar. It is used for pavements and stairs, and for
the great docks at Leith. Barnton Mount supplies large blocks
946
EDISON EDMONTON
of whinstone, also used for docks and for fortifications; the
causeway stones for the streets of Edinburgh are mainly procured
from the quarries at Ratho; and a number of smaller quarries
for the supply of road-material are scattered throughout the
county. Owing no doubt to the growth of printing and publish-
ing in the metropolis, the chief manufacturing industry in Mid-
lothian is paper-making. Most of the mills are exteasive and
equipped with the most modern processes and have an enormous
yearly output. The most important mills, some of them dating
from the beginning of the i8th century, are situated on the
North Esk between Penicuik and Musselburgh, and on the
South Esk at Newbattle. At Balerno, Currie, Colinton and
elsewhere on the Water of Leith there are several mills, as well
as near Mid Calder and at Portobello. The ancient vat-mill
called Peggy's Mill, at Cramond, produces handmade papers.
There are carpet factories on the Esk at Roslin and at
Lasswade. The manufacture of gunpowder is also carried on
at Roslin, the works being distributed in recesses on the Esk.
Iron foundries exist at Dalkeith, Westfield, Loanhead, Penicuik,
Millerhill and in the suburbs of Edinburgh; brick and tile works
at Portobello, Millerhill, Newbattle, Bonnyrigg and Rosewell;
and candle works at Dalkeith and Loanhead. Leather also is
tanned at Edinburgh and Dalkeith. The shipping trade is
concentrated at Leith and Granton, and Newhaven is still an
important fishery centre, while there are also fleets at Fisherrow
and Granton.
Population and Government. The population in 1891 was
434,276, and in 1001 488,796, of whom 5765 spoke both Gaelic
and English, and 75 Gaelic only. The chief towns, besides
Edinburgh, the capital (pop. in 1901, 316,837), are Bonnyrigg
(1924), Dalkeith (6812), Leith (77,439), Loanhead (3071),
Musselburgh (11,711), Newton Grange (2406), Penicuik (3574),
and West Calder (2652). The county forms a single parlia-
mentary constituency, exclusive of Edinburgh city and Leith
burghs. It has been divided by the county council into four
county districts (Calder, Gala Water, Lasswade, Suburban) for
the purposes of the Roads and Bridges Act 1878, and the Public
Health Acts. The management of special districts formed for
water supply, drainage and other sanitary purposes is entrusted
to sub-committees appointed by the respective district com-
mittees. The grant under the Local Taxation (Customs and
Excise) Act is administered by the Technical Education Com-
mittee appointed by the Council; and, subject to the same
authority, the Secondary Education Committee provides for the
distribution of the grant under the Local Taxation (Scotland) Act.
In respect of education the shire isunderschool-board jurisdiction.
History and Antiquities. Cramond was once a Roman seaport,
and various objects of Roman art and workmanship have been
discovered in its vicinity and along the banks of the Almond.
On several heights are remains of early military works the most
important being that on Dalmahoy Hill, Braidwood Castle in
the parish of Penicuik, and Castle Greg on the Harburn estate in
Mid Calder parish. Picts' houses are found at Crichton Mains,
at Borthwick Castle, near Middleton House and elsewhere, the
first being especially interesting from the fact that some of the
stones bear marks of Roman masonry. There are hut-circles
and a fort on Raimes Hill, near Ratho; a large tumulus, with
three upright stones, at Old Listen; a smaller tumulus at
Newbattle; a cistvaen or stone burial chest at Carlo wrie; and
standing stones at Lochend, at Comiston (the Caiy stone), and
the " Cat Stane " near Kirkliston. Temple, on the South Esk,
was at one time the chief seat of the Knights Templars in Scotland
for whom David I. here built a church, now in ruins.
The history of the county is almost identical with that of the
capital. Traces of Celtic occupation are obvious in such names
as Inveresk, Almond, Leith, Dairy, Dalmahoy, Dalkeith and
others; though most of the villages, hamlets and castles received
their present designation from Saxon possessors. The termina-
tion ton is very frequent. Following upon the withdrawal
of the Romans the land was the scene of intertribal strife, but
it was in a measure subdued by the Saxons and passed under the
rule of the Northumbrian kings, who held it till 1020, when the
Lothians were handed over to the Scottish king, Malcolm II.
The people of the Lothians, however, stipulated that they were
to retain their manners and customs, and in this way the south-
eastern lowlands became the centre from which Anglo-Saxon
and Norman civilization gradually spread throughout Scotland,
and hence, too, was assured the pre-eminence of Edinburgh.
Within the county lie the battlefields of Roslin, where (in 1303)
the English suffered three reverses in one day; Burghmuir,
where the English were defeated by the earl of Moray in 1334;
Pinkie near Inveresk, where (in 1547) the duke of Somerset
inflicted heavy loss upon the Scots; and Rullion Green, on the
eastern slopes of the Pentlands, where (in 1666) the Covenanters
were routed by the royal troops under General Dalziel.
See James Grant, Old and New Edinburgh (London, iSSoetseq.);
Miss Warrender, Walks near Edinburgh (Edinburgh, 1890); J. C.
Oliphant, Rambles round Edinburgh (Edinburgh, 1892); J. M. Bell,
Castles of the Lothians (Edinburgh, 1893); W. Bairrl, Annals of
Duddingslon and Portobello (Edinburgh, 1898); J. Geddie, The
Water of Leith (Edinburgh, 1896); Rev. J. Dickson, Ruined Castles
of Midlothian (Edinburgh, 1895) ; The Islands of the Forth (Edinburgh
1899).
EDISON, THOMAS ALVA (1847- ), American inventor,
was born on the nth of February 1847, at Milan, Erie county,
Ohio, of mixed Dutch and Scottish descent; but his parents
moved to Port Huron, Michigan, when he was seven years old.
At the age of twelve he became a train news-boy on the railway
to Detroit, and managed to gratify his youthful interest in
chemistry by performing experiments while travelling. At
fifteen he became a telegraph operator, and was employed in
many cities in the United States and Canada, but frequently
neglected his duties in order to carry on studies and experiments
in electrical science. Before he was twenty-one he had constructed
an automatic repeater, by means of which a message could be
transferred from one wire to another without the aid of an
operator; and he had also directed his attention to the problem
of duplex telegraphy, of which he later invented a successful
system. In 1869 Edison came to New York city, and soon
afterwards became connected with the Gold & Stock Company.
He invented an improved printing telegraph for stock quotations,
for which he received $40,000. He then established a laboratory
and factory in Newark, N.J., for further experiments and for
the manufacture of his inventions. In 1876 he removed to
Menlo Park, and later to West Orange, N.J., wheje he continued
his experiments. Since then his name has been prominently .associ-
ated with all kinds of novelties in practical electricky. Among
his principal inventions are his system of duplex telegraphy,
which he later developed into quadruplex and sextuplex trans-
mission; his carbon telephone transmitter; the microtasimeter,
for the detection of small variations in temperature; the phono-
graph, which records and reproduces all manner of sounds; the
cinematograph, which his improvements made practicable; and
his method of preparing carbon filaments for the incandescent
electric lamp. In 1878 Edison was made a chevalier of the
Legion of Honour by the French government.
EDMONTON, the capital city of the province of Alberta,
Canada, which was constituted in 1905. Pop. (1901) 2652;
(1906) 11,167. It is picturesquely situated on the north bank
of the North Saskatchewan river in 113 37' W. and 53 32' N.
It is on a high tableland which rises 200 ft. above the river, and
overlooks the thickly wooded valley of the North Saskatchewan
river at this point a mile in width, the river itself being one-
eighth of a mile wide. Directly opposite Edmonton on the
south bank of the river stands Strathcona, a town with a popula-
tion of 2927. The streets of Edmonton are wide and laid out in
rectangular form. Its excellent drainage makes street grading
an easy matter. In 1896 it was scarcely a village; in 1901 it
assumed some importance, but three-quarters of the city were
built between 1901 and 1906. Its choice as capital in 1905 gave
it a great impetus. The buildings, largely of brick, give a
substantial appearance to the place. The public school buildings,
high school and Alberta College are attractive. The church
buildings, many in number, include several architecturally
beautiful. Three well planned and commodious hospital
EDMONTON EDMUND, KING OF EAST ANGLIA 947
buildings represent the benevolent work of the community. The
banks and the wholesale warehouses are well built, and many
beautiful private residences are worthy of note. Its growth may
be realized from the fact that during a part of 1906, $806,015
worth of building permits were granted; the customs receipts,
$57,994 in 1905, grew to $104,416 in 1906; the mail parcels
handled increased from 6800 to 12,079; and the express parcels
handled from 1277 to 2347. Edmonton is the depot of the fur
traders for the great region on the north and west. The Hudson's
Bay Company has great interest in Edmonton, but is vigorously
opposed by a strong French firm, Revillon Freres of Paris.
These two companies have their posts wide spread over the
north country. The city, being incorporated, is governed by a
mayor and a board of aldermen. It operates its own water
service, electric light plant, and telephone system. Its schools
are managed by an elected public school board.
Edmonton was begun as a post of the North West Company
about the year 1778. Early in the igth century the Hudson's
Bay Company also established a fort at this point. On the
union of the two companies under the name of the latter, Fort
Edmonton sprang into new importance. It became a north-
western centre, and in its neighbourhood many employees of
the fur company, both Scottish and French, took up land as
settlers. As freighters for the Hudson's Bay Company many
of these settlers made, with their ox or pony carts, the long
journey over the natural prairie roads to Fort Garry, fording
or swimming the streams, carrying furs for a thousand miles or
more on the eastern trip, and returning brought loads of
merchandise for the company. Its inaccessibility made the
Edmonton settlement grow very slowly, so that its great
increase in population belongs to the period subsequent to 1896.
EDMONTON, an urban district in the Enfield parliamentary
division of Middlesex, England, suburban to London, 7^ m. N.
of London Bridge, on the Old North Road, on the west side of
the Lea Valley. Pop. (1891) 25,381; (1901) 46,899. There are
numerous factories in the valley, and Edmonton consists largely
of the cottages of artisans. The church of All Saints has been
extensively restored, but retains part of the ancient fabric of
Perpendicular and earlier date. It contains brasses of interest,
and in the churchyard is the memorial of Charles Lamb, who
lived and died (1834) at Edmonton, and his sister. Cowper and
Keats were also residents, and the Bell Inn is famed through
Cowper's poem John Gilpin.
EDMUND, SAINT [EDMUND RICH] (d. 1240), English saint
and archbishop of Canterbury, was born at Abingdon, near
Oxford, about 1175. His father was a merchant of that town
who retired, with his wife's consent, to the monastery of Eynsham,
leaving in her hands the education of their family. Her name was
Mabel; she was a devout woman who lived an ascetic life and
encouraged her children to do the same. Both her daughters
took the veil; three of her sons served the church in different
capacities. Edmund, her first-born, began his education in a
grammar school at Oxford. Of weak health and a contemplative
disposition, he showed, from his earliest years, a remarkable
taste for learning and religious exercises. He saw visions while
still at school, and at the age of twelve took a vow of perpetual
chastity in the Virgin's church at Oxford. Later he was sent,
with his brother Robert, to study the liberal arts at Paris. His
mother's death and family affairs recalled him for a time to
England; but he afterwards graduated at Paris. For six years
he lectured in the liberal arts, partly in Paris and partly in
Oxford; his career as an Oxford teacher commenced before
1205, and is noteworthy for the fact that he was the first who
lectured there on Aristotle. He then returned to Paris for a
course of theological studies, and rapidly made himself proficient
in that branch of learning.
After spending a year in retirement with the Augustinian canons
of Merton (Surrey) he became a theological lecturer in Oxford.
In this capacity he gained some reputation, and it is related
that his audience were often moved to tears by his eloquence.
He spent the fees which he received in charity, and refused to
spend upon himself the revenues which he derived from several
benefices. He not infrequently retired for solitude to Reading
Abbey; it is probable that he would have become a monk if
that profession had afforded more scope for his gifts as a preacher
and expositor. As his fame increased he became alarmed by
the temptations which it threw in his way. He ceased to lecture
in Oxford, and about 1222 accepted, at the invitation of Bishop
Richard Poore, the treasurership of Salisbury cathedral. Little
is known of his life for the next ten years. But he attracted
the notice of the Roman court, and was appointed in 1227 to
preach the Crusade in England; he formed a friendship with
Ella, countess of Salisbury, and her husband, William Longsword,
and he won general admiration by his works of charity and the
austerity of his life.
In 1233 he was elected archbishop of Canterbury at the express
suggestion of Gregory IX., after the monks of Canterbury had
in vain suggested three other candidates for the pope's approval.
Edmund at once leaped into prominence by the outspoken
manner in which he rebuked the king for following the advice
of foreign favourites. In common with the baronial opposition
he treated Henry III. as responsible for the tragic fate of Richard
Marshal, earl of Pembroke, and threatened the king with ex-
communication. The king bowed before the storm, dismissed
the foreign counsellors, made peace with Marshal's adherents,
and was publicly reconciled with the barons. But the new
ministers were as unpopular as the old; nor was the archbishop
allowed that political influence which he claimed in virtue of his
office. It was with the object of emancipating himself from
Edmund's control that the king asked the pope to send him a
legate (1236). On the arrival of Cardinal Otho (1237) the arch-
bishop found himself thwarted and insulted at every point.
The marriage between Simon de Montfort and the Princess
Eleanor, which Edmund had pronounced invalid, was ratified
at Rome upon appeal. The king and legate upheld the monks
of Canterbury in their opposition to the archbishop's authority.
On all public occasions the legate took precedence of the arch-
bishop. By the advice of his suffragans Edmund laid a protest
before the king, and excommunicated in general terms all who
had infringed the liberties of Canterbury. These measures led
to no result; nor could the pope be moved to reverse the legate's
decisions. Edmund complained that the discipline of the
national church was ruined by this conflict of powers, and began
to meditate retiring. He was confirmed in this intention by the
papal encroachments of the year 1 240, when the English clergy
were required to pay a subsidy of a fifth for the war against
Frederick II., and simultaneously three hundred Romans were
" provided " with English benefices in return for their political
services to the Holy See. Edmund withdrew to Pontigny in
the summer of 1 240. A little later the state of his health com-
pelled him to seek the cooler air of Soissy (near Provins). Here
he died on the i6th of November 1240.
His canonization was at once demanded by his admirers, and
only delayed (till 1247) through the opposition of Henry III. The
honour was well deserved. He is one of the most saintly and
attractive figures in the history of the English church. It was
his misfortune to be placed at the head of the national hierarchy
in a crisis for which he had not been prepared by practical
training or experience. As archbishop he showed no great
capacity or force of character; but the purity of his motives
and the loftiness of his ideals commanded universal respect.
See the Life printed by Martene and Durand in the Thesaurus
novus anecdotorum (1717). Other lives of importance exist in
manuscript at the British Museum, in the Cambridge University
library and in that of St John's College, Cambridge. The last-named
is printed by W. Wallace in the appendix to his Life of Si Edmund
(1893). An account of the manuscript lives and many extracts
(translated) will be found in the Rev. B. Ward's St Edmund (1903).
See also St Edmund of Abingdon (1898), by the Baroness Paravicini;
and the English Historical Review, xxii. pp. 84 ff. (H. W. C. D.)
EDMUND, king of East Anglia (c. 840-870), succeeded to
the East Anglian throne in 855 while he was yet but a boy.
According to Abbo, followed by Florence of Worcester, he was
" ex antiquorum Saxonum prosapia," which would seem to mean
that he was of foreign origin and that he belonged to the Old
EDMUND I. EDMUND, EARL OF LANCASTER
Saxons of the continent. This very doubtful tradition was
expanded later into a fuller legend which spoke of his Old Saxon
parentage, his birth at Nuremberg, his nomination as successor
to Offa, king of East Anglia, and his landing at Hunstanton to
claim his kingdom. His coronation took place in the next year
at " Burna " (i.e. probably Bures St Mary, Suffolk), which was
then the royal capital.
Of the life of St Edmund during the next fourteen years
we know nothing. In the year 870 the Danes, who had been
wintering at York, marched through Mercia into East Anglia
and took up their quarters at Thetford. Edward engaged them
fiercely in battle, but the Danes under their leaders Ubba and
Inguar were victorious and remained in possession of the field
of battle. The king himself was slain, whether on the actual
field of battle or in later martyrdom is not certain, but the widely
current version of the story which makes him fall a martyr to
the Danish arrows when he had refused to renounce his faith or
hold his kingdom as a vassal from the heathen overlords, may
very probably be true. The story is a very old one, and according
to Abbo of Fleury (94^-1004), St Edmund's earliest biographer,
it was told him by Dunstan, who heard it from the lips of
Edmund's own standard-bearer. This is chronologically just
possible, but that is all. The battle was fought at Hoxne, some
20 m. south-east of Thetford, and the king's body was ultimately
interred at Beadoricesworth, the modern Bury St Edmunds.
The shrine of Edmund soon became one of the most famous in
England and the reputation of the saint was European. The
date of his canonization is unknown, but churches dedicated to
his memory are found all over England.
See Asser's Life of Alfred, ed. W. H. Stevenson; Anna's of St
Neots; Saxon Chronicle; Memorials of St Edmund's Abbey (Rolls
Series), including the Passio Sancti Edmundi of Abbo of Fleury;
and the Corolla Sancti Eadmundi, edited by Lord Francis Hervey
(1907). (A. Mw.)
EDMUND I., king of the English (d. 946), was the son of
Eadgifu, third wife of Edward the Elder, and half-brother to
his predecessor ^Ethelstan. He succeeded to the throne in 940,
but had already played an active part in the previous reign,
especially when he fought by the side of his half-brother in the
great battle of Brunanburh.
In the first year of his reign Edmund had trouble with Olaf
or Anlaf Sihtricsson, called Cuaran. The latter had just crossed
from Ireland and had been chosen king by the Northumbrians,
who threw off their allegiance to Edmund. Anlaf took York,
besieged Northampton and destroyed Tamworth, but was met
by Edmund at Leicester. The enemy escaped, but a peaceful
settlement was made by the good offices of Odo of Canterbury
and Wulfstan of York. Simeon of Durham states that a division
of the kingdom was now made, whereby Edmund took England
south of Watling Street and Anlaf the rest. This division seems
incredible, especially in face of the poem inserted in the chronicle
(sub anno 942). There can be little doubt that the story told
there of the reconquest of Northern Mercia by Edmund refers
to the compact with Anlaf, made as a result of the campaign,
and it is probable that Simeon's statement is a wide exaggeration,
due in part at least to a confused reminiscence of the earlier pact
between Alfred and Guthrum. Ail Mercia south of a line from
Dore (near Sheffield), through Whit well to the Humber, was now
in Edmund's hands, and the five Danish boroughs, which had
for some time been exposed to raids from the Norwegian kings
of Northumbria, were now freed from that fear. The peace was
confirmed by the baptism of Kings Anlaf and Raegenald, Edmund
standing as sponsor, but in 944 or 945 the peace was broken and
Edmund expelled Anlaf and Rxgenald from Northumbria.
In 945 Edmund ravaged Strathclyde, and entrusted it all to
Malcolm, king of Scotland, " on condition that he should be his
fellow-worker by sea and land," the object of this policy being
apparently to detach the king of Scots from any possible con-
federacy such as had been formed in 937. '
On the 26th of May 946 Edmund's brief but energetic reign
came to a tragic conclusion when he was stabbed at the royal
villa of Pucklechurch, in Gloucestershire, by an exiled robber
named Liofa, who had returned to the court unbidden. Edmund,
the " deed-doer " as the chronicle calls him, " Edmundus
magnificus " as Florence of Worcester describes him, perhaps
translating the Saxon epithet, was buried at Glastonbury, an
abbey which he had entrusted in 943 to the famous Dunstan.
Edmund was twice married; first to ^Ifgifu, the mother of
Eadwig and Edgar; second to jEthelflaed " set Damerhame "
(i.e. of Damerham, Co. Wilts). ^Elfgifu died in 944, according
to Ethelwerd.
AUTHORITIES. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (ed. Earle and Plummer,
Oxford); Simeon of Durham (Rolls Series); A. S. Laws, ed. Lieber-
mann, pp. 184-191; Birch, Cartularium Saxonicum, Nos. 745-817;
Dictionary of National Biography, s.v. (A. Mw.)
EDMUND, or EADMUND (c. 980-1016), called IRONSIDE, king
of the English, was the son of ^Ethelred II. by his first wife
yElfgifu. When Canute invaded England in 1015, Edmund
sought to resist him, but, paralysed by the treachery and deser-
tion of the ealdorman Edric, he could do nothing, and Wessex
submitted to the Danish king. Next year Canute and Edric
together harried Mercia, while Edmund with infinite difficulty
gathered an army. Returning into Northumbria, he in his turn
harried the districts which had submitted to the invader, but a
march northward by Canute brought about the speedy sub-
mission of Northumbria and the return of Edmund to London.
The death of ^Ethelred on the 23rd of April 1016 was followed
by a double election to the English crown. The citizens of
London and those members of the Witan who were present in the
city chose Edmund, the rest of the Witan meeting at South-
ampton elected Canute. In the warfare which ensued Edmund
fought at the severest disadvantage, for his armies dispersed
after every engagement, whatever its issue. Canute at once
fiercely besieged London, but the citizens successfully resisted
all attacks. Edmund meanwhile marched through Wessex
and received its submission. At Pen in Somersetshire he engaged
the Danes and defeated them. Canute now raised the siege of
London and soon afterwards encountered Edmund at Sherston
in Wiltshire. The battle was indecisive, but Canute marched
back to London and left Edmund in possession of Wessex.
Edmund hastened after him and relieved London, which he had
again besieged. He defeated the Danes at Brentford and again
at Otford, and drove them into Sheppey. He was now joined
by Edric, in conjunction with whom he followed the Danes into
Essex, overtaking them at Assandun (or Ashington). In the
battle which ensued Edric again played the traitor, and the
English were routed with terrible slaughter. Edmund retired
into Gloucestershire, whither he was followed by Canute. He
himself was anxious to continue i^ie struggle, but Edric and the
Witan persuaded him to accept a reconciliation. At Olney
the two rivals swore friendship, and a division of the kingdom
was effected Canute taking the north, Edmund the south.
Soon afterwards Edmund died (3oth of November 1016), prob-
ably from natural causes, though later historians hint at foul
play. (C. S. P.*)
EDMUND, king of Sicily and earl of Lancaster (1245-1296),
was the second son of Henry III. of England by Eleanor of
Provence. At ten years of age Edmund was invested by Pope
Alexander IV. with the kingdom of Sicily (April 1255); the
pecuniary obligations which Henry III. undertook on his son's
behalf were not the least among the causes which led to the
Provisions of Oxford and the Barons' War. Alexander annulled
his grant in 1258, but still pressed Henry for the discharge of
unpaid arrears of subsidies. In 1265, after Montfort's fall,
Edmund received the earldom of Leicester, and two years later
was created earl of Lancaster. He joined the crusade of his elder
brother, the Lord Edward (1271-1272); and Edward, on his
accession, found in Edmund a loyal supporter/ In 1275, two
years after the death of his first wife, Aveline de Fortibus,
Edmund married Blanche of Artois, the widow of Henry III.
of Navarre and Champagne. Although the county of Champagne
had descended to his wife's infant daughter, Joan, Edmund
assumed the title " Count Palatine of Champagne and Brie,"
and is described in the English patent rolls as earl of Lancaster
EDMUNDS EDOM
949
and Champagne. Until 1284 he held, in his wife's right, the
custody of Champagne. This he was compelled to renounce upon
the marriage of Joan to Philip the Fair, the heir to the crown
of France. But he retained the possession of his wife's dower-
lands in Champagne, and is described in an official document
of Champagne so late as the year 1287, as " the Count Edmund."
He was employed by his brother as a mediator with Philip the
Fair in 1293-1294. When Philip's court pronounced that the
king of England had forfeited Gascony, Edmund renounced his
homage to Philip and withdrew with his wife to England. He
was appointed lieutenant of Gascony in 1296, but died in the
same year, leaving a son Thomas to succeed him in his English
possessions.
See " Edmund, Earl of Lancaster," by W. E. Rhodes, in the
English Historical Review, vol. x. pp. 19, 209.
EDMUNDS, GEORGE FRANKLIN (1828- ), American
lawyer and political leader, was born in Richmond, Vermont,
on the ist of February 1828. He began the practice of law in
1849. He was a member of the Vermont House of Representa-
tives in 1854, 1855, 1857, 1858 and 1859, acting for the last two
'years as speaker, and was a member and president pro tern.
of the state Senate in 1861-1862. In 1866 he became a member,
as a Republican, of the United States Senate, where he remained
until 1891, when he resigned in order to have more time for the
practice of his profession. He took an active part in the attempt
to impeach President Johnson. He was influential in providing
for the electoral commission to decide the disputed presidential
election of 1876, and became one of the commissioners. In
the national Republican nominating conventions of 1880 and
1884 he was a candidate for the presidential nomination. From
1882 to 1885 he was president pro tern, of the Senate. As senator
he was conspicuous on account of his legal and parliamentary
attainments, his industry and his liberal opinions. He was the
author of the so-called Edmunds Act (22nd of March 1882) for
the suppression of polygamy in Utah, and of the anti-trust law
of 1890, popularly known as the Sherman Act.
EDOM, the district situated to the south of Palestine, between
the Dead Sea and the Gulf of 'Akaba (Aelanitic Gulf), the
inhabitants of which were regarded by the Israelites as a
" brother " people (.see ESAU). On the E. it touched Moab,
the tribes of the great desert and' the northern part of Arabia;
on the W. its boundaries were determined by the Sinaitic penin-
sula, Egypt and Israel. Both Kadesh and Mt. Hor (perhaps
Jebel Madera) are represented as lying on its border (Num. xx.
1 6, 22), and the modern Wadi el-Fikreh, in which the " Scorpion
pass " was probably situated (Judg. i. 36; Num. xxxiv. 4),
may have marked its limits from Jebel Madera north-west
towards the southern extremity of the Dead Sea. Kadesh
('Ain Cadis'), however, lies about 50 m. south of Beersheba
(the southern end of Israel as opposed to Dan in the north), and
the precise borders must always have been determined by
political conditions: by the relations between Edom and its
neighbours, Judah, the Philistine states, Moab, and the restless
desert tribes with which Edom was always very closely allied.
The northern part of Edom became known by a separate name as
Gebalene (Gebal in Ps. Ixxxiii. 7), the modern Jibal, " mountain
country." Seir or Mt Seir, a synonym for Edom, not to be confused
with the Judaean locality (josh. xv. 10), has been identified with
the modern ei-Sarah, the hilly region to the south of Petra; though
its use probably varied in ancient times as much as that of Edom
certainly did. Mt. yalak, apparently one of its offshoots (Josh. xi.
17, xii. 7), is of uncertain identification, nor can the exact position
of Paran (probably desert of et-Tih) or Zin (Sin) be precisely deter-
mined. The chief Edomite cities extended from north to south on
or adjoining an important trade-route (see below); they include
Bozrah (Buseire), Shobek, Petra (the capital), and Ma'an; farther
to the south lay the important seaports Ezion-Geber (mod. 'Ain el-
Ghudyan, now ism. north of the head of the Aelanitic Gulf) and
Elath (whence the gulf derives its name). Petra (q.v.) is usually
identified with the biblical Sela, unless this latter is to be placed at
the south end of the Dead Sea (Judg. i. 36). The sites of Teman and
Dedan, which also were closely associated with Edom (Jer. xlix. 7 seq. ;
Ez. xxv. 13), are uncertain. No doubt, as a general rule, the relations
between Edomites and the " sons of the east " (Ezek. xxv. 10; Job
i. 3) and the " kingdoms of Hazor " (nomad state's; Jer. xlix. 28,
30, 33) varied considerably throughout the period of O.T. history.
The land of Edom is unfruitful and forbidding, with the
notable exception of fertile districts immediately south of the
Dead Sea and along its eastern border. It was traversed by an
important trade-route from Elath (the junction for routes to
Egypt and Arabia) which ran northwards by Ma'an and Moab ;
but cross-routes turned from Ma'an and Petra to Gaza or up
the Ghor (south end of Dead Sea) to Hebron and Jerusalem. l
Thus Edom formed a prominent centre for traffic from Arabia
and its seats of culture to Egypt, the Philistine towns,
Palestine and the Syrian states, and it enjoyed a commercial
importance which made it a significant factor in Palestinian
history.
The earliest history of Edom is that of the " sand-dwellers,"
" archers " or Shasu (perhaps " marauders "), whose conflicts
with ancient Egypt are not infrequently mentioned. The first
clear reference is in the eighth year of Mineptahll. (close of I3th
century B.C.), when a tribe of Shasu from Aduma received
permission to enter Egypt and feed their flocks. 2 A little more
than a century later Rameses III. claims to have overthrown
the Saaru among the tribes of the Shasu, and the identification
of this name with Seir is usually recognized, although it is
naturally uncertain whether the Edomites of Old Testament
tradition are meant. According to the latter, the Edomites
were a new race who drove out the Horites from Mt. Seir. The
designation suggests that these were " cave-dwellers," but
although many caves and hollows have been found about Petra
(and also in Palestine), this tradition probably " serves only to
express the idea entertained by later generations concerning their
predecessors " (Noldeke).
Not only is Edom as a nation recognized as older than Israel,
but a list of eight kings, who reigned before the Israelite monarchy,
is preserved in Gen. xxxvi.
The first Bela, son of Beor, is often identified with Balaam, but
the traditions of the Exodus are not precise enough to warrant the
assumption that the seer was the king of a hostile land in Num. xx.
14 sqq., which in Deut. ii. 1-8 appears to have been peaceful; see
BALAAM; EXODUS. In Husham, the third king, several scholars
(Gratz, Klostermann, Marquart, &c.) have recognized the true
adversary of Othniel (q.v.; Judg. iii.). The defeat of Midian in the
land of Moab by his successor Hadad has been associated with the
Midianite invasion in the time of Gideon (q.v. ; Judg. vi. sqq.). The
sixth is Shaul, whose name happens to be identical with Saul, king of
Israel, whilst the last Hadad (so i Chron. i. 50) of Pau (or Peor in
Moab, so the Septuagint) should belong to the time of David. The
list, whatever its value, together with the other evidence in Gen.
xxxvi., implies that the Edomites consisted of a number of local
groups with chieftains, with a monarchy which, however, was not
hereditary but due to the supremacy of stronger leaders. The
tradition thus finds an analogy in the Israelite " judges " before the
time of Saul and David.
Saul, the first king of Israel, conquered Edom (i Sam. xiv. 47).*
Of the conquest of Edom by David, the first king of the united
Judah and Israel, several details are given (2 Sam. viii. 13 seq.;
i Kings xi. 14 sqq.; i Chron. xviii. n seq.; cf. Ps. Ix. title and
ver. 8 seq.), although the account of the slaughter is certainly
exaggerated. The scene was the valley of Salt, probably to the
south of the Dead Sea. Of the escape of the Edomite prince
Hadad, and of his residence in Egypt, a twofold account is
1 See further, E. Robinson, Biblical Researches, vol. ii. ; E. Hull,
Mt. Seir; E. H. Palmer, Desert of the Exodus; Baedeker's Palestine
and Syria; C. W. Wilson, " Quart. Stat." (Pal. Explor. Fund), 1899,
p. 307, and G. A. Smith, Ency. Bib. col. 5162 seq.
2 In the old story of Sinuhit (ascribed to the I2th dyn.) the hero
visits the land of Kedem, which, it was suggested, lay to the south-east
or south of the Dead Sea; see, however, now A. H. Gardiner, Sitz.-
Ber. of the Berlin Academy, 1907, pp. 142 sqq. The suggestion
that the city Udumu, in the land of Gar, mentioned in the isth
century (Amarna Tablets, ed. Winckler, No. 237), is Edom, Gar being
the Eg. Kharu (Palestine) and the O.T. Horites (see above), is ex-
tremely hazardous. That the name Aduma (above) refers to Etham
(so Naville, &c.) is improbable.
* That the Edomites preserved this tradition of Saul's sovereignty
and (from their standpoint) enrolled him among their kings (Gen.
xxxvi. 37) cannot of course be proved. The account of the ferocious
slaughter of the priests of Nob at Saul's command by Doeg the
Edomite is a secondary tradition and probably of late origin (i Sam.
xxi. 1-9, xxii. 6-23); cf. the hostility of Edom in exilic and post-
exilic times (p. 878, col. i).
950
EDRED
preserved. 1 After the death of David he returned to Edom; if,
as the narrative implies, he became a troublesome adversary to
Solomon, nothing is known of his achievements, and if the royal
trading-journeys from Ezion-geber were maintained, Edom
could have done little. However, in the first half of the gth
century Edom was under the rule of Jehoshaphat of Judah, and
this king together with Israel held Ezion-geber (i Kings xxii.
47 sqq.; 2 Chron. xx. 35 sqq.). But some catastrophe befell the
fleet, and shortly afterwards Jehoshaphat's son Jehoram had to
face a revolt in which Edom and the men of Libnah (the Philis-
tines) were concerned. It was about this period that Israel had
conquered Moab, thrusting it farther south towards Edom, and
the subsequent success of Moab in throwing off the yoke, and the
unsuccessful attempt of Jehoram of Israel to regain the position,
may show that Edom was also in alliance with Moab. 2 In the
time of Adad-nirari of Assyria (812-783 B.C.) Edom is mentioned
as an independent tributary with Beth-Omri (Israel) and
Palashtu (Philistia); the absence of Judah is perplexing.
Amaziah of Judah had gained a signal victory over Edom in the
valley of Salt (2 Kings xiv. 7), but after his defeat by Jehoash of
Israel there is a gap and the situation is obscure. Consequently
it is uncertain whether Edom was the vassal of the next great
Israelite king Jeroboam II., or whether the Assyrian evidence
for its independent position belongs to this later time. However,
Uzziah, a contemporary of Jeroboam II., and one of the most
successful of Judaean kings, overcame Edom and its natural
allies (2 Chron. xxvi. 6 sqq.), and at this stage Edomite history
becomes more prominent. It joined the great coalition in which
Philistia and Israel were leagued against Assyria, and drove out
the Judaeans who had been in possession of Elath. 3 On the
events that followed see AHAZ; HEZEKIAH; PHILISTINES. The
Assyrian inscriptions name as tributary kings of Edom, Kaui-
melek (time of Tiglath-Pileser IV.), Malik (?)-ram (701 B.C.), and
Kaus-gabri (7th century). In the middle of the 7th century both
Edom and Moab suffered from the restlessness of the desert
tribes, and after another period of obscurity, they joined in
the attempt made by Zedekiah of Judah to revolt against
Nebuchadrezzar (Jer. xxvii. 3). In the last years before the fall of
Jerusalem many of the Jews found a refuge in Edom (Jer. xl. n),
although other traditions throw another light upon the attitude of
Edom during these disasters.
That Edomites burned the temple after the destruction of Jeru-
salem (i Esd. iv. 45, cf. v. 50) is on a line with the repeated denuncia-
tion of their " unbrotherly " conduct in later writings. Certainly
the weak state of Palestine invited attacks from the outlying tribes,
but the tone of certain late writings implies a preliminary period of,
at least, neutrality (cf. Deut. ii. 4 sqq., xxiii. 7 seq. ; the omission of
Edom in xxiii. 3; Neh. xiii. I ; and in Ezra ix. I contrast I Esd.
viii. 69). Subsequently Edom is execrated for revengeful attacks
upon the Jews, and its speedy destruction is foretold; but the
passages appear to be much later than the disaster of 587 B.C., and
may even imply conditions after the restoration (Ob. 10 sqq.
Ezek. xxv. 12-14; J er - *''X. 7: P S - cxxxvii. 7; Lam. iv. 21 seq.
v. 2 sqq.). But at length the day of reckoning came (cf. Is. xxxiv. 5
Ixiii. 1-6), and the fate of Edom is still fresh in the mind of Malachi
(i. 1-5)-
The problem is complicated by the possibility that during the
ages over which the references can range many changes of fortune
could have occurred. The pressure of the Nabataeans (q.v.) forced
Edom to leave its former seats and advance into the south of
Judah with Hebron as the capital. This had been fully accom-
plished by 312 B.C., but the date of the first occupation cannot be
ascertained from the literary evidence alone. Thus the district
1 1 Kings I.e., see the Septuagint and, especially, H. Winckler,
Alttest. Untersuch., pp. 1-15; C. F. Burney, Kings, pp. 158 sqq.;
J'. Skinner, Kings, pp. 443 sqq.; Ed. Meyer, Israeliten, pp. 358 sqq.
'On 2 Kings iii. see JEHORAM; JEHOSHAPHAT; MOAB; and for
the biblical traditions relating to this period see KINGS (Book) and
{EWS: History. The chronicler's account of Judaean successes
2 Chron. xvii. 10 seq.; xx.) and reverses (xxi. 16, xxii. i) may rest
originally upon the source from which I Kings xxii. 47 seq. ; 2 Kings
vih. 20, 22, have been abbreviated. It is hardly probable that there
was enmity between Edom and Moab as 2 Kings iii. now implies,
although hostile relations at other periods are likely (cf. Am. ii. i);
for Edom in Moabite territory see above on Gen. xxxvi. and " Quart.
Stat." (Pal. Explor. Fund), 1902, pp. 10 sqq.
' 2 Kings xvi. 6 ; on the text see the commentaries.
in question is Jewish in the time of Nehemiah (Neh. xi. 25-30),
but it is uncertain whether the Edomite occupation was earlier
(a fusion being assumed) or later, or whether the passage may
be untrustworthy. Henceforth, the new home of the Edomites
is consequently known as Idumaea. See, for further history,
HEROD; JEWS.*
Although but little is known of the inhabitants of Edom, their
close relationship to Judah and their kinship with the surround-
ing tribes invest them with particular interest. The ties which
united Lot (the "father" of Ammon and Moab), Ishmael,
Midian and Edom (Esau) with the southern tribes Judah and
Simeon, as manifested in the genealogical lists, are intelligible
enough on geographical grounds alone, and the significance of this
for the history of Judah and Palestine cannot be ignored. The
traditions recording the separation of Lot from Abraham, of
Hagar and Ishmael from Isaac, and of Esau from Jacob, although
at present arranged in a descending scheme of family relationship,
are the result of systematic grouping and cannot express any
chronological order of events (see GENESIS) . Many motives have
worked to bring these legends into their present form, and while
they depict the character of Israel's wilder neighbours, they
represent the recurrent alternating periods of hostility and
fellowship between it and Edom which mark the history. Esau
(Edom) although the older, loses his superiority, and if the
oracles declare that the elder shall serve the younger (Jacob, i.e.
Israel), the final independence of Esau (Gen. xxv. 23, xxvii. 39
seq.), as foretold, obviously alludes to some successful Edomite
revolt. As an enemy, Edom in alliance with the tribes along the
trade-routes (Philistines, Moabites, &c.) was responsible for many
injuries, and in frequent forays carried away Judaeans as slaves
for Gaza and Tyre (Am. i. 6 seq., 9) . As an ally or vassal, it was in
touch with the wealth of Arabia (Ezek. xxvii. 16, read " Edom "
for " Aram "), and Judah and Israel as well as Gaza and Damascus
enjoyed the fruits of its commerce. In view of the evidence for
the advanced culture of early Arabia, the question of Edom is
extremely suggestive, and although speculation at this stage
would be premature, it is interesting to observe that Edomite and
allied tribes were famed for their wisdom, 5 and that apart from
the possibility of Arabian influence upon Israelite culture, the
influence of Midian and related tribes is certain from the traditions
of Moses and of his work (see JETHRO; KENITES; MOSES), and
the Edomite district was a traditional home of Yahweh himself
(Deut. xxxiii. 2; Judg. v. 4; Hab. iii. 3); see HEBREW RE-
LIGION. It should be added, however, that the Edomite names
and other evidence point to the cult of other gods, viz. Baal,
Hadad, Malik (cf. MOLOCH), Kaus, or Kus, and Kozeh (Jos. Ant.
xv- 7) Q)I w h was probably a sky or lightning deity.
The names Esau and Edom are possibly old divine names; see
ESAU and Ency. Bib. s.v. " Obed-edom " (the name appears to mean
" servant of Edom "). For Kaus, see Baethgen, Beitr. z. semit.
Religions geschichte, p. II seq.; G. A. Cooke, N. Sent. Inscr. p. 234;
Ency. Bib. col. 2682, n. 2 and 2688 (s.v. " Kushaiah ") ; and Zimmern,
Keilinschr. u. d. alte Test. 3 , pp. 472 seq. On the question of early
Arabian civilization see YEMEN. That the name Mizraim (Misraim),
" Egypt," was extended eastwards of the Delta is in itself probable,
but it is still uncertain whether the term (also Ass. Musri) was
applied to Edom. The evidence (which is of mixed value) makes the
view a plausible one, but the theory has often been exaggerated
(see MIZRAIM). For Edom see, generally, Buhl, Gesch. d. Edomiter
('893); Noldeke's article in Ency. Bib.; W. Libbey and F. E.
Hoskins, The Jordan Valley and Petra (1905) ; the conjectural sketch
by I. Levy in Rev. d' etudes juives (Jan. 1906). For the history and
culture of the latest period, see J. P. Peters and Thiersch, Painted
Tombs in the Necropolis of Marissa (1905), ch. i. (S. A. C.)
EDRED (EADRED), king of the English (d. 955), was the
youngest son of Edward the Elder and his wife Eadgifu. He
succeeded his brother Edmund in the year 946 and at this time
received the formal submission both of the Northumbrians and
Scots. In the next year Edred himself went to Tanshelf, near
4 For the Jewish hatred of Edom in later times see the book of
Enoch Ixxxix. 11-12; Jubilees, xxxvii. 22 seq., and on the Talmudic
custom of applying to the Romans the references to Edom or Esau,
see Jewish Ency. vol. v. p. 41.
5 Ob. 8; Jer. xlix. 7 sqq.; Baruch iii. 22, cf. I Kings iv. 30;
see also JOB.
THEORY]
EDRIC EDUCATION
95'
Pontefract, in Yorkshire, where he received from Wulfstan, arch-
bishop of York, and the Northumbrian " witan " confirmation of
their submission. Shortly after they threw their pledges to the
winds and took the Norwegian Eric Bloodaxe, son of Harold
Fairhair (Harald Harfagar), as their king. Edred recklessly
ravaged all Northumbria in revenge, burning Ripon during his
march. On his return home Edred's rearguard was attacked at
Castleford, and the infuriated king once more turned to ravage
Northumbria, which was only saved by its abandonment of Eric
and by compensation made to Edred. Archbishop Wulfstan
seems to have been a centre of disaffection in the north, and in
952 Edred caused him to be imprisoned in the castle of " Judan-
burh," while in the same year the king, in revenge for the slaying
of Abbot Eadelm, slew many of the citizens of Thetford. After
the brief rule of Anlaf Cuaran in Northumbria, Eric was once
more restored, probably in 950, only to be expelled again in 953
or 954, when Edred took the Northumbrian kingdom into his own
hands. In the same year Wulfstan was liberated and appointed
to the Mercian bishopric of Dorchester. Edred died on the 23rd
of November 955 at Frome, in Somersetshire, and was buried in
the old minster at Winchester. During the whole of his life
Edred was troubled by ill-health, a fact which may help to
explain some of the more passionate acts of violence attributed
to him. The king was throughout his life on terms of personal
intimacy with St Dunstan, and his public policy was largely
guided by that prelate and by his own mother Eadgifu. So far as
we know, Edred was never married.
AUTHORITIES. The Saxon Chronicle (ed. Earle and Plummer,
Oxford), sub ann.; Memorials of St Dunstan (Rolls Series, ed.
Stubbs); Florence of Worcester; Birch, Cartularium Saxonicum, vol.
iii., Nos. 815-834 and 860-931 ; D.N.B., art. sub voce. (A. Mw.)
EDRIC, or EADRIC, STREONA (d. 1017), ealdorman of the
Mercians, was a man of ignoble birth who was advanced to high
dignity through the favour of the English king ^Ethelred II. In
1007 he became ealdorman of the Mercians, and subsequently
married vEthelred's daughter Eadgyth. In the struggle between
the English and the Danes he appears in the character of an arch-
traitor. When /Ethelred in 1009 proposed a great attack on the
Danes, Edric dissuaded him from carrying it into effect. Again,
on the invasion of England by Canute in 1015 Edric deserted
Edmund Ironside and joined him. After the battle of Otford he
returned to Edmund, but only by his treachery at the battle of
Assandun to secure the utter defeat of the national cause. When
peace was at length made, Canute restored to Edric the earldom
of Mercia; but at Christmas 1017, fearing further treachery, he
had him slain " very rightly " says the Saxon Chronicle.
EDUCATION. In the following treatment of this subject, the
theory and early history of education is first dealt with, and
secondly the modern organization of education as a national
concern. Many definitions have been given of the word " educa-
tion," but underlying them all is the conception that it denotes
an attempt on the part of the adult members of a human
society to shape the development of the coming generation in
accordance with its own ideals of life. It is true that the word has
not infrequently been used in wider senses than this. For
example, J. S. Mill included under it everything which " helps to
shape the human being "; and, with some poetic licence, we
speak of the education of a people or even of the whole human
race. But all such usages are rhetorical extensions of the
commonly accepted sense of the term, which includes, as an
essential element, the idea of deliberate direction and training
(Lat. educare, to bring up; educere, to draw out, lead forth). No
doubt, all education is effected through the experiences of the
educated, and much of it is indirect, consisting mainly in the
determination of the form of experiences other than those of
direct precept, compulsion and instruction. But it does not
follow that all experiences are educative. Whether an experience
is part of an individual's education or not is determined by its
origin. Whatever be its effect, it is educative in so far as its form
has been arranged with greater or less deliberation by those who
are concerned with the training of him whose experience it is. It
follows that an education may be good or bad, and that its
goodness or badness will be relative to the virtue, wisdom and
intelligence of the educator. It is good only when it aims at the
right kind of product, and when the means it adopts are well
adapted to secure the intended result and are applied intelligently,
consistently and persistently.
Education is, thus, a definitely personal work, and will vary
between wide extremes of effectiveness and worth in any given
society. For in all times and places there are wide differences in
virtue, wisdom and capacity among those who have in their
hands the care and nurture of the young. But the inference that,
therefore, no comparative estimate of the education of different
times and places can be made would be fallacious. For, despite
all differences in conception and efficiency among individual
educators, each expresses, more or less perfectly and clearly, the
common conception and energy of his age and country. As these
rise or fall the general level of the actual educative practice rises
or sinks with them. The first essential for successful educative
effort is, then, that the community as a whole should have a true
estimate of the nature and value of education.
I. EDUCATIONAL THEORY
In any comparative estimate of different places and times, as
tested by the standard just given, it must be borne in mind that,
except in the most general and abstract form, we cannot speak
of an ideally best education. Looking at the individual to be
educated, we may say with Plato that the aim of education is
" to develop in the body and in the soul all the beauty and all the
perfection of which they are capable," but this leaves quite
undecided the nature and form of that beauty and perfection, and
on such points there has never been universal agreement at any
one time, while successive ages have shown marked differences of
estimate. We get nearer to the point when we reflect that
individual beauty and perfection are shown, and only shown, in
actual life, and that such life has to be lived under definite
conditions of time, place, culture, religion, national aspirations
and mastery over material conditions. Perfection of life, then, in
the Athens of the age of Plato would show a very different form
from that which it would take in the London or Paris of to-day.
So an individualistic statement of the purpose of education leads
on analysis to considerations that are not, in themselves, in-
dividualistic. The personal life is throughout a relation between
individual promptings to activity and the environment in which
alone such promptings can, by being actualized, become part of
life. And the perfection of the life is to be sought in the perfection
of the relations thus established. So far, then, as any conception
of education can give guidance to the actual process it must be
relative in every way to the state of development of the society in
which it is given. Indeed, looked at in the mass, education may
be said to be the efforts made by the community to impose its
culture upon the growing generation. Here again is room for
difference. The culture in question may be accepted as absolute
at least in its essentials, and then the ideal.of education will be to
secure its stability and perpetuation, or it may be regarded as a
stage in a process of development, and then the ideal will be to
facilitate the advance of the next generation beyond the point
reached by the present. So some ages will show a relatively
fixed conception of the educative process, others will be times of
unrest and change in this as in other modes of social and
intellectual life.
It is in these latter times that the actual work of education
is apt to lose touch with the culture of the community. For
schools (q.v.) and universities (<?..), which are the ordinary
channels through which adult culture reaches the young, are
naturally conservative and bound by tradition. They are slow
to leave the old paths which have hitherto led to the desired
goal, and to enter on new and untried ways. If the opposition to
change is absolute, there must come a time when the instruments
of education are out of true relation to the desired end. For
change in culture ideals means change fn the specific form of
the goal of education, and consequently the paths of educative
effort need readjustment. When the goal of the past is no
longer the goal of the present, to follow the ways which led to
952
EDUCATION
[THEORY
the former is to fail to reach the latter. Continuous readjustment,
by small and almost imperceptible degrees, is the ideal at which
the educator should aim. When this is not secured, the educa-
tional domain is liable to sudden and violent revolutions which
are destructive of successful educative effort at the time they
occur, however beneficial their results may be in the future.
But the relation of adjustment is not entirely one-sided.
The tone of thought and feeling and the direction of will induced
by education necessarily affect the common ideals of the next
generation, and may make them better or worse than those of
the present. Hence, the educator must not blindly accept all
current views of life, but rather select the highest. For the
average thought of every community is obviously below its best
thought; and may, in some points at any rate, be lower than
the best thought of a past age. While, then, all true education
must be in direct relation with the culture of its age and country,
yet, especially on the ethical side, it should aim at transcending
the average thought and tone.
Still more does this imply that education strives to transcend
the present condition of the educated by making their life more
rational, more volitional, and more attracted by goodness and
beauty than it would otherwise be. It can never be a passive
watching of the child's development. No more fundamental
error can be made than the assumption that education can be
determined wholly, or even mainly, by the tendencies and im-
pulses with which a child is endowed. Its real guiding principle
must be a conception of the nature to which the child may attain,
not a knowledge of that with which it starts. The educator
studies the original endowment of the child and the early stages
in the development of that innate nature in order that he may,
wisely and successfully, employ appropriate means to direct
further development and to accelerate its progress towards a
more rational, complete and worthy life; not that he may the
more skilfully give facilities to the child to drift about on the
unregulated currents of caprice.
Such considerations show the importance of an insight into
the theory of education on the part of all who are practically
concerned with its direction. But the theory required is no
system of abstract ideas ignoring the real concrete conditions
of the life for which the actual education it is to guide is a
preparation. To approach the subject only from the standpoint
of the mental sciences which underlie it is to run the risk of setting
up such a body of abstractions, whose relation to real life is
neither very close nor very direct. The most profitable way of
developing an educational theory for the present is to trace how
in the past education has consciously adapted itself, more or less
truly and fully, to the conditions of culture and social life; and
by analysis to discover the reasons for comparative success or
failure in the degree of clearness with which the end to be sought
was apprehended and the nature of the children to be trained
was understood.
In all ages the claims of the individual and those of the com-
munity have struggled for the mastery as the ultimate principles
of life. As one or the other has prevailed the conception of educa-
tion has emphasized social service or individual success as the
primary end. The true harmony of human life will only be
attained when these two impulses, contradictory on their own
level, are united in a higher synthesis which sees each as the
complement of the other in a life whose purpose is neither simple
egoism nor pure altruism. Until that conception of life is
attained and held generally there can be no sure and universally
accepted conception of the aim and function of education. Much
of the interest of the history of education x turns on the relation
of these two principles as determinants of its aim.
In ancient Greece the supremacy of the state was generally
unquestioned, and, especially in the earlier times, the good man
Old Greet was identified w i tri ^he good citizen. No doubt, in
education. ^ ater days philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle,
saw clearly that the round of the duties of citizenship
did not exhaust the life of the individual. With them the highest
1 For the evolution of the school as such from early times see
SCHOOLS.
life was one of cultured leisure in which the energies were mainly
concentrated on the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake.
But this " diagogic " life was only for the select few; for the
undistinguished many the fulfilment by each of the duties of
his station remained the measure of worthy life, though such
duties were regarded as affecting the individual and private
relations of the citizens in a much more intimate way than in
former and ruder ages. And for those who devoted their lives
to the highest culture, the essential preliminary condition was
the existence of such a state as would form the most favourable
environment for their pursuits and the most stable foundation
for their leisured life. Thus Greek thought was saturated with
the conception of life as essentially a set of relations between
the individual and the city-state of which he formed an integral
part. The first aim of education was therefore to train the young
as citizens.
This training must, of necessity, be of a specific kind; for, like
other small communities, the Greek city-states showed a life
fundamentally one in conception, under various specific forms.
Each state had its special character, and to this character the
education given in it must conform if it were to be an effective
instrument for training the citizens. From these fundamental
conceptions flowed the demands of Plato and Aristotle that
education should be regulated in all its details by the state
authority, should be compulsory on all free citizens, and should
be uniform at any rate in its earlier stages for all. In the
Republic and the Laws, Plato shows to what extreme lengths
theory may go when it neglects to take account of some of the
most pertinent facts of life. For the guardian-citizens of the
ideal state family life and family ties are abolished; no lower
community is to be allowed to enter into competition with the
state. Aristotle, indeed, did not go to these extreme lengths;
he allowed the family to remain, but he seems to have regarded
it as likely to affect children more for evil than for good.
In the essential principles laid down by both philosophers as to
the relation of the state to education, and in the corollaries they
drew from that relation, they were not at variance with the
accepted Greek theory on the subject. It is true that the actual
practice of Greek states departed, and often widely, from this
ideal, for, especially in later centuries, the Greek always tended to
live his own life. The nearest approach to the theory was found
in Sparta, where the end of the state as a military organization
was kept steadily in view, and where, after early childhood, the
young citizens were trained directly by the state in a kind of
barrack life the boys to become warriors, the girls the mothers
of warriors. It was this feature of Spartan education, together
with the rude simplicity of life it enforced, which attracted Plato,
and, to a less extent, Aristotle. In Athens there had of old been
state laws insisting on the attendance of the children of the free
citizens at school, and, in some degree, regulating the schools
themselves. But at the time of Plato these had fallen into
desuetude, and the state directly concerned itself only with
the training of the ephebi, for which, we learn from Aristotle's
Constitution of Athens, somewhat elaborate provisions were made
by the appointment of officers, and the regulation of both in-
tellectual and physical pursuits. For children and youths under
the ephebic age there was no practical regulation of schools or
palaestra by the state. Yet there is no doubt that the education
really given was in conformity with Athenian ideals of culture and
life, and that it was generally received by the children of free
citizens, though of course the sons of the wealthy, then as now,
could and did continue their attendance at school to a later age
than their poorer brethren. The education of girls was essen-
tially a domestic training. What Plato and Aristotle, with the
theorist's love of official systematic regulation, regarded as the
greatest defect of Athenian education was in reality its strongest
point. In practice, the harmony between individual liberty and
social claims was much more nearly attained under a system of
free working out of common thoughts and ideals than would have
been the case under one of the irresistible imposition from without
of a rigid mould.
The instruments of education everywhere found to be in
THEORY]
EDUCATION
953
harmony with the Greek conception of life and culture
were essentially twofold, " music " (HOIXTIK^), or literary
and artistic culture, for the mind, and systematic gymnastic
(yvnvcurTiKif) for the body. Plato, in the Republic, shows that
the latter, as well as the former, affects the character, and
doubtless, though not formulated, this was generally more or less
vaguely felt. But Greek gymnastic was really an individual
training, and therefore made only indirectly for the aim of
cultivating the social bonds of citizenship. Ancient Greece had
nothing corresponding in value in this respect to the organized
games which form so important a feature in the school life of
modern England. The " musical " training was essentially in the
national literature and music of Greece, and this could obviously
be carried to very different lengths. The elements of mathematical-
science were also commonly taught. The essential purpose
throughout was the development of the character of a loyal
citizen of Athens. As Athenian culture advanced, increasing
attention was paid to diagogic studies, especially in the ephebic
age, with a corresponding decrease of attention to merely
physical pursuits; hence the complaints of such satirists as
Aristophanes of a growing luxury, effeminacy and corruption of
youths: complaints apparently based on a comparison of the
worst features of the actual present with an idealized and
imaginative picture of the virtues of the past. Such comparison
is, indeed, implicit in much of Plato and Aristotle as well as in
Aristophanes.
But a disintegrating force was already at work in the
educational system of Greece which Plato and Aristotle vainly
opposed. This was the rhetorical training of the Sophists, the
narrowly practical and individualistic aim. of which was entirely
out of harmony with the older Greek ideals of life and culture.
In a democratic city-state the orator easily became a demagogue,
and generally oratory was the readiest path to influence and
power. Thus oratory opened the way to personal ambition, and
young men who were moved by that passion eagerly attended the
Sophist schools where their dominant motive was strengthened.
Further, the closer relations between the Greek states, both in
nearer and farther Hellas, led naturally to the diminution of
differences between civic ideals, and, as a consequence, to a more
cosmopolitan conception of higher education. This process was
completed by the loss of political independence of the city-states
under the Macedonian domination. Henceforth, higher educa-
tion became purely intellectual, and its relation to political and
social life increasingly remote. This, combined with the growing
rhetorical tendency already noticed, accounts for the sterility of
Greek thought during the succeeding centuries. The means
of higher education were, indeed, more fully organized. The
university of Athens was the outcome of a fusion of the private
philosophical schools with the state organization for the training
of the ephebi, and there were other such centres of higher
culture, especially in after years at Alexandria, where the
contact of Greek thought with the religions and philosophies
of Egypt and the East gave birth in time to the more or less
mystical philosophies which culminated in Neo-platonism.
But at Athens itself thought became more and more sterile, and
education more and more a' mere training in unreal rhetoric, till
the dissolution of the university by Justinian in A.D. 529.
Thus when Rome conquered Greece, Greek education had lost
that reality which is drawn from intimate relation to civic life,
and the fashionable individualistic schools of philosophy
cou ld do nothing to replace the loss. It was, then, an
education which had largely lost its life-springs that was
transferred to Rome. In the earlier centuries of the republic,
Roman education was given entirely in family and public life.
The father had unlimited power over his son's life, and was open
to public censure if he failed to train him in the ordinary moral,
civic and religious duties. But it is doubtful if there were any
schools (<?..), and it is certain there was no national literature to
furnish an instrument of culture. A Roman boy learnt to
reverence the gods, to read, to bear himself well in manly
exercises, and to know enough of the laws of his country to
regulate his conduct. This last he acquired directly by hearing
his father decide the cases of his clients every morning in his hall.
The rules of courtesy he learnt similarly by accompanying his
father to the social gatherings to which he was invited. Thus
eavly Roman education was essentially practical, civic and
moral, but its intellectual outlook was extremely narrow.
When a wider culture was imported from Greece it was,
however, the form rather than the spirit of true Hellenic educa-
tion that was transferred. This was, indeed, to some
extent inevitable from the decadent state of Greek
education at the time, but it was accentuated by the education.
essentially practical character of the Roman mind.
The instrument of education first introduced was Greek literature,
much of which was soon translated into Latin. In time the
schools of the grammatici, teaching grammar and literature, were
supplemented by schools of rhetoric and philosophy, though the
philosophy taught in them was itself little more than rhetorical
declamation. These furnished the means of higher culture for
those youths who did not study at Alexandria or Athens, and
were also preparatory to studies at those universities. Under the
Empire the rhetorical schools were gradually organized into a
state system, the general principles of administration being laid
down by imperial decree, and even such details as the appoint-
ment and rate of payment of the professors, at first left to the
municipalities, being in time assumed by the central government.
There is no evidence of any state regulation or support of the
lower schools. This widening of culture affected both boys and
girls, the domestic education of the latter being supplemented
by a study of literature. But it is the higher training in
rhetoric which is especially characteristic of Hellenized Roman
education.
The conception of a rhetorical culture is seen at its best
in Quintilian's Institutio oratorio, the most systematic treatise
on education produced by the ancient world. With Quintilian
the ideal of an orator was a widely cultured, wise and honourable
man. And at first the teaching of rhetoric undoubtedly made
for higher and true culture. But with the autocracy, soon
passing into tyranny, of the empire, rhetoric ceased to be a
preparation for real life. The true function of oratory is to
persuade a free people. When it cannot be applied to this
purpose it becomes little more than a means of intellectual
frivolity, or, at the best, an exhibition of cultured ingenuity.
Under the empire a rhetorical training was, indeed, turned in
not a few instances to practical but most unworthy uses by
the delators; a result made possible by the legal system which
rewarded delation with a considerable portion of the estate
of the condemned. Even apart from this, the education in
rhetoric had an increasingly evil effect both on the culture and
on the character of the higher classes in the Roman empire.
Out of real connexion with life as it was, it sought its subjects
in the realms of the fanciful and the trivial, and with unreality
of topic went of necessity deterioration of style. The vivid
presentment of living thought gave way to that inflated and
bombastic abuse of meretricious ornament and far-fetched
metaphor in which human speech is always involved when it
sets forth ideas, or shadows of ideas, which grow out of no con-
viction in the speaker and are expected to carry no conviction
to the hearer. Imitation of the form of great models, without
the substance of thought which underlay them, led to a general
unreality and essential falseness of mental life. Further, the
continual gazing with admiration on the productions of the past,
and the conception of excellence as consisting in closeness of
imitation, induced a servile attitude of mind towards authority
in all too close agreement with the political servility which
marked the Roman court. Such an attitude was essentially
hostile to mental initiative, and thus rhetoric became not merely
an art of expression but a type of character.
Nor was there anything in the general conditions of society
to counterbalance the ill effects of school and university education.
Quintilian lamented that, even in his time, the old Roman
family education by example was corrupted; and the moral
degradation of later times, though it has doubtless been ex-
aggerated, was certainly real and widespread. Nor does the
954
EDUCATION
[THEORY
religious revival of Paganism which synchronized with the early
centuries of Christianity appear to have effected any reform in life.
Alexandria, the birthplace of Neo-platonism and the intellectual
centre of the later empire, was also a very sink of moral obliquity.
It was into such a decaying civilization, which by its want of
vitality sterilized education, oppressing it under the weight of
Christ!- a dead tradition, that Christianity brought new life.
fatty mad Of course, careful instruction in the Faith was given
Pagan in catechetical schools, of which that at Alexandria
education. wag ^ mos t f am ous. But the question as to the
attitude of Christians towards the ordinary classical culture was
important. On the one hand, literature was saturated with
Paganism, and the Pagan festivals formed a regular part of school
life. On the other hand, the Pagan education offered the only
means of higher culture, and thus furnished the only weapon
with which Christians could successfully meet their controversial
antagonists. Quite at first, no doubt, when the converts to the
new faith were few and obscure, the question scarcely arose;
but as men of culture and position were attracted to the Church
it became urgent. The answers given by the Christian leaders
were various, and largely the outcome of temperament and
previous training. The Greek Fathers, especially Clement of
Alexandria (iso-2i7)and Origen(i85-253), regarded Christianity
as essentially the culmination of philosophy, to which the way
must be found through liberal culture. Without a liberal educa-
tion the Christian could live a life of faith and obedience but could
not attain an intellectual understanding of the mysteries of
the Faith. On the other hand, Tertullian (160-240) was very
suspicious of Pagan culture; though he granted the necessity of
employing it as a means of education, yet he did so with regret,
and would forbid Christians to teach it in the public schools,
where some recognition of Paganism would be implied. The
general practice of the Christians, however, did not conform
to Tertullian's exhortations. Indeed, many of the cultivated
Christians of the 3rd and 4th centuries were little more than
nominal adherents to the Faith, and the intercourse between
Christian and Pagan was often close and friendly. The general
attitude of Christians towards the traditional education is
evidenced by the protest raised against the edict of Julian, which
forbade them to teach in the public schools. The ultimate out-
come seems to be fairly expressed in the writings of St Augustine
(354-430) and St Jerome (346-420), who held that literary and
rhetorical culture is good so long as it is kept subservient to the
Christian life.
In another way Greek philosophy exercised an abiding in-
fluence over the culture of future ages. The early centuries of
Christianity felt the need of formulating the Faith to preserve
it from disintegration into a mass of fluid opinions, and such
formulation was of necessity made under the influence of the
philosophy in which the early Fathers had been trained that
Neo-platonism which was the last effort of Paganism to attain a
conception of life and of God. In the West, this formulation had
to be translated into Latin, for Greek was no longer generally
understood in Italy, and thus the juristic trend of Roman
thought also became a factor in the exposition of Christian
doctrine. This formulation of the Faith was one of the chief
legacies the transition centuries passed on to the middle ages.
Had classical culture been less formal than it was during
the early centuries of Christianity, the innate antagonism of
the Pagan and Christian views of life and character must have
been so apparent that the education which prepared for the
one could not have been accepted by the other. It was only
because rhetorical culture was so emphatically intellectual, and
so little, if at all, moral in its aims, that its inherent opposition
to the Christian conception of character was not obvious. That
its antagonistic influence was not inoperative is shown by the
not infrequent perversions of cultured Christians to Paganism.
But generally the opposition was so obscured that the ethical
writings of St Ambrose (340-397) are largely Stoic in conception
and reasoning. Yet the Pagan ideal of life, especially as it had
been developed in the individualistic ethics which had prevailed
for more than six centuries, was antithetical in essence to that
of the Christian Church. The former was essentially an ethics
of self-reliance and self-control showing itself in moderation
and proportion in all expressions of life. An essential feature in
such a character was high-mindedness and a self-respect which
was of the nature of pride. On the contrary, Christian teaching
exalted humility as one of the highest virtues, and regarded pride
and self-confidence as the deadliest of sins. It recognized no
doctrine of limitation; what was to be condemned could not be
abhorred too violently, nor could what was good be too strongly
desired or too ardently sought. The highest state attainable by
man was absorption in loving ecstasy in the mystic contemplation
of God. The practical attempt to realize this gave rise to
monasticism, with its minutely regulated life expressing un-
limited obedience and the renunciation of private will at every
moment. The monastic life was regarded as the nearest approach
to the ideal which a Christian could make on earth. Naturally,
as this conception gathered strength in generations nurtured
in it, the value of classical culture became less and less apparent,
and by the time of St Gregory the Great (d. 604) the use of
classical literature except as means of an education having
quite another end than classical culture was discouraged.
Of course, during these centuries, the gradual subjugation
of the western empire by the barbarians had been powerfully
operative in the obscuring of culture. Most of the Eftfct of
public schools disappeared, and generally the light of the
learning was kept burning only in monasteries, and in barbarian
them more and more faintly as they became more or lan >* d& -
less isolated units exposed to attack by ruthless foes or living in
continual dread of such attack. Though the barbarians absorbed
the old culture in various degrees of imperfection, yet the four
centuries following the death of St Augustine were plunged in
intellectual darkness, relieved by transitory gleams of light in
Britain and by a more enduring flame in Ireland. The utmost
that could be done was to preserve to some extent the heritage
of -the past. This, indeed, was essentially the work of men like
Boethius, Cassiodorus, Isidore and Bede.
During these same centuries another process had been advanc-
ing with accelerating steps. This was the modification of the
Latin language. In the early centuries of Christianity
literary Latin was already very different from colloquial u a of
Latin, especially in the provinces; and, as has been Latin.
said, the literary output of the last age of Paganism
was marked by sterility of thought and meretricious redundancy
of expression. On the other hand, the writings of Christianity
show a real living force seeking to find appropriate expression
in new forms. Thus, with Christian writers, slavish imitation
of the past gradually gave way to the evolution of a new and
living Latin, which showed itself more and more regardless of
classical models. To express the new ideas to which Christianity
gave birth fresh words were coined, or borrowed from colloquial
speech or from the Hebrew and Greek Scriptures. This Christian
Latin was a real living instrument of expression, which conformed
itself in its structure much more closely to the mode of thought
and expression of actual life than did the artificial imitation of
antiquity in which the literary productions of Paganism were
clothed. It is the Latin in which St Jerome wrote the Vulgate.
But with the obscuring of culture during the barbarian invasions
this current Latin became more and more oblivious of even such
elements of form as grammatical inflexions and concords.
It was to the reformation of this corrupt Latin by a return
to classical models, and to the more general spread of culture,
especially among clergy and nobles, that the Carolingian
revival addressed itself. The movement was essentially // n _/ an
practical and conservative. Alcuin (735-804), who revival.
was Charlemagne's educational adviser and chief
executive officer in scholastic matters, was probably the best
scholar of his time, and himself loved the classical writings with
which he was acquainted; but the text-books he wrote were but
imperfect summaries of existing compendia, and the intellectual
condition of his pupils forbade a very generous literary diet even
had he thought it desirable, of which there is some doubt. The
most valuable outcome of the movement was the establishment
THEORY]
EDUCATION
955
of the palace school, and of bishops' schools and monastic schools
throughout the empire. Of these the latter were the most
important, and each of the chief monasteries had from the time
of Charlemagne an external school for pupils not proposing to
enter the order as well as an internal school for novices. Thus,
the educational system north of the Alps was pre-eminently
ecclesiastical in its organization and profoundly religious in its
aims. For two centuries the new intellectual life was obscured
by the troubled times which followed the death of Charlemagne,
but the learning which the Carolingian revival had restored was
preserved here and there in cathedral and monastic schools,
and the sequence of well-educated ecclesiastics was never alto-
gether interrupted.
The scope of that learning was comprised within the seven
liberal arts and philosophy, on the secular side, together with
The some dogmatic instruction in the doctrines of the
medieval Church, the early fathers, and the Scriptures. Theology
was as yet not organized into a philosophical system :
that was the great work the middle ages had to perform.
The seven liberal arts (divided into the Trivium grammar,
dialectic, rhetoric; and the more advanced Quodrivium
geometry, arithmetic, music, astronomy) were a legacy from
old Roman education through the transition centuries. They
appear in the Disciplinarum libri IX. of Varro in the 2nd
century B.C., where are added to them the more utilitarian arts
of medicine and architecture. But they reached the middle
ages chiefly through the summaries of writers in the transition
centuries, of which the best known were the De nuptiis Philo-
logiae et Mercurii of the Neo-platonist Martianus Capella, who
wrote probably early in the sth century; the De artibus ac
disciplinis liberalium lilterarum of the Christian Cassiodorus
(468-562); and the Etymologiarum libri XX. of St Isidore of
Seville (570-636).
The scope of the arts was wider than their names would
suggest in modern times. Under grammar was included the
study of the content and form of literature; and in practice
the teaching varied from a liberal literary culture to a dry and
perfunctory study of just enough grammar to give some facility
in the use of Latin. Dialectic was mainly formal logic. Rhetoric
covered the study of law, as well as composition in prose and
verse. Geometry was rather what is now understood by geo-
graphy and natural history, together with the medicinal properties
of plants. Arithmetic, with the cumbrous Roman notation,
included little more than the simplest practical calculations
required in ordinary life and the computation of the calendar.
Music embraced the rules of the plain-song of the Church, some
theory of sound, and the connexion of harmony and numbers.
Astronomy dealt with the courses of the heavenly bodies, and
was seldom kept free from astrology. In philosophy the current
text-books were the De consolalione phttosophiae of Boethius
(470-524), an eclectic summary of pagan ethics from the stand-
point of the Christian view of life, and the same writer's adapted
translations of the Categories and De inlerpretatione of Aristotle
and of Porphyry's Introduction to tlie Categories.
It is evident that though such a scheme of studies might in
practice, during ages of intellectual stagnation and general
ignorance, be arid in the extreme, it was capable in time of
revival of giving scope to the widest extension of culture. It
was, indeed, at once comprehensive and unified in conception,
and well adapted to educate for the perfectly definite and clear
view of life which the Church set before men.
In the nth century Europe had settled down, after centuries
of war and invasion, into a condition of comparative political
stability, ecclesiastical discipline, and social tran-
quillity: the barbarians had been converted, and, as in
revival. the case of the Normans, had pressed to the forefront
of civilization; civic life had developed in the fortified
towns of Italy, raised as defences against the pressure of Saracen
and Hungarian invasions. Soon, communication with the East
by trade and in the Crusades, and with the highly cultivated
Moors in Spain, further stimulated the new burst of intellectual
life. Arabic renderings of some of the works of Aristotle and
commentaries on them were translated into Latin and exercised
a profound influence on the trend of culture. A new translation
of Aristotle's Metaphysics appeared in 1 167, and by the beginning
of the ijth century all his physical, metaphysical and ethical
treatises were available, and during the next half century the
translations from Arabic versions were superseded by render-
ings direct from the original Greek. As expositions of the real
doctrines of Aristotle the translations from the Arabic left much
to be desired. Renan calls the medieval edition of the Com-
mentaries of Averroes " a Latin translation of a Hebrew transla-
tion of a commentary made upon an Arabic translation of a
Syriac translation of a Greek text." The study of such works
often led to the enunciation of doctrines held heretical by the
theologians, and it was only when the real Aristotle was known
that it was found possible to bring the Peripatetic philosophy
into the service of theology.
There were thus two broad stages in the educational revival
commonly known as scholasticism. In the first the controversies
were essentially metaphysical, and centred round the question
of the nature of universals; the orthodox theological party
generally supporting realism, or the doctrine that the universal
is the true reality, of which particulars and individuals are only
appearances; while the opposite doctrine of nominalism that
universals are " mere sounds " and particulars the only true
existences showed a continual disposition to lapse into heresies
on the most fundamental doctrines of the Church. The second
stage was essentially constructive; the opposition of philosophy
to theology was negated, and philosophy gave a systematic
form to theology itself. The most characteristic figure of the
former period was Abelard (1079-1142), of the latter St Thomas
Aquinas (1225-1274). The former knew little of Aristotle
beyond the translations and adaptations of Boethius, but he was
essentially a dialectician who applied his logic to investigating
the fundamental doctrines of the Church and bringing everything
to the bar of reason. This innate rationalism appeared to bring
theology under the sway of philosophy, and led to frequent
condemnations of his doctrines as heretical. With St Thomas,
on the other hand, the essential dogmas of Christianity must be
unquestioned. In his Summa theologiae he presents all the
doctrines of the Church systematized in a mould derived from
the Aristotelian philosophy.
It is evident, then, that during the period of the scholastic
revival, men's interests were specially occupied with questions
concerning the spiritual and the unseen, and that
the great instrument of thought was syllogistic logic,
by which consequences were deduced from premises
received as unquestionably true. There was a general accept-
ance of the authority of the Church in matters of belief and
conduct, and of that of Aristotle, as approved by the Church, in
all that related to knowledge of this world.
Before the rediscovery of Aristotle exerted such a general
influence on the form of education, there was a real revival of
classical literary culture at Chartres and a few other schools, and
John of Salisbury (d. 1 182) in his Metalogicus advocated literature
as an instrument of education and lamented the barrenness of
a training confined to the subtleties of formal logic. But the
recrudescence of Aristotle accelerated the movement in favour of
dialectic, though at the same time it furnished topics on which
logic could be exercised which only a bare materialism can
esteem unimportant. The weaknesses of the general educational
system which grew up within scholasticism were that haste to
begin dialectic led to an undue curtailment of previous liberal
culture, and that exclusive attention to philosophical and
theological questions caused a neglect of the study of the physical
world and a disregard of the critical functions of the intellect.
Doubtless there were exceptions, of which perhaps the most
striking is the work in physical science done at Oxford by Roger
Bacon (1214-1294). But Albertus Magnus (1193-1280), the
master of St Thomas, was also a student of nature and an
authority for his day on both the natural and the physical
sciences. And the work of Grosseteste (d. 1 2 53) , as chancellor of
the university of Oxford, shows that care for a liberal literary
95 6
EDUCATION
[THEORY
culture was by no means unknown. Always there were such
examples. But too often boys hastened to enter upon dialectic
and philosophy as soon as they had acquired sufficient smattering
of colloquial Latin to engage in the disputes of the schools. A
deterioration of Latin was the unavoidable consequence of such
premature specialization. The seven liberal arts were often not
pursued in their entirety, and students remained satisfied with
desiccated compendia of accepted opinions. Thus the encyclo-
paedias of general information which were in general use during
the middle ages show little or no advance in positive knowledge
upon the treatment of similar subjects in Isidore of Seville.
The services of scholasticism to the cause of education,
however, cannot well be overestimated, and the content of
The scholastic studies was in fundamental harmony with
foundation the intellectual interests of the time. Above all other
ofuniver- benefits owed by future ages to scholasticism is the
* iaef - foundation of the universities of western Europe. The
intellectual activity of the nth century led everywhere to a
great increase in the number of scholars attending the monastic
and cathedral schools. Round famous teachers, such as Abelard,
gathered crowds of students from every country. In the iath
century the need for organizing such bodies of teachers and
students was imperative, and thus the earlier universities arose
in Italy, France and England, not by deliberate foundation of
secular or ecclesiastical ruler, but as spontaneous manifestations
of the characteristic medieval impulse to organize into institutions.
Afterwards, charters conferring powers and privileges were sought
from both Church and state, but these only confirmed the self-
governing character the universities had borne from the first.
Each of the early universities was a specialized school of higher
study: Salerno was a school of medicine; Bologna was the
centre of that revival of Roman law which wrought so profound
an effect upon the legal systems of France and Germany towards
the close of the medieval period. But the greatest of medieval
universities was that of Paris, emphatically the home of philo-
sophy and theology, which was the model upon which many other
universities, including Oxford and Cambridge, were organized.
The German universities were of later origin, the earliest
being Prague (1348) and Vienna (1365). They indicate the more
recognized position the movement had attained; for nearly all
were founded by the civic authority, and then obtained the
recognition of the Church and charters from the emperor.
The concentration of higher instruction in universities was not
antagonistic to the medieval conception of the Church as the
teacher of mankind. University life was modelled on
worit* juT tnat * tne cloister > though the monastic ideal could not
Ufa. be fully realized, and the scholars not infrequently
exhibited considerable licence in life. This was in-
evitable with the very large numbers of the scholars and the
great variations of age among them. Moreover students, and to a
less extent teachers, passed from university to university, so that
the universities of medieval Europe formed a free confederacy of
learning in close relation to the Church but untrammelled by state
control. Nevertheless, they were less definitely ecclesiastical
than the cathedral seminaries which they largely supplanted, and
the introduction of studies derived from the Greeks through the
Arabians led to an increased freedom of thought, at first within
authorized limits, but prepared, when occasion served, to
transcend those limits.
The scheme of instruction was arranged on the assumption that
special studies should be based on a wide general culture. Thus
of the four faculties into which university teaching was organized,
that of arts, with its degrees of Baccdaureat and Magister, was
regarded as propaedeutic to those of theology, law and medicine.
It often included, indeed, quite young boys, for the distinction
between grammar school and university was not clearly drawn.
Attention was concentrated on those subjects which treat of man
and his relations to his fellow-men and to God, and no attempt
was made to extend the bounds of knowledge. The aim was to
pass on a body of acquired knowledge regarded as embracing all
that was possible of attainment, and the authority of Aristotle in
physics as well as in philosophy, and of Galen and Hippocrates
in medicine was absolute. The methods of instruction by
lecture, or commentary on received texts; and by disputation,
in which the scholars acquired dexterity in the use of the
knowledge they had absorbed were in harmony with this
conception, and were undoubtedly thoroughly well suited to the
requirements of an age in which the ideal of human thought was
not discovery but order, and in which knowledge was regarded as
a set of established propositions, the work of reason being to
harmonize these propositions in subordination to the authori-
tative doctrines of the Church.
Such an extension of the means of higher education as was
given by the universities was naturally accompanied by a
corresponding increase in schools of lower rank. Not Medlevtt
only were there grammar schools at cathedral and Sc a 00 / s .
collegiate churches, but many others were founded in
connexion with chantries, and by some of the many gilds into
which medieval middle-class life organized itself. The Dominican
and Franciscan friars were enthusiastic promoters of learning
both in universities and in schools, and in the Netherlands the
Brethren of the Common Life, founded by Gerard Groote and
approved by Eugenius IV. in 1431, regarded school teaching as
one of their main functions, and the promotion of learning by the
multiplication of manuscripts as another. The curriculum was
represented broadly by the Trivium. The greatest attention was
paid to grammar, which included very various amounts of reading
of classical and Christian authors, the most commonly included
being Virgil, parts of Ovid and Cicero, and Boethius. The text-
books in grammar were the elementary catechism on the eight
parts of speech by Donatus, a Roman of the 4th century, said
to have been the tutor of St Jerome, and the more advanced
treatise of Priscian, a schoolmaster of Constantinople about A.D.
500, which remained the standard text-book for over a thousand
years. In rhetoric Cicero's De oratore was read, and dialectic
was practised, as in the universities, by means of disputations.
In addition to the grammar schools were writing and song
schools of an elementary type, in which instruction was usually in
the vernacular. Girls were taught in women's monasteries and in
the home, and those of the upper classes at least very generally
learned to read, write and keep accounts, as well as fine needle-
work, household duties and management, and such elementary-
surgery and medicine as served in cases of slight daily accidents
and illnesses. Even those boys and girls who did not receive
formal scholastic instruction were instructed orally by the parish
priests in the doctrines and duties of the Faith; while the pictures
and statues with which the churches were adorned aided the
direct teaching of sermons and catechizing in giving a general
knowledge of Bible history and of the legends of the saints.
No doubt, in times of spiritual and intellectual lethargy,
the practice fell short of the theory; but on the whole it may
be concluded that in medieval times the provision for higher
instruction was adequate to the demand, and that, relatively
to the culture of the time, the mass of the people were by no
means sunk in brutish ignorance. Indeed, especially when the
paucity of books before the invention of printing is borne in
mind, the number of people who could read the vernacular, as
evidenced by the demand for books in the vulgar tongue as soon
as printing made them available, is clear proof that the latter
part of the middle ages was by no means a time of general
illiteracy.
Feudalism, the other characteristic aspect of medieval society,
had also its system of education, expressing its own view of life,
and preparing for the adequate performance of its
duties. This was the training in chivalry given to Education
pages and squires in the halls and castles of the great. btvalry
Hallam has well said: " There are, if I may so say,
three powerful spirits which have from time to time moved over
the face of the waters, and given a predominant impulse to the
moral sentiments and energies of mankind. These are the
spirits of liberty, of religion and of honour. It was the principal
business of chivalry to animate and cherish the last of these."
And this was not in opposition to the spirit of religion which
animated the scholastic education which went on side by side
THEORY]
EDUCATION
957
with it. Throughout chivalry was sanctified by the offices of the
Church. The education of chivalry aimed at fitting the noble
youth to be a worthy knight, a just and wise master, and a
prudent manager of an estate. Much was acquired by daily
experience of a knightly household, but in addition the page
received direct instruction in reading and writing; courtly
amusements, such as chess and playing the lute, singing and
making verses; the rules and usages of courtesy; and the
knightly conception of duty. As a squire he practised more
assiduously the knightly exercises of war and peace, and in the
management of large or small bodies of men he attained the
capacity of command.
With the unification of existing knowledge and the systemat-
ization of theology the constructive work of scholasticism was
_^ done. At the same time the growth of national
olschoias- feeling was slowly but surely undermining feudalism.
ticism. Moreover, deep resentment was accumulating through-
out western Europe against the practical abuses
which had become prevalent in the Church, and especially in the
court of Rome and in the prince-bishoprics of Germany. In
short, Europe was out-growing medieval institutions, which
appeared more and more as empty forms unable to satisfy the
needs and longings of the human soul. In such conditions, the
customary and traditional education of school and university
tended to lose touch more and more completely with the new
aspirations and views of life which were everywhere gathering
adherents among the keenest and most active intellects. Had
a new cultural movement not begun, the education of Europe
threatened to become as arid as the rhetorical education of the
last centuries of the Roman empire had been. From this it was
saved by the renaissance of classical studies which began in the
1 4th century.
Italy, by its greater wealth and its more intimate commerce
with the eastern empire, was the seed-plot of this new tree of
knowledge. Ever since the nth century the cities
nalssance. ^ northern Italy had been in advance of Europe
beyond the Alps both in culture and in material
progress. The old classical spirit and the feeling of Roman
citizenship had never quite died out, and the Divina Commedia
of Dante (1265-1321) furnishes evidence that the poet of the
scholastic philosophical theology was also a keen student and
lover of the old Latin poets. But the greatest impulse to the
revived study of the classics was given by Petrarch (1304-1374)
and Boccaccio (1313-1375). Generally throughout western
Europe the i4th century, though full of war and political unrest,
was a time of considerable intellectual activity, shown in the
increase of schools and universities, as well as in the literary and
artistic revival in Italy, in the social and theological movement
in England and Bohemia associated with the names of Wycliffe
and Huss, and in the more or less perfect substitution of Roman
law everywhere except in England for the law of custom which
had hitherto prevailed.
But it was the literary movement which most affected educa-
tion, and indeed the whole life of Europe. A decisive step was
taken when Manuel Chrysoloras was invited to teach Greek
in the university of Florence in 1397. The enthusiasm for
classical culture, to which Petrarch had given so great an impetus,
gathered force and extended over the whole of Italy, though,
of course, felt only by a select few and leaving the mass of the
people little, if at all, affected. From Italy it spread gradually
to countries north of the Alps. In the old writers men found
full expression of that new spirit of self-conscious freedom which
was vaguely striving for expression throughout the whole of
Christendom. In the free political atmosphere of the Italian
communes, with their wealthy and leisured merchant class, that
spirit could flourish much more readily than in the feudalized
Europe across the Alps. Moreover, the antique spirit was in
direct line of ancestry with that of medieval Italy. Thus, for a
couple of centuries, Italy stood in the van of European culture.
The stages of the movement cannot be traced here: suffice
it to say it showed itself especially in an enthusiastic search for
manuscripts, followed by their multiplication and wider dis-
tribution; in an intense devotion to literary form; in a revival
of classic taste in architecture; in a wonderful development of
painting and sculpture from symbolism of spiritual qualities
towards naturalism and romanticism; in a return to Platonism
in philosophy; in a contempt, often unreasoning and wanting
a foundation in knowledge, for the scholastic Aristotelian
philosophy itself, and not simply for the trivialities into which
its actual exercise had so commonly degenerated. The invention
of printing necessarily gave the movement both a stronger and a
wider influence than it could otherwise have attained. And
in its search after knowledge it was in full harmony with the
spirit of adventure which marked the age, and by the discovery
of the New World wrought so profound a change in the relative
importance and prosperity of the countries of western Europe.
It is the spirit of the movement which is of interest to the
student of education. And that spirit was essentially one of
opposition to authority and of assertion of individual i a fi ueace
liberty, which worked itself out in various forms of the
among peoples of different temperaments. In Italy Keaais-
the form was literary and artistic, and the full develop- sa ce n
... . . v . education.
ment of the Renaissance spirit was seen in a practical
Paganism which substituted the attractions of art for the claims
of religion and morality, and eventuated in deep and widespread
immorality and a contemptuous tolerance of the outward
observances of religion without faith in the doctrines they
symbolized. The movement became an attempt to reconstitute
the past intellectual life of Italy, and, as such, was foredoomed
to sterility as soon as the work of re-discovery was completed;
for the revived forms were not inspired with the vital spirit
which had once made them realities, and consequently men's
minds once again were occupied with mere verbal subtleties.
The really valuable service of the Italian humanists to Europe
was the restoration to man of the heritage of knowledge which
he had allowed to slip from his grasp, and the leading the way to a
freer intellectual atmosphere. In Germany the spirit manifested
itself in a rebellion against the doctrinal system of the Church
as the only effectual means of attaining reform of ecclesiastical
abuses. The Protestant reformation of Luther was the real
German outcome of the Renaissance. In no other country of
Europe did the movement take so distinctive a form.
It was, then, not merely the revival of interest in classical
studies which so profoundly affected the life and education of
western Europe. It was rather that in those literatures men
found a response to intellectual and moral cravings which had
been blindly gathering force for generations, and which found
themselves formulated and objectified in the writings which set
forth the Pagan view of life with its assumption of the essential
worth and self-reliance of the individual and its frank delight
in all the pleasures of existence. It was, in short, in proportion
as men not only found delight in Pagan literature but returned
in essence to the Pagan view of individual worth and the supre-
macy of the human intellect, that the Church realized the danger
to herself which lurked in the new movement.
At first the revival of interest in the classical literatures did not
show any antagonism to Catholic faith and practice, and its
warmest supporters were faithful sons of the Church. The view of
the relation of classical literature to Christianity adopted by the
great humanist schoolmaster Vittorino da Feltre (1378-1446) was
broadly that of the early Fathers, and in his school at Mantua he
showed that culture was not inconsistent with loyalty to the
Church or wjth purity of life. With him classical literature was
not the end and sum of education, but was a means of implanting
ideas, of developing taste, and of acquiring knowledge, all as
helps and ornaments of a Christian life. Though Pagan literature
was the means of education, the Pagan spirit had not supplanted
that of Christianity. The school at Mantua may, indeed, be said
to have exhibited in practice a Christianized application of the
doctrines of Quintilian and Plutarch.
So was it in the other countries of Christendom. In the
Netherlands the Brethren of the Common Life introduced
humanistic studies into their schools side by side with definite
religious teaching and observances and their work was always
958
EDUCATION
[THEORY
dominated by the Christian spirit. The earlier German
humanists, such as Nicholas de Cusa, Hegius, Agricola and
Wimpheling, adopted the same attitude, and Erasmus himself,
bitterly as he attacked the practical abuses of the Church,
remained in communion with it, and aimed at harmonizing
classical culture with the Christian life. In England the same
love of culture combined with devotion to the Church was seen in
Selling, prior of Christ Church, Canterbury, the first real English
humanist, in Grocyn, Linacre, More, Fisher, Colet and many
others whose enthusiasm for culture was as undoubted as was
their loyalty to Catholicism. It seemed, then, at first as if the
greatest educational effect of the classical revival would be the
deepening of literary culture, and the substitution of real inquiry
for dialectic subtleties in the courses of schools and universities,
without any break with established religious teaching. It is true
that the majority of schools were but little affected, and many
of the universities had given but a half-hearted welcome to
humanistic studies when the religious revolt in Germany under
the leadership of Luther threw the whole of Europe into two
hostile camps. But even the conservative university of Paris
the headquarters of scholastic philosophical theology had
permitted the teaching of Greek as early as 1458, and both
Oxford and Cambridge had welcomed the new studies. That the
influence of the new movement for classical study was gradually
permeating the schools is shown not only by the practice of the
Brethren of the Common Life but by the curriculum laid down by
the statutes of the schools refounded by Wolsey at Ipswich and by
Colet at St Paul's.
The immediate effect of the religious controversies of the i6th
century on education was emphatically, if unintentionally, dis-
astrous. The secularization of ecclesiastical property
to f ten absorbed the endowments of the schools,
of the so that, both in Germany and in England, the majority
Reforms- o f grammar schools either disappeared or continued
'education & starve d existence with diminished funds; the
doctrine of salvation by faith alone and the futility
of good works dried up the source from which such endow-
ments had flowed; the violent fulminations of the German
reformers against the universities as the homes of the hated
scholastic theology and philosophy found an echo in minds fired
with the renaissance enthusiasm for poetry and oratory, and
correlative distaste for the more severe and abstract speculations
of logic and philosophy, which expressed itself in abstention from
those seats of learning; the preoccupation of men's minds with
theological speculations and quarrels led those few who did resort
to the universities to neglect their appointed studies and to
devote their energies to interminable wrangling over the points in
dispute. This decadence in culture was attended by an outbreak
of licence and immorality, especially among the young, which
called forth violent denunciations from Luther and many of his
followers in Germany, and from Latimer and other reformers in
England. In some respects these results were only transitory.
Humanism and Protestantism, which had so far diverged that
Erasmus (1467-1536) had declared that where Lutheranism
flourished learning decayed, were brought together again by
Melanchthon (1497-1560) under whose influence universities were
founded or reorganized and schools re-established in Protestant
German states; and in England the reign of Elizabeth saw many
new educational foundations. But this restoration of the means
of education was only partial, and the doctrine of the worthless-
ness of " carnal knowledge," which led the Barebones Parliament
to propose the suppression of the English universities, was held
by many fervent Protestants both in England and in Germany
all through the I7th century.
Moreover, the schools established a tradition of curriculum and
instruction which ignored the new directions of men's thoughts
an( ^ t ' le new v ' ew ^ knowledge as something to be
enlarged, and not merely a deposit to be handed down
from generation to generation. The later humanist
theories of education, which the schools continued to follow
generally for over two centuries, and in many cases for another
hundred years after that, were drawn mainly from Erasmus and
Proteitaot
Melanchthon, who found in the classical languages and literatures,
and especially in Latin, the only essential instruments of educa-
tion. General knowledge of natural facts might be desirable
to the cultured man as ornaments to his rhetoric, but it was
to be sought in the writings of antiquity. Even so revolutionary
a thinker on education as Rabelais (1495-1553) with all his
demand for an encyclopaedic curriculum, held the writings of the
ancients as authoritative on natural phenomena. Melanchthon,
whose conception of instruction was much narrower, exercised
enormous influence in the moulding of Protestant universities and
secondary schools, both directly and through such disciples as
Trotzendorf and Neander, but especially through his friend
Sturm (1507-1589), whose Latin gymnasium at Strassburg
became the model which the grammar schools of Protestant
Europe strove to imitate. In this school nearly the whole of the
energies of the boys was given to acquiring a mastery of the
Latin language after the model of Cicero. Sturm, indeed, did not
go to the extreme length of the Ciceronians, opposed and satirized
by Erasmus, who would allow no word or construction which
could not be found in the extant writings of their master, but a
like spirit dominated him.
In Catholic countries the Church retained control of education.
The practical reformation of abuses by the Council of Trent, and
the energy and skill of the Society of Jesus, founded by
St Ignatius Loyola, in 1534, brought back most of The
south Germany into the fold of the Church. Every-
where Catholic universities were mainly taught by
Jesuit fathers; and under their influence, scholasticism, purged
from the excretions which had degraded it, was restored, and
continued to satisfy the longings of minds which felt the need of
an authoritative harmonizing of faith and knowledge. Every-
where the society established schools, which, by their success in
teaching and the mildness of their discipline, attracted thousands
of pupils who came even from Protestant homes. Their cur-
riculum was purely classical, but it was elaborated with much
skill, and the methods of instruction and discipline were made
the subject of much thought and of long-continued experiment.
In the methods thus determined all Jesuit fathers were trained, so
that the teachers in Jesuit schools attained a degree of skill in
their art which was too generally wanting elsewhere.
So long as Latin remained the language of learning, and new
fields of knowledge were not appropriated, the schools remained
in harmony with the culture of their time, though, as
Mulcaster (1530-1611) pointed out, such a training
was not of value to the majority of boys. For them he
urged an elementary education in the vernacular; but
neither in this nor in his advocacy of the training of teachers was
his advice followed.
In the I7th century the dislocation between the Latin schools
and the needs of life began to be accentuated as Latin gradually
ceased to be the language of learning; and, as a consequence, the
numbers attending the schools decreased, and the mass of the
people sunk continually lower in ignorance. In vain Hoole urged
the establishment of a universal system of elementary schools
giving instruction in the vernacular, Petty put forth his plan for
elementary trade schools, and Cowley proposed the establishment
of a college devoted to research. Ideas of reform were in the air,
but the main current of scholastic practice flowed on unaffected
by them. Some attention was, indeed, paid to the conservative
reforms advocated by the Port Royalists, of which the most
important was the inclusion of the vernacular as a branch of
instruction, but the cry for more fundamental changes based on
the philosophy of Bacon was unheeded. Of these, none was a more
active propagandist than Comenius (1571-1635). Unfortunately
his Great Didactic, in which he set forth his general principles,
attracted little attention and won less adherence, though his
school books, in which he attempted with very little success to
apply his principles, were widely used in schools. But these were
little more than bald summaries of real and supposed facts,
stated in Latin and the vernacular in parallel columns. In
content they differed from such medieval summaries of knowledge
as the well-known work of Bartholomew Anglicus, which had been
THEORY]
EDUCATION
959
widely used since the i3th century, chiefly by their greater
baldness and aridity of statement.
In the universities, too, the i6th and i?th centuries saw a
continuous decadence. The i6th century was not ripe for
real intellectual freedom; and Protestantism, having
o/aJvef? base d its revolt on the right of private judgment,
ajtieg. soon produced a number of conflicting theological
systems, vying with each other in rigidity and narrow-
ness, which, as Paulsen says, " nearly stifled the intellectual
life of the German people." Further, the idea of national
autonomy, which exercised so great an effect on the politics of
the time, included the universal adherence of the citizens to
the religion of the state. Hence, till the end of the lyth century
the universities of Protestant Europe were regarded mainly as
instruments for securing adhesion to the national theological
system on the part of future clergy and officials, and the state
interfered more and more with their organization and work.
Theology occupied the most important place in the higher
studies pursued, which for the rest differed little in content and
less in spirit from those of preceding centuries, except that more
attention was paid to the study of classical literature. Even that
decayed into formal linguistics as the Renaissance enthusiasm
for poetry and oratory died out, and interest in logical and
philosophical questions, fostered by the dominance of dogmatic
controversial theology, again became dominant. In Paris, on
the other hand, the faculty of theology had decayed through the
withdrawal of those preparing for the priesthood into episcopal
seminaries, and the higher studies pursued were mainly law and
medicine. Thus, generally, the universities were less and less
fulfilling the function of providing a general liberal education.
Another change, due to the same causes and making for the
same results, was the isolation of universities, often directly
fostered by the state governments, which for the universal
interchange of medieval thought substituted a narrow provincial
culture and outlook. It is no wonder that numbers everywhere
decayed and that complaints as to the habits of the students
were loud and frequent.
At the close of the i7th century, then, universities as well
as schools had reached a very low level of efficiency and were
Education ne ^ m little respect by the cultured. Indeed, from
of the the middle of the century, the main current of intel-
bigber lectual life had drifted away from the orthodox
classes. centres o f learning. The formation of the Berlin
Academy in Germany and of the Royal Society in England,
and the refusal of Leibnitz to accept a chair in any German
university, were signs of the times. In France, and later in
Germany, the education of the noble youth was increasingly
carried on apart from the schools, and was really an outgrowth
from the education of chivalry. In the i6th century Castiglione
and Montaigne had advocated a training directly adapted to
prepare for polite life, and Elyot wrote on similar lines. But the
most important movement in this direction was the formation
of the courtly academies which flourished in France in the I7th
century, and were soon imitated in the Ritterakodemien of
Germany. In these schools of the nobility French was more
honoured than classics, and the other subjects were chosen as
directly adapted to prepare for the life of a noble at the court.
Milton in his Tractate advocated the foundation of such academies
in England, though he proposed a curriculum far more extensive
than had ever been found possible. More and more, too, foreign
travel had, from the middle of the i6th century, been looked
upon as a better mode of finishing the education of a gentleman
than a course at a university.
The later years of the xyth century saw a revival of university
life in Cambridge, through the work of Newton and the increasing
attention paid to mathematics and the physical
aalverstty sciences, though the number of students continued
ate. very small. In Germany, also, a new era opened
with the foundation of the universities of Halle (1694)
and Gottingen (1737), which from the first discarded the old
conception that the function of a university is to pass on know-
ledge already complete, and so opened the door of the German
ss<
universities to the new culture and philosophy. It was soon
seen that students could thus be attracted, and the influence
spread to the other German universities, which by the end of
the 1 8th century had regained their position as homes of the
highest German thought.
At Halle, too, was set the example by Francke of providing
for the education of the children of the poor, and to his disciple
keeker Germany owes the first Realschule. Simul-
taneous movements for the education of the poor were
made by St Jean-Baptiste de la Salle and the Brothers
of the Christian Schools in France, and by the Society
for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge in England. But the
total results were not great; the mass of the people in every
European country remained without schooling throughout the
i8th century.
The intellectual movements of that century were, indeed,
essentially aristocratic. Voltaire and the Encyclopaedists aimed
at the enlightenment of the select few, and Rousseau Jgthm
declared baldly that the poor need no education, century
That these movements influenced education profoundly thought
is undoubted. The individualistic and abstract "^ caaoa
rationalism of Voltaire, derived from the sensationist
philosophy of Locke through the more thorough-going Condillac,
and finding its logical outcome in the materialistic atheism
of La Mettrie and the refined selfishness of Rochefoucault,
infected the more cultured classes. In Lord Chesterfield's
Letters to his Son is shown its educational outcome a veneer
of superficial culture and artificial politeness covering, but not
hiding, the most cold-blooded selfishness. Against this fashion-
able artificiality, as well as against the obvious social and political
abuses of the time, Rousseau's call for a return to nature was a
needed protest.
Rousseauism, however, was not merely a transitory revolt
against a conventionality of life that had become unbearable;
it was emphatically the voicing of a view of life and
of education which has profoundly influenced Europe
ever since. In that Rousseau (1712-1778) attempted
to look at life as a whole he was on truer ground than were the
intellectualists of the " Enlightenment "; but in that he found
the essence of life in the gratification of the desires and impulses
of the moment, he enunciated a doctrine which banished high
principle and strenuous effort from life and consequently from
education. In the mile is presented a purely fantastic scheme
of education based on a psychology of development so crude
as to be absolutely false, and producing a young man utterly
unable to guide his own life or to control his emotions and
impulses. Rousseauism is, indeed, in its essence the application
to education of the doctrines of naturalism the philosophy
which regards human life as a mere continuation of physical
process, and consequently as determined wholly by environment.
So Rousseau would abolish all moral training and leave the
child to the reactions of the physical world upon his actions.
Against this position the educational teaching of Kant (1724
1804), influenced though he was by the mile, is essentially a
protest. The most necessary element in education, Kant.
according to Kant, is constraint, which by the
formation of habit prepares the young to receive as principles
of conduct the laws at first imposed upon them from without.
And the supreme guide of life is the law of duty which is always
more or less opposed to the promptings of inclination. Kant
exaggerates the dualism: Rousseau would abolish it by ignoring
the more important of the two antitheses.
The French Revolution the natural outcome of the teachings
of Voltaire and of Rousseau was the second stage in the move-
ment of which the Reformation was the first. It Educa _
was essentially the assertion of the natural rights oitional
man, and, as a logical sequence, of the right of every outcome
child to be properly trained for life. The reaction /<A *
due to the excesses of the revolutionists no doubt
delayed the acknowledgment for a time, but its gradual recogni-
tion is emphatically the characteristic mark of the educational
history of the igth century.
960
EDUCATION
[NATIONAL SYSTEMS
Preached and practised by Pestalozzi (1746-1827) in Switzer-
land, the general education of the poor was first made a reality
by Prussia after the crushing defeat of Jena. In
F fance an< ^ England it remained for nearly three-
quarters of the century the work of the Church and
other voluntary agencies, though aided by the state. Finally
a state system of schools has been more or less fully set up in
every state of western Europe and in America, and subjected
to more or less state regulation and control. Equally marked
has been the growing care for the scholastic education of girls
as well as boys, though only in America are the two regarded
as practically identical in form and content.
Thus the igth century saw the final working out of the idea
that the state should be substituted for the Church as the official
agent of education, an idea which had its roots in the Renaissance
conception of the right of man to direct his life apart from
theological determinations. The more direct outcome of the
same idea is apparent in the absolute liberty with which the
presuppositions of knowledge are questioned, and the maxim
of Descartes to prove everything by the reason and to accept
nothing which fails to stand the test is acted upon. No greater
contrast is possible than that between the medieval student and
the modern searcher after truth.
The influence of the same spirit has wrought an equally
momentous change in the methods of instruction. The impetus
given by the exaggerated doctrine of Rousseau to the
Method* v j ew that the na t ure o f the child should determine
"f^f the means of education, led to more thorough-going
attempts than had hitherto been made to base educa-
tional method on a knowledge of child psychology. Pestalozzi
and Froebel (1782-1852), by their insistence on the need of
educating a child through his own activity, and by their wide-
spread influence, made the new view of method an actuality.
The influence of Rousseau has, thus, passed into modern educa-
tional practice in a form that, in its essence, is true, though in
practice it has shown itself apt to run into the same excess of
emphasis on impulse and feeling which vitiated the teaching of
Rousseau himself. The influence of Herbart (1776-1841) has
tended to counteract this. The essence of Herbartianism is that
mental life consists of presentations, or reactions of the mind on
the environment, and that will springs from the circle of thought
thus developed. The emphasis is therefore placed on intellect
and instruction while in Froebelianism it is placed on spontaneous
activity and on the arrangement of the environment. Each
exaggerates the function of the one factor in concrete experience
which it makes the centre of interest, and each is tinged with the
individualistic conception of life which characterized the i8th
and early ipth centuiy.
The most marked change in the outward aspect of education
has been the modification of the curriculum of school and univer-
sity by the introduction of various branches of natural
science. Conjointly with this has been much increase
inttruc- of specialization, and that not only in the university
ttoa. k u t j n the school. There is no longer a universally
recognized circle of knowledge constituting a liberal education
preparatory to specialist studies, as there was in the middle ages.
Nor is there general agreement as to what such educational in-
stitutions as schools and universities should attempt to do, or
even as to the end that should be sought by education as a whole.
Nor can agreement on such points be expected while men differ
widely as to the meaning and purpose of life. The work of the
organization of the material means of education has largely been
accomplished by the civilized world: that of determining the
true theory and practice of the educative process itself is still
incomplete. To that, both discussion of the philosophy of life
and of the relative values in life, of various kinds of experience
and experiment in the light of the conclusions reached, are needed.
The problem will never be absolutely solved, for that would
imply an absolutely best education irrespective of conditions,
but its practical solution will be reached when a true adjustment
is made between the process of education and the life for which
that education is intended to be a preparation.
See also the articles ACADEMIES; CLASSICS; CO-EDUCATION;
EXAMINATIONS; POLYTECHNIC; SCHOOLS; TECHNICAL EDUCATION;
UNIVERSITIES; WOMEN; &c. (J. WN.)
II. NATIONAL SYSTEMS OF PUBLIC EDUCATION
A statement of the principles commonly recognized by modern
communities as governing the action of the state in relation to
education may facilitate at the outset a clearer understanding
of the problems which the organization of public education
presents. The cardinal doctrine of state interference in the
educational domain is universally accepted by all the great
nations of the modern world; and in regard to its extent and
limits a large measure of agreement has now been reached.
In the first place, it is recognized as the duty of the state to
insist upon a certain minimum of education for every future
citizen. This does not necessitate a monopoly of Principles
education on the part of the state, such as was claimed at state
by the Napoleonic despotism under the traditional later-
influence (it would seem) of the old authoritative tena<x -
Gallo-Roman tradition, transformed in its outward manifestation
but not in its inward spirit by the French Revolution. Such a
monopoly would be plainly repugnant to the spirit of Anglo-
Saxon individualism, and it is interesting to note that attempts
to reassert it have in recent times been repudiated in republican
France by some of the best exponents of modern free thought,
as an infringement of personal liberty not calculated to justify
itself by any corresponding public gain. Nevertheless, the
recognition of this primary duty of the state plainly implies a
state system of at least elementary education. The masses of
the industrial population cannot afford the necessary minimum of
instruction which the public interest demands, and private and
voluntary effort cannot efficiently supply the want resulting
from the unequal distribution of wealth. But it is in the nature
of things that, so far as private effort attempts anything in
this direction, it should be motived in the main by religion and
associated with the great historical religious organizations;
thus it comes about that the moment the state steps in to make
good the deficiency of voluntary effort a fruitful and embittering
source of difficulty and friction is disclosed. Hence, in England,
the history of public elementary education since the beginning
of the ipth century has been very largely the history of what is
called the religious difficulty. Here we find ourselves in the
region of acute controversy in which it is useless to do more than
note empirically the various solutions adopted by different
states. Perhaps all that can safely be indicated as commanding
universal acceptance is the principle that the state must not
impose upon an individual citizen in the person of his child any
form of religious instruction to which he conscientiously objects.
Modern controversies show the difficulty of applying even this
rudimentary principle to the complicated circumstances of a free
community split up into a number of groups differing profoundly
in religious sentiment, and zealous each for the recognition of its
own ideal within the common system. So far, however, as
secular instruction (i.e. the teaching of other subjects than
religion) is concerned it is now generally accepted that the
elementary minimum must be both compulsory and free for every
individual child whose parents will not or cannot (as the case
may be) provide such instruction for it efficiently elsewhere than
in the state-supported schools.
Next, the action of the modern state cannot stop short at
elementary education. The principle of " the career open to
talent " is no longer a matter of abstract humanitarian theory,
a fantastical aspiration of revolutionary dreamers; for the great
industrial communities of the modern world it is a cogent
practical necessity imposed by the fierce international competi-
tion which prevails in the arts and industries of life. The
nation that is not to fail in the struggle for commercial success,
with all that this implies for national life and civilization,
must needs see that its industries are fed with a constant supply
of workers adequately equipped in respect both of general
intelligence and technical training.
On political grounds too, the increasing democratization of
FRANCE]
EDUCATION
961
institutions renders a wide diffusion of knowledge and the
cultivation of a high standard of intelligence among the people a
necessary precaution of prudent statesmanship, especially for the
great imperial states which confide the most momentous issues of
world policy to the arbitrament of the popular voice. The state
then must satisfy itself that the means of education are placed
within the reach of all, in grades adapted to the varying degrees of
intelligence and educational opportunity to be found among a
community upon the majority of whose members is imposed the
necessity of entering upon the practical business of life at a more
or less early age. The organization of the higher grades of
education constitutes a task of less formidable magnitude than the
organization of elementary education, for the reason that, at any
rate in the prevailing social conditions, it is only a minority who
can benefit by it, and that of this minority a large proportion can
afford the whole or a considerable portion of the cost in each
individual case. The class, however, whose education must needs
be assisted by the state if it is not to remain inefficient must
always be considerable; and account must be taken also of the
necessities of the further class whose exceptional mental develop-
ment is such as to make it worth while for the state to bestow
gratuitously an education higher than elementary at the public
expense. University education is distinguished from education
of the lower grades by the fact that, being necessarily restricted
to an elite of intellect or birth, it cannot, save in very exceptional
circumstances, usefully be organized locally. Although uni-
versities are the necessary complement of a public educational
system they do not in strictness or necessity form part of such a
system, and in so far as they are brought within the purview of
public authority it must be as a matter of national, rather than
municipal or provincial, concern. Accordingly university educa-
tion is separately treated (see UNIVERSITIES), and will not be
referred to, save incidentally, in the present article.
Reserving to a final section the history of education in the
United States of America, a brief description is given here of the
educational systems of the leading European countries by way of
introduction to a more detailed, but still summary, historical
sketch of public education in England. The highly organized
educational systems of France and Prussia (as representing
Germany) are manifestly suitable for the purposes of a general
study of the principles of educational polity as worked out upon
logical and consistently thought-out plans by highly centralized
states. As to other European countries, a brief mention must
suffice of certain features of special interest presented by smaller
progressive states of such different types as Switzerland,
Belgium and Holland. Similarly, in the case of the United
Kingdom, considerations of space forbid more than a brief notice
of the educational systems of Scotland (q.v.) and Ireland (q.v.).
For other countries see the sections in the articles under the
headings of the respective states.
France.
France(gM>.)presents the most complete type of a state system
of education organized underastrongly centralized administration
in all grades. This centralized administration in education, as in
other departments, represents the Napoleonic heritage of the
Republic, and, although there has been an increasing tendency
of recent years to study local conditions in the internal organiza-
tion of schools, anything approaching to local autonomy is
unknown in educational affairs. The necessary checks upon
bureaucracy are supplied not by popularly elected municipal
bodies but by a strong infusion of the pedagogic element in the
administrative machinery. The pedagogic element in turn does
but represent another side of the collective activities of the state.
The teaching profession both in the primary and higher spheres
and the two are sharply marked off from one another consists of
a highly organized body of state functionaries, united by a strong
esprit de corps and actuated by ideals and aims which are inspired
by the state. The importance of this condition of things lies in the
fact that the Republic is something more than a form of govern-
ment: it is the social and moral expression of the democratic ideal
as conceived by a people profoundly imbued by tradition with the
vm. 31
sense of social solidarity, or collectivism; and nowhere has this
expression been more characteristic or more complete than in the
domain of public education. Yet the educational system of
modern France is by no means exclusively the creation of the
Third Republic, and the main stages in its development deserve to
be traced historically.
No historical sketch, however slight, of French education can
ignore the great Catholic religious educator of the i8th century,
Jean Baptiste de la Salle, the founder of Les Freres preresde
de la Doctrine chritienne, commonly known as the la Doctrine
" Christian Brothers." The Brothers were not merely c *' ae
pioneers of elementary education, they may also be
regarded (as M. Buisson, formerly director of public instruction,
has shown) as the originators of higher primary instruction.
Under the Restoration they upheld the method of simultaneous
teaching against the partisans of the mutual (or monitorial)
method, successfully demonstrating the superiority of the trained
teacher. The unfortunate effects of the monitorial system upon
English education show the reality of the service which this
religious congregation rendered to the national pedagogy in
France.
The Constitution of 1791 decreed that primary instruction
should be compulsory and gratuitous. (It may be explained that
the term " free education," instruction libre, does not T fie
bear the same meaning in France as in England. In Revolution
France a free school means a school not under state a a
control and not forming part of the state system.) In apo
this as in much else the Revolution was powerless to do more than
enunciate general principles which it left for later generations, in
the present instance after the lapse of nearly a century, to carry
into effect. True to its theories of individualistic liberty, the
Revolution admitted liberty of teaching. Napoleon, on the other
hand, by the law of 1806, centralized all forms of education in one
official teaching body under the name of the Imperial University,
thus securing a monopoly of teaching to the state. The
Napoleonic idea of the university, doubtless because a true
expression of the national genius, has never ceased to exert a
profound influence upon French education, an influence which of
late years has been revivified and reinforced by the modern ideal
of social solidarity.
Under the Restoration education fell inevitably under the
control of the church, but under the Liberal Monarchy Guizot in
1833 passed a law which laid the foundations of modern
primary instruction, obliging the communes to main- tQ U izot.
tain schools and pay the teachers. It is also to the
credit of Guizot as an educational reformer that he per-
ceived the necessity for the higher primary as distinct from
the secondary school. The higher primary schools which he
founded were unfortunately suppressed by the Loi Folloux;
their restoration constitutes one of the great positive services
rendered by the Third Republic to the cause of popular
education.
The Loi Folloux of 1850, passed by the Second Republic under
the influence of the prince president, is chiefly memorable for its
restoration of the liberty of teaching, which in a
Catholic country means in effect free scope for priestly F&UOUX.
schools. This law also made provision for separate
communal schools for girls, for adult classes and for the technical
instruction of apprentices. In 1854 France was divided for
purposes of educational administration into sixteen academies,
each administered by a rector with an academy inspector
under him for each department. This organization survives
to-day, with the difference that for each academy (except
Chambery) there is now a local teaching university.
The ministry of the well-known educationist M. Duruy (1865-
1869), corresponding to the period of the Liberal Empire, was
notable for marked administrative progress. A per-
.,,,,. , . ,
manent memonal of this epoch is the enactment
rendering primary schools for girls obligatory in
communes of over 500 inhabitants. Duruy also provided for
the introduction of gratuitous instruction at the option of the
commune.
Ministry of
962
EDUCATION
[FRANCE
The task of educational reform imposed itself upon the
republic by a twofold necessity. The wars of 1866 and 1870 were
victories for the Prussian schoolmaster, and aroused all
western Europe to the national importance of popular
education. For France then the reform of popular
education was an essential part of the work of national restora-
tion. For the republic too, menaced by older and hostile
traditions, the creation of a national system of education inspired
by its own spirit was an essential condition of the permanence and
security of its government and the social ideals of which that
government was the expression. Hence the energy with which
the republican state addressed itself to theorganization of primary
instruction, " obligatory, gratuitous, secular."
By the law of June i, 1878, there was imposed upon the com-
munes the obligation of acquiring their school buildings; and
as a grant in aid a sum of 2,400,000 was set aside for
tfoaof' tn ' s purpose by the state. In 1879 a law was passed
elementary compelling every department to maintain a training
school college for male and female teachers respectively.
a'n'o'orjiaii- Tne two higher normal schools of Fontenay and St
ization of Cloud were also founded to supply the training colleges
teaching with prof essors. During the same period, among other
<0 "' certificate or professional diplomas, there were estab-
lished the certificat d 'aptitude pedagogique, which qualifies pro-
bationer-teachers (stagiaires) for appointment as teachers in full
standing (titulaires) , and the certificat d' aptitude for primary
inspectors and heads of normal schools. The law of June 16,
1881, rendered obligatory for all teachers, whether public or
private, the brevet de capacite. It was found impracticable to
carry this law into immediate effect, and as late as 1902 only
about 60 % of the men and 52 % of the women were provided
with the professional certificate necessary for becoming litulaires.
The laws making primary education gratuitous, compulsory
and secular, are indissolubly associated with the name of Jules
Reforms at F err y- The law of June 16, 1881, abolished fees in
Jules Ferr}-. all primary schools and training colleges, the law of
Laictia- i88 2 established compulsory attendance, and finally
the law of October 30, 1886, enacted that none
but lay persons should teach in the public schools, and
abolished in those schools all distinctively religious teaching.
In the boys' schools members of religious communities were to be
displaced within five years, but in girls' schools the religieuses
might remain till death or resignation.
Religious teaching was replaced in the state schools under
the Ferry law by moral instruction according to official curricula,
a change which has been described by M. Seailles
(Education ou revolution) as a revolution of the pro-
foundest philosophical meaning. The difficult and
delicate topics of the relation of the state school to religion and
the value of the substituted moral instruction have recently
received illuminating and objective treatment from different
points of view in the series of reports on Moral Instruction and
Training in Schools, edited by Professor M. E. Sadler (1908,
vol. ii.); the barest reference to the questions at issue must
here suffice. As regards the character of the moral instruction,
it would appear to have shifted from a Kantian to a purely
sociological basis. Roman Catholic opinion is at least not
unanimous in regarding the " lay " or neutral school as essenti-
ally or necessarily anti-religious, and plainly there is no inherent
reason why the neutrality should not be a real neutrality, but
with the existing relations between the Catholic Church and
modern thought in France the influence of the Normalist
teachers is in fact apt to be anti-religious, and moreover no system
of independent moral doctrine, whether based upon a priori
or inductive reasoning, can be acceptable to the Roman Catholic
Church. In whatever degree the blame may be rightly apportion-
able between church and state, the fact is that the two find
themselves in acute conflict, and that from the conflict there has
resulted a certain moral confusion which Christian and non-
Christian moralists alike view with alarm. It may be that the
mischief would have been mitigated had more moderate counsels
prevailed at the time of the Ferry law, and had the church been
willing to accept (as the Republic might then have been willing
to concede) right of entry for the clergy into the schools. But
the real causes of the trouble lie deep in the philosophical and
religious problems of our time, and in the constant and self-
sacrificing devotion of the French to logical ideals on either side.
Perhaps it is not too sanguine to discern in the growing tendency
to idealism in French philosophy, and to liberal ideas in French
and Catholic religious thought, the promise of a happier state of
things. In the meantime, the religious difficulty in the schools
divides the nation into two hostile camps (les deux Frances,
as a Swiss Protestant writer puts it) in the shape of the state
secular schools on the one side and the private religious schools
on the other.
In the year 1903-1904 the total number of pupils in private
primary schools was 1,298,591, as against 4,935,000 in the public
primary schools, but these figures were liable to be materially
affected by the rigorous enforcement of the laws against the
religious orders.
In 1889 an important change was made in educational finance
by transferring the cost of teachers' salaries in primary schools
from the communes to the state, a right consequence
of the changes which made the teacher a state official.
Thus the state assumed the greater part of the burden
of primary instruction, leaving to the communes
merely the cost of fabric, and to the department the maintenance
of the fabric of the normal schools and certain expenses of
inspection.
At this point it will be convenient to describe shortly the
various central and local authorities that constitute the official
machine. The minister, the head of the entire hier-
archy, is assisted by a conseil superieur consisting of
fifty-seven members, of whom the majority are elected machinery.
by the higher teaching profession, while a few are Minister
nominated by the president, including a small number "" l
to represent private schools, and a few are elected ^^irieur
by the primary teachers. Practically the ordinary
work of the council is carried on by a sub-committee consisting
of the nine nominees of the president and six others designated
for this purpose by the minister. The council has administrative,
judicial and disciplinary, as well as advisory, powers which
enable it to exert a direct influence upon the internal organization
of schools. There is also a pedagogic comite consultatif and a legal
comite contentieux, whose respective functions are purely advisory.
The inspecteurs gfniraux " act," says Mr Brereton in his
official report to the English Board of Education, "as the eyes
and ears of the central authority." Their duties are:
first to inspect the normal schools; next to supervise
the work of the ordinary inspectorate; lastly to give
general and comparative information on the progress
of primary instruction in the various parts of France. For the
purpose of general inspection France is divided into seven
districts.
As already indicated, for the purpose of educational administra-
tion, the departments of France are grouped in seventeen
divisions called academies. At the head of each Rector
academy is the rector. He is appointed directly by the and
president and must hold the doctor's degree. He is council ot
not only the head of the local teaching university,
but is also charged in a general way with the oversight of all
three departments of education, superior, secondary and primary ;
in regard to the last, however, his functions are confined to the
pedagogic side. The direct share of the rector in administration
is mainly confined to the normal schools and the higher primary
schools. The rector is assisted by an academic council composed
almost exclusively of pedagogic elements.
Each department of France has an academy inspector ap-
pointed by the minister. The duties of the academy inspector
embrace both higher and primary education. In the
latter sphere he is the real head of the local administra- J^gf m
tion, and the primary inspectors are his subordinate inspector.
officers. He appo'ints the probationer-teachers and
nominates the regular teachers for appointment by the prffet.
FRANCE]
EDUCATION
9 6 3
The prlfet, the chief administrative officer of each department,
not only appoints the teachers upon the proposition of the
Prefetaad aca demy inspector, he is also as president of the
coasfii conseil departemental concerned generally with the
departs- externa of school administration, including the supply
mental. o f sc hools. The conseil departemental with respect to
its powers corresponds in some degree to our own local education
authorities, but as regards its constitution it is in no sense a
municipal body, the representatives of the conseil general of the
department (which corresponds to the county council) being
greatly outnumbered by the pedagogical members.
The inspectors of primary schools, as has already been stated,
act under the academy inspector. They are appointed upon
the result of examination and not by direct nomination
Inspectors as * n England. The examination is severe, and it is
from the body of the professors of the normal schools
rather than from the ranks of the primary teachers that the
successful candidates are chiefly drawn.
Very limited powers are entrusted to certain communal and
cantonal authorities. The commission scolaire is a committee
... organized in each commune for the purpose of im-
locai proving school attendance, to which end they ad-
author- minister a caisse des ecoles or school fund for supplying
'""' clothing and meals to needy children. The moire of
the commune has the right of visiting the schools, but neither
he nor any of the minor local authorities can interfere with the
teaching. Similar duties are assigned to the delegates cantonaux,
who are appointed by the conseil departemental for each canton
(a wider area than the commune), and can best be described as
local visitors or visiting committees rather than managers in our
sense of the word. " All this hierarchy of central and local
officials," says Mr Brereton, " will doubtless seem complicated
to English minds. The extraordinary thing is that, so far as I
could learn, the machine, for all its complexity, works smoothly
enough. The truth is that the province of each particular
functionary is so clearly defined that there is no debateable
ground over which ambitious rival authorities can wrangle."
In proceeding to sketch the French system of higher primary
and secondary schools, it may be observed that European
Concep- systems of higher education have generally been
tloa of framed upon the view that the divisions of education
secondary ar e longitudinal, not latitudinal, and that secondary
education. e( j uca ti on j s a training complete in itself from the
preparatory stage to the university, with aims and ideals of
general culture which differentiate it radically and at the very
outset from education of the elementary type. On the other
hand, in the United States the view has prevailed that the
divisions of education must be latitudinal, that the secondary
school must be complementary to the elementary school, in
which even the elite must receive their preparatory or elementary
training. At any rate down to the reform of 1902, which will
presently be explained, the French system could be regarded
as a typical and even extreme example of the European theory,
little consistent as this might seem to be with the broader
principles of democracy. This view of the matter is expressed
by the French terminology, by which what in England is called
" elementary " is in France termed " primary " education.
The thoroughness with which the principle of the autonomous
character of the two divisions of education was carried out
undoubtedly favoured in a special degree the complete
organization given to higher primary instruction in
P schoois. tne ecoles primaires superieures under the Third
Republic. The aim of these schools is to fill the void
which must otherwise exist for those who need a higher education
than the primary school can give, but for whose subsequent
careers secondary education would be ill-adapted and injudicious.
Throughout the organization of primary education the French
have kept steadily in view the danger of creating an intellectual
proletariate. " Nous poursuivons la culture generate du carac-
tere et de 1'esprit, mais nous cherchons en meme temps a orienter
1'enfant vers la vie pratique," says an official report. The aim
of the higher primary school is to continue education in this
spirit up to the age of sixteen so as to prepare the scholar to take
an honourable place in the higher ranks of skilled industry
rather than to deflect him towards a professional career or
intellectual pursuits for which he is unfitted, not so much by
the accidents of birth and social circumstance as by his own
natural aptitudes. Within the limits necessarily marked out
for them the higher primary schools of France have aimed at
imparting what may be termed a general culture as distinct
from purely technical or trade teaching, and this development
has been greatly furthered by the separate organization given
to the latter teaching in the ecoles professionnelles. At the same
time, prominence is given in the higher primary schools to
practical training of an educational character with special
reference to the industries and circumstances of the locality,
and in the rural districts a special agricultural bias is imparted
to the curriculum. It is interesting to note that the institution
of the higher primary schools was due in large part to the spon-
taneous initiative of the municipalities, and that in the later
phases of state organization special care has been taken to avoid
anything in the nature of a rigid uniformity in these schools.
A wider extension has been given to higher primary instruction
by the establishment of cows complemenlaires in certain schools,
at centres at which it would be impossible to organize
separate higher primary schools. A similar solution Sappie-
of the continuation school problem has recently com-
mended itself to the consultative committee of the
Board of Education for England.
Admission to the higher primary schools in France is
only accorded to those who have obtained the elementary
school leaving certificate, cerlificat d'etudes primaires. A feature
of importance for continuation work in rural districts is the
provision made for boarding scholars in attendance at these
schools. The boarding arrangements are generally, as in the
case of the secondary schools, left to the head teacher, but in
some instances municipal hostels have been provided. No fees
may be charged for higher primary instruction, and scholarships
(bourses) are provided to a certain extent in the form either of
boarding scholarships or maintenance allowances to compensate
the parent for the loss of the child's labour. The number of
scholars in the public higher primary schools for the year 1903-
1904 was 34,084, and in cours complementaires 21,777, making a
total of 55,861. In addition there were 8891 scholars in receipt
of higher primary instruction in private schools.
French secondary education is given in the lyctes which are
first-grade schools maintained and controlled by the state,
and the colleges, which are schools of the second grade Seconii
maintained partly by the state and partly by the schools
municipality. A considerable number of scholars fycees and
pass annually from the colleges to the lycees. In both colle f es -
grades of schools the teachers are paid by the state and nomin-
ated directly or indirectly by the minister of education. They
are required to possess certain specified academic qualifications
which can only be obtained from the unhersite, but failing
teachers with the prescribed qualifications the classes are taught
by teachers styled charges de cours as distinct from professors.
With a view to supplying teachers for the secondary schools,
the state maintains the Ecole Normale Superieure,
a college in which instruction, board and lodging are Ecole
given free to a number of scholars selected by com- s^p^ri/ure
petition from the best secondary school boys, though re-
sidence in the institution is no longer compulsory. By the decrees
of November 10, 1903, and May 10, 1904, the Ecole Normale
became practically the College of Pedagogy of the University of
Paris. Its students are entered as students of the university, and
study for their qualifying examination as teachers in secondary
schools (agregation) under university professors, partly at the *
Sorbonne, partly at the Ecole Normale, while their professional
preparation is entrusted solely to the latter institution.
The Republic has not reorganized secondary education by a
comprehensive law; it has, however, introduced by decree,
under parliamentary authority, an important reform in the
internal organization of the schools which marks a notable
9 6 4
EDUCATION
[GERMANY
departure from the traditional view of secondary education as
a self-contained whole. Article i of the decree of May 31, 1902,
declares that secondary education is co-ordinated with
Classic*! primly education in such a way as to constitute a con-
"modern tinuation of a course of primary studies of a normal
education, duration of four years. The decree goes on to provide for
Reform of a fyjj course of secondary studies of seven years' dura-
tion, divided into two cycles of four and three years
respectively. In the first cycle the scholar has two options. In
section i Latin is obligatory and Greek optional from the begin-
ning of the third year (classe iv.). In section 2 there is no Latin.
At the end of the first cycle the state grants a certificat d'etudes
secondaires du premie/' degr&. In the second cycle one of four
courses may be taken ; section i with Latin and Greek continues
the old classical education; section 2 with Latin and modern
languages corresponds to the German Realgymnasium; section
3 with Latin and science, and section 4 with modern languages
and science, to the Oberrealschule. The baccalaureat, or secondary
school-leaving examination, conducted by the university, is
adapted to all the courses on the principle that courses of study of
equal length, whether classical or modern, literary or scientific,
are entitled to equal advantages. This system of alternative
courses with leaving examinations of equal value is mainly
German in origin, and may be said to represent the results of the
best European thought upon the problem of the organization of
secondary education.
It is remarkable in view of the thoroughness with which the
principle of laicization has been applied to the primary schools
Religious l ^ at tne lycees st iH retain their chaplains (aumdniers)
tastrue- for the purpose of giving religious instruction. This
tloa la difference of treatment is apparently based upon the
lycees. consideration that the gratuitous and compulsory
character of primary education demanded a much stricter
interpretation of the principle of the neutrality of the state than
was necessary in the case of secondary education, which is neither
compulsory nor gratuitous.
In addition to the state schools there have until lately been in
France a large number of private secondary schools, the most
important of which have been associated with the
'" Catholic religious orders. The enforcement of the laws
against these communities has resulted in the closure of
a number of these schools, and in the reorganization of
others under a lay teaching staff. It is conceivable that the
action of the Republic may largely forward the movement,
otherwise perceptible in the Roman Catholic Church, to transfer
education, even when combined with specific religious teaching,
from ecclesiastical to lay hands. Evidence of this tendency is to
be found in the boarding-schools (some four in number) founded
upon the plan of M. Demolins (author of A quoi tient la superiorite
des Anglo-Saxons) after the English public school model, but
with a distinctly Catholic colouring.
Apart from the position of the religious orders, the future of
private education in France is far from secure at the present
time. The liberty of teaching secured by the Loi Falloux is
regarded as a pseudo-liberty by the advanced republican educa-
tionists, and the principle that education is a function of the state
and not a matter of supply and demand is deeply rooted in the
public mind. Proposals have been" mooted for making the bacca-
laureat strictly a school leaving examination attached to the state
schools. The adoption of any such measure would practically
destroy liberty of teaching by reason of the power which the
baccalaureat secures to the state as the key to the professions.
The foundation of secondary schools for girls in connexion with
the educational reform of Jules Ferry is in its way one of the most
notable achievements of the republic. There is little
doubt tnat th e expulsion of the religious orders is
forgiris. destined to exercise a profound influence upon the
education of women in France. The place of the closed
convent schools is being taken either by new state schools or by
Catholic schools under lay teachers, and the number of scholars
affected by this process of laicization is far larger in the case of
girls than of boys. This change is calculated to produce far-
reaching effects in the social and religious order, by no means
necessarily, however, of an anti-Catholic or irreligious kind.
For an account of the resuscitation by the Republic of the
local universities under the one great state teaching body
collectively known as the University, see UNIVERSITIES.
Germany.
Under the German empire education is left to the exclusive
control of each of the federated states. The only point of direct
contact between the Empire and education lies in the mutual
undertaking of the federated states to bring the law of com-
pulsory school attendance to bear upon all subjects of the empire
resident within their respective borders. Of far greater moment
is the moral influence exerted upon the other states by the
Prussian hegemony, in virtue of which the Prussian educational
system comes to be in all essential characteristics typical and
representative of Germany as a whole. It is remarkable that
though, as Matthew Arnold was able to report to the Schools
Inquiry Commission in 1866, " the school system of Germany in
its completeness and carefulness is such as to excite the foreigner's
admiration," neither Prussia herself, nor Bavaria, nor several
other of the principal states of the Empire, have found it prac-
ticable to pass a comprehensive education law, owing to the
religious and political difficulties with which any general legis-
lative assertion of principle is attended in Germany as in England.
The consequence is that the Prussian system in particular is the
result of a long and complicated series of special laws, decrees and
administrative regulations. In such circumstances it is inevitable
that, especially in secondary education, some considerable local
variations and anomalies should remain, but the centralized
authority of the state has confined these to questions of patronage
and external administration, and even within this sphere has
successfully asserted its own ultimate supremacy as the guardian
of the educational interests of its citizens. A detailed historical
study would bring out clearly the intimate connexion between
the development of the educational system and the growth of the
Prussian state, and again between these and the expansion of the
national life of the German people; incidentally it would
exhibit the supremacy of Prussia in the modern Empire as the
inevitable result not merely of military force but of a genuine
hegemony of intellect and culture.
Stress is rightly laid by all educational writers upon Luther's
famous letter to the German municipalities in 1524, urging upon
them the duty of providing schools and upon parents
the duty of sending their children to school. An
attempt to give effect to this teaching was at once
made by the electoral government of Saxony, which by a school
ordinance of 1528 provided for the establishment in every town
and village of Latin schools, for in Germany as in England the
influence of the Protestant reformers was solidly on the side of
classical education as the key to the study of the Scriptures and
theological learning. All the more remarkable, therefore, was
the initiative of the electorate of Wurttemberg, whose school
ordinance of 1559 represents the first systematic attempt to make
provision for both elementary and higher education, directing that
elementary schools should be set up throughout the country,
and Particularschulen or Latin schools in every considerable
centre of population. The educational efforts both of the early
Reformers and of the remarkable Jesuit educationists, who con-
tributed so largely to the partial reconquest of south Germany
for the Catholic Church, were brought to naught amid the
troublous times of the Thirty Years' War, and the desolation and
national decadence which that calamity brought in its train. To
this result the aridity of the Protestant scholastics who succeeded
Luther and Melanchthon, and the frivolity, incompetence and
petty despotism of the small German courts, contributed in no
slight measure. The permanent and positive value of Luther's
pronouncement of 1524 consists not so much in the direct effects
which it produced as in the hallowed association which it estab-
lished for Protestant Germany between the national religion and
the educational duties of the individual and the state, and
doubtless this association largely contributed to the creation of
GERMANY]
EDUCATION
9 6 5
that healthy public opinion which in Prussia rendered the
principle of compulsory school attendance easy of acceptance at a
much earlier date than in England and elsewhere, save only
Scotland, where a similar historical religious influence was
supplied by John Knox.
State interference in education is almost coincident with the
rise of the Prussian state. Already in 1717 Frederick William I.
ordered all children to attend school where schools
f^ tlaa existed, and fixed the fee at 5 pf. (|d.) a week. This
measures. was followed in 1736 by edicts for the establishment of
schools in certain provinces and by a royal grant of
50,000 thalers for that purpose in the following year. In 1763
the General Landschulreglement of Frederick the Great laid
down the broad lines upon which the Prussian state has since
proceeded, asserting the principle of compulsory school attend-
ance, fixing the fees, with provision for the assistance of very
poor children, prescribing the course of instruction, and giving
directions for the examination and supervision of teachers.
Much progress was made, more especially in the organization of
higher education, under Baron von Zedlitz, who was appointed
minister for Lutheran church and school affairs by Frederick
the Great in 1771, and retired under Frederick William II. in
1788. The last-mentioned year saw the establishment of the
Abilurienlenexamen, or leaving examinations, which form the
determining element in the state organization of secondary
education in Germany. As in England, the fear of the French
Revolution produced a corresponding reaction in educational
affairs, and the policy of Frederick William II. was to bind ever
closer school and church in a system practically independent of
state control. The first departure from this policy was marked
by the Allgemeines Landrecht of 1794, which boldly proclaims
that schools and educational institutions may be founded only
with the knowledge and consent of the state, and must always be
under its supervision and subject to its examination and control.
This law also laid upon heads of families in every place the duty
of providing and maintaining schools.
It was not till the disaster of Jena and the prostration of
Prussia at the feet of Napoleon awoke the dormant spirit of
patriotism, and concentrated all the intellectual forces
of north Germany upon the task of national regenera-
ttter Jena. ti n , t nat the principles of the A llgemeines Landrecht of
1794 bore full fruit. " The organization of the Prussian
school system," says Dr James E. Russell in his work on German
Higher Schools, " waited on the reorganization of the Prussian
State." One of the first acts of the great patriotic minister von
Stein, upon his assuming control of the civil administration in
1807, was to abolish the semi-ecclesiastical Oberschulkollegium
which had been set up as the central authority under' the churchly
policy of Frederick William II., and to place education under
the Ministry of the Interior as a special section. Wilhelm von
Humboldt was placed at the head of this section in 1809, and the
work which this " great master of the science and art of educa-
tion " (as Professor Seeley terms him in his Life of Slein) in-
augurated in his one year of office entitles him to be ranked
among the founders of German unity. Humboldt's greatest
positive achievements the foundation of the university of
Berlin and its organization under a professorial staff which
included Fichte, Schleiermacher, Savigny, Wolf and Niebuhr,
as also the internal reform of secondary schools undertaken with
the pedagogical assistance of Wolf and under the inspiration of
Fichte lie beyond the scope of this article. It may, however,
be observed that Humboldt's policy in secondary education
represents a compromise between the narrow philological
pedantry of the old Latin schools and the large demands of the
new humanism of the period; and the recent reform of the
Prussian secondary schools may be said to represent a return to
the spirit of Humboldt in this respect. The measure introduced
by Humboldt in 1810 for the state examination and certification
of teachers checked the then common practice of permitting
unqualified theological students to teach in the schools, and at
once raised the teaching profession to a high level of dignity
and efficiency which of itself sufficed to place Prussia in the
forefront of educational progress. It was due also to the initiative
of Humboldt that the methods of Pestalozzi were introduced into
the teachers' seminaries, through them to vitalize the elementary
schools. To the period of the national struggle belong the revival
in 1812 of the Abiturientenexamen which had fallen into
abeyance, and the institution about the same time of the
local authorities called Schulvorstiinde for the country and
Schiddepulationen for the towns.
Though the period which succeeded the peace of 1815 was
one of political reaction, the cabinet order of Frederick William
III. in 1825 strengthened the law of compulsory p e f 0rms /
attendance and carried on the work of administrative js2S and
organization by defining the duties of the Provinzial- 1834. Abh
Schul-Kollegium and the Regierung. In 1834 an t " rleaten -
important development was given to secondary educa-
tion by making it necessary for candidates for the learned
professions as well as for the civil service, and for university
studies, to have passed the leaving examination of the gymnasia.
Thus through the leaving examination the state holds the key to
the liberal careers, and has thereby been able to impose its own
standard upon all secondary schools. Apart from the privileges
relative to professional studies, the system of leaving examina-
tions has exerted a wide influence upon popular education in
connexion with the institution of compulsory military service,
in virtue of a regulation which entitles those who pass the leaving
examination of any of the recognized kinds of secondary schools
to the much-coveted privilege of service for one year as a
" volunteer " instead of two years as an ordinary conscript.
The revolutionary and national movement of 1848 was
followed by a period of further educational activity. The Act
of Constitution of 1850 declared teachers civil servants and
elementary education free. In practice, the abolition of school
fees did not become general until 1888. Since then the view
has more and more prevailed that elementary education must be
free, 1 and, broadly speaking, fees in elementary schools are now
charged only for children attending from another school district.
In connexion with the Kidturkampf, or struggle between the
state and the Roman Catholic Church, the Schtdaujsichtsgesetz
of 1872 reasserted the absolute right of the state alone KuKur _
to the supervision of the schools; but the severity tampt ana
of this law as a measure against Roman Catholic toe con-
clerical education was considerably modified as a result tesg ' aal
of the subsequent reconciliation with the papacy under
Leo XIII., and the Prussian system remains to-day both for
Catholics and Protestants essentially denominational. All
schools, whether elementary or secondary, are Evangelical,
Catholic, Jewish or mixed. In the elementary sphere, in
particular, recourse is only had to the mixed school (Simvl-
tanschule or paritati sche Schule), where the creeds are so inter-
mingled that a confessional school is impracticable. In all cases
the teachers are appointed with reference to religious faith;
religious instruction is given compulsorily in school hours and is
inspected by the clergy. The general purport of the Prussian
school law of 1906 is to strengthen the system of separate con-
fessional schools, which it extends to certain provinces where it
had not previously been in operation.
In financial respects the last-mentioned law effected some
readjustment of burdens by charging a proportion of the ex-
penditure upon landed property. Other recent changes relate
to the reform of secondary education referred to below. The
system of educational administration as it stood <n 1909 may
shortly be described as follows.
Under the ministerium in Berlin stands the Provinzial-Schul-
Kollegium, the chairman of which is the Ober-Prasi-
dent of the province, composed of four or five Rate or
councillors, generally selected from the directors of machinery.
training colleges and gymnasia. This body is concerned
mainly with higher education.
Each province is divided for purposes of general administration
into two Regierungen or governments, and in each Regierung
'See especially Das offentliche Unterrichtswesen Deutschlands,
by Dr Paul Stotzner (Leipzig, 1901).
9 66
EDUCATION
[GERMANY
there is a section of usually three or four Schulrate, which controls
the elementary schools. This council is usually recruited from
the ranks of directors of training colleges and from the inspec-
torate. The Regierung is divided into Kreise or districts, and
in each district an administrative officer, called the Landrat,
represents the government. The Landrat is concerned with
the provision and repair of elementary school buildings; as
regards internal organization, the elementary schools are under
the Kreisschulinspektor.
In the Protestant districts the inspectors (Kreisschul-
inspektoren) are usually Evangelical clergymen holding the
position of superintendent in the Lutheran Church.
laspeition. ^ ^ Q at jj O ij c an( j cer tai n other exceptional districts
inspectors with pedagogical qualifications and the status of
full government inspectors are appointed. Every candidate for
Lutheran ordination is required to spend six months at a training
college, but pedagogical opinion is hostile to the system, which
must be regarded as a survival of the traditional union of church
and state in educational affairs, retained at the present day from
motives of economy and a desire to conciliate the church.
For every school there is an Ortsschulinspektor, usually the
clergyman of the parish, who discharges the duties of local
manager and correspondent. This local inspector is also
chairman of the Schulvorstand or committee, elected by the
Schulgemeinde, and charged with questions of attendance and
maintenance rather than with internal affairs. The Schulge-
meinde need not coincide with the civil parish. Parishes may
unite to provide one school, or within one parish different
religious communities may form separate school " parishes."
Thus the administrative system of Prussia in education as in
other matters may be described in general as a decentralized
bureaucracy. This bureaucracy is somewhat checked by the
rights of patronage attaching to the local boards in certain cases,
but the exercise of such rights is in all cases subject to govern-
ment approval. As regards higher-grade elementary and
secondary schools, the local boards in the towns (Schuldeputa-
tionen) are able to exert a considerable influence in the way of
selection of the type of school, and even of suggestion for the
modification of recognized types, as is shown by the cases of
the famous " reformed " secondary curricula of Altona and
Frankfort. Still, the legal powers of the local board are restricted
to the establishment of an approved type of school, the control
of externa, and the right of nominating teachers.
Elementary Schools. The single-class school (Einklassige
Schule) and the half-day school (Halbtagsschule) are features
Pecuii- of the Prussian elementary system which require notice.
arities of The Einklassige Schule is a school taught by a single
elementary teacher, who may teach a maximum number of eighty
""' children. The Halbtagsschule is a single-class school
of which half the children are taught in the morning and half
in the afternoon. During the summer months, owing to the
exigencies of agricultural labour, many single-class schools are
taught as half-day schools. The system of course is regarded
as a makeshift, but in this, as in the matter of buildings for rural
elementary schools, the Prussian administration attaches great
weight to the consideration of financial economy. As regards
staff, a large measure oi economy is rendered possible by the high
average standard of merit reached by German elementary
teachers, whose powers of oral exposition have struck English
observers as specially remarkable, and again by the national
readiness to be content with a moderate salary in return for
official status. A survival of the old close connexion between
church and school is to be found in the Kirchendienste, the duties
of training the choir, playing the organ, &c., which are attached
in many cases to the post of schoolmaster, and afford an addi-
tional source of emolument, rendered feasible by the practical
absence of religious dissent.
For the preliminary training of elementary teachers there are
special schools called Praparanden-Anslolten, of which most
are state institutions, some are municipal, and a few are private.
The training colleges themselves are provided by the state and
have a three years' course.
Continuation Schools (Fortbildungsschuleri). Germans have
been foremost to realize the truth which is gradually being
brought home to English educationists, that adequate
value for the heavy expenditure of public funds upon Coatlaum
education can only be obtained by providing for the "toucation
continued education for two or three years of the
children of the working classes who leave school at fourteen
years of age. One of the educational results of the war of 1870,
with its great lesson of the importance of national education,
was the Saxon law of 1873 making attendance at continua-
tion schools compulsory for three years (i.e. up to seventeen)
in that kingdom. The Saxon law appears to have been
justified by the experience of nearly a generation. It must
suffice here to note the following features of its working, (i)
The schools are taught by the primary teachers, supplemented
in the towns by some technical instructors. (2) The school
session may be either for the whole year or for only half the year,
and may also be held on Sunday, like the old English secular
Sunday schools. (3) The schools are brought into close relation
with trades, not only for purposes of curriculum, but also with
a view to considering the exigencies and meeting the convenience
of employers with respect to hours of attendance. (4) The
discipline of the continuation school is extended to supervision
out of school hours. " Visits to dancing-halls and all such
exhibitions as are dangerous to uprightness and purity are
forbidden to scholars of continuation schools." Further, useful
institutions such as savings banks, and also associations for
social intercourse and the promotion of esprit de corps, are
organized in connexion with continuation schools. There is no
doubt that in this matter of continuation schools, as in so many
other fields of social organization, the adoption of compulsion
has been facilitated by the habituation of the working classes
to compulsory military service, which has made the German
workman more disciplined, more " organizable " as a social unit,
more accustomed to subordinate the principle of individual
freedom and self-will to the collective claims of the state, than
the workman reared in the traditions of Anglo-Saxon in-
dividualism.
Attendance at continuation schools is now compulsory by
state law in 1 2 states, including (besides Saxony) Baden, Wiirttem-
berg and Bavaria. The city of Munich is notable for its highly
organized system of technical continuation schools for apprentices.
In Prussia compulsory attendance is still the exception (save in
the provinces of Posen and West Prussia, where it is enforced by
state law), but the permissive act is being rapidly adopted by
the great cities, including Berlin.
Secondary Education. The official classification or grading
according to the type of curriculum of secondary schools in
Prussia (and indeed throughout Germany) is very
precise. The following are the officially recognized
types. I. Classical schools: (a) Gymnasium, with
nine years' course; (b) Progymnasium, with six years'
course. II. Modern schools: (a) with Latin (semi-classical)
(i.) Realgymnasium (nine years' course), (ii.) Realprogymnasium
(six years' course); (b) without Latin (non-classical) (i.)
Oberrealschule (nine years' course), (ii.) Realschule (six years'
course). The six-year classical and semi-classical schools are
comparatively unimportant subdivisions in smaller towns.
Lower-grade Secondary Education. Inasmuch as French is
taught in the lowest class of the Realschule under the official
curriculum (English, on the other hand, beginning in
Tertia, the fourth class from the lowest), it follows tloa of
that this, the lowest type of secondary school, is not element-
directly co-ordinated with the elementary school. The aryaaa
Realschulen of Berlin, however, form an important se c a dary
, . education.
exception to the general rule; their curriculum,
sanctioned by the ministry at the instance of the Berlin munici-
pality, provides for the beginning of French in Quarta (the third
class from the bottom) and English in Secunda. The consequence
is that in Berlin a very large number of pupils pass from the
elementary schools to the Realschulen, which take the place
of the Mittelschulen or higher-grade elementary schools that
SWITZERLAND]
EDUCATION
967
are to be found in some towns, though something in the nature of
higher elementary education is afforded by the top sections of the
elementary schools.
First-grade Schools. One of the most striking features of
German secondary education is the careful differentiation of
Pint schools according to the type of curriculum adopted.
grade Thus, every German school is a homogeneous unit
secondary w jth a definite educational aim and organization,
conforming to a common standard approved by
public authority for the particular type to which it belongs.
Hence the importance attached by the Germans to nomen-
clature; so that in selecting a Gymnasium, a Realgymnasium
or an Oberrealschule, the parent knows exactly the type of
education he is going to secure for his son. In England, on the
other hand, as has often been observed, a great school tends to
multiply within itself different types of curricula in a haphazard
way according to the demand of parents, whose original choice
of school is based rather on social than on educational grounds.
Modern sides, army classes and engineering classes grow up as
excrescences upon an originally classical type, with the waste
of power that results from loss of consistency and concentration
of purpose. The difference between the English and German
systems is due ultimately to the adoption in Germany of the
day-school system and the absence, very remarkable in an
otherwise aristocratically governed country, of the caste spirit
in education above the elementary level, thanks to which the
nobly born are not ashamed to sit on the school bench side by
side with the children of the trading classes. On the other hand,
the English boarding-school system, despite all the want of
social solidarity, and all the class jealousy and exclusiveness
with which it is inevitably associated, has admittedly favoured
those ideals of the cultivation of character as distinct from
book-learning which give a special value to what is in England
called a public school education.
The present differentiation of first-grade schools in Prussia
is the result of a natural educational development corresponding
Ktseof w ith the economic changes which have transformed
semi- Prussia and the empire from an agricultural to an
schools i ndustr i a l state. It was in 1855 that semi-classical
schools (teaching Latin without Greek) were first
recognized for a nine years' course under the title of Realschule I.
Ordnung, and in 1871 pupils possessing their leaving certificates
were admitted to mathematical studies in the universities.
The Latinless Realschule II. Ordnung is the direct product of
the great industrial development of the modern empire. In
1882 the Realschule I. Ordnung received the title of Real-
gymnasium, and the Realschule.il. Ordnung that of Oberreal-
schule, both types being at the same time admitted to certain
privileges in the universities, schools of technology and civil
service.
About the same period official recognition was obtained for
reformed secondary curricula, first at Altona and afterwards
(1892) at Frankfort. These two types differ from
each other in detail, but the feature which distin-
guishes both from the older types is the postponement
1 of Latin to Untertertia. The design is to secure for all
types of secondary education a common non-classical base
coextensive with the first three years of school life, followed by
a trifurcation or threefold choice between the classical, semi-
classical and non-classical types. The principle of the " reform-
school " has been adopted in a considerable number of German
(chiefly Prussian) schools, but it would be premature to see in it
at present more than a new variety of Realgymnasium or semi-
classical school; it can hardly be said as yet to have affected
the course of classical studies in the full sense. The widespread
sentiment of discontent with the old philological type of classical
school was vigorously expressed in a private letter written by the
emperor William II. as crown prince of Prussia in 1885, but not
published until some years later. In December 1890 the Prussian
ministry convoked a conference at Berlin of secondary school
experts, and the emperor presided in person at the opening
session. His majesty delivered a speech criticizing the Gymnasia
The
"reform
school"
movement.
as wanting a national basis. "It is our duty to educate
young men to become young Germans and not young Greeks or
Romans " was the keynote of the imperial discourse. The out-
come of the conference was a shortening of the hours allowed to
Latin in the Gymnasia, a reduction of the hours of study in view
of over-pressure, and an expression of official opinion adverse
to the Realgymnasium. These changes, introduced in 1892, did
not go far enough to satisfy the reformers, whilst the reduc-
tion of the hours allowed for Latin caused misgivings among the
upholders of the traditional Gymnasium. Moreover, the Real-
gymnasium showed greater vitality among the large towns than
its official critics anticipated. The ensuing decade witnessed a
certain reaction in favour of the classical humanities as a barrier
against the materialistic influences of the new industrialism.
At the same time the protagonists of the classics came to recog-
nize that side by side with the old humanities there must be
accorded to modern and scientific subjects that place in the
high-grade schools which the practical exigencies of industrial
life demanded. Thus, the opinion grew that the best line of
defence for the classical schools lay in the concession of equal
privileges to the non-classical types; in this way only could the
classical schools be kept safe from demands upon their time
that could not be conceded without endangering their proper
work. It was upon this basis that an agreement was reached
between the contending parties at a second school conference
that met in Berlin in June 1900. As the result of this conference
there was issued a royal decree laying down certain general
principles, of which the following are the most important, (i)
There must be equality of privileges as between classical, semi-
classical and non-classical first-grade schools. The decree
recognizes, however, that this principle must be applied with a
certain elasticity and with due regard to the necessity for training
in particular branches of knowledge as a preliminary to certain
lines of university study and certain professional pursuits.
Consequently the Prussian system of privileges has become
extremely complicated, and it is truer to speak, as the decree
goes on to do, of an extension of the privileges of the non-
classical schools, rather than of absolute equality. (2) "In
thus acknowledging the equality of the three types of higher
institutions, it will be possible more thoroughly to strengthen
the special characteristics of each type. In this connexion,"
the royal decree proceeds, "I shall offer no objection to an
increase in the number of hours devoted to Latin in the Gym-
nasium and Realgymnasium." Thus, both as to the place of
Latin in the curriculum of classical schools and as to the status
of semi-classical schools, the decree of 1900 involves a reversal
of the policy of 1890. (3) The decree expresses approval of the
reformed curricula of Altona and Frankfort, and a desire for an
extension of the experiment where the conditions are suitable.
Notwithstanding the growing official encouragement of
education upon semi-classical or non-classical lines, the upper
and professional classes of Germany continue to show a marked
preference for the fully classical Gymnasium; hence, in Germany
as in England, the tendency for a widening gulf to disclose itself
between the education of the directing classes in politics and
administration and the bulk of the industrial population, which
suggests that the problem of combining in just proportions the
liberal and practical elements in a thoroughly national system
of education has not yet reached the solution that the needs of
the age require.
Switzerland.
Switzerland affords perhaps the best type of a democratic
system of local authorities. The central authority is the canton,
not the federation. The interference of the federal
authority is confined to the imposition of certain broad o^J"
principles by the constitution, to the indirect influence influence
exerted by the examination of recruits for the national of federal
army, and to financial grants for technical instruction, ^Ju,**"""
its most important direct educational work being the
support of the technological university at Zurich. The federal
constitution (i) states that primary instruction must be under
9 68
EDUCATION
[BELGIUM: HOLLAND
the control of the canton (an important point in view of the
strength of ecclesiastical influence in some of the Catholic
cantons), and must be compulsory and gratuitous; (2) declares
that it must be possible for the public schools to be attended
by the adherents of all creeds without hurting their freedom of
conscience; (3) forbids the employment of child labour before
completion of the fourteenth year, with a provision that in the
fifteenth and sixteenth years factory work, together with the time
given to school and religious instruction, must not exceed eleven
hours a day. (4) All recruits for the federal army (in which service
is compulsory on a militia basis) are examined in their twentieth
year, and the results are published. This examination affords an
instructive index to the state of education in the several cantons
and promotes a healthy emulation among them.
The cantonal organization of education presents the variety
which the extraordinary diversity of race, language, religion and
physical conditions of the component states of the
Cantonal^ federation would lead one to expect. The large canton
"uoa" ' ' of Bern may be instanced as the type of a strong
central authority. The commune or parish is the unit
for elementary education. The communal council nominates a
school board of at least five members, whose function is to spend
the money voted for school purposes by the general communal
council. Several communes in combination form a district
authority for the support of what are in reality higher primary
schools, though called in Switzerland Sekundarschulen, maintained
by the district. The maintenance both of the primary and higher
primary schools is aided by grants from the central authority.
The true secondary schools, called middle or higher schools, are
maintained and controlled by the central or cantonal authority.
The existence of separate local authorities for each grade of
education is characteristic of Switzerland generally, this system
being the opposite to that adopted in England in 1902.
The central grants in Switzerland always take the form of
payments to the local authorities of a proportion of the teachers'
salaries; they are never, as in England, assessed upon the number
of children in attendance, nor are they dependent, as was formerly
the case in England, upon the results of examination, nor again
are grants made in respect of particular subjects as is the case
with the grants for special, i.e. practical, instruction in England.
Religious instruction in the Swiss communal schools generally
follows the faith of the majority; in a few cantons separate
schools being provided for minorities if sufficiently numerous.
In the town of Lucerne, Catholic instruction is given in school
hours and Protestant instruction is provided out of school and
out of hours for the Protestant minority.
In 19 out of the 25 cantons attendance at continuation schools
is compulsory (at least in some districts) for boys up to 17, and
in 3 cantons it is compulsory also wholly or in part for girls.
Belgium.
The interesting feature in Belgian education is the treatment
Belgian ^ tne reh'gious question in successive laws.
treatment i. The law of 1842 obliged the communes to provide
' primary instruction, which was to be free in the case of
poor children. The state made grants in aid, subject to
inspection. Subject to a conscience clause, religious
instruction was obligatory, and was placed under ecclesiastical
inspection.
2. The law of 1879 removed religious instruction from the
curriculum, and provided for facilities to the clergy to give such
instruction outside school hours. This hw furnishes a striking
instance of the futility of a parliamentary majority legislating in a
sense opposed to the convictions of a considerable section of the
community. The law evoked a storm of opposition in the country,
still profoundly Catholic and attached to ecclesiastical traditions,
and within eighteen months the Catholics founded private
elementary schools with 455,000 scholars. In 1883 the Catholic
private schools numbered 622,000 scholars, whilst the attendance
at the communal schools had sunk to 324,000. Their doctrinaire
treatment of the education question resulted in the political
annihilation of the Belgian Liberals, and was responsible for the
strongest and most persistent Roman Catholic reaction that has
been witnessed in western Europe since the beginning of the
1 9th century.
3. The law of 1884 was the work of the moderate Catholic
party. It did not make religious instruction obligatory, but it
gave liberty to the communes to provide for the giving of religious
and moral instruction at the beginning or end of school hours,
subject to a conscience clause. Power was given to the communes
to "adopt" private confessional schools and maintain them.
Provision was further made entitling any twenty parents of
children of school age to demand a school of the normal communal
type as against a proposal to adopt a confessional school. Power
was also given to a like number of parents to compel the adoption
of a confessional school in the case of the commune refusing to
provide religious instruction of the type demanded by them, or
putting obstacles in the way of its being given by the clergy or
their representatives.
4. The law of 1895 is the work of the more authoritarian
Catholics, and makes religious instruction obligatory, placing it
directly under the control of the clergy. It ajso increased the
subsidies to private schools. This law was passed in face of
opposition from the moderate section, who saw in it an exaltation
of state authority which might be turned by opponents to the
disadvantage of the religious interest. It is by no means clear
that Belgium has yet attained a final solution of the religious
difficulty; the life of the present law is probably to be measured
by that of the Catholic political majority.
Holland.
The outstanding feature of public education in Holland is the
strength of the private primary schools. Under the law of 1857
secular teaching alone was provided in the primary schools at
the public cost. The law of 1878 allowed communes to make
grants to private schools on condition of their becoming neutral
in the matter of religion. The law of 1889 allowed private
denominational schools to receive government grants while
retaining their denominational character, but forbade further
grants to such schools by the communes.
In 1905 there were 566,460 children in the public and 278,632
in the private schools.
Scotland.
The diverse religious and social conditions of the three con-
stituent parts of the United Kingdom must necessarily cause the
education problem to assume a different shape and to receive
different solutions in England, Scotland and Ireland respect-
ively; latterly also the special conditions obtaining in Wales
have received partial recognition at the hands both of the
legislature and the executive. In Scotland the conditions have
been less complex than in England. The practical unanimity of
the people in religious faith, which has remained undisturbed by
the institutional divisions of recent times, the wider diffusion of a
sense of the value of education, the greater simplicity of life which
has rendered all classes largely content to avail themselves of the
preparatory education afforded by the common school and
favoured the development in the secondary sphere of day rather
than boarding schools, are among the causes which have con-
tributed to the early building up of a national system which in
some respects resembles the continental rather than the English
type.
The national appreciation of education is found marked
already before the Reformation in a statute of James IV. (1494)
requiring all freeholders of substance to send their
heirs to school and to keep them there until they had
perfect Latin. The Reformation, asserting itself by
common consent under one ecclesiastical form, and free
from the divisions of religious organization which tended to
neutralize it as an educational force in England, put fresh life into
the educational aspirations of the people. As early as 1560 the
Church Assembly, largely under the influence of John Knox, put
SCOTLAND]
EDUCATION
969
forth the Book of Discipline, providing that "every several kirk "
in a town "of any reputation " was to have its Latin school, that
the " upaland " or country parts were to have a teacher of the
" first rudiments " in every parish, and that each " notable "
town was to have "a college for logic, rhetoric and the tongues."
Practical effect was later given to this scheme by an act of the
Scottish parliament in 1696, under which parish schools were set
up in connexion with the Established Church of Scotland. This
system was extended by an act of 1803, which made better
provision for teachers' salaries and also confirmed the position of
the parish school as an adjunct of the parish church. The system
of inspection and state aid introduced in England in 1839 was
made applicable to Scotland, thus grafting upon Scotland the
English system of voluntary state-aided schools. At the same
period another new factor was imported into Scottish education
by the ecclesiastical disruption of 1843. As a result of these
changes in 1861 a new act was passed which relaxed, though it
did not sever, the ties which bound the parish school to the
church.
The Education (Scotland) Act of 1872 set up elective school
boards for parishes and boroughs,' and vested in them the
existing parish and burgh schools. Long prior to the
school act i' na d been l ^ e practice of the Church of Scotland
boards to allow exemption in the schools from religious in-
mnd school struction; consequently in imposing a compulsory
09 conscience clause the act did little more than confirm
existing usage. The school boards were left full
liberty as to the religious instruction to be given in their
schools, and in practice school boards universally adopt the
Shorter Catechism, which is acceptable to all denominations
of Presbyterians. The act made the school boards responsible
for the supply of school accommodation, and introduced com-
pulsory attendance, for which opinion in England was not at that
time ripe. By the act of 1901, the age of compulsory attendance
was raised to fourteen, with provision for exemption after
twelve.
The experience of the Scottish Education Department, like
that of the English, has led to the gradual abandonment of in-
dividual examination as the basis for the payment of
grants. The institution of the merit certificate is
one f tne features in which the Scottish system differs
from the English. Prior to the code of 1903 the merit
certificate, awarded on examination after the age of twelve,
was properly described as the leaving certificate of the elementary
school. Under the more recent codes merit certificates are
awarded under a system designed to encourage the transference
of promising pupils at an early age to supplementary courses or
higher-grade departments. Under this system the fitness of the
pupil to enter upon a course of higher studies is determined
not solely by the results of a single examination, but by
the whole character of his work during the preceding school
course.
A notable factor historically in Scottish education was the
extent to which the parish schools supplied their best pupils
with higher or further education. The administrative
changes last mentioned have led to a remarkable
schools. development of organized higher-grade schools and
departments. These departments have now been
organized upon the lines of the higher primary schools of France,
" to continue a stage further " (says the report of the Scottish
Education Department.) " the general education of that con-
siderable body of pupils who, under new conditions, may be
expected to remain at school till fifteen or sixteen." The
function " of giving something of the nature of a specialized
education to pupils who will leave school at a comparatively
early age " is now discharged by the supplementary courses.
Elementary education has generally been rendered free by
fr ^ the fee grants under the parliamentary vote, and by
education. tne sums accruing under the Local Taxation (Customs
and Excise) Act 1890 and the Education and Local
Taxation (Scotland) Act 1892.
Voluntary schools are not numerous, being chiefly those of
the Roman Catholic Church. The average cost of maintenance
per child in average attendance in public schools (according
to the official report 1907-1908) was 3, us. ijd., of which
2, 45. 4jd. was met by government grants for elementary
education. In voluntary schools the average cost of main-
tenance was 2, 153. ijd., of which 2, 2s. ?d. was met by
elementary grants, including a special aid grant of 33. per
head under the Education (Scotland) Act 1897.
The total number of children ( 1 907-1 908) in average attendance
in grant-earning schools was 712,076, and the percentage of
attendances to numbers on the register was 87-66%. As
regards teaching power, 81-52% of the male teachers and
56-71% of the female teachers in the elementary teachers had
been trained in training colleges.
Certain miscellaneous additional powers are conferred upon
school boards by the Education (Scotland) Act 1908, including
powers to provide school meals; in outlying parts, to
provide means of conveyance,orpay travelling expenses ^g^'aiT)
of teachers or pupils, or defray the cost of lodging pupils Act 1908.
in convenient proximity to a school; to provide for
medical inspection; and as to children neglected by reason of the
ill-health or poverty of the parent, to supply food, clothing
and personal attention.
Perhaps the most noteworthy provision in the act of 1908
is that which enables (not obliges) school boards to make bye-
laws reauiring attendance at continuation classes up .-
. - Compul
to the age of seventeen years. Apart from com- sorycoa-
pulsory attendance, the act lays upon school boards tiauatioa
the duty of making suitable provision of continuation cta ** es -
classes with reference to the crafts and industries practised in
the district.
The Scottish Education Act of 1872 distinguished certain
burgh and parish schools as " higher class public " or secondary
schools. The act of 1908 deals in some detail with
secondary education, modifying and strengthening
the framework in various ways, but without introduc-
ing organic changes. " Secondary " schools are distinguished
from " intermediate," the former being defined as providing
at least a five years' course; the latter as providing at least a
three years' course in languages, mathematics, science and such
other subjects as may from time to time be deemed suitable for
the instruction of pupils who have reached a certain standard
of attainment in elementary subjects under the code. Inter-
mediate and secondary schools may be provided and maintained
either by school boards or otherwise, and provision is contained
in the act for the transfer of endowed schools to the school
board. Thus secondary (as well as elementary and continuative)
education is organized upon the basis of the parish or burgh; it
receives, however, grants in aid through the agency of county
(or large urban) authorities (called district committees) con-
stituted under schemes of the Scottish Education Department.
For the purpose of such grants in aid the funds available under
the various local taxation acts, together with parliamentary
grants, other than a fee grant at the rate of 125. per child in
average attendance, form a fund called the Education (Scotland)
Fund. After provision has been made for (inter alia) grants for
universities, higher technical education and training colleges,
the fund is allocated to the district committees according to a
scheme laid before parliament and approved by the king in
council. Out of the " district education fund " the school
board receives (ordinarily) a sum equal to one-half of the amount
by which the net cost to the school board (after deducting income
from grants made by the department and from fees) exceeds the
amount which would be produced by such rate per pound upon
the district of the school board as the committee may determine,
not being more than a rate of twopence in the pound. Important
powers are also conferred upon the district committee for organiz-
ing and aiding within their district the provision by the school
boards of medical examination and supervision of school children,
the supply of bursaries for purposes of all forms of higher educa-
tion, and the provision of instruction in special subjects, such as
agriculture, &c.
970
EDUCATION
[IRELAND
Ireland.
The full development of a system of public education in
Ireland has been hampered and retarded by the general diffi-
s / / culties inherent in the problem of Irish government.
difficulties In consequence of the fundamentally different social,
at Msb religious and political conditions in the two countries,
education. ^ e English and Irish systems have developed down
to the present time upon divergent lines. In England,
popular education was founded in the first instance upon in-
dividual initiative combining in organized voluntary effort, and,
though the voluntary agencies have been first supplemented
and latterly to a large extent supplanted by public action, the
tendency has been in the direction of municipalization rather
than in that of central state control. In Ireland, on the other
hand, education has suffered in the past from the general absence
of individual initiative and local interest almost as seriously as
from the mistakes of the English government. These causes,
more directly perhaps than the prevailing poverty of the country,
made it necessary to throw the burden of supporting the schools
to an increasing extent upon the state, while the want of local
self-government precluded any devolution of powers and duties
upon municipal authorities.
State intervention is actually of earlier date in Ireland than
in England. From the reign of Elizabeth onwards, English
Protestant schools were founded by the government
Historical j n a sporadic and intermittent fashion in pursuance
of its Anglicizing policy. To mention briefly one or
two historical features, the great religious educational
enterprise of Edmond Rice in founding the well-known Irish
Catholic order of the Christian Brothers in 1802 forms an excep-
tion to the general lack of initiative among the people themselves.
About the same period the Kildare Place Society (founded in
1811 while the first commission of inquiry into Irish education
was sitting) attempted to grapple with the peculiar difficulties
of the religious situation upon lines somewhat similar to those
just laid down by Lancaster and his followers in England.
This organization comprised both Roman Catholic and
Protestant schools upon a common religious basis of Bible
reading without note or comment, and received government
grants which rose to 30,000 a year before they were discontinued
in 1833. The religious compromise which the system embodied
broke down in consequence of Catholic dissatisfaction, and that
it was at first fairly successful may seem extraordinary in view
of the later attitude of the Catholic Church towards the question
of common schools and combined religious instruction.
In 1833, as the result of a second commission of inquiry
(1824) and a select committee of the House of Commons (1828),
Mr Stanley inaugurated the national system of element-
oaf/ona/ arv sc ^' s under a board of commissioners nominated
system. from the different religious denominations. The
government appears from the outset to have aimed
at combined secular and separate religious instruction for
Roman Catholics and Protestants. At the same time, an
attempt was inconsistently made to provide an ethical basis
for the secular instruction by means of Bible extracts. The
story of the preparation of these extracts by an ingenious
compound of the Protestant Authorized and Douai versions of
Scripture is in its way one of the curiosities of religious history.
The extracts were designed to meet the recognized Catholic
objection to the indiscriminate reading of the Bible without note
or comment. In practice they were chiefly used in the Protestant
schools (in which their use is now practically extinct), and the
growing Catholic objection to the policy of the National Board
in this respect found authoritative, though somewhat cautiously
worded, expression in a decree of the Roman Congregation De
Propaganda Fide of January n, 1846, declaring that non-
sectarian religious instruction was dangerous to youth. " Tutius
multo esse ut literarum tantummodo humanarum magisterium
fiat in scholis promiscuis, quam ut fundamentales, ut aiunt, et
communes religionis Christianae articuli restricte tradantur,
reservata singuiis sectis peculiari seorsum eruditione. Ita enim
cum pueris agere periculosum valde videtur." The religious
difficulty in Irish elementary education may be said to have
been solved in process of time by the conversion of the national
system in practice, though not in theory, into a system strongly
denominational and therefore widely different from the design
of its founders, combined Biblical instruction being discarded,
and separate schools for the most part taking the place of
common schools for the two creeds. In the latter respect the
like tendency has been noted in the case of Germany.
The following are the chief specific points upon which the
Irish system of elementary education differs from the English.
Finance. The state still makes building grants to the extent
of two-thirds of the cost. Such grants are only made to what
are called vested schools, that is to say, schools of Msh
which the premises are vested in trustees or in the element-
commissioners themselves. The state further pays "v
in the case of all national schools the entire cost of eauca ""'
maintenance except only the upkeep of the building, and the
provision of books after the exhaustion of a first free grant.
Appointment and Payment of Teachers. For the purpose of
promotion the state through its inspectors undertakes the duty
of classifying the individual teachers in four grades, passage
from one grade to another being secured by examination.
Appointments of teachers to schools are made by the school
managers subject to the approval of the commissioners. Rights
of dismissal are reserved to the local managers and also to the
commissioners independently. Lastly, the teachers' salaries
are now paid directly by the state. The old system of payment
by results was abandoned in 1900, and the teacher is paid (a)
a fixed salary according to grade, (6) a continued good service
salary which may be increased triennially, (c) a capitation
payment.
Convent Schools. In addition to the national schools supported
as above, there are a considerable number of convent or monas-
tery schools which receive capitation grants after the English
plan, but not direct salaries. There were 308 such schools in
1908, with an average attendance of 70,003. There were also 83
other convent or monastery schools paid by personal salaries,
with an average attendance of 11,075.
School Attendance and Free Education. The Irish Education
Act 1892 provided for compulsory attendance in towns and for
the adoption of compulsion in other districts. In virtue of the
financial sections of this act, which provided an increased
grant for salaries, most national schools have become free.
General Elementary-School Statistics. In 1908 the average
number of scholars on the rolls of all the schools was 708,992,
and the average daily attendance was 494,662, or 69-8% as
compared With the number on the rolls. As regards religious
denomination, 74-42 % of the scholars on the rolL were Roman
Catholics; 28-6% were in schools attended by both Roman
Catholic and Protestant children and 71-4% in schools attended
solely by Roman Catholics or solely by Protestants. The total
expenditure on the schools and teaching staffs was 1,591,214,
of which 1,451,139, equivalent to 2,195. 3d. per scholar, was
contributed from state grants, and 140,074, equivalent to
53. 9d. per scholar, from local (i.e. voluntary) sources, the rate
per scholar from all sources being 3, 53.
Training of Teachers. Salaried monitors are employed in
the Irish schools, but, unlike the English pupil teachers, are not
explicitly recognized as forming part of the school staff. There
are now seven training colleges, viz. one undenominational
college maintained by the commissioners, five Roman Catholic
colleges, and one college in connexion with the Protestant
Episcopal Church of Ireland. Of the scholars in the undenomi-
national college, 73 out of 312 were Roman Catholics. The total
number of students in training was 1189, viz. 514 men and 675
women. The percentage of trained teachers to the total number
of teachers was 64-7. A special training college for the instruc-
tion of teachers in Irish has been recognized.
One of the chief desiderata in Irish education is a single
central authority for all branches of education, elementary,
secondary (or " intermediate ") and technical. There are two
ENGLAND]
EDUCATION
971
central authorities dealing with secondary education, viz. the
Intermediate Education Board and the Department for Agri-
ad culture and Technical Instruction. The Intermediate
education. Board administers sums available under the Inter-
mediate Education Act of 1878 from the Irish Church
Surplus, and also the sum allocated under the Local Taxation
Act 1890. The vice of the system in the opinion of educational
experts lies in the statutory obligation to award grants on the
result of an individual examination of the scholars. As a result
of the vice-regal commission of 1898, power was taken to intro-
duce a system of school inspection, though not to dispense with
the individual examination as the basis for the award of the
grants; this measure of reform was ultimately carried out in
1909. The sum distributed in result grants is about 50,000
per annum.
Prior to the Agriculture and Technical Instruction (Ireland)
Act 1899, science and art grants were administered by the
Science and Art Department in England; by this act they were
transferred to the new Irish Department for Agriculture and
Technical Instruction. This department makes block grants
to secondary schools in respect of science and art teaching, and
manual instruction or domestic economy. Measures have been
taken for the co-ordination of the duties of the Technical Depart-
ment and the Intermediate Board, and the impetus given to the
teaching of experimental science by grants for the erection of
laboratories represents a reform of undoubted value for higher
education in Ireland, especially when considered in connexion
with the enlistment of the local interest of the technical education
committees in the intermediate schools. Nevertheless, in the
absence of a reform of the results system of intermediate grants,
the special subsidizing of science teaching has tended to put an
undue premium upon this subject to the detriment of the rest
of the curriculum.
Ireland possesses no such system of scholarships for assisting
the passage of scholars from the elementary to the secondary
school as England enjoys as a result of the municipalization of the
educational system. Nevertheless, Irish children as a fact pass
much more freely from the elementary to the secondary school
than is the case in England where social prejudices are stronger.
The schools of the Christian Brothers are usually organized in two
departments, primary and intermediate, and thus supply for the
Roman Catholic population the demand for the cheap type of
secondary day school represented by the municipal schools in
England. It must be added that the Irish intermediate schools
arepurelydenominational. The widespreaddemandfor secondary
education among the people, to which the report of Messrs Dale
and Stephens bears witness, is a gratifying feature of Irish life,
while the recent establishment (1908) of the long-deferred national
university, and the perceptible quickening of intellectual interests
throughout the country in connexion with the Celtic revival,
point to better conditions for higher education and to the develop-
ment of a wider, deeper and truer, because more national, culture.
England.
It was justly observed by Sir Joshua Fitch (Ency. Brit., loth
ed., xxvii. p. 655) that " the public provision for the education of
the people in England is not the product of any theory or plan
formulated beforehand by statesmen or philosophers; it has
come into existence through a long course of experiments,
compromises, traditions, successes, failures and religious con-
troversies. What has been done in this department of public
policy is the resultant of many diverse forces and of slow evolution
and growth rather than of pure purpose and well-defined national
aims. It has been effected in different degrees by philanthropy,
by private enterprise, by religious zeal, by ancient universities
and endowed foundations, by municipal and local effort, and only
to a small extent by legislation. The genius or rather character-
istic habit of the English people is averse from the philosophical
system, and is disposed to regard education, not as a science, but
as a body of expedients to be discovered empirically and amended
from time to time as occasion may require." Clearly, then, the
English system of public education, as it results from successive
acts of the administration and the legislature, is one which can
only adequately be appreciated in the light of an historical
survey of the various stages which have led up to it and the social
conditions by which they were determined. The history of state
education in England begins tardily in 1832, when after a
generation of hesitation and controversy a beginning was made
upon an exceedingly modest scale with the system of treasury
grants in aid of elementary schools. The diverse forces which
were at that date at work in the education of the nation as a
whole, retarding state interference and marking out the limits
within which it was long to be confined, derive their origin from a
much remoter period.
The apprenticeship laws of Henry VIII. contain the earliest
germ of state interference. These laws obliged children between
five and thirteen years of age who were found begging or idle to
be bound apprentices to some handicraft. If the immediate
object was the prevention of crime rather than education as such,
this early legislation is at least significant of the primary and
intimate connexion that exists between popular education and
industrial and economic needs. Yet in the shaping of the educa-
tional system the original influences were religious rather than
economic; hence the importance of the canons of 1604, influence
which secured the control of education to the Estab- of the
lished Church. This of course was no novel doctrine, English
but merely the reaffirmation by the Reformed Church *^ orma "
of the Catholic tradition of religious exclusiveness,
presenting itself to the mind of contemporaries rather as the
recognition of a national, that was also a religious, duty than as
the assumption of an ecclesiastical privilege. Whatever mischief
the Tudor statesmen wrought by indiscriminate destruction of
chantries and other foundations which combined educational
work with observances that the new religion branded as super-
stitions, however far the English Reformation fell short of the
organized enthusiasm for popular education and culture that
marked the first most vigorous and constructive period of
Lutheranism in Germany, the Protestant, and especially the
Puritan, spirit unquestionably inspired a considerable volume of
individual educational effort during the latter half of the i6th
and the first half of the I7th centuries. Here, as in Germany,
the influence of the Reformation was wholly on the side of
classicism, the dead languages being the key to the theological
learning which was of primary concern to the men of that
theological age. The conception of elementary education as a
system complete in itself and adapted to the needs of the masses of
the people was unfamiliar at this date. The earliest elementary
schools were petits schools, which (as the name implies) were
really preparatory departments of the grammar-schools. Educa-
tion in fact was still regarded as the privilege of an elite, but, as in
the middle ages, the elite for whom it was sought to provide a
ladder to the university by means of the endowed schools so
numerously founded about this time was an elite of intellect and
not of mere wealth ; the class feeling which became so marked
a feature of English higher education was of much later growth.
Towards the end of the I7th century elementary education
began to differentiate itself, partly by way of reaction against the
unnatural classicism of the preceding age, but more / /
especially as the result of the growth of towns and the element-
creation of a considerable industrial population. At "V
the close of the century the moral evils attendant upon eaacaa a -
industrialism alarmed the religious conscience and prompted one
of the great educational movements that stand to the credit of
the national church. In 1699 Dr Bray founded the Society for
Promoting Christian Knowledge, and the movement thereby
initiated may be traced in the numerous "charity" or "Blue
Coat " schools scattered plentifully throughout the country and
especially in the great centres of population. The foundation of
these schools, which was pushed forward with vigour during the
early years of the i8th century, represents an energetic and well-
planned attempt to cope with the social evil of poverty by
educational means. The instruction was elementary, the scholars
were clothed as well as taught free, and the schools in the first
instance were supported not so much by permanent endowment
972
EDUCATION
[ENGLAND
as by voluntary effort, so that with this movement the voluntary
system may be said to make its appearance. Lastly, all these
philanthropic efforts were inspired by a solid but sober piety
nurtured by a church which came nearer than at any other period
of its history to enjoying the undivided allegiance of the people.
Another notable movement in connexion with the church was one
confined to Wales, that of the Welsh " circulating schools "
established by Griffith Jones about 1730, consisting of an organ-
ized staff of schoolmasters who went round teaching adults to
read the Bible in Welsh. In the English rural parishes the com-
parative religious unanimity favoured the quiet development
of elementary education in a small way upon less specifically
religious lines. Numerous small endowments for the element-
ary education of poor children were provided by well-to-do
parishioners; indeed to such an extent did the practice of making
charitable (and largely educational) bequests increase that the
legislature intervened in the interest of private inheritance by
reviving the law of mortmain in an act of 1736. The village
schoolmaster became a feature of rural life, frequently enjoying
a schoolhouse provided sometimes by endowment and sometimes
even directly by the parishioners at the cost of the rate levied by
the vestry, but more often aided only by a little stipend from an
endowment for teaching poor children, and eking out an always
scanty subsistence by the fees of such paying scholars as he could
succeed in getting together.
Towards the end of the i8th century the emergency of the
industrial revolution evoked a fresh religious effort upon a more
ne highly organized scale in the shape of the Sunday-
Suaday- school movement, which may be said to represent the
school educational contribution of the Evangelical revival
movement. Ro b ert Raikes, the founder of the Sunday School
Union, established his first Sunday school in 1782. ' The idea of
the Sunday school did not originate with Raikes; among earlier
pioneers in this field were John Wesley, who held Sunday classes
at Savannah in 1737; Theophilus Lindsey at Catterick in the
North Riding of Yorkshire, about 1769; Hannah Ball at High
Wycombe in 1769; and Jenkin Morgan near Llanidloes in
1770. Sunday schools, too, had been founded in England by
Joseph Alleine, the Puritan Father, in the i7th century, and
in Catholic Italy and France by St Charles Borromeo and Jean
Baptiste de la Salle in the i6th and 1 7th centuries respectively.
Nevertheless, in virtue of his achievement in organization,
Raikes is rightly regarded as the founder of the English Sunday
school. The peculiar value of the Sunday-school system in its
early days lay in the combination of secular with religious
instruction; in many cases the school was held on Saturday as
well as Sunday, and its restriction to the one day or two days was
due to the prevalence of child labour under stress of the great
industrial expansion. With better economic conditions and with
the development of day schools the Sunday schools gradually
became restricted in function to purely religious instruction.
Even with this limitation there is no doubt that the great Sunday-
school organizations of the various churches still deserve to be
reckoned among the educational assets of the nation, and as
agencies both of religious instruction and of general culture they
may tend, under modern educational and religious developments,
to play an increasingly important part.
At the end of the i8th century the development of industry
and the social unrest which followed the French Revolution
Move . combined to bring home to the public mind the need
meats of of a national system of day schools. Unfortunately,
Lancaster just at this moment the revival of Nonconformity as
d B rtu the result of tne rell gi us vitality of the Evangelical
of the movement shattered the religious peace of the early
religious Hanoverian period and divided the nation once more into
hostile camps, to which class distinctions lent additional
bitterness. The famous controversy between Andrew
Bell and Joseph Lancaster and their respective followers in the
opening years of the igth century served to define the religious
difficulty substantially in the form in which it exists after the
lapse of a century for the present generation. Both these
remarkable men conceived independently the idea of a national
system of popular education upon a voluntary basis; both
concurred in extolling the merits of the monitorial system,
which each claimed to have originated. The controversy
between them, begun upon personal grounds, resolved itself
into a national contest of rival principles of religious teaching.
Lancaster as a young Quaker schoolmaster, confronted with
pupils drawn from various religious bodies, planned his religious
instruction upon the lines of doctrine common to all the orthodox
Christian denominations. Thus he is the father of the unde-
nominational religious teaching which later formed the basis
of the Cowper-Temple compromise. But whereas the Cowper-
Temple clause is purely negative in form and so seems to point
to an undogmatic religion, the Lancasterian teaching was
essentially positive and dogmatic within its limits. In 1805
Mrs Trimmer opened the attack upon Lancaster's system with
a work bearing the expressive title of A Comparative View of the
New Plan of Education promulgated by Mr Joseph Lancaster
and of the System of Christian Instruction founded by our Fore-
fathers for the initiation of the young members of the Established
Church in the Principles of the Reformed Religion. The church
as a whole refused to co-operate in religious teaching upon the
basis of a common Christianity, and joined issue with Lancaster
and his Whig and Nonconformist following not merely upon
the question of the exclusion of dogmatic formularies, but
also upon the question of the control of whatever religious teach-
ing should be given. In fact the vital question at this period
was whether the clergy of the Established Church were to control
the national education. The religious issue was prominent in
connexion with the remarkable attempt at legislation made
by the Whig statesman Mr Whitbread in his Parochial Schools
Bill of 1807. As originally introduced, the bill proposed to make
it compulsory on parochial vestries to levy rates for the support
of schools for teaching reading, writing and arithmetic. The
compulsory provisions were dropped in the House of Commons,
but the bill was rejected by the Lords, mainly on the ground
that it did not place education on a religious basis or sufficiently
secure control to the minister of the parish. -.' ' ' . .
The failure of the liberal proposals of WEitbread, and the
strength of the Dissenting opposition to any settlement on purely
church lines (such as that advocated by Bell in 1808 p oua da-
for establishing schools under the control of the tloa of
parochial clergy), rendered recourse to voluntary effort voluntary
inevitable. In 1808 the Royal Lancasterian Society Kb o1 *-
was formed to carry on the work of Lancaster, the name being
afterwards changed, owing to personal difficulties due to the
wayward character of Lancaster, to the British and Foreign
School Society. In the following year the National Society for
Promoting the Education of the Poor in the Principles of the
Established Church throughout England and Wales was formed,
with Bell as its superintendent. In voluntary effort on a grand
scale the church easily outdistanced her opponents, and in 1831
the National Society was able to show that there were in all over
13,000 schools in connexion with the church, of which 6470 were
both day and Sunday schools, having a total attendance of
409,000.
The rapid development of the voluntary school system was
no doubt greatly facilitated by the monitorial plan of teach-
ing, upon which Bell and Lancaster equally relied.
Probably the first idea of utilizing the older pupils sys t em .
to teach the younger presented itself independently
to Lancaster in the Borough Road and to Bell in Madras. The
monitorial plan never rested upon any educational theory;
it was simply a makeshift, a rough-and-ready expedient for
overcoming the practical difficulty caused by the dearth of
competent teachers. Historically it is important as the pre-
cursor of the pupil-teacher system which so long formed the
exclusive basis of the English elementary system.
Meantime a further political move was attempted by
Brougham, who included educational reform among his multi-
farious activities. In 1816 he procured the appointment of a
general commission of inquiry into endowed charities. The
labours of this great inquisition lasted for twenty years and led
ENGLAND]
EDUCATION
973
to the reformation of many cases of abuse or waste of wealthy
endowments, and eventually to the establishment of the Charity
Commission in 1853. In 1820 Brougham introduced a
Activities remarkable bill which proposed to make the magistrates
"enugham. in quarter sessions the rating authority, to require
' teachers to be members of the Church of England
and to be appointed upon a certificate from the parochial clergy-
man, and on the other hand to prohibit religious formularies and
to confine religious instruction to Bible reading without comment.
The bill naturally failed through the opposition cf the Dissenters,
and served only to accentuate the religious impasse.
In 1832 the Whig government which passed the Reform Bill
placed on the Estimates a sum of 20,000 for public education,
thus initiating the system of the annual grant voted by
gnats.' 3 ' parliament and dispensed under regulations framed
by administrative act. The grant of 1832 was ad-
ministered by the treasury and not by a special department,
under certain conditions laid down by treasury minute of August
30, 1833. The chief of these were that grants were confined to
the erection of school buildings, and were to be administered
only through the National and the British and Foreign School
societies; there was a provision for audit, but no condition
of inspection.
In 1839 Lord Melbourne's government by means of an order
in council established a separate education office under the style
Establish- * l ^ e Committee of Council on Education, and the
went of ' sum voted by parliament was increased to 39,000.
State- The original intention of the government was to estab-
'*'' lish a state normal school or training college as the
""" foundation of a national system of education. Un-
fortunately this design had to be abandoned in view of the
religious difficulty, with the result (so fruitful in controversy
at the present time) that the training of elementary teachers
was left in private hands and became a stronghold of the volun-
tary and denominational interests. In view of the limited
resources placed at their disposal by parliament, the Committee
of Council were at first compelled to confine their assistance to
capital grants in aid of the provision of school buildings, but in
the distribution of the money three important conditions were
at once imposed. In the first place, the continuing right of
inspection was required in all cases; secondly, promoters were
obliged to conform to a fixed standard of structural efficiency ;
thirdly, the building must be settled upon trusts permanently
securing it to the education of poor children.
By the minute of August 10, 1840, the Committee of Council
concluded what came to be known as the concordat with the
church. Under this minute no appointment was to
k e mac ^ e f an y P erson to inspect schools in connexion
church. with the Church of England without the concurrence
of the archbishop of the province, and, what seems
still more extraordinary to modern ideas, any such appointment
was to be revoked should the archbishop at any time withdraw
his concurrence. The inspectors were charged with the duty
of inspecting religious teaching, but under instructions to be
framed by the archbishop, and their reports were to be trans-
mitted in duplicate to the archbishop and the bishop for the
information of these authorities. Further, the general instruc-
tions of the Committee of Council themselves were to be com-
municated to the archbishop before being finally sanctioned.
The march of events, and in particular the altered financial
relations between the state and the voluntary managers brought
about by the institution of maintenance grants, soon rendered
this concordat obsolete, but it remains historically important
as showing how at the outset the denominational principle was
recognized and fostered by the state.
Among the first acts of the Committee of Council was the
promulgation of a set of model trusts deeds, one or other of which
applicants for building grants were required to adopt
for the settlement of their school premises. The
necessary conditions were the permanent appropriation
of the site to purposes of education, and the permanent right of
government inspection; it must, however, be noted that this
latter right was generally limited in terms to the inspection
provided for by the minute of August 10, 1840. A conscience
clause was not obligatory, and indeed was only offered in the
limited form of exemption from instruction in formularies and
attendance at Sunday school or public worship. A more sys-
tematic attempt to promote public control by means of trust deeds
in 1846 led the Committee of Council into a controversy with the
National Society which extended over a period of three years,
turning chiefly upon the management clauses and the question of
appeals, and resulting in compromises which constituted a fresh
concordat with the church. In point of fact, the management
clauses proved to be of little practical consequence, save in a few
controversial cases, until the act of 1902, which had the effect of
bringing them once more into prominence in connexion with the
constitution of statutory bodies of foundation managers. The
act of 1902 also dealt specifically with two other points arising
upon the old trust deeds, viz. the control of religious instruction
and the appeal to the bishop in religious questions. Special
facilities for the conveyance of land for school purposes were
afforded to limited owners by the School Sites Acts of 1841 and
subsequent years. The landed gentry responded with great
public spirit to the call thus made upon their generosity by the
state, with the result that the vast majority of rural, and many
urban, parishes were freely endowed with sites for elementary
schools.
The Grammar Schools Act of 1840, which was passed to deal
with the case of the decayed " grammar " (i.e. classical) schools
which abounded throughout the country, belongs to the
history of elementary rather than secondary education.
It expressly empowered the Court of Chancery, where
the endowment was insufficient for a classical school, to
substitute subjects of useful learning analogous to those con-
tained in the original trusts. As a result of this act a considerable
number of ancient endowments were reorganized so as to afford
an improved elementary instead of an inefficient classical
education, and the schemes made under the act constituted
an early, but not very successful, experiment in the direction of
higher elementary schools.
In 1843 tne Committee of Council decided to make grants in aid
of the erection of normal schools or training colleges
in connexion with the National Society and the British
and Foreign School societies, thus marking the definite
abandonment of the provision of training colleges to
voluntary effort.
In 1846 an important step forwards was taken in the founda-
tion of the pupil-teacher system. The regulations of this year
inaugurated annual maintenance grants in the form of
stipends for apprenticed pupil teachers receiving a
prescribed course of instruction under the head teacher, system,
and a lower grade of stipendiary monitors in schools
where such instruction could not be provided. These regulations
inaugurated the system of Queen's Scholarships to assist pupil
teachers to proceed to a training college; they also established
capitation grants for the support cf such colleges, and annual
grants to elementary schools under government inspection of
from 15 to 30 in aid of the salary of every trained teacher
employed. Provision was at the same time made for retiring
pensions to elementary teachers.
Down to 1847 state aid was confined to two religious categories
of schools: those giving specifically Church of England teaching,
and those in connexion with the British and Foreign
School Society giving simple Bible teaching. To
facilitate the recognition of other denominational
schools the Committee of Council in 1847 issued a Wesley ans,
minute dispensing schools not connected with the ?!^ a ^
Established Church from inquiries concerning their a adews.
religious condition, and in the same year state aid was
extended to Wesleyan and Roman Catholic schools. The
settlement of model trust deeds gave occasion for each of these
two great religious bodies' to negotiate a kind of concordat with
respect to school management, and the Roman Catholic deed was
only settled after a controversy, similar to that which had arisen
Extension
of state
974
EDUCATION
[ENGLAND
with the National Society, as to the rights of ecclesiastical
authority. Jewish schools received recognition in 1851 upon
condition that the Scriptures of the Old Testament should be
daily read in them.
During the middle years of the century various unsuccessful
legislative attempts were made to establish a national system of
elementary schools upon the basis of rate-aid. These
attempts began with the education clauses of Sir Robert
Peel's Factory Bill of 1842, and were renewed in a
series of bills from 1853 to 1857, of which one set was introduced
by Lord John Russell on behalf of the Whig government, whilst
a second was promoted by an organization called the Manchester
and Salford Committee on Education, in the denominational
interest, and a third set by an organization called the Lancashire
(afterwards the National) Public Schools Association,inthesecular
interest. The only one of these attempts which calls for notice
here is the bill introduced by Lord John Russell (called the
Borough Bill, on account of its being restricted to municipal
boroughs) in 1853 , and forming part of a comprehensive scheme of
legislative and administrative reform of which a portion was
actually carried into effect. The bill as a measure for elementary
education was supplemented by an administrative system of
capitation grants for rural areas. The government scheme also
comprised a measure dealing with the administration of charitable
trusts (which took shape as the Charitable Trusts Act 1853), the
constitution of the Department of Science and Art, and university
reform upon the lines recommended by the Oxford and Cambridge
commissions. The Borough Bill left it optional with municipalities
to adopt the act. It provided for the appointment of a school
committee, one half of whose members might be non-members of
the council. The school committee was merely given power to
assist existing voluntary schools out of the rates. No provision
was made for public control beyond the requirement of audit;
the sole condition as to religious instruction was the acceptance of
a conscience clause.
The failure of the Borough Bill did not affect the new system of
capitation grants which was introduced by minute of the Com-
mittee of Council dated April 2, 1853. These grants
were fixed at a scale varying from 35. to 6s. per head,
payable upon certain conditions, of which the most
important were that the school must be under a certifi-
cated teacher, and that three-fourths of the children must pass a
prescribed examination. In consequence of the failure of the
several fresh bills introduced in 1855 by the government, the
church party and the secular party respectively amplifying the
proposals previously brought forward, the capitation grant was,
by minute of January 26, 1856, extended to urban areas. As in
the case of all the early grants, the regulations governing the
distribution of the capitation grants were framed upon the
principle that subventions of public money must be met by local
funds derived from voluntary contributions, endowments and
school fees; thus the basis of the denominational system as
fostered by the state at this stage was one of financial partnership.
In 1856 a purely administrative bill was passed, establishing
the office of vice-president of the Committee of Council
on Education as a minister responsible to parliament.
At the same time, the Science and Art Department
was transferred from the Board of Trade to the Com-
mittee of Council.
The progress of state-aided education during this period may
be measured by the increase of the annual parliamentary grant,
which rose from 30,000 in 1839 to 100,000 in 1846,
150,000 in 1851, 396,000 in 1855, and 663,400 in
1858. This expansion was viewed with misgiving
by the friends of the denominational system, and by
the strong individualist school of that day, who upon wider
grounds clung to the old ideal of voluntary initiative. These
sections combined with the advocates of further state interven-
tion to press for a commission of inquiry, and at the instance' of
Sir John Pakington (the eminent Conservative educationist
who was responsible for the denominational bills of the 'fifties)
a royal commission was appointed in 1858, under the chairman-
1856.
ship of the duke of Newcastle, to inquire into the state of popular
education in England, and to consider and report what measures,
if any, were required for the extension of sound and cheap
elementary instruction to all classes of the people. The Report
of the Newcastle Commission, issued in 1861, contains an ex-
haustive account of the existing condition of elementary educa-
tion, and, with due allowance for the grave defects revealed,
and in particular the glaring inefficiency of the numerous little
private-venture schools kept by " dames " and others, the
graphic picture drawn by the commissioners constitutes a
striking tribute to the sterling qualities of self-help and religious
earnestness which were so characteristic of the early Victorian
period. It was found that in round numbers about 2,500,000
children were attending day schools, the proportion to population
being i in 7, as compared with i in 9 in France, i in 8 in Holland,
and i in 6 in Prussia, where education was compulsory. On the
other hand, of this number only 1,675,000 were in public schools
of all kinds, only 1,100,000 in schools liable to inspection, and
917,000 in schools receiving annual grant. The result was that
only one child in every twenty was attending a school whose
efficiency could be in any way guaranteed by the state. In
the constructive portion of their work the comments and recom-
mendations of the commissioners reflected the prevailing per-
plexity of the public mind. A consistent individualistic minority
considered that the annual grant should be withdrawn altogether,
and that any further state aid should be confined to building
grants, which they would concede not as desirable in themselves
but as necessitated out of considerations of fairness to the parishes
that had not yet received such aid. The commissioners as a
body rejected free and compulsory education in view of the
religious difficulty and upon general grounds of individualistic
principle. Of the religious difficulty itself the commissioners
had some wise words to say which hold good in substance at the
present time. In their judgment the considerable evidence they
had amassed conclusively proved that the religious difficulty
originated with the managers, promoters and organizers of the
schools, and not with the parents themselves; yet the indifferent
or comparatively passive attitude of the people nowise materially
diminished the practical difficulty of introducing a comprehensive
system, since it was not with the body of the people but with
the founders and supporters of schools that legislators would
always have to deal. In view of the solution adopted in 1902
it is of interest to note that the Newcastle Commissioners deliber-
ately rejected the parish as unfit to be taken as the unit of
elementary education upon the ground that management by
parochial ratepayers must tend to be illiberal and niggardly,
bent upon economy of the rates to the detriment of educational
interests; accordingly they recommended the constitution of
county boards (which in the absence of elective councils must
needs originate with quarter sessions) clothed with power to
levy a rate for the aid of existing voluntary schools.
The one definite achievement of the Newcastle Commission
was the famous system of payment by results, which may be
said to have excited a keener and more prolonged
controversy than any other measure of a purely
educational character. Impressed by the defects of
the existing teaching, the commissioners reported that there
was only one way of securing efficiency, and that was to institute
a searching examination by competent authority of every
child in every school to which grants were to be paid, with the
view of ascertaining whether the indispensable elements of
knowledge were thoroughly acquired, and to make the prospects
and position of the teacher dependent to a considerable extent
upon the results of this examination. Thus the commissioners
hoped to counteract what appeared to them to be the crying
defect of the existing training college system, viz. that it tended
mainly to adapt the young schoolmaster to advance his higher,
rather than to thoroughly ground his junior, pupils. They
recognized that to raise the character of the children, both
morally and intellectually, was and must always be the highest
aim of education, and they were far from desiring to supersede
this by any plan of a mere examination into the more mechanical
ENGLAND]
EDUCATION
975
Kevlsed
Code.
work of elementary education, the reading, writing and arith-
metic of young children; but they thought that the importance
of this training, which must be the foundation of all other
teaching, had been lost sight of, and that there was justice in the
common complaint that while a fourth of the scholars were
really taught, three-fourths after leaving school forgot everything
they had learnt there.
Mr Lowe (Lord Sherbrooke) as vice-president of the Committee
of Council (1859-1864) adopted the system of payment by results
in what became famous in history as the Revised Code,
issued in 1862 and so called because it was a revision
of the minutes and regulations of the Committee of
Council, which were first collected and issued in the form of a
code in 1860. The Revised Code provided for the payment of a
grant of 43. upon the old principle and a further grant of not
more than 8s. upon the result of examination. Mr Lowe declared
of the system in the House of Commons that " if it was costly
it should at least be efficient; and if it was inefficient it should
at least be cheap." In fact, it proved to be cheap; the grant
fell from 813,400 in 1861 to 636,800 in 1865. The upholders
of the existing system denounced the Revised Code as an un-
deserved slight upon the voluntary managers, and even as a
breach of faith with the great religious denominations. On
purely educational grounds, which need not be here re-
capitulated, it was at once viewed with misgiving by many
authorities, including Matthew Arnold. To meet objections,
some modifications were introduced in the code under the
Conservative government in 1867. The system of paying grant
upon the result of individual examination of the scholars was not
finally abolished till 1904.
The years immediately preceding 1870 were occupied with
discussion and preparation for the great legislative measure for
..^ . which the time was now felt to have arrived. Good
ings pre- work was done in this direction by the Select Committee
iimiaaiy of the House of Commons in 1866, over which Sir
to the act j o h n Pakington presided. For reasons connected
with the political situation of the moment this com-
mittee never reported, but the minutes of evidence and the
draft report prepared by Sir John Pakington contained
much valuable material in the way of criticism of the existing
system and suggestion for the coming settlement; in particular
the draft report insisted upon the inevitableness of an education
rate. In 1868 the Conservative government brought in, but did
not proceed with, an education bill deliberately discarding the
principle of rate-aid on the ground that it would destroy voluntary
contributions and gradually starve out the denominational
schools. In 1867 and again in 1868 Mr Bruce (afterwards Lord
Aberdare), Mr W. E. Forster and Mr Algernon Egerton intro-
duced a bill which formed the basis of the measure of 1870. As
redrafted in 1868 the bill of Mr Bruce and his coadjutors proposed
a universal system of municipal and parochial rating with
liberty for voluntary schools to unite themselves to the rate-
aided system under their existing management, subject to the
acceptance of a conscience clause. The bill also proposed to
empower town councils to co-opt outsiders upon their education
committees. Thus both in the principle of co-optation and in
the extension of rate aid to schools not under public control
the bill of these Liberal statesmen in 1868 anticipated certain
controverted features of Mr Balfour's Education Act of 1902.
In the meantime, in the country the Education League, originated
at Birmingham, was carrying on a propaganda in favour of free
secular schools, whilst the Education Union, formed to counteract
the influence of the league, urged a settlement upon the old
lines. As a concession to the popular feeling against secularism,
the league proposed to allow Bible reading without doctrinal
exposition. Thus opinion was sufficiently focussed to enable
Mr Gladstone's administration in 1870 to undertake the com-
prehensive measure of educational reform for which the country
had had to wait so long.
The Elementary Education Act of 1870 bore in every respect
the marks of compromise. As Mr Forster explained in introduc-
ing the bill, the object of the government was " to complete
the voluntary system and to fill up gaps," not to supplant it.
To this end the Education Department was charged with the
duty of ascertaining whether or not there was in every
parish a deficiency of public school accommodation,
and provision made for the formation of school boards
in every school district (i.e. parish or municipal borough)
requiring further public school accommodation. Such accom-
modation might consist either of public elementary schools as
defined by the act, or other schools giving efficient and suitable
elementary education. The definition of public elementary
school contained in section 7 of the act is still hi force. Shortly,
a public elementary school is a school subject to a conscience
clause entitling scholars to complete exemption from all religious
instruction and observance whatsoever. Any religious instruc-
tion or observance in the school must be either at the beginning
or the end cf the school meeting. The school must also be open
at all times to the government inspectors and must be conducted
in accordance with the conditions required to be fulfilled in order
to obtain an annual parliamentary grant. In the same connexion
an important change was made in the conditions of inspection
by declaring that it should be no part of the duties of the in-
spector to inquire into religious instruction, whilst a later section
of the act provided that no parliamentary grant should be made
in respect of any religious instruction.
Three important changes were made in the measure during
its passage through parliament. As at first proposed, (i) the
school boards were not to be directly elected by the ratepayers,
but were to be appointed by the town council or the vestry.
(2) These nominated boards were empowered either to provide
schools themselves or to assist existing public elementary
schools, provided that such assistance was granted on equal
terms to all such schools, upon conditions to be approved by the
Education Department. Thus the school board, if it exercised
the option of assisting denominational schools, would have been
obliged to assist all or none. (3) With regard to its own schools,
the school board was to settle the form of religious instruction.
These proposals raised serious opposition in the country, and
when the committee stage of the bill was reached two funda-
mental changes were made in the policy of the bill. In the first
place, as Mr Gladstone put it, the government had decided
" to sever altogether the tie between the local board and the
voluntary schools." In lieu of the suggested rate-aid they
proposed an increased grant from the treasury, that is to say,
the voluntary schools were left standing as state-aided schools
under private management, side by side with the new rate-
supported schools.
Next, the character of the religious instruction in the board
schools was determined upon an undenominational basis by a
provision which has become known to history after
the name of its author, then Mr Cowper-Temple, Cowper-
as the Cowper-Temple clause (section 14 of the act), %%%
directing that " no religious catechism or religious
formulary which is distinctive of any particular denomination
shall be taught in the school." The clause was not intended
to exclude doctrinal exposition, and was in fact a compromise
not merely between absolute secularism and denominationalism,
but between denominationalism and the view of those who would
have the Bible read without note or comment. The Apostles'
Creed as a symbol common to all denominations of Christians
was held by Mr Forster (at the suggestion of Mr Gladstone)
not to be excluded under the Cowper-Temple clause. The result
was the establishment in the schools, upon the lines laid down
by Joseph Lancaster at the beginning of the igth century, of
what may be termed the common Protestantism of the English
nation; and though Mr Disraeli urged that a religion without
formularies was in fact a new religion, and that in leaving its
exposition to the teachers we were creating a new sacerdotal
class, the Cowper-Temple compromise, notwithstanding its in-
herent want of logic, stood the test of experience for more than
a generation against the consistent denominationalists on the one
hand and the party of secular education on the other. It is
important to observe that the act of 1870 left the giving of
976
religious instruction, whether in voluntary schools (in which its
inclusion might be assumed as of course) or in board schools,
purely permissive. In practice it was only in Wales that school
boards availed themselves to any extent of the liberty to abstain
from giving religious instruction, and this comparative secularism
of Wales certainly argued no lack of religious life among the
people.
The third change in the bill was the substitution of the ad hoc
school board for the municipally appointed board originally
proposed, a change which commended itself in view of the special
difficulty presented by the case of London. These boards were
elected by the system of cumulative voting under which each
elector had as many votes as there were candidates to be elected,
with liberty to give all his votes to one candidate or to distribute
them amongst the candidates as he thought fit. This system was
much criticized as being unduly favourable to minorities, whose
representation it was devised to secure; it continued, however,
until the supersession of the ad hoc authorities by committees
of the county and urban councils under the act of 1902.
School boards were empowered not only to acquire sites for
schools under powers of compulsory purchase, but also to take
transfers of existing voluntary schools from their managers.
The section which enables managers to transfer schools to the
school board or local education authority for the purpose of
board or council schools freed from religious trusts unquestion-
ably marks an important inroad by the state upon the sanctity
of trusts. Thus though the act of 1870 did not itself introduce
the principle of compulsory transfer, it formed the point of de-
parture for the proposals in this direction which were the basis of
the unsuccessful bills of 1906 and 1908. The act of 1870 did not
introduce either direct compulsory attendance or free education,
but it took a distinct step forward in each direction by enabling
school boards to frame by-laws rendering attendance compulsory,
and also to pay the school fees in the case of poverty of the parent.
The policy of compromise between the two systems of volun-
tary and rate-established schools was earned out in the provisions
relating to the future supply of schools. On the one hand,
building grants were continued temporarily for the benefit
of those who applied (as voluntary managers alone could apply)
before the 3ist of December 1870. On the other hand, the
Education Department was authorized to refuse parliamentary
grants to schools established in school board districts after the
passing of the act if they thought such schools unnecessary.
The following figures are of interest as showing the progress
made under the act of 1870. In the year 1870 there was accom-
Prognss modation in inspected day schools for about 2,000,000
under the children; the average attendance was 1,168,000, and
ad of the number on the books about 1,500,000. It was
computed, however, that there were, exclusive of the
well-to-do classes, at least 1,500,000 children who attended no
school at all or schools not under inspection. In 1876 accom-
modation had been provided for nearly 3,500,000, and of
the 1,500,000 new places nearly two-thirds were provided by
voluntary agencies. " These voluntary agencies," says Sir H.
Craik, " had received grants in aid for about one-third of the
schools they had built, the grants defraying about one-fifth of
the cost of the aided schools." On the other hand, the growth of
school boards was rapid and continuous, notwithstanding the
permissive character of the act and the strenuous efforts of
the voluntaryists to keep pace with the new demands. In 1872,
9,700,000 of the population were under school boards, and of
these 8,142,000 were under by-laws; in 1876 the numbers were
respectively 12,500,000 and 10,400,000. In the same period
the annual grants increased from 894,000 in 1870 to 1,600,000
in 1876.
The development evidenced by the above figures, and in
particular the fact that 52% of the population were subject to
by-laws, enabled Mr Disraeli's government in 1876 to
take a notable step forward in the direction of universal
direct compulsion. The act of 1876 embodied the
declaration that " it shall be the duty of the parent of every child
to cause such child to receive efficient elementary instruction in
EDUCATION
[ENGLAND
1876.
reading, writing and arithmetic, and if such parent fail to
perform such duty he shall be liable to such orders and penalties
as are provided by the Act "; next, it rendered an employer
liable to a penalty who took into his employment a child under
the age of ten years, or a child ' between the ages of ten and
fourteen years who had not obtained the required certificate of
proficiency in reading, writing and arithmetic, or of previous
attendance at a certified efficient school. In order to complete
the machinery for compulsion, the act directed that, in every
district where there was no school board, a school attendance
committee should be appointed by the local authority. The
law as to school attendance, resting upon this and subsequent
enactments, is complicated and in some details obscure. The
subject was dealt with in the report of an inter-departmental
committee in 1909, who recommended the abolition of the
partial exemptions permitted, and the raising of the age of
exemption to 13.
In 1880 Mr Mundella, as vice-president of the Council in Mr
Gladstone's administration, passed a short act which made the
framing of by-laws compulsory upon school boards and
school attendance committees, thus completing the
system of universal direct compulsion. Under the acts
of 1876 and 1880 the average attendance increased from 2,000,000
in 1876 to 3,500,000 in 1878 and 4,000,000 in 1881; in terms of
percentage to population, 8-06 in 1876, 9-60 in 1878, and 10-69
in 1881. In the last-mentioned year the annual grant rose to
2,200,000, having more than doubled in the decade.
With the passing of the Elementary Education Act 1880 the
education question entered upon a new phase. The country was
now possessed of a national system of elementary Develop-
education, in the sense that provision was made for meat at
the supply of efficient schools and for compulsory public
attendance. The question of free education was P aoa -
brought within the range of practical politics by the adoption of
universal compulsion, but as yet it was advocated only by a small
political group of pronounced collectivist tendencies. Whilst
opinion was maturing on this topic, there began to force itself
upon the public mind the vastly more difficult problem of
combining the two systems of voluntary, denominational, state-
aided schools on the one hand, and public, undenominational,
rate-supported schools on the other. From the denominational
point of view the problem presented itself as that of a burden
imposed and a danger threatened in ever-increasing degree by the
competition of the board schools, a competition that was felt not
so much by direct rivalry of school with school as indirectly by
the steady raising of the standard of efficiency with respect to
buildings, equipment, salaries of teachers and educational
attainment which inevitably resulted from the establishment of
authorities with power to draw upon the rates. On the other
hand, from the purely educational point of view, it was seen that
the dual system tended in practice to an illicit but almost
inevitable recognition of two standards of efficiency, the lower
being conceded to voluntary schools in consideration of their
comparative poverty. Experience, too, of the shortcomings of
small country school boards was beginning to confirm the mis-
givings entertained long before by the Newcastle Commissioners
as to the wisdom of entrusting autonomous powers to the parish,
when the reform of local government by the creation of popularly
elected county authorities turned attention once more to the
question of organizing education upon a county basis.
In 1887 a royal commission under the presidency of Viscount
Cross was appointed to inquire into the working of the education
acts. The labours of this commission produced a cn>s*
thorough discussion of the educational problem in all Commis-
its aspects, political, administrative, scholastic and
religious. For any clear recommendations with regard
to the reorganization of education generally the moment was not
opportune, inasmuch as the commission just preceded the
establishment of the new county authorities and the powers
with respect to instruction other than elementary which parlia-
ment was shortly to confide to them under the Technical
Instruction Acts. Nevertheless the report of the majority of the
ENGLAND]
EDUCATION
977
Act 1891.
commissioners pointed unmistakably towards the solution adopted
in the act of 1902, and their definite recommendation that volun-
tary schools should be accorded rate-aid without the imposition of
the Cowper-Temple clause, served as the basis of that legislation.
The commission brought into strong relief the opposing currents
of thought in educational politics, the majority report, represent-
ing the principles of denominationalism, being balanced by a
strong minority report embodying the views of those who looked
for progress along the lines of the school-board system. Taken
together, the two reports form a comprehensive survey of the
difficulties which still in the main beset public education in this
country.
Of the developments which followed the Cross report, it is
convenient to mention in the first place, out of chronological
sequence, the practical establishment of free education
the act of 1891, not by the absolute prohibition of
school fees but by the device of a special grant pay-
able by parliament in lieu of fees, called the fee grant.
The result of this legislation and of subsequent administrative
action was to place free education within the reach of every
child, fees being retained (with few exceptions) only where some
instruction of a higher elementary type was given.
The establishment of county councils by the Local Government
Act 1888 introduced a new factor which was destined to exert a
Education determining influence upon subsequent developments
other of public education. In the first place, it at once
than elf rendered possible the partial and experimental pro-
menUry. vi s i on f or higher education attempted by the Technical
Instruction Acts, which affected secondary education as well as
technical education in the proper sense of the term. In order to
understand the state of secondary education at this period, it is
necessary to refer back to the first attempts made to deal with
secondary education a generation earlier.
In 1861, that is to say, nearly thirty years after the state began
to concern itself with elementary education, the first step in the
Public wa X f intervention in what is now called secondary or
School* intermediate education was taken by the appointment
Co mm is- o f a rO yal commission, presided over by Lord Clarendon,
Mion, 1861. to inquire i nto t he condition of nine of the chief
endowed schools in the country, viz. Eton, Winchester, West-
minster, Charterhouse, St Paul's, Merchant Taylors, Harrow,
Rugby and Shrewsbury. The report of this commission led to a
statute, the Public Schools Act of 1864, which introduced certain
reforms in the administration of seven of these schools, leaving
the two great London day schools, St Paul's and Merchant Taylors,
outside its operation. The results achieved were seen to be
important enough to call for a further and much wider inquiry.
Accordingly in 1864 the Schools Inquiry Commission was
appointed under the presidency of Lord Taunton to inquire into
Schools a ^ tne schools which had not been included either in
inquiry the commission of 1861 or the Popular Education Com-
Commls- mission of 1858. It included several men of eminent
distinction, such as Dr Temple (afterwards archbishop
of Canterbury), Mr W. E. Forster, Dean Hook, and Sir
Stafford Northcote; and it was singularly fortunate in its staff of
assistant commissioners, among whom were numbered Mr James
Bryce, Mr Matthew Arnold, and Mr (afterwards Sir Joshua)
Fitch. It thoroughly explored the field of secondary education,
discussing all the problems, administrative and pedagogic, which
the subject presents, an'd " its luminous and exhaustive report "
(to quote the words of Mr Bryce's Commission of 1894) remains
the best introduction to the problem of public secondary educa-
tion in England. The existence of numerous and frequently very
wealthy endowments arising from private benefactions and
bequests has at all times been a feature in education as in other
departments of English social life. In the organization of
secondary education in particular, private endowments have
played and continue still to play a part which cannot be
paralleled in any other country. This circumstance has un-
doubtedly resulted in a great economy of resources, though in
numerous instances the difficulties occasioned b the haphazard
distribution of endowments, and the local jealousies invariably
aroused by any attempt to readjust their areas to modern
conditions have obstructed useful reform and proved a source of
misdirected and wasted effort. At the date of the Schools Inquiry
Commission the state of the ancient endowments was largely one
of abuse. Very many endowments intended for advanced
education were applied for instruction of a purely elementary
character, and that of an inferior kind; indeed the possession of
an endowment in a rural locality not infrequently operated to
prevent the establishment of an efficient state-aided school. The
evidence showed that the proportion of scholars in the country
grammar-schools who were receiving some tincture of the classical
education intended by the founders was steadily decreasing, and
nothing had been done to bring the curriculum into harmony with
the actual needs of the time. No doubt a small elite of classical
scholars were sent to the older universities by these schools, but ih
the main they were in a feeble and decadent state, giving, more or
less inefficiently, an education wholly unsuited to the wants of
the class to whom they ministered. In addition to the general
melasticity of the curriculum, the special evils from which the
grammar-schools suffered were the want of effective governing
bodies and the freehold tenure of the headmasterships.
The commission was singularly successful in bringing about
the reform of these abuses, its report being immediately followed
in 1869 by the Endowed Schools Act, which was based Endowed
upon its recommendations and conferred upon a special School*
commission (united in 1874 with the Charity Com- Acta
mission) very wide and drastic powers of reorganizing I869m ^-
ancient endowments. A direction for extending the benefits of
endowments to girls did much to assist the movement for the
secondary education of girls. The Endowed Schools Acts
1869-1874 introduced modifications of importance and general
interest into the law of trusts. Under the existing rules of the
court of chancery, which rules were also binding upon the Charity
Commissioners, educational endowments were generally treated,
in the absence of evidence to the contrary, as subject to a trust
for instruction in the doctrines of the Church of England. Under
the Endowed Schools Acts the presumption is reversed, and
ancient trusts are treated as free from denominational restrictions,
save in virtue of express conditions imposed by or under the
authority of the founder. The result was that in framing schemes
for the reorganization of ancient endowed schools the com-
missioners found themselves able to treat the majority of
cases as undenominational. In such cases the general practice
was to direct that instruction should, subject to a strict conscience
clause, be given in the principles of the Christian faith; this
provision corresponded in a way to the Cowper-Temple clause in
elementary education, with the important distinction that it
was positive, not negative, and did not exclude special doctrinal
instruction.
Besides the recommendations for the reform of endowed
schools, to which substantial effect was given directly or in-
directly by means of the Endowed Schools Acts, the
Schools Inquiry Commission also submitted proposals
for the general administrative organization of a system
of secondary education. They recommended the slon's pro-
establishment of three authorities (i) a central posalstor
authority; (2) a local or provincial authority, represent- C!^. '
ing the county or a group of counties, with a certain
jurisdiction both in proposing schemes for the reform
of endowed schools in their area (such as that afterwards con-
ferred upon the joint education committees under the Welsh
Intermediate Education Act), and in administering these
schools; and (3) a central council of education charged with
examination duties. Further, it was proposed to raise the level
of proprietary and private schools by offering them inspection
and examination and by establishing a system of school registra-
tion. Lastly, in order that the supply of public secondary schools
might not be dependent upon endowments, it was proposed to
confer upon towns and parishes powers of rating for the estab-
lishment of new schools. For these proposals as a whole the time
was not ripe. The bill of 1869 as originally introduced in the
House of Commons attempted to give effect, with some variations,
Schools
Inquiry
978
EDUCATION
[ENGLAND
to one of these suggestions, namely, that for the creation of a
central council, but exigencies of parliamentary time made it
necessary to drop this part of the measure; the result was that
the plan of the commissioners was only half carried out. Never-
theless, owing to the multiplicity and wealth of endowments,
the work accomplished was sufficient to exert a considerable
influence upon the secondary education of the country. Thus
in 1895 Mr Bryce's Commission was able to report that schemes
under the Endowed Schools Acts had been made for 902 endow-
ments in England, excluding Wales and Monmouth, leaving
only 546 endowments out of the total of 1448 endowments in
England known to be subject to the Endowed Schools Acts,
which had not felt the reforming hand of the commissioners. The
total income of the endowments known to be subject to the En-
dowed Schools Acts, and therefore available for purposes of
secondary education, according to the estimate of the Secondary
Education Commission (still in 1909 the latest available source
of complete information), was in 1895 about 735,000 gross.
Twenty years after the Schools Inquiry Commission the
creation by the Local Government Act in 1888 of the repre-
Ttcnnicai sentative and popular county authorities of which the
instmc- need had been felt by reformers alike in secondary and
OouAct* elementary education, rendered the first step in the
1889, Ac. (jj rec tj on o f t ne municipalization of secondary instruc-
tion at last possible. In 1889 the Technical Instruction Act
(extended in some particulars by an act of 1891) empowered
the councils of counties, boroughs and urban districts to levy
a rate (not exceeding a penny in the pound) for the support or
aid of technical or manual instruction. Comparatively few
councils were prepared to resort to their rating powers, but
progress under these acts was greatly facilitated by the Local
Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act of 1890, which mentioned
technical instruction as one of the purposes to which the imperial
contribution paid to local authorities hi respect of the beer and
spirit duties might be applied. By virtue of the very liberal
interpretation given to technical instruction by these acts the
financial assistance afforded under them was extended to cover
the whole field of mathematical and physical science, as well as
modern languages.
The Department of Science and Art acted as an agency in
the development of secondary education upon the same lines as
Grants of ^ e Technical Instruction Acts, administering a parlia-
Kieace mentary grant which was gradually extended with a
and art view to encouraging literary studies as well as the
scientific and mathematical subjects to the promotion
of which it was primarily directed. Thus the com-
bined effect of the local resources available under the Techni-
cal Instruction Act and the imperial grant administered by
the department was gradually to develop a national system of
secondary education with a marked bias on the side of
physical science.
An undoubted stimulus was given to secondary education in
the great centres of industry during the last quarter of the
influence X 9 tn century by the rise of the new university colleges,
otnew among which must be reckoned those established
university expressly for women. In the main the influence of
these new institutions made for a non-classical and
scientific type of curriculum in the popular secondary schools.
At the same time, the pressure of the school boards influenced
secondary education in two ways. In the first place, the ele-
mentary schools were found to act as feeders for
scnools of a hi g her tv P e , and the idea of the " educa-
tional ladder " began to play a leading part in plans
for the organization of national education. It was
seen that there must be schools to which the more advanced
scholars could pass from the public elementary schools, and
scholarships to assist such scholars to continue their education
in this way. In the next place, it was recognized that to provide
adequately for the further education of public elementary
scholars a new type of school was required. Thus there came
into being through the initiative of the great school boards
what were known as higher-grade elementary schools. These
boards.
were really secondary schools of the third grade, and, as the
Commission on Secondary Education observed, the school boards
simply stepped in to fill the educational void which the Schools
Inquiry Commissioners had proposed to fill by schools of that
name. The happy obscurity of the legal definition of elementary
education left these schools free to develop during the long years
of the neglect of secondary education by the state, and when in
1901 the famous judgment in the test case of Rex v. Cockerlon
pronounced them to be illegal, it was at once recognized that
the legislature must without delay step in to secure the educa-
tional work which the undoubtedly correct principles of judicial
interpretation had placed in jeopardy.
Such were the agencies at work in the domain of secondary
education when in 1894 a royal commission was appointed
under the presidency of Mr Bryce to inquire into this g^g^
branch of education. The terms of reference excluded Education
elementary education, and the report may be taken Cominis-
as embodying the views of that school of educational *'""'
statesmen who held that progress would best be attained
by keeping elementary and secondary education entirely separate
for purposes of local administration, the parish being regarded
as the natural unit for elementary and the county for secondary
education, a topic to which it will be necessary to revert in con-
nexion with the act of 1902. The principal recommendations
of the commission were: (i) the unification of the existing
central authorities, viz. the Department of Science and Art,
the Charity Commission (so far as it dealt with educational
endowments), and the Education Department, in one central
office, and the establishment of an educational council to advise
the minister of education in certain professional matters; (2)
the establishment of local authorities, to consist of committees
of the county councils with co-opted elements; (3) the formation
of a register of teachers with a view to the encouragement of
professional training, and a system of school registration upon
the basis of inspection and examination. The first of these
recommendations was carried out by the Board of Education
Act 1899, as mentioned below, and under the same act an
attempt was made to give some effect to the third-named object,
which, though it unfortunately fell short of success, may serve
as a point of departure for further efforts. The realization of
the second, and the most important, of the recommendations
was deferred till 1902, when it was brought about as a part of a
wider reorganization of the educational system.
The religious difficulty in elementary education during the
period immediately succeeding the report of Mr Bryce's Com-
mission in 1895 once more reached an acute stage, and .__,,
'** Agitation
this circumstance was immediately unfavourable to a O o behalf
resolute handling of educational problems as such, of
public attention being largely concentrated upon the
demand of the supporters of voluntary schools for
relief from the growing financial burden which was laid upon
them by that steady raising of the standard to which reference has
been made above. In 1896 an endeavour was made to meet
the demands of the voluntary managers by means of a bill
introduced by Sir John Gorst on behalf of the Conservative
government. This bill with its provision for a special aid
grant to be administered by county education authorities,
which were to exist side by side with the school boards, repre-
sented a kind of compromise between the systems of 1870 and
1902. It encountered opposition in all quarters and was with-
drawn. In 1897, however, the position of the denominational
schools was strengthened by the Voluntary Schools Act, which
provided for a special aid grant of five shillings per head of the
scholars in average attendance in these schools.
In view of the difficulties which beset any comprehensive
treatment of the education question, partial effect was given
to the recommendations of the Secondary Education Board of
Commission by the Board of Education Act of 1899, Education
which abolished the office of vice-president of the -*<*
council, united the Department of Science and Art with l899 '
the Education Department in one central office under the title
of the Board of Education, with a president and parliamentary
ENGLAND]
EDUCATION
979
secretary; and provided for the transfer to this board of the
powers of the Charity Commissioners in relation to educational
endowments; also for the association with the board of a con-
sultative committee, consisting as to not less than two-thirds
of persons qualified to represent the views of university and
other bodies interested in education, for the purpose (i) of
framing a register of qualified teachers, and (2) of advising the
Board of Education upon any matters referred to the committee
by the board. The administrative reorganization of the Educa-
tion Office was completed shortly after the passing of the act
of 1902, when a tripartite division was adopted to correspond
with the three branches of education with which the Board
of Education is concerned, viz. elementary, secondary and
technological.
No law of recent years has excited an acuter or more prolonged
controversy than the Education Act of 1902, and amid the dust
Act at f religious and political strife it is not easy for con-
IPO?, temporaries to view it objectively and in its true
general proportions. Nevertheless, 1 } considered historically,
principles. the act b ecomes intelligible as the product of the
forces, partly religious and partly educational, which have been
already described. The immediate impulse for this measure
must be sought in the agitation that during the preceding
decade had been gathering force among the adherents of the
Established and Roman Catholic churches for equality of
financial treatment as between voluntary and board schools.
It must be placed to the credit of the constructive statesmanship
of the Conservative party that it availed itself of an ecclesiastical
agitation to take an important step forward in the organization
of national education. The difficulty inherent in such a measure
was the admitted difficulty of securing public control, as a neces-
sary concomitant of public maintenance, without jeopardizing
or destroying the special religious character of the voluntary
schools. The act of 1902 sought to solve this problem, so
difficult of solution under democratic conditions, upon the
principle of a division of financial responsibility justifying a
corresponding division of control between the voluntary managers
and the local authority. The constitution of the local authority
to be charged not only with the delicate duty of participating
in the dual control of the voluntary public elementary schools,
but also with the responsible task of co-ordinating public higher
with public elementary education, presented features of contro-
versy only less formidable than the purely religious question
itself. Boldly reversing the settlement of 1870, the act of 1902
abolished the parochial school boards, and with them the system
of ad hoc election, and made the county councils, already seised
of technical and secondary education under the Technical
Instruction Acts, the local authorities for all forms of education,
thus reverting to the solution propounded by Conservative
statesmanship in the middle period of the igth century and
endorsed by an important memorandum contributed by Lord
Sandford (formerly permanent secretary of the Education
Department) to the report of the Cross Commission. The
unquestionable niggardliness and inefficiency of many small
country school boards, which had been foretold by the prescience
of theNewcastle]Commissioners, constituted the chief educational
argument for the selection of the wider area so far as the interests
of elementary education alone were concerned. On the other
hand, experience has shown that in the rural districts against
the undoubted gain in general efficiency there must be set a
certain loss on account of the decay of local and personal interest
consequent upon the centralization of authority in the hands of
the county councils. Account, too, must be taken of the com-
parative heaviness with which a uniform county rate is apt to
press upon sparsely populated agricultural parishes, especially
in counties which include considerable industrial districts.
Notwithstanding these minor drawbacks, it may be said that
upon the whole the best opinion has endorsed the policy of 1902
with respect to the area of administration. At any rate it has
been necessary to recognize the impracticability of disestablishing
the strongly organized provincial authorities which the act
brought into being, and proposals for amendment in this par-
Actof
1902,
summary
of pro-
visions.
ticular have been confined to schemes, favoured in principle by
all parties, for securing some measure of decentralization and
delegation of powers calculated to restore and stimulate local
interest without derogating from the financial and administrative
responsibility of the county council.
The principal provisions of the act of 1902 may be summarized
as follows:
Part I. Local Education Authority. The council of every county
and of every county borough is the local education
authority for the purposes of the act, i.e. for both higher
and elementary education, but for the purpose of ele-
mentary education autonomous powers are conferred upon
boroughs with a population of over 10,000, and urban
districts with a population of over 20,000 ( i).
Part II. Higher Education. " The L.E.A. (local education
authority) shall consider the educational needs of their area and take
such steps as seem to them desirable, after consultation with the
Board of Education, to supply or aid the supply of education other
than elementary, and to promote the general co-ordination of all
forms of education." For this purpose the application of the money
received by the local authority under the Local Taxation (Customs
and Excise) Act 1890, heretofore optional, is made compulsory, and
power is given to levy a rate which in the case of a county is not
to exceed two pence in the pound, or such higher rate as the county
council with the consent of the Local Government Board may fix
( 2). Concurrent powers are given to the councils of non-county
boroughs and urban districts, with the limit of a penny rate (3).
A council must not require any particular form of religious instruction
or observance, but the usual conscience clause in schools, colleges,
or hostels provided by the council is modified by a provision for
facilities for any particular religious instruction to be given at the
request of parents of scholars at such times and under such conditions
as the council think desirable, otherwise than at the cost of the
council ( 4).
Part III. Elementary Education, (i) Powers and duties. School
boards and school attendance committees are abolished and their
powers and duties are transferred to the L.E.A., who are also to be
responsible for and have the control of all secular instruction in
public elementary schools not provided by them (5).
(2) Management of schools, (a) For public elementary schools
provided by the L.E.A. (now officially styled " council schools ") :
(i) in counties, there is to be a body of six managers, viz. four
appointed by the county council and two by the borough or urban
district council, or parish council or parish meeting as the case may
be, called in the act the minor local authority; (2) in non-county
areas, the L.E.A. (being the borough or urban district council) may,
if they think fit, appoint a body of managers consisting of such
number as they may determine ( 6 [i] ).
(6) For schools not provided by the L.E.A. (voluntary schools) the
act directs that there shall be a body of six managers, of whom four
are to be " foundation managers," and two are to be appointed as
follows: in counties, one by 'the L.E.A. and one by the minor local
authority, and in autonomous boroughs or urban districts both by
the borough or urban district council (6 [2]). Directions for the
appointment of foundation managers are given by n, which in
effect declares that, unless the trust deed of the school provides
for the appointment of the required number, the foundation managers
must be appointed under an order of the Board of Education, in
making which the board are to have regard to the ownership of the
school building and to the principles on which the education given
in the school had been conducted in the past. It was found necessary
for the board to make over 1 1,000 of these orders, a heavy task which
was rendered the more formidable by the controversial character
of the questions arising upon trust deeds as to the mode of
appointment and the qualifications of managers.
(3) Maintenance of schools ( 7). (a) Powers. The L.E.A. are
required to maintain and keep efficient all public elementary schools
which were necessary (i.e. which, as defined by 9, have an average
attendance of not less than thirty), under certain specified con-
ditions, of which the most material are as follows. The managers
must carry out the directions of the L.E.A. as to the secular instruc-
tion to be given in the school, including any directions with respect
to the number and educational qualifications of the teachers, and
for the dismissal of any teacher on educational grounds ( 7 [i]
[a] ). The consent of the L.E.A. is required to the appointment of
teachers, but that consent may not be withheld except on educational
grounds; and the consent of the authority is also required to the
dismissal of a teacher unless the dismissal is on grounds connected
with the giving of religious instruction (7 [i] [c]).
(b) Liabilities. The managers are required to provide the school
premises to the L.E.A. for use as a public elementary school free of
charge, except that a rent is payable for the. teacher's residence
where one exists; and the managers are further required out of
funds provided by them to keep the school premises in good repair
and to make such alterations and improvements in the buildings as
might reasonably be required by the L.E.A. On the other hand,
the L.E.A. are required to make good such damage as they consider
to be due to fair wear and tear of rooms used by them ( 7 [i] [d] ).
9 8o
EDUCATION
[ENGLAND
Thus, byivirtue of the teacher's house rent and the wear-and-tear
allowance the voluntary managers secured a valuable set-off against
the cost of ordinary repairs.
Any question arising under this section ( 7) between the L.E.A.
and the managers of a voluntary school is to be determined by the
Board of Education ( 7 [3] ).
It is further provided with respect to teachers in voluntary schoojs
that assistant teachers and pupil teachers may be appointed "if it
is thought fit " without reference to religious creed and denomination,
and in any case in which there are more candidates for the post of
pupil teacher than there are places to be filled, the appointment is
to be made by the L.E.A. ( 7 [5] ).
A provision, 7 (6), known from the name of its author (d. 1908),
Colonel Kenyon Slaney, M.P., as the Kenyon-Slaney clause, attracted
considerable attention and formed the subject of much ecclesiastical
controversy during the passage of the bill through parliament.
The Kenyon-Slaney clause requires the religious instruction in
voluntary schools to be in accordance with the provisions (if any) of
the trust deed, but also to be under the control of the managers
as a whole, whereas the common form of trust deed of the National
Society reserves the control of religious instruction to the clergyman,
whilst the clause was equally in conflict with the well-known sacer-
dotal principles of the Roman Catholic Church. Thus the clause
represented a revival, as did the questions with respect to foundation
managers, of the early controversy over the management clauses of
the Committee of Council on Education. Its special interest lies,
not so much in its intrinsic importance, as in the precedent it affords,
specially notable as emanating from a Conservative source, for the
overruling of trust deeds upon grounds of public policy. By way of
saving another familiar provision of the trust deeds, a proviso to the
Kenyon-Slaney clause reserves the existing trust-deed rights of
appeal to the bishop or other denominational authority as to the
character of the religious instruction.
Provision of New Schools. New schools may be provided either
by the L.E.A. or any other persons, subject to the issue of three
months' public notice, and to a right of appeal on the part of the
managers of any existing school, the L.E.A. (in the case of proposed
voluntary schools) or any ten ratepayers of the district, to the Board
of Education on the ground that the proposed school is not required,
or that a school provided by the L.E.A., or not so provided, as the
case might be, is better suited to meet the wants of the district than
the proposed school. Any enlargement of a public elementary school
which in the opinion of the Board of Education is such as to amount
to the provision of a new school is to be so treated for the purposes
of the section, and any transfer of a school to or from the L.E.A.
must be treated as the provision of a new school. In deciding appeals
as to new schools and in determining a case of dispute whether a
school was necessary or not, the board are directed to have regard
to the interest of secular instruction, the wishes of parents as to the
education of children, and the economy of the rates, but existing
schools are not to be considered unnecessary if the average attend-
ance is not less than thirty ( 8-9). The last-mentioned canons
have played a prominent part in subsequent discussions. Experience
of these sections has shown that though it is extremely difficult to
set up new voluntary schools in face of opposition from the L.E.A.,
such opposition is rarely offered or pressed where any really strong
local demand is shown to exist.
Aid Grant. Section 10 provides a new aid grant payable to the
L.E.A. in respect of the number of scholars in average attendance
in schools maintained by them. This new grant, calculated by an
elaborate method which need not here be set out, took the place of
the grants under the Voluntary Schools Act 1897, and 97 of the
act of 1870 as amended by the Elementary Education Act 1897.
' ^Education Committees. The constitution of education committees
is dealt with by 17. All councils having powers under the act,
except those having concurrent powers as to higher education only,
must establish education committees in accordance with schemes
made by the councils and approved by the Board of Education
(5 '7 J 1 ! ) A scheme may provide for more than one education
committee under a single council, but before approving such a scheme
the board must satisfy themselves that due regard is paid to the
importance of the general co-ordination of all forms of education
( 17 [6] ). All matters relating to the exercise by a council of their
powers under the act, except the power of raising a rate or borrowing
money, stand referred to the education committee; the council
may also delegate to the education committee any of their powers
other than financial powers as above (17 [2] ). Every scheme must
provide (a) for the appointment of a majority of the committee by
the council, the persons so appointed to be persons who are members
of the council unless in the case of a county the council otherwise
determine; (6) for the appointment by the council, on the nomination
or recommendation, where it appears desirable, of other bodies
(including associatipns of voluntary schools) of persons of experience
in education, and of persons acquainted with the needs of the various
kinds of schools in the area of the council ; (c) for the inclusion of
women. Provision was also made (d) for the representation in the
first instance of members of existing school boards ( 17 [3]).
Expenses. All parliamentary grants are made payable to the
L.E.A. instead of as previously to the managers ( 18 [2] ). The
county council must charge a proportion of all capital expenditure
,p aM/VB
*
and liabilities, including rent, on account of the provision or improve-
ment of any public elementary school on the parish or parishes
which in the opinion of the council are served by the school, such
proportion to be not less than one-half or more than three-fourths
as the council think fit ( 18 [i] [c] [d] ). The county council may also
if they think fit charge on the parishes benefited any expenses
incurred with respect to education other than elementary ( 18
[i] (a] ).
Endowments. The act introduced a new principle into the
administration of endowments by directing that their income so
far as necessarily applicable in any case for those purposes of a public
elementary school for which the local authority are liable must be
paid to that authority for the relief of the parochial rate ( 13).
As the result of technicalities of legal interpretation the section has
been found to have in practice a narrower scope than had been
generally anticipated.
The act of 1902 was extended to London by a separate act in 1903,
containing certain special provisions of only minor importance.
The hostility of Nonconformists to the extension of rate-aid to
denominational schools led to the organization upon a consider-
able scale of what became known as the " Passive
Resistance " movement, a number of Nonconformist
rate-payers refusing to pay the education rate on the ance " to
ground that their consciences forbade their supporting I902 act -
the religious teaching in denominational schools;
and their willingness to become subject to distraint
and consequent inconveniences rather than pay the rates became
the foundation of a widespread political campaign. In Wales,
where in the rural districts the schools were commonly Anglican
whilst the population was Nonconformist, particular difficulties
arose in administering the act in consequence of the hostile
attitude of the county authorities. Friction likewise manifested
itself in one or two English areas, which reflected militant
Nonconformist views. Accordingly the government passed
the Local Education (Local Authority Default) Act 1904,
empowering the Board of Education, in the case of default by
the local authority, to make payments direct to the managers
of the school and to deduct the amount from the sums payable
to the defaulting authority on account of parliamentary grants.
When the liberal party came into power again in 1906, Mr
Birrell as president of the Board of Education in Sir Henry
Campbell-Bannerman's administration introduced a
bill to amend the Education Acts 1902-1903, with
the object of securing full public control of all rate-
aided schools and the appointment of teachers without reference
to religious belief. The bill was of a highly complex character;
its principal features were, compulsory transfer of existing
voluntary schools to the local authority, facilities for the giving
of denominational instruction in transferred schools out of school
hours by persons other than the regular teachers, and the re-
cognition in populous districts, upon the demand of parents, of
special publicly maintained schools in which denominational
teaching could be included in the curriculum ; the latter schools
might (according to the bill as finally amended) in the last resort,
i.e. if the local authority refused to maintain them, be recognized
as state-aided schools. The bill encountered strong opposition
from Anglicans and Catholics (though the Catholic Irish members
finally voted for it as amended) ; it passed the House of Commons
by a large majority, but after unavailing attempts at compromise
upon the amendments introduced in the House of Lords, the
two Houses failed to agree and the measure was lost.
Mr Birrell was soon transferred to another office, and nothing
more was done to amend the act of 1902 till early in the session
of 1908, his successor Mr McKenna introduced a bill
based on what was known as " contracting out." In 1908
single-school parishes the existing schools were to be
compulsorily transferred, subject to the grant of denominational
facilities out of school hours; elsewhere a sufficiency of places
in schools with Cowper-Temple teaching, which the bill proposed
to make compulsory in all provided schools, must be supplied
by the local authority, while existing voluntary schools might
become state-aided schools upon terms of receiving a grant of
473. per head. The bill was accompanied by a financial scheme
for a new system of allocating the parliamentary grant. In
view of the improbability of its passing into law the bill was
ENGLAND]
EDUCATION
981
not pressed beyond the stage of second reading. Meanwhile,
when Mr Asquith reorganized thecabinet, Mr Runciman succeeded
Mr McKenna at the education office, and in the autumn he
introduced a fresh measure framed as the result of negotiations
between the government and the archbishop of Canterbury
(Dr Randall Davidson) and designed to be passed rapidly
through parliament by consent of all parties. Mr Runciman's
bill, like his predecessor's, was based upon the principle of
compulsory transfer in single-school parishes and contracting
out elsewhere, but it gave a right of entry for denominational
teaching on two days a week during school hours in all council
schools whether transferred voluntary schools or otherwise,
with liberty to employ for this purpose assistant teachers, but
not (save temporarily at first in transferred schools) head teachers.
Provision was also made for the payment of a small rent which
would be applicable for or towards the cost of the denominational
instruction. Unfortunately, the compromise failed at the last
moment for want of agreement as to the financial terms of
" contracting out," the government offering 505. per head and
the Church demanding 73. more. It is obvious that " contracting
out " is open to serious objection upon educational and economic
grounds, and that if resorted to upon any very considerable
scale it would involve a disruption of the public elementary
system, and a duplication of schools which would constitute
a wasteful drain upon the national exchequer. Upon such a
system, therefore, some check is necessary, and, once decided
that the check should take the form of financial pressure, rather
than request of parents as in Mr Birrell's bill, or some form of
administrative control, the question of pecuniary terms became
one of principle and not merely of financial detail. Moreover,
the difficulty of adjusting differences was intensified by the
opposition of the extremists on either side, which daily gathered
force, and the bill was withdrawn by the government when in
committee of the House of Commons. The conciliatory efforts
of Mr Runciman and Dr Randall Davidson revealed the existence
of a considerable body of influential opinion among all schools
of thought in favour of a national compromise, and the proposals
embodied in the bill marked on the part both of Churchmen
arid Nonconformists important concessions to each other's
views, engendering reasonable hopes of an ultimate settlement
being reached at no distant date.
Two subsidiary points as regards educational machinery have
to be noted. The Education (Provision of Meals) Act 1906
enabled local education authorities to aid voluntary
agencies in the provision of meals for children attending
children. public elementary schools, and in certain cases with
the consent of the Board of Education to defray the
cost of the food themselves. In 1907-1908 forty, and in 1908-1909
seventy- five authorities in England and Wales were authorized by
the board to expend moneys from the rates on food under this
act. In addition, a number of authorities expended funds on
equipment and service.
In 1907 an uncontroversial act entitled the Education (Admini-
strative Provisions) Act, besides dealing with various matters
of technical and administrative detail, laid upon local
education authorities the new duty of providing for
tioa. the medical inspection of all children attending public
elementary schools. In connexion with this act the
Board of Education established a medical department to advise
and assist them in supervising local education authorities in
carrying out their statutory duties in this regard. The whole
departure is significant of the new sense of the importance of
physical culture and hygiene which has been one of the remarkable
features in recent educational developments.
Sir Joshua Fitch, in his article on education in the loth
edition of this work, describes how experience had led the
General Education Department to abandon the system of
progress payment by results, to establish " in place of testing
the proficiency of individual scholars, . . . one sum-
niary estimate of the work of the school; in place of
an annual examination, occasional inspection without
notice; in place of a variable grant dependent on a report in
detail on the several subjects of instruction and on particular
educational merits and defects, one block grant payable to all
schools alike." He at the same time expressed some misgiving
as to the effect of " so large a relaxation of the conditions by
which it had hitherto been sought to secure accuracy and
thoroughness in teaching." The act of 1902, by placing secular
education in public elementary schools under the control of
strongly organized local education authorities may be said to
have largely removed such dangers as were to be apprehended
from the relaxation in question. Thus it was possible for the
Board of Education in the code of 1904 to abolish the last traces
of the system of payment by results, by setting forth (in the
language of their report for 1903-1904) " a properly co-ordinated
curriculum suitable to the needs of the children, with an indica-
tion of the relation which the various subjects of instruction
should bear to each other, in place of the relatively haphazard
list of possible branches of knowledge which were formerly
presented to the choice of individual schools or authorities."
In the new code also the board for the first time endeavoured
to state for the guidance of teachers and parents the proper aim
of the public elementary school, laying stress upon that element
of the training of character which the system of payment by
results had so unfortunately obscured. The new spirit was
strikingly manifested in the volume of Suggestions for the Con-
siderations of Teachers, issued by the Board of Education in 1905.
This volume represented a notable attempt to connect admini-
stration with educational theory, without in any way seeking
to crush individual initiative, or to impose a bureaucratic
uniformity of method upon those engaged in the actual work
of the schools. Apprehension of the true aim of elementary
education as essentially and primarily a preparation for practical
life has led to a corresponding development of instruction of a
practical character, observation lessons and nature study being
treated as a necessary element in the curriculum, while handicraft
and gardening, and domestic subjects (for girls), are encouraged
by special grants. Particular attention has been bestowed both
by the central and local authorities upon the problem of rural
instruction, and much has been done in many areas to bring the
schools into closer relations with the needs of agricultural and
rural life generally. In this way the old and perhaps not alto-
gether ill-founded distrust of popular education as tending to
unfit the working classes for industrial pursuits is being broken
down and a public opinion more favourable to educational
progress in the widest sense is being created.
According to the official returns for 1907-1908, the total num-
ber of scholars on the registers (England only) was as follows:
council schools, 2,991,741; voluntary schools, 2,566,030;
total, 5,55T,77i, and the total attendance upon which grant
was paid was 4,928,659. The percentage of actual average
attendance to average number on the registers was 88-50%.
The parliamentary grant (England and Wales) for elementary
schools, other than higher elementary, amounted to 11,023,433.
The development of higher elementary education in England
is now proceeding very much upon the lines that have been noted
in France. The old higher-grade board-schools Higher
(declared illegal under the Elementary Education Acts element-
by the judgment in the case of Rex v. Cockerton in ar hool
1901, and legalized temporarily by an act passed for
the purpose in the same year) were mostly converted into
municipal secondary schools under the act of 1902. In the
succeeding years provision was made in the code for higher
elementary schools of a specialized and technical type intended
only for industrial districts. In 1906, as the result of the re-
commendations of the Consultative Committee, a new type of
higher elementary school was admitted for children over twelve,
corresponding generally to the French (cole primaire sup&rieure,
described as having " for its object the development of the
education given in the ordinary public elementary school, and
the provision of special instruction bearing on the future occupa-
tions of the scholars, whether boys or girls." It may be possible
to supplement this system in the rural areas to some extent by
" higher tops " to the ordinary elementary schools in cases
982
EDUCATION
[ENGLAND
where it is not practicable to establish a fully organized higher
elementary school; but for such " higher tops " no central grant
is available. The total number of scholars upon the registers
of higher elementary schools (England) in 1907-1908 was:
New Type, 3178 (against 2715 in the previous year); Old Type,
4492 (against 5866 in the previous year).
The total expenditure (exclusive of capital outlay) of the local
authorities (1906-1907) in England only upon elementary
education, including " industrial " and " special "
tunoaele- schools, was 19,776, 733, of which (a) 10,408,242
mentary wa s met by the ordinary parliamentary grant, and
.ducatioa. ^ 8,930,468 was the balance required to be met by
rates, the difference being represented by receipts from various
sources. The average cost per child of elementary schools in
England and Wales (excluding London) may be taken at 3
(including London 3, 45. iod.), and the average central grant
(excluding grants for special purposes) at 413., leaving 193. to
be raised locally.
The training of teachers for the two great branches ef public
education, elementary and secondary respectively, is an import-
ant part of the general administrative problem.
Since the middle of the igth century there has been
logo/ a great development of public opinion with regard
elementary to t jj e j r professional qualifications. Sir Joshua Fitch
teachers. ( Ency Brit Iot i, ec j.) pointed out that the full apprecia-
tion of the importance of training began at the lower end of
the social scale. Shuttleworth and Tufnell in 1846 urged the
necessity of special training for the primary teacher, and hoped
to establish State Training Colleges to supply this want; but
the one college at Battersea which was founded as an experiment
was soon transferred to the National Society (the " National
Society for educating the poor in the principles of the Estab-
lished Church": founded in 1811). Before this, Bell and
Lancaster had made arrangements in their model schools for
the reception of a few young people to learn the system by
practice. In Glasgow, David Stow, who founded in 1826 the
Normal Seminary which afterwards became the Free Church
College, was one of the first to insist on the need of systematic
professional preparation. The religious bodies in England,
notably the Established Church, availed themselves promptly of
the failure of the central government, and a number of diocesan
colleges for men, and separately for women, were gradually
established. In 1854 the British and Foreign School Society
(founded 1808) placed their institutes at the Borough Road
and Stockwell on a collegiate footing, and subsequently founded
other colleges at Swansea, Bangor, Darlington and Saffron
Walden; the Roman Catholic Church provided two for women
and one for men; and the Wesleyans two, one for each sex.
The new provincial colleges of university rank were invited by
the Education Department to attach normal classes to their
ordinary course and to make provision for special training and
suitable practice in schools for those students who desired to
become teachers. Thus the government came to recognize two
kinds of training schools the residential colleges of the old type
and the day colleges attached to institutions of university rank;
both were subsidized by grants from the Treasury, and regularly
inspected. As the need of special training for teachers became
further recognized by the consideration of the same question
as regards teachers in higher and intermediate schools (Cambridge
instituting in 1879 examinations for a teacher's diploma, and
other universities providing courses for secondary as well as
primary teachers, and establishing professorships of education),
the attitude of the government, i.e. the Board of Education,
towards the problem gradually became more and more a subject
of controversy and of public interest, as indicated by the clause
in the Act of 1899 providing for a public registration of qualified
teachers and for the gradual elimination from the profession
of those who were unqualified. And meanwhile the increased
solidarity of the National Union of Teachers (founded in 1870),
the trade union, so to speak, of the teachers, brought an im-
portant body of professional opinion to bear on the discussion
of their own interests.
The question of the preliminary education of elementary
teachers had after some years of discussion reached a critical
stage in 1909. The history of pupil teachership as a method
of concurrent instruction and employment shows that it was in
its inception something in the nature of a makeshift; the ideal
placed before local education authorities in the recent regulations
and reports of the Board of Education is the alternative system
whereby with the aid of national bursaries (instituted in 1907)
" the general education of future teachers may be continued in
secondary schools until the age of seventeen or eighteen, and all
attempts to obtain a practical experience of elementary school
work may be deferred until the training college is entered,
or at least until an examination making a natural break in that
general education and qualifying for an admission to a train-
ing college has been passed." Under the revised pupil-teacher
system established by the regulations of 1903 provision is made
for the instruction of pupil teachers in centres which as far as
possible are attached to secondary schools receiving grants from
the Board of Education under the regulations for secondary
schools, about two-thirds of the secondary schools on the grant
list undertaking this work. Accordingly, the result of recent
changes is to modify the old system in two ways: first by pro-
viding the alternative of a full course of secondary education,
secondly by associating pupil teachership itself as far as possible
with part-time attendance at a secondary school. The total
number of pupil teachers recognized during the year 1907-1908
was 20,571, and of these 9770 were in centres forming integral
parts of secondary schools. The number of bursars who passed
the leaving examination was 1486.
One of the principal difficulties which confronted the state
and the local authorities in their task of organizing an improved
system of public education under the act of 1902
lay in the deficiency of training colleges in view of college/
the increased number of teachers. Local authorities
naturally hesitated to burden themselves with the cost of
providing such institutions in view of the fact that there is
nothing to prevent teachers trained at great expense by one
authority taking service under a less public-spirited authority
who had contributed nothing to such training; hence a wide-
spread feeling that the provision of training colleges should be
undertaken by the state as a matter of national concern. Under
these circumstances a new system of building grants in aid of
the establishment of training colleges was instituted in 1905.
In 1906 these grants were raised from 25 to 75 % of the capital
expenditure, but were limited to colleges provided by local
authorities. A further difficulty in view of the municipalization
of education arose from the fact that the majority of the re-
sidential colleges were in the hands of denominational trusts
which did not admit a conscience clause. Under the presidency
of Mr McKenna in 1907, the Board of Education, in regulations
which excited much controversy, " with a view to throwing open
as far as possible the advantages of a course of training in colleges
supported mainly by public funds to all students who are qualified
to profit by it irrespective of religious creed or social status,"
laid down that the application of a candidate might in no circum-
stances he rejected on any religious ground, nor on the ground
of social antecedents or the like. The same regulations provided
that no new training colleges would be recognized except on
terms of compliance with certain conditions as to freedom from
denominational restrictions or requirements. The obligation
as to religious exemptions has since been limited to 50 % of
the admissions. There were in attendance (Statistics, England,
1907-1908) in the various colleges, 6561 women and 2835 men, of
whom 1619 women and 33Smen were in colleges provided bylocal
education authorities. The grants made by the Board of Edu-
cation for training colleges were as follows: maintenance grants
383,851 ; building grants 45,000. These figures include Wales.
The fear has been widely entertained that a considerable
part of the national expenditure upon elementary education is
wasted for want of an effective system cf continuative instruction
to be given out of working hours to adolescents engaged in
industrial employment. The whole subject was exhaustively
WALES]
EDUCATION
983
treated by the report in 1909 of the Consultative Committee of
the Board of Education. This report seeks to base an efficient
continuative system upon the improvement of
Coatinua- elementary education by reducing the size of the
education, classes in the elementary schools upon the lines
now laid down by the new staffing regulations of
1909; by increasing the amount of instruction in hand- work
with a view to rendering the curriculum less bookish and
more efficient as a training for industrial and agricultural life;
and by legislation to reform the system of half-time attendance
and raise the age of compulsory attendance to thirteen and ulti-
mately fourteen. Upon the foundation of an improved and
prolonged elementary education there would be reared a super-
structure of continuative schools or classes, attendance at which up
to seventeen would be compulsory under bye-laws adoptive locally
at the option of the local education authorities. In 1906-1907
about 21 per thousand of the population of England and Wales
attended evening schools and classes inspected by the Board of
Education, and grant amounting to 361,596 was paid in respect
of 440,718 regular attendants.
The most marked progress has undoubtedly been in secondary
education, and in no direction has the act of 1902 proved more
fruitful. At the end of the igth century secondary
nT instruction in England was still provided chiefly by
endowed grammar-schools, by proprietary schools
established by religious bodies or joint-stock companies, and by
private enterprise. No public provision was made for secondary
education as such; what financial assistance was forthcoming
from municipal sources was given indirectly under cover of the
grants under the Technical Instruction Acts, while in the ad- '
ministration of central grants for the first years of the working
of the Board of Education Act 1899, no absolute differentiation
between secondary and technological functions was recognized.
The establishment of local authorities with direct duties in respect
of secondary education, and the reorganization of the central
office with reference to the three branches of education, ele-
mentary, secondary and technological, rendered possible for the
! first time an adequate treatment of the problem of public
secondary education as a whole. " The regulations for secondary
schools," says the prefatory memorandum to the regulations
of the Board of Education, " grew up round the old provisions
of the Directory of the Science and Art Department. Detached
science classes were gradually built up into schools of science.
Schools of science were subsequently widened into schools of what
was known as the ' Division A ' type, providing a course of
instruction in science in connexion with, and as part of, a course
of general education. Aid was afterwards extended to schools
of the ' Division B ' type in which science did not form the
preponderating element of the instruction given. In 1904 the
board recast the regulations so as to bring all schools aided by
grants within the general definition of a school offering a general
education up to and beyond the age of sixteen through a complete
graded course of instruction, the object of which should be to
develop all the faculties, and to form the habit of exercising them."
Two main tendencies distinguish the recent development:
on the one hand the tendency to municipalization, or at least to
the establishment of public control; on the other hand the
tendency (marked especially by the regulations of 1907) to
greater elasticity in regard to curricula, and so to the freer
encouragement of local initiative and local effort.
In 1907 the government of Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman
placed greatly increased funds at the disposal of the Board of
Education for the purpose of secondary education. The regula-
tions under which the increased grant was administered imposed
conditions in respect of freedom from denominational restrictions
or requirements, representative local control, and accessibility to
all classes of the people, which, like the analogous rules with
regard to training colleges, roused considerable controversy.
With regard to religious instruction, the requirement was made
that no catechism or formulary distinctive of any particular
religious denomination might be taught in the school except upon
the request in writing of the parent or guardian and at the cost of
funds other than grants of public money. Power was at the same
time reserved to the board to waive the new conditions in the
event of the local education authority passing a resolution that
the school was in their view required as part of the secondary
school provision for their area, and that the conditions, or one or
more of them, might be waived with advantage in view of the
educational needs of the area. It will be noticed that one effect
of the regulations (as of the training college regulations) was
to recognize as a kind of established religion those elements
of Christianity which are shared in common by the various
Protestant churches, according to the system of Lancaster and the
Cowper-Temple compromise. Normally schools are required to
provide 25% of free places for scholars from public elementary
schools, and, with a view to encouraging the transference of
children from the public elementary school at an early age, a
grant of 2 was made payable on account of ex-public elementary
scholars between ten and twelve years of age. The full scale of
grants is 2 for ex-public elementary scholars between ten and
twelve, and 5 for scholars between twelve and eighteen. To
schools previously recognized and failing to comply with the new
conditions, grant may be paid on the lower scale of 2 and
2, tos. respectively.
Secondary school grants are assessed upon average attendance,
and efficiency is guaranteed by inspection and not by individual
examination. All recognized schools must provide at least the
substantial equivalent of the four-years' course formerly required,
and recognition is withheld or withdrawn if an adequate number
of the scholars do not remain at least four years in the school, or
do not remain up to sixteen; in rural areas, however, and small
towns, a school life of three years and a leaving age of fifteen may
be accepted. " The board are now in a position, through their
inspectorate, to keep a watch and exercise a guidance which were
previously impossible over the planning and working of school
curricula. Detailed reports following upon full inspections, and
the more constant if less obvious influence exercised through
informal visits, conferences, reports and suggestions, may now be
relied upon to guard against the risks of one-sided education, of
ill-balanced schemes of instruction, and of premature or excessive
specialization " (Report of Board of Education, 1906-1907, page
68). The curriculum must provide instruction duly graded and
duly continuous, in the English language and literature, in
geography and history, in mathematics, science and drawing,
and in at least one language other than English. Where
two languages other than English are taken, Latin must ordin-
arily be one. Provision must be made for organized games,
physical exercises and manual instruction, and in girls' schools
science and mathematics other than arithmetic may be replaced
by an approved scheme of practical housewifery for girls over
fifteen. The total number of secondary schools recognized for
grant (Statistics, 1907-1908) was 736, of which only 220 were
directly provided by local authorities. The number of pupils
in attendance was 68,104 boys and 56,359 girls, total 124,463.
The government grants for 1907-1908 amounted to 320,873
besides grants from local authorities.
Wales.
Notwithstanding the important differences which exist between
the social and especially the religious conditions of England and
Wales respectively, Wales continued to be treated as one with
England for purposes of educational administration down to quite
recent years. Towards the end of the igth century the striking
revival of Welsh nationality, in itself largely an educational and a
literary movement, led to a spontaneous demand among the
Welsh people for the organization of a national system of higher
education. In accordance with the recommendations of a special
royal commission the Welsh Intermediate Education Act passed
in 1889 provided for the creation in every county in Wales
(including Monmouthshire) of joint education committees
consisting of three nominees of the county council and two
nominees of the lord president of the council. To these com-
mittees were entrusted the duties of framing (under the Charity
Commissioners) schemes for the establishment of intermediate
9 8 4
EDUCATION
[UNITED STATES
and technical schools and for the application of endowments, and
for administering a d. county rate, which was supplemented by
a treasury grant not exceeding the amount raised by the rate.
Certain supervisory functions were entrusted to a Central Educa-
tion Board, to which are committed the duties of inspection and
examination. The joint education committees have now (except
for the purpose of framing schemes for endowments) been super-
seded by the local education authorities under the act of 1902.
The public assistance afforded to secondary educaton in Wales
under the Intermediate Act is supplemented by the grants of the
Board of Education, and the Board's revised Secondary School
Regulations were applied to Wales in 1908. There were (1907-
1908) 92 county secondary schools in Wales administered under
schemes made under the Welsh Intermediate Act, attended by
6235 boys and 6727 girls, total 12,962; and 12 other secondary
schools, of which 8 were provided by local authorities. The total
attendance at all secondary school? was 13,615, viz. 6819 boys
and 6796 girls. The Board of Education grant amounted to
31,090. The expenditure of the local authorities for the year
1906-1907 was 85,242.
The number of scholars on the registers of ordinary public
elementary schools in Wales was (Statistics, 1907-1908), in council
schools 330,413, and in voluntary schools 100,290, total 430,703.
The percentage of average attendance was 86-98. The ordinary
parliamentary grant (1906-1907) was 794,161, and the net
expenditure of local authorities 561,234.
In 1007 a Welsh department of the Board of Education was
established with a permanent secretary and a chief inspector, each
responsible directly to the president. A movement was in progress
in Wales in 1908-1909 for the creation of a national council of
education under an independent minister, but this change could
in any case only be effected by legislation; and meanwhile the
special religious and social conditions in Wales caused administra-
tive difficulties in working an act (that of 1002) primarily designed
to meet those prevailing in England. (G. B. M. C.)
United States.
History. The first white settlers who came to North America
were typical representatives of those European peoples who had
made more progress in civilization than any other
in the world. Those settlers, in particular those
from England and from Holland, brought with them
the most advanced ideas of the time on the subject of education.
The conditions of life in the New World emphasized the need
of schools and colleges, and among the earliest public acts of
the settlers were provisions to establish them. The steps taken
between 1619 and 1622 to provide schools for the colony of
Virginia were frustrated by the Indian war which broke out in
the latter year, and were never successfully renewed during the
colonial period. In New York, where the influence of the Dutch
was at first predominant, elementary schools were maintained
at the public expense, and were intended for the education of
all classes of the population. This policy reflected the very
advanced views as to public elementary education which were
then held in the Netherlands. The assumption of control in the
colony of New York by the English was a distinct check to the
development of public elementary education, and little or no
further progress was made until after the Revolution. The
most systematic educational policy was pursued in the colony
of Massachusetts. As early as 1635, five years after it was
founded, the town of Boston took action to the end that " our
brother Philemon Pormort shall be entreated to become school-
master for the teaching and nurturing children with us. " The
General Court of the colony in 1636 made the first appropriation
for what was to become Harvard College, taking its name in
honour of the minister, John Harvard, who died in 1638, leaving
his library and one-half of his property, having a value of 800,
to the new institution. The amount of this appropriation of
'636 (400) was remarkable in that it was probably equal to
the whole colony tax for a year. In 1642 followed a legislative
act which, while saying nothing of schools, gave to the selectmen
in every town power to oversee both the education and the
Regln-
aiags.
employment of children. It is made the duty of the selectmen
to see that the children can read and understand the principles
of religion and the capital laws of the country, and that they
are put to some useful work.
Five years later, in 1647, was enacted the law which is not
only the real foundation of the Massachusetts school system,
but the type of later legislation throughout the United States.
This epoch-making act, the first of its kind in the world, repre-
sented the public opinion of a colony of about 20,000 persons,
living in thirty towns. It required every town of fifty house-
holders to establish a school, the master of which should be paid
either by the parents of the children taught or by public tax,
as the majority of the town committee might decide; and it
further required every town of one hundred families or house-
holders to set up a grammar school in which pupils might be
prepared for the " University," as the new institution at Cam-
bridge was designated. Moreover, a penalty was attached to
neglect of this legislative requirement, in the form of a fine to
be devoted to the maintenance of the nearest school. Horace
Mann said of the act of 1647: " It is impossible for us adequately
to conceive the boldness of the measure, which aimed at universal
education through the establishment of free schools. As a fact
it had no precedent in the world's history; and, as a theory, it
could have been refuted and silenced by a more formidable array
of argument and experience than was ever marshalled against
any other institution of human origin. But time has ratified
its soundness. Two centuries of successful operation now
proclaim it to be as wise as it was courageous, and as beneficent
as it was disinterested." The significance of these acts of 1642
and 1647 is that they foreshadow the whole American system
of education, including elementary schools, secondary schools
and colleges, and that they indicate the principles upon which
that system rests. These principles as summarized by George
H. Martin in his Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School
System are the following: (i) The universal education of
youth is essential to the well-being of the state. (2) The obliga-
tion to furnish this education rests primarily upon the parent.
(3) The state has a right to enforce this obligation. (4) The
state may fix a standard which shall determine the kind of
education and the minimum amount. (5) Public money raised
by general tax may be used to provide such education as the
state requires. The tax may be general, though the school
attendance is not. (6) Education higher than the rudiments may
be supplied by the state. Opportunity must be provided at the
public expense for youths who wish to be fitted for college. These
principles have now found expression in the public acts of every
state, and upon them education in the United States is founded.
Despite the praiseworthy attempts made in New York, New
Jersey and Pennsylvania to develop schools and school systems,
very little was accomplished in those colonies which
was permanent. The sentiment in the more southern
colonies was, as a rule, unfriendly to free schools, and
nothing of importance was attempted in that section of the
country until the time of Thomas Jefferson. Through religious
zeal or philanthropy colleges were founded as far south as
Virginia, and no fewer than ten of these institutions were in
operation in 1776. Their present names and the dates of their
foundation are: Harvard University, Massachusetts (1636);
College of William and Mary, Virginia (1693); Yale University,
Connecticut (1701); Princeton University, New Jersey (1746);
Washington and Lee University, Virginia (1749); University
of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania (1749); Columbia University,
New York (1754); Brown University, Rhode Island (1764);
Rutgers College, New Jersey (1766); and Dartmouth College,
New Hampshire (1769). In the colleges the ecclesiastical spirit
was at first almost uniformly dominant. The greater number
of their students were preparing for the ministry in some one of
the branches of the Protestant Church. These facts caused the
grammar schools to take on more and more the character of
college-preparatory schools; and when this was brought about
they supplied the educational needs of but one portion of the com-
munity. As time passed, the interdependence of governmental
Develop-
ment,
UNITED STATES]
EDUCATION
985
and ecclesiastical interests began to weaken in the colonies, and
there arose among those who represented the new secularizing
tendency a distrust of the colleges and their influence. This
gave rise to a new and influential type of school, the academy,
which took its name from the secondary schools established
in England by the dissenting religious bodies during the latter
part of the seventeenth century at the suggestion of Milton.
These academies were intended to give an education which was
thought to be more practical than that offered by the colleges,
and they drew their students from the so-called middle classes of
society. The older academies were usually endowed institutions,
organized under the control of religious organizations or of
self - perpetuating boards of trustees. Their programme of
studies was less restricted than that of the grammar schools,
and they gave new emphasis to the study of the English language
and its literature, of mathematics and of the new sciences of
nature. For two generations the academies were a most bene-
ficent factor in American education, and they supplied a large
number of the better-prepared teachers for work in other schools.
These schools were in a sense public in that they were chartered,
but they were not directly under public control in their manage-
ment. Early in the ipth century there arose a well-defined
demand for public secondary schools high schools, as they are
popularly known. They were the direct outgrowth of the
elementary school system. Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore
and New York were the first of the large cities to establish
schools of this type, and they spread rapidly. These 'public
secondary schools met with opposition, however, springing
partly from the friends of the academies, and partly from those
who held that governmental agency should be restricted to the
field of elementary education. The legal questions raised were
settled by a decision of the supreme court of Michigan, which
contained these words: "Neither in our state policy, in our
constitution, nor in our laws do we find the primary school
districts restricted in the branches of knowledge which their
officers may cause to be taught, or the grade of instruction that
may be given, if their voters consent, in regular form, to bear
the expense and raise the taxes for the purpose." This decision
gave marked impetus to the development of public secondary
or high schools, and they have increased rapidly in number.
The academies have relatively declined, and in the Western
states are almost unknown.
Meanwhile the elementary school system had grown rapidly.
The school district, the smallest civil division, was created in
Connecticut in 1701, in Rhode Island about 1750, and in Massa-
chusetts in 1789. From the point of view of efficient, well-
supported schools, it has been felt since the time of Horace Mann
that the substitution of the small school district for the town
as the unit of school administration was a mistake. Yet the
school district has exercised a profound influence for good upon
the American people. In New York state, for example, there
were in 1900 over eleven thousand school districts, and in
Illinois over twelve thousand. The districts are small in extent
and often sparsely settled. Their government is as democratic
as possible. The resident legal voters, often including women,
hold a meeting at least once a year. They elect trustees to
represent them in the employment of the teacher and the manage-
ment of the school. They determine whether a new schoolhouse
shall be built, whether repairs shall be made, and what sum of
money shall be raised for school purposes. In the rural districts
this system has often been itself a school in patriotism and in
the conduct of public affairs. Recently the tendency is to
merge the school districts into the township, in order that larger
and better schools may be maintained, and that educational
advantages may be distributed more evenly among the people.
Most of the southern states have the county system of school
administration. This is because the county, rather than the
township, has been the political unit in the south from the
beginning. Special laws have been made for the school system
in cities, and the form of these laws differs very much. In
nearly every city there is a separate board of education, some-
times chosen by the voters, sometimes appointed by the mayor
or other official, which board has full control of the schools.
The city board of education has as its executive officer a superin-
tendent of schools, who has become a most important factor in
American educational administration. He exerts great influence
in the selection of teachers, in the choice of text-books, in the
arrangement of the programme of studies, and in the determina-
tion of questions of policy. Sometimes he is charged by law
with the initiative in some or all of these matters. He is usually
a trained administrator as well as an experienced teacher. The
first superintendent was appointed in 1837 at Buffalo. Provi-
dence followed in 1839, New Orleans in 1841, Cleveland in 1844,
Baltimore in 1849, Cincinnati in 1850, Boston in 1851, New York,
San Francisco and Jersey City in 1852, Newark and Brooklyn
in 1853, Chicago and St Louis in 1854, and Philadelphia in 1883.
In general, it may be said that the progress of public education
in the United States is marked by (i) compulsory schools,
(2) compulsory licensing of teachers, (3) compulsory school
attendance, and (4) compulsory school supervision, and by the
increasingly efficient administration of these provisions. The
compulsion comes in each case from the state government,
which alone, in the American system, has the power to prescribe
it and to enforce it. Each state is therefore an independent
educational unit, and there is no single, uniform American
system of education in any legal sense. In fact, however, the
great mass of the American people are in entire agreement as to
the principles which should control public education; and the
points in which the policies of the several states are in agreement
are greater, both in number and in importance, than those in
which they differ. An American educational system exists,
therefore, in spirit and in substance, even though not in form.
Neither in the Declaration of Independence nor in the Con-
stitution of the United States is there any mention of education.
The founders of the nation were by no means indifferent
to education, but they shared the common view of
their time, which was that the real responsibility for
the maintenance of schools and the expense of maintaining
them should fall upon the several local communities. The
relation of government to education was not then a subject of
ordinary consideration or discussion. Later, when this question
did arise and the power of taxation was involved, the several
states assumed control of education, as it was necessary that
they should do. Nevertheless, from the very beginning the
national government has aided and supported education, while
not controlling it. This policy dates from the I3th of July 1787,
when there was passed the famous " Ordinance for the Govern-
ment of the Territory of the United States North-West of the
River Ohio," meaning the territory north and west of the Ohio
river now represented by the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois,
Michigan, Wisconsin, and the eastern side of Minnesota, em-
bracing more than 265,000 sq. m. of territory. This ordinance
contains this declaration: " Religion, morality, and knowledge
being necessary to good government and the happiness of man-
kind, schools and the means of education shall for ever be
encouraged." The Ordinance of 1787 also reaffirmed the pro-
visions of the so-called Land Ordinance of 1785, by which
section No. 16 in every township (a township consists of 36
numbered sections of i sq. m. each), or one thirty-sixth of the
entire north-west territory, was set aside for the maintenance of
public schools within the township. The funds derived from the
sale and lease of these original "school lands" form the major
portion of the public school endowment of the states formed
out of the north-west territory. The precedent thus estab-
lished became the policy of the nation. Each state admitted
prior to 1848 reserved section No. 16 in every township of public
land for common schools. Each state admitted since 1848 (Utah
being an exception, and having four sections) has reserved
sections No. 16 and No. 36 in every township of public lands
for this purpose. In addition, the national government has
granted two townships in every state and territory containing
public lands for seminaries or universities. A third land grant
is that made in 1862 for colleges of agriculture and the mechanical
arts. The sum total of these three land grants amounted in
9 86
EDUCATION
[UNITED STATES
1900 to 78,659,439 acres, to which there must be added various
special grants made from time to time to the states and devoted
to education. The portion of the public domain so set apart
in 1900 amounted in all to 86,138,473 acres, or 134,591 English
sq. m. This is an area greater than those of the six New England
states, New York, New Jersey, Maryland and Delaware added
together. It is a portion of the earth's surface as great as the
kingdom of Prussia, about seven-tenths as great as France, and
considerably greater than the combined areas of Great Britain
(including the Channel Islands) and the kingdom of Holland.
Besides the enormous grants of land in aid of education, the
national government has maintained since 1802 a military
academy at West Point, New York, for the training of officers
for the army, and since 1845 a naval academy at Annapolis,
Maryland, for the training of officers for the navy. It has also
taken charge of the education of the children of uncivilized
Indians, and of all children in Alaska. It has voted, by act of
1887, a perpetual endowment of $15,000 a year for each agricul-
tural experiment station connected with a state agricultural
college, and, by act of 1890, an additional endowment of $25,000
a year for each of the agricultural colleges themselves. The
aggregate value of land and money given by the national govern-
ment for education in the several states and territories is about
$300,000,000.
In 1867 the Congress established a bureau of education,
presided over by a commissioner who is under the jurisdiction
of the secretary of the interior, the purpose of which
ls declared to be to collect " such statistics and facts
as shall show the condition and progress of education
in the several states and territories, and of diffusing such infor-
mation respecting the organization and management of school
systems and methods of teaching as shall aid the people
of the United States in the establishment and maintenance of
efficient school systems, and otherwise promote the cause of
education throughout the country." The bureau has therefore
no direct power over the educational policy of the several states.
It has, however, exercised a potent influence for good in its
advisory capacity. Up to 1900 this bureau had published 360
separate volumes and pamphlets, including 31 annual reports,
covering from 800 to 2300 pages each; and the number has
since been much increased. The annual reports alone of the
Commissioner of Education are mines of information. These
standard works of reference are distributed gratuitously in large
numbers to libraries, school officials and other persons interested,
and to foreign governments. The several commissioners of
education have been: Henry Barnard, 1867-1870; John Eaton,
1870-1886; Nathaniel H. R. Dawson, 1886-1889; William
T. Harris, 1 1889-1906; Elmer Ellsworth Brown, 1906-
In the United States the sovereign powers are not all lodged
in one place. Such of those powers as are not granted by the
state Constitution to the national government are reserved
govern- to the states respectively, or to the people. The power
meats and j o i ev y taxes for the support of public education has
education. ^ cea a i mos (- universally held to be one of the powers
so reserved. The inhabitants of the several local communities,
however indisposed they may have been to relinquish absolute
control of their own schools, have been compelled to yield to the
authority of the state government whenever it has been asserted,
for except under such authority no civil division county, city,
township, or school district possesses the power to levy taxes
for school purposes. Moreover, since the exercise of state
authority has uniformly improved the quality of the schools,
it has usually been welcomed, not resisted. In general, it may
be said that the state has used its authority to prescribe a
minimum of efficiency which schools and teachers must reach,
and it enforces this minimum through inspection and the with-
holding of its proper share of the state school fund from any
locality where schools or teachers are permitted to fall below
the required standard. In extreme cases the state authorities
1 A valuable bibliography of Mr Harris's contributions to educa-
tional literature is given in the Report of the Commissioner of
Education for 1907 (Washington, 1908).
have interfered directly to prevent the evil results of local
inefficiency or contumacy. In addition, the states, almost
without exception, maintain at their own expense schools for
the training of teachers, known as normal schools. Many of
the states also offer inducements to the cities, towns and districts
to exceed the prescribed minimum of efficiency. Through the
steady exercise of state supervision the school buildings have
improved, the standard for entrance upon the work of teaching
has been raised, the programme of studies has been made more
effective and more uniform, and the length of the school term
has increased. The Constitution of every state now contains
some provision as to public education. Each state has an
executive officer charged with the enforcement of the state
school laws. Sometimes, as in New York, this official has
plenary powers; sometimes, as in Massachusetts and Ohio, he
is little more than an adviser. In twenty-nine states this
official is known as the superintendent of public instruction; in
Massachusetts and Connecticut he is called secretary of the state
board of education; other titles used are commissioner of public
schools, superintendent of common schools, and superintendent
of public schools. The schools are administered, on behalf of
the taxpayers, by an elected board of school trustees in rural
school districts, and by an elected (though sometimes appointed)
board of education or school committee in cities and towns. In
836 cities and towns there is a local superintendent of schools,
who directs and supervises the educational work and acts as
the executive officer of the board of education. The schools in
the rural districts are under the direct supervision of a county
superintendent of schools or similar official, who is often chosen
by the people, but who sometimes is named by the state
authorities. The county and city superintendents are often
charged with the duty of holding examinations for entrance
upon the work of teaching, and of issuing licences to those
persons who pass the examinations. This system works best
where it is carefully regulated by state law. Thirty states,
one territory, and the District of Columbia have enacted com-
pulsory education laws, but the enforcement of them is usually
very lax. In fifteen states and territories there are no compulsory
education laws, although there are in existence there fully
organized school systems free to all children. The usual age
during which school attendance is required is from 8 to 14.
Provision is made in Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts,
Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Penn-
sylvania, Indiana, Minnesota and Michigan, for sending habitual
truants to some special institution. Laws forbidding the employ-
ment of children under a specified minimum age in any mercantile
or manufacturing establishment are in force in twelve states,
and are usually administered in connexion with the compulsory
education laws.
The universal establishment in America of public secondary
schools (high schools), and the existence of state universities in
all of the states south and west of Pennsylvania, have brought
into existence a system of state education which reaches from
the kindergarten and the elementary school to the graduate
instruction offered at state colleges and universities. This sys-
tem includes (i) about 1500 free public kindergartens scattered
over fifteen states; (2) free public elementary schools within
reach of almost every home in the land; (3) free public secondary
schools (high schools) in every considerable city or town and in
not a few rural communities; (4) free land grant colleges, sup-
ported in large part by the proceeds of the nation's endowment of
public lands, paying particular attention to agriculture and the
mechanical arts, in all the states; (5) state universities, free
or substantially so, in all the states south and west of Penn-
sylvania; (6) free public normal schools, for the professional
training of teachers, in nearly every state; (7) free schools
for the education of defectives in nearly all the states; and (8)
the national academies at West Point and Annapolis for the
professional training of military and naval officers respectively.
Miss Susan E. Blow, herself the leading exponent of kinder-
garten principles in the United States, has pointed out that the
history of the kindergarten movement reveals four distinct
UNITED STATES]
EDUCATION
987
Kinder-
ary
schools.
stages in its development: the pioneer stage, having Boston as
its centre; the philanthropic stage, which began in the village
^ Florence, Mass., and reached its climax at San Fran-
cisco, California; the national or strictly educational
stage, which began at St Louis; and the so-called
maternal stage, which from Chicago as a centre is spreading over
the entire country. During the first stage public attention was
directed to a few of the most important aspects of Froebel's
teaching. During the second stage the kindergarten was valued
largely as a reformatory and redemptive influence. During the
third stage the fundamental principles underlying kindergarten
training were scientifically studied and expounded, and the
kindergarten became part of the public school system of the
country. The fourth stage, which, like the third, is fortunately
still in existence, aims at making the kindergarten a link between
the school and the home, and so to use it to strengthen the
foundations and elevate the ideals of family life. By 1898 there
were 4363 kindergartens in the United States (1365 of which
were public), employing 9937 teachers (2532 in the public
kindergartens) and enrolling 189,604 children (95,867 in the
public kindergartens). Of the 164 public normal schools, 36
made provision for training kindergarten teachers. The scientific
and literary activity of some of the private kindergarten training
classes is very great, and they exert a beneficial and stimulating
effect on teaching in the elementary schools. It is generally
admitted that from the point of view of the children, of the
teachers, of the schools, and of the community at large, the
kindergarten has been and is an inspiration of incalculable value.
The elementary school course is from six to nine years in
length, the ordinary period being eight years. The pupils enter
at about six years of age. In the cities the elementary
Element- scnoo ls are usually in session for five hours daily,
except Saturday and Sunday, beginning at 9 A.M.
There is an intermission, usually of an hour, at midday,
and short recesses during the sessions. In the small rural schools
the pupils are usually ungraded, and are taught singly or in
varying groups. In the cities and towns there is a careful
gradation of pupils, and promotions from grade to grade are
made at intervals of a year or of a half-year. The best schools
have the most elastic system of gradation and the most frequent
promotions. In a number of states there are laws authorizing
the conveyance of children to school at the public expense, when
the schoolhouse is unduly distant from the homes of a portion
of the school population. Co-education (q.v.) in the elementary
school has been the salutary and almost uniform practice in the
United States. The programme of studies hi the elementary
school includes English (reading, writing, spelling, grammar,
composition), arithmetic (sometimes elementary algebra also,
or plane geometry in the upper grades), geography, history of
the United States, and elementary natural science, including
human physiology and hygiene. Physical training, vocal music,
drawing and manual training are often taught. Sometimes a
foreign language (Latin, German or French) and the study of
general history are begun. Formal instruction in manners
and morals is not often found, but the discipline of the school
offers the best possible training in the habits of truthfulness,
honesty, obedience, regularity, punctuality and conformity to
order. Religious teaching is not permitted, although the
exercises of the day are often opened with reading from the
Bible, the repetition of the Lord's Prayer and the singing of a
hymn. Corporal punishment is not infrequent, but is forbidden
by law in New Jersey, and in many states may be used only under
restrictions. Text-books are used as the basis of the instruction
given, and the pupils " recite " in class to the teacher, who, by
use of illustration and comment, makes clear the subject-matter
of the prescribed lesson. The purpose of the recitation method
is to make the work of each pupil help that of his companion.
Skilfully used, it is the most effectual instrument yet devised for
elementary school instruction.
The secondary school course is normally four years in length.
The principal subjects studied are Latin, Greek, French, German,
algebra, geometry, physics, chemistry, physical geography,
The
colleges.
physiology, rhetoric, English literature, civics and history.
Although but 11-36% of the students in public high schools and
25-36% of those in private secondary schools are
preparing for a college or scientific school, yet the con-
ditions prescribed by the colleges for admission to their
courses affect powerfully both the secondary school programme
and the methods of teaching. Of late years no educational
topic has been more widely discussed than that as to the proper
relations of secondary schools and colleges. As a result, special
examinations for admission to college are either greatly simplified
or entirely abolished, and the secondary studies are much more
substantial and better taught than formerly. An increasing
proportion of secondary school teachers are college graduates.
The most extraordinary characteristic of secondary education
in recent years is the rapid increase in the number of students
taking Latin as a school subject. Meanwhile the proportion
of those studying physics and chemistry has fallen off slightly.
The rate of increase in the number of pupils who study Latin
is fully twice as great as the rate of increase in the number
of secondary school students. Between 1890 and 1896, while
the number of students in private secondary schools increased
12%, the number of students in public secondary schools
increased 87%. Since 1894 the number of students in private
secondary schools has steadily declined.
The American college, although it is the outgrowth of the
English colleges of Oxford and of Cambridge, has developed
into an institution which has no counterpart in Europe.
The college course of study, at first three years in
length, was soon extended to four years, and the
classes are uniformly known as the freshman, the sophomore,
the junior and the senior. The traditional degree which crowns
the college course is that of Bachelor of Arts (A.B.). The studies
ordinarily insisted on in the case of candidates for this degree
are Latin, Greek, mathematics, English, philosophy, political
economy, history, at least one modern European language
(French or German), and at least one natural science. The
degrees of Bachelor of Science (B.S.), Bachelor of Philosophy
(Ph.B.), and Bachelor of Letters (B.L.) are often conferred by
colleges upon students who have pursued systematic courses of
study which do not include Greek or the amount of Latin required
for the degree of Bachelor of Arts. The best colleges give instruc-
tion which is similar in character to that given in Germany in
the three upper classes of the gymnasium and in the introductory
courses at the universities, in France in the two upper classes of
the lycee and in the first two years of university study, and in
England in the upper form of the public schools and during the
years of undergraduate residence at Oxford and Cambridge.
Since 1870 the colleges have developed enormously. Their
resources have multiplied, the number of their students has
increased by leaps and bounds, the programme of studies
has broadened and deepened, the standards have been raised,
and the efficiency of the instruction has greatly increased.
Rigidly prescribed courses of study have given way to elective
courses, and a knowledge of Greek is no longer required for
the degree of A.B. at such influential colleges as Harvard,
Columbia, Cornell and Williams. A strong effort is being made
to have the leading colleges give but one degree, that of Bachelor
of Arts, and to confer that upon those who complete any sub-
stantial course of college studies. A marked change has taken
place in the attitude of the college authorities toward the students.
In 1870 the college president was a paterfamilias. He knew each
student and came into direct personal contact with him. The
president and the faculty had supervision not only of the studies
of the students, but of their moral and religious life as well.
The older type of college professor was not always a great
scholar, but he was a student of human nature, with keen
intuitions and shrewd insight. The new type, which had come
into existence at the opening of the 2oth century, was more
scholarly in some special direction, often regarded teaching
as a check upon opportunities for investigation, and disdained
troubling himself with a student's personal concerns or intel-
lectual and moral difficulties. The change was not altogether
EDUCATION
[UNITED STATES
for the better, and a desirable reaction has been observable.
Each college, however small or ill-equipped, exercises a helpful
local influence. Ninety per cent of all college students attend
an institution not more than one hundred miles from their own
homes. Few colleges have a national constituency, and even
in these cases an overwhelming preponderance of the students
come from the immediate neighbourhood. This explains, in a
measure, the powerful influence which the college has exercised
in the life of the nation. While hardly more than one in a
hundred of the white male youth of the country has had a college
education, yet the college graduates have furnished one-half
of all the presidents of the United States, most of the justices
of the Supreme Court, about one-half of the cabinet officers and
United States senators, and nearly one-third of the House of
Representatives. Before the Revolution eleven colleges were
founded. From 1776 to 1800, twelve more were added; from
1800 to 1830, thirty-three; from 1830 to 1865, one hundred and
eighty; from 1865 to 1898, two hundred and thirty-six. Their
standards, efficiency and equipment are very diverse, many of
the so-called colleges being less effective than some of the better
organized secondary schools. Except in New York and Pennsyl-
vania, there is no statutory restriction upon the use of the name
" college." This is an abuse to which public attention has in
recent yeats been increasingly called. 1
In the United States the title " university " is used indis-
criminately of institutions which are in reality universities, of
institutions which are colleges, and of institutions
which are so ill-equipped as not to take rank with
good secondary schools. Only time and a greatly
increased capacity to distinguish the various types of
higher schools will remedy this error. Putting aside tentative
and unsuccessful attempts to develop genuine university instruc-
tion much earlier, it may safely be said that the opening of the
Johns Hopkins University at Baltimore in 1876 began the
present movement to organize carefully advanced study and
research, requiring a college education of those who wish to enter
upon it. This is university instruction properly so called, and
though found elsewhere, it is given chiefly at fourteen institu-
tions: California University, Catholic University of America,
Chicago University, Clark University, Columbia University,
Cornell University, Harvard University, Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity, Michigan University, Pennsylvania University, Princeton
University, Leland Stanford Jr. University, Wisconsin Univer-
sity and Yale University. All of these institutions, except the
Catholic University of America, are also colleges. The com-
bination of collegiate and university instruction under one
corporation and one executive administration is distinctive of
higher education in the United States, and its chief source of
strength. The crowning honour of the university student is
the degree of Ph.D., although that of A.M. obtainable in less
time and much easier conditions is also sought. The minimum
period of study accepted for the degree of Ph.D. is two years
after obtaining the bachelor's degree; but in practice, three,
and even four, years of study are found necessary. In addition
to carrying on an investigation in the field of his main subject
of study, the candidate for the degree of Ph.D. is usually required
to pass examinations on one or two subordinate subjects, to
possess a reading knowledge of French and German (often of
Latin as well), and to submit usually in printed form the
dissertation which embodies the results of his researches. The
methods of instruction in the universities are the lecture, dis-
cussion and work in laboratory or seminary the latter trans-
planted from the German universities. The degree of Master of
Arts is conferred upon students who, after one year of university
residence and study, pass certain prescribed examinations.
This degree, like those of D.D., S.T.D. and LL.D., is often
conferred by colleges and universities as a purely honorary
distinction. The degree of Ph.D. is not so conferred any longer
by the best universities. Not a few of the universities maintain
1 See especially the second Annual Report of the President of the
Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (pp. 76-80),
quoted in the Report for 1907 of the Commissioner of Education.
schools of law and medicine. Harvard and Yale universities
maintain schools of theology as well. The learned publications
issued by the universities, or under the direction of university
professors, are of great importance, and constitute an imposing
body of scientific literature. The national and state governments
make increasing use of university officials for public service
requiring special training or expert knowledge. In 1871-1872
there were only 198 resident graduate (or university) students
in the United States. In 1887 this number had risen to 1237,
and in 1897 to 4392. These figures are exclusive of professional
students, and include only those who are studying in what
would be called, in Germany, the philosophical faculty. (See
also UNIVERSITIES.)
Most extensive provision is made in America for professional,
technical and special education of all kinds, and for the care and
training of the dependent and defective classes (see BLINDNESS
and DEAF AND DUMB), as well as for the education of the Indian
(see INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN), and in the Southern states
of the negro (q.v.). (N. M. B.)
Statistics. Details as to education in each state of the Ameri-
can Union are given in the articles under state headings. But
a more comprehensive view may be obtained here from the
general statistics. The introduction to the statistical tables in
vol. ii. of the Commissioner of Education's Report foi 1907 may
usefully be quoted. Mr Edward L. Thorndike, of the Teachers'
College, Columbia University, there summarizes the national
account as follows:
" We use in formal school education a material plant valued at
from twelve to thirteen hundred million dollars, the labour of 550,000
teachers or other educational officers, and more or less of the time
of some eighteen million students. . . . We pay for the labour of
these teachers, many of whom work for only part of the normal city-
school year, about $300,000,000. We pay for fuel, light, janitorial
services, repairs, depreciation of books, school supplies, insurance
and the like, about $90,000,000. For depreciation of the plant
not so charged we should properly provide during the year a sinking
fund of perhaps $25,000,000. Adding an interest charge of 5%
on the investment in the plant, our annual bill for formal school
education comes to over $475,000,000. Additions to the plant were
made [in 1906-1907] to the extent of from ninety to a hundred million
dollars. As a partial estimate of the returns from this investment
we may take the number of students whose education has been carried
to a specified standard of accomplishment and power. Thus I
estimate that, in 1907, 3000 students reached the standard denoted
by three years or more of academic, technical or professional study
in advance of a reputable college degree; that 25,000 students
reached the standard denoted by at least three and not over four
years of such study in advance of a four-year high-school course;
than an eighth of a million students reached the standard denoted
by at least three and not over four years of study in advance of an
eight-year elementary-school course; and that three-quarters of a
million students reached the standard of completion of an elementary-
school course of seven or eight years or its equivalent. . . Roughly,
nine-tenths of elementary education and the education of teachers,
over two-thirds of secondary education, and over a third of college
and higher technical education are provided and controlled by the
public. Professional education, other than the training of teachers
and engineers, is still largely a function of private provision and
control.
" The following rough comparison may serve to define further the
status of education in the country at large. The plant used for formal
education is valued at I % of our entire national wealth, or twice
the value of our telephone systems, or ten times the value of our
Pullman and private cars, or one-tenth the value of our railroads.
The number of teachers is approximately that of the clergymen,
engineers, lawyers and physicians together, five times that of the
regular army and navy, and about twice that of the saloon-keepers
and bar-tenders and their assistants. The annual expenditure for
education, exclusive of additions to the plant, is somewhat over twice
the expenditure for the war and navy departments of the national
government. It is three and a half times the expenditure of the
national government in 1907 for pensions. It is about one and a
fourth times the cost (New York wholesale prices) of the sugar and
coffee we consume annually."
The above comparison indicates perhaps, not inadequately,
the " business " conception of the value of education prevailing
in the United States, where its practical advantages are realized
as in.no other country, not even Germany.
From the same report the following statistics may be cited
for 1006-1907.
EDWARD THE ELDER
989
Common Schools (including Elementary and Secondary Public
Schools only).
Total number of pupils of all ages . . 16,820,386 *
Average number of days schools open . . 151-2
Average number of days attended by each
pupil 106-2
Number of male teachers .... 105,773
Number of female teachers .... 369,465
Number of school houses .... 259,115
Average monthly wage of male teachers . $56-10
Average monthly wage of female teachers . $43-67
Value of all school property . . t . . $843,309,410
Income from permanent funds and rents $16,579,551
Income from State taxes .... $46,281,501
Income from local taxes .... $230,424,554
Income from other sources . $50,317,132
Expenditure on sites, buildings, furniture,
libraries and apparatus .... $65,817,870
Expenditure on salaries $196,980,919
Expenditure on other purposes . . . $67,882,012
Expenditure per head of population . . $3-90
Expenditure per pupil $27-98
The Bureau of Education in 1907 received reports from 606
universities, colleges and technological schools; they had a teaching
force of 24,679, and an enrolment of 293,343 students. The number
of public and private normal schools reporting was 259, with an
enrolment of 70,439 students in the regular training courses for
teachers, 12,541 graduates and 3660 instructors. There were 148
manual and industrial training schools (independently of the manual
training taught in the public schools and in 66 Indian schools),
with 1692 teachers and an enrolment of 68,427 students; and 445
independent commercial and business schools, with 2856 instructors
and 137,364 students. (X.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For the study of education as an aspect of
religious, social, moral and intellectual development, the material
is practically inexhaustible, and much of the most valuable does not
treat specifically of the education given in schools and colleges.
The most useful guide is E. P. Cubberley's Syllabus of Lectures on the
History of Education (1902), which consists of an analytic outline
of topics with copious and detailed references to authorities. See
also W. S. Monroe's Bibliography of Education (1897). The best
general history in English is P. Monroe's Text-Book in the History of
Education (1905), which, like Davidson's much briefer History of
Education, treats the subject broadly and in relation to other aspects
of life. Williams's History of Ancient, Medieval, and Modern Educa-
tion is a useful statement of the main facts of educational progress
taken somewhat by itself. In German the standard work is K. A.
Schmid's Geschichte der Erziehung, a comprehensive and detailed
treatment in which each period is dealt with by a specialist. Ziegler's
Geschichte der Padagogtk is a good short history. In French,
Letourneau's L' Evolution de V education is especially good on ancient
and non-European education. Draper's Intellectual Development of
Europe is vigorous and interesting, but marred by its depreciation
of the work of the Church. Guizot's History of Civilization is still
of value, as are parts of Hallam's Literary History. Lecky's History
of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of Rationalism in Europe, and
Buckle's History of Civilization in England, contain much that is
of value. The best encyclopaedias are W. Rein's Encyklopddisches
Handbuch der Pddagoeik, and F. Buisson's Dictionnaire de pedagogie,
premiere partie. Sir Henry Craik's The State and Education (1883)
is an excellent text-book on national education.
Of books dealing with special periods and topics, S. Laurie's
Historical Sketch of Pre-Christian Education, Freeman's Schools of
Hellas, Girard's L' Education athenienne au V* el au IV' siecle avant
J.-C., Davidson's Education of the Greek People, Mahaffy's Old Greek
Education and Greek Life and Thought, Nettleship's article on
" Education in Plato's Republic " in Hellenica, Capes's University
Life in Athens, Hobhouse's Theory and Practice of Ancient Education,
Grasberger's Erziehung und Unterricht im classischen Alterthum,
Wilkin's Roman Education, and Clarke's Education of Children at
Rome, are valuable for classical times.
For the somewhat obscure transition centuries there is much of
value in Taylor's Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages, Dill's Roman
Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire, especially the
chapter on " Culture in the ith and 5th centuries," Boissier's La
Fin du paganisme, and Hatch s Influence of Greek Thought upon the
Christian Church.
The best general account of medieval education is in Drane s
Christian Schools and Scholars; and J. B. Mullinger's Schools of
Charles the Great treats well of the Carolingian Revival. G. B.
Adams's Civilization during the Middle Ages is excellent; and
Sandys's History of Classical Scholarship is a valuable book of
reference. On the scholastic philosophy Turner's History of Philo-
sophy and Haureau's Histotre de la philosophic scolastique, are
useful. Medieval schools are described in Furnivall's preface to
The Babees Book, which deals with " Education in Early England,"
1 In private schools there were also 1,304,547 pupils.
and in Leach's Old Yorkshire Schools and History of Winchester
College. The most important books on the universities are Rash-
dall's Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, Jourdain's Histoire
de I'universite de Paris aux X VII' el X VIII' siecles, Lyte's History
of the University of Oxford to 1530, and Mullinger's History of the
University of Cambridge to the Accession of Charles I. Paulsen's
Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts auf den deutschen Schulen und
Universitdten is the best history of education in Germany.
On the Renaissance in Italy, Villari's Introduction to his Life
and Times of Machiavelli, and Burckhardt's Die Kultur der Rcnats-
sance in Italien (translated into English), are of the first importance.
Other valuable books are the first volume of the Cambridge Modern
History and Symonds's great work on The Renaissance in Italy,
especially the volume on The Revival of Learning. Dealing more
specifically with education are Woodward's excellent monographs
on Education during the Renaissance, Vittorino da Feltre and Erasmus.
Janssen's Geschichte des deutschen Volkes (translated into English)
S'ves a good account of the social and intellectual condition of
ermany in the I4th, 15th and i6th centuries. Christie's Life of
Etienne Dolet is of value for the Renaissance in France. For the
movement in England Seebohm's Oxford Reformers, Gasquet's Eve
of the Reformation in England, Einstein's The Italian Renaissance in
England, and Leach's English Schools at the Reformation, 1546-1548,
are particularly important.
For later times the material is chiefly in the form of monographs,
of which the following, among others, are of value: Adamson's
Pioneers of Modern Education, Laas's Die Pddagogik des Johannes
Sturm, Beard's Port Royal, vol. ii., Kuno Fischer's Fr. Bacon und
seine Nachfolger, Laurie s John Amos Comenius, Morley's Rousseau,
Pinloche's La Reforme de I' education en Allemagne au dix-huitieme
siecle, Biedermann's Deutschlands geistige, sittliche, und gesellige
Zustdnde im X VIII. Jahrhundert.
For the 1 9th century and after, the best sources of information are
the official Reports, such as those of the Royal Commissions on the
English Universities, the Public Schools, and the other English
secondary schools; the "Special Reports," issued by the English
Board of Education; the encyclopaedic annual Reports of the
American Commissioner of Education (dealing not only with the
United States, but with progress in other countries); monographs
in the French Musee pedagogtque, and various German Reports.
For education in the United States, see also Boone's History of
Education in U.S.A. (1889); N. M. Butler (editor), Education in the
U.S.A. (IQOO), a series of monographs prepared for the Paris Ex-
position; E. G. Dexter's History of Education in the United States
(1904) ; and the Proceedings of the National Educational Association.
On the leading writers on education the monographs in the Great
Educator Series are useful, and editions and translations of the best
known of these writers are available. The greatest systematic
collection is the Monumenta Germaniae paedagogica. On the de-
velopment of the means of education, Montmorency's two books on
State Intervention in English Education from the Earliest Times to
1833, and TheJ'rogress of Education in England, Balfour's Educational
Systems of Great Britain and Ireland, Allain's L' Instruction primaire
en France avant la Revolution, Lantoine's Histoire de I'enseignement
secondaire en France au XVIII' el au debut du XVIII' siecle, and
Konrad Fischer's Geschichte des deutschen Volkschullehrerstands, may
be mentioned. (J. WN.)
EDWARD, " THE ELDER " (d. 024), king of the Angles and
Saxons, was the second son of Alfred the Great, and with his
sister ^thelflaed was carefully educated at the court of his
father. During his father's lifetime he took an active part in
the campaigns against the Danes, especially in that of 894, and
as early as 898 he signs a charter as " rex," showing that he was
definitely associated with his father in the kingship. He suc-
ceeded his father in October 899,' but not without opposition.
The yEtheling ^Ethelwold, son of Alfred's elder brother jEthelred,
seized Wimborne and Christchurch. Edward advanced against
him, and .flithelwold took refuge among the Danes in North-
umbria. In 904 ^thelwold landed in Essex, and in the next
year he enticed the East Anglian Danes to revolt. They ravaged
all southern Mercia and, in spite of Edward's activity, returned
home victorious, though ^Ethelwold fell in the battle of the
Holme. In 905 or 906 Edward made a peace with the East
Anglian and Northumbrian Danes at " Yttingaford," near
Linslade in Buckinghamshire, perhaps the peace known as
" the Laws of Edward and Guthrum." In 909 and 910 fresh
campaigns took place owing to southerly raids by the Danes,
and victories were won at Tettenhall and Wednesfield in Stafford-
shire.* From 907 onwards Edward and his sister ^thelfla;d,
1 See Stevenson's article in Eng. Hist. Rev. vol. xiii. pp. 7i;77-
The whole chronology of this reign is very difficult and certainly
is often impossible of attainment.
1 It is possible that these battles are one and the same; the places
are within 2 to 3 m. of each other.
990 EDWARD THE MARTYR EDWARD THE CONFESSOR
the Lady of the Mercians, were busy strengthening their hold
on Mercia and Wessex. Forts were built at Lincoln (907),
" Bremesbyrig " (910), " Scergeat " and Bridgenorth (912),
and when in the year 911 jEthelflaed's husband ^Ethelred died,
Edward took over from Mercia the government of London and
Oxford, with the lands belonging to them, i.e. probably Oxford-
shire and Middlesex. The policy of constructing " burhs " or
fortified towns was continued. Hertford was fortified in 911,
Witham in 912, while yEthelflaed fortified Cherbury in Shropshire,
" Weardbyrig " and Runcorn (all in 915). In 913 the Danes in
Eastern Mercia gave considerable trouble, and in 914 a fresh
horde of pirates, coming from Brittany, sailed up the Severn.
They raided southern Wales, but were hemmed in by the English
forces and besieged until they promised to leave the king's
territory. Edward watched the southern shores of the Bristol
Channel so carefully that the Danes failed to secure a hold there,
and were ultimately forced to sail to Ireland. In the same year
Edward fortified Buckingham and received the submission of
the jarls and chief men of Bedford. In 915 he fortified Bedford
itself, Maldon in 916, and Towcester and " Wigingamere " in 917.
In the last-mentioned year Edward captured and destroyed the
Danish stronghold of Tempsford, and later in the year he took
Colchester. An attack by the Danes on Maldon failed, and in
915 Edward went to Passenham and received the submission
of the men of the " borough " of Northampton. The Danish
strongholds of Huntingdon and Colchester were now restored
and repaired, and Edward received the submission of the whole
of the East Anglian Danes. Before midsummer of this year
Edward had fortified Stamford, and on the death of his sister
he received the submission of the Mercians at Tamworth. There
also three kings of the North Welsh took Edward as their lord.
Nottingham was now fortified; Thelwall in Cheshire (919) and
Manchester soon followed; Nottingham was strengthened by a
second fort; Bakewell was fortified and garrisoned, and then
came the greatest triumph of Edward's reign. He was " chosen
as father and lord " by the Scottish king and nation, by Rse-
genald, the Norwegian king of Northumbria, by Ealdred of
Bamborough, and by the English, Danes or Norwegians in
Northumbria, and by the Strathclyde Welsh.
With the conclusion of his wars Edward's activity ceased,
and we hear no more of him until in 924 he died at Farndon in
Cheshire and was buried in the " New Minster " at Winchester.
He was thrice married: (i) to Ecgwyn, a lady of rank, by
whom he had a son jEthelstan, who succeeded him, and a
daughter Eadgyth, who married Sihtric of Northumbria in
924. This marriage was probably an irregular one. (2) To
/Killed, by whom he had two sons ^Elfweard, who died a
fortnight after his father, and Eadwine, who was drowned in
933 and six daughters, JElhel&xd and /Ethelhild nuns, and
four others (see ^ETHELSTAN). (3) To Eadgifu, the mother of
Kings Edmund and Edred, and of two daughters.
AUTHORITIES. A nglo-Saxon Chronicle (ed. Plummer and Earle,
Oxford); Florence of Worcester (Mon. Hist. Brit.); William of
Malmesbury, Gesta regum (Rolls Series) ; Simeon of Durham (Rolls
Series); Ethelweard (Mon. Hist. Brit.); Birch, Cartularium Saxoni-
cum, Nos. 588-635; D.N.B., s.v. (A. Mw.)
EDWARD, " THE MARTYR " (c. 926-978), king of the English,
was the son of Edgar by his wife ^Ethelflaed. Edward's brief
reign was marked by an anti-monastic reaction. ^Elfhere,
earl of Mercia, once more expelled many of the monks whom
Bishop /Ethelwold had installed. There seems also to have been
some change in administrative policy, perhaps with regard to
the Danes, for Earl Oslac, whom Edgar had appointed to North-
umbria, was driven from his province. In ecclesiastical matters
there were two parties in the kingdom, the monastic, which had
its chief hold in Essex and East Anglia, and the anti-monastic,
led by ,Elfhere of Mercia. Conferences were held at Kirtlington
in Oxfordshire and at Calne in Wiltshire in 977 and 978, but
nothing definite seems to have been decided. On the i8th of
March 978 Edward's reign was suddenly cut short by his assassina-
tion at Corfe Castle in Dorsetshire. The crime was probably
inspired by his stepmother, ^Elfthryth, who was anxious to secure
the succession of her son jElthelred. The body was hastily
interred at Wareham and remained there till 980, when Arch-
bishop Dunstan and ^Elfhere of Mercia united in transferring
it with great ceremony to Shaftesbury. Edward seems to have
been personally popular, and the poem on his death in the
chronicle calls his murder the worst deed in English history.
Very shortly after his death he was popularly esteemed to be both
saint and martyr.
See Saxon Chronicle; Vita S. Oswaldi (Hist, of Ch. of York, Rolls
Series) ; Memorials o/St Dunstan (ed. Stubbs, Rolls Series). (A. Mw.)
EDWARD, " THE CONFESSOR " (d. 1066), so called on account
of his reputation for sanctity, king of the English, was the son of
^Ethelred II. and Emma, daughter of Richard, duke of Normandy,
and was born at Islip in Oxfordshire. On the recognition of
Sweyn as king of England in 1013, ^Ethelred, with his wife and
family, took refuge in Normandy, and Edward continued to
reside at the Norman court until he was recalled in 1041 by
Hardicanute. He appears to have been formally recognized as
heir to the throne, if not actually associated in the kingship, and
on the death of Hardicanute in 1042 " all folk received him to be
king," though his actual coronation was delayed until Easter
1043. A few months later Edward, in conjunction with the
three great earls of the kingdom, made a raid on the queen-
mother ^Elfgifu, or Emma, seized all her possessions and com-
pelled her to live in retirement.
In the earlier years of the reign the influence of Earl Godwine
was predominant, though not unopposed. His daughter Edith
or Eadgyth became Edward's queen in 1045. But the king's
personal tastes inclined much more to foreigners than to English-
men, and he fell more and more into the hands of favourites from
beyond the sea. Between Godwine, representing the spirit of
nationalism, and these favourites (especially their leader Robert
of Jumieges, successively bishop of London and archbishop of
Canterbury) there was war to the knife. In 1046 Magnus, king of
Norway, who had succeeded Hardicanute in Denmark and claimed
to succeed him in England as well, threatened an invasion, but
the necessity of defending Denmark against his rival Sweyn
Estrithson prevented him from carrying it into effect. In 1049,
Godwine's son Sweyn, who had been outlawed for the seduction of
the abbess of Leominster, returned and demanded his restoration.
This was refused and Sweyn returned into exile, but not before he
had with foulest treachery murdered his young kinsman Beorn.
He was, however, inlawed next year. The influence of Godwine,
already shaken, received a severe blow in 1051 in the appointment
of Robert of Jumieges to the archbishopric of Canterbury, and
the same year saw the triumph of the foreigners for the moment
complete. Edward, indignant at the resistance offered by the
men of Dover to the insolence of his brother-in-law Eustace of
Boulogne and his French followers, ordered Godwine to punish the
town. Godwine refused. The king at the prompting of the
archbishop then summoned a meeting of the witan, at which the
old charge against Godwine of complicity in the murder of the
^Etheling Alfred was to be revived. About the same time came
news of a fresh outrage by the foreigners. Godwine gathered his
forces and demanded redress, while the earls Leofric of Mercia and
Siward of Northumbria hastened to the side of the king. Civil
war seemed imminent, but at length a compromise was effected
by which the matter was referred to a meeting of the witan to
be held at London. At the appointed time Godwine presented
himself at Southwark. But his followers were rapidly deserting
him, nor would the king give hostages for his security. Alarmed
for his safety, he fled to Flanders, while his son Harold went to
Ireland. But their exile was brief. The tale of Godwine excited
universal sympathy, for it was realized that he represented the
cause of national independence. Encouraged by assurances from
England, he sailed thither, and joining forces with Harold sailed
along the south coast and up the Thames. The king would have
resisted but found no support. Yielding to circumstances, he
allowed himself to be reconciled, and Godwine and his house were
restored to their old position. The queen at the same time was
brought back from the monastery of Wherwell, whither she had
been despatched after her father's flight. The foreigners had
EDWARD I.
99
already ignominiously fled the country, and henceforth the in-
fluence of Godwine, and, after his death, of Harold, was supreme.
In 1063 Harold made a great expedition into Wales, in which he
crushed the power of King Gruffyd, who was killed by his own
people. But despite his prowess and his power, he was the
minister of the king rather than his personal favourite. This
latter position belonged to his younger brother Tostig, who on
the death of Siward in 1055 was appointed earl of Northumbria.
Here his severity and arbitrary temper rendered him intensely
unpopular, and in 1065 his subjects broke into revolt. They
elected Morkere as their earl, then marching south demanded
Tostig's banishment. Edward desired to crush the revolt by force
of arms, but he was overborne and forced to submit. The
election of Morkere was recognized, and Tostig went into exile.
Intensely mortified at this humiliation, the king fell sick, and
henceforth his health failed rapidly. He was unable to gratify
his intense desire to be present at the consecration of his new
abbey of Westminster, the foundation of which had been the chief
interest of his closing years, and on the sth of January 1066
he died.
The virtues of Edward were monkish rather than kingly. In
the qualities of a ruler he was conspicuously deficient; always
dependent on others, he ever inclined to the unworthier master.
But the charm of his character for the monastic biographer, and
the natural tendency to glorify the days before the Norman
oppression began, combined to cast about his figure a halo which
had not attached to it in life. Allowed to keep her property by
William the Conqueror, his widow, Edith, passed the remainder
of her life at Winchester, dying on the ipth of December 1075.
SOURCES. A number of lives of Edward are brought together
in a volume of the Rolls Series entitled Lives of Edward the Confessor,
and edited by Dr H. R. Luard (London, 1858). Of these by far the
most val uable is the contemporary Vita Edwardi, which would appear
from internal evidence to have been written by an unknown writer
soon after the Norman Conquest some time between 1066 and 1074.
The other chief authorities for the reign are (i) the Saxon Chronicle,
(C. Plummer, Oxford, 1892-1899); (2) Florence of Worcester, ed.
B. Thorpe, English Historical Society (London, 1848-1849). Refer-
ence may also be made to J. M. Kemble, Codex diplomatics aevi
Saxonici (London, 1839-1848). (C. S. P.*)
EDWARD I. (1230-1307), king of England, born at West-
minster on the 1 7th of June 1239, was the eldest son of Henry
III. and Eleanor of Provence. He was baptized Edward after
Edward the Confessor, for whom Henry had special veneration,
and among his godfathers was Simon de Montfort,earl of Leicester,
his aunt Eleanor's husband. His political career begins when the
conclusion of a treaty with Alphonso X. of Castile, by which he
was to marry the Spanish king's half sister Eleanor, necessitated
the conferring on him of an adequate establishment. His father
granted him the duchy of Gascony, the earldom of Chester, the
king's lands in Wales and much else. The provision made was so
liberal that Henry's subjects declared he was left no better than a
mutilated king. In May 1254 Edward went to Gascony to take
possession of his inheritance. He then crossed the Pyrenees, and
in October was dubbed knight by Alphonso and married to
Eleanor at the Cistercian convent of Las Huelga^, near Burgos.
He remained in Gascony till November 1255, but his father was
too jealous to allow him a free hand in its administration. After
his return, the attempts of his agents to establish English laws in
his Welsh possessions brought Edward into hostile relations with
the Welsh. Here also his father would give him no help, and
his first campaign brought him little result. Edward became
extremely unpopular through his association with his Lusignan
kinsfolk, his pride and violence, and the disorders of his household.
In 1258 his strenuous opposition to the Provisions of Oxford
further weakened his position, but, after the banishment of the
foreigners, he began to take up a wiser line. In 1259 he led the
young nobles who insisted that the triumphant oligarchy should
carry out the reforms to which it was pledged. For a moment it
looked as if Edward and Leicester might make common cause,
but Edward remained an enemy of Montfort, though he strove to
infuse his father's party with a more liberal and national spirit.
He was the soul of the reconstituted royalist party formed about
1263. In 1264 he took a prominent part in the fighting between
the king and the barons. At the battle of Lewes his rash pursuit
of the Londoners contributed to his father's defeat. Two days
later Edward surrendered to Leicester as a hostage for the good
behaviour of his allies. He was forced to give up his earldom of
Chester to Leicester, but at Whitsuntide 1265 he escaped from his
custodians, and joined the lords of the Welsh march who were
still in arms. With their aid he defeated and slew Leicester at
Evesham on the 4th of August 1265.
For the rest of Henry III.'s reign Edward controlled his
father's policy and appropriated enough of Leicester's ideals
to make the royalist restoration no mere reaction. So peaceful
became the outlook of affairs that in 1268 Edward took the cross,
hoping to join the new crusade of St Louis. Want of money
delayed his departure till 1270, by which time St Louis was dead,
and a truce concluded with the infidel. Refusing to be a party
to such treason to Christendom, Edward went with his personal
followers to Acre, where he abode from May 1271 to August 1272.
Despite his energy and valour he could do little to prop up the
decaying crusading kingdom and he narrowly escaped assassina-
tion. At last the declining health of his father induced him
to return to the West. He learned in Sicily the death of Henry
III. on the i6th of November 1272. On the 2oth of November,
the day of Henry's funeral, he was recognized as king by the
English barons, and from that day his regnal years were subse-
quently computed. Affairs in England were so peaceful that
Edward did not hurry home. After a slow journey through
Italy and France he did homage to his cousin Philip III. at
Paris, on the 26th of July 1273. He then went to Gascony,
where he stayed nearly a year. At last he landed at Dover on the
2nd of August 1274, and was crowned at Westminster on the
i8th of the same month.
Edward was thirty-five years old when he became king, and
the rude schooling of his youth had developed his character
and suggested the main lines of the policy which he was to carry
out as monarch. He was a tall, well-proportioned and hand-
some man, extravagantly devoted to military exercises, tourna-
ments and the rougher and more dangerous forms of hunting.
He had learned to restrain the hot temper of his youth, and was
proud of his love of justice and strict regard to his plighted word.
His domestic life was unstained, he was devoted to his friends,
and loyal to his subordinates. Without any great originality
either as soldier or statesman, he was competent enough to appro-
priate the best ideas of the time and make them his own. His
defects were ahardness of disposition which sometimesapproached
cruelty and a narrow and pedantic temper, which caused him
to regard the letter rather than the spirit of his promises. His
effectiveness and love of strong government stand in strong
contrast to his father's weakness. Though he loved power, and
never willingly surrendered it, he saw that to be successful he
must make his policy popular. Thus he continued the system
which Montfort had formed with the object of restraining the
monarchy, because he saw in a close alliance with his people
the best means of consolidating the power of the crown.
The first years of Edward's reign were mainly occupied by
his efforts to establish a really effective administration. In
carrying out this ta.sk he derived great help from his chancellor,
Robert Burnell, bishop of Bath and Wells. Administrative
reform soon involved legislation, and from 1275 to 1290 nearly
every year was marked by an important law. Few of these con-
tained anything that was very new or original. They rather
illustrate that policy which caused Dr Stubbs to describe his
reign as a " period of definition." Yet the results of his con-
servative legislation were almost revolutionary. In particular
he left the impress of his policy on the land laws of England,
notably by the clause De Donis of the Westminster statute of
1285, and the statute Quia Emptores of 1 290. The general effect
of his work was to eliminate feudalism from political life. At
first he aimed at abolishing all franchises whose holders could not
produce written warranty for tkem. This was the policy of the
statute of Gloucester of 1278, but the baronial opposition was
so resolute that Edward was forced to permit many immunities
to remain. Though the most orthodox of churchmen, his dislike
992
EDWARD I.
of authority not emanating from himself threatened to involve
him in constant conflict with the Church, and notably with
John Peckham, the Franciscan friar, who was archbishop of
Canterbury from 1279 to 1292. The statute of Mortmain of
1279, which forbade the further grant of lands to ecclesiastical
corporations without the royal consent, and the writ Circum-
specle Agatis of 1285, which limited the church courts to strictly
ecclesiastical business, both provoked strong clerical opposition.
However, Peckham gave way to some extent, and Edward
prudently acquiesced in many clerical assumptions which he
disliked. He was strong enough to refuse to pay the tribute to
Rome which John had promised, and his reign saw the end
of that papal overlordship over England which had greatly
complicated the situation under his father.
Besides administration and legislation, the other great event
of the first fifteen years of Edward's reign was the conquest
of the principality of Wales. It was part of Edward's policy
of reconciliation after the battle of Evesham that in the treaty
of Shrewsbury of 1267 he had fully recognized the great position
which Llewelyn ab Gruffyd, prince of Wales, had gained as the
ally of Simon de Montfort. However, Llewelyn's early successes
had blinded the Welsh prince to the limitations of his power,
and he profited by Edward's early absences from England to
delay in performing his feudal obligations to the new king.
Even after Edward's return Llewelyn continued to evade doing
homage. At last Edward lost patience, and in 1277 invaded
north Wales. He conducted his campaign like a great siege,
blocking all the avenues to Snowdon, and forcing Llewelyn
to surrender from lack of supplies. He thereupon reduced the
Welsh prince to the position of a petty north Welsh chieftain
strictly dependent on the English. For the next five years
Edward did his best to set up the English system of government
in the ceded districts. The Welsh resentment of this soon gave
Llewelyn another chance, and compelled Edward to devote the
years 1282-1283 to completing his conquest. In 1284 he issued
the statute of Wales, which provided for a scheme for the future
government of the principality. Edward is often called the
conqueror of Wales, but in truth he only effected the conquest
of Llewelyn's dominions. The march of Wales was only indirectly
affected by his legislation, and remained subject to its feudal
marcher lords until the i6th century.
Edward was very careful in his foreign policy. Though
preserving nominal peace with his cousin Philip III. of France,
his relations with that country were constantly strained. After
Philip III.'s death in 1285, Edward crossed the Channel in 1286,
to perform homage to his successor, Philip the Fair. He remained
abroad till 1289, busied in attempts to improve the administration
of Gascony, and making repeated and finally successful efforts to
end by his mediation the still continuing struggle between the
houses of Anjou and Aragon. His long absence threw the govern-
ment of England into confusion, and on his return in 1289 he was
compelled to dismiss most of his judges and ministers for corrup-
tion. In 1 200 he expelled all Jews from England.
The affairs of Scotland furnished Edward with his chief pre-
occupation for the rest of his reign. After the death of Alexander
III., in 1286, Scotland was governed in the. name of his grand-
daughter Margaret, the Maid of Norway. The English king
had suggested that Edward of Carnarvon, his eldest surviving son,
should marry the little queen of Scots, and thus bring about the
union of the two countries. Unluckily the death of Margaret in
1290 frustrated the scheme. The Scottish throne was now
disputed by many claimants, and the Scots asked Edward to
arbitrate between them. Edward accepted the position, but
insisted that, before he acted, the Scots should recognize him
as their overlord. The claimants set the example of submission,
and soon the chief Scots nobles followed. Thereupon Edward
undertook the arbitration, and in 1292 adjudged the throne
to John Baliol. The new king did homage to Edward, but his
subjects soon began to resent the claims of jurisdiction over
Scotland, which Edward declared were the natural results of
his feudal supremacy. At last the Scots deprived John of nearly
all his power, repudiated Edward's claims, and made an alliance
with the French. During the years of the Scottish arbitration
Edward had slowly been drifting into war with France. The
chronic difficulties caused by French attempts to confine
Edward's power in Gascony were now accentuated by the
quarrels between the sailors and merchants of the two countries.
In 1293 Edward was persuaded by his brother, Edmund, earl of
Lancaster, to yield up Gascony temporarily to Philip the Fair.
But Philip refused to restore the duchy, and Edward, seeing that
he had been tricked, declared war against France, at the very
moment when the Scottish resistance gave the French a firm ally
in Britain. To make matters worse, the Welsh rose in rebellion.
It was therefore quite impossible for Edward to recover Gascony.
The most critical years of Edward's reign now began. He
saw that he could only meet his difficulties by throwing himself
on the support of his own subjects, and convoked, in 1295, a
representative parliament of the three estates, which has been
called in later times the Model Parliament, because it first
illustrated the type which was to be perpetuated in all subsequent
parliaments. " What touches all," ran Edward's writ of
summons, " should be approved of all, and it is also clear that
common dangers should be met by measures agreed upon
in common." The parliamentary constitution of England was
established as the result of Edward's action.
Secure of his subjects' allegiance, Edward put down the
Welsh revolt, and conquered Scotland in 1296. When quiet
was restored to Britain, he hoped to throw all his energy into
the recovery of Gascony, but new troubles arose at home which
once more diverted him from his supreme purpose. Led by
Archbishop Winchelsea, Peckham's successor, the clergy refused
to pay taxes in obedience to the bull of Pope Boniface VIII.,
called Clericis Laicos. Edward declared that if the clergy
would not contribute to support the state, the state could afford
them no protection. But the clerical opposition was soon joined
by a baronial opposition. Headed by the earls of Hereford
and Norfolk, many of the barons declined to join in an expedition
to Gascony, and Edward was forced to sail to the French war,
leaving them behind. Thereupon the recalcitrant barons forced
upon the regency a fresh confirmation of the charters, to which
new articles were added, safeguarding the people from arbitrary
taxation. Edward at Ghent reluctantly accepted this Confirmatio
Cartarum, but even his submission did not end the crisis. In the
same year (1297), all Scotland rose in revolt under the popular
hero William Wallace, and next year (1298), Edward was forced
to undertake its reconquest. The battle of Falkirk, won on
the 22nd of July, was the greatest of Edward's military triumphs;
but, though it destroyed the power of Wallace, it did not put
an end to Scottish resistance. Bitter experience taught Edward
that he could not fight the French and the Scots at the same
time, and in 1299 he made peace with Philip, and, Eleanor
having died in November 1290, he married the French king's
sister Margaret (c. 1282-1318), and some years later obtained
the restitution of Gascony. In the same spirit he strove to destroy
the clerical and baronial opposition. He did not succeed in
the former task until a complacent pope arose in his own
subject, Clement V., who abandoned Winchelsea to his anger, and
suffered the archbishop to be driven into exile. The baronial
leaders could not be wholly overthrown by force, and Edward
was compelled to make them fresh concessions.
It was not until 1303 that Edward was able to undertake
seriously the conquest of Scotland. By 1305 the land was
subdued, and Wallace beheaded as a traitor. But Edward had
hardly organized the government of his new conquest when a
fresh revolt broke out under Robert Bruce, grandson of the
chief rival of Baliol in 1290. Bruce was soon crowned king of
Scots, and at the age of seventy Edward had to face the prospect
of conquering Scotland for the third time. He resolved to take
the field in person; but the effort was too great, and on the 7th
of July 1307 he died at Burgh-on-Sands, near Carlisle. His
death destroyed the last faint hope of conquering Scotland, and
showed that the chief ambition of his life was a failure. Yet
his conquest of Wales, his legislation, his triumph over his barons,
his ecclesiastics, and the greatest of French medieval kings
EDWARD II.
993
indicate the strength and permanence of his work. He was
buried at Westminster under a plain slab on which was inscribed
Edwardus primus Scottorum malleus hie est. Pactum serva.
By Eleanor of Castile Edward had four sons, his successor
Edward II. and three who died young, and nine daughters,
including Joan, or Joanna (1272-1307), the wife of Gilbert de
Clare, earl of Gloucester (d. 1295), and then of Ralph de
Monthermer; Margaret (1275-1318), the wife of John II., duke
of Brabant; and Eleanor (1282-1316), who married John I.,
count of Holland, and then Humphrey Bohun, earl of Hereford
(d. 1322). By Margaret of France the king had two sons:
Thomas of Brotherton, earl of Norfolk, and Edmund of
Woodstock, earl of Kent.
The principal modern authorities for this reign are: W. Stubbs,
Constitutional History of England, vol. ii. chaps, xiv. and xv. (1896) ;
T. F. Tout, Edward I. (1893), and Political History of England, 1216-
1377, pp. 136-235 (1905) ; R. B. Seeley, Life and Reign of Edward I.
(1872); R. Pauli, Geschichte von England, iv. pp. 1-198 (Ham-
burg, 1864-1875) ; W. Hunt, article on " Edward I." in Diction-
ary of National Biography; J. E. Morris, Welsh Wars of Edward I.
(Oxford, 1901); and C. V. Langlois's Philippe le Hardi (Paris,
1887). (T. F. T.)
EDWARD II. (1284-1327), " of Carnarvon," king of England,
the fourth son of Edward I. by his first wife Eleanor of Castile,
was born at Carnarvon Castle on the 25th of April 1284. The
story that the king presented the new-born child to the Welsh
as their future native prince is quite unfounded, for Edward
was only made prince of Wales in the Lincoln parliament of
1301. When a few months old, he became by his elder brother's
death the heir to the throne, and Edward I. took great pains
to train him in warfare and statecraft. He took part in several
Scots campaigns, but all his father's efforts could not prevent
his acquiring the habits of extravagance and frivolity which
he retained all through his life. The old king attributed his
son's defects to the bad influence of his friend, the Gascon knight
Piers Gaveston, and drove the favourite into exile. When
Edward I. died, on the yth of July 1307, the first act of the prince,
now Edward II., was to recall Gaveston. His next was to abandon
the Scots campaign on which his father had set his heart.
The new king was physically almost as fine a man as Edward I.
He was, however, destitute of any serious purpose, and was, as
Dr Stubbs says, " the first king after the Conquest who was
not a man of business." /He cared for nothing but amusing him-
self, and found his chief delight in athletics and in the practice
of mechanical crafts. He was not so much vicious as foolish,
and wanting in all serious interests. He had so little confidence
in himself that he was always in the hands of some favourite
who possessed a stronger will than his own. In the early years
of his reign Gaveston held this r61e, acting as regent when Edward
went to France where, on the 25th of January 1308, he married
Isabella, the daughter of Philip the Fair and receiving the
earldom of Cornwall with the hand of the king's niece, Margaret
of Gloucester. The barons soon grew indignant at Edward's
devotion to his " brother Piers," and twice insisted on his
banishment. On each occasion Edward soon recalled his friend,
whereupon the barons, headed by the king's cousin Thomas,
earl of Lancaster, went to war against king and favourite, and
in 1312 treacherously put Gaveston to death. Edward was not
strong enough even to avenge his loss. He was forced to stand
aside and suffer the realm to be governed by the baronial com-
mittee of twenty-one lords ordainers, who, in 1311, had drawn
up a series of ordinances, whose effect was to substitute ordainers
for the king as the effective government of the country. But
in all the ordinances nothing was said about the commons and
lower clergy. Parliament meant to the new rulers an assembly
of barons just as it had done to the opponents of Henry III.
in 1258. The effect of their triumph was to change England
from a monarchy to a narrow oligarchy.
During the quarrels between Edward and the ordainers,
Robert Bruce was steadily conquering Scotland. His progress
was so great that he had occupied all the fortresses save Stirling,
which he closely besieged. The danger of losing Stirling shamed
Edward and the barons into an attempt to retrieve their lost
viu. 32
ground. In June 1314 Edward led a great army into Scotland
in the hope of relieving Stirling. On the 24th of June his ill-
disciplined and badly led host was completely defeated by Robert
Bruce at Bannockburn. Henceforth Bruce was sure of his
position as king of Scots, and his pitiless devastation of the
northern counties of England was his wild vengeance for the
sufferings his land had previously experienced from the English.
Edward's disgraceful defeat made him more dependent on his
barons than ever. His kinsman, Thomas of Lancaster, had now
an opportunity of saving England from the consequences of the
king's incompetence. He had shown some capacity as a leader
of opposition, but though he had great wealth, and was lord of
five earldoms, he had small ability and no constructive power.
In his desire to keep the king weak, he was suspected to have
made a secret understanding with Robert Bruce. Before long
the opposition split up under his incompetent guidance into
fiercely contending factions. Under Aymer of Valence, earl
of Pembroke, a middle party arose, which hated Lancaster so
much that it supported the king to put an end to Lancaster's
rule. After 1318 the effect of its influence was to restore Edward
to some portion of his authority. However, the king hated
Pembroke almost as much as Lancaster. He now found a
competent adviser in Hugh le Despenser, a baron of great
experience. What was more important to him, he had in
Despenser's son, Hugh le Despenser the younger, a personal
friend and favourite, who was able in some measure to replace
Gaveston. The fierce hatred which the barons manifested to
the Despensers showed that they could hate a deserter as bitterly
as they had hated the Gascon adventurer. They were indignant
at the favours which Edward lavished upon the favourite and
his father, and were especially alarmed when the younger
Despenser strove to procure for himself the earldom of Gloucester
in right of his wife, Edward's niece.
At last, in 1321, the barons met in parliament, and under
Lancaster's guidance procured the banishment of the Despensers.
The disasters of his friends inspired Edward to unwonted
activity. In 1322 he recalled them from exile, and waged war
against the barons on their behalf. Triumph crowned his
exertions. Lancaster, defeated at Boroughbridge, was executed
at Pontefract. For the next five years the Despensers ruled
England. Unlike the ordainers, they took pains to get the
Commons on their side, and a parliament held at York in 1322
revoked the ordinances because they trenched upon the rights
of the crown, and were drawn up by the barons only. From
this time no statute was technically valid unless the Commons
had agreed to it. This marks the most important step forward
in Edward II. 's reign. But the rule of the Despensers soon
fell away from this wise beginning. They thought only of
heaping up wealth for themselves, and soon stirred up universal
indignation. In particular, they excited the ill-will of the queen,
Isabella of France. Craftily dissembling her indignation,
Isabella kept silence until 1325, when she went to France in
company with her eldest son, Edward of Windsor, who was sent
to do homage for Aquitaine to her brother, the new French king.
When her business was over, Isabella declined to return to her
husband as long as the Despensers remained his favourites.
She formed a criminal connexion with Roger Mortimer of
Wigmore, one of the baronial exiles, and in September 1326
landed in Essex accompanied by Mortimer and her son, declaring
that she was come to avenge the murder of Lancaster, and to
expel the Despensers. Edward's followers deserted him, and
on the 2nd of October he fled from London to the west, where
he took refuge in the younger Despenser's estates in Glamorgan.
His wife followed him, put to death both the Despensers, and,
after a futile effort to escape by sea, Edward was captured on
the 1 6th of November. He was__imprisoned at Kenjlworth
Castle, and a parliament met at Westminster in 'January
1327, which chose his son to be king as Edward III. It was
thought prudent to compel the captive king to resign the crown,
and on the_2oth_of January Edward was forced to renounce his
office before a committee of the estates. The government of
Isabella and Mortimer was so weakly established that it dared
994
EDWARD III.
not leave the deposed king alive. On the 3rd of April he was
secretly removed from Kenilworth and entrusted to the custody
of two dependants of Mortimer. After various wanderings he
was imprisoned at Berkeley Castle in Gloucestershire. Every
indignity was inflicted upon him, and he was systematically
ill-treated in the hope that he would die of disease. When his
strong constitution seemed likely to prevail over the ill-treatment
of his enemies he was cruelly put to death on the 21 st of September.
It was announced that he had died a natural 3eath, and he was
buried in St Peter's Abbey at Gloucester, now the cathedral,
where his son afterwards erected a magnificent tomb.
Edward's wife, Isabella (c. 1292-1358), bore him two sons,
Edward III. and John of Eltham, earl of Cornwall (1316-1336),
and two daughters, Isabella and Joanna (1321-1362), wife of
David II., king of Scotland. After the execution of her paramour,
Roger Mortimer, in 1330, Isabella retired from public life; she
died at Hertford on the 23rd of August 1358.
See R. Pauli, Geschichte von England, iv. pp. 199-306; T. F. Tout,
Political History of England, 1216-1307, pp. 2,56-304, and article in
Dictionary of National Biography; W. Stubbs, Constitutional History,
vol. ii. pp. 319-386, and Introductions to Chronicles of the Reigns of
Edward I. and Edward II. in Rolls series. (T. F. T.)
EDWARD III. (1312-1377), " of Windsor," king of England,
eldest son of Edward II. and Isabella of France, was born at
Windsor on the I3th of November 1312. In 1320 he was made
earl of Chester, and in 1325 duke of Aquitaine, but he never
received the title of prince of Wales. Immediately after his
appointment to Aquitaine, he was sent to France to do homage
to his uncle Charles IV., and remained abroad until he accom-
panied his mother and Mortimer in their expedition to England.
To raise funds for this he was betrothed to Philippa, daughter
of the count of Hainaut. On the 26th of October 1326, after
the fall of Bristol, he was proclaimed warden of the kingdom
during his father's absence. On the 13 th of January 1327
parliament recognized him as king, and he was crowned on the
29th of the same month.
For the next four years Isabella and Mortimer governed in
his name, though nominally his guardian was Henry, earl of
Lancaster. In the summer he took part in an abortive campaign
against the Scots, and was married to Philippa at York on the
24th of January 1328. On the isth of June 1330 his eldest
child, Edward, the Black Prince, was born. Soon after, Edward
made a successful effort to throw off his degrading depend-
ence on his mother and her paramour. In October 1330
he entered Nottingham Castle by night, through a subterranean
passage, and took Mortimer prisoner. On the 29th of November
the execution of the favourite at Tyburn completed the young
king's emancipation. Edward discreetly drew a veil over his
mother's relations with Mortimer, and treated her with every
respect. There is no truth in the stories that henceforth he
kept her in honourable confinement, but her political influence
was at an end.
Edward III.'s real reign now begins. Young, ardent and
active, he strove with all his might to win back for England
something of the position which it had acquired under Edward
I. He bitterly resented the concession of independence to Scot-
land by the treaty of Northampton of 1328, and the death of
Robert Bruce in 1329 gave him a chance of retrieving his position.
The new king of Scots, David, who was his brother-in-law, was
a mere boy, and the Scottish barons, exiled for their support
of Robert Bruce, took advantage of the weakness of his rule
to invade Scotland in 1332. At their head was Edward Baliol,
whose victory at Dupplin Moor established him for a brief
time as king of Scots. After four months Baliol was driven out
by the Scots, whereupon Edward for the first time openly took
up his cause. In 1333 the king won hi person the battle of
Halidon Hill over the Scots, but his victory did not restore
Baliol to power. The Scots despised him as a puppet of the
English king, and after a few years David was finally established
in Scotland. During these years England gradually drifted
into hostility with France. The chief cause of this was the
impossible situation which resulted from Edward's position as
duke of Gascony. Contributing causes were Philip's support
of the Scots and Edward's alliance with the Flemish cities,
which were then on bad terms with their French overlord, and
the revival of Edward's claim, first made in 1328, to the French
crown. War broke out in 1337, and in 1338 Edward visited
Coblenz, where he made an alliance with the emperor Louis the
Bavarian. In 1339 and 1340 Edward endeavoured to invade
France from the north with the help of his German and Flemish
allies, but the only result of his campaigns was to reduce him
to bankruptcy.
In 1340, however, he took personal part in the great naval
battle off Sluys, in which he absolutely destroyed the French
navy. In the same year he assumed the title of king of France.
At first he did this to gratify the Flemings, whose scruples in
fighting their overlord, the French king, disappeared when they
persuaded themselves that Edward was the rightful king of
France. However, his pretensions to the French crown gradually
became more important. The persistence with which he and
his successors urged them made stable oeace impossible for more
than a century, and this made the struggle famous in history
as the Hundred Years' War. Till the days of George III. every
English king also called himself king of France.
Despite his victory at Sluys, Edward was so exhausted by
his land campaign that he was forced before the end of 1340 to
make a truce and return to England. He unfairly blamed his
chief minister, Archbishop Stratford, for his financial distress,
and immediately on his return vindictively attacked him.
Before the truce expired a disputed succession to the duchy
of Brittany gave Edward an excuse for renewing hostilities
with France. In 1342 he went to Brittany and fought an
indecisive campaign against the French. He was back in
England in 1343. In the following years he spent much time
and money in rebuilding Windsor Castle, and instituting the
order of the Garter, which he did in order to fulfil a vow that
he had taken to restore the Round Table of Arthur. His
finances, therefore, remained embarrassed despite the com-
parative pause in the war, although in 1339 he had repudiated
his debt to his Italian creditors, a default that brought about
widespread misery in Florence.
A new phase of the French war begins when in July 1346
Edward landed in Normandy, accompanied by his eldest son,
Edward, prince of Wales, a youth of sixteen. In a memorable
campaign Edward marched from La Hogue to Caen, and from
Caen almost to the gates of Paris. It was a plundering expedition
on a large scale, and like most of Edward's campaigns showed
some want of strategic purpose. But Edward's decisive victory
over the French at Crecy, in Ponthieu, on the 26th of August,
where he scattered the army with which Philip VI. attempted
to stay his retreat from Paris to the northern frontier, signally
demonstrated the tactical superiority of Edward's army over
the French. Next year Edward effected the reduction of Calais.
This was the most solid and lasting of his conquests, and its
execution compelled him to greater efforts than the Cr6cy
campaign. Other victories in Gascony and Brittany further
emphasized his power. In 1346, David, king of Scots, was also
defeated and taken prisoner at Neville's Cross, near Durham.
In the midst of his successes, however, want of money forced
Edward to make a new truce in 1347. He was as far from the
conquest of France as ever.
Edward returned to England in October 1347. He celebrated
his triumph by a series of splendid tournaments, and completed
his scheme for the establishment of the order of the Garter.
In 1348 he rejected an offer of the imperial throne. In the
same year the Black Death first appeared in England, and raged
until 1349. Yet the horrors which it wrought hardly checked
the magnificent revels of Edward's court, and neither the plague
nor the truce stayed the course of the French war, though
what fighting there was was indecisive and on a small scale.
Edward's martial exploits during the next years were those of
a gallant knight rather than those of a responsible general.
Conspicuous among them were his famous combat with Eustace
de Ribemont, near Calais, in 1349, and the hard-fought naval
victory over the Spaniards off Winchelsea, in 1350. Efforts
EDWARD IV.
995
to make peace, initiated by Pope Innocent VI., came to nothing,
though the English commons were now weary of the war. The
result of this failure was the renewal of war on a large scale.
In 1355 Edward led an unsuccessful raid out of Calais, and in
January and February 1356 harried the Lothians, in the ex-
pedition famous as the Burned Candlemas. His exploits sank
into insignificance as compared with those of his son, whose
victory at Poitiers, on the igth of September 1356, resulted
in the captivity of King John, and forced the French to accept
a new truce. Edward entertained his royal captive very
magnificently, and in 1359 concluded with him the treaty of
London, by which John surrendered so much that the French
repudiated the treaty. Edward thereupon resolved to invade
France afresh and compel its acceptance. On the 28th of
October he landed at Calais, and advanced to Reims, where he
hoped to be crowned king of France. The strenuous resistance
of the citizens frustrated this scheme, and Edward marched
into Burgundy, whence he made his way back towards Paris.
Failing in an attack on the capital, he was glad to conclude, on
the 8th of May 1360, preliminaries of peace at Bretigny, near
Chartres. This treaty, less onerous to France than that of
London, took its final form in the treaty of Calais, ratified by
King John on the gth of October. By it Edward renounced
his claim to France in return for the whole of Aquitaine.
The treaty of Calais did not bring rest or prosperity either to
England or France. Fresh visitations of the Black Death, in
1362 and 1369, intensified the social and economic disturbances
which had begun with the first outbreak in 1348. Desperate,
but not very successful, efforts were made to enforce the statute
of Labourers, of 1351, by which it was sought to maintain
prices and wages as they had been before the pestilence. Another
feature of these years was the anti-papal, or rather anti-clerical,
legislation embodied in the statutes of Provisors and Praemunire.
These measures were first passed in 1351 and 1353, but often
repeated. In 1366 Edward formally repudiated the feudal
supremacy over England, still claimed by the papacy by reason
of John's submission. Another feature of the time was the
strenuous effort made by Edward to establish his numerous
family without too great expense. In the end the estates of
the houses of Lancaster, Kent, Bohun, Burgh and Mortimer
swelled the revenues of Edward's children and grandchildren,
in whose favour also the new title of duke was introduced.
In 1369 the French king, Charles V., repudiated the treaty of
Calais and renewed the war. Edward's French dominions
gladly reverted to their old allegiance, and Edward showed
little of his former vigour in meeting this new trouble. He
resumed the title and arms of king of France, but left most of
the fighting and administration of his foreign kingdoms to his
sons, Edward and John. While the latter were struggling with
little success against the rising tide of French national feeling,
Edward's want of money made him a willing participator in the
attack on the wealth and privileges of the Church. In 1371 a
clerical ministry was driven from office, and replaced by laymen,
who proved, however, less effective administrators than their
predecessors. Meanwhile Aquitaine was gradually lost; the
defeat of Pembroke off La Rochelle deprived England of the
command of the sea, and Sir Owen ap Thomas, a grand-nephew
of Llewelyn ab Gruffyd, planned, with French help, an abortive
invasion of Wales. In 1371 the Black Prince came back to
England with broken health, and in 1373 John of Lancaster
marched to little purpose through France, from Calais to
Bordeaux. In 1372 Edward made his final effort to lead an
army, but contrary winds prevented his even landing his troops
in France. In 1375 he was glad to make a truce, which lasted
until his death. By it the only important possessions remaining
in English hands were Calais, Bordeaux, Bayonne and Brest.
Edward was now sinking into his dotage. After the death
of Queen Philippa he fell entirely under the influence of a greedy
mistress named Alice Ferrers, while the Black Prince and John
of Gaunt became the leaders of sharply divided parties in the
court and council of the king. With the help of Alice Ferrers
John of Gaunt obtained the chief influence with his father,
but his administration was neither honourable nor successful.
His chief enemies were the higher ecclesiastics, headed by
William of Wykeham, bishop of Winchester, who had been
excluded from power in 1371. John further irritated the clergy
by making an alliance with John Wycliffe. The opposition to
John was led by the Black Prince and Edmund Mortimer,
earl of March, the husband of Edward's grand-daughter,Philippa
of Clarence. At last popular indignation against the courtiers
came to a head in the famous Good Parliament of 1376. Alice
Ferrers was removed from court, and Duke John's subordinate
instruments were impeached. But in the midst of the parliament
the death of the Black Prince robbed the commons of their
strongest support. John of Gaunt regained power, and in 1377
a new parliament, carefully packed by the courtiers, reversed
the acts of the Good Parliament. Not long after Edward III.
died, on the 2ist of June 1377.
Edward III. was not a great man like Edward I. He was,
however, an admirable tactician, a consummate knight, and
he possessed extraordinary vigour and energy of temperament.
His court, described at length in Froissart's famous chronicle,
was the most brilliant hi Europe, and he was himself well fitted
to be the head of the magnificent chivalry that obtained fame
in the French wars. Though his main ambition was military
glory, he was not a bad ruler of England. He was liberal,
kindly, good-tempered and easy of access, and his yielding to
his subjects' wishes in order to obtain supplies for carrying on
the French war contributed to the consolidation of the constitu-
tion. His weak points were his wanton breaches of good faith, his
extravagance, his frivolity and his self-indulgence. Like that
of Edward I. his ambition transcended his resources, and before
he died even his subjects were aware of his failure.
Edward had twelve children, seven sons and five daughters.
Five of his sons played some part in the history of their time,
these being Edward the Black Prince, Lionel of Antwerp, duke
of Clarence, John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, Edmund of
Langley, afterwards duke of York, and Thomas of Woodstock,
afterwards duke of Gloucester. John and Edmund are also
important as the founders of the rival houses of Lancaster
and York. Each of the last four was named from the place of
his birth, and for the same reason the Black Prince is sometimes
called Edward of Woodstock. The king's two other sons both
died in infancy. Of his daughters, three died unmarried; the
others were Isabella, who married into the family of Coucy,
and Mary, who married into that of Montfort.
AUTHORITIES. The two chief modern lives of Edward III. are
W. Longman's Life and Times of Edward III., and J. Mackinnon's
History of Edward III. Neither work can be regarded as adequate,
and in some ways J. Barnes's quaint History of Edward III. (1688) is
less unsatisfactory. The general history of the time can be read
in W. Stubbs's Constitutional History of England, vol. ii. chapters xvi.
and xvii. ; in T. F. Tout's Political History of England, 1216-1377,
pp. 301-441; in R. Pauli's Geschichte von England, iv. pp. 307-504;
and in Edward's life by W. Hunt in the Dictionary of National
Biography. For the Hundred Years' War, see E. Deprez's Les
Preliminaires de la guerre de cent ans, 1328-1342, and H. Denifle's
La Desolation des eglises, monasteres et hopitaux en France pendant
la guerre de cent ans. For economic and social history see W. J.
Ashley's English Economic History, and W. Cunningham's Growth of
English Industry and Commerce during the Early and Middle Ages. For
the end of the reign see S. Armitage Smith's John of Gaunt, J.
Lechler's Wiclif und die Vorgeschichte der Reformation, translated as
Wycliffe and his English Precursors, R. L. Poole's Wycliffe and
Movements for Reform, and G. M. Trevelyan's England in the Age of
Wycliffe. ' (T. F. T.)
EDWARD IV. (1442-1483), king of England, son of Richard,
duke of York, by Cicely Neville, was born at Rouen on the
28th of April 1442. As a boy he was styled earl of March,
and spent most of his time at Ludlow. After the Yorkist
failure at Ludlow field in October 1459, Edward fled with the
earls of Salisbury and Warwick, his uncle and cousin, to Calais.
Thence in the following July he accompanied them in their
successful invasion of England, to be welcomed in London, and
to share in the victory over the Lancastrians at Northampton.
After the acceptance of Richard of York as heir to the crown,
Edward returned to the Welsh marches, where early in the new
99 6
EDWARD V. EDWARD VI.
year he heard of his father's defeat and death at Wakefield.
Hastily gathering an army he defeated the earls of Pembroke
and Wiltshire at Mortimer's Cross on the 2nd of February
1461, and then marched on London. He was acclaimed by the
citizens in an assembly at Clerkenwell, declared king by a Yorkist
council, and took possession of the regality on the 4th of March.
Soon after the new king and the earl of Warwick went north,
and on the 28th of March won a decisive victory at Towton.
Edward owed his throne to his kinsmen the Nevilles, and
he was content for the time to be guided by them. For
himself he was young and fond of pleasure. Still he made
frequent progresses, and took some part in the fighting that
went on in the north during 1462 and 1463. But he was absent
from the final victory at Hexham on the I4th of May 1464,
and was at the very time engaged in contracting a secret marriage
with Elizabeth, daughter of Richard Woodville, Lord Rivers,
and widow of Sir John Grey of Groby (d. 1461). The marriage
was disclosed at Michaelmas, much to the vexation of Warwick,
who in pursuit of his foreign policy had projected a match
with a French princess. Edward heaped favours on his new
relatives; his father-in-law was made treasurer, and great
marriages were found for his wife's sisters and brothers. In
foreign affairs also Edward thwarted Warwick's plans by favour-
ing an alliance with Burgundy rather than France. There
was, however, no open breach till 1469, when Warwick, taking
advantage of the unpopularity of the Woodvilles, and supported
by the king's next brother George, duke of Clarence, appeared
in arms. Edward was surprised and made prisoner at Middle-
ham, and Rivers was beheaded. For six months Edward had to
submit to Warwick's tutelage; then on the occasion of a rising
in Lincolnshire he gathered an army of his own. Sir Robert
Welles, the leader of this rebellion, made a confession implicating
Warwick, who fled with Clarence to France. The king thought
himself secure, but when Warwick and Clarence made terms
with the Lancastrian exiles, Edward in his turn had to seek
refuge in Holland (September 1470). His brother-in-law,
Charles of Burgundy, at first refused him any assistance, but at
last furnished him with money, and on the i4th of March 1471
Edward and his brother Richard landed with a small force at
Ravenspur near Hull. Marching south he was welcomed at
London on the nth of April, defeated Warwick at Barnet
three days later, and the Lancastrians at Tewkesbury on the
4th of May. From thenceforth Edward's possession of the
crown was secure. His position was strengthened by the birth
of a son (2nd of November 1470, during his exile), and by the
wealth which he acquired through the confiscation of the estates
of his opponents. Clarence had made his peace with Edward,
but was at enmity with his other brother Richard of Gloucester,
who now married Warwick's second daughter and claimeH a
share in the Neville inheritance. Their rivalry and Clarence's
continued intrigues furnished Edward with his chief domestic
difficulty; the trouble was ended by the judicial murder of
Clarence in 1478.
The only serious enterprise of these latter years was the short
French war of 1475, from which Edward was bought out by
the treaty of Pecquigny. As foreign policy it was inglorious,
and involved a departure from Edward's earlier plan of a
Burgundian alliance. However, it shows a certain recognition
of England's need to concentrate her energies on her own develop-
ment. The annual subsidy which Louis XI. agreed to pay
further served Edward's purposes by providing him with money
for home government, and enabled him to avoid possible
trouble through the necessity for too frequent parliaments
and heavy taxation. So Edward's personal rule became in its
character autocratic; but it was in the art of courting popularity
and concealing despotism that he most shows himself as a type
of tyranny. He lacked neither ambition nor capacity, but was
indolent and only exerted himself spasmodically. He could be
ruthless, but was not habitually cruel. His strongest weapons
were the fine presence, the affable manners (even with citizens) ,
and the love of pleasure and entertainments which secured his
personal popularity. In his last years he was given to self-
indulgence and scandalous excesses, which did not, however,
alienate the London citizens, with whose wives he was too
familiar. Most of the power at court was in the hands of the
Woodvilles, in spite of their unpopularity; the more arduous
work of administration in the north was left to Richard of
Gloucester. If as a prince of the Renaissance Edward was
the first to rule tyrannically in England, he also deserves
credit as a patron of the new culture and friend of Caxton;
he further resembles his Italian contemporaries in the commercial
purposes to which he applied his wealth in partnership with
London merchants.
Edward died at Westminster on the Qth of April 1483, and
was buried at Windsor. By Elizabeth Woodville, who died on
the 8th of June 1492, he had two sons, Edward V. and Richard
of York, who were murdered in the Tower; and five daughters,
of whom the eldest, Elizabeth, married Henry VII. Of his .
numerous mistresses the most notorious was Jane Shore.
Before his marriage he had been contracted to Lady Eleanor
Butler, ajid this was alleged by Richard III. to have made
his children by Elizabeth Woodville illegitimate.
BiBLiOGRAPHY.-^-Of original authorities for Edward's reign the
chief are the Continuation of the Cropland Chronicle in FuTman's
Scriptores; the various London Chronicles, especially for the early
years Gregory's Chronicle; Warkworth's Chronicle, and the Arrivall
of King Edward IV. (a partisan account of events in 1470^-1471),
published by the Camden Society; the Fasten Letters with Dr
Gairdner's valuable Introduction; and for foreign affairs the
Memoires of Philippe de Comines; the collection called Chronicles
of the White Rose is useful. For modern authors, consult Sir James
Ramsay's Lancaster and York (1892), and the Political History of
England, vol. iv. (1906), by Prof. C. Oman. (C. L. K.)
EDWARD V. (1470-1483), king of England, was the elder son
of Edward IV. by his wife Elizabeth Woodville, and was born,
during his father's temporary exile, in the sanctuary of West-
minster Abbey on the 2nd of November 1470. In June 1471 he
was created prince of Wales. When Edward IV. died in April
1483 a struggle for power took place between the young king's
paternal uncle, Richard, duke of Gloucester, who had been
appointed as his guardian by Edward IV., and his maternal uncle,
Richard Woodville, Earl Rivers. Gloucester obtained possession
of the king's person, and, having arrested Rivers and some of his
supporters, assumed the crown himself after a very slight and
feigned reluctance, on the ground that the marriage of Edward
and Elizabeth Woodville was invalid, and consequently its issue
was illegitimate. At this time Edward and his brother Richard,
duke of York, were living in the Tower of London. Shortly after-
wards a movement was organized to free them from captivity,
and then it became known that they were already dead; but,
though it was the general conviction that they had been murdered,
it was twenty years before the manner of this deed was dis-
covered. According to the narrative of Sir Thomas More, Sir
Robert Brackenbury, the constable of the Tower, refused to obey
Richard's command to put the young princes to death; but he
complied with a warrant ordering him to give up his keys for one
night to Sir James Tyrell, who had arranged for the assassination.
Two men, Miles Forest and John Dighton, then smothered the
youths under pillows while they were asleep. The murder was
committed most probably in August or September 1483. Horace
Walpole has attempted to cast doubts upon the murder of the
princes, and Sir C. R. Markham has argued that the deed was
committed by order of Henry VII. Both these views, however,
have been traversed by James Gairdner, and there seems little
doubt that Sir Thomas More's story is substantially correct.
See RICHARD III.; and in addition, Sir Thomas More, History
of Richard III., edited by J. R. Lumby (Cambridge, 1883); Horace
Walpole, Historic Doubts on the Life and Reign of Richard III.
(London, 1768); T. Gairdner, Richard III. (Cambridge, 1898);
J. Gairdner and C. R. Markham in the English Historical Review,
vol. vi. (London, 1891) ; Sir C. R. Markham, Richard III. (1907).
EDWARD VI. (1537-1553), king of England and Ireland, born
at Greenwich on the i2th of October 1537, was the only child of
Henry VIII. by his third wife, Jane Seymour, who died of
puerperal fever twelve days later. The story that the mother's
life was deliberately sacrificed by the performance of Caesarean
EDWARD VII.
997
section is unfounded, although Jane's death was little noticed
amid the rejoicings which greeted the advent of a male heir to the
throne. But in spite of Holbein's vivacious portrait of Edward
at the age of two (now at Hanover), he was a frail child, and a
short life was anticipated for him from his early years. This did
not prevent a strenuous education; until the age of six he was
naturally left in the charge of women, but when he was only seven
his tutor Dr Coxe, afterwards bishop of Ely, writes that he could
decline any Latin noun and conjugate any regular verb (L. and
P., 1544, ii. 726); " every day in the mass-time he readeth a
portion of Solomon's Proverbs, wherein he delighteth much."
Sir John Cheke, Sir Anthony Cooke and Roger Ascham all
helped to teach him Latin, Greek and French; and by the age of
thirteen he had read Aristotle's Ethics in the original and was
himself translating Cicero's De philosophic, into Greek.
. Edward was duke of Cornwall from his birth, but he was never
prince of Wales, and he was only nine when he succeeded his
father as king of England and Ireland and supreme head of the
church (28th of January 1546/7). His nonage threw power into
the hands of Somerset and then of Northumberland, and enabled
Gardiner and Bonner to maintain that the royal supremacy over
the church was, or should be, in abeyance. Projects for his
marriage were hardly even the occasion, but only the excuse, for
Somerset's war on Scotland and Northumberland's subsequent
alliance with France. All factions sought to control his person,
not because of his personality but because of his position; he
was like the Great Seal, only more so, an indispensable adjunct to
the wielder of authority. The Protector's brother tried to bribe
him with pocket-money; Northumberland was more subtle and
established a complete dominion over his mind, and then put him
forward at the age of fourteen as entitled to all the power of
Henry VIII. But he was only Northumberland's mask; of his
individual influence on the course of history during his reign there
is hardly a trace. A posthumous effort was made to give him
the credit of a humane desire to save Joan Bocher from the
flames; but he recorded with apparently cold-blooded in-
difference the execution of both his uncles, and he certainly made
no attempt to mitigate the harassing attentions which the
council paid his sister Mary. This passed for piety with the
zealots, and the persecutions of Mary's reign reflected a halo on
that of the Protestant Josiah. So strong was the regret that
rumours of his survival persisted, and hare-brained youths were
found to personate him throughout Mary's and even far into
Elizabeth's reign.
It was well that they were false, for Edward showed signs of all
the Tudor obstinacy, and he was a fanatic into the bargain, as no
other Tudor was except Mary. The combination would probably
have involved England in disasters far greater than any that
ensued upon his premature death; and it was much better that
the Anglican settlement of religion should have been left to the
compromising temper of Elizabeth. As it was, he bequeathed a
legacy of woe; his health began to fail in 1552, and in May 1553
it was known that he was dying. But -his will and the various
drafts of it only betray the agitated and illogical efforts of
Northumberland to contrive some means whereby he might
continue to control the government and prevent the administra-
tion of justice. Mary and Elizabeth were to be excluded from the
throne, as not sufficiently pliant instruments; Mary Stuart was
ignored as being under Scottish, Catholic and French influence;
the duchess of Suffolk, Lady Jane's mother, was excluded
because she was married, and the duke her husband might claim
the crown matrimonial. In fact, all females were excluded,
except Jane, on the ground that no woman could reign; even she
was excluded in the first draft, and the crown was left to " the
Lady Jane's heirs male." But this draft was manipulated so as
to read " the Lady Jane and her heirs male." That Edward
himself was responsible for these delirious provisions is improbable.
But he had been so impregnated with the divine right of kings
and the divine truth of Protestantism that he thought he was
entitled and bound to override the succession as established by
law and exclude a Catholic from the throne; and his last recorded
words were vehement injunctions to Cranmer to sign the will.
He died at Greenwich on the 6th of July 1553, and was buried in
Henry VII. 's chapel by Cranmer with Protestant rites on the 8th
of August, while Mary had Mass said for his soul in the Tower.
J. G. Nichols collected almost all that is known of Edward VI. in
his excellent edition of the king's Journal. A few additional facts
and suggestions can be gleaned from the Letters and Papers of
Henry VIII. vols. xii.-xxi.; Acts of the Privy Council, ed. Dasent,
vols. i.-iv.; Domestic, Spanish, Venetian and Foreign Calendars
of State Papers; Froude's History; Dixon's Hist. Church of England;
A. F. Pollard's Englandunder Somerset and Lifeof Cranmer; and English
Historical Review, xxiii. 286, &c. Sir Clements Markham's Edward
VI. (1907) emphasizes his interest in geography. (A. F. P.)
EDWARD VII. (ALBERT EDWARD) (1841-1910), king of Great
Britain and Ireland, and of the British Dominions beyond the
Seas, emperor of India, the eldest son and second child of Queen
Victoria and of Albert, prince consort, was born at Buckingham
Palace on the gth of November 1841. He was created prince
of Wales and earl of Chester on the 4th of December following,
and was baptized on the 25th of January 1842. In his childhood
he was educated by the dowager Lady Lyttelton; and in his boy-
hood successively by the Rev. Henry Mildred Birch, Mr F. W.
Gibbes, the Rev. C. F. Tarver and Mr Herbert W. Fisher. He
afterwards resided at Edinburgh, studying chemistry in its
industrial applications under Professor (afterwards Lord) Play-
fair at the university; at Christ Church, Oxford; and at Trinity
College, Cambridge. In November 1 858 he was made a knight of
the Garter and a colonel in the army. In 1859 he travelled in
Italy and Spain, and in 1860 paid a visit as " Lord Renfrew "
to the United States and Canada.
Upon the completion of his Cambridge course in June 1861
he joined the camp at the Curragh. The prince consort died on
the i3th of December, and in 1862 the prince of Wales went for
a tour in the Holy Land (February- June) under the guidance of
Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, afterwards dean of Westminster. Early
in 1863 he was sworn of the privy council, and took his seat in
the House of Lords as duke of Cornwall. The estate of Sandring-
ham,in Norfolk, was purchased for him out of the savings of his
minority, and his town residence was fixed at Marlborough
House.
His impending marriage to the princess Alexandra, daughter
of Christian IX., king of Denmark (b. December i, 1844), had
already been announced, and took place on the loth of March
at Windsor, the beauty and grace of the princess captivating
the heart of the nation. Parliament granted the prince an income
of 40,000 a year, exclusive of the revenues of the duchy of
Cornwall, and he relinquished his right of succession to the
duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Prince Albert Victor, afterwards
duke of Clarence, was the first offspring of the marriage, being
born on the 8th of January 1864. The births followed of
Prince George Frederick Ernest Albert, afterwards duke of York
(see GEORGE V.), on the 3rd of June 1865; Princess Louise
Victoria Alexandra Dagmar, by marriage duchess of Fife, princess
royal, on the aoth of February 1867; Princess Victoria Alexandra
Olga Mary, on the 6th of July i $68 ; and Princess Maud Charlotte
Mary Victoria, afterwards queen of Norway, on the 26th of
November 1869.
From the time of their marriage the prince and princess
were prominently before the country. Queen Victoria remained
in retirement, but they filled her place at important public
functions. The prince's readiness to promote every worthy
cause was most marked ; no one was a more constant attendant
at meetings for objects of public utility of a non-political
nature, and his speeches were always characterized by excellent
sense. The most important external event of these years
was a tour to Egypt, undertaken in 1869 in company with
the duke of Sutherland, Sir Samuel Baker and others, an
account of which was published by Mrs William Grey. The
prince also visited Ireland more than once, and opened the
International Exhibition of 1871.
On the 23rd of November 1871 it was announced that the
prince would be prevented from paying a visit which had been
arranged to the Maharajah Dhuleep Singh by a feverish attack.
It soon appeared that the malady was typhoid, contracted.
EDWARD VII.
as was supposed, on a visit to Scarborough. The case became
so serious that on November 29 the queen and Princess Alice
hurried to Sandringham. On the ist of December there was a
slight rally, but on the 8th so serious a relapse occurred that for
some days the prince's life was despaired of. Under the skilful
treatment of Sir William Jenner, Sir William Gull and Sir
James Paget, however, the crisis was surmounted by December
1 6, arid by Christmas day the danger was regarded as
virtually over. On the 27th of February 1872 a thanksgiving
was held at St Paul's, amid imposing demonstrations of public
joy.
In January 1874 the prince of Wales attended the marriage at
St Petersburg of his brother, the duke of Edinburgh, with the
grand-duchess Marie of Russia. In the same year he paid a
historic visit to Birmingham, where Mr Joseph Chamberlain, not
yet a member of parliament, received him officially as mayor.
In March 1875 it was officially announced that he. would make a
visit to India, carrying out an idea originally conceived by the
first Indian viceroy, Earl Canning. He was supposed to travel
as heir-apparent, not as representative of the queen; but the
characters could not be kept apart, and in fact the prince's visit
was a political event of great importance. Leaving England on
October n, he was received at Bombay by the viceroy, Lord
Northbrook. Here he met a very large number of Indian
feudatory princes, whose acquaintance he subsequently improved
by visiting at their courts during the seventeen weeks which he
spent in the country. During these four months the prince
travelled nearly 8000 m. by land and 2500 m. by sea, became
acquainted with more rajahs than had all the viceroys who had
reigned over India, and saw more of the country than any living
Englishman. The visit led up to the queen's assumption of the
title of empress of India in the following year.
The prince's life after this date was full of conspicuous public
appearances. In 1885 he visited Ireland at a time of much
political excitement, and was received enthusiastically in many
quarters and without symptoms of ill-will in any. In 1886 he
filled the presidency of the Indian and Colonial Exhibition,
opened the Mersey Tunnel, and laid the first stone of the Tower
Bridge. In 1 887 a large share of the arrangements for the queen's
Jubilee devolved upon him. On the 27th of July 1889 his eldest
daughter, Princess Louise, was married to the duke of Fife. In
the autumn he paid a semi-incognito visit to Paris, where he
was always highly popular, viewed the Exhibition, and ascended
the Eiffel Tower. In 1890 he opened the Forth Bridge. On the
I4th of January 1892, however, a heavy blow fell upon him and
his house by the death of his eldest son, Prince Albert Victor,
duke of Clarence, after a brief illness. The young prince, who
with his brother George had made the tour of the world (1879-
1882) in H.M.S. "Bacchante," and after a short career at Oxford
and Cambridge was just settling down to play his part in public
life, had recently become engaged to Princess Victoria Mary
of Teck (b. May 26, 1867), and the popularity of the heir to the
crown had been increased by the expression of his satisfaction
at his son's bride being an English princess. On the 6th of July
1893 the broken thread was reunited by her marriage to Prince
George, duke of York.
The year 1894 was a busy one for the prince of Wales, who
became a member of the royal commission on the housing of the
poor, opened the Tower Bridge, attended, the Welsh Eisteddfod
and was duly initiated, and paid two visits to Russia one for the
marriage of the grand-duchess Xenia, the other for the funeral of
the tsar, his brother-in-law. In 1896 he became first chancellor
of the university of Wales, and his first act after his installation at
Aberystwyth was to confer an honorary degree upon the princess.
He had already been for some years a trustee of the British
Museum. On the 22nd of July 1896 his daughter, Princess Maud,
was married to Prince Charles of Denmark, who in 1905 was
offered and accepted the crown of the new kingdom of Norway.
The arrangements for the queen's 'jubilee of 1897 depended upon
the prince even more than those of the corresponding celeb ration
in 1887: he rode on the queen's right at the great procession to
St Paul's, and as an admiral of the fleet presided at the naval
review at Spithead. In July 1898 the prince had the misfortune
to fracture his knee-cap while on a visit to Baron Ferdinand de
Rothschild, but completely recovered from the effects of the
accident. In December 1899, while passing through Brussels
on his way to St Petersburg, he was fired at by a miserable
lad named Sipido, crazed by reading anarchist literature.
Fortunately no injury was done.
It was the especial distinction of Albert Edward, while prince
of Wales, to have been a substantial support of the throne
before he was called upon to fill it. This cannot be said of any
of his predecessors except Edward the Black Prince. He was
exemplary in the discharge of his public duties, and in his
scrupulous detachment from party politics. He was a keen
patron of the theatre, and his thoroughly British taste for sport
was as pronounced asjiis inclination for most of the contemporary
amusements of society. The " Tranby Croft Case "(1890), in
which Sir William Gordon Gumming brought an unsuccessful
libel action for having been accused of cheating at a game of
baccarat, caused some comment in connexion with the prince's
appearance in the witness-box on behalf of the defendants.
But it did him no disservice with the people to have twice won the
Derby with his horses Persimmon (1896) and Diamond Jubilee
(1900) his third victory, in 1909, with Minoru, being the first
occasion on which the race had been won by a reigning sovereign ;
and his interest in yacht-racing was conspicuously shown at
all the important fixtures, his yacht " Britannia " being one of
the best of her day. His activity in the life of the nation may
be illustrated by his establishment (1897) of the Prince of
Wales's (afterwards King Edward's) Hospital Fund, his
devotion to the cause of Masonry (he was first elected grand
master of the Freemasons of England in 1874), and his position as
a bencher of the Middle Temple, where he also became (1887)
treasurer.
On the death of Queen Victoria on the 22nd of January 1901,
the question what title the new king would assume was speedily
set at rest by the popular announcement that he would be called
Edward the Seventh. The new reign began auspiciously by the
holding of a privy council at St James's Palace, at which the
king announced his intention to follow in his predecessor's
footsteps and to govern asa constitutional sovereign, and received
the oaths of allegiance. On the I4th of February the king and
queen opened parliament in state. Shortly afterwards it was
announced that the visit of the duke and duchess of York to
Australia, in order to inaugurate the new Commonwealth, which
had been sanctioned by Queen Victoria, would be proceeded
with; and on the i6th of March they set out on board the
" Ophir " with a brilliant suite. The tour lasted till November i,
the duke and duchess having visited Australia, New Zealand,
the Cape and Canada; and on their return the king, on
November 9, created the duke prince of Wales and earl of
Chester. Meanwhile parliament had settled the new civil list at
470,000 a year, and the royal title had been enlarged to include
the colonial empire by an act enabling the king to style him-
self " Edward VII., by the grace of God, of the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and of all the British
Dominions beyond the Seas, King, Defender of the Faith,
Emperor of India." At the end of May 1902 the long-drawn-out
war in South Africa came at last to an end, and the corona-
tion was fixed for the 26th of June. But on the 24th, amid
general consternation, the king was announced to be suffering
from perityphlitis, necessitating the immediate performance
of an operation; and the coronation, for which unprecedented
preparations had been made, had to be postponed. The opera-
tion performed by Sir Frederick Treves was, however, so
marvellously successful, and the king's progress towards
recovery so rapid and uninterrupted, that within a fortnight
he was pronounced out of danger, and soon afterwards it was
decided to hold the coronation service on August 9. Though
shorn of much of the magnificence which would have been added
to it in June by the presence of foreign royalties and the prepara-
tions for a great procession through London, the solemnity duly
took place on that date in Westminster Abbey amid great
EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE
999
rejoicings. The king spent several weeks (partly in a yachting
trip round the coast and up to Stornoway) in recruiting his
health, and on the 2$th of October he went in procession through
the main streets of south London, when he was most enthusi-
astically received. Next day the king and queen attended St
Paul's cathedral in state to return thanks for his restoration to
health. On New Year's day 1903 the coronation was proclaimed
in India at a magnificent durbar at Delhi.
At home the king opened parliament in person in February
1903, and on the 3ist of March he sailed from Portsmouth to
pay a visit to the king of Portugal at Lisbon, leaving Lisbon
for Gibraltar on the 7th of April. On the nth he held a review
of the garrison troops and next day left for Malta, and the
tour was continued to Naples (23rd of April). On the 27th of
April he was received at Rome by the king of Italy the first
time an English king as such had been there; and two days
later he paid a visit to Leo XIII. at the Vatican. On May day
he was received in Paris by President Loubet. Later in the
year return visits were paid to England by President Loubet
(July) and the king and queen of Italy (November). On the
i ith of May His Majesty paid his first formal visit to Edinburgh,
and held courts at Holyrood. In July the king and queen went
to Ireland, and though the Dublin corporation refused to vote a
loyal address the reception was generally cordial. In September
the king took his annual " cure " at Marienbad, and paid a
visit to Vienna, where he was received by the Austrian emperor.
In 1904 again the king and queen went to Ireland; in June the
king was cordially received by the German emperor at the
yacht-races at Kiel, and he included a visit to Hamburg, where
the welcome was hearty. In November the king and queen
of Portugal were entertained at Windsor and at the Guildhall.
The success of King Edward as a promoter of international
friendliness, and the advantage of so efficient a type of kingship,
attracted universal attention, and treaties of arbitration were
concluded by Great Britain with France, Spain, Italy, Germany
and Portugal in 1903 and 1904. In his first two years the king
had already earned the title of Edward the Peacemaker, and
established his position as a source of new strength to the
state. This reputation was confirmed in the years which
followed, during which the royal hand was to be seen in the
progress of foreign affairs in a manner somewhat new to old-
fashioned politicians. The entente with France was promoted
by his influence, notably by his reception of President Fallieres
in England in 1908. It was noticed that the permanent under-
secretary for foreign affairs, Sir Charles Hardinge, generally
accompanied the king, as one of his suite, on his visits abroad: and
the conclusion of the Anglo-Russian agreement (1907) which
was attributed with some reason to royal policy was hotly
criticized in Radical quarters. It was pointed out that neither
the foreign secretary (Sir E. Grey) nor any other secretary of
state accompanied the king on his foreign visits. These objec-
tions were, however, scouted by the government, and undeniably
public opinion approved of the sovereign's personal activity in
a sphere peculiarly his own. The strengthening of British in-
fluence in Europe, which was the marked result of the Anglo-
French and Anglo-Russian ententes, and of the closer ties between
England and countries like Portugal and Spain (whose young
king Alfonso married Princess Ena of Battenberg, King
Edward's niece), had, indeed, temporarily the effect of rousing
German suspicion, the view taken being that the object of British
foreign policy was to isolate Germany; and during 1907 and 1908
the political situation was coloured by the discussions in the press
with regard to Anglo-German rivalry. But in February 1909 the
king and queen paid a state visit to the Kaiser in Berlin, where
the greatest cordiality was displayed on all sides; the event wa:
prepared for, in both countries, as a means of dispelling the
clouds which had gathered over the relations between England
and Germany, and the success of the visit proved once more how
powerful King Edward's personality could be as an agency for
peace and international amity.
During the year 1909, however, the political situation at home
was developing into an acute constitutional crisis, which seemed
likely to involve the Crown in serious difficulties. Mr Lloyd-
George's budget convulsed the House of Commons and the
country, and was eventually rejected by the House of Lords ;
and the Liberal government now put in the forefront of its
programme the abolition of the Peers' " veto." As was hinted,
not obscurely, later by the doctors, King Edward, although
certainly not prejudiced against a Liberal ministry, was seriously
disturbed in mind and health by the progress of events, which
culminated in the return of Mr Asquith to office after the elections
of January 1910, and in his statement that, if necessary, guaran-
tees would be sought from the Crown for the purpose of enforcing
the will of the representative chamber. A remarkable sign of
the king's discomfort was his insertion, in the official " King's
Speech" at the opening of parliament, of the words "in the
opinion of my advisers," in connexion with the passage dealing
with the House of Lords. The king had been far from robust for
some little time, and while he was taking change and rest at
Biarritz in the early spring of 1910 he had a bronchial attack
which caused some anxiety, although the public heard nothing
of it. When he returned to England there is no doubt that he
was acutely affected by the prospect of being forcibly dragged
into the political conflict. In the country at large there was
indeed considerable confidence that the king's tact and experi-
ence would help to bring order out of chaos; but this was not
to be. Within two days the public heard with consternation
that he was ill, and then was dead. On May 5 it was announced
that he had bronchitis; and he died at 11.45 P - M - on tne 6th, of
heart failure. On May 17, 18 and 19 there was an impressive
lying-in-state in Westminster Hall, attended by unprecedented
crowds; and on May 20 the burial took place at Windsor, after
a great funeral procession through London, the coffin being
followed by the new king, George V., and by eight foreign
sovereigns the German emperor, the kings of Greece, Spain,
Portugal, Denmark, Norway, Belgium and Bulgaria besides
the archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria (heir to the throne of
Austria-Hungary), the prince consort of Holland and many
other royalties, and a number of special ambassadors, including
Mr Roosevelt as representative of the United States. Mourning
was as sincere as it was universal; for not only England and the
British Empire, but the world, had lost a king who was both a
very human man and a tried and trusted statesman.
Queen Victoria's long reign had solidly established the con-
stitutional monarchy; it remained for her son to rehabilitate
the idea of English kingship by showing how the sovereign could
be no less constitutional but personally more monarchical.
While prince of Wales he had had little real training in state-
craft, but when he became king his genuine capacity for affairs
was shown. Ably advised by such men as Lord Knollys and
Lord Esher, he devoted himself to the work of removing the
Throne from its former isolation, and bringing it into touch with
all sections of the community for the promotion of social happi-
ness and welfare. His own love of pageantry and his interest in
the stately ordering of court functions responded, moreover, to
a marked inclination on the part of the public and of " society "
for such things. It was significant that even Radicals and
Socialists began to advocate extensions of the prerogative, and
to insist on the active part which the Crown should play in public
life. The king won the genuine affection and confidence of the
people; and in Queen Alexandra he had an ideal consort, to
whom all hearts went out. (H. CH.)
EDWARD, prince of Wales, known as " THE BLACK PRINCE "
(1330-1376), the eldest son of Edward III. and Philippa of
Hainaut, was born at Woodstock on the isth of June 1330.
Contemporaries called him Edward of Woodstock, and his
surname of the Black Prince cannot be traced back earlier than
the 1 6th century. It is supposed to have been derived from his
wearing black armour. In 1333 he was made earl of Chester,
and in 1337 duke of Cornwall, being the first duke ever created
in England. Nominal warden of England during his father's
absences abroad in 1338 and 1342, he was created prince of
Wales in 1343, and in 1345 he first accompanied his father on a
foreign expedition.
IOOO
EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE
His real career begins, however, with Edward III.'s Norman
campaign of 1346. On landing at La Hogue he was knighted by
his father, and took a prominent part in the whole of the
campaign. He commanded the right wing of the English forces
at Crecy, and, though hard pressed for a time by the French, took
his full share in gaining the victory. Next year he was at the
siege of Calais, and returned to England in October 1347 with
his father. He was one of the original knights of the Garter, and
participated in his father's chivalrous adventures at Calais in
1349 and in the battle off Winchelsea in 1350. In September
1355 he was sent to Gascony at the head of an English army,
having been appointed his father's lieutenant there in July. He
was warmly welcomed by the Gascons, and at once led a foray
through Armagnac and Languedoc. By November he had got
as far as Narbonne, whence he returned to Bordeaux, where he
kept his Christmas court. In August 1356 he started from
Bergerac on another marauding expedition, this time in a
northerly direction. He penetrated as far as the Loire, but was
there compelled to retire before the superior forces of King John
of France. On the igth of September the two armies met in the
battle of Poitiers, fought about 6 m. south-east of the city. It
was the hardest-fought and most important battle of the Hundred
Years' War, and Edward's victory was due both to the excellence
of his tactical disposition of his forces and to the superior
fighting capacity of his army. The flank march of the Captal de
Buch, which decided the fate of the day, was of Edward's own
devising, and the captivity of King John attested the complete-
ness of his triumph. He treated his prisoner with almost
ostentatious magnanimity, and took him to Bordeaux, whence
they sailed to England in May 1357. On the 24th of that month
he led his prisoner in triumph through the streets of London.
In 1359 he took part in his father's invasion of northern France,
and had a large share in the negotiations at Bretigny and Calais.
In October 1361 Edward married his cousin Joan, countess of
Kent (1328-1385), the daughter and heiress of Edmund of
Woodstock, earl of Kent, the younger son of Edward I. by his
second wife Margaret of France. The lady, who enjoyed a great
reputation for beauty, was in her thirty-third year, and the
widow of Sir Thomas Holand, by whom she had had three
children. Froissart says that the marriage was a love match, and
that the king had no knowledge of it. However, Edward III.
approved of his son's choice, and in July 1362 handed over to
him all his dominions in southern France, with the title of prince
of Aquitaine. In February 1363 Edward and Joan took ship
for Gascony, which became his ordinary place of residence for the
next eight years. He maintained a brilliant court at Bordeaux
and Angouleme, and did his best to win the support of the
Gascons. He was not, however, successful in winning over the
greater nobles, who, with John, count of Armagnac, at their head,
were dissatisfied with the separation from France, and looked
with suspicion upon Edward's attempts to reform the administra-
tion as being likely to result in the curtailment of their feudal
rights. Edward was better able to conciliate the towns, whose
franchises he favoured and whose trade he fostered, hoping that
they would prove a counterpoise to the aristocracy. He kept the
chief posts of the administration mainly in English hands, and
never really identified himself with the local life and traditions of
his principality. He succeeded in clearing Aquitaine of the free
companies, and kept good peace for nearly six years.
In 1367 Peter the Cruel, the deposed king of Castile, visited
Edward at Bordeaux, and persuaded him to restore him to his
throne by force. In February 1367 Edward led an army into
Spain over the pass of Roncesvalles. After a difficult and
dangerous march Edward reached the Ebro, and on the 3rd of
April defeated Bertrand du Guesclin at Najera, the last of his
great victories. He then proceeded to Burgos, and restored
Peter to the throne of Castile. He remained in Castile for four
months, living principally at Valladolid. His army wasted away
during the hot Spanish summer, and Edward himself contracted
the beginnings of a mortal disease. In August 1367 Edward led
the remnant of his troops back through the pass of Roncesvalles,
and returned to Bordeaux early in September. He had exhausted
all his resources on the Spanish expedition, and was forced to
seek from the estates of Aquitaine extraordinary sources of supply.
A hearth tax for five years was willingly granted to him, and
generally paid. The greater barons, however, found in this im-
post a pretext for revolt. The count of Armagnac, who had
already made a secret understanding with Charles V., appealed
against the hearth tax to the parlement of Paris. Cited before
this body in January 1369, Edward declared that he would
answer at Paris with sixty thousand men behind him. War
broke out again, and Edward III. resumed the title of king of
France. Thereupon Charles V. declared that all the English
possessions in France were forfeited, and before the end of 1369
all Aquitaine was in full revolt. With weak health and impaired
resources, the Black Prince showed little activity in dealing with
his insurgent subjects, or in warding off French invasion.
Though too ill to ride on horseback, he insisted upon commanding
his troops, and on the igth of September 1370 won his last
barren success, by capturing the revolted city of Limoges and
putting the population to the sword. Early in 1371 he returned
to England, leaving the impossible task of holding Gascony to his
brother John of Gaunt. In August 1372 he joined his father in
an abortive expedition to France, but contrary winds prevented
their landing, and he now abandoned military life for good. In
October he resigned his principality on the ground that he could
not afford to retain any longer so expensive a charge. His health
now rapidly declined, but he still followed politics with interest,
and did what he could to support the constitutional opposition of
the great ecclesiastics to the administration of John of Gaunt and
the anti-clerical courtiers. His last public act was to inspire the
attack on Lancaster's influence made by the Good Parliament
in the spring of 1376. The famous parliament was still in
session when he died at Westminster on the 8th of July. He was
buried in the east end of Canterbury cathedral on the 29th of
September, where his magnificent tomb, erected in accordance
with the instructions in his will, may still be seen. By Joan,
" the fair maid of Kent," who died on the 7th of August 1385,
the Black Prince left an only son, afterwards King Richard II.
For authorities see EDWARD III. To these may be added W.
Hunt's article in the Diet. Nat. Biog.\ A. Collins's Life of Edward,
Prince of Wales (1740); G. P. R. James's Life of Edward the Black
Prince (1839) ; J. Moisant's Le Prince Noir en Aquitaine (1894) ; and
R. P. Dunn-Pattison's The Black Prince (1910). (T. F. T.)
END OF EIGHTH VOLUME
HILL
REFERENCE
LIBRARY
ST. PAUL
Printed by R. R. DONNELLEY & SONS COMPANY, Chicago.
